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6,600 | Stephen_Donaldson_(activist) | Stephen Donaldson, July 1995 Stephen Donaldson (July 27, 1946 – July 18, 1996), born Robert Anthony Martin, Jr and also known by the pseudonym Donny the Punk, was an American bisexual political activist. He is best known for his pioneering activism in gay liberation and prison reform, but also for his writing about punk rock and subculture. Childhood and adolescence (1946-1965) The son of a career naval officer, Donaldson spent his early childhood in different seaport cities in the eastern United States and in Germany. Donaldson later described his father Robert, the son of Italian and German immigrants, as a man who "frowned on display of emotion" and his mother Lois as "an English, Scottish Texan, artistic, free-spirited, emotional, impulsive." After his parents' divorce in 1953 when he was seven years old, Donaldson's mother was diagnosed with the mental disorder porphyria and abandoned her two sons. She did not contact them again until 1964. At age twelve, Donaldson was expelled from the Boy Scouts for consensual sexual behavior with other boys (who, as recipients, were not punished). "The disgrace triggered a family crisis, resolved by sending the boy to live in Germany, where he could be watched over by his stepmother's relatives." He continued homosexual activity, hiding it from adults. "In April 1962, at the age of fifteen, Donny returned to the United States to live with his grandparents in West Long Branch, New Jersey. In high school he was news editor of the school paper, an actor, and a student government officer. He also became active in politics as a libertarian conservative, supporting Barry Goldwater for president" and "considered joining the Young Americans for Freedom but was so uptight that he first checked with J. Edgar Hoover by letter to inquire whether the YAF was 'a communist organization, communist subverted, or in danger of becoming either'". Hoover sent back a reply "praising his concern about communism and then opened an FBI file on the boy". (Years later, Donaldson received a copy of his FBI file through the Freedom of Information Act.) Donaldson later wrote about his developing sexual identity: In the summer of 1965, Donaldson moved to Florida to live with his mother. "When Lois discovered young Robert was having an affair with a Cuban man, she decided to punish her son by outing him in letters to her ex-husband and to Columbia University, which Donaldson had planned to attend in the fall." Donaldson ran away to New York, where, he later wrote, "[T]he gays of New York welcomed me enthusiastically, offered hospitality, and 'brought me out' as a 'butch' homosexual (in contrast to the "queens"). Among the Mattachine Society members he met were Julian Hodges, Frank Kameny, and Dick Leitsch. College years (1965-1970) Founding of Student Homophile League Motivation In August 1965, Donaldson "had a social worker call the dean's office to ask whether Columbia would register a known homosexual." After a delay of two weeks, the administration responded that he "would be allowed to register, on condition that he undergo psychotherapy and not attempt to seduce other students." He entered Columbia University that fall and began using the pseudonym Stephen Donaldson so he could be open about his sexuality without embarrassing his father. They both were named Robert Martin, and his father taught mathematics at Rider College in New Jersey. The surname was based on the first name, "Donald", of the baseball teammate who was his first love. His first year of college was difficult: he met no other gay students or faculty and had to move from a shared suite to a single room when his suitemates "told the college dean David Truman that they felt uncomfortable living with a homosexual." Apparently ambivalent, they offered Donaldson "great apologies and said they realized they shouldn't feel" unwilling to live with him. In the summer of 1966, Donaldson began a relationship with gay activist Frank Kameny, who had a great influence on him. Donaldson later wrote: In August, Kameny took Donaldson to Cherry Grove on Fire Island, where he "was thrilled to meet another gay Columbia student [James Millham] and to learn that Millham lived with his lover, a New York University student, in one of Columbia's dormitories." Struggle with Columbia for charter That fall, Donaldson suggested to Millham "that they form a Mattachine-like organization on campus, what he envisioned as 'the first chapter of a spreading confederation of student homophile groups.'" At first, Donaldson was unable to gain official recognition for the Student Homophile League (SHL), as Columbia required a membership list. Donaldson and Millham were the only gay students willing to provide their names. This prevented the group from receiving university funding or holding public events on campus until Donaldson realized that by "recruiting the most prominent student leaders to become pro forma members, he could satisfy the administration without compromising the anonymity of gay students, and Columbia officially chartered the country’s first student gay rights group on April 19, 1967." Publicity and controversy On April 27, an article about the organization appeared in the student paper, the Columbia Spectator, which students "seemed to think ... was some sort of April Fool hoax." It soon became clear that it was not. The Spectator ran an editorial praising the chartering of the group and printed letters from students attacking and defending the decision. At this point, there was no apparent opposition from Columbia faculty or staff. The fledgling group was advised by the university chaplain, the Rev. John D. Cannon, who gave permission for them to hold meetings in his office and later let Donaldson hold office hours there. Despite having "assured the administration that publicity would be kept to a minimum," Donaldson "launched an aggressive public information campaign about SHL and homosexuality", making sure it was covered on Columbia radio station WKCR, where he was a staff member. He also sent out "at least three press releases to several large newspapers, wire services, and magazines with national and international distribution." The group received little coverage until gay rights supporter Murray Schumach saw the Spectator piece and wrote an article, headlined "Columbia Charters Homosexual Group", which appeared on the front page of the New York Times on May 3, 1967: The article also quoted Dr. Harold E. Love, the chairman of Columbia's Committee on Student Organizations, who said there was no reason to deny the request once they had determined it was a "bona fide student organization." The article noted that "[f]unds were said to have been supplied for the organization by some Columbia alumni who were reported to have learned about it from advertisements in magazines for homosexuals" and that Donaldson said that the group "maintains liaison" with, but is not controlled by, outside homosexual groups. The alumnus supporter was "Foster Gunnison, the driving force behind the creation of the North American Conference of Homophile Organizations," with whom Donaldson had strategized about getting the organization approved. Gunnison "sent the administration a letter of support and made a cash contribution". Historian David Eisenbach argued in Gay Power: An American Revolution that "much of the SHL's influence grew out of the media attention it attracted....Within a week [of the New York Times story], media outlets across the country had honed in, with coverage ranging from favorable to neutral to the Gainesville Sun's 'Student Group Seeks Rights for Deviants.'". As a result of the publicity, there were "[s]harp [verbal] clashes" between Columbia officials and the SHL. Brett Beemyn wrote about the backlash: A surprising source of opposition to Donaldson and the SHL was the Mattachine Society of New York (MSNY), whose president Dick Leitsch "resented the media attention that SHL had generated". With the unanimous support of the board, Leitsch contacted "Frank Hogan, the Manhattan District Attorney and a Member of the Columbia Board of Trustees to advise him on how to undermine SHL." In a letter to Hogan, Leitsch wrote: Donaldson was defended by homophile leaders Barbara Gittings, Frank Kameny, and Forest Gunnison, although Eisenbach recorded that Gunnison acknowledged Donaldson's 'tendencies toward arbitrariness and manipulation.' Subsequent chapters and organizations The publicity also led students at other universities to contact Donaldson about starting chapters. In 1968, Donaldson certified SHL chapters at Cornell University, led by Jearld Moldenhauer and advised by radical priest Daniel Berrigan; New York University, headed by Rita Mae Brown; and Stanford University. In 1969, chapters were started at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology by Stan Tillotson, San Francisco State University, and Rutgers University by African American Lionel Cuffie. The University of Massachusetts Amherst gained a chapter in 1970. Donaldson was "heavily involved throughout the rest of the 1960s not only as national leader of the Student Homophile League but also as an elected officer of the North American Conference of Homophile Organizations (NACHO) and of its Eastern Regional subsidiary". By 1971, there were an estimated 150 gay student groups at colleges and universities "often with official sanction and with remarkable acceptance from fellow students". Professional experience Donaldson began his writing career in college by working summers "as a reporter for the Associated Press and Virginian Pilot" and writing "a regular column for the New York newsmagazine Gay Power and occasional reports for the Los Angeles Advocate". He also worked summers as a legislative intern in the offices of U.S. Representatives Howard H. Callaway (Republican, Georgia) and Donald E. Lukens (Republican, Ohio). Frank Kameny arranged his first internship, which was in the summer of 1966. In New York, Donaldson funded "his education by working as a hustler, first at the infamous intersection of Fifty-third Street and Third Avenue, then as a call boy through a house. He claimed to have serviced several famous clients, including Rock Hudson and Roy Cohn." Other countercultural activity While at Columbia, Donaldson "experimented with marijuana and LSD" and described himself as "ordained in the psychedelic church," going on to guide first-time LSD users. He wrote that he became a liberal in 1967 in response to the Kerner Report on racism towards blacks in the United States and went on to become a "full-fledged hippy-valued radical." He was arrested twice for participating in anti-war protests at Columbia, including a "liberation" of Columbia president Grayson Kirk's office, spending an uneventful night in jail in 1968. Discomfort with gay liberation movement In 1966, Donaldson fell in love with a woman, Judith "JD Rabbit" Jones (whom he later considered his "lifetime companion") and began to identify as a bisexual. He later wrote that he "took a lot of flak from the leaders of other homophile organizations for being bi", including creating a scandal by "having an affair with Martha Shelley, leader of the New York Daughters of Bilitis and later the Gay Liberation Front". His "growing feeling of discomfort with biphobia in the homophile/gay liberation movement was a major factor" in his deciding to quit the movement and enlist in the Navy after graduating from Columbia in 1970. Military experience (1970-1972) Robert Martin's (Stephen Donaldson's) military portrait, medals, and insignia Donaldson had a longstanding desire to join the Navy, even buying a sailor's uniform during college, in which he cruised the city and pretended to be a serviceman on a visit to a naval base in Pensacola, Florida, and maintained a "lifelong identification with sailors and seafaring." After graduating from Columbia in 1970, he enlisted and served as a radioman at a NATO base in Italy with an unblemished record until "he wrote to a former shipmate, Terry Fountain, about his latest sexual adventures [with both women and men] at his current home port of Naples, Italy". After Fountain left the letter unattended on his desk, someone turned it over to the Naval Investigative Service, which allegedly coerced Fountain into signing a statement that he had sex with Donaldson, which Fountain later recanted. In 1971, "the Navy announced its intention to release [Donaldson] by General Discharge on grounds of suspected homosexual involvement." As Randy Shilts wrote in Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the US Military: These supporters included six congressional representatives, including New York's Bella Abzug (who called his case a "witch-hunt") and Edward Koch; senators Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania and Sam Ervin of North Carolina; the president of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), Judd Marmor (who had been "influential in having homosexuality removed from the APA's official list of clinical disorders" ); Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt, Jr.; and the ACLU, which provided a staff attorney to represent him. Despite the support, he received a general discharge in 1972. Donaldson continued to fight, and, in 1977, his discharge was upgraded to "honorable" as part of "President Carter's sweeping amnesty program for Vietnam-era draft evaders, deserters, and service members", at which time: According to Eisenbach: Bisexual activism (1972-1977) Donaldson later summarized his military experience and the subsequent transition in his life: This group adopted by consensus the "Ithaca Statement on Bisexuality". After a series of meetings, the Committee of Friends on Bisexuality was formed, with Donaldson (using the name Bob Martin) as its chair until he left the Quakers in 1977. Donaldson was involved in the New York bisexual movement in the mid-1970s, for example appearing in 1974 on a New York Gay Activists Alliance panel with Kate Millet. Donaldson propounded the belief that Washington jail experiences and aftermath (1973) Demonstrations and incarcerations After being discharged from the Navy in 1972, Donaldson moved to Washington D.C., where he "worked as Pentagon correspondent for the Overseas Weekly, a privately owned newspaper distributed to American servicemen stationed in Europe". Donaldson considered himself a Quaker and took part in the Langley Hill Monthly Meeting, where he was part of a group influenced by "a series of pray-ins at the White House sponsored by the Community for Creative Non-Violence (CCNV)" who felt a call to "hold a memorial meeting for worship at the White House to commemorate the nuclear bombing of Nagasaki [on its 28th anniversary] and for the victims of all wars and violence" on August 9, 1973. The protesters, referred to as the "White House 7", were arrested for unlawful entry and were released on bail, except for Donaldson, who refused and spent the night in the DC jail before being released by a judge the next morning. On August 14, Donaldson was one of 66 demonstrators, including Daniel Berrigan, who took part in a CCNV-sponsored pray-in at the White House protesting the bombing of Cambodia, where he was again arrested. Donaldson again refused to post bail. In a 1974 account under the pseudonym Donald Tucker, he explained: Liddy wrote in his autobiography that he heard that Donaldson worked for The Washington Post and, suspecting him of being in prison "to try to steal a march on Woodward and Bernstein by getting a firsthand story," expressed the wish that he be transferred elsewhere. A few days later, on August 22, guard captain Clinton Cobb had Donaldson moved to the most dangerous cellbock. That night, Donaldson was lured in a cell by a prisoner who claimed that he and his friends wanted to discuss pacifism with him. He was then anally and orally raped dozens of times by an estimated 45 African-American male inmates. He suffered additional abuse a second night before he Donaldson later claimed that the guards told him he'd been deliberately set up by Captain Cobb. The following morning, Lucy Witt, one of the White House Seven, posted his bond and took him to a doctor. Publicity and hearings The next day, August 24, Donaldson held a press conference, becoming the first male prison rape survivor to publicly recount his experiences, resulting in "massive and prolonged" publicity (under his legal name, Robert Martin). On August 28, Donaldson met with attorney William Schaffer, who agreed to represent him in a possible civil suit against the D.C. Department of Corrections with the goal of pressuring officials to make major improvements to the jail system. Donaldson wrote the following year about this "time of agony": After deliberations with the Langley Hill Meeting, Donaldson decided on October 20 not to file a civil suit and not to cooperate with the Grand Jury inquiry into a criminal suit against his attackers. Trial outcomes Donaldson and the rest of the White House Seven defended themselves against the August 9 charge of illegal entry and were found guilty, sentenced on September 26 to "the choice of $25 or five days in jail or a one-year unsupervised probation conditional on a promise not to violate any local, state or federal law during that period." Donaldson At first Donaldson chose to go to jail rather than pay the fine, which he viewed as cooperating with the government. He changed his mind after finding out he would be returned to the same jail in Washington, DC. He regretfully said: "My conscience tells me I should have gone (to jail), but I was shaking all over. It was obvious I just couldn't go through it again. I couldn't go back." As for the August 14 charge that led to his traumatic imprisonment, Donaldson refused to plead (unlike most of those arrested, who pleaded no contest) and went to trial alone on September 28. Effect on Donaldson The injuries to his rectum were so severe that they required surgery, and he had to spend a week in the Washington D.C. Veteran's Hospital. Donaldson later said: "The government sewed up the tears in my rectum which the government occasioned." In a 1974 account in the Friends Journal, Donaldson asked: In 1982, Donaldson wrote about his lack of success in getting needed psychological counseling after the rapes: Donaldson wrote that he was aided in his sexual recovery by an understanding woman who helped him regain his confidence. After a year and a half, he returned to his prior level of sexual activity. In 1975, "the suppressed emotions began to rise to the level of consciousness, primarily in the form of anger, aggression, and a vigorous reassertion of [his] own masculinity," leading him to join a male consciousness raising group and then, in 1976, to pursue "individual Gestalt therapy (not being able to afford anything else) with a lay therapist." Subsequent arrests and incarcerations (1976-1990) Acceptance of "punk" role (1976) While traveling in late 1976, Donaldson was arrested after urinating in a motel parking lot, then was charged with possession after the police searched his hotel room and found marijuana. He was placed in a small cell block with four white and eight black prisoners, most Marines from a nearby base, who demanded sexual services. Donaldson later wrote: Donaldson was pleasantly surprised that they treated him not with the contempt he expected but with genuine warmth and affection. Grateful for their kindness and protection, Donaldson decided to embrace his role as "punk" and do his best to keep his men happy. After the black prisoners fought the white Marines over him, Donaldson was placed in solitary confinement, where he remained until his bail was posted. Donaldson was defended against the possession charge by the chief counsel of the state chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union. The case was thrown out due to unconstitutional police behavior. Adoption of jailhouse attitudes (1977) In the spring of 1977, Donaldson became depressed enough to cut his wrist and arranged to get himself arrested for sale of LSD in Norfolk, Virginia, with the hope, he later wrote, "to find myself being wanted and needed, to find the warm security I had experienced with the marines in the county jail." Donaldson was placed in the city jail, where he was gang-raped nightly until the guards were alerted and he was put in solitary confinement for his protection (to which Donaldson vigorously objected, believing the loss of rights and privileges unfair). After being released into a cell with blacks (who had allegedly paid $5 to receive him), Donaldson was again raped and "paralyzed with terror, the emotions of D.C. Jail overwhelming [him]", he fought his assailant, for which he was returned to solitary. After being released into a white cell, he was greeted: "Why, it's Donny the Punk!", giving him his nickname. Donaldson experienced another mental shift: Donaldson was eventually claimed by a cellmate, Terry, who treated him with kindness. The two had a cell to themselves when a frightened newcomer was moved in and, with Terry's consent, Donaldson decided to emotionally manipulate the newcomer into becoming his own punk. Donaldson wrote: After several months, Donaldson's case was dropped by the prosecution after the arresting officer's suicide. Donaldson wrote: The darkness on the edge of society (1980-1984) Stephen Donaldson, July 1984 Donaldson continued to suffer from depression, insomnia, and panic attacks in the late 1970s, and attempted suicide in 1977, the year after the suicide of his mother Lois Vaugahn. In 1980, Donaldson "hit rock bottom" and committed: Although nobody was hurt, "Donaldson was convicted of assault with intent to commit murder and sentenced to ten years in federal prison". In a 1982 essay written from jail, Donaldson described the event: Less than a year into his term, Donaldson had been "raped once, assaulted once, and claimed by five different men" in jail and was fearing his upcoming transfer to his first maximum security prison, where he went on to spend over a year in protective custody, which he described as "a solitary retreat" in a letter to Bo Lozoff. Lozoff was leader of the Prison-Ashram Project, which encourages convicts to use their prisons as ashrams (religious retreats) for spiritual growth. In their correspondence, Donaldson expressed his desire to help other survivors but lamented that: Donaldson was released on parole in April 1984 and returned to New York City. He violated his parole by visiting India for religious study in 1987-1988, which led to his final prison term, in federal prison, in 1990. Stop Prisoner Rape Through Bo Lozoff, Donaldson met Tom Cahill, whose correspondence with Lozoff also appeared in We're All Doing Time. Cahill was "an Air Force veteran turned peace activist when [he] was jailed for civil disobedience in San Antonio, Texas in 1968. For the first twenty-four hours, [he] was beaten, gang rang-raped and otherwise tortured", allegedly as part of the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Counter Intelligence Program (COINTELPRO) due to Cahill's anti-Vietnam War activity. Around 1983, Cahill resurrected the defunct organization "People Organized to Stop Rape of Imprisoned Persons" (POSRIP), which had been founded in 1980 by Russell Smith. In 2004, Cahill recollected: Donaldson became president of Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc. (SPR), which he and Cahill incorporated in the mid-1990s from POSRIP. The organization (since 2008 known as Just Detention International) helps prisoners deal with the psychological and physical trauma of rape, and works to prevent rape from happening. Donaldson was perhaps the first activist against male rape in the United States to gain significant media attention. Writing on behalf of SPR, he appeared on the Op-Ed page of The New York Times, as well as in other major media. He testified on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union in its case ACLU et al. v. Reno, which went to the US Supreme Court. Activism and writing As "Donny the Punk", Donaldson was already a respected writer and personality in the punk and anti-racist skinhead subcultures. He had published in punk zines such as Maximum RocknRoll, Flipside and J.D.s. In the mid-1980s, Donny was the chief organizer of The Alternative Press & Radio Council (APRC), which brought together members of the punk community (such as fanzine editors and college radio DJs) of New York City, New Jersey, and Connecticut. This co-operative group met on Sundays before the weekly CBGB Sunday hardcore matinees and organized several benefit concerts. The group published a newsletter, and released a compilation LP on Mystic Records in 1986, which was entitled Mutiny On The Bowery. The compilation featured live recordings from the group's benefit concerts. Among other active members of the APRC were WFMU-FM DJ Pat Duncan, MaximumRockNRoll columnist Mykel Board and Jersey Beat editor Jim Testa. Donaldson was assistant editor of the Encyclopedia of Homosexuality (Garland Publishing, 1990). He was editor-in-chief of a concise edition of the encyclopedia, which as of 2007 was unpublished. Legacy and honors Donaldson died of AIDS in 1996, which he said he contracted in his first attack in the DC Jail. After Donaldson's death, SPR continued to work for prisoners' rights. It contributed to gaining the passage of the first US law against rape in prison Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003. The issue of rape and prisoners' rights continues to receive national and state attention. 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6,601 | Beryllium | Beryllium, crystalline fragment Beryllium () is the chemical element with the symbol Be and atomic number 4. A bivalent element, beryllium is found naturally only combined with other elements in minerals. Notable gemstones which contain beryliium include Beryl (aquamarines and emeralds) and Chrysoberyl (Alexandrite and Cat's eye). The free element is a steel-grey, strong, lightweight brittle alkaline earth metal. It is primarily used as a hardening agent in alloys, notably beryllium copper. Structurally, beryllium's very low density (1.85 times that of water), high melting point (1278 °C), high temperature stability, and low coefficient of expansion with temperature, make it in many ways an ideal aerospace material, and it has been used in rocket nozzles and is a significant component of planned space telescopes. Because of its relatively high transparency to X-rays and other ionizing radiation types, beryllium also has a number of uses as filters and windows for radiation and particle physics experiments. Commercial use of beryllium metal presents technical challenges due to the toxicity (especially by inhalation) of beryllium-containing dusts. Beryllium produces a direct corrosive effect to tissue, and is also capable of producing a chronic life-threatening allergic disease called berylliosis in susceptable persons. Beryllium is a relatively rare element in both the Earth and the universe, because it is not formed in conventional stellar nucleosynthesis, but rather during the Big Bang, and later from the action of cosmic rays on interstellar dust. The element is not known to be necessary or useful for either plant or animal life. History Beryllium was discovered by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin in 1798 as a new element in beryl and in emeralds. Friedrich Wöhler and Antoine Bussy independently isolated the metal in 1828 by reacting potassium and beryllium chloride. Beryllium's chemical similarity to aluminum was probably why beryllium was missed in previous searches. Etymology The name beryllium comes from the Greek βήρυλλος, bērullos, beryl, from Prakrit veruliya, from Pāli veḷuriya; ] veḷiru or, viḷar, "to become pale," in reference to the pale semiprecious gemstone beryl. For about 160 years, beryllium was also known as glucinium (with the accompanying chemical symbol "Gl" Black, The MacMillian Company, New York, 1937 ), the name coming from the Greek word for sweet, due to the sweet taste of its salts. Characteristics Physical Beryllium has one of the highest melting points of the light metals. It has exceptional elastic rigidity (Young’s modulus 316 GPa). The modulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately 50% greater than that of steel. The combination of this modulus plus beryllium's relatively low density gives it an unusually fast sound conduction speed at standard conditions (about 12.9 km/s). Other significant properties are the high values for specific heat (1925 J/kg·K) and thermal conductivity (216 W/m·K), which make beryllium the metal with the best heat dissipation characteristics per unit weight. In combination with the relatively low coefficient of linear thermal expansion (11.4 × 10-6 K-1), these characteristics ensure that beryllium demonstrates a unique degree of dimensional stability under conditions of thermal loading. At standard temperature and pressures beryllium resists oxidation when exposed to air (its ability to scratch glass is due to the formation of a thin layer of the hard oxide BeO). It resists attack by concentrated nitric acid. Nuclear Beryllium has a large scattering cross section for high energy neutrons, thus effectively slowing the neutrons to the thermal energy range where the cross section is low (0.008 barn). The predominant beryllium isotope 9Be also undergoes a (n,2n) neutron reaction to 8Be, i.e. beryllium is a neutron multiplier releasing more neutrons than it absorbs. Beryllium is highly permeable to X-rays, and neutrons are liberated when it is hit by alpha particles. Isotopes Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in 10Be concentration. Note that the beryllium scale is inverted, so increases on this scale indictate lower beryllium-10 levels Of beryllium's isotopes, only 9Be is stable and the others are relatively unstable or rare. It is thus a mononuclidic element. Cosmogenic 10Be is produced in the atmosphere by cosmic ray spallation of oxygen and nitrogen. Cosmogenic 10Be accumulates at the soil surface, where its relatively long half-life (1.51 million years) permits a long residence time before decaying to 10B. Thus, 10Be and its daughter products have been used to examine soil erosion, soil formation from regolith, the development of lateritic soils, as well as variations in solar activity and the age of ice cores. Solar activity is inversely correlated with Be-10 production, because solar-wind decreases flux of galactic cosmic rays which reach Earth. Beryllium-10 is also formed in nuclear explosions by a reaction of fast neutrons with 13C in the carbon dioxide in air, and is one of the historical indicators of past activity at nuclear test sites. The fact that 7Be and 8Be are unstable has profound cosmological consequences as it means that elements heavier than beryllium could not be produced by nuclear fusion in the Big Bang, since there was insufficient time during the nucleosynthesis phase of the Big Bang expansion to produce carbon by fusion of 4He nuclei and the relatively low concentrations of 8Be available because of its short half-life. Astronomer Fred Hoyle first showed that the energy levels of 8Be and 12C allow carbon production by the triple-alpha process in helium-fueled stars where more synthetic time is available, thus making life possible from the supernova "ash" from these stars. (See also Big Bang nucleosynthesis). 7Be decays by electron capture, therefore its decay rate is dependent upon its electron configuration - a rare occurrence in nuclear decay. The shortest-lived known isotope of beryllium is 13Be which decays through neutron emission. It has a half-life of 2.7 × 10-21 second. 6Be is also very short-lived with a half-life of 5.0 × 10-21 second. The exotic isotopes 11Be and 14Be are known to exhibit a nuclear halo. Chemical Beryllium has the electronic configuration [He]2s2. In its chemistry Beryllium exhibits the +2 oxidation state and the only evidence of lower valent Benm+ is in the solubility of the metal in BeCl2. Egon Wiberg, Arnold Frederick Holleman (2001) Inorganic Chemistry, Elsevier ISBN 0123526515 The small atomic radius ensures that the Be2+ ion would be highly polarizing leading to significant covalent character in beryllium's bonding. Beryllium is 4 coordinate in complexes e.g. [Be(H2O)4]2+ and tetrahaloberyllates, BeX42-. This characteristic is used in analytical techniques using EDTA as a ligand which preferentially forms octahedral complexes - thus absorbing other cations such as Al3+ which might interfere, for example in the solvent extraction of a complex formed between Be2+ and acetylacetone. Determination of a trace amount of beryllium in water samples by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry after preconcentration and separation as a beryllium-acetylacetonate complex on activated carbon. Tadao. Okutani, Yasuhiro. Tsuruta, Akio. Sakuragawa. Journal: Anal. Chem., 1993, 65 (9), pp 1273–1276, May 1993 Beryllium metal sits above aluminium in the electrochemical series and would be expected to be a reactive metal, however it is passivated by an oxide layer and does not react with air or water even at red heat. Once ignited however beryllium burns brilliantly forming a mixture of beryllium oxide and beryllium nitride. Beryllium dissolves readily in non-oxidising acids,(HCl, H2SO4) but not in nitric as this forms the oxide and this behaviour is similar to that of aluminium metal. Beryllium, again similarly to aluminium, dissolves in warm alkali to form the beryllate anion, Be(OH)42- , and hydrogen gas. The solutions of salts, e.g beryllium sulfate and beryllium nitrate are acidic because of hydrolysis of the [Be(H2O)4]2+ ion: eg [Be(H2O)4]2+ + H2O <> [Be(H2O)3(OH)]+ + H3O+ Compounds Beryllium forms binary compounds with many non-metals. Beryllium hydride is an amorphous white solid believed to be built from corner-sharing {BeH4} tetrahedra. } All four anhydrous halides are known. BeF2 has a silica-like structure with corner-shared {BeF4} tetrahedra. BeCl2 and BeBr2 have chain structures with edge-shared tetrahedra. They all have linear monomeric gas phase forms. Beryllium oxide, BeO, is a white, high-melting-point solid, which has the wurtzite structure with a thermal conductivity as high as some metals. BeO is amphoteric. Beryllium hydroxide, Be(OH)2 has low solubility in water and is amphoteric. Salts of beryllium can be produced by reacting Be(OH)2 with acid. Beryllium sulfide, selenide and telluride all have the zincblende structure. Beryllium nitride, Be3N2 is a high-melting-point compound which is readily hydrolysed. Beryllium azide, BeN6 is known and beryllium phosphide, Be3P2 has a similar structure to Be3N2. A number of beryllium borides are known, Be5B, Be4B, Be2B, BeB2, BeB6, BeB12. Beryllium carbide, Be2C, is a high melting, brick red compound that reacts with water to give methane. No beryllium silicide has been identified. Basic beryllium nitrate and basic beryllium acetate have similar tetrahedral structures with four beryllium atoms coordinated to a central oxide ion. Occurrence The beryllium content of the earth’s surface rocks is ca. 4 - 6 ppm. Beryllium is a constituent of about 100 out of about 4000 known minerals, the most important of which are bertrandite (Be4Si2O7(OH)2), beryl (Al2Be3Si6O18), chrysoberyl (Al2BeO4), and phenakite (Be2SiO4). Precious forms of beryl are aquamarine, bixbite and emerald. Production Because of its high affinity for oxygen at elevated temperatures and its ability to reduce water when its oxide film is removed, the extraction of beryllium from its compounds is very difficult. Although electrolysis of a fused mixture of beryllium and sodium fluorides was used to isolate the element in the nineteenth century, the metal's high melting point makes this process more energy intensive than the corresponding production of alkali metals. Early in the twentieth century, the production of beryllium by the thermal decomposition of beryllium iodide was investigated following the success of a similar process for the production of zirconium, however it proved to be uneconomic for volume production. Beryllium metal did not become readily available until 1957. Currently, most production of this metal is accomplished by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal. The price on the US market for vacuum-cast beryllium ingots was 338 US$ per pound ($745/kg) in 2001. BeF2 + Mg → MgF2 + Be Applications Radiation windows Beryllium target which "converts" a proton beam into a neutron beam A square beryllium foil mounted in a steel case to be used as a window between a vacuum chamber and an X-ray microscope. Beryllium, due to its low Z number is highly transparent to X-rays. Because of its low atomic number and very low absorption for X-rays, the oldest and still one of the most important applications of beryllium is in radiation windows for X-ray tubes. Extreme demands are placed on purity and cleanliness of Be to avoid artefacts in the X-ray images. Thin beryllium foils are used as radiation windows for X-ray detectors, and the extremely low absorption minimizes the heating effects caused by high intensity, low energy X-rays typical of synchrotron radiation. Vacuum-tight windows and beam-tubes for radiation experiments on synchrotrons are manufactured exclusively from beryllium. In scientific setups for various X-ray emission studies (e.g., Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) the sample holder is usually made of beryllium because its emitted X-rays have much lower energies (~100 eV) than X-rays from most studied materials. Because of its low atomic number beryllium is almost transparent to energetic particles. Therefore it is used to build the beam pipe around the collision region in collider particle physics experiments. Notably all four main detector experiments at the Large Hadron Collider accelerator (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, LHCb) use a beryllium beam-pipe. Also many high-energy particle physics collision experiments such as the Large Hadron Collider, the Tevatron, the SLAC and others contain beam pipes made of beryllium. Beryllium's low density allows collision products to reach the surrounding detectors without significant interaction, its stiffness allows a powerful vacuum to be produced within the pipe to minimize interaction with gases, its thermal stability allows it to function correctly at temperatures of only a few degrees above absolute zero, and its diamagnetic nature keeps it from interfering with the complex multipole magnet systems used to steer and focus the particle beams. Mechanical Due to its stiffness, light weight, and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, beryllium metal is used for lightweight structural components in the defense and aerospace industries in high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles, and communication satellites. Several liquid-fueled rockets use nozzles of pure beryllium, such as the Saturn V. Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in the production of beryllium copper, which contains up to 2.5% beryllium. Beryllium-copper alloys are used in many applications because of their combination of high electrical and thermal conductivity, high strength and hardness, nonmagnetic properties, along with good corrosion and fatigue resistance. These applications include the making of spot-welding electrodes, springs, non-sparking tools and electrical contacts. Beryllium was also used in Jason pistols which were used to strip paint from the hulls of ships. In this case, beryllium was alloyed to copper and used as a hardening agent. The excellent elastic rigidity of beryllium has led to its extensive use in precision instrumentation, e.g. in gyroscope inertial guidance systems, and in support structures for optical systems. Beryllium mirrors are a field of particular interest. Large area mirrors, in many cases with a honeycomb support structure, are used for example in meteorological satellites where low weight and long-term dimensional stability are critical. Smaller beryllium mirrors are used in optical guidance systems and in fire control systems, e.g. in the German Leopard I and II main battle tanks. In these systems, very rapid movement of the mirror is required which again dictates low mass and high rigidity. Usually the beryllium mirror is coated with hard electroless nickel which can be more easily polished to a finer optical finish than beryllium. In some applications, however, the beryllium blank is polished without any coating. This is particularly applicable to cryogenic operation where thermal expansion mismatch can cause buckling of a coating. The James Webb Space Telescope will have 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its mirrors. Because JWST will face a temperature of 33 degrees K, the mirror is made of beryllium, capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and deforms less than glass — and remains more uniform — in such temperatures. For the same reason, the optics of the Spitzer Space Telescope are entirely built of beryllium metal. An earlier major application of beryllium was in brakes for military aircraft because of its hardness, high melting point and exceptional heat dissipation characteristics. Environmental considerations have led to substitution by other materials. Cross-rolled beryllium sheet is an excellent structural support for printed circuit boards in surface mounted technology. In critical electronic applications, beryllium is both a structural support and heat sink. The application also requires a coefficient of thermal expansion that is well matched to the alumina and polyimide-glass substrates. The beryllium-beryllium oxide composite “E-Materials” have been specially designed for these electronic applications and have the additional advantage that the thermal expansion coefficient can be tailored to match diverse substrate materials. Magnetic Due to its non-magnetic properties, Beryllium-based tools are often used by military naval EOD-personnel when working on or around sea-mines, as these often have fuses that detonate on direct magnetic contact or when influenced by a magnetic field. Beryllium-based tools are used for maintenance and construction near MRI scanners. Magnetic tools would be pulled by the scanner's strong magnetic field. Apart from being difficult to remove once magnetic items are stuck in the scanner, the missile-effect can have dangerous consequences. In the telecommunications industry, tools made of beryllium are used to tune the highly magnetic klystrons used for high power microwave applications. Nuclear Beryllium is used in nuclear weapon designs as the outer layer of the pit of the primary stage, surrounding the fissile material. It is a good pusher for implosion, and a very good neutron reflector, as in Beryllium moderated reactors. Beryllium is sometimes used in neutron sources, in which the beryllium is mixed with an alpha emitter such as 210Po, 226Ra, 239Pu or 241Am. Beryllium is used in the Joint European Torus fusion research facility and will be used in ITER, to condition the plasma facing components. Beryllium has also been proposed as a cladding material for nuclear fuel, due to its combination of mechanical, chemical, and nuclear properties. Acoustics Beryllium's characteristics (low weight and high rigidity) make it useful as a material for high-frequency drivers. Until recently, most beryllium tweeters used an alloy of beryllium and other metals due to beryllium's high cost and difficulty to form. These challenges, coupled with the high performance of beryllium, caused some manufacturers to falsely claim using pure beryllium. Some high-end audio companies manufacture pure beryllium tweeters or speakers using these tweeters. Because beryllium is many times more expensive than titanium, hard to shape due to its brittle nature, and potentially toxic when mishandled, these tweeters are limited to high-end and PA applications. Electronic Beryllium is an effective p-type dopant in III-V compound semiconductors. It is widely used in materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs, and InAlAs grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Beryllium oxide is useful for many applications that require the combined properties of an electrical insulator an excellent heat conductor, with high strength and hardness, with a very high melting point. Beryllium oxide is frequently used as an insulator base plate in high-power transistors in RF transmitters for telecommunications. Beryllium oxide is also being studied for use in increasing the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide nuclear fuel pellets. Beryllium compounds were once used in fluorescent lighting tubes, but this use was discontinued because of berylliosis in the workers manufacturing the tubes. Toxicity Beryllium ore According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), beryllium and beryllium compounds are Category 1 carcinogens; they are carcinogenic to both animals and humans. Chronic berylliosis is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. Cases of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent lamps in Massachusetts. Chronic berylliosis resembles sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult. It occasionally killed early workers in nuclear weapons design, such as Herbert Anderson. Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material. Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this highly toxic substance. Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust (lung cancer is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust). This substance can be handled safely if certain procedures are followed. No attempt should be made to work with beryllium before familiarization with correct handling procedures. A successful test for beryllium in air and on surfaces has been recently developed and published as a international voluntary consensus standard (ASTM D7202; www.astm.org). The procedure uses dilute ammonium bifluoride for dissolution and fluorescence detection with beryllium bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline, allowing detection up to 100 times lower than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the workplace. Fluorescence increases with increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces and is effective for the dissolution and ultratrace detection of refractory beryllium oxide and silicious beryllium (ASTM D7458). Inhalation Beryllium can be harmful if inhaled and the effects depend on period of exposure. If beryllium concentrations in air are high enough (greater than ), an acute condition can result, called acute beryllium disease, which resembles pneumonia. Occupational and community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage. Long-term beryllium exposure can increase the risk of developing lung cancer. The more common and serious health hazard from beryllium today is chronic beryllium disease (CBD), discussed below. It continues to occur in industries as diverse as metal recycling, dental laboratories, alloy manufacturing, nuclear weapons production, defense industries, and metal machine shops that work with alloys containing small amounts of beryllium. A 2008 report from the United States National Research Council stated that worker exposure to beryllium should be kept "at the lowest feasible level". Their review of the extant literature on the subject led them to conclude that a safe level of allowable exposure could not be determined. NRC urges minimal Beryllium Exposure, Chemical & Engineering News, 86, 33, 18 Aug. 2008, p. 26 Chronic beryllium disease (CBD) Some people (1-15%) become sensitive to beryllium. Sensitization is not an illness, but some of these individuals, if inhaling sufficient quantities of beryllium dust in the micrometre size range, may develop an inflammatory reaction that principally targets the respiratory system and skin. This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur within a few months or many years after exposure to higher than normal levels of beryllium (greater than ). This disease causes fatigue, weakness, night sweats and can cause difficulty in breathing and a persistent dry cough. It can result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also lead to right-side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have symptoms, and just being sensitized is not a recognized health effect. CBD is treatable, but not curable with traditional drugs and medicine. CBD occurs when the body's immune system recognizes beryllium particles as foreign material and mounts an immune system attack against the particles. Because these particles are typically inhaled into the lungs, the lungs become the major site where the immune system responds. The lung sacs become inflamed and fill with large numbers of white blood cells that accumulate wherever beryllium particles are found. These cells form balls around the beryllium particles called “granulomas.” When enough of these develop, they interfere with the normal function of the organ. Over time, the lungs become stiff and lose their ability to help transfer oxygen from the air into the bloodstream. Patients with CBD develop difficulty inhaling and exhaling sufficient amounts of air, and the amount of oxygen in their bloodstreams falls. Treatment of such patients includes use of oxygen and medicines that try to suppress the immune system’s over-reaction to beryllium. A class of immunosuppressive medicines called glucocorticoids (example: prednisone) is most commonly used as treatment. The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (0.00003-0.0002 µg/m³). Ingestion Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Deleterious effects have been seen in animals ingesting beryllium in their diet. jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/11/4/371.pdf Dermatological effects Beryllium can cause contact dermatitis. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause rashes, ulcers, or bumps under the skin called granulomas. Effects on children There are no studies on the health effects of children exposed to beryllium, although individual cases of CBD have been reported in children of beryllium workers from the 1940s. It is likely that the health effects seen in children exposed to beryllium will be similar to the effects seen in adults. It is unknown whether children differ from adults in their susceptibility to beryllium. It is unclear whether beryllium is teratogenic. Detection in the body Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or urine may not indicate time or quantity of exposure. Beryllium levels can also be measured in lung and skin samples. While such measurements may help establish that exposure has occurred, other tests are used to determine if that exposure has resulted in health effects. A blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT), identifies beryllium sensitization and has predictive value for CBD. The BeLPT has become the standard test for detecting beryllium sensitization and CBD in individuals who are suspected of having CBD and to help distinguish it from similar conditions such as sarcoidosis. It is also the main test used in industry health programs to monitor whether disease is occurring among current and former workers who have been exposed to beryllium on the job. The test can detect disease that is at an early stage, or can detect disease at more advanced stages of illness as well. The BeLPT can also be performed using cells obtained from a person's lung by a procedure called "bronchoscopy." Industrial release and occupational exposure limits Typical levels of beryllium that industries may release into the air are of the order of , averaged over a 30-day period, or of workroom air for an 8-hour work shift. Compliance with the current U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit for beryllium of has been determined to be inadequate to protect workers from developing beryllium sensitization and CBD. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), which is an independent organization of experts in the field of occupational health, has proposed a threshold limit value (TLV) of in a 2006 Notice of Intended Change (NIC). This TLV is 40 times lower than the current OSHA permissible exposure limit, reflecting the ACGIH analysis of best available peer-reviewed research data concerning how little airborne beryllium is required to cause sensitization and CBD. Because it can be difficult to control industrial exposures to beryllium, it is advisable to use any methods possible to reduce airborne and surface contamination by beryllium, to minimize the use of beryllium and beryllium-containing alloys whenever possible, and to educate people about the potential hazards if they are likely to encounter beryllium dust or fumes. http://www.ehponline.org/docs/1994/102-6-7/focus.html Environmental Health Perspectives Volume 102, Number 6-7, June-July 1994 On 29 January 2009, the Los Alamos National Laboratory announced it was notifying nearly 2,000 current and former employees and visitors that they may have been exposed to beryllium in the lab and may be at risk of disease. Concern over possible exposure to the material was first raised in November 2008, when a box containing beryllium was received at the laboratory's short-term storage facility. See also :Category:Beryllium compounds Sucker Bait, a story by Isaac Asimov in which the health hazard of beryllium dust is an important plot point Notes References Burrell, AK. Ehler, DS. McClesky, TM. Minogue, EM. Taylor, TP. Development of a New Fluorescence Method for the Detection of Beryllium on Surfaces. Journal of ASTM International (JAI). 2005. Vol 2: Issue 9. http://www.astm.org/cgi-bin/SoftCart.exe/JOURNALS/JAI/PAGES/JAI13168.htm?E+mystore Infante PF, Newman LS. "Commentary: Beryllium exposure and Chronic Beryllium Disease." Lancet 2004; 415-16. Newman LS. "Beryllium." Chemical & Engineering News, 2003; 36:38. Kelleher PC, Martyny JW, Mroz MM, Maier LA, Ruttenber JA, Young DA, Newman LS. "Beryllium particulate exposure and disease relations in a beryllium machining plant." J Occup Environ Med 2001; 43:238-249. Mroz MM, Balkissoon R, Newman LS. "Beryllium." In: Bingham E, Cohrssen B, Powell C (eds.) Patty’s Toxicology, Fifth Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons 2001, 177-220. Beryllium and Compounds: TLV Chemical Substances Draft Documentation, Notice of Intended Change ACGIH Publication #7NIC-042 External links ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Beryllium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services WebElements.com – Beryllium It's Elemental – Beryllium National Pollutant Inventory - Beryllium and compounds MSDS: ESPI Metals National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Beryllium Page Former Worker Medical Screening Program, U.S. Department of Energy National Supplemental Screening Program (Oak Ridge Associated Universities) | Beryllium |@lemmatized beryllium:211 crystalline:1 fragment:1 chemical:9 element:10 symbol:2 atomic:5 number:8 bivalent:1 find:2 naturally:1 combine:1 mineral:2 notable:1 gemstone:2 contain:7 beryliium:1 include:4 beryl:6 aquamarine:2 emerald:3 chrysoberyl:2 alexandrite:1 cat:1 eye:1 free:1 steel:3 grey:1 strong:2 lightweight:2 brittle:2 alkaline:1 earth:4 metal:23 primarily:1 use:47 hardening:2 agent:3 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6,602 | Density | The density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol of density is ρ (the Greek letter rho). Formula Mathematically: where: is the density, is the mass, is the volume. Different materials usually have different densities, so density is an important concept regarding buoyancy, metal purity and packaging. In some cases density is expressed as the dimensionless quantities specific gravity (SG) or relative density (RD), in which case it is expressed in multiples of the density of some other standard material, usually water or air/gas. History In a well-known common story, Archimedes was given the task of determining whether King Hiero's goldsmith was embezzling gold during the manufacture of a wreath dedicated to the gods and replacing it with another, cheaper alloy. Archimedes, A Gold Thief and Buoyancy - by Larry "Harris" Taylor, Ph.D. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the weight; but the king did not approve of this. Baffled, Archimedes took a relaxing bath and observed from the rise of the warm water upon entering that he could calculate the volume of the gold crown through the displacement of the water. Allegedly, upon this discovery, he went running naked through the streets shouting, "Eureka! Eureka!" (Greek "I found it"). As a result, the term "eureka" entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment. This story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius' books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Vitruvius on Architecture, Book IX, paragraphs 9-12, translated into English and in the original Latin. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time. The first Eureka moment, Science 305: 1219, August 2004. Fact or Fiction?: Archimedes Coined the Term "Eureka!" in the Bath, Scientific American, December 2006. Measurement of density For a homogeneous object, the mass divided by the volume gives the density. The mass is normally measured with an appropriate scale or balance; the volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid. Hydrostatic weighing is a method that combines these two. If the body is not homogeneous or heterogeneous, the density is a function of the coordinates , where is elementary volume with coordinates . The mass of the body then can be expressed as , where the integration is over the volume of the body V. A very common instrument for the direct measurement of the density of a liquid is the hydrometer, which measures the volume displaced by an object of known mass. A common laboratory device for measuring fluid density is a pycnometer; a related device for measuring the absolute density of a solid is a gas pycnometer. Another instrument used to determine the density of a liquid or a gas is the digital density meter - based on the oscillating U-tube principle. The density of a solid material can be ambiguous, depending on exactly how its volume is defined, and this may cause confusion in measurement. A common example is sand: if gently filled into a container, the density will be low; when the same sand is compacted into the same container, it will occupy less volume and consequently exhibit a greater density. This is because sand, like all powders and granular solids contains a lot of air space in between individual grains; this overall density is called the bulk density, which differs significantly from the density of an individual grain of sand. Common units The unit for density is: kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m³) Metric units outside the SI kilograms per litre (kg/L). At 4 °C, water has a density of 1.000 kg/L, making this a convenient unit at about the room temperature, kilograms per cubic decimeter (kg/dm³), grams per millilitre (g/mL), grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc or g/cm³). These are all numerically equivalent to kg/L (1 kg/L = 1 kg/dm³ = 1 g/cm³ = 1 g/mL). In U.S. customary units or Imperial units, the units of density include: ounces per cubic inch (oz/cu in) pounds per cubic inch (lb/cu in) pounds per cubic foot (lb/cu ft) pounds per cubic yard (lb/cu yd) pounds per gallon (for U.S. or imperial gallons) (lb/gal) pounds per U.S. bushel (lb/bu) slugs per cubic foot. Changes of density In general density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure will always increase the density of a material. Increasing the temperature generally decreases the density, but there are notable exceptions to this generalisation. For example, the density of water increases between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C and similar behaviour is observed in silicon at low temperatures. The effect of pressure and temperature on the densities of liquids and solids is small so that a typical compressibility for a liquid or solid is 10–6 bar–1 (1 bar=0.1 MPa) and a typical thermal expansivity is 10–5 K–1. In contrast, the density of gases is strongly affected by pressure. Boyle's law says that the density of an ideal gas is given by where is the universal gas constant, is the pressure, the molar mass, and the absolute temperature. This means that a gas at 300 K and 1 bar will have its density doubled by increasing the pressure to 2 bar or by reducing the temperature to 150 K. Osmium is the densest known substance at standard conditions for temperature and pressure. Density of water See also: Water density Temp (°C) Density (kg/m3)100958.480971.860983.240992.230995.650225997.047922997.773520998.207115999.102610999.70264999.97200999.8395−10998.117−20993.547−30983.854 <small>The density of water in kilograms per cubic meter (SI unit) at various temperatures in degrees Celsius.The values below 0 °C refer to supercooled water. Density of air T in °C ρ in kg/m3 (at 1 atm) –25 1.423 –20 1.395 –15 1.368 –10 1.342 –5 1.316 0 1.293 5 1.269 10 1.247 15 1.225 20 1.204 25 1.184 30 1.164 35 1.146 Density of solutions The density of a solution is the sum of the mass (massic) concentrations of the components of that solution. Mass (massic) concentration of a given component ρi in a solution can be called partial density of that component. Density of composite material ASTM specification D792-00 (2004). Test Methods for Density and Specific Gravity (Relative Density) of Plastics by Displacement. ASTM Standard D792-00. Vol 81.01. American Society for Testing and Materials. West Conshohocken. PA. describes the steps to measure the density of a composite material. where: is the density of the composite material, in g/cm3 and is the weight of the specimen when hung in the air is the weight of the partly immersed wire holding the specimen is the weight of the specimen when immersed fully in distilled water, along with the partly immersed wire holding the specimen is the density in g/cm3 of the distilled water at 23°C Densities of various materials Material ρ in kg/m3 Notes Interstellar medium 10-25 − 10-15 Assuming 90% H, 10% He; variable T Earth's atmosphere 1.2 At sea level Aerogel 1 − 2 Styrofoam 30 − 120 From Cork 220 − 260 From Water 1000 At STP Plastics 850 − 1400 For polypropylene and PETE/PVC The Earth 5515.3 Mean density Copper 8920 − 8960 Near room temperature Lead 11340 Near room temperature Tungsten 19250 Near room temperature Gold 19300 Near room temperature The Inner Core of the Earth ~13000 As listed in Earth Uranium 19100 Near room temperature Iridium 22500 Near room temperature Osmium 22610 Near room temperature The core of the Sun ~150000 Atomic nuclei ~3 × 1017 As listed in neutron star Neutron star 8.4 × 1016 − 1 × 1018 Black hole 4 × 1017 Mean density inside the Schwarzschild radius of an earth-mass black hole (theoretical) References See also List of elements by density Charge density Buoyancy Bulk density Dord Energy density Lighter than air Number density Specific weight Standard temperature and pressure Orders of magnitude (density) Density prediction by the Girolami method External links Glass Density Calculation - Calculation of the density of glass at room temperature and of glass melts at 1000 - 1400°C List of Elements of the Periodic Table - Sorted by Density Calculation of saturated liquid densities for some components Water - Density and Specific Weight Temperature dependence of the density of water - Conversions of density units | Density |@lemmatized density:65 material:11 define:2 mass:10 per:14 unit:10 volume:11 symbol:1 ρ:3 greek:2 letter:1 rho:1 formula:1 mathematically:1 different:2 usually:2 important:1 concept:1 regard:1 buoyancy:3 metal:1 purity:1 packaging:1 case:2 express:3 dimensionless:1 quantity:1 specific:4 gravity:2 sg:1 relative:2 rd:1 multiple:1 standard:4 water:14 air:5 gas:7 history:1 well:1 know:2 common:6 story:2 archimedes:5 give:4 task:1 determine:2 whether:1 king:2 hiero:1 goldsmith:1 embezzle:1 gold:4 manufacture:1 wreath:2 dedicate:1 god:1 replace:1 another:2 cheap:1 alloy:1 thief:1 larry:1 harris:1 taylor:1 ph:1 irregularly:1 shaped:1 could:3 crush:1 cube:1 whose:1 calculate:2 easily:1 compare:1 weight:6 approve:1 baffle:1 take:2 relaxing:1 bath:2 observe:2 rise:1 warm:1 upon:2 enter:2 crown:1 displacement:3 allegedly:1 discovery:1 go:1 run:1 naked:1 street:1 shout:1 eureka:5 find:1 result:1 term:2 parlance:1 use:2 today:1 indicate:1 moment:2 enlightenment:1 first:2 appear:1 write:1 form:1 vitruvius:2 book:2 architecture:2 two:2 century:1 supposedly:1 place:1 ix:1 paragraph:1 translate:1 english:1 original:1 latin:1 scholar:1 doubt:1 accuracy:1 tale:1 say:2 among:1 thing:1 method:4 would:2 require:1 precise:1 measurement:4 difficult:1 make:2 time:1 science:1 august:1 fact:1 fiction:1 coin:1 scientific:1 american:2 december:1 homogeneous:2 object:3 divide:1 normally:1 measure:6 appropriate:1 scale:1 balance:1 may:2 directly:1 geometry:1 fluid:2 hydrostatic:1 weighing:1 combine:1 body:3 heterogeneous:1 function:1 coordinate:2 elementary:1 integration:1 v:1 instrument:2 direct:1 liquid:5 hydrometer:1 displace:1 known:2 laboratory:1 device:2 pycnometer:2 related:1 absolute:2 solid:5 digital:1 meter:2 base:1 oscillate:1 u:4 tube:1 principle:1 ambiguous:1 depend:1 exactly:1 cause:1 confusion:1 example:2 sand:4 gently:1 fill:1 container:2 low:2 compact:1 occupy:1 less:1 consequently:1 exhibit:1 great:1 like:1 powder:1 granular:1 contain:1 lot:1 space:1 individual:2 grain:2 overall:1 call:2 bulk:2 differ:1 significantly:1 kilogram:4 cubic:9 metre:1 kg:10 metric:1 outside:1 si:2 litre:1 l:4 c:8 convenient:1 room:9 temperature:19 decimeter:1 gram:2 millilitre:1 g:7 ml:2 centimeter:1 cc:1 numerically:1 equivalent:1 customary:1 imperial:2 include:1 ounce:1 inch:2 oz:1 cu:4 pound:5 lb:5 foot:2 ft:1 yard:1 yd:1 gallon:2 gal:1 bushel:1 bu:1 slug:1 change:3 general:1 either:1 pressure:8 increase:5 always:1 generally:1 decrease:1 notable:1 exception:1 generalisation:1 melt:2 point:1 similar:1 behaviour:1 silicon:1 effect:1 small:2 typical:2 compressibility:1 bar:4 mpa:1 thermal:1 expansivity:1 k:3 contrast:1 strongly:1 affect:1 boyle:1 law:1 ideal:1 universal:1 constant:1 molar:1 mean:3 double:1 reduce:1 osmium:2 dense:1 substance:1 condition:1 see:2 also:2 temp:1 various:2 degree:1 celsius:1 value:1 refer:1 supercooled:1 atm:1 solution:4 sum:1 massic:2 concentration:2 component:4 ρi:1 partial:1 composite:3 astm:2 specification:1 test:2 plastic:2 vol:1 society:1 west:1 conshohocken:1 pa:1 describe:1 step:1 specimen:4 hung:1 partly:2 immersed:2 wire:2 hold:2 immerse:1 fully:1 distilled:2 along:1 note:1 interstellar:1 medium:1 assume:1 h:1 variable:1 earth:5 atmosphere:1 sea:1 level:1 aerogel:1 styrofoam:1 cork:1 stp:1 polypropylene:1 pete:1 pvc:1 copper:1 near:7 lead:1 tungsten:1 inner:1 core:2 list:4 uranium:1 iridium:1 sun:1 atomic:1 nucleus:1 neutron:2 star:2 black:2 hole:2 inside:1 schwarzschild:1 radius:1 theoretical:1 reference:1 element:2 charge:1 dord:1 energy:1 light:1 number:1 order:1 magnitude:1 prediction:1 girolami:1 external:1 link:1 glass:3 calculation:3 periodic:1 table:1 sort:1 saturated:1 dependence:1 conversion:1 |@bigram dimensionless_quantity:1 irregularly_shaped:1 homogeneous_heterogeneous:1 cubic_metre:1 cubic_decimeter:1 cubic_centimeter:1 cubic_inch:2 lb_cu:3 cu_ft:1 cu_yd:1 imperial_gallon:1 bar_mpa:1 cubic_meter:1 degree_celsius:1 distilled_water:2 atomic_nucleus:1 black_hole:2 schwarzschild_radius:1 external_link:1 periodic_table:1 |
6,603 | Julian_calendar | The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, and came into force in 45 BC (709 ab urbe condita). It was chosen after consultation with the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria and was probably designed to approximate the tropical year, known at least since Hipparchus. It has a regular year of 365 days divided into 12 months, and a leap day is added to February every four years. Hence the Julian year is on average 365.25 days long. The Julian calendar remained in use into the 20th century in some countries as a national calendar, but it has generally been replaced by the modern Gregorian calendar. It is still used by the Berber people of North Africa, on Mount Athos, and by many national Orthodox churches. Orthodox Churches no longer using the Julian calendar typically use the Revised Julian calendar rather than the Gregorian calendar. The notation "Old Style" (OS) is sometimes used to indicate a date in the Julian calendar, as opposed to "New Style" (NS), which either represents the Julian date with the start of the year as 1 January or a full mapping onto the Gregorian calendar. This notation is used in reference to dates from czarist Russia (the country did not switch to the Gregorian calendar until 1918). Motivation The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, for a total of 355 days. In addition, a 27-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. This intercalary month was formed by inserting 22 days after the first 23 or 24 days of February; the last five days of February, which counted down towards the start of March, become the last five days of Intercalaris. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, forming an intercalary year of 377 or 378 days. According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. On this system, the average Roman year would have had 366¼ days over four years, giving it an average drift of one day per year relative to any solstice or equinox. Macrobius describes a further refinement wherein, for 8 years out of 24, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days. This refinement averages the length of the year to 365¼ days over 24 years. In practice, intercalations did not occur schematically according to these ideal systems, but were determined by the pontifices. So far as can be determined from the historical evidence, they were much less regular than these ideal schemes suggest. They usually occurred every second or third year, but were sometimes omitted for much longer, and occasionally occurred in two consecutive years. If managed correctly this system allowed the Roman year, on average, to stay roughly aligned to a tropical year. However, if too many intercalations were omitted, as happened after the Second Punic War and during the Civil Wars, the calendar would drift rapidly out of alignment with the tropical year. Moreover, because intercalations were often determined quite late, the average Roman citizen often did not know the date, particularly if he were some distance from the city. For these reasons, the last years of the pre-Julian calendar were later known as "years of confusion". The problems became particularly acute during the years of Julius Caesar's pontificate before the reform, 63-46 BC, when there were only five intercalary months, whereas there should have been eight, and none at all during the five Roman years before 46 BC. For example, Caesar crossed the Rubicon on January 10, 49 BC of the official calendar, but the official calendar had drifted so far away from the seasons had that it was actually mid-autumn. The reform was intended to correct this problem permanently, by creating a calendar that remained aligned to the sun without any human intervention. Julian reform The first step of the reform was to realign the start of the calendar year (1 January) to the tropical year by making 46 BC 445 days long, compensating for the intercalations which had been missed during Caesar's pontificate. This year had already been extended from 355 to 378 days by the insertion of a regular intercalary month in February. When Caesar decreed the reform, probably shortly after his return from the African campaign in late Quintilis (July), he added 67 (= 22 + 23 + 22) more days by inserting two extraordinary intercalary months between November and December. These months are called Intercalaris Prior and Intercalaris Posterior in letters of Cicero written at the time; there is no basis for the statement sometimes seen that they were called "Unodecember" and "Duodecember". Their individual lengths are unknown, as is the position of the Nones and Ides within them. Because 46 BC was the last of a series of irregular years, this extra-long year was, and is, referred to as the "last year of confusion". The first year of operation of the new calendar was 45 BC. The Julian months were formed by adding ten days to a regular pre-Julian Roman year of 355 days, creating a regular Julian year of 365 days: Two extra days were added to Ianuarius, The letter J was not invented until the 16th century. Sextilis (Augustus) and December, and one extra day was added to Aprilis, Iunius, September and November, setting the lengths of the months to the values they still hold today: Months Lengths before 45 BC Lengths as of 45 BC Ianuarius 29 31 Februarius 28 (leap years: 23 or 24) 28 (leap years: 29) Martius 31 31 Aprilis 29 30 Maius 31 31 Iunius 29 30 Quintilis (Iulius) 31 31 Sextilis (Augustus) 29 31 September 29 30 October 31 31 November 29 30 December 29 31 Intercalaris 0 (leap years: 27) (inserted between the shortened February and March) (abolished) Macrobius states that the extra days were added immediately before the last day of each month to avoid disturbing the position of the established Roman fasti (days prescribed for certain events) relative to the start of the month. However, since Roman dates after the Ides of the month counted down towards the start of the next month, the extra days had the effect of raising the initial value of the count of the day after the Ides. Romans of the time born after the Ides of a month responded differently to the effect of this change on their birthdays. Mark Antony kept his birthday on the 14th day of Ianuarius, which changed its date from a.d. XVII Kal. Feb. to a.d. XIX Kal. Feb., a date that had previously not existed. Livia kept the date of her birthday unchanged at a.d. III Kal. Feb., which moved it from the 28th to the 30th day of Ianuarius, a day that had previously not existed. Augustus kept his on the 23rd day of September, but both the old date (a.d. VIII Kal. Oct.) and the new (a.d. IX Kal. Oct.) were celebrated in some places. The old intercalary month was abolished. The new leap day was dated as ante diem bis sextum Kalendas Martias, usually abbreviated as a.d. bis VI Kal. Mart.; hence it is called in English the bissextile day. The year in which it occurred was termed annus bissextus, in English the bissextile year. There is debate about the exact position of the bissextile day in the early Julian calendar. The earliest direct evidence is a statement of the first century jurist Celsus, who states that there were two halves of a 48-hour day, and that the intercalated day was the "posterior" half. An inscription from A.D. 168 states that a.d. V Kal. Mart. was the day after the bissextile day. The 19th century chronologist Ideler argued that Celsus used the term "posterior" in a technical fashion to refer to the earlier of the two days, which requires the inscription to refer to the whole 48-hour day as the bissextile. Some later historians share this view. Others, following Mommsen, take the view that Celsus was using the ordinary Latin (and English) meaning of "posterior". A third view is that neither half of the 48-hour "bis sextum" was originally formally designated as intercalated, but that the need to do so arose as the concept of a 48-hour day became obsolete. W. Sternkopf, "Das Bissextum", (JCP 41 (1895) 718-733) available at . There is no doubt that the bissextile day eventually became the earlier of the two days. In 238 Censorinus stated that it was inserted after the Terminalia (23 February) and was followed by the last five days of February, i.e. a. d. VI, V, IV, III and prid. Kal. Mart. (which would be the 24th to 28th days of February in a common year and the 25th to the 29th days in a leap year). Hence he regarded the bissextum as the first half of the doubled day. All later writers, including Macrobius about 430, Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (calculators of Easter) followed this rule, as did the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church until 1970. During the late Middle Ages days in the month came to be numbered in consecutive day order. Consequently, the leap day was considered to be the last day in February in leap years, i.e. 29 February, which is its current position. Leap year error Although the new calendar was much simpler than the pre-Julian calendar, the pontifices apparently misunderstood the algorithm for leap years. They added a leap day every three years, instead of every four years. According to Macrobius, the error was the result of counting inclusively, so that the four-year cycle was considered as including both the first and fourth years. This resulted in too many leap days. Augustus remedied this discrepancy after 36 years by restoring the correct frequency. He also skipped several leap days in order to realign the year. The historic sequence of leap years in this period is not given explicitly by any ancient source, although the existence of the triennial leap year cycle is confirmed by an inscription that dates from 9 or 8 BC. The chronologist Joseph Scaliger established in 1583 that the Augustan reform was instituted in 8 BC, and inferred that the sequence of leap years was 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12, 9 BC, AD 8, 12 etc. This proposal is still the most widely accepted solution. It has sometimes been suggested that there was an additional bissextile day in the first year of the Julian reform, i.e. that 45 BC was also a leap year. Other solutions have been proposed from time to time. Kepler proposed in 1614 that the correct sequence of leap years was 43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10 BC, AD 8, 12 etc. In 1883 the German chronologist Matzat proposed 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11 BC, AD 4, 8, 12 etc., based on a passage in Dio Cassius that mentions a leap day in 41 BC that was said to be contrary to (Caesar's) rule. In the 1960s Radke argued the reform was actually instituted when Augustus became pontifex maximus in 12 BC, suggesting the sequence 45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12 BC, AD 4, 8, 12 etc. With all these solutions, except that of Radke, the Roman calendar was not finally aligned to the Julian calendar of later times until 25 February (a.d. V Kal. Mar.) AD 4. On Radke's solution, the two calendars were aligned on 25 February 1 BC. Chris Bennett, A.U.C. 709 = 45 B.C. (triennial leap year cycle) In 1999, an Egyptian papyrus was published that gives an ephemeris table for 24 BC with both Roman and Egyptian dates. Chris Bennett,A.U.C. 730 = 24 B.C. (Egyptian papyrus) From this it can be shown that the most likely sequence was in fact 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11, 8 BC, AD 4, 8, 12 etc, very close to that proposed by Matzat. This sequence shows that the standard Julian leap year sequence began in AD 4, the 12th year of the Augustan reform, and that the Roman calendar was finally aligned to the Julian calendar in 1 BC, as in Radke's model. The Roman year also coincided with the proleptic Julian year between 32 and 26 BC. This suggests that one aim of the realignment portion of the Augustan reform was to ensure that key dates of his career, notably the fall of Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC, were unaffected by his correction. Roman dates between 45 and 32 BC were typically a day or two before the day with the same Julian date, so 1 January in the Roman calendar of the first year of the Julian reform was 31 December 46 BC (Julian date). A curious effect of this is that Caesar's assassination on the Ides (15th day) of March fell on 14 March 44 BC in the Julian calendar. Month names Immediately after the Julian reform, the twelve months of the Roman calendar were named Ianuarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Iunius, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December, just as they were before the reform. The old intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was abolished and replaced with a single intercalary day at the same point (i.e. five days before the end of Februarius). The first month of the year continued to be Ianuarius, as it had been since 153 BC. The Romans later renamed months after Julius Caesar and Augustus, renaming Quintilis (originally, "the fifth month", with March = month 1) as Iulius (July) in 44 BC and Sextilis ("sixth month") as Augustus (August) in 8 BC. Quintilis was renamed to honour Caesar because it was the month of his birth. According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honour Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month. Other months were renamed by other emperors, but apparently none of the later changes survived their deaths. Caligula renamed September ("seventh month") as Germanicus; Nero renamed Aprilis (April) as Neroneus, Maius (May) as Claudius and Iunius (June) as Germanicus; and Domitian renamed September as Germanicus and October ("eighth month") as Domitianus. At other times, September was also renamed as Antoninus and Tacitus, and November ("ninth month") was renamed as Faustina and Romanus. Commodus was unique in renaming all twelve months after his own adopted names (January to December): Amazonius, Invictus, Felix, Pius, Lucius, Aelius, Aurelius, Commodus, Augustus, Herculeus, Romanus, and Exsuperatorius. Much more lasting than the ephemeral month names of the post-Augustan Roman emperors were the names introduced by Charlemagne. He renamed all of the months agriculturally into Old High German. They were used until the 15th century, over 700 years after his rule, and continued with some modifications until the late 18th century in Germany and in the Netherlands. The names (January to December) were: Wintarmanoth (winter month), Hornung (the month when the male red deer sheds its antlers), Lentzinmanoth (Lent month), Ostarmanoth (Easter month), Wonnemanoth (love-making month), Brachmanoth (plowing month), Heuvimanoth (hay month), Aranmanoth (harvest month), Witumanoth (wood month), Windumemanoth (vintage month), Herbistmanoth (autumn/harvest month), and Heilagmanoth (holy month). The original Roman names as fixed in 8 BC are still in use in North Africa, where Berber farmers use the Julian calendar in everyday life. They are pronounced today Yennair, Febrair, Mars, Ibril, Mai, Yuniu, Yulius, Ghusht, Shutambir, Ktuber, Nuwambir, Dujanbir, with local variations; they are also used often in classic Arabic and medieval Arabic texts when referring to the months of the solar calendar. Month lengths The Julian reform set the lengths of the months to their modern values. However, a 13th century scholar, Sacrobosco, proposed a different explanation for the lengths of Julian months which is still widely repeated but is certainly wrong. Roscoe Lamont, "The Roman calendar and its reformation by Julius Caesar", Popular Astronomy 27 (1919) 583–595. Sacrobosco's theory is discussed on pages 585–587. According to Sacrobosco, the original scheme for the months in the Julian Calendar was very regular, alternately long and short. From January through December, the month lengths according to Sacrobosco for the Roman Republican calendar were: 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29 He then thought that Julius Caesar added one day to every month except February, a total of 11 more days, giving the year 365 days. A leap day could now be added to the extra short February: 31, 29/30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30 He then said Augustus changed this to: 31, 28/29, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 so that the length of Augustus would not be shorter than (and therefore inferior to) the length of Iulius, giving us the irregular month lengths which are still in use. There is abundant evidence disproving this theory. First, a wall painting of a Roman calendar predating the Julian reform has survived, Roman Republican calendar which confirms the literary accounts that the months were already irregular before Julius Caesar reformed them: 29, 28, 31, 29, 31, 29, 31, 29, 29, 31, 29, 29 Also, the Julian reform did not change the dates of the Nones and Ides. In particular, the Ides were late (on the 15th rather than 13th) in March, May, July and October, showing that these months always had 31 days in the Roman calendar, whereas Sacrobosco's theory requires that March, May and July were originally 30 days long and that the length of October was changed from 29 to 30 days by Caesar and to 31 days by Augustus. Further, Sacrobosco's theory is explicitly contradicted by the 3rd and 5th century authors Censorinus and Macrobius, and it is inconsistent with seasonal lengths given by Varro, writing in 37 BC, before the Augustan reform, with the 31-day Sextilis given by the new Egyptian papyrus from 24 BC, and with the 28-day February shown in the Fasti Caeretani, which is dated before 12 BC. Year numbering The dominant method that the Romans used to identify a year for dating purposes was to name it after the two consuls who took office in it. Since 153 BC, they had taken office on 1 January, and Julius Caesar did not change the beginning of the year. Thus this consular year was an eponymous or named year. In addition to consular years, the Romans sometimes used the regnal year of the emperor, and by the late fourth century documents were also being dated according to the 15-year cycle of the indiction. In 537, Justinian required that henceforth the date must include the name of the emperor and his regnal year, in addition to the indiction and the consul, while also allowing the use of local eras. In 309 and 310, and from time to time thereafter, no consuls were appointed. Chronography of AD 354, see When this happened, the consular date was given a count of years since the last consul (so-called "post-consular" dating). After 541, only the reigning emperor held the consulate, typically for only one year in his reign, and so post-consular dating became the norm. Similar post-consular dates were also known in the West in the early 6th century. The system of consular dating, long obsolete, was formally abolished in the law code of Leo VI, issued in 888. Only rarely did the Romans number the year from the founding of the city (of Rome), ab urbe condita (AUC). This method was used by Roman historians to determine the number of years from one event to another, not to date a year. Different historians had several different dates for the founding. The Fasti Capitolini, an inscription containing an official list of the consuls which was published by Augustus, used an epoch of 752 BC. The epoch used by Varro, 753 BC, has been adopted by modern historians. Indeed, Renaissance editors often added it to the manuscripts that they published, giving the false impression that the Romans numbered their years. Most modern historians tacitly assume that it began on the day the consuls took office, and ancient documents such as the Fasti Capitolini which use other AUC systems do so in the same way. However, Censorinus, writing in the 3rd century AD, states that, in his time, the AUC year began with the Parilia, celebrated on 21 April, which was regarded as the actual anniversary of the foundation of Rome. Because the festivities associated with the Parilia conflicted with the solemnity of Lent, which was observed until the Saturday before Easter Sunday, the early Roman church did not celebrate Easter after 21 April. Charles W. Jones, "Development of the Latin Ecclesiastical calendar", Bedae Opera de Temporibus (1943), 1-122, p.28. While the Julian reform applied originally to the Roman calendar, many of the other calendars then used in the Roman Empire were aligned with the reformed calendar under Augustus. This led to the adoption of several local eras for the Julian calendar, such as the Era of Actium and the Spanish Era, some of which were used for a considerable time. Perhaps the best known is the Era of Martyrs, sometimes also called Anno Diocletiani (after Diocletian), which was often used by the Alexandrian Christians to number their Easters during the 4th and 5th centuries and continued to be used by the Coptic and Abyssinian churches. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the efforts of Christian chronographers such as Annianus of Alexandria to date the Biblical creation of the world led to the introduction of Anno Mundi eras based on this event. The most important of these was the Etos Kosmou, used throughout the Byzantine world from the 10th century and in Russia until 1700. In the West, Dionysius Exiguus proposed the system of Anno Domini in 525. This era gradually spread through the western Christian world, once the system was adopted by Bede. New Year's Day The Roman calendar began the year on 1 January, and this remained the start of the year after the Julian reform. However, even after local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar, they started the new year on different dates. The Alexandrian calendar in Egypt started on 29 August (30 August after an Alexandrian leap year). Several local provincial calendars were aligned to start on the birthday of Augustus, 23 September. The indiction caused the Byzantine year, which used the Julian calendar, to begin on :1 September; this date is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year. When the Julian calendar was adopted in AD 988 by Vladimir I of Kiev, the year was numbered Anno Mundi 6496, beginning on 1 March, six months after the start of the Byzantine Anno Mundi year with the same number. In 1492 (AM 7000), Ivan III, according to church tradition, realigned the start of the year to 1 September, so that AM 7000 only lasted for six months in Russia, from 1 March to 31 August 1492. История календаря в России и в СССР (Calendar history in Russia and in the USSR) During the Middle Ages 1 January retained the name New Year's Day (or an equivalent name) in all Western European countries (affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church), since the medieval calendar continued to display the months from January to December (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), just as the Romans had. However, most of those countries began their numbered year on 25 December (the Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (the Incarnation of Jesus), or even Easter, as in France (see the Liturgical year article for more details). In England, even before 1752, 1 January was sometimes treated as the start of the new year - for example by Pepys http://www.pepysdiary.com/archive/1661/12/31/index.php, Pepys Diary "I sat down to end my journell for this year, ..." - while the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year". Spathaky, Mike Old Style New Style dates and the change to the Gregorian calendar. To reduce misunderstandings on the date, it was not uncommon in parish registers for a new year heading after 24 March, for example 1661, to have another heading at the end of the following December indicating "1661/62". This was to explain to the reader that the year was 1661 Old Style and 1662 New Style. Spathaky, Mike Old Style New Style dates and the change to the Gregorian calendar. "An oblique stroke is by far the most usual indicator, but sometimes the alternative final figures of the year are written above and below a horizontal line, as in a fraction (a form which cannot easily be reproduced here in ASCII text). Very occasionally a hyphen is used, as 1733-34." Most Western European countries shifted the first day of their numbered year to 1 January while they were still using the Julian calendar, before they adopted the Gregorian calendar, many during the 16th century. The following table shows the years in which various countries adopted 1 January as the start of the year. Eastern European countries, with populations showing allegiance to the Orthodox Church, began the year on 1 September from about 988. Country Year starting1 January John J. Bond, "Commencement of the Year", Handy-book of rules and tables for verifying dates with the Christian era, (London: 1875), 91-101. Mike Spathaky Old Style and New Style Dates and the change to the Gregorian Calendar: A summary for genealogists Adoption of Gregorian calendar Republic of Venice 1522 1582 Holy Roman Empire The source has Germany, whose current area during the sixteenth century was a major part of the Holy Roman Empire, a religiously divided confederation. The source is unclear as to whether all or only parts of the country made the change. In general, Roman Catholic countries made the change a few decades before Protestant countries did. 1544 1582 Spain, Portugal 1556 1582 Prussia, Denmark/Norway 1559 1700 Sweden 1559 1753 Sweden's conversion is complicated and took much of the first half of the 18th century. See Swedish calendar. France 1564 1582Southern Netherlands 1576 Per decree of 16 June 1575. Hermann Grotefend, "Osteranfang" (Easter beginning), Zeitrechnung de Deutschen Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (Chronology of the German Middle Ages and modern times) (1891-1898) 1582 Lorraine 1579 1760 Holland, Zeeland 1583 1582 Dutch Republic except Holland and Zeeland 1583 1700 Scotland 1600 1752 Russia 1700 1918 Tuscany 1721 1750 England 1752 1752 1751 in England only lasted from 25 March to 31 December. The following dates 1 January to 24 March which would have concluded 1751 became part of 1752 when the beginning of the numbered year was changed from 25 March to 1 January. Serbia 1804 1918 From Julian to Gregorian The Julian calendar was in general use in Europe and Northern Africa from the times of the Roman Empire until 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated the Gregorian Calendar. Reform was required because too many leap days are added with respect to the astronomical seasons on the Julian scheme. On average, the astronomical solstices and the equinoxes advance by about 11 minutes per year against the Julian year. As a result, the calculated date of Easter gradually moved out of phase with the March equinox. While Hipparchus and presumably Sosigenes were aware of the discrepancy, although not of its correct value, it was evidently felt to be of little importance at the time of the Julian reform. However, it accumulated significantly over time: the Julian calendar gained a day about every 134 years. By 1582, it was ten days out of alignment from where it supposedly was in 325 during the Council of Nicaea. The Gregorian Calendar was soon adopted by most Catholic countries (e.g. Spain, Portugal, Poland, most of Italy). Protestant countries followed later, and the countries of Eastern Europe even later. In the British Empire (including the American colonies), Wednesday 2 September 1752 was followed by Thursday 14 September 1752. For 12 years from 1700 Sweden used a modified Julian Calendar, and adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753, but Russia remained on the Julian calendar until 1917, after the Russian Revolution (which is thus called the "October Revolution" though it occurred in Gregorian November), while Greece continued to use it until 1923. During this time the Julian calendar continued to diverge from the Gregorian. In 1700 the difference became 11 days; in 1800, 12; and in 1900, 13, where it will stay until 2100. Although all Eastern Orthodox countries (most of them in Eastern or Southeastern Europe) had adopted the Gregorian calendar by 1927, their national churches had not. A revised Julian calendar was proposed during a synod in Constantinople in May 1923, consisting of a solar part which was and will be identical to the Gregorian calendar until the year 2800, and a lunar part which calculated Easter astronomically at Jerusalem. All Orthodox churches refused to accept the lunar part, so almost all Orthodox churches continue to celebrate Easter according to the Julian calendar (with the exception of the Finnish Orthodox Church which is permitted to observe the Gregorian Easter). The solar part of the revised Julian calendar was accepted by only some Orthodox churches. Those that did accept it, with hope for improved dialogue and negotiations with the Western denominations, were the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, the Orthodox Churches of Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Poland, Bulgaria (the last in 1963), and the Orthodox Church in America (although some OCA parishes are permitted to use the Julian calendar). Thus these churches celebrate the Nativity on the same day that Western Christians do, 25 December Gregorian until 2800. The Orthodox Churches of Jerusalem, Russia, Montenegro, the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Georgia, Ukraine, and the Greek Old Calendarists continue to use the Julian calendar for their fixed dates, thus they celebrate the Nativity on 25 December Julian (which is 7 January Gregorian until 2100). The Russian Orthodox Church has some parishes in the West which celebrate the Nativity on 25 December. Parishes of the Orthodox Church in America Bulgarian Diocese, both before and after the 1976 transfer of that diocese from the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia to the Orthodox Church in America, were permitted to use the 25 December date. The Oriental Orthodox Churches generally use the local calendar of their homelands. However when calculating the Nativity Feast most observe the Julian Calendar. This was traditionally for the sake of unity throughout Christendom. In the West, some Oriental Orthodox Churches either use the Gregorian Calendar or are permitted to observe the Nativity according to it. The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church celebrates the Nativity as part of the Feast of Theophany according to its traditional calendar in its homeland. In Northern Africa, the Julian calendar (the Berber calendar) is still in use for agricultural purposes, and is called فلاحي fellāhī "peasant" or اﻋﺠﻤﻲ acjamī "not Arabic". The first of yennayer currently corresponds to 14 January and will do so until 2100. See also Computus Dominical letter Easter Julian day Julian year (astronomy) Mixed-style date Revised Julian calendar Week Notes External links Calendars through the ages on WebExhibits. Calendar FAQ Roman Dates The Roman Calendar Synoptical Julian-Gregorian Calendar - compare the Julian and Gregorian calendars for any date between 1582 and 2100 using this side-by-side reference. 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6,604 | Dot-com_bubble | The "dot-com bubble" (or sometimes the "I.T. bubble" http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/papers/utip_27.pdf ) was a speculative bubble covering roughly 1995–2001 (with a climax on March 10, 2000 with the NASDAQ peaking at 5132.52) during which stock markets in Western nations saw their value increase rapidly from growth in the new Internet sector and related fields. The period was marked by the founding (and, in many cases, spectacular failure) of a group of new Internet-based companies commonly referred to as dot-coms. Companies were seeing their stock prices shoot up if they simply added an "e-" prefix to their name and/or a ".com" to the end, which one author called "prefix investing". Nanotech Excitement Boosts Wrong Stock, The Market by Mike Masnick, Techdirt.com, Dec 4, 2003 A combination of rapidly increasing stock prices, individual speculation in stocks, and widely available venture capital created an exuberant environment in which many of these businesses dismissed standard business models, focusing on increasing market share at the expense of the bottom line. The growth of the bubble The venture capitalists saw record-setting rises in stock valuations of dot-com companies, and therefore moved faster and with less caution than usual, choosing to mitigate the risk by starting many contenders and letting the market decide which would succeed. The low interest rates in 1998–99 helped increase the start-up capital amounts. Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, many more of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of the dot-com concept. A canonical "dot-com" company's business model relied on harnessing network effects by operating at a sustained net loss to build market share (or mind share). These companies expected that they could build enough brand awareness to charge profitable rates for their services later. The motto "get big fast" reflected this strategy. During the loss period the companies relied on venture capital and especially initial public offerings of stock to pay their expenses. The novelty of these stocks, combined with the difficulty of valuing the companies, sent many stocks to dizzying heights and made the initial controllers of the company wildly rich on paper. Historically, the dot-com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology-inspired booms of the past including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles and radio in the 1920s, transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time-sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in the early 1980s in accordance with the Japanese economic meltdown. Soaring stocks In financial markets a stock market bubble is a self-perpetuating rise or boom in the share prices of stocks of a particular industry. The term may be used with certainty only in retrospect when share prices have since crashed. A bubble occurs when speculators note the fast increase in value and decide to buy in anticipation of further rises, rather than because the shares are undervalued. Typically many companies thus become grossly overvalued. When the bubble "bursts," the share prices fall dramatically, and many companies go out of business. The dot-com model was inherently flawed: a vast number of companies all had the same business plan of monopolizing their respective sectors through network effects, and it was clear that even if the plan was sound, there could only be at most one network-effects winner in each sector, and therefore that most companies with this business plan would fail. In fact, many sectors could not support even one company powered entirely by network effects. In spite of this, however, a few company founders made vast fortunes when their companies were bought out at an early stage in the dot-com stock market bubble. These early successes made the bubble even more buoyant. An unprecedented amount of personal investing occurred during the boom, and the press reported the phenomenon of people quitting their jobs to become full-time day traders. Free spending According to dot-com theory, an Internet company's survival depended on expanding its customer base as rapidly as possible, even if it produced large annual losses. For instance, Google and Amazon did not see any profit in their first years. Amazon was spending on expanding customer base and letting people know that it existed and Google was busy spending on creating more powerful machine capacity to serve its expanding search engine. The phrase "Get large or get lost" was the wisdom of the day. How to Start a Startup At the height of the boom, it was possible for a promising dot-com to make an initial public offering (IPO) of its stock and raise a substantial amount of money even though it had never made a profit — or, in some cases, earned any revenue whatsoever. In such a situation, a company's lifespan was measured by its burn rate: that is, the rate at which a non-profitable company lacking a viable business model ran through its capital served as the metric. Public awareness campaigns were one of the ways in which dot-coms sought to grow their customer base. These included television ads, print ads, and targeting of professional sporting events. Many dot-coms named themselves with onomatopoeic nonsense words that they hoped would be memorable and not easily confused with a competitor. Super Bowl XXXIV in January 2000 featured seventeen dot-com companies that each paid over two million dollars for a thirty-second spot. By contrast, in January 2001, just three dot-coms bought advertising spots during Super Bowl XXXV. In a similar vein, CBS-backed iWon.com gave away ten million dollars to a lucky contestant on an April 15, 2000, half-hour primetime special that was broadcast on CBS. Not surprisingly, the "growth over profits" mentality and the aura of "new economy" invincibility led some companies to engage in lavish internal spending, such as elaborate business facilities and luxury vacations for employees. Executives and employees who were paid with stock options instead of cash became instant millionaires when the company made its initial public offering; many invested their new wealth into yet more dot-coms. Cities all over the United States sought to become the "next Silicon Valley" by building network-enabled office space to attract Internet entrepreneurs. Communication providers, convinced that the future economy would require ubiquitous broadband access, went deeply into debt to improve their networks with high-speed equipment and fiber optic cables. Companies that produced network equipment, such as Cisco Systems, profited greatly from these projects. Similarly, in Europe the vast amounts of cash the mobile operators spent on 3G licences in Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom, for example, led them into deep debt. The investments were far out of proportion to both their current and projected cash flow, but this was not publicly acknowledged until as late as 2001 and 2002. Due to the highly networked nature of the IT (information-technology) industry, this quickly led to problems for small companies dependent on contracts from operators. The "Bubble Bursts" The technology-heavy NASDAQ Composite index peaked at 5,048 in March 2000, reflecting the high point of the dot-com bubble. Over 1999 and early 2000, the Federal Reserve had increased interest rates six times, and the runaway economy was beginning to lose speed. The dot-com bubble burst, numerically, on March 10, 2000, when the technology heavy NASDAQ Composite index Index Chart peaked at 5,048.62 (intra-day peak 5,132.52), more than double its value just a year before. The NASDAQ fell slightly after that, but this was attributed to correction by most market analysts; the actual reversal and subsequent bear market may have been triggered by the adverse findings of fact in the United States v. Microsoft case which was being heard in federal court. The findings, which declared Microsoft a monopoly, were widely expected in the weeks before their release on April 3. One possible cause for the collapse of the NASDAQ (and all dotcoms) were the massive, multi-billion dollar sell orders for major bellwether high tech stocks (Cisco, IBM, Dell, etc.) that happened by chance to be processed simultaneously on the Monday morning following the March 10 weekend. This selling resulted in the NASDAQ opening roughly four percentage points lower on Monday March 13 from 5,038 to 4,879—the greatest percentage 'pre-market' selloff for the entire year. The massive initial batch of sell orders processed on Monday, March 13 triggered a chain reaction of selling that fed on itself as investors, funds, and institutions liquidated positions. In just six days the NASDAQ had lost nearly nine percent, falling from roughly 5,050 on March 10 to 4,580 on March 15. Another reason may have been accelerated business spending in preparation for the Y2K switchover. Once New Year had passed without incident, businesses found themselves with all the equipment they needed for some time, and business spending quickly declined. This correlates quite closely to the peak of U.S. stock markets. The Dow Jones peaked on January 14, 2000 (closed at 11,722.98, with an intra-day peak of 11,750.28 and theoretical Theoretical Dow Jones Index peak of 11,908.50) ^DJI: Historical Prices for DOW JONES INDUSTRIAL AVERAGE IN - Yahoo! Finance and the broader S&P 500 on March 24, 2000 (closed at 1,527.46, with an intra-day peak of 1,553.11); ^GSPC: Historical Prices for S&P 500 INDEX,RTH - Yahoo! Finance while, even more dramatically the UK's FTSE 100 Index peaked at 6,950.60 on the last day of trading in 1999 (December 30). Hiring freezes, layoffs, and consolidations followed in several industries, especially in the dot-com sector. The bursting of the bubble may also have been related to the poor results of Internet retailers following the 1999 Christmas season. This was the first unequivocal and public evidence that the "Get Rich Quick" Internet strategy was flawed for most companies. These retailers' results were made public in March when annual and quarterly reports of public firms were released. By 2001 the bubble was deflating at full speed. A majority of the dot-coms ceased trading after burning through their venture capital, many having never made a net profit. Investors often jokingly referred to these failed dot-coms as either "dot-bombs" or "dot-compost" or dot-shells. Aftermath On January 11, 2000, America Online, a favorite of dot-com investors and pioneer of dial-up Internet access, acquired Time Warner, the world's largest media company. Within two years, boardroom disagreements drove out both of the CEOs who made the deal, and in October 2003 AOL Time Warner dropped "AOL" from its name, a symbol of the dominance of old industry during periods of technological growth. Several communication companies, burdened with unredeemable debts from their expansion projects, sold their assets for cash or filed for bankruptcy. WorldCom, the largest of these, was found to have used illegal accounting practices to overstate its profits by billions of dollars. The company's stock crashed when these irregularities were revealed, and within days it filed the second largest corporate bankruptcy in U.S. history. Other examples include NorthPoint Communications, Global Crossing, JDS Uniphase, XO Communications, and Covad Communications. Demand for the new high-speed infrastructure never materialized, and it became dark fiber, impacting companies such as Nortel, Cisco and Corning, whose stock plunged from a high of $113 to a low of $1. Many dot-coms ran out of capital and were acquired or liquidated; the domain names were picked up by old-economy competitors or domain name investors. Several companies and their executives were accused or convicted of fraud for misusing shareholders' money, and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission fined top investment firms like Citigroup and Merrill Lynch millions of dollars for misleading investors. Various supporting industries, such as advertising and shipping, scaled back their operations as demand for their services fell. A few large dot-com companies, such as Amazon.com and eBay, survived the turmoil and appear assured of long-term survival. The dot-com bubble crash wiped out $5 trillion in market value of technology companies from March 2000 to October 2002. Will dotcom bubble burst again? / QCTimes.com Recent research suggests, however, that as many as 50% of the dot-coms survived through 2004, reflecting two facts: the destruction of public market wealth did not necessarily correspond to firm closings, and second, that most of the dot-coms were small players who were able to weather the financial markets storm. Goldfarb, Brent D., Kirsch, David and Miller, David A., "Was There Too Little Entry During the Dot Com Era?" (April 24, 2006). Robert H. Smith School Research Paper No. RHS 06-029 Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=871210 Nevertheless, laid-off technology experts, such as computer programmers, found a glutted job market. In the U.S., International outsourcing and the recently allowed increase of skilled visa "guest workers" (e.g., those participating in the U.S. H-1B visa program) exacerbated the situation "Indian Companies Abusing U.S. H-1B, L-1 Laws: A Study Ruining American Economy & Society - Dampening Recovery. SAN FRANCISCO: Jan 23, 2004 (PNS) - According to a research by Professor Ron Hira of Rochester Institute of Technology, India companies are abusing the temporary work visas by making a heave [sic] use of H-1B and L-1. The Indian companies have come under scrutiny their abuse practices which have accelerated shift of tech work to India causing anxiety and resentment among American work force." . University degree programs for computer-related careers saw a noticeable drop in new students. Anecdotes of unemployed programmers going back to school to become accountants or lawyers were common. The Transition of the Bubbles Some believe the crash of the dot-com bubble contributed to the housing bubble in the U.S. Yale economist Robert Shiller said in 2005, “Once stocks fell, real estate became the primary outlet for the speculative frenzy that the stock market had unleashed. Where else could plungers apply their newly acquired trading talents? The materialistic display of the big house also has become a salve to bruised egos of disappointed stock investors. These days, the only thing that comes close to real estate as a national obsession is poker.” Ralph Block wrote in 2005: "Many baby boomers appear to have decided that the stock market won’t provide them with sufficient assets with which to retire, and have taken advantage of “hot” real estate markets and low (e.g., 5 percent) down payments to speculate in residential real estate. The number of homes bought for investment jumped 50 percent during the four year period ending in 2004, according to the San Francisco research firm LoanPerformance." List of companies significant to the bubble For discussion and a list of dot-com companies outside the scope of the dot-com bubble, see Dot-com company. Boo.com, spent $188 million in just six months INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS; Fashionmall.com Swoops In for the Boo.com Fire Sale - New York Times in an attempt create a global online fashion store. Went bankrupt in May 2000. Top 10 dot-com flops - CNET.com Broadcast.com was a web radio company founded as "AudioNet" in September 1995. The organization hugely capitalized on the Dot-com bubble. Broadcast.com was acquired by Yahoo! for $5.9 billion in Yahoo! stock. Yahoo completes acquisition of Broadcast.com Yahoo! split the services into separate services and discontinued its functionality. As of May, 2009, | broadcast.com simply redirects to yahoo.com. e.Digital Corporation (EDIG): Long term unprofitable OTCBB traded company founded in 1988 previously named Norris Communications. Changed its name to e.Digital in January 1999 when stock was at $0.06 level. The stock rose rapidly in 1999 and went from closing price of $2.91 on 12/31/99 to intraday high of $24.50 on 1/24/00. It quickly retraced and has traded between $0.08 and $0.20 in 2008 and 2009. Historical prices of EDIG stock eToys: share price went from the $80 reached during its IPO in May 1999 EToys: Stock Went From Hot to Shot - Brief Article | Los Angeles Business Journal | Find Articles at BNET.com to less than $1 when it declared bankruptcy in February 2001. eToys to shut down Web site March 8 - Feb. 26, 2001 Freeinternet.com - Filed for bankruptcy in October 2000, soon after cancelling its IPO. At the time Freeinternet.com was the fifth largest ISP in the United States, with 3.2 million users. Another One Bites the Dust - FreeInternet.com Files for Bankruptcy - Addlebrain.com Famous for its mascot Baby Bob, the company lost $19 million in 1999 on revenues of less than $1 million. InternetNews Realtime IT News – Freeinternet.com Scores User Surge ISP-Planet - News - Freei Files for Bankruptcy GeoCities, purchased by Yahoo! for $3.57 billion in January 1999. Expected to shut down in late 2009. http://uk.reuters.com/article/rbssTechMediaTelecomNews/idUKN233991982009042 theGlobe.com - Was a social networking service, that went live in April 1995 and made headlines by going public on November 1998 and posting the largest first day gain of any IPO in history up to that date. The CEO became in 1999 a visible symbol of the excesses of dot-com millionaires. GovWorks.com - the doomed dot-com featured in the documentary film Startup.com Hotmail - founder Sabeer Bhatia sold the company to Microsoft for $400 million; BW Online | September 14, 2000 | Hotmail's Creator Is Starting Up Again, and Again, and at that time Hotmail had 9 million members. Microsoft buys Hotmail - CNET News.com InfoSpace - In March 2000 this stock reached a price $1,305 per share, http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/art/news/business/infospace/infospaceTimelineDay1_2_intro.swf but by April 2001 its price had crashed down to $22 a share. The Learning Company, bought by Mattel in 1999 for $3.5 billion, sold for $27.3 million in 2000 Think Tools AG, one of the most extreme symptoms of the bubble in Europe: market valuation of CHF 2.5 billion in March 2000, no prospects of having a substantial product (investor deception), followed by a collapse. Don't Think Twice: Think Tools is Overvalued, The Wall Street Journal Europe, October 30, 2000 Xcelera.com, a Swedish investor in start-up technology firms. http://www.xcelera.com/investor4.html#q2 Xcelera's FAQ's See also Terminology Bankruptcy Digital Revolution E-commerce Irrational exuberance The Long Tail The South Sea Company Stock market boom Spin-off Stock market bubble Tulip mania Techno-utopianism Technology hype Web 2.0 Dark Fiber Media e-Dreams SatireWire Startup.com Venture Capital List of venture capital firms Economic Downturn Financial crisis of 2007-2009 Subprime mortgage crisis United States housing bubble Further reading Cassidy, John. Dot.con: How America Lost its Mind and Its Money in the Internet Era (2002) Daisey, Mike. 21 Dog Years Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-2580-5. Goldfarb, Brent D., Kirsch, David and Miller, David A., "Was There Too Little Entry During the Dot Com Era?" (April 24, 2006). Robert H. Smith School Research Paper No. RHS 06-029 Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=899100 Kindleberger, Charles P., Manias, Panics, and Crashes: A History of Financial Crises (Wiley, 2005, 5th edition) Kuo, David dot.bomb: My Days and Nights at an Internet Goliath ISBN 0-316-60005-9 (2001) Lowenstein, Roger. Origins of the Crash: The Great Bubble and Its Undoing. (Penguin Books, 2004) ISBN 0-14-303467-7 Wolff, Michael. Burn Rate: How I Survived the Gold Rush Years on the Internet References External links Top 10 dot-com flops - CNet's list of ten most notable failed dot-com companies Silicon Follies (ISBN 0-7434-1121-8) - Dot-com lifestyles Startup Dot Com Movie - documentary of a failing company. Warren Buffett: 'I told you so' - BBC article, 13 March 2001. 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6,605 | Montreal_Protocol | The largest Antarctic ozone hole recorded as of September 2006 For other similarly-named agreements, see Montreal Convention (disambiguation). The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987 and entered into force on January 1, 1989 followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). It is believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol". The Ozone Hole-The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Terms and purposes of this treaty The treaty The full terms are available from http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/MP_Handbook/Section_1.1_The_Montreal_Protocol/. is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been shown to play a role in ozone depletion. All of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). For a table of ozone-depleting substances see: For each group, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be phased out and eventually eliminated. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan The stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states: : ...Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment, ... Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it, with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge ... Acknowledging that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries...shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including: from 1991 to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of those substances in 1986; from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed, annually, twenty-five percent of its calculated level of consumption and production in 1986. from 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed zero. There is a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc) and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less active HCFCs started only in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved in 2030. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom) 53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and production of HCFCs. They also agreed to start reducing its consumption and production in 2015. The time of freezing and reducing HCFCs is then known as 2013/2015. The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In term of Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs ODP have less ODP, i.e. 0.01 – 0.5. Whereas in term of Global Warming Potential (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have less GWP, i.e. 76 – 2,270. There are a few exceptions for "essential uses", where no acceptable substitutes have been found (for example, in the metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and other respiratory problems Exemption Information - The Ozone Secretariat Web Site ) or Halon fire suppression systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry). The substances in Group I of Annex A are: CFCl3 (CFC-11) CF2Cl2 (CFC-12) C2F3Cl3 (CFC-113) C2F4Cl2(CFC-114) C2F5Cl (CFC-115) The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions on the current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawn from the worldwide expert communities. To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances in understanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitled Scientific assessment of ozone depletion. Several reports have been published by various governmental and non-governmental organizations to present alternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like in refrigerating, agriculture, energy production, and laboratory measurements Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf The Technical and Economic Feasibility of Replacing Methyl Bromide in Developing Countries. Friends of the Earth, Washington, 173 pp, 1996 Guidance on the DOE Facility Phaseout of Ozone-Depleting Substances. 1995. http://homer.ornl.gov/nuclearsafety/nsea/oepa/guidance/ozone/phaseout.pdf . History In 1973 Chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, then at the University of California, Irvine, began studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally (after an average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom. Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their work on this problem. The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to an in increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton. But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense". Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.) After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a hearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December, 1974. As a result significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976 the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis. NAS continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade. Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin shocked the scientific community when they published results of a study showing an ozone "hole" in the journal Nature — showing a decline in polar ozone far larger than anyone had anticipated. That same year, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances. But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (an association representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to justify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "we believe that there is no immediate crisis that demands unilateral regulation." Multilateral Fund The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol provides funds to help developing countries to phase out the use of ozone-depleting substances. The Multilateral Fund was the first financial mechanism to be created under an international treaty. It embodies the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 that countries have a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons. The Fund is managed by an executive committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to the Meeting of the Parties on its operations. Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in the form of eligible projects and activities. The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US$ 2.1 billion over the period 1991 to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel, pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices. Ratification At present, 195 of 196 United Nations member states have ratified the original Montreal Protocol (see external link below). That one that has not as of April 2009 is Timor-Leste. Fewer countries have ratified each consecutive amendment. Only 154 countries have signed the Beijing Amendment. http://ozone.unep.org/Ratification_status/ Impact Ozone-depleting gas trends Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased . Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased drastically at least partly because for many uses CFCs (e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) were substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g. by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high. In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental agreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found the ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same thickness for the previous three years. , however in 2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size. . The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery." Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006, http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/csd/assessments/2006/report.html Unfortunately, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, are now thought to contribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000 times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equally powerful as greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate of anthropogenic global warming, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that human activity will change the climate . See also Ozone depletion Kyoto Protocol Refrigerant R-134a Greenhouse Gases Vienna Conference (1985) References (referred to as Ozone Layer Protection) Benedick, Richard E. (1991). Ozone Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-65001-8 (Ambassador Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Protocol.) Litfin, Karen T. (1994). Ozone Discourses. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08137-5 http://www.multilateralfund.org/ External links The Parties involved The Montreal Protocol The Montreal Protocol Who's Who THE CFC-OZONE PUZZLE:Environmental Science in the Global Arena by F.Sherwood Rowland and Mario J.Molina The Indispensable Element in the MONTREAL OZONE PROTOCOL by Richard Benedick The evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion by P. M. Morrisette, Natural Resources Journal 29: 793–820 (1989). Has the Montreal Protocol been successful in reducing ozone-depleting gases in the atmosphere? (NOAA Aeronomy Lab) Doomsday Déjà vu: Ozone Depletion's Lessons for Global Warming by Ben Lieberman Halon and the Ozone Layer http://www.scribd.com/doc/6292142/Brief-on-Hydro-Chlorofluorocarbons | Montreal_Protocol |@lemmatized large:5 antarctic:2 ozone:51 hole:4 record:1 september:2 similarly:1 name:1 agreement:4 see:4 montreal:17 convention:2 disambiguation:1 protocol:20 substance:23 deplete:6 layer:11 international:7 treaty:7 design:1 protect:3 phase:8 production:11 number:1 believe:3 responsible:2 depletion:10 open:1 signature:1 enter:1 force:1 january:1 follow:1 first:3 meeting:4 helsinki:1 may:1 since:5 undergone:1 seven:3 revision:1 london:1 nairobi:1 copenhagen:1 bangkok:1 vienna:3 beijing:2 adhere:1 expect:3 recover:1 due:1 widespread:1 adoption:1 implementation:2 hail:1 example:3 exceptional:1 co:1 operation:2 kofi:1 annan:1 quote:2 say:2 perhaps:1 single:1 successful:3 date:2 term:4 purpose:2 full:1 available:2 http:7 unep:2 org:4 publication:1 structure:1 around:1 several:3 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6,606 | Crowded_House | Crowded House is a rock group formed in Melbourne, Australia and led by New Zealand musician and singer-songwriter Neil Finn. Finn is widely recognised as the primary songwriter and creative direction of the band, having led it through several incarnations, drawing members from New Zealand (himself, Tim Finn and Eddie Rayner), Australia (Paul Hester, Nick Seymour, Peter Jones and Craig Hooper) and the United States (Mark Hart, Mitchell Froom, and Matt Sherrod). Though the band owes its original success to the Australian live music scene, references to New Zealand people and places in songs pay homage to their roots ("Kare Kare" is written about Karekare Beach, "Mean to Me" refers to Finn's hometown of Te Awamutu). The success of the group's third album Woodface and the general success of Crowded House and Split Enz prompted the Queen in June 1993 to bestow the Order of the British Empire on both Tim and Neil Finn for their contribution to the music of New Zealand. Originally active between 1984 and 1996, the band's notable hits from this period include "Don't Dream It's Over", "Something So Strong", "Better Be Home Soon", "Now We're Getting Somewhere", "Into Temptation", "Fall at Your Feet" and "Weather with You". In 2007, the group reunited with a new drummer. In this period, the group has released one album, Time on Earth, which reached #1 on Australia's ARIA Albums Chart. History Formation and beginnings (1984–1986) The group had important connections in the Australian and New Zealand rock scenes. Neil Finn and Paul Hester were former members of the New Zealand rock band Split Enz; Neil is the younger brother of Split Enz founding member Tim Finn. Nick Seymour is the younger brother of singer-songwriter-guitarist Mark Seymour, leader of the now defunct Australian rock group Hunters & Collectors. Neil Finn and Paul Hester decided to form a new band during the Split Enz farewell tour Enz with a Bang. Nick Seymour approached Finn during the after party for the Melbourne show and asked if he could try out for this new band. The first incarnation of the band, The Mullanes, formed in Melbourne in 1985 and also included guitarist Craig Hooper, formerly of The Reels. They secured a record contract with Capitol Records and moved to Los Angeles, at which time Hooper left the band. At the label's behest, the band changed its name to "Crowded House," which alluded to the cramped quarters the three members shared at an apartment in North Sycamore Street in West Hollywood during the recording of the album. They also invited former Split Enz keyboard player Eddie Rayner to join, and he produced the track "Can't Carry On" for the debut self-titled album. He initially joined them on tour in 1988 on keyboards, but had to leave for family reasons before he could be made a full member. Crowded House was later nicknamed The Crowdies by their Australian fans. Early albums (1986–1990) The band had an already-established Australasian audience waiting to see what was next for the Split Enz alumni. In 1986, Crowded House participated in festival shows in Australia and New Zealand. They released their eponymous debut album, Crowded House, in June 1986. The group's record label, Capitol Records, did not see any immediate promise for the band, resulting in a low-profile promotion by the label, despite the Split Enz fan base continuing to draw attention to the group. Faced with this difficulty, the band played small venues to seek attention. Crowded House in San Francisco, April 1987. From L to R: Paul Hester, Neil Finn, Nick Seymour The album's first single, "Mean to Me" failed to chart in the US, but its moderate success introduced listeners to the group's music, and the song "Don't Dream It's Over" was released as the album's second single in December 1986. It became a massive international hit and remains the group's most commercially successful and most awarded hit. The video for the single was mostly autobiographical, showing the houses which the band members occupied on their way to the "crowded house" that they rented in Los Angeles during their album's production. "Don't Dream It's Over" reached #2 in the United States, and the video earned the group the MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist in 1987, the first of many Crowded House awards. The song has since been rerecorded by artists such as Paul Young (1991) and Sixpence None the Richer (2003). In 1986, the group was also awarded Best New Group at the inaugural ARIA Music Awards. In June 1987, the album finally climbed to the top of the Australian charts at #1, taking the place from Whispering Jack by John Farnham after several weeks in the position. "Something So Strong" was the third single from the album, and it peaked at #7 in the US. "World Where You Live" was issued as the fourth single reaching #65 in the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart in the late summer of 1987. The fifth and final single "Now We're Getting Somewhere" achieved moderate chart success internationally. "Don't Dream It's Over" was later used prominently in the made-for-TV movie "The Stand," based on Stephen King's The Stand. It is also now used in the advertisement for New Zealand Tourism Board in its "100% Pure New Zealand" worldwide promotion. Crowded House at the Montreux Pop Festival in Switzerland, May 1988 As primary songwriter for the group, Neil was now under pressure to create a second album that matched the success of his band's debut (the band joked that one potential title for the new release was Mediocre Follow-Up). Temple of Low Men was released to great fanfare in 1988 along with the single "Better Be Home Soon," which reached #42 in the US. Other highlights of this album were "Into Temptation" and "Sister Madly", the latter evolving into a fan favourite sing-along when played in concert. Although critics were impressed, the album was not as well received commercially as their debut. As a contrast to the debut album, the first single "Better Be Home Soon" was an acoustic song which performed moderately on the charts, though the following four singles from the album all failed to chart altogether, and through the low single impact, album sales were not as successful as the debut. The label quickly pulled promotion for the album yet again, and Crowded House performed a short tour of Australia and Canada. Supertramp member and multi-instrumentalist Mark Hart then accompanied the band from January 1989 as a tour performer, taking Eddie Rayner's place. In early 1989, following a short tour by the group to support their second album, Finn removed Seymour from the lineup. In 2007, he discussed this on Andrew Denton's Enough Rope, commenting that he had fired him because of artistic differences. After a month, Seymour initiated contact and the two agreed to have him return to the group. Following this, the group decided to take a break before re-entering the studio for their third album. The early nineties (1991–1994) After the Temple of Low Men Canadian tour, the group decided to take a break and Neil began writing some songs with his brother Tim Finn for an album they were considering to release under the name Finn. The sessions yielded enough songs for an album and both brothers were happy with the result, but Neil was also faced with the task of writing a third Crowded House album. After recording with Seymour and Hester, the record company rejected most of the songs recorded for this album, Neil asked his brother if they could use some of the Finn songs for the next album. Tim agreed on the proviso that he be made a member, though in some records, he has indicated he meant this as a joke. Neil took this literally and the group with the newly appointed member Tim Finn returned to the studio to record these songs. These recording sessions were combined with songs from the earlier sessions yielded Woodface. The album was released in July 1991 and featured seven songs written by Tim and Neil Finn together. Most of the songs written jointly featured the brothers performing harmonised vocals except the sombre "All I Ask". This song was performed solo by Tim and was later featured on AIDS awareness commercials in Australia. The other tracks were primarily Neil compositions, with the exception of the exuberant Hester-written song "Italian Plastic", a commonly performed song on live concerts. These other songs were all from the original recording sessions by the band before Tim Finn became involved. "Chocolate Cake" was released as the first single, and it sealed the fate of the band in America. The song was a humorous comment on American excesses. It was not taken well by critics or the public in the country and failed to achieve a position on the US Billboard 200 singles chart. The album's second single, "Fall at Your Feet" proved more successful in the US, but it still only reached #75. The album sold well internationally, in contrast to its American success. The immense success of this album particularly in the UK prompted the Queen in June 1993 to bestow the OBE upon Tim and Neil for their contribution to the music of New Zealand. In this same era, Princess Diana, known for her love of music, reported that Crowded House was her favourite band. Moxon, Mark. BBC - h2g2 - Neil Finn and Crowded House. Released 18 January 2002. Retrieved 15 August 2007. The band was at the pinnacle of its creative output, and the songs "Weather with You" and "Fall at Your Feet" became signature songs for the band. During the first supporting tour for Woodface, Tim Finn was asked to leave part of the way through the UK leg (which was projected as the final leg but the success of the album dictated more dates be added). Multi-instrumentalist Mark Hart was recalled to play keyboards for the remaining dates, after which he was inducted as a permanent member of the band. The final date of this first tour at the Town and Country Club in London was recorded and given a limited release in Australia, while excerpts were released as B-sides for the album's singles in other countries. Wikipedia contributors, "Four Seasons In One Day". Retrieved 15 August 2007. (In 2007, Jimmy Buffett covered "Weather with You", making it the semi-title track for his album Take the Weather with You.) For their next album, Together Alone, Crowded House recruited New Zealand based Martin Glover (known as "Youth") to produce. The sessions were recorded at Karekare Beach, New Zealand. The opening song of the album is a jam session by the band that was then named "Karekare" after the beach. The album sold well internationally upon release in October 1993 on the strength of lead single "Distant Sun" and its followup "Private Universe". The song "Locked Out" was the album's first single in the US, receiving a modest amount of exposure on MTV and VH1, partly due to its inclusion on the soundtrack for 1994 US film Reality Bites. The song was bundled with The Knack's only hit "My Sharona" as a promotional jukebox single, as both appeared on the Reality Bites soundtrack. Saying farewell (1994–1996) The band toured Europe and had begun a series of dates in the United States when drummer Paul Hester left the band, requesting more time with his family. Although they finished the tour with session drummer Peter Jones, Finn decided it was time to bring the group to an end. Following the tour, he decided to revive work on the Finn Brothers album Finn with his brother Tim. Following this, Finn set his sights on beginning a solo career. The band officially dissolved in June 1996 in a press conference held by Neil Finn. In the same press conference as announcing the dissolution of the group, Neil announced plans to release a Crowded House greatest hits album featuring four songs from each album and three songs intended for the group's cancelled fifth studio album. Crowded House playing live in Cafe De Kroon, Amsterdam, June 1996. Left: Neil Finn, right: Mark Hart This career-spanning collection of greatest hits and a few new songs was released in the same month as its announcement. When released, it went straight to #1 on the Australian and UK record charts. By this time, their success in the UK was comparable to their success in Australia with some of the singles making it to a higher chart placing. Early copies of the album came with a second CD of live material that captured a few moments of the band's distinct live presence, with varying locations from England, New Zealand, Australia, and the United States. The comedic aspect of the banter between songs and spontaneity is displayed on this offering. Though no longer being credited as a band member, founding member Paul Hester returned to the skins for the Crowded House greatest hits collection to record the album's three new songs. Released as singles, these included the funky "Instinct", the Beatlesque "Not the Girl You Think You Are" and the optimistic anthem "Everything Is Good for You", which featured backing vocals from Pearl Jam's Eddie Vedder. Later that year, the Sydney Children's Hospital required emergency funding and decided to raise the funds through a charity event. Due to the strength of sales of Recurring Dream and the band's philanthropic nature, the group decided to reunite to help in the cause. The group performed a free concert to an audience on the footsteps of the Sydney Opera House on 24 November 1996, though initially the plan was to occur the day before, however was postponed due to weather issues. All the band's members, including Hester, participated in the farewell concert. To feature elements of eras of the group's history, the group also called upon Peter Jones and Tim Finn to make guest appearances. Prior to the performance, Crowded House was supported by Custard, Powderfinger and You Am I. The concert is considered one of the biggest live performances in Australian history with varying reports of the crowd being between 120,000 and over 200,000 people. In 1996, this was released on VHS, but wasn't initially released in audio format on cassette or CD. This was rectified in 2007 with both a double CD and a DVD of the concert made available. Following farewell and before reunion (1996–2006) Following the initial breakup of Crowded House in 1996, the members embarked upon various different projects in an array of mediums. Neil Finn initiated a successful solo career, releasing two albums and a soundtrack. Having left the group in 1992, Tim Finn resumed his solo career, though he appeared with them sporadically throughout the Woodface tour as a support act. He has released four solo albums since leaving the band. Together, Neil and Tim Finn recorded two albums as the Finn Brothers, Finn in 1995, just prior to Crowded House's initial breakup, and Everyone Is Here in 2004, which proved more successful than the first. Peter Jones and Nick Seymour joined Australian group Deadstar for their second album. Nick left after the release of their third album to move to Ireland, while Peter played with the band until their end in 1999 and then moved on to become a school teacher. Nick Seymour then worked as a record producer in Dublin. Most notably, he produced Neither Am I, the debut by Irish group Bell X1. He has also worked with Gemma Hayes and Juno Falls. Seymour also became a contributor to The Cake Sale collective, which brought him together with artists and musicians from Bell X1, The Frames, Damien Rice and Snow Patrol. Having played with the group prior to joining Crowded House in late 1992, Mark Hart rejoined Supertramp in the late 1990s. He has since toured as a part of Ringo Starr's All Starr band. In 2001, Hart released a solo album entitled Nada Sonata on the PSB Records label. PSB Records. Nada Sonata - Mark Hart. Retrieved 15 August 2007. Initially after leaving the group in 1994, Paul Hester reunited with his friend Anthony Field who had formed a successful children's entertainment group The Wiggles with former members of rock group The Cockroaches. Field requested Hester to participate in some performances with The Wiggles, and so he was made "Paul the Chef" for a handful of performances. Amazon. Amazon.com: The Wiggles - Wiggly Safari. Retrieved 15 August 2007. Following Farewell to the World, Hester became a television and radio personality in Australia with his own ABC show "Hessie's Shed", and a stint on the short lived Mick Molloy Show. He also worked as a session drummer and formed his own band Largest Living Things, a name he'd had in reserve since 1985 when Capitol Records refused to allow a band that name. Bernard Zuel, Nassim Khadem, Patrick Donovan and James Button. Farewell to the clown prince - music - www.smh.com.au. Retrieved 15 August 2007. In 1999, the group decided to release a collection of (formerly) rare and unreleased recordings, which was entitled Afterglow. It featured the promotional and radio single release "Anyone Can Tell" and live favourite "Recurring Dream" that had previously only been available on the soundtracks of the movies Tequila Sunrise and Rikky And Pete as well as single B-sides. In the same vein of the Recurring Dream album, there was a short history published in the album's sleeve detailing information about the collection of songs and their history. Some limited release versions of the album included a second CD of spoken-word commentary about the songs from Finn. The liner notes in this CD included a confirmation that Crowded House were, at this point, not going to reunite. In 2001, Neil Finn collaborated with several international acts, such as two members of Radiohead, session bassist Sebastian Steinberg, Pearl Jam's Eddie Vedder (who previously appeared on "Everything Is Good for You" on Recurring Dream), Lisa Germano and first collaborated with Johnny Marr, previously of The Smiths, with whom Finn later wrote the song "Even a Child". He also invited brother Tim Finn and his son Liam Finn's band Betchadupa to all join in for a New Zealand based live collaboration given the name 7 Worlds Collide, a line from the Together Alone song "Distant Sun". The live concerts sold out and were released as a double CD or DVD in November 2001. The concerts featured several songs from Crowded House, Split Enz, Tim Finn and Neil Finn's respective solo careers, Finn Brothers, Betchadupa and some pieces written specifically for the performances. Hester and Seymour reunited to play and record for Melbourne group Tarmac Adam in 2003. Tarmac Adam. tarmac adam. Retrieved 15 August 2007. In late 2003, Hester was called upon by Australian channel Music Max to host their successful Music Max's Sessions series. After a long battle with depression, Hester took his own life on 26 March 2005 at the age of 46, hanging himself from a tree in a park near his home. In November 2006, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the farewell concert, a double CD album and a double DVD set was released. The DVD featured a newly recorded audio commentary with Finn, Seymour and Hart, all of the previously released special features (with the exception of the t-shirt released with the video in 1996) and a new documentary featuring the concert's participants and promoters. Reunion (2006–Current) After Hester's death and with the ensuing ten year anniversary of Farewell to the World, Neil Finn, Nick Seymour and Mark Hart had all reconnected with one another as a group for the first time since Farewell to the World in 1996. Through this reconnection, Finn asked Seymour to play bass for his upcoming, third solo album. Seymour agreed and the two joined with producer and drummer Ethan Johns to begin recording Finn's third album. However, through the recording process, the two finally decided it would be better fit as a Crowded House album than a Neil Finn solo venture and so called upon Hart to return to guitar and piano. In January 2007, the group made the public announcement that they would officially reform and had recalled Mark Hart to return and would begin auditioning drummers. After twenty days of auditions, the group announced that they had decided to have former Beck drummer Matt Sherrod to join as the group's drummer on 23 February 2007. The four band members then recorded four new songs for the album, including the album's lead single "Don't Stop Now", with producer Steve Lillywhite. On 17 March, the band played a live gig from their rehearsal studio to about fifty fans, and broadcast the concert live online. The two and a half hour set included numerous Crowded House staples, along with a handful of new tracks, including one co-written by Natalie Maines and the members of the Dixie Chicks and Finn, "Silent House." This was followed by a "warm-up" concert at the Thekla, a moored ship in Bristol on 19 March 2007. Crowded House played at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio, California on 29 April 2007, performing classic songs along with songs from the new album. On 7 July 2007, they performed songs in front of thousands at Live Earth in Sydney, Australia. On 8 July 2007, Neil Finn and Nick Seymour appeared on "Rove Live" and the band (including new drummer Matt Sherrod) performed "Don't Stop Now" to promote the release of their new album. Prior to the album's release, the lead single "Don't Stop Now" was released in Australia on 16 June 2007 and in the United Kingdom on 25 June 2007. The album release shortly followed with it being released on 30 June 2007 in Australia, 2 July 2007 in the United Kingdom and 10 July 2007 in the United States. Neil Finn announced on the commentary track of the Farewell to the World DVD in 2006 that a box set of rarities would be released the next year. He specifically mentions that his demo version of "Don't Dream It's Over" will be on it. This was mentioned when he and Seymour were on Enough Rope with Andrew Denton in July 2007. Finn indicated that the release will be postponed to about 2008 or 2009 as the group is likely to re-enter the studio to record a new studio album with the new lineup before the box set is released. Denton, Andrew. Refer to Enough Rope. Airdate 16 July 2007 on ABC, Australia. Interview transcript: ENOUGH ROPE with Andrew Denton - Episode 139. Retrieved 15 August 2007. On 19 July 2007 Crowded House performed at the Masonic Hall Grand Lodge of New York; the show was filmed as part of the series Live from the Artists Den. Crowded House have started work on the follow-up album to "Time on Earth" at Roundhead Studios in New Zealand. On 21 June 2008 Crowded House played to an audience of 5000 at Westonbirt Arboretum in Gloucestershire, as part of the Forestry Commission's Forest Tour. A week later, the band performed on the main 'Pyramid' stage at the 2008 Glastonbury Festival. A massive crowd sang along to a string of classic Crowded House hits including an already legendary Weather with You (weather being a Glastonbury obsession) and Neil and the band were one of the big successes at the festival. CROWDED HOUSE TO PLAY GLASTONBURY On 6 December 2008 Crowded House played the Homebake Festival in Sydney. Prior to this were four "warm up gigs" held in Hobart, Melbourne and Sydney, to relatively small crowds in intimate venues. Finn's younger son, Elroy, played backup guitar at these events, while Don McGlashan played a wide variety of instruments. On 14 March 2009 Crowded House made a special appearance at the Sound Relief concert in Melbourne, Australia they played 3 of their songs with Liam Finn. Style Song writing and musical influences As the central songwriter for the band, Neil Finn's music has always been the driving force for the band's song catalogue. Finn has often cited artists such as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and folk rock artists such as John Denver and Joan Baez. Finn has said that his mother has always been a huge musical influence to him, encouraging him from a young age to listen to a variety of different musical styles, including Irish folk singers and Maori music. Maori influences can be heard particularly in Together Alone and also in the Finn Brothers release Finn. Finn often writes lyrics in sonnet form with rhymes, similes and metaphors combined with literal descriptions. Some songs he has written have random lines, notably "Pineapple Head" from Together Alone, based on lines murmured by his younger son Elroy when he was sick and delirious with a fever as a young child. The story is often told as though it was Finn's elder son Liam who was sick, but in fact it was Elroy. Album covers, costumes and set design Crowded House was a follow-on group from Split Enz, a group who were known for their flair, style and set design. Crowded House adopted this concept in part, especially in the group's earlier days. Noel Crombie, Split Enz's costume and set designer, was not a member of Crowded House, so Nick Seymour, a professional artist and art school graduate, was the obvious choice to fill this role. Seymour designed or co-designed all of the album covers and co-created and designed all interior layouts. He also designed many costumes worn by the group, notably those from the cover of the group's debut album Crowded House. Seymour also collaborated with Neil Finn and Paul Hester to design the sets for many of the groups early music videos, such as "Don't Dream It's Over" and "Better Be Home Soon". Since reuniting, Seymour has continued to maintain the visual artistic direction, again designing the album cover and designing the cover for its lead single "Don't Stop Now". His design was carried over to the music video. Though all the album covers were by Seymour, the majority of the single covers were not. Some simply featured photographs of the band, such as "It's Only Natural" which featured a photo of the band lineup of the time with the typeset of "Crowded House" as used on the song's album Woodface. The artwork for "Pineapple Head" was created by Mental As Anything member Chris O'Doherty (commonly known as Reg Mombassa, creator of Mambo Graphics). At times during Crowded House's initial era, Mombassa and Crombie assisted Seymour creating artwork and costumes. Most notably, the set design from Farewell to the World was solely designed by Crombie, while Mombassa and Seymour designed all promotional materials and artwork. Crowded House, Farewell to the World End Credits. Released December 1996. Retrieved 4 August 2007. Band members Current members Neil Finn Nick Seymour Mark Hart Matt Sherrod Finn in 1996 Seymour in 1989 Sherrod in 2006 1985-1996 1985-1996 1989, 1992-1996 2007-Current 2007-Current 2007-Current 2007-CurrentBandleader Key songwriter Vocals Guitars PianoBass guitars Backing vocalsGuitars Lap steel Keyboards Backing vocalsDrums Percussion Backing vocals Additional musicians Liam Finn Davey Lane Elroy Finn Don McGlashan Finn in 2007 Don McGlashan at the Kings Arms Tavern in 2007 2007-Current 2007 2008-Current 2008-Current Guitars Piano Backing vocalsGuitars Piano Backing vocalsGuitars Backing vocalsGuitars Piano Euphonium Backing vocals Past members Paul Hester Tim Finn Craig Hooper Former additional musicians Hester in 1987 Finn in 2007 Eddie Rayner - 1986-1989 Keyboards and co-songwriter Peter Jones - 1994-1996 Drums, percussion and backing vocals Jules Bowen - 1993-1996 Keyboards and road crew 1985–1994 1990–1991 "The Mullanes era" 1996 1985Drums Backing vocals VocalsVocals Keyboards GuitarsGuitarist Discography Albums Crowded House (1986) Temple of Low Men (1988) Woodface (1991) Together Alone (1993) Recurring Dream (1996) Afterglow (2000) Farewell to the World (2006) Time on Earth (2007) International Top 20 Singles "Don't Dream It's Over" "Something So Strong" "Better Be Home Soon" "Chocolate Cake" "Fall at Your Feet" "Weather with You" "It's Only Natural" "Distant Sun" "Locked Out" "Everything Is Good for You" "Instinct" "Not the Girl You Think You Are" "Don't Stop Now" Awards Crowded House has won several awards internationally. In Australia, the group has won eleven ARIA Awards from 26 nominations, including being the first ever winner of the Best New Talent award in 1987, the ceremony's first year. Notably, the majority of the awards were won in the band's earlier years from their first two albums, Crowded House and Temple of Low Men. The group has also been nominated for eleven APRA Awards, including the New Zealand Silver Scroll for "Don't Stop Now" in 2007, and the group has won eight of the eleven with "Don't Dream It's Over" being named the seventh best Australian song of all time in 2001. APRA Music Awards - Top Ten. Retrieved 7 August 2007. In 1987, Crowded House won the American MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist for their song "Don't Dream It's Over", which was also nominated for three other awards. MTV, MTV Award 1987. Retrieved 8 August 2007. Personnel Neil Finn - vocals, guitar, keyboards (03/1985 - ?) Paul Hester - drums, vocals, keyboards (03/1985 - 14/04/1994 & 03/1996-12/1996) Nick Seymour - bass, vocals (03/1985 - ?) Craig Hooper - guitar, keyboards (03/1985 - 11 / 1985) Tim Finn - vocals, piano, guitar (24/11/1990 - 29/10/1991) Mark Hart - keyboards, guitar, vocals (12/1992 - ?) Matt Sherrod - Drums, vocals (02/2007 - ?) See also References Twomey, Chris and Doole, Kerry, Crowded House: Private Universe, Omnibus Pr, 1998, ISBN 0-7119-4816-X Dix, John, Stranded in Paradise: New Zealand Rock and Roll, 1955 to the Modern Era, Penguin Books, 2005, ISBN 0-14-301953-8 External links Official home page Official MySpace Official Fanclub Website | Crowded_House |@lemmatized crowd:45 house:49 rock:7 group:49 form:6 melbourne:6 australia:16 lead:6 new:36 zealand:17 musician:4 singer:3 songwriter:7 neil:31 finn:67 widely:1 recognise:1 primary:2 creative:2 direction:2 band:47 several:5 incarnation:2 draw:2 member:23 tim:19 eddie:6 rayner:4 paul:12 hester:20 nick:12 seymour:28 peter:6 jones:5 craig:4 hooper:5 united:7 state:5 mark:12 hart:13 mitchell:1 froom:1 matt:5 sherrod:6 though:8 owe:1 original:2 success:12 australian:10 live:16 music:17 scene:2 reference:2 people:2 place:4 song:43 pay:1 homage:1 root:1 kare:2 write:11 karekare:3 beach:3 mean:3 refers:1 hometown:1 te:1 awamutu:1 third:7 album:71 woodface:6 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6,607 | Liberation_Tigers_of_Tamil_Eelam | The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (, ISO 15919: tamiḻ iiḻa viṭutalaip pulikaḷ; commonly known as the LTTE or the Tamil Tigers) is a militant organization based in northern Sri Lanka. Founded in May 1976, it waged a violent secessionist campaign that sought to create an independent Tamil state in the north and east of Sri Lanka. This campaign had evolved into the Sri Lankan Civil War, one of the longest running armed conflicts in Asia, until the LTTE was militarily defeated by the Sri Lanka Army in May 2009. http://www.reuters.com/article/featuredCrisis/idUSCOL391456 http://www.voanews.com/english/2009-05-17-voa11.cfm Since its inception, and until his death, the LTTE was headed by its founder, Velupillai Prabhakaran. The Tamil Tigers are currently proscribed as a terrorist organization by 32 countries (see list of countries). The Tamil Tigers claimed to be fighting to protect the country's Tamil minority from discrimination at the hands of the successive Sinhalese majority governments that have ruled the country since independence. They have extensive support amongst the Tamil diaspora and Tamils in Tamil Nadu, India. Majority in Tamil Nadu favours backing LTTE: Poll. Tamil sympathy for LTTE will keep the movement alive: Analysts. The Tigers, who during the height of their power possessed a well-developed militia cadre, are notorious for having committed atrocities against civilians, including abductions and targeted attacks, for carrying out various high profile attacks, including the assassinations of several high-ranking Sri Lankan and Indian politicians like Rajiv Gandhi, and for recruiting child soldiers. The LTTE invented the suicide belt and pioneered the use of suicide bombing as a tactic. They also pioneered the use of women in suicide attacks, and have also used aircraft in some attacks. Over the course of the conflict, the Tamil Tigers frequently exchanged control of territory in north-east Sri Lanka with the Sri Lankan military, engaging in fierce confrontations in the process. They were also involved in peace talks to end the conflict four times, each time unsuccessfully, and at the start of the last round of peace talks in 2002, they had a large area under their control. However, after the breakdown of the peace process in 2006, the Sri Lankan military launched a major offensive against the Tamil Tigers, bringing a vast area under their control and limiting the Tigers to a 1.5 km2 area in the Mullaithivu District. This area had previously been designated as a civilian safety zone in which fighters were not supposed to be. http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2009/05/17/sec04.asp As a result of this offensive, the Sri Lankan government defeated the LTTE militarily. Amid growing calls for the LTTE to surrender, Sri Lanka Tigers urged to end war, BBC News. President Mahinda Rajapaksa declared military victory over the Tigers on May 16, 2009 after 26 years of conflict Sri Lanka army 'defeats rebels', BBC, 2009-05-16 and the rebel leader Prabhakaran was reported to have been killed by government forces. The LTTE finally admitted defeat on May 17, 2009, with the rebels' chief of international relations, Selvarasa Pathmanathan, stating on the website that "This battle has reached its bitter end ... We have decided to silence our guns. Our only regrets are for the lives lost and that we could not hold out for longer". On May 24, 2009 the LTTE admitted that its leader Prabhakaran was dead and declared a week of mourning starting the next day. Tamil Tigers admit leader is dead, BBC, 2009-05-24 History Founding The LTTE was founded on May 5, 1976 by Velupillai Prabhakaran, as a successor to the Tamil New Tigers, a militant group most notable for the assassination of the Mayor of Jaffna, Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975. Prabhakaran sought to "refashion the old TNT/new LTTE into an elite, ruthlessly efficient, and highly professional fighting force", which, as terrorism expert Rohan Gunaratna notes, he did by "keeping [his] numbers small, maintaining a high standard of training, [and] enforcing discipline at all levels". Gunaratna, Rohan, "The Rebellion in Sri Lanka: Sparrow Tactics to Guerrilla Warfare (1971–1996)," p. 13. The LTTE attracted many supporters among disenchanted Tamil youth. They carried out low-key attacks against various government targets, including policemen and local politicians. The LTTE carried out their first major attack on July 23, 1983 when they ambushed a Sri Lanka Army troop transport outside Jaffna. 13 Sri Lankan soldiers were killed in the attack, leading to the Black July riots against the Tamil community of Sri Lanka. The subsequent anger amongst the Tamil community resulted in numerous Tamil youths joining Tamil militant groups to fight the Sri Lankan government, in what is considered start of the insurgency in Sri Lanka. Rise to power Initially, LTTE operated in cooperation with other Tamil militant groups which shared their objectives, and in April 1984, the LTTE formally joined a common militant front, the Eelam National Liberation Front (ENLF), a union between LTTE, the Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization (TELO), the Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students (EROS), the People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) and the Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF). TELO usually held the Indian view of problems and pushed for India's view during peace talks with Sri Lanka and other groups. LTTE denounced the TELO view and claimed that India was only acting on its own interest. As a result in 1986, the LTTE broke from the ENLF. Soon fighting broke out between the TELO and the LTTE and clashes occurred over the next few months. As a result almost the entire TELO leadership and many of the TELO militants were killed by the LTTE. The LTTE attacked training camps of the EPRLF a few months later, forcing it to withdraw entirely from the Jaffna peninsula. The LTTE then demanded that all remaining Tamil insurgents join the LTTE. Notices were issued to that effect in Jaffna and in Madras, India where the Tamil groups were headquartered. With the major groups including the TELO and EPRLF eliminated, the remaining Tamil insurgent groups, numbering around 20, were then absorbed into the LTTE, making Jaffna an LTTE-dominated city. LTTE's practice such as wearing a cyanide vial for consumption if captured appealed to the Tamil people as dedication and sacrifice. Another practice that increased support by Tamil people was LTTE's practice of taking an oath of loyalty which stated LTTE’s goal of establishing a state for the Sri Lankan Tamils. In 1987, LTTE established the Black Tigers, a unit of LTTE responsible for conducting suicide attacks against political, economic and military targets, and launched its first suicide attack against a Sri Lanka Army camp, killing 40 soldiers. IPKF period In 1987, faced with growing anger among its own Tamils, and a flood of refugees, India intervened directly in the conflict for the first time by initially airdropping food parcels into Jaffna. After subsequent negotiations, India and Sri Lanka entered into the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord. Though the conflict was between the Tamil and Sinahlese people, India and Sri Lanka signed the peace accord instead of India influencing both parties to sign a peace accord among themselves. The peace accord assigned a certain degree of regional autonomy in the Tamil areas with Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF) controlling the regional council and called for the Tamil militant groups to lay down their arms. India was to send a peacekeeping force, named the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), part of the Indian Army, to Sri Lanka to enforce the disarmament and to watch over the regional council. The Peace Accord and the Tamils in Sri Lanka. Hennayake S.K. Asian Survey, Vol. 29, No. 4. (April 1989), pp. 401–15. Although the accord was signed between the governments of Sri Lanka and India, and the Tamil militant groups did not have a role in the agreement, most Tamil militant groups accepted it. But the LTTE rejected the accord because they opposed the candidate, who belonged to the EPRLF, for chief administrative officer of the merged Northern and Eastern provinces. Instead, the LTTE named three other candidates for the position, which India rejected. The LTTE subsequently refused to hand over their weapons to the IPKF. Thus LTTE found itself engaged in military conflict with the Indian Army, and launched its first attack on an Indian army rations truck on October 8, killing five Indian para-commandos who were on board by strapping burning tires around their necks. The government of India decided that the IPKF should disarm the LTTE by force, and the Indian Army launched number of assaults on the LTTE, including a month-long campaign dubbed Operation Pawan to win control of the Jaffna peninsula from the LTTE. The ruthlessness of this campaign, and the Indian army's subsequent anti-LTTE operations made it extremely unpopular among many Tamils in Sri Lanka. After IPKF The Indian intervention was also unpopular among the Sinhalese majority, and the IPKF became bogged down in the fighting with the Tamil Tigers for over 2 years, experiencing heavy losses. The last members of the IPKF, which was estimated to have had a strength of well over 50,000 at its peak, left the country in 1990 upon request of the Sri Lankan government. A shaky peace initially held between the government and the LTTE, and peace talks progressed towards providing devolution for Tamils in the north and east of the country. Fighting continued throughout the 1990s, and was marked by two key assassinations carried out by the LTTE, that of former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1991, and Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa in 1993, using suicide bombers in both occasions. The fighting briefly halted in 1994 following the election of Chandrika Kumaratunga as President of Sri Lanka and the onset of peace talks, but fighting resumed after LTTE sunk two Sri Lanka Navy boats in April 1995. In a series of military operations that followed, the Sri Lanka Army re-captured the Jaffna peninsula, the heartland of Tamils in Sri Lanka. Further offensives followed over the next three years, and the military captured vast areas in the north of the country from the LTTE, including area in the Vanni region, the town of Kilinochchi and many smaller towns. However, from 1998 onward the LTTE hit back, regaining control of these areas. This culminated in the capture of the strategically important Elephant Pass base complex, located at the entrance of the Jaffna Peninsula, in April 2000, after prolonged fighting against the Sri Lanka Army. Mahattaya, a one-time deputy leader of LTTE, was accused of treason by the LTTE and killed in 1994. AI 1996 Annual Report - Sri Lanka entry. He is said to have collaborated with the Indian Research and Analysis Wing to remove Prabhakaran from the LTTE leadership. The Pirabhakaran Phenomenon Part 22 2001 ceasefire An LTTE bicycle infantry platoon north of Killinochchi in 2004 In 2001, the LTTE dropped its demand for a separate state. Instead, it stated that a form of regional autonomy would meet its demands. Following the landslide election defeat of Kumaratunga and the coming to power of Ranil Wickramasinghe in December 2001, the LTTE declared a unilateral ceasefire. The Sri Lankan Government agreed to the ceasefire. In March 2002, both sides signed an official Ceasefire Agreement (CFA). As part of the agreement, Norway and the other Nordic countries agreed to jointly monitor the ceasefire through the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission. Sri Lanka: New Killings Threaten Ceasefire, Human Rights Watch, July 28, 2004. Six rounds of peace talks between the Government of Sri Lanka and LTTE were held, but they were temporarily suspended after the LTTE pulled out of the talks in 2003 claiming "certain critical issues relating to the ongoing peace process". In 2003, the LTTE proposed an Interim Self Governing Authority (ISGA). This move was welcomed by the international community, but rejected by the Sri Lankan President. In December 2005, the LTTE boycotted the 2005 presidential election. While LTTE claimed that the people under its control were free to vote, it is alleged that they used threats to prevent the population from voting. The United States condemned this act. The new government of Sri Lanka came into power in 2006 and demanded to abrogate the ceasefire agreement, staying that the only possible solution to the ethnic conflict was military solution, and that the only way to achieve this is by eliminating the Liberation Tigers of Tamila. R. Cheran (April 2009) 9,2009/UN+calls+for+ceasefire+fire+in+Sri+Lanka UN calls for ceasefire fire in Sri Lanka at The Real News Further peace talks were scheduled in Oslo, Norway, on June 8 and 9, 2006, but canceled when the LTTE refused to meet directly with the government delegation, stating its fighters were not being allowed safe passage to travel to the talks. Norwegian mediator Erik Solheim told journalists that the LTTE should take direct responsibility for the collapse of the talks. Rifts grew between the government and LTTE, and resulted in a number of ceasefire agreement violations by both sides during 2006. Suicide attacks, military skirmishes and air raids took place during the latter part of 2006. Military confrontation continued into 2007 and 2008. On January 2008, the government officially pulled out of the Cease Fire Agreement. Dissension In the biggest show of dissent from within the organization, a senior LTTE commander named Colonel Karuna (nom de guerre of Vinayagamoorthi Muralitharan) broke away from the LTTE in March 2004 and formed the TamilEela Makkal Viduthalai Pulikal amid allegations that the northern commanders were overlooking the needs of the eastern Tamils. The LTTE leadership accused him of mishandling of funds and questioned him about his recent personal behavior. He tried to take control of the eastern province from the LTTE, which caused clashes between the LTTE and TEMVP. The LTTE has suggested that TEMVP was backed by the government, and the Nordic SLMM monitors have corroborated this. Military Defeat On January 2, 2009, the President of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapaksa, announced that the Sri Lankan troops had captured Kilinochchi, the city which the LTTE had used for over a decade as its de facto administrative capital. It was stated that the loss of Killinochchi had caused a substantial dent in the LTTE's image. It was also stated that after the fall of Kilinochchi the LTTE was likely to collapse soon under unbearable military pressure on multiple fronts. As of January 8, 2009, the LTTE was abandoning its positions on the Jaffna peninsula to make a last stand in the jungles of Mullaitivu, their last main base. The entire Jaffna peninsula was captured by the Sri Lanka Army by January 14. On January 25, 2009 SLA troops "completely captured" Mullaitivu town, the last major LTTE stronghold. As a result of the offensive, there is increasing belief that the final military defeat of the LTTE is near, although the LTTE may launch an underground guerrilla campaign if it is defeated as a conventional force. Top LTTE leader Cheliyan, the second-in-command of the Sea Tigers, was killed in Kariyamullivaikkal on May 8, 2009 dealing another blow to the organization. op LTTE leader killed in Lanka fighting, The Times of India, 2009-05-10 The Sri Lanka Government accused the LTTE of causing a human disaster by trapping civilians in the shrinking area under their control. Anticipating an end to Sri Lanka's war, BBC 2009-04-25 With LTTE on brink of defeat the fate of the leader of LTTE Velupillai Prabhakaran remained uncertain. With LTTE on the brink of defeat, fate of its chief remains a mystery, Mint (newspaper), 2009-02-04 On May 12, 2009 BBC reported that LTTE was now clinging on to only about 840 acres of land near town of Mullaitivu which is roughly the same area as Central Park of New York. S Lanka war grinds on despite protests , BBC, 2009-05-12 U.N secretary General Ban Ki Moon appealed on LTTE that children should not be held hostage , recruited as child soldiers or put in harms way. SRI LANKA: CHILDREN SHOULD NOT BE HELD HOSTAGE, RECRUITED AS SOLDIERS AND PUT IN HARM'S WAY, United Nations, 2009-05-12 Claude Heller of United Nations Security Council said 'We demand that the LTTE immediately lay down arms, renounce terrorism, allow a UN-assisted evacuation of the remaining civilians in the conflict area, and join the political process.' The council president, speaking on behalf of the 15 members, also said they 'strongly condemned the LTTE, a terrorist organisation, for the use of civilians as human shields and for not allowing them to leave the area'. Tamil Tigers must surrender, says UN Security Council, Herald Sun, 2009-04-23 On May 13, 2009 the UN security council condemned the rebel LTTE again and denounced its use of civilians as human shields and urged them to acknowledge the legitimate right of the government of Sri Lanka to combat terrorism by laying down their arms and allowing the tens of thousands of civilians to leave the conflict zone. UN Security Council voices "grave concerns" at humanitarian situation in northeastern Sri Lanka, Xinhua News Agency, 2009-05-13 On May 14, 2009 The United Nations acting representative for Sri Lanka, Amin Awad, said that 6,000 civilians had fled or were trying to flee, but that LTTE was firing on them to prevent them from escaping. Trapped Civilians Now Able to Flee, Sri Lanka Says, The New York Times, 2009-05-14 President Mahinda Rajapaksa declared military victory over the Tamil Tigers on May 16, 2009 after 26 years of conflict. Sri Lanka army 'defeats rebels', BBC, 2009-05-16 On the same day for the first time in their long struggle against the Sri Lankan government, the rebels were offering to lay down their weapons in return for a guarantee of safety. Fears of mass suicide as Tamil Tigers face final defeat, The Times, 2009-05-17 Sri Lanka's disaster relief and human-rights minister Mahinda Samarasinghe stated 'The military phase is over. The LTTE has been militarily defeated. Now the biggest hostage rescue operation in the world has come to a conclusion, The figure I have here is since 20th of April, 179,000 hostages have been rescued.' Sri Lanka Rebels Concede Defeat, Voice of America, 2009-05-17 On May 17, 2009, rebel official Selvarasa Pathmanathan conceded defeat saying in an email statement "This battle has reached its bitter end". Several rebel fighters committed suicide when they became surrounded. http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/as_sri_lanka_civil_war On May 18 it was confirmed that the rebel leader Velupillai Prabhakaran had been killed along with several other high ranking Tamil officials. State run television interrupted its regular programing and a government information department sent a text message to cell phones across the country with the news. Mass celebrations erupted across Sri Lanka to the announcement as the death of Prabhakaran is key to preventing a new guerrilla offensive. From government reports it seems Prabhakaran was riding in an armor-plated van with several top deputies and rebel fighters headed directly towards the advancing Sri Lankan forces. After a two-hour firefight the van was hit by a rocket killing most if not all of the occupants and ending the battle. Troops removed and have identified the bodies of Prabhakaran as well as Colonel Soosai (head of the Sea Tigers), and Pottu Amman (the intelligence commander). http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090518/ap_on_re_as/as_sri_lanka_civil_war Organisation and activities Structure The LTTE is organized into three main divisions: a military wing, a political wing and a fund raising wing. A central governing body oversees all of the divisions, which was headed by the LTTE leader, Velupillai Prabhakaran until his death in May 2009. Military Tamil Tigers in a truck in Killinochchi in April 2004 In the LTTE, recruits are instructed to be prepared to die for the cause, and are issued with a cyanide capsule to be swallowed in the case of capture. The LTTE also has a special squad of suicide bombers, called the Black Tigers, which it deploys for critical missions. The military wing includes the following specific subdivisions, which are directly controlled and directed by the central governing body: Sea Tigers - an amphibious warfare unit focusing on utilization of naval firepower and logistics, mainly consisting of lightweight boats. Air Tigers - an airborne group, consisting of several lightweight aircraft. It is known to be the world's first air force controlled by an organization proscribed as terrorists. Black Tigers - a suicide commando unit. An intelligence wing. A political wing. Sea Tigers The Sea Tigers is the naval force of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and is lead by Colonel Soosai. . It is believed to have about 2,000 personnel and has become a potent threat to the Sri Lankan Navy at Sea. According to a 2006 publication of the Woodrow Wilson School of Politics and International Studies, the Sea Tigers has destroyed 35%-50% of the Sri Lankan Navy's coastal craft. Following its northern offensive, the Sri Lankan military reported that it captured Sea Tiger main base in Mullaitivu and several boat yards. In early February 2009, the military reported once again that it captured the last major Sea Tiger base, killing three senior commanders in the process and thus limiting Sea Tiger operations. Several days later it was claimed that Sea Tigers leader Soosai and several top aids were killed in a Sri Lanka Air Force raid on a command center. Air Tigers The Air Tigers is the air force of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. The Air Tigers is believed to operate five light aircraft. The organization was revealed in 2007 when it conducted its first air raid on the Sri Lankan Air Force base. Since then, it has conducted another four air raids. With the Air Tigers, LTTE became the first non-state organization to establish an air force. Although the Sri Lankan Army captured Killinochi on January 2, 2009, it was not able to locate the LTTE aircraft. Later, two LTTE aircraft were shot down in Colombo during a suicide attack on the Sri Lanka Air Force headquarters and the Sri Lanka Air Force base hangars in Katunayake . Administrative Tamil Eelam territorial claim (green) and approximate de facto territory controlled at the time of the launching of the 2008–2009 Sri Lankan Army Northern offensive (yellow). During the final army offensive, however, all of this area was recaptured by Sri Lankan forces. Percentage of Sri Lankan Tamils per district based on the census from 2001 or 1981 (cursive), the last census year in Tamil regions. Although the LTTE was formed as a military group, it later transformed into a de facto government. The LTTE controled sections in the north of the island, especially the regions lying around the cities of Killinochchi and Mulathivu. The LTTE implemented a judicial system that consisted of courts to adjudicate in criminal and civil matters. The Tamil Eelam judicial system consisted of district courts, high courts, a supreme court and a court of appeal. The district courts handled civil and criminal cases. The two high courts handled criminal cases such as rape, murder, treason and arson. The supreme court had jurisdiction over the whole of Tamil Eelam. The courts were said to be effective, and people who had a choice went to the Tamil Eelam courts rather than the Sri Lankan courts. LTTE also released law books that were updated. LTTE also established a police force. The Tamil Eelam police was the other key factor in maintaining law and order. The police was formed in 1991 and, prior to the 2009 offensive, had its headquarters at Killinochi. Police stations were established in all areas controlled by the LTTE. The LTTE claimed that its police force was the reason for the low crime rate, but critics of the LTTE claim that the police force was an integrated arm of the LTTE armed force and that the crime rate is low as a result of LTTE authoritarian rules. However, everyone agrees the police force and the judicial system was the reason for high degree of rule of law in the areas controlled by the LTTE. Another state function of the LTTE administration was social welfare. This humanitarian assistant arm was funded by tax collection internally. LTTE also established an education and health sector that offered services to the people under their control. It also created a human rights organization, called Northeast Secretariat on Human Rights, that functioned to advocate the rights of Tamils. Though not recognized by international government, it acted as a human rights commission. The commission communicated with the LTTE regarding complaints of child recruiting which resulted in the release of the recruit. The Planning and Development Secretariat (PDS) was established in 2004 which acted as a needs assessment body responsible for studying the needs for people and formulating a plan for effective action in areas that needed humanitarian assistance. There were also many civil servants who worked in the LTTE-controlled areas who were directed by the LTTE but paid by the Sri Lankan government. A customs service was operated at the "border" by the Tamil Tigers. In addition to the civil administration, LTTE also ran its own radio and television stations. These entities were named the Voice of Tigers and National Tamil Eelam Television respectively. Both the radio and television channel were aired from the areas under LTTE control. LTTE also ran a bank named the Bank of Tamileelam which used the Sri Lankan rupee as its currency but offered higher interest rates than any bank on the island. Following the Sri Lankan Army's capture of the claimed LTTE administrative capital Kilinochchi on 2 January 2009, the LTTE's administration system has been dismantled. Humanitarian assistance After the Asian Tsunami in 2004, the Tigers set up a special task force called the "tsunami task force" for humanitarian assistance to the people affected by the tsunami. The Planning and Development Secretariat (PDS) was responsible for needs assessments for various humanitarian organization to maximize effectiveness of resettlement reconstruction and rehabilitation. After the tsunami, the PDS was responsible of coordinating and directing the NGOs involved in tsunami relief work. Furthermore, according to Tsunami Evaluation Coalition the key NGOs that responded also claimed that the LTTE forces provided extremely efficient and focused leadership and support to the relief effort in the areas controlled by the Tigers. During the second round of negotiation between Tigers and the Government of Sri Lanka, an agreement was reached for a joint Post-Tsunami Operational Management Structure (P-TOMS). This mechanism would allow the government and LTTE to share funds for tsunami relief. However, this agreement was bitterly opposed by hardliners in the government and some moderates. As a result, the P-TOMS was challenged in the Sri Lankan supreme court. The court put the P-TOMS on hold. Political The 2002 Cease Fire Agreement made the LTTE shift its struggle for self-determination from militant to more political means. The LTTE's own political wing was the result of this. This political wing also played a critical role in regard to both the peace process and local state building. However, LTTE's political wing did not participate in Sri Lankan parliamentary elections. The LTTE instead openly supported the Tamil National Alliance, which won overwhelmingly in 22 out of 25 electorates in the North-east and won over 90% of votes in the electoral district of Jaffna. 2004 General Election results - Jaffna District Religion Most Tamil Sri-Lankans are Orthodox Hindu by faith. In contrast, most of the ethnic Sinhalese are Buddhist by faith. Women in LTTE Sothiya Regiment of the LTTE - Female soldiers In 1984, LTTE created an all-female unit called the Freedom Birds (Suthanthirap Paravaikal). This unit was the first group of women to be given military training in India. The LTTE advocates equality for women from both male oppression and social oppression. This support for equality attracted many women into the LTTE ranks. As a result LTTE became the first Tamil militant group to employ women as soldiers in the battlefield. Tamil women believe that their participation in the armed struggle will bring them advantage in a future peaceful society and allow them to take part in "liberating" their society. The proportion of female combatants was small until June 1990, but increased rapidly afterward. Freedom Birds' first operation was in October 1987 and the first woman combatant to die was 2nd Lt. Maalathi, on October 10, 1987, in an encounter with the IPKF at Kopai on the Jaffna peninsula. An estimated 4000 women cadres have been killed since then, including over 100 in 'Black Tiger' suicide squads. Apart from military roles, the female soldiers have also produced numerous publications and many of them are described as rich in culture and writing. List of commanders Current and former senior LTTE commanders are listed below. Some of the names are aliases that don't reflect the person's religious background. Shanmugalingam SivashankarThillaiyampalam SivanesanBalasegaram KandiahVaithilingam SornalingamS. P. ThamilselvanSathasivam KrishnakumarThileepanRamalingam ParamadevaColonel Jeyam Colonel Theepan Colonel Ramesh Kandiah Ulaganathan Colonel Bhanu Colonel Sornam Colonel Vithusha Colonel Thurka Shanmuganathan Ravishankar Captain Miller Maria Vasanthi Michael Marcelin Fuselus Sathasivam SelvanayakamCharles Lucas AnthonyCaptain PanditharYogaratnam KuganLt. Colonel RathaLt. Colonel SanthoshamLt. Colonel PulendranAmbalavanar NeminathanColonel PathumanManickapodi MaheswaranLt. Colonel KumarappaLt. MaalathiLt Colonel AppaiahLt. Colonel AkbarThambirasa KuhasanthanGangai Amaran (LTTE)Major ManoBalasingham NadesanIrasaiah IlanthirayanV.Balakumaran (LTTE)CheliyanColonel Karuna Other formations Charles Anthony BrigadeJeyanthan BrigadeSothiya RegimentMaalathi RegimentKuti Sri Mortar UnitVictor Anti Tank and Armoured UnitImran Pandiyan UnitLTTE Anti-Aircraft UnitKittu Artillery UnitPonnamman Mining UnitRatha Regiment Links to other designated terrorist organizations As early as the mid-1970s, LTTE rebels were widely known to have trained members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine in Southern Lebanon, where concepts of suicide bombings, taxation, and war memorials were imparted to PFLP fighters. After the 1990 assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, Indian government officials claimed to have discovered a covert link between the PLO and the LTTE: the PLO had plead for Mr. Gandhi to accept a proposal from the LTTE. This advice raised eyebrows at the time, but was largely ignored until his assassination shortly thereafter. As late as 1998, the Tigers clearly stated:... the LTTE has resolved to work in solidarity with the world national liberation movements, socialist states, and international working class parties. We uphold an anti-imperialist policy and therefore we pledge our militant solidarity against western imperialism, neo-colonialists, Zionism, racism and other forces of reaction. The Westminster Journal further states:Intelligence agencies are well aware that the LTTE was involved in the 1990s in training the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) both of which are closely linked to al-Qaeda. In 1995 and 1998, an LTTE combat tactician and an LTTE explosives expert accompanying groups of al-Qaeda Arabs was recorded training members of MILF. In 1999, an LTTE combat tactician accompanying a group of al-Qaeda Arabs was recorded training members of the ASG. At the apparent behest of al-Qaeda, the LTTE is recorded training members of Al Ummah (An Islamic terrorist group formed in India in 1992, believed to be responsible for bombings in southern India in 1998) in Tamil Nadu, India. The Times of India, in a 2001 article, highlights an alleged nexus between al-Qaeda and the LTTE, and claims that "[al-Qaeda links with the LTTE] are the first instance of an Islamist group collaborating with an essentially secular outfit". Additionally, the US-based research organisation "Maritime Intelligence Group" said the Indonesian group Jemaah Islamiya, which has known links to al-Qaeda, had been trained in sea-borne guerrilla tactics by LTTE Sea Tiger veterans. "Norwegians Against Terrorism", a one-man band led by convicted murderer Falk Rune Rovik, Norway dismisses allegations, BBCSinhala.com, 18 April 2007. Ex-convict causing trouble, Aftenposten, 19 April 2007. further described how the Tamil community in Norway, at the behest of the LTTE, sold fake and stolen Norwegian passports to al-Qaeda members. The LTTE itself acquired a fake passport for Ramzi Yousef, convicted mastermind of the 1993 attack on the World Trade Center in New York. A Council on Foreign Affairs article by Preeti Bhattacharji stated, "the secular nationalist LTTE currently has no operational connection with al-Qaeda, its radical Islamist affiliates, or other terrorist groups," but "In its early days, experts say the LTTE did train with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The group may still interact with other terrorist organizations through illegal arms markets in Myanmar, Thailand, and Cambodia." LTTE tactics in other terrorist organizations Some of LTTE's attacks in Sri Lanka have similarities to attacks by, other proscribed groups. Some examples are: The similarities between previous LTTE attacks against Sri Lanka Navy ships and the al-Qaeda attack on the USS Cole which killed 17 US Navy sailors. The incident has raised suspicions of connections between the two groups. The "Maritime Intelligence Group" based in Washington DC claims to have unearthed substantial evidence that the LTTE trained Indonesian Islamists in the technique of maritime suicide bombings. The group, linked to al-Qaeda, is believed to have then passed the technique it learned from the LTTE to al-Qaeda itself. The website "South Asian Terrorism Portal" claimed that the LTTE provided forged passports to Ramzi Yousef, who was one of the planners of the first attack against the World Trade Center in New York in 1993. The allegation has been backed by the Westminster Journal as well. The website "South Asian Terrorism Portal" also states that there are increasing intelligence reports that the LTTE was smuggling arms to various terrorist organizations, including Islamic groups in Pakistan and their counterparts in the Philippines, using their covert smuggling networks. The London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies found that LTTE was building commercial links with al-Qaeda and other militants in Afghanistan, and that several cadres were spotted in Afghan militant camps. . . Falk Rovik, a convicted murderer, accused the LTTE of stealing Norwegian passports and selling them to al-Qaeda in Algeria to earn money to buy weapons. He further alleged that funds from Government of Norway had been inadvertently diverted to the LTTE. Tigers sold Norwegian passports to al-Qaeda, Walter Jayawardhana, Sri Lanka Daily News, 20 March 2007. India's National Security Adviser, M K Narayanan, alleges that LTTE raises money by smuggling narcotics. A recent arrest of LTTE operatives in Colombia corroborates this claim. According to an "anti-LTTE" website, Glen Jenvey, a former employee of the government of Sri Lanka and a specialist on international terrorism, claimed that al-Qaeda has copied most of its terror tactics from the LTTE He highlighted the LTTE as the mastermind that sets the pattern for organizations like al-Qaeda to pursue. The Maritime Intelligence Group in Washington DC even states that al-Qaeda learned the tactic through LTTE contacts teaching Indonesians the methods. According to Asian Tribune, attacks on civilians in buses and trains in Sri Lanka were copied in the attack on public civilian transport during July 2005 bombings in London. The LTTE's ethnic cleansing campaigns against Muslims in northern Sri Lanka from 1985-1992 provided the inspiration for, and model by which, Kashmiri separatists would evict Hindus from Kashmir in late 1989-1990. Assassinations The LTTE has been condemned by various groups for assassination of political and military opponents. The victims include Tamil moderates who coordinated with Sri Lanka Government, Tamil paramilitary groups assisting Sril lankan Army. The assassination of Ranasinghe Premadasa, who was the head of Sri Lanka, is attributed to LTTE. LTTE sympathizers justify some of the assassinations by arguing that the people attacked were combatants or persons closely associated with Sri Lankan military intelligence. Specifically in relation to the TELO, the LTTE has said that it had to perform preemptive self-defence because the TELO was in effect functioning as a proxy for India. Human rights violations The United States Department of State states that its reason for banning LTTE as a proscribed terrorist group is based on allegations that LTTE does not respect human rights and that it does not adhere to the standards of conduct expected of a resistance movement or what might be called "freedom fighters". . . . . The FBI has described the LTTE as "amongst the most dangerous and deadly extremist outfit in the world". Other countries have also proscribed LTTE under the same rationale. Numerous countries and international organizations have accused the LTTE of attacking civilians and recruits children. Attacks on civilians The LTTE has launched attacks on civilian targets several times. Notable attacks include the Aranthalawa Massacre, Anuradhapura massacre, Kattankudy mosque massacre, the Kebithigollewa massacre and the Dehiwala train bombing. Civilians have also been killed in attacks on economic targets, such as the Central Bank bombing. Child soldiers The LTTE has been accused of recruiting and using child soldiers to fight against Sri Lankan government forces. The LTTE was accused of having up to 5,794 child soldiers in its ranks since 2001. Amid international pressure, the LTTE announced in July 2003 that it would stop conscripting child soldiers, but both UNICEF and Human Rights Watch have accused it of reneging on its promises, and of conscripting Tamil children orphaned by the tsunami. However, since 2007, the LTTE has claimed that it will release all of the recruits under the age of 18 before the end of the year. On 18 June 2007, the LTTE released 135 children under 18. UNICEF, along with the United States, states that there has been a significant drop in LTTE recruitment of children, but claims that 506 child recruits remain under the LTTE. A report released by the LTTE's Child Protection Authority (CPA) in 2008 reported that less than 40 soldiers under age 18 remained in its forces. However in 2009 a Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the United Nations said the Tamil Tigers "continue to recruit children to fight on the frontlines", and "use force to keep many civilians, including children, in harms way". The LTTE argues that instances of child recruitment occurred mostly in the east, under the purview of former LTTE regional commander Colonel Karuna. After leaving the LTTE and forming the TMVP, it is alleged that Karuna continued to forcibly kidnap and induct child soldiers. Its official position is that earlier, some of its cadres erroneously recruited volunteers in their late teens. It says that its official policy is now that it will not accept child soldiers. It also says that some underage youths lie about their age and are therefore allowed to join, but are sent back home to their parents as soon as they are discovered to be underage. Suicide bombings The LTTE pioneered the use of concealed suicide bomb vests. According to Jane's Information Group, between 1980 and 2000, the LTTE carried out 168 suicide attacks causing heavy damage on economic and military targets. Many of these attacks have involved military objectives in the north and east of the country, although civilians have been targeted on numerous occasions, including during a high profile attack on Colombo's International Airport in 2001 that caused damage to several commercial airliners and military jets, and killed 16 people. The LTTE was also responsible for a 1998 attack on the Buddhist shrine, and UNESCO world heritage site, Sri Dalada Maligawa in Kandy that killed 8 worshipers. The attack was symbolic in that the shrine, which houses a sacred tooth of the Buddha, is the holiest Buddhist shrine in Sri Lanka. Other Buddhist shrines have been attacked, notably the Sambuddhaloka Temple in Colombo that killed 9 worshipers. Relatively speaking, there have been fewer operations in the south where most of the Sinhalese live, including the capital Colombo, although such attacks have often engaged high-profile targets and attracted much international publicity as a result. The LTTE's Black Tigers has been attributed with the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, who was killed in 1991 using a prototype suicide vest, and Ranasinghe Premadasa, assassinated in 1993. Ethnic cleansing The LTTE is responsible for forcibly removing, or "ethnically cleansing", Sinhalese and Muslim inhabitants from areas under its control, and using violence against those who refuse to leave. The evictions happened in the north in 1990, and the east in 1992. Tamil sources openly state: Islam, however, is not being practiced presently [In Tamil Eelam], as the Muslims have been asked to leave the Tamil Eelam territory until the independence of Tamil Eelam. The Muslims supported the aggressive Sri Lankan Sinhala and Muslim Military against the freedom of Tamil Eelam. Ironically, however, Muslim and Tamil communities in the North of Sri Lanka had participated together in the early days of the Tamil movement, and Muslim ironmongers in Mannar fashioned weapons for the LTTE, and local Tamil leaders were disturbed at the LTTE’s call for the eviction of Muslims. However, as Tamil intellectuals began viewing Muslims as outsiders, rather than a part of the Tamil nation as they had been referred to previously, the LTTE undertook its anti-Muslim campaigns. In its 1976 Vaddukodai Resolution, LTTE condemns the Sri Lankan government for, as it claimed, "unleashing successive bouts of communal violence on both the Tamils and Muslims." . In 2005, the "International Federation of Tamils" claimed that the Sri Lankan military purposefully stoked tensions between Tamils and Muslims, in an attempt to undermine Tamil security. . As Tamils turned to the LTTE for support, the Muslims were left with the Sri Lankan state as their sole defender, and so in the eyes of the LTTE, the Muslims had legitimized the role of the state, and were thus viewed as Sri Lankans. Beginning in 1985, the LTTE forcibly occupied 35,000 acres of Muslim-owned farmland in the north of Sri Lanka, before systematically evicting the Muslims from areas under LTTE control. Although anti-Muslim pogroms had occurred in the north and east of Sri Lanka since 1985, the LTTE embarked on a campaign to expel Muslims from the North in 1989. The first eviction notice was sent to the Muslims of Chavakacheri on October 15, 1989, after the LTTE entered the local mosque and threatened Muslims a few weeks earlier. Afterward, the houses of evicted Muslims were ransacked and looted. On October 28, 1989, the Muslims of Mannar, in the North of Sri Lanka, were told, "All Muslims living in Mannar island should leave by 28 October. Before leaving, they must seek permission and clearance at the LTTE Office. The LTTE will decide their exit route." The deadline was extended by four days after pleas from local Tamil Catholics, who were left to look after many Muslims' property in anticipation of looting by the Sri Lankan army - although the Catholics themselves were later robbed by the LTTE of both their own, and the Muslims’ property. On the 28th, while Muslims were preparing to leave, the LTTE barred Hindus from entering Muslim villages and dealing with them. The areas were reopened on the November 3, after Muslims had been packed onto the boats of Muslim fishermen and sent southwards along the coast. After a lull in ethnic cleansing, the LTTE on August 3, 1990, sealed off a Shiite mosque in Kattankady, the Meera Jumma and Husseinia, and opened fire through the mosque's windows, leaving 147 Muslim worshipers dead, out of 300 gathered for Friday prayers. Fifteen days later, LTTE gunmen shot dead between 122 and 173 Muslim civilians in the town of Eravur Ethnic cleansing culminated on October 30, 1990 when the LTTE forcibly expelled the entire Muslim population of Jaffna. LTTE commanders from the east announced at 7:30 A.M. that all Muslims in Jaffna were to report to Osmania stadium, where they were to be addressed by two LTTE leaders, Karikalana and Anjaneyar. After listening to the leaders denigrate Muslims for allegedly attacking Tamils in the east, the leaders explained to the community that they had two hours to evacuate the city. The community was released from the stadium at 10 A.M., and by noon, and were only allowed to carry 500 rupees, while the rest of their possessions were seized by the LTTE after they were forced to report to LTTE checkpoints upon exiting Jaffna. In total, over 12,700 Muslim families, roughly 75,000 people, were forcibly evicted from LTTE-controlled areas on the Northern Province. In 1992, the LTTE embarked on a campaign to create a contiguous Tamil-Hindu homeland that stretched from the North of Sri Lanka, and downwards along the Eastern Coast. A large Tamil-speaking Muslim population inhabited a narrow strip of land between the two entities, and so a pattern of "ethnic cleansing" emerged in Eastern Sri Lanka, as was already done in the North. "The LTTE unleashed violence against the Muslims of Alinchipothanai and killed 69 Muslim villagers. This led to a retaliatory violence against the Tamils in Muthugala, where 49 Tamils were killed allegedly by the Muslim Home guards." Later in the year, the LTTE attacked four Muslim villages (Palliyagodalla, Akbarpuram, Ahmedpuram and Pangurana) and killed 187 Muslims. The Australian Muslim Times later commented on 30 October 1992: “The massacres, eviction and the atrocities by the Tamil Tigers are carried out in order to derive the Muslim Community from their traditional land in the Eastern province as they have done it in the northern province and then set up a separate state only for Tamils”. In 2002, the LTTE leader Vellupillai Prabhakaran had formally apologized for the expulsion of Muslims from the north and asked the Muslims to return. Some families have returned and re-opened the Osmaniya College and two mosques are functioning now. Since the apology, TamilNet, which is widely seen as an LTTE mouthpiece, has featured numerous stories of Muslim civilians coming under attack from Sinhalese forces. However, the stories may simply reflect crime, and not the ethnic hatred that TamilNet suggest. . The LTTE is also accused of organizing massacres of Sinhala villagers who settled in the Northeast under the dry lands policy. United Nations High Commission for Human Rights. Anti-Muslim campaigns of 1990 During the summer of 1990, the LTTE killed over 370 Muslims in the North and East of Sri Lanka in 11 mass killings Numerous mosques were attacked, and dozens of pilgrims from the annual Hajj pilgrimage in Saudi Arabia were killed. The number of Muslims killed in individual attacks, rather than massacres and high-profile murders, remains unknown. Proscription as a terrorist group 32 countries have listed the LTTE as a terrorist organization. As of January 2009, these include: India (since 1992) United States (designated as Foreign Terrorist Organizations by the Department of State since October 8, 1997. Named as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist (SDGT) since November 2, 2001) United Kingdom (designated as Proscribed Terrorist Group under the Terrorism Act 2000 by the Home Secretary since 2000) European Union (since 2006; 27 countries) Canada (since 2006) Canada does not grant residency to LTTE members on the grounds that they have participated in crimes against humanity. Sri Lanka (from January 1998 to September 4, 2002, and again from January 7, 2009) Australia (since 2001) and other countries have listed the LTTE as a terrorist group in accordance with Resolution 1373. The first country to ban the LTTE was its early ally, India. The Indian change of policy came gradually, starting with the IPKF-LTTE conflict, and culminating with the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi. India opposes the new state Tamil Eelam that LTTE wants to establish, saying that it would lead to Tamil Nadu's separation from India though the leaders of Tamil Nadu are opposing it. Sri Lanka itself lifted the ban on the LTTE before signing the ceasefire agreement in 2002. This was a prerequisite set by the LTTE for the signing of the agreement. According to the US Federal Bureau of Investigation, "LTTE has perfected the use of suicide bombers, invented the suicide belt, pioneered the use of women in suicide attacks, murdered some 4,000 people in the past two years alone, and assassinated two world leaders—the only terrorist organization to do so. TAMING THE TAMIL TIGERS, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2008-01-10 " The European Union banned LTTE as a terrorist organization on May 17, 2006. In a statement, the European Parliament said that the LTTE did not represent all the Tamils and called on it to "allow for political pluralism and alternate democratic voices in the northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka". Criminal activities One factor that has greatly benefited the LTTE has been its sophisticated international support network. While some of the funding obtained by the LTTE is from legitimate fund raising and extortion among Tamil diaspora, a significant portion is obtained through criminal activities, involving sea piracy, human smuggling, drug trafficking and gunrunning. . Sea piracy The LTTE has been accused of hijacking several vessels in waters outside Sri Lanka, including the Irish Mona (in August 1995), Princess Wave (in August 1996), Athena (in May 1997), Misen (in July 1997), Morong Bong (in July 1997), MV Cordiality (in September 1997), Princess Kash (in August 1998) and MV Farah III (December 2006). The MV Sik Yang, a 2,818-ton Malaysian-flag cargo ship which sailed from Tuticorin, India on May 25, 1999 was reported missing in waters near Sri Lanka. The ship with a cargo of bagged salt was due at the Malaysian port of Malacca on May 31. The fate of the ship's crew of 15 is unknown. It is suspected that the vessel was hijacked by the LTTE and is now being used as a phantom vessel. Likewise the crew of a Jordanian ship, MV Farah III, that ran aground near LTTE-controlled territory off the island's coast, accused the Tamil Tigers of risking their lives and forcing them to abandon the vessel which was carrying 14,000 tonnes of Indian rice. Arms smuggling The anti-rebel Mackenzie Institute claimed that one of LTTE's secretive international operations is the smuggling of weapons, explosives, and "dual use" technologies. The part of the LTTE responsible for these activities is nicknamed "KP Branch", taking the initials of its high level operative, Kumaran Padmanathan. The workers for the KP Branch are from outside the fighting wing of the LTTE, since the identities of those fighters are recorded and available to law enforcement and counter-intelligence agencies by India's Research and Analysis Wing, who had helped train many Tiger cadres in the early 1980s. The KP Branch operates secretively by having the minimum connection possible with the LTTE's other sections for further security. It hands over the arms shipments to a team of Sea Tigers to deliver them to the LTTE-dominated areas. Other people's wars: A Review of Overseas Terrorism in Canada, John Thompson, The Mackenzie Institute. The Mackenzie Institute further claimed that in order to carry out the activities of international arms trafficking, the LTTE operates its own fleet of ocean-going vessels. These vessels only operate a certain period of time for the LTTE and in the remaining time they transport legitimate goods and raise hard cash for the purchase of weapons. The LTTE initially operated a shipping base in Myanmar, but was forced to leave due to diplomatic pressure. To overcome this loss, a new base has been set up on Phuket Island, in Thailand. Furthermore, The Mackenzie Institute claimed that the most expertly executed operation of the KP Branch was the theft of 32,400 rounds of 81 mm mortar ammunition purchased from Tanzania destined for the Sri Lanka Army. Being aware of the purchase of 35,000 mortar bombs, the LTTE made a bid to the manufacturer through a numbered company and arranged a vessel of their own to pick up the load. Once the bombs were loaded into the ship, the LTTE changed the name and registration of their ship. The vessel was taken to Tiger-held territory in Sri Lanka's north instead of transporting it to its intended destination. Western countries are the main territory for fund raising activities of the LTTE. The money raised from donations and enterprises are transferred into bank accounts of the Tigers and from there to the accounts of a weapons broker, or the money is taken by KP operatives themselves. LTTE's need for resources is mostly fulfilled by the Tamils who reside outside Sri Lanka. In 1995, when the LTTE lost Jaffna, its international operatives were ordered to increase, by 50%, the amount raised from Tamils outside the island. See also Notable assassinations of the Sri Lankan Civil War Black July Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups Military use of children in Sri Lanka List of attacks attributed to the LTTE 2009 World Tamil protests References Further reading Balasingham, Adele. (2003). The Will to Freedom - An Inside View of Tamil Resistance. Fairmax Publishing Ltd. 2nd ed. ISBN 1-903679-03-6. Balasingham, Anton. (2004). War and Peace - Armed Struggle and Peace Efforts of Liberation Tigers. Fairmax Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-903679-05-2. de Votta, Neil. (2004) Blowback: Linguistic Nationalism, Institutional Decay, and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4924-8. Gamage, Siri and I.B. Watson (Editors). (1999). Conflict and Community in Contemporary Sri Lanka - 'Pearl of the East' or 'Island of Tears'?. Sage Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-7619-9393-2. Hansard Australia. (2006). Commonwealth of Australia Parliamentary Debates. Senate Transcript for 16 June 2006. Hellmann-Rajanayagam, D. (1994). The Groups and the rise of Militant Secessions, in Manogaram, C. and Pfaffenberger, B. (editors). The Sri Lankan Tamils. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-8133-8845-7. La, J. 2004. Forced remittances in Canada's Tamil enclaves, Peace Review 16:3. September 2004. pp. 379–385. Narayan Swamy, M. R. (2002). Tigers of Lanka: from Boys to Guerrillas. Konark Publishers; 3rd ed. ISBN 81-220-0631-0. Pratap, Anita. (2001). Island of Blood: Frontline Reports From Sri Lanka, Afghanistan and Other South Asian Flashpoints. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-302906-9. External links Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam LIBERATION TIGERS OF TAMIL EELAM’S (LTTE) INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND OPERATIONS - A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Council on Foreign Relations background information on the Tigers International Crisis Group, an advocacy group, has information on the conflict. Tamil Tigers U-Boat force Sri Lanka Ministry of Defence Map showing extent of area controlled Tamilnet Tamil Eelam News Mexico Refuses to give Legitimacy to the LTTE by Dushy Ranetunge, Asia News Network, April 19 2009 Sri Lankan Civilians Trapped by Tamil Tigers 'Last Stand' By Simon Montlake, The Christian Science Monitor, May 3, 2009 Guerrilla Tactics - How the Tamil Tigers Were Beaten in an 'Unwinnable' War by Jeremy Page, The Times, May 19 2009 | Liberation_Tigers_of_Tamil_Eelam |@lemmatized liberation:16 tiger:62 tamil:111 eelam:23 iso:1 tamiḻ:1 iiḻa:1 viṭutalaip:1 pulikaḷ:1 commonly:1 know:4 ltte:247 militant:16 organization:22 base:14 northern:9 sri:121 lanka:80 found:3 may:23 wag:1 violent:1 secessionist:1 campaign:10 seek:3 create:4 independent:1 state:33 north:19 east:12 evolve:1 lankan:41 civil:6 war:9 one:6 long:4 running:1 arm:14 conflict:15 asia:2 militarily:3 defeat:15 army:20 http:5 www:3 reuters:1 com:5 article:3 featuredcrisis:1 voanews:1 english:1 cfm:1 since:17 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6,608 | Foreign_relations_of_Nepal | Nepal has traditionally maintained a non-aligned policy and enjoys friendly relations with neighboring countries, especially India and China. Constitutionally, foreign policy is to be guided by “the principles of the United Nations Charter, nonalignment, Panchsheel [five principles of peaceful coexistence], international law and the value of world peace.” In practice, foreign policy has not been directed toward projecting influence internationally but toward preserving autonomy and addressing domestic economic and security issues. Nepal’s most substantive international relations are perhaps with international economic institutions, such as the Asian Development Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, a multilateral economic development association. Nepal also has strong bilateral relations with major providers of economic and military aid, such as France, Germany, Japan, Switzerland, the United States, and particularly the United Kingdom, with whom military ties date to the nineteenth century. The country also maintains strong political relations with India and China, usually attempting to balance one against the other. However, relations with India are fraught with trade and border disputes and Indian suspicions that Nepalese and Pakistani rebels use Nepal as a haven to attack India. Relations with Bhutan have been strained since 1992 over the nationality and possible repatriation of refugees from Bhutan. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Nepal.pdf This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The People's Republic of China and India As a small, landlocked country wedged between two larger and far stronger powers, Nepal maintains good relations with both China (People's Republic of China) and India. Because of strong cultural, religious, linguistic, and economic ties, Nepal's association with India traditionally has been close. India and Nepal restored trade relations in 1990, after a break caused by India's security concerns over Nepal's relations with the PRC. A bilateral trade treaty was signed in 1996. Nepalese can freely travel and do business in India without visa. Nepal's economy has also benefited from the surge in India's economy. Apart from Bhutan, Nepal is the only country which has open borders with India. Nepal formally established relations with the PRC in 1955, and since then their bilateral relations have generally been very good. As much as 20 thousand Tibetan refugees live in Nepal and this has been a major issue of concern between China and Nepal. Kathmandu has in several instances been brutally cracking down on the activities of the Tibetans receiving international condemnation. In 2005, Nepalese Foreign Minister Ramesh Nath Pandey called China "an all weather friend" and King Gyanendra's regime was also instrumental in inducting China into the SAARC. It received military assistance from Beijing irking India which in turn, facilitated an understanding of the underground Maoists and political parties against the King in Nov. 2005. After the success of the people's movement in April 2006, however, Sino-Nepal relations did not see any negative fall-out. Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal "Prachanda" made China his first foreign visit abroad after swearing in as the republic's first Prime Minister. Relations with the European Union The European Union (EU) to Nepal relations is the relations between Nepal and the European Union (EU). The role of the European Union is to present, explain and implement EU policies, analyze and report on the political, social, and economic situation in Nepal, and to conducts negotiations in accordance with a given mandate. Role of the EC delegation to Nepal Pakistan The bilateral relations between the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan were fully established between 1962 and 1963. Nepal - Pakistan relations Both nations have since sought to expand trade, strategic and military cooperation. The State of Israel Israel-Nepal relations, first established in 1960, are based on mutual security concerns. Visit to Israel of Honorable Mrs. Sahana Pradhan, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Nepal Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Mahendra of Nepal (second from left) in a 1958 visit to Israel's Weizmann Institute of Science. Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala, Prime Minister of Nepal from 1959 to 1960, had a strongly pro-Israel foreign policy. King Mahendra visited Israel in 1963 and maintained Koirala's special relationship. Abadi, Jacob. Israel's Quest for Recognition and Acceptance in Asia: Garrison State Diplomacy, 2004. Page 318. Relations with the United Kingdom Relations between the UK and Nepal have historically been friendly and there have been close links between the Royal Families, although relations deteriorated when the King took power in 2005. A treaty of friendship was signed in 1923. The UK is highly regarded in Nepal. This is through historical ties, development assistance and long term support in the struggle for democratic peace in Nepal. Also of note is that through the recruitment of Gurkha soldiers by the British Army since the 19th century, Nepal has had links with the United Kingdom. Relations with Germany Nepal also enjoys especially friendly ties with the Federal Republic of Germany, which is a major export market for Nepalese goods. Germany officially recognizes Nepal as a priority country for German development assistance and academic exchanges http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?land_id=120&type_id=14 . Relations with the United States Nepal-United States relations are bilateral relations between Nepal and the United States. The United States established official relations with Nepal in 1947 and opened its Kathmandu Embassy in 1959. Relations between the two countries have always been strong. U.S. policy objectives toward Nepal center on helping Nepal build a peaceful, prosperous, and democratic society. Multilateral relations Nepal has played an active role in the formation of the economic development-oriented South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and is the site of its secretariat. On international issues, Nepal follows a nonaligned policy and often votes with the Non-Aligned Movement in the United Nations. Nepal participates in a number of UN specialized agencies and is a member of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Colombo Plan, and the Asian Development Bank. Human rights issues Police forces sometimes use excessive force in quelling violent demonstrations, or demonstrations that may upset 'friendly countries'. In addition, there have been reports of torture under detention and widespread reports of custodial abuse. In 2000, the government established the Human Rights Commission, a government-appointed commission with a mandate to investigate human rights violations. To date, the Commission has investigated 51 complaints. Some restrictions continue on freedom of expression. Trafficking in women and child labour remain serious problems. Discrimination against women and lower castes is prevalent. International disputes A joint border commission continues to work on small disputed sections of the border with India; India has instituted a stricter border regime to restrict transit of Maoist insurgents Illicit drugs Illicit production of cannabis for domestic and international drug markets continues to ask as an international problem, as does rumours that the country operates as a transit point for opiates from Southeast Asia to the West See also Nepal Nepalese diplomatic missions overseas 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship List of diplomatic missions in Nepal References External links RETURNED: Child Soldiers of Nepal's Maoist Army Directed by Robert Koenig Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nepal Permanent Mission of the Kingdom of Nepal to the United Nations European Union Culture Center Embassy of Federal Repuplic of Germany, Kathmandu Nepal German chanber of Commerce and Industry United States Embassy in Kathmandu States which Nepal has relations with | 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6,609 | Industrial_Revolution | A Watt steam engine, the steam engine fuelled primarily by coal that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. Watt steam engine image: located in the lobby of into the Superior Technical School of Industrial Engineers of a the UPM (Madrid) The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transportation had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain. The changes subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human society; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way. Starting in the latter part of the 18th century there began a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft animal–based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanization of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilization of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. Business and Economics. Leading Issues in Economic Development, Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-511589-9 Read it The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous. Russell Brown, Lester. Eco-Economy, James & James / Earthscan. ISBN 1-85383-904-3 Read it The First Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways, and later in the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electrical power generation. The period of time covered by the Industrial Revolution varies with different historians. Eric Hobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd. ISBN 0-349-10484-0 while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830. Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-01079-9 Read it Some twentieth century historians such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts have argued that the process of economic and social change took place gradually and the term revolution is not a true description of what took place. This is still a subject of debate amongst historians. Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution by Julie Lorenzen, Central Michigan University. Accessed November 2006 GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy. The Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Historians agree that the Industrial Revolution was one of the most important events in history. Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, Library of Economics and Liberty The most significant inventions had their origins in the Western world, primarily Europe and the United States. Name history The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was common in the 1830s. Louis-Auguste Blanqui in 1837 spoke of la révolution industrielle. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society." In his book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, Raymond Williams states in the entry for Industry: The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen, between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the century. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose lectures given in 1881 gave a detailed account of the process. Causes Regional GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial Revolution. (The empty areas mean no data, not very low levels. There is data for the years 1, 1000, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1820, 1900, and 2003) The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, the spread of disease was lessened, thereby preventing the epidemics common in previous times. The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose significantly, leading to a larger workforce. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer find employment in agriculture into cottage industry, for example weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories. The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century. Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine. Hudson, Pat. The Industrial Revolution, Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-7131-6531-6 However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution. Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the early Middle Ages, much earlier than most estimates. He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that "the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock". He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine. The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded amongst them. Deane, Phyllis. The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29609-9 Read it Governments' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention, the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors. Eric Schiff, Industrialisation without national patents: the Netherlands, 1869-1912; Switzerland, 1850-1907, Princeton University Press, 1971. Watt's monopoly may have prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick, William Murdoch or Jonathan Hornblower, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the industrial revolution by up to 20 years. Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine, Economic and Game Theory Against Intellectual Monopoly, , page 3. Causes for occurrence in Europe A 1623 Dutch East India Company bond.European 17th century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th century industrial growth. One question of active interest to historians is why the industrial revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India, and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity Why No Industrial Revolution in Ancient Greece? J. Bradford DeLong, Professor of Economics, University of California at Berkeley, 20 September 2002. Accessed January 2007. or the Middle Ages. The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England | The History Guide, Steven Kreis, 11 October 2006 – Accessed January 2007 Numerous factors have been suggested, including ecology, government, and culture. The Industrial Revolution – Causes However, most historians contest the assertion that Europe and China were roughly equal because modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars Jan Luiten van Zanden, International Institute of Social History/University of Utrecht. May 2005. Accessed January 2007 ) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. Also, the average interest rate was about 5% in Britain and over 30% in China, which illustrates how capital was much more abundant in Britain. Some historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in China and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity, and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism). Whereas the Europeans believed that that the universe was governed by rational and eternal laws, the East, believed that the universe was in constant flux and, for Buddhists and Taoists, not capable of being rationally understood. Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said: "The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in England." South Asian History -Pages from the history of the Indian subcontinent: British rule and the legacy of colonisation. Rajni-Palme Dutt India Today (Indian Edition published 1947); Accessed January 2007 In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms, with the three major ones being the Marathas, Sikhs and the Mughals. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors—agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and technical innovation was non-existent. The vast amounts of wealth were stored away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over. Causes for occurrence in Britain As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. It has been pointed out, however, that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5% of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution. Was slavery the engine of economic growth? Digital History Alternatively, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and possessing the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets having been destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy The Royal Navy itself may have contributed to Britain's industrial growth. Among the first complex industrial manufacturing processes to arise in Britain were those that produced material for British warships. For instance, the average warship of the period used roughly 1000 pulley fittings. With a fleet as large as the Royal Navy, and with these fittings needing to be replaced ever 4 to 5 years, this created a great demand which encouraged industrial expansion. The industrial manufacture of rope can also be see as a similar factor. ). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position—an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe. Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England, the English Midlands, South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry. The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. In large part due to the Enclosure movement, the peasantry was destroyed as significant source of resistance to industrialisation, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism. Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, pp. 29-30, Boston, Beacon Press, 1966. (This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc's The Servile State.) Protestant work ethic Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work. Argues that capital accumulation and wealth concentration in an entrepreneurial culture following the commercial revolution made the industrial revolution possible, for example. The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England, contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures. Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland's four universities). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became mandatory due to the Test Act, they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences—areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies. Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class, such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. Innovations The only surviving example of a Spinning Mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, The Industrial Revolution – Innovations made in the second half of the 18th century: Textiles – Cotton spinning using Richard Arkwright's water frame, James Hargreaves's Spinning Jenny, and Samuel Crompton's Spinning Mule (a combination of the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame). This was patented in 1769 and so came out of patent in 1783. The end of the patent was rapidly followed by the erection of many cotton mills. Similar technology was subsequently applied to spinning worsted yarn for various textiles and flax for linen. Steam power – The improved steam engine invented by James Watt was initially mainly used for pumping out mines, but from the 1780s was applied to power machines. This enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower was not available. Iron founding – In the Iron industry, coke was finally applied to all stages of iron smelting, replacing charcoal. This had been achieved much earlier for lead and copper as well as for producing pig iron in a blast furnace, but the second stage in the production of bar iron depended on the use of potting and stamping (for which a patent expired in 1786) or puddling (patented by Henry Cort in 1783 and 1784). These represent three 'leading sectors', in which there were key innovations, which allowed the economic take off by which the Industrial Revolution is usually defined. This is not to belittle many other inventions, particularly in the textile industry. Without some earlier ones, such as spinning jenny and flying shuttle in the textile industry and the smelting of pig iron with coke, these achievements might have been impossible. Later inventions such as the power loom and Richard Trevithick's high pressure steam engine were also important in the growing industrialisation of Britain. The application of steam engines to powering cotton mills and ironworks enabled these to be built in places that were most convenient because other resources were available, rather than where there was water to power a watermill. In the textile sector, such mills became the model for the organisation of human labour in factories, epitomised by Cottonopolis, the name given to the vast collection of cotton mills, factories and administration offices based in Manchester. The assembly line system greatly improved efficiency, both in this and other industries. With a series of men trained to do a single task on a product, then having it moved along to the next worker, the number of finished goods also rose significantly. Also important was the 1756 rediscovery of concrete (based on hydraulic lime mortar) by the British engineer John Smeaton, which had been lost for 13 centuries. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) "Building construction: the reintroduction of modern concrete" Transfer of knowledge Knowledge of new innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers anxious to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods. A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (ca. 1766)Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss 'natural philosophy' (i.e. science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, "They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution". The Lunar Society at Moreabout, the website of the Birmingham Jewellery Quarter guide, Bob Miles. Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London-based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions. There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as Harris's Lexicon Technicum (1704) and Dr Abraham Rees's Cyclopaedia (1802-1819) contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot's Encyclopédie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates. Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines, published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours. Technological developments in Britain Textile manufacture Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal, Germany. The spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution In the early 18th century, British textile manufacture was based on wool which was processed by individual artisans, doing the spinning and weaving on their own premises. This system is called a cottage industry. Flax and cotton were also used for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing needed, and thus goods in these materials made only a small proportion of the output. Use of the spinning wheel and hand loom restricted the production capacity of the industry, but incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century. India was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods. Lewis Paul patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness, developed with the help of John Wyatt in Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743, a factory was opened in Northampton with fifty spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster, but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Using two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill. Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule. Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly, which fed a weaving industry that was advancing with improvements to shuttles and the loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with the effect that the new machines were seen as a threat to employment, and early innovators were attacked and their inventions destroyed. To capitalise upon these advances, it took a class of entrepreneurs, of which the most famous is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by people such as Thomas Highs and John Kay; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power—first horse power and then water power—which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Before long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery. Metallurgy Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg the YoungerBlast furnaces light the iron making town of Coalbrookdale The Reverberatory Furnace could produce wrought iron using mined coal. The burning coal remained separate from the iron ore and so did not contaminate the iron with impurities like sulphur. This opened the way to increased iron production. The major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of organic fuels based on wood with fossil fuel based on coal. Much of this happened somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames, which contained carbon monoxide, playing on the ore and reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. The foundry cupola is a different (and later) innovation. This was followed by Abraham Darby, who made great strides using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale in 1709. However, the coke pig iron he made was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs. Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce bar iron in forges until the mid 1750s, when his son Abraham Darby II built Horsehay and Ketley furnaces (not far from Coalbrookdale). By then, coke pig iron was cheaper than charcoal pig iron. Bar iron for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still made in finery forges, as it long had been. However, new processes were adopted in the ensuing years. The first is referred to today as potting and stamping, but this was superseded by Henry Cort's puddling process. From 1785, perhaps because the improved version of potting and stamping was about to come out of patent, a great expansion in the output of the British iron industry began. The new processes did not depend on the use of charcoal at all and were therefore not limited by charcoal sources. Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of imported iron to supplement native supplies. This came principally from Sweden from the mid 17th century and later also from Russia from the end of the 1720s. However, from 1785, imports decreased because of the new iron making technology, and Britain became an exporter of bar iron as well as manufactured wrought iron consumer goods. Since iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it also became a major structural material following the building of the innovative The Iron Bridge in 1778 by Abraham Darby III. The Iron Bridge, Shropshire, England An improvement was made in the production of steel, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for the cutting edge of tools and for springs. Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process. The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided the development of boilers and steam engines, and eventually railways. Improvements in machine tools allowed better working of iron and steel and further boosted the industrial growth of Britain. Mining Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales started early. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam engine greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of James Watt's more efficient steam engine from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphrey Davy and independently by George Stephenson. However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions, so casualties grew during the entire nineteenth century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls. Steam power The 1698 Savery Engine – the world's first engine built by Thomas Savery as based on the designs of Denis Papin. The development of the stationary steam engine was an essential early element of the Industrial Revolution; however, for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution, the majority of industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines. The first real attempt at industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used as in numerous water works and tried in a few mines (hence its "brand name", The miner's Friend), but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and prone to boiler explosions. Newcomen's steam powered atmospheric engine was the first practical engine. Subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution The first safe and successful steam power plant was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712. Newcomen apparently conceived the Newcomen steam engine quite independently of Savery, but as the latter had taken out a very wide-ranging patent, Newcomen and his associates were obliged to come to an arrangement with him, marketing the engine until 1733 under a joint patent. Hulse, David H: The Early Development of the Steam Engine; TEE Publishing, Leamington Spa, U.K., 1999 ISBN 1 85761 107 1 L.T.C. Rolt and J. S. Allen, The Steam engine of Thomas Newcomen (Landmark, Ashbourne, 1997), 44. Newcomen's engine appears to have been based on Papin's experiments carried out 30 years earlier, and employed a piston and cylinder, one end of which was open to the atmosphere above the piston. Steam just above atmospheric pressure (all that the boiler could stand) was introduced into the lower half of the cylinder beneath the piston during the gravity-induced upstroke; the steam was then condensed by a jet of cold water injected into the steam space to produce a partial vacuum; the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the vacuum on either side of the piston displaced it downwards into the cylinder, raising the opposite end of a rocking beam to which was attached a gang of gravity-actuated reciprocating force pumps housed in the mineshaft. The engine's downward power stroke raised the pump, priming it and preparing the pumping stroke. At first the phases were controlled by hand, but within ten years an escapement mechanism had been devised worked by of a vertical plug tree suspended from the rocking beam which rendered the engine self-acting. A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about . They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the nineteenth century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722 ,Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s, the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800. Rolt and Allen, 145 James Watt A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt. With the close collaboration Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. All this meant that a more constant temperature could be maintained in the cylinder and that engine efficiency no longer varied according to atmospheric conditions. These improvements increased engine efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75% on coal costs. Nor could the atmospheric engine be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel, although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so towards 1780. However by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to . The development of machine tools, such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines. Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained portative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Towards the turn of the 19th century, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick, and the American, Oliver Evans began to construct higher pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. This allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single unit compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats. In the early 19th century after the expiration of Watt's patent, the steam engine underwent many improvements by a host of inventors and engineers. Chemicals The Thames Tunnel (opened 1843)Cement was used in the world's first underwater tunnel The large scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (James Watt's first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead. Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase. The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate. The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid. The sodium sulphate was heated with limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide. Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning certain plants (barilla) or from kelp, which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash, and also to potash (potassium carbonate) derived from hardwood ashes. These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth. The development of bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet, revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant's factory at St Rollox, North Glasgow, became the largest chemical plant in the world. In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British brick layer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1400 °C, then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete. Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel. Properties of Concrete Published lecture notes from University of Memphis Department of Civil Engineering, Retrieved 2007-10-17 Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the London sewerage system a generation later. Machine tools Sir Joseph Whitworth The Industrial Revolution could not have developed without machine tools, for they enabled manufacturing machines to be made. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. The mechanical parts of early textile machines were sometimes called 'clock work' because of the metal spindles and gears they incorporated. The manufacture of textile machines drew craftsmen from these trades and is the origin of the modern engineering industry. Machines were built by various craftsmen—carpenters made wooden framings, and smiths and turners made metal parts. A good example of how machine tools changed manufacturing took place in Birmingham, England, in 1830. The invention of a new machine by Joseph Gillott, William Mitchell and James Stephen Perry allowed mass manufacture of robust, cheap steel pen nibs; the process had been laborious and expensive. Because of the difficulty of manipulating metal and the lack of machine tools, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Wood framing had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal frames became more common, but they required machine tools to make them economically. Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Small metal parts were readily made by this means, but for large machine parts, production was very laborious and costly. A lathe from 1911, a machine tool able to make other machines Apart from workshop lathes used by craftsmen, the first large machine tool was the cylinder boring machine used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. The planing machine, the slotting machine and the shaping machine were developed in the first decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until during the Second Industrial Revolution. Military production had a hand in the development of machine tools. Henry Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was employed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, as a young man where he would have seen the large horse-driven wooden machines for cannon boring made and worked by the Verbruggans. He later worked for Joseph Bramah on the production of metal locks, and soon after he began working on his own. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills. These were all metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth. James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did Matthew Murray of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement. Gas lighting Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting. Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton and Watt, the Birmingham steam engine pioneers. The process consisted of the large scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonium, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gaslighting utilities were established in London between 1812-20. They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gaslighting had an impact on social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed night life to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and street could be lighted on a larger scale than before. Glass making The 1851 Great Exhibition in Hyde Park A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process, was developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832, this process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure. Effects on agriculture A John Fowler & Co. Ploughing Engine The invention of machinery played a big part in driving forward the British Agricultural Revolution. Agricultural improvement began in the centuries before the Industrial revolution got going and it may have played a part in freeing up labour from the land to work in the new industrial mills of the eighteenth century. As the revolution in industry progressed a succession of machines became available which increased food production with ever fewer labourers. Jethro Tull's seed drill invented in 1731 was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds efficiently across a plot of land. Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of 1730, was the first commercially successful iron plough. Andrew Meikle's threshing machine of 1784 was the final straw for many farm labourers, and led to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots. In the 1850s and '60s John Fowler, an engineer and inventor, began to look at the possibility of using steam engines for ploughing and digging drainage channels. The system that he invented involved either a single stationary engine at the corner of a field drawing a plough via sets of winches and pulleys, or two engines placed at either end of a field drawing the plough backwards and forwards between them by means of a cable attached to winches. Fowler's ploughing system vastly reduced the cost of ploughing farmland compared with horse-drawn ploughs. Also his ploughing system, when used for digging drainage channels, made possible the cultivation of previously unusable swampy land. The traction engine later became a common sight in working threshing machines during haymaking time and ploughing fields. Transport in Britain At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Railways or wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal, and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly. Coastal sail Sailing vessels had long been used for moving goods round the British coast. The trade transporting coal to London from Newcastle had begun in mediaeval times. The major international seaports such as London, Bristol, and Liverpool, were the means by which raw materials such as cotton might be imported and finished goods exported. Transporting goods onwards within Britain by sea was common during the whole of the Industrial Revolution and only fell away with the growth of the railways at the end of the period. Navigable rivers All the major rivers of the United Kingdom were navigable during the Industrial Revolution. Some were anciently navigable, notably the Severn, Thames, and Trent. Some were improved, or had navigation extended upstream, but usually in the period before the Industrial Revolution, rather than during it. The Severn, in particular, was used for the movement of goods to the Midlands which had been imported into Bristol from abroad, and for the export of goods from centres of production in Shropshire (such as iron goods from Coalbrookdale) and the Black Country. Transport was by way of trows—small sailing vessels which could pass the various shallows and bridges in the river. The trows could navigate the Bristol Channel to the South Wales ports and Somerset ports, such as Bridgwater and even as far as France. Canals Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, Llangollen, Wales Canals began to be built in the late eighteenth century to link the major manufacturing centres in the Midlands and north with seaports and with London, at that time itself the largest manufacturing centre in the country. Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be easily transported across country. A single canal horse could pull a load dozens of times larger than a cart at a faster pace. By the 1820s, a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain. Roads Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of some turnpike trust. New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and John Macadam. The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse. Stage coaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts. Railways A replica of the early locomotive Sans Pareil at a 1980 restaging of the Rainhill Trials of 1829 Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830. Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories. Railways helped Britain's trade enormously, providing a quick and easy way of transport and an easy way to transport mail and news. Social effects In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. However, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel—child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution. R.M. Hartwell, The Industrial Revolution and Economic Growth, Methuen and Co., 1971, page 339-341 ISBN 0-416-19500-8 Factories and urbanisation Manchester, England ("Cottonopolis"), pictured in 1840, showing the mass of factory chimneys Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory. Arguably the first was John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. However, the rise of the factory came somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanised. The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern city, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed "Cottonopolis", and arguably the world's first industrial city. For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically water-powered and built to serve local needs. Later each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler. The transition to industrialisation was not without difficulty. For example, a group of English workers known as Luddites formed to protest against industrialisation and sometimes sabotaged factories. In other industries the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills, and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement. By 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system. Child labour A young "drawer" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase, but the chance of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the industrial revolution (although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly). . Although the survival rates for infants and children were static over this period, the birth rate & overall life expectancy increased. Thus the population grew, but the average Briton was about as old in 1850 as in 1750 (see figures 5 & 6, page 28). Population size statistics from mortality.org put the mean age at about 26. There was still limited opportunity for education, and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. Child labour had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Before the passing of laws protecting children, many were forced to work in terrible conditions for much lower pay than their elders. "The Life of the Industrial Worker in Ninteenth-Century England". Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines and textile factories and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare. Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws decreased the number of child labourers; however, child labour remained in Europe up to the 20th century. Housing Over London by Rail Gustave Doré c. 1870. Shows the densely populated and polluted environments created in the new industrial cities Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from the splendour of the homes of the owners to the squalor of the lives of the workers. Cliffe Castle, Keighley, is a good example of how the newly rich chose to live. This is a large home modelled loosely on a castle with towers and garden walls. The home is very large and was surrounded by a massive garden, the Cliffe Castle is now open to the public as a museum. Poor people lived in very small houses in cramped streets. These homes would share toilet facilities, have open sewers and would be at risk of damp. Disease was spread through a contaminated water supply. Conditions did improve during the 19th century as public health acts were introduced covering things such as sewage, hygiene and making some boundaries upon the construction of homes. Not everybody lived in homes like these. The Industrial Revolution created a larger middle class of professionals such as lawyers and doctors. The conditions for the poor improved over the course of the 19th century because of government and local plans which led to cities becoming cleaner places, but life had not been easy for the poor before industrialisation. However, as a result of the Revolution, huge numbers of the working class died due to diseases spreading through the cramped living conditions. Chest diseases from the mines, cholera from polluted water and typhoid were also extremely common, as was smallpox. Accidents in factories with child and female workers were regular. Dickens' novels illustrate this; even some government officials were horrified by what they saw. Strikes and riots by workers were also relatively common. Luddites The Leader of the luddites, engraving of 1812 The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd, a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures using the militia or army to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or transported for life. Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as agricultural labourers in the 1830s, when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and rick burning was a popular activity. The riots led however, to the first formation of trade unions, and further pressure for reform. Organization of labour The Great Chartist Meeting on Kennington Common, 1848 The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffer the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining. The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action. Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In England, the Combination Act forbade workers to form any kind of trade union from 1799 until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted. In 1832, the year of the Reform Act which extended the vote in England but did not grant universal suffrage, six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than 10 shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six shillings. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, George's brother James Loveless, George's brother in-law Thomas Standfield, and Thomas's son John Standfield were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the Tolpuddle martyrs. In the 1830s and 1840s the Chartist movement was the first large scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration. Working people also formed friendly societies and co-operative societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class. Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a General Strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain. General Strike 1842 From chartists.net, Accessed 13 November 2006. Eventually effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to became the British Labour Party. Other effects The application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass political participation. During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829. Mabel C. Buer, Health, Wealth and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1926, page 30 ISBN 0-415-38218-1 Also, there was a significant increase in worker wages during the period 1813-1913. Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living From www.econlib.org, downloaded 17 July 2006. R.M. Hartwell, The Rising Standard of Living in England, 1800-1850, Economic History Review, 1963, page 398 ISBN 0-631-18071-0 According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1851 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million. The UK population: past, present and future, statistics.gov.uk Continental Europe The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809 part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England. The German, Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such as iron), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted. Wallonia, Belgium Boat Lifts on the old Canal du Centre about 1900 World Heritage Site Workers' housing at Bois-du-Luc (1838-1853) in La Louvière Renowned for its coal and steel, Wallonia has experienced strong industrial growth since the Middle Ages. For many years, heavy industry was the driving force behind the region's economy. Indeed, Wallonia was the birthplace of the industrial revolution on continental Europe: Before railway construction on the Continent demanded huge quantities of maleable iron mainly for rails, for which low quality iron sufficed, Wallonia was the only Continental region to follow the British model successfully. Since the middle of the 1820s, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi. Excelling all others, John Cockerill's factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production,from engineering to the supply of raw materials,as early in 1825. Chris Evans, Göran Rydén, The Industrial Revolution in Iron; The impact of British Coal Technology in Ninenteenth-Century Europe Published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Farnham2005, pp. 37-38 ISBN 075463390X. Wallonia came to be regarded as an example of the radical evolution of industrial expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word "houille" was coined in Wallonia), a word from Walloon origin the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after England. But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its Sillon industriel, 'Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, (...) there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...' Muriel Beven and Isabelle Devos, 'Breaking stereotypes', in M.Beyen and I.Devos (editors), 'Recent work in Belgian Historical Demography', in Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine, XXXI, 2001, 3-4, pages 347-359 . Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: "It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after England." Philippe Raxhon, Le siècle des forges ou la Wallonie dans le creuset belge (1794-1914), in B.Demoulin and JL Kupper (editors), Histoire de la Wallonie, Privat, Toulouse, 2004, pages 233-276, p. 246 ISBN 2-7089-4779-6 "The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent." [European Route of Industrial Heritage http://en.erih.net/index.php?pageId=114] Michel De Coster, Professor at the Université de Liège wrote also: "The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory (...) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated" Michel De Coster, Les enjeux des conflits linguistiques, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2007, ISBN 978-2-296-0339-8 , pages 122-123 Demographic effects Wallonia's Sillon industriel, not the blue bloth in the N Gallow frame of the Crachet in Frameries IN Wallonia's French Châssis à molettes or Belfleur (French Chevalement Official Poster of the Liège's World fair in 1905 Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade-unions in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon industriel, which runs from Mons in the west, to Verviers in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Wallonia is the second industrial country after England, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different. In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Beven and Isabelle Devos say: The industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanization degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of the most urbanized in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 per cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent in most West European countries, 16 per cent in France and 25 per cent in England. Nineteenth century industrialization did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent (...) Also, in Wallonia the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialization process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making, urbanization was rapid. During these eighty years the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialization remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal-mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows. Muriel Beven and Isabelle Devos, Breaking stereotypes, art. cit., pages 315-316 Political and social effects Wallonia became the country of the general strike. A general strike is the "cessation of work by a majority of the workers in all industries of a locality or nation. Such a stoppage is economic if it is for the purpose of redressing some grievance or pressing upon the employer a series of economic demands. It is political if called for the purpose of wresting some concession from the government or if the goal is the overthrow of the existing government. The political strike has been advocated by the syndicalists and to a certain extent by anarchistic movements". The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2008 General strikes in Wallonia took place in 1885 (this strike began to celebrate the Commune de Paris), 1902, 1913 (in order to win the universal suffrage), 1932, 1936 (in order to win paid holidays), 1950 (against Leopold III), in the winter 1960-1961 in order to win the autonomy of Wallonia, when the Walloon economic decline became clear and when it became (or seemed) clear for some socialist Trade-Unions leaders, that the Belgian government would not make anything for the economic recovery of Wallonia. France A barricade of the Commune de Paris—celebrated in march 1885 in Wallonia by a General strike March 18th, 1871. The industrial revolution in France was a particular process for it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians considers that France did not go through a clear take-off Jean Marczewski, « Y a-t-il eu un "take-off" en France ? », 1961, dans les Cahiers de l'ISEA . Instead, France economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady along the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer : French Revolution and Napoleonic wars (1789-1815), industrialisation, along with Britain (1815-1860), economic slow (1860-1905), renewal of the growth after 1905. United States As in Britain, the United States originally used water power to run its factories, with the consequence that industrialisation was essentially limited to New England and the rest of the Northeastern United States, where fast-moving rivers were located. However, the raw materials (cotton) came from the Southern United States. It was not until after the Civil War in the 1860s that steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to fully spread across the nation. Slater's Mill Samuel Slater (1768–1835) is popularly known as the founder of the American cotton industry. As a boy apprentice in Derbyshire, England, he learned of the new techniques in the textile industry and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. Slater started Slater's Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1793 and went on to own thirteen textile mills. Encyclopædia Britannica (1998): Samuel Slater Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1810, the third woollen mill established in the U.S. (The first was in Hartford, Connecticut, and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts.) The John H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of "America's Hardest-Working River', the Blackstone. The Blackstone River and its tributaries, which cover more than from Worcester to Providence, was the birthplace of America's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater's mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America's Industrial and Technological Development. While on a trip to England in 1810, Newburyport merchant Francis Cabot Lowell was allowed to tour the British textile factories, but not take notes. Realising the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that a market for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, he memorised the design of textile machines, and on his return to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company. Lowell and his partners built America's first cotton-to-cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts. After his death in 1817, his associates built America's first planned factory town, which they named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering, one of the first uses of it in the United States. Lowell, Massachusetts, utilising of canals and ten thousand horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River, is considered the 'Cradle of the American Industrial Revolution'. The short-lived utopia-like Lowell System was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the Irish Potato Famine, the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour. Japan In 1871 a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the USA to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state led industrialisation policy to prevent Japan from falling behind. The Bank of Japan, founded in 1877, used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west. Second Industrial Revolution and later evolution Bessemer converter The insatiable demand of the railways for more durable rail led to the development of the means to cheaply mass-produce steel. Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a "Second Industrial Revolution", beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could make wrought iron and steel in large quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s. This second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include the chemical industries, petroleum refining and distribution, electrical industries, and, in the twentieth century, the automotive industries, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany. The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation. Marshall McLuhan analysed the social and cultural impact of the electric age. While the previous age of mechanisation had spread the idea of splitting every process into a sequence, this was ended by the introduction of the instant speed of electricity that brought simultaneity. This imposed the cultural shift from the approach of focusing on "specialized segments of attention" (adopting one particular perspective), to the idea of "instant sensory awareness of the whole", an attention to the "total field", a "sense of the whole pattern". It made evident and prevalent the sense of "form and function as a unity", an "integral idea of structure and configuration". This had major impact in the disciplines of painting (with cubism), physics, poetry, communication and educational theory. Marshall McLuhan (1964) Understanding Media, p.13 By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, and Bayer AG joined the railroad companies on the world's stock markets. Intellectual paradigms and criticism Capitalism The advent of the Age of Enlightenment provided an intellectual framework which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientific knowledge—a factor evidenced in the systematic development of the steam engine, guided by scientific analysis, and the development of the political and sociological analyses, culminating in Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations. One of the main arguments for capitalism, presented for example in the book The Improving State of the World, is that industrialisation increases wealth for all, as evidenced by raised life expectancy, reduced working hours, and no work for children and the elderly. Marxism Marxism is essentially a reaction to the Industrial Revolution. According to Karl Marx, industrialisation polarised society into the bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production, the factories and the land) and the much larger proletariat (the working class who actually perform the labour necessary to extract something valuable from the means of production). He saw the industrialisation process as the logical dialectical progression of feudal economic modes, necessary for the full development of capitalism, which he saw as in itself a necessary precursor to the development of socialism and eventually communism. Romanticism During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed. This was known as the Romantic movement. Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in contrast to "monstrous" machines and factories; the "Dark satanic mills" of Blake's poem "And did those feet in ancient time". Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two-edged. See also General Capitalism in the nineteenth century Deindustrialization Dialectics of progress Economic history of the United Kingdom Electrification Information revolution Pre-industrial society Papermaking Paper Other New Industrial Revolution Science and invention in Birmingham Technological and industrial history of the United States Notes References External links Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution "The Day the World Took Off" Six part video series from the University of Cambridge tracing the question "Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when and where it did." BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living by Clark Nardinelli – the debate over whether standards of living rose or fell. 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6,610 | Dimethyltryptamine | Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), also known as N,N-dimethyltryptamine, is a naturally-occurring tryptamine and potent psychedelic drug, found not only in many plants, but also in trace amounts in the human body where its natural function is undetermined. Structurally, it is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin and other psychedelic tryptamines such as 5-MeO-DMT and 4-HO-DMT. DMT is created in small amounts by the human body during normal metabolism Barker SA, Monti JA and Christian ST (1981). N,N-Dimethyltryptamine: An endogenous hallucinogen. In International Review of Neurobiology, vol 22, pp. 83-110; Academic Press, Inc. by the enzyme tryptamine-N-methyltransferase. Many cultures, indigenous and modern, ingest DMT as a psychedelic in extracted or synthesized forms. Pure DMT at room temperature is a clear or white to yellowish-red crystalline solid. A laboratory synthesis of DMT was first reported in 1931, and it was later found in many plants. Jeremy Bigwood and Jonathan Ott (1977): "DMT", Head Magazine Chemistry DMT is a derivative of tryptamine with two additional methyl groups at the amine nitrogen atom. DMT was first extracted from the roots of Mimosa hostilis in 1946 by Brazilian ethnobotanist and chemist Gonçalves de Lima who named it Nigerine. DMT was first synthesized by a Canadian chemist Richard Manske in 1931. DMT is usually used in its base form, but it is more stable as a salt, e.g. as a fumarate. In contrast to DMT's base, its salts are water-soluble. DMT in solution degrades relatively quickly and should be stored protected from air, light, and heat in a freezer. Highly pure DMT crystals, when evaporated out of a solvent and deposited upon glass, often produce small but highly defined white crystalline needles which, when viewed under intense light, will sparkle. The crystals appear colorless under high magnification. Pharmacology DMT is an agonist of the 5-HT2A receptor and also has been shown to activate the 5-HT2C receptor http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9768567 . A study published in 2009 in Science shows that DMT is an agonist at the sigma-1 receptor http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/323/5916/934 http://www.uwhealth.org/news/psychoactivecompoundactivatesmysteriousreceptor/14330 They speculated that DMT could be an endogenous ligand for this receptor. However, the concentrations of about 10 mg/l (50 µM) that is needed for sigma-1 activation is many orders of magnitude higher than physiologically observed concentrations and is also about two orders of magnitude higher than that needed to activate the 5-HT2A receptor. Although this factor is only relevant if endogenous DMT acts as a hormone. The pharmacology of DMT is more suggestive of that of a neurotransmitter rather than a hormone Barker SA, Monti JA and Christian ST (1981). N,N-Dimethyltryptamine: An endogenous hallucinogen. In International Review of Neurobiology, vol 22, pp. 83-110; Academic Press, Inc. . As a transmitter DMT is able to have localized effects as the concentrations at the site of release are many times higher than the resulting plasma levels. DMT has also been shown to have efficacy at the trace amine associated receptor TAAR1. TAARs have also been proposed as the natural receptor of endogenous DMT. Wallach, JV: "Endogenous hallucinogens as ligands of the trace amine receptors: a possible role in sensory perception.", Med Hypotheses, 72(1):91-4 Psychedelic properties DMT occurs naturally in many species of plants often in conjunction with its close chemical relatives 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin (5-OH-DMT). DMT-containing plants are commonly used in several South American shamanic practices. It is usually one of the main active constituents of the drink ayahuasca, however ayahuasca is sometimes brewed without plants that produce DMT. DMT occurs as the primary active alkaloid in several plants including such plants as Mimosa hostilis, Diplopterys cabrerana, and Psychotria viridis. DMT is found as a minor alkaloid in snuff made from Virola bark resin in which 5-MeO-DMT is the main active alkaloid. DMT is also found as a minor alkaloid in the beans of Anadenanthera peregrina and Anadenanthera colubrina used to make Yopo and Vilca snuff in which bufotenin is the main active alkaloid. Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant Of Ancient South America By Constantino Manuel Torres, David B. Repke, 2006, ISBN 0789026422 Pharmanopo-Psychonautics: Human Intranasal, Sublingual, Intrarectal, Pulmonary and Oral Pharmacology of Bufotenine by Jonathan Ott, The Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, September 2001 Psilocybin, the active chemical in psilocybin mushrooms can also be considered a close chemical relative Relation between DMT and other related compounds http://deoxy.org/t_thc.htm for the psilocybin molecule contains a DMT molecule at the end as with other close chemical relatives (4-Phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyl-tryptamine). The psychotropic effects of DMT were first studied scientifically by the Hungarian chemist and psychologist Dr. Stephen Szára, who performed research with volunteers in the mid-1950s. Szára, who later worked for the US National Institutes of Health, had turned his attention to DMT after his order for LSD from the Swiss company Sandoz Laboratories was rejected on the grounds that the powerful psychotropic could be dangerous in the hands of a communist country. DMT during various stages of purification in an illegal drug laboratory in Los Angeles DMT is generally not active orally unless it is combined with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), such as harmaline. Without a MAOI, the body quickly metabolizes orally administered DMT, and it therefore has no hallucinogenic effect unless the dose exceeds monoamine oxidase's metabolic capacity (very rare). Other means of ingestion such as smoking or injecting the drug can produce powerful hallucinations and entheogenic activity for a short time (usually less than half an hour), as the DMT reaches the brain before it can be metabolised by the body's natural monoamine oxidase. Taking a MAOI prior to smoking or injecting DMT will greatly prolong and potentiate the effects of DMT. If DMT is smoked, injected, or orally ingested with a MAOI, it can produce powerful entheogenic experiences including intense visuals, euphoria, even true hallucinations (perceived extensions of reality). http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/dmt/dmt.shtml Inhaled: If DMT is smoked, the effects last for a short period of time, usually 5 to 30 minutes (dependent on dose). The onset after inhalation is very fast (less than 45 seconds) and peak effects are reached within a minute. In the 1960s, some reportedly referred to DMT as "the businessman's trip" http://www.drugfree.org/Portal/drug_guide/DMT due to the relatively short duration of vaporized, insufflated, or injected DMT. Although the smoke produced is described as harsh by some, it can be mixed with cannabis or one of many smoking mixtures and be used in a pipe, a waterpipe (popularly known as a bong), or a vaporizer. This helps to improve the smoothness of the smoke, ultimately making the substance easier to ingest. Insufflation: When DMT is insufflated, the duration is markedly increased, and some users report diminished euphoria but an intensified otherworldly experience. Injection: Injected DMT produces an experience that is similar to inhalation in duration, intensity, and characteristics. Oral ingestion: DMT is broken down by the digestive enzyme monoamine oxidase and is practically inactive if taken orally, unless combined with a MAOI. The traditional South American ayahuasca, or yage, is a tea mixture containing DMT and an MAOI. There are a variety of recipes to this brew, but most commonly it is simply the leaves of Psychotria viridis (the source of DMT) and the vine Banisteriopsis caapi (the source of MAOI). Other DMT containing plants, including Diplopterys cabrerana, are sometimes used in ayahuasca in different areas of South America. Two common sources in the western US are Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) and Harding grass (Phalaris aquatica). In addition, Jurema (Mimosa hostilis) shows evidence of DMT content: the pink layer in the bark of this vine contains a high concentration of N,N-DMT. These invasive grasses contain low levels of DMT and other alkaloids. Taken orally with an appropriate MAOI, DMT produces a long lasting (over 3 hour), slow, deep metaphysical experience similar to that of psilocybin mushrooms, but more intense with a shorter duration. MAOIs should be used with extreme caution as they can have lethal complications with some prescription drugs such as SSRI antidepressants, some over-the-counter drugs, Callaway J.C. and Grob C.S. (1998). Ayahuasca preparations and serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a potential combination for adverse interaction. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 30(4): 367-369. and many common foods. Induced DMT experiences can include profound time-dilation, visual and auditory illusions, and other experiences that, by most firsthand accounts, defy verbal or visual description. Some users report intense erotic imagery and sensations and utilize the drug in a ritual sexual context. In a study conducted from 1990 through 1995, University of New Mexico psychiatrist Rick Strassman found that many volunteers injected with high doses of DMT had experiences with a perceived alien entity. Usually, the reported entities were experienced as the inhabitants of a perceived independent reality the subjects reported visiting while under the influence of DMT. Indicated for: ? Recreational uses: Euphoria Psychedelic effects Induction of profound or transcendental life experiences Unethical uses: ? Other uses: Mystical experience Shamanic Spiritual/ReligiousContraindications: Individuals with a family history of schizophrenia or similar conditions should be very careful when using psychedelic substances like DMT as they could trigger latent psychological and mental problems. As with all psychoactive substances, set and setting are of utmost importance. Side effects When DMT is vaporized, the vapor produced is often felt to be very harsh on the lungs. According to a "Dose-response study of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans" by Rick Strassman, "Dimethyltryptamine dose dependently elevated blood pressure, heart rate, pupil diameter, and rectal temperature, in addition to elevating blood concentrations of beta-endorphin, corticotropin, cortisol, and prolactin. Growth hormone blood levels rose equally in response to all doses of DMT, and melatonin levels were unaffected." Speculations DMT crystal at 400x magnification. Several speculative and yet untested hypotheses suggest that endogenous DMT, produced in the human brain, is involved in certain psychological and neurological states. DMT is naturally produced in small amounts in the brain and other tissues of humans and other mammals. Some believe it plays a role in mediating the visual effects of natural dreaming, and also near-death experiences, religious visions and other mystical states. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=104240746&sc=fb&cc=fp A biochemical mechanism for this was proposed by the medical researcher J. C. Callaway, who suggested in 1988 that DMT might be connected with visual dream phenomena, where brain DMT levels are periodically elevated to induce visual dreaming and possibly other natural states of mind. A new theory proposed is that in addition to being involved in altered states of consciousness, endogenous DMT may be involved in the creation of normal waking states of consciousness. It is proposed that DMT and other endogenous hallucinogens mediate their neurological abilities by acting as neurotransmitters at a sub class of the trace amine receptors; a group of receptors found in the CNS where DMT and other hallucinogens have been shown to have activity. Wallach further proposes that in this way waking consciousness can be thought of as a controlled psychedelic experience. It is when the control of these systems becomes loosened and their behavior no longer correlates with the external world that the altered states arise. Dr. Rick Strassman, while conducting DMT research in the 1990s at the University of New Mexico, advanced the theory that a massive release of DMT from the pineal gland prior to death or near death was the cause of the near death experience (NDE) phenomenon. Several of his test subjects reported NDE-like audio or visual hallucinations. His explanation for this was the possible lack of panic involved in the clinical setting and possible dosage differences between those administered and those encountered in actual NDE cases. Several subjects also reported contact with 'other beings', alien like, insectoid or reptilian in nature, in highly advanced technological environments where the subjects were 'carried', 'probed', 'tested', 'manipulated', 'dismembered', 'taught', 'loved' and even 'raped' by these 'beings'. Those could be the same beings that some of the ancient cultures that consumed DMT rich beverages, like ayahuasca, considered their gods. Also, this leads to the idea that the alien abduction phenomenon could be produced by high levels of endogenous DMT in the human body, and that it might be a physiological condition that could pass genetically to the descendants of such people. (see Abduction phenomenon). Strassman noted, though, that the experience might be highly influenced by the actual user's life, showing what the person needs, given their personal story of the moment, more than what is wanted, and also that the setting could play a partial role, too (ex: in a waking dream state). In the 1950s, the endogenous production of psychoactive agents was considered to be a potential explanation for the hallucinatory symptoms of some psychiatric diseases as the transmethylation hypothesis Osmund H and Smythies JR (1952). Schizophrenia: A new approach. Journal of Mental Science 98:309-315. (see also adrenochrome). Unfortunately, this hypothesis does not account for the natural presence of endogenous DMT in otherwise normal humans, rats and other laboratory animals. The proposal by Dr. Callaway was, however, the first to suggest a useful function for the endogenous production of DMT: to facilitate the visual phenomenon of normal dreaming. Writers on DMT include Terence McKenna, Jeremy Narby and Graham Hancock (in passages of Supernatural) though most scientists who study psychedelic drugs treat their writings with skepticism. McKenna writes of his DMT experiences with a decidedly less skeptical slant, often presuming that the drug's "intoxication" is indicative of realms of consciousness equally as valid as waking-life if not more so. In his writings and speeches, he recounts encounters with entities he sometimes describes as "Self-Transforming Machine Elves" among equally colorful phrases. McKenna believed DMT to be a tool that could be used to enhance communication and allow for communication with other-worldly entities. Other users report visitation from external intelligences attempting to impart information. These Machine Elf experiences are said to be shared by many DMT users. From a researcher's perspective, perhaps best known is Dr. Rick Strassman's DMT: The Spirit Molecule (ISBN 0-89281-927-8); Rick Strassman, DMT: The Spirit Molecule: A Doctor's Revolutionary Research into the Biology of Near-Death and Mystical Experiences, 320 pages, Park Street Press, 2001, ISBN 0-89281-927-8 Dr. Strassman speculated that DMT is made in the pineal gland, largely because the necessary constituents (see methyltransferases) needed to make DMT are found in the pineal gland. Legal status United States DMT is classified in the United States as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. In December 2004, the Supreme Court lifted a stay thereby allowing the Brazil-based União do Vegetal (UDV) church to use a decoction containing DMT in their Christmas services that year. This decoction is a "tea" made from boiled leaves and vines, known as hoasca within the UDV, and ayahuasca in different cultures. In Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal, the Supreme Court heard arguments on November 1, 2005 and unanimously ruled in February 2006 that the U.S. federal government must allow the UDV to import and consume the tea for religious ceremonies under the 1993 Religious Freedom Restoration Act. Canada DMT is classified in Canada as a Schedule III drug. France DMT, along with most of its plant sources, is classified in France as a stupéfiant (Narcotic). United Kingdom DMT is classified in the United Kingdom as a Class A drug. New Zealand DMT is classified as a Class A drug in New Zealand. Culture In Brazil there are a number of religious movements based on the use of ayahuasca, usually in an animistic context that may be shamanistic, sometimes mixed with Christian imagery. There are four main branches using DMT-MAOI based sacraments in Brazil: Indigenous Brazilian. These are the oldest cultures in the whole of South America that continue to use ayahuasca or analogue brews, such as the ones made from Jurema in the Pernambuco, near Recife. Santo Daime ("Saint Give Unto Me") and Barquinha ("Little Boat"). A syncretic religion from Brazil. The former was founded by Raimundo Irineu Serra in the early 1930s, as an esoteric Christian religion with shamanic tendencies. The Barquinha was derived from this one. União do Vegetal (Union of Vegetal or UDV). Another Christian ayahuasca religion from Brazil, is a single unified organization with a democratic structure. Neo-shamans. There are some self-styled shamanic facilitators in Brazil and other South American countries that use ayahuasca or analogous brews in their rituals and séances. See also Ayahuasca Bufotenin Machine elf Terence McKenna Rick Strassman References External links Erowid DMT Vault DMT chapter from TiHKAL An overview of DMT: The Spirit Molecule by its author, Rick Strassman The Spirit Molecule - a documentary film about DMT | Dimethyltryptamine |@lemmatized dimethyltryptamine:6 dmt:98 also:14 know:4 n:13 naturally:3 occur:3 tryptamine:4 potent:1 psychedelic:8 drug:14 find:7 many:10 plant:10 trace:4 amount:3 human:8 body:5 natural:6 function:2 undetermined:1 structurally:1 analogous:2 neurotransmitter:3 serotonin:2 tryptamines:1 meo:3 ho:1 create:1 small:3 normal:4 metabolism:1 barker:2 sa:2 monti:2 ja:2 christian:5 st:2 endogenous:13 hallucinogen:5 international:2 review:2 neurobiology:2 vol:2 pp:2 academic:2 press:3 inc:2 enzyme:2 methyltransferase:1 culture:5 indigenous:2 modern:1 ingest:3 extracted:1 synthesized:1 form:2 pure:2 room:1 temperature:2 clear:1 white:2 yellowish:1 red:1 crystalline:2 solid:1 laboratory:4 synthesis:1 first:5 report:7 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6,611 | Afterlife | Ancient Egyptian papyrus depicting the journey into the afterlife. The afterlife (also referred to as life after death, the hereafter, or the great unknown) is the concept of a continued existence for the soul, spirit or mind of a being after biological death. Major views on the afterlife derive from religion, esotericism and metaphysics. In many popular views, this continued existence often takes place in a spiritual or immaterial realm. Deceased persons are usually believed to go to a specific realm or plane of existence after death, typically determined by God, based on their actions during life. In contrast, the term reincarnation refers to an afterlife in which only the "essence" of the being is preserved, and the "afterlife" is another life on Earth. Types of views on the afterlife There are two fundamentally different types of views on the afterlife: empirical views based on observation and religious views based on faith. The first type of claims are loosely based on observations and conjecture made by humans or instruments (for example a radio or a voice recorder, which are used in electronic voice phenomena, or EVP). These observations are made from reincarnation research, near death experiences, out-of-body experiences, astral projection, EVP, mediumship, various forms of photography et cetera. Academic inquiry into such phenomena can be broken down roughly into two categories: psychical research generally focuses on case studies, interviews, and field reports, while scientific parapsychology relates to strictly laboratory research. The second type are based on a form of faith, usually faith in the stories that are told by ancestors or faith in religious books like the Bible, the Qur'an, the Talmud, the Vedas, the Tripitaka et cetera. This article is mainly about this second type. The afterlife in different metaphysical models See the list of philosophical questions for information. In metaphysical models, theists generally believe some sort of afterlife awaits people when they die. Atheists generally do not believe that there is an afterlife. Members of some generally non-theistic religions such as Buddhism, tend to believe in an afterlife (such as reincarnation) but without reference to God. Agnostics generally hold the position that, like the existence of God, the existence of other supernatural phenomena such as the existence of souls or life after death is unverifiable and therefore remains unknown. Some philosophies (i.e. humanism, posthumanism, and, to some extent, empiricism) generally hold that there is no afterlife. Many religions, whether they believe in the soul’s existence in another world like Christianity, Islam and many pagan belief systems, or in reincarnation like many forms of Hinduism and Buddhism, believe that one’s status in the afterlife is a reward or punishment for their conduct during life. Reincarnation Reincarnation refers to an afterlife concept found among Hindus, Rosicrucians, Spiritists, and Wiccans. In reincarnation, spiritual development continues after death as the deceased begins another earthly life in the physical world, acquiring a superior grade of consciousness and altruism by means of successive reincarnations. This succession leads toward an eventual liberation. Some practitioners of eastern religions follow a different concept called metempsychosis which purposes that human beings can transmigrate into animals, vegetables, or even minerals. One consequence of the Hindu and Spiritist beliefs is that our current lives are also an afterlife. According to those beliefs events in our current life are consequences of actions taken in previous lives, or Karma. Rosicrucians, Max Heindel, The Rosicrucian Christianity Lectures (The Riddle of Life and Death), 1908, ISBN 0-911274-84-7 in the same way of those who have had near-death experiences, speak of a life review period occurring immediately after death and before entering the afterlife's planes of existence (before the silver cord is broken), followed by a judgment, more akin to a Final Review or End Report over one's life. Max Heindel, Death and Life in Purgatory - Life and Activity in Heaven Many Wiccans, though not all, profess a belief in an afterlife called the Summerland, a peaceful and sunny place where the souls of the newly dead are sent. Here, souls rest, recuperate from life, and reflect on the experiences they had during their lives. After a period of rest, the souls are reincarnated, and the memory of their previous lives is erased. Shi'a Muslims believe to Raj'a that can be understood as a limited reincarnation. The book In the Light of Truth - The Grail Message In the Light of Truth - The Grail Message , by Abd-ru-shin, offers new knowledge concerning the process of reincarnation. The human spirit is understood to have repeated earth-lives and experiences in the so-called "beyond", all of which are necessary for its eventual return to the Spiritual Realm (known to men as “Paradise”). There, the Grail Message explains, man began his journey as an unconscious spirit-seed. Urged by his wish for self-consciousness, he descended into the world of matter to gain experiences essential for his development, just as a seed falls to the earth in order to grow and mature. As a single earth-life cannot provide the full range of experiences, a human spirit generally reincarnates many times upon the earth among different peoples and cultures. The Spiritual Realm can only be reached again once the individual has made good any wrong doings from past and present earth-lives and attained to self-consciousness. Freed from all material attachments, he may dwell there eternally as a matured human spirit. Afterlife in ancient religions Ancient Egypt The afterlife played an important role in Ancient Egyptian religion, and its belief system is one of the earliest known. When the body died, parts of its soul known as ka (body double) and the ba (personality) would go to the Kingdom of the Dead. While the soul dwelt in the Fields of Aaru, Osiris demanded work as payback for the protection he provided. Statues were placed in the tombs to serve as substitutes for the deceased. Arriving at one's reward in afterlife was a demanding ordeal, requiring a sin-free heart and the ability to recite the spells, passwords, and formulae of the Book of the Dead. In the Hall of Two Truths, the deceased's heart was weighed against the Shu feather of truth and justice taken from the headdress of the goddess Ma'at. If the heart was lighter than the feather, they could pass on, but if it were heavier they would be devoured by the demon Ammit. Egyptians also believed that being mummified was the only way to have an afterlife. Only if the corpse had been properly embalmed and entombed in a mastaba, could the dead live again in the Fields of Yalu and accompany the Sun on its daily ride. Due to the dangers the afterlife posed, the Book of the Dead was placed in the tomb with the body as well as food, jewelry, and 'curses'. Zoroastrianism Zoroaster, who lived in Iran around 1000 BC, teaches that the dead will be swallowed by terror and purified to live in a perfected material world at the end of time. The Pahlavi text Dadestan-i Denig ("Religious Decisions") from about 900 CE, describes the particular judgment of the soul three days after death, with each soul sent to heaven, hell, or a neutral place (hamistagan) to await Judgment Day. Ancient Greek and Roman religion In the Odyssey, Homer refers to the dead as "burnt-out wraiths." An afterlife of eternal bliss exists in Elysium, but is reserved for Zeus's mortal descendants. In his Myth of Er, Plato describes souls being judged immediately after death and sent either to the heavens for a reward or underground for punishment. After their respective judgments have been enjoyed or suffered, the souls are reincarnated. The Greek god Hades is known in Greek mythology as the king of the underworld, a bleak place in between the place of torment and the place of rest, where most souls live after death. Some heroes of Greek legend are allowed to visit the underworld. The Romans had a similar belief system about the afterlife, with Hades becoming known as Pluto. In the ancient Greek myth about Herucles, he needs to travel to the underworld to capture Cerberus as one of his tasks, and retrieves Admetus' wife, Alcetis. Norse religion The Poetic and Prose Eddas, the oldest sources for information on the Norse concept of the afterlife, vary in their description of the several realms that are described as falling under this topic. The most well-known are: Valhalla: (lit. "Hall of the Slain" i.e. "the Chosen Ones") This heavenly abode, somewhat analogous to the Greek Elysium, is reserved for those brave warriors who die heroically in battle. Hel: (lit. "The Covered Hall") This abode is somewhat like Hades from Ancient Greek religion: there, something not unlike the Asphodel Meadows can be found, and people who have neither excelled in that which is good nor excelled in that which is bad can expect to go there after they die and be reunited with their loved ones. Niflhel: (lit. "The Dark" or "Misty Hel") This realm is roughly analogous to Greek Tartarus. It is the deeper level beneath Hel, and those who break oaths, abduct and rape women, and other vile things will be sent there to be among their kind to suffer harsh punishments. Afterlife in Abrahamic religions Judaism Resurrection Writing that would later be incorporated into the Hebrew Bible names sheol as the afterlife, a non-descriptive place where all are destined to go after death. The Book of Numbers refers to people going down to sheol when the earth opens up and destroys the rebellious Korah, Dathan and Abiram and their 250 followers (). One might take this as implying that sheol is literally underground, although it is as easily read literally, as signifying an earthquake or split in the earth. The Talmud offers a number of thoughts relating to the afterlife. After death, the soul is brought for judgment. Those who have lead pristine lives enter immediately into the "World to Come." Most do not enter the World to Come immediately, but now experience a period of review of their earthly actions and they are made aware of what they have done wrong. Some view this period as being a "re-schooling", with the soul gaining wisdom as one's errors are reviewed. Others view this period to include punishment for past wrongs. At the end of this period, approximately one year, the soul then takes its place in the World to Come. Although punishments are made part of certain Jewish conceptions of the afterlife, the concept of "eternal damnation," so prevalent in other religions, is not a central tenet of the Jewish afterlife. According to the Talmud, eternal punishment is reserved for a much smaller group of malicious and evil leaders, either whose deeds go way beyond norms, or who lead large groups of people to evil. In the Talmud, completed by 500 AD, non-Jews who are purely evil cease to exist in any realm when they die. However, authorities agree that virtuous gentiles are given a share in the world-to-come. The Book of Enoch describes sheol as divided into four compartments for four types of the dead: the faithful saints who await resurrection in Paradise, the merely virtuous who await their reward, the wicked who await punishment, and the wicked who have already been punished and will not be resurrected on Judgment Day. Fosdick, Harry Emerson. A guide to understanding the Bible. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1956. page 276. It should be noted that the Book of Enoch is considered apocryphal by most denominations of Christianity and all denominations of Judaism. The book of 2 Maccabees gives a clear account of the dead awaiting a future resurrection and judgment, plus prayers and offerings for the dead to remove the burden of sin. Maimonides describes the Olam Haba ("World to Come") in spiritual terms, relegating the prophesied physical resurrection to the status of a future miracle, unrelated to the afterlife or the Messianic era. According to Maimonides, an afterlife continues for the soul of every human being, a soul now separated from the body in which it was "housed" during its earthly existence. The Zohar describes Gehenna not as a place of punishment for the wicked but as a place of spiritual purification for souls. http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/06-Jewish-Thought/section-9.html Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism Rejection of Resurrection Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism reject Resurrection. Accordingly, they have modified the text to read m'chayei hakol ("who gives life to all"). In the new prayer book released by the Reform Judaism movement, they have returned the traditional prayer for the resurrection of the dead. Reform set to introduce new siddur Reincarnation While ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Socrates attempted to prove the existence of reincarnation through philosophical proofs, Jewish mystics who accepted this idea did not. Rather, they offered explanations of why reincarnation would solve otherwise intractable problems of theodicy (how to reconcile the existence of evil with the premise of a good God). Reincarnation appeared in Jewish thought some time after the Talmud. There is no reference to reincarnation in the Talmud or any prior writings. Saadia Gaon in Emunoth ve-Deoth Section vi The idea of reincarnation, called gilgul, became popular in folk belief, and is found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews. Among a few kabbalists, it was posited that some human souls could end up being reincarnated into non-human bodies. These ideas were found in a number of Kabbalistic works from the 1200s, and also among many mystics in the late 1500s. Martin Buber's early collection of stories of the Baal Shem Tov's life includes several that refer to people reincarnating in successive lives. Martin Buber, "Legende des Baalschem" in Die Chassidischen Bücher, Hellerau 1928, especially Die niedergestiegene Seele Among well known (generally non-kabbalist or anti-kabbalist) Rabbis who rejected the idea of reincarnation are Saadia Gaon, David Kimhi, Hasdai Crescas, Yedayah Bedershi (early 14th century), Joseph Albo, Abraham ibn Daud, the Rosh and Leon de Modena. Saadia Gaon, in Emunoth ve-Deoth, concludes Section vi with a refutation of the doctrine of metempsychosis (reincarnation). While refuting reincarnation, the Saadia Gaon further states that Jews who hold to reincarnation have adopted non-Jewish beliefs. Crescas writes that if reincarnation were real, people should remember details of their previous lives. The belief is common in Orthodox Judaism. Indeed there is an entire volume of work called Sha'ar Ha'Gilgulim Sha'ar Ha'Gilgulim, The Gate of Reincarnations, Chaim Vital (The Gate of Reincarnations), based on the work of Rabbi Isaac Luria (and compiled by his disciple, Rabbi Chaim Vital). Kabbalah Introduction It describes the deep, complex laws of reincarnation. One concept that arises from Sha'ar Ha'gilgulim is the idea that gilgul is paralleled physically by pregnancy. Many Orthodox siddurim (prayerbooks) have a nightly prayer asking for forgiveness for sins that one may have committed in this gilgul or a previous one, which accompanies the nighttime recitation of the Shema before going to sleep. Krias Shema she'al ha-mitah: Ribono Shel Olom contains the gilgul reference in some versions Christianity In Scripture When questioned by the Sadducees about the resurrection, Jesus made it said that—in at least one way—the resurrected will be like angels in heaven. Matthew 22:23-33 Jesus also maintained that the time had come when the dead would hear the voice of the Son of God, and all who were in the tombs would come out, the faithful to the resurrection of life, and the unfaithful to the resurrection of judgment. According to the Gospel of Matthew, at the death of Jesus tombs were opened, and at his resurrection many saints who had died emerged from their tombs and went into "the holy city," presumably Jerusalem. Matthew 27:50-54 No other New Testament account includes this event. The Last Day: Jesus compared the kingdom of heaven, over which He rules, to a net which was thrown into the sea and gathered fish of every kind. When it was full, men drew it ashore and sat down and sorted the good into vessels but threw away the bad. So it will be at the close of the age also known as the Last Day. The angels will separate the evil from the righteous and throw them into the furnace of fire. Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their Father. The Early Church: 1st century Domenico Beccafumi's Inferno: a Christian vision of hell Jesus and the New Testament writers of the Bible books mention notions of an afterlife and resurrection that involve ideas like heaven and hell. The author of Luke recounts the story of Lazarus and the rich man, which shows people in Hades awaiting the resurrection either in comfort or torment. The author of the Book of Revelation writes about God and the angels versus Satan and demons in an epic battle at the end of times when all souls are judged. There is mention of ghostly bodies of past prophets, and the transfiguration. The Early Church: 2nd and 3rd century The non-canonical Acts of Paul and Thecla speak of the efficacy of prayer for the dead, so that they might be "translated to a state of happiness." Acts of Paul and Thecla 8:5 Hippolytus of Rome pictures Hades as a place where the righteous dead, awaiting in the bosom of Abraham their resurrection, rejoice at their future prospect, while the unrighteous are tormented at the sight of the "lake of unquenchable fire" into which they are destined to be cast. The Early Church: 4th and 5th century Gregory of Nyssa discusses the long-before believed possibility of purification of souls after death. He wrote that a person "may afterward in a quite different manner be very much interested in what is better, when, after his departure out of the body, he gains knowledge of the difference between virtue and vice and finds that he is not able to partake of divinity until he has been purged of the filthy contagion in his soul by the purifying fire" (emphases added) - Sermon on the Dead, AD 382, quoted in The Roots of Purgatory Saint Augustine counters Pelagius, arguing that original sin means that the unbaptized go to hell, including infants, albeit with less suffering than is experienced by those guilty of actual sins. Medieval Christianity Pope Gregory I repeats the concept, articulated over a century earlier by Gregory of Nyssa that the saved suffer purification after death, in connection with which he wrote of "purgatorial flames". The noun "purgatorium" (Latin: place of cleansing The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 06 Jun. 2007. ) is used for the first time to describe a state of painful purification of the saved after life. The same word in adjectival form (purgatorius -a -um, cleansing), which appears also in non-religious writing, Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary was already used by Christians such as Augustine of Hippo and Pope Gregory I to refer to an after-death cleansing. The Protestant Reformation Martin Luther denounces the doctrine of particular judgment, professing instead the belief that the soul sleeps until Judgment Day. John Calvin denounces Luther's doctrine, writing instead that the souls of the elect rest in blessedness while awaiting the resurrection of the dead. Swedenborg and the Enlightenment During the Age of Enlightenment, theologians and philosophers presented various philosophies and beliefs. A notable example is Emanuel Swedenborg who wrote some 18 theological works which describe in detail the nature of the afterlife according to his claimed spiritual experiences, the most famous of which is Heaven and Hell. On the other hand, the enlightenment produced more rationalist philosophies such as deism. Many deist freethinkers held that belief in an afterlife with reward and punishment was a necessity of reason and good moral order. Afterlife in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism) President Joseph F. Smith of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints presents an elaborate vision of the Afterlife. It is revealed as the scene of an extensive missionary effort by righteous spirits to redeem those still in darkness - a spirit prison or "hell" where the spirits of the dead remain until judgement. It is divided into two parts: Spirit Prison and Paradise. Together these are also known as the Spirit World (also Abraham's Bosom; see Luke 16:19-25). They believe that Christ visited spirit prison (1 Peter 3:18-20) and opened the gate for those who repent to cross over to Paradise. This is similar to the Harrowing of Hell doctrine of some mainstream Christian faiths. Both Spirit Prison and Paradise are temporary according to Latter-day Saint beliefs. After the resurrection, spirits are assigned "permanently" to three degrees of heavenly glory––Celestial, Terrestrial, and Telestial––(1 Cor 15:44-42; Doctrine and Covenants, Section 76) or are cast with Satan into Outer Darkness. (See Doctrine and Covenants, Section 76.) Salvation, faith, and merit from ancient to modern Christianity Most Christians deny that entry into Heaven can be properly earned, rather it is a gift that is solely God's to give through his unmerited grace. This belief follows the theology of St. Paul: For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God, not by works, so that no one can boast. The Augustinian, Thomist, Lutheran, and Calvinist theological traditions all emphasize the necessity of God's undeserved grace for salvation, and reject so-called Pelagianism, which would make man earn salvation through good works. Not all Christian sects accept this doctrine, leading many controversies on grace and free will, and the idea of predestination. In particular, the belief that heaven is a reward for good behavior is a common folk belief in Christian societies, even among members of churches which reject that belief. Christian theologians Thomas Aquinas and Jonathan Edwards wrote that the saved in heaven will delight in the suffering of the damned. Hell, however, doesn't fit modern, humanitarian concepts of punishment because it can't deter the unbeliever nor rehabilitate the damned, this however, does not affect the Christian belief which places Biblical teaching above the ideas of society. Some Christian believers have come to downplay the punishment of hell. Universalists teach that salvation is for all. Jehovah's Witnesses and Seventh-day Adventists, though they have among the strictest rules on how to conduct their lives, teach that sinners are destroyed rather than tortured forever. The dead as Angels in Heaven In the informal folk beliefs of many Christians, the souls of virtuous people ascend to Heaven and are converted into angels. More formal Christian theology makes a sharp distinction between angels, who were created by God before the creation of humanity, and saints, who are people who have received immortality from the grace of God through faith in the Son of God Jesus (John 3:16). Universalists Some sects, such as the Universalists, believe in universalism which holds that all will eventually be rewarded regardless of what they have done or believed. Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses understand Ecclesiastes 9:5 to preclude an afterlife: For the living are conscious that they will die; but as for the dead, they are conscious of nothing at all, neither do they any more have wages, because the remembrance of them has been forgotten. They believe that following Armageddon a resurrection in the flesh Acts 24:15 KJV to an Edenic Earth Insight on the Scriptures vol. 2 pp 574-6 will be rewarded to both righteous and unrighteous (but not wicked) dead. Acts 24:15 states, "“I have hope toward God . . . that there is going to be a resurrection of both the righteous and the unrighteous.” Eternal death (non-existence) is the punishment for sin lacking repentance after Armageddon. Although those who are not dead when Armageddon occurs will be judged and possibly slain during Armageddon because of their potential regretless sins. They believe that death is the price for sinning (that is why most dead will be resurrected - they paid the price already). Reasoning From the Scriptures pp 168-175 Jehovah's Witnesses website on Hell Modern Orthodox Christianity The beliefs typical to modern Orthodox Christian Churches needs to be delineated. The Modern Catholic Church In the 1990s, the Catechism of the Catholic Church defined hell not as punishment imposed on the sinner but rather as the sinner's self-exclusion from God. Christian Science Christian Science teaches that the after-death state consists of a form of "probation" and spiritual development / progress whereby the experience of the deceased is in proportion to their ability to avail of the unlimited love of God. Consequently, a person dying in a state of sin would experience God's love as suffering (like a person used to darkness whose eyes are hurt by the light) while someone who passed on in a state of spiritualized consciousness would experience a corresponding level of happiness. There is no concept of eternal punishment in Christian Science: hell and heaven are both states of thought that correspond to the presence, or absence, of self-centredness that characterise the individual undergoing the experience of death. A person who seems to die does not "go" anywhere: he/she simply adjusts to another level of consciousness which is inaccessible to those they have left behind. The ultimate, and inevitable, goal of all of us is the experience of divine Love (heaven, harmony). Death is not necessary for the experience of heaven: it can be experienced here and now to the extent that one's thought is elevated to a spiritual level. Indeed, Christian Science teaches that death itself is an illusion, and that it can, and will, be ultimately conquered through the conquest of sin, as taught by Christ Jesus and exemplified in his life. Islam The Islamic belief in the afterlife as stated in the Qur'an is unique, its official description is more detailed. The Islamic word used to describe Paradise is jannah and to describe Hell is jahannam. Jannah and Jahannam both have different levels. Individuals will not arrive there until after the Judgment Day, when they will be resurrected. Their level of comfort while in the grave, however, depends on their belief in The God and His teachings, as well as their deeds during this life. The levels are 8 for Jannah Saheeh Al-Bukhari and 7 for Hell. Islam teaches that the purpose of man's creation is essentially to be kind to other human beings and to worship the Creator of the Heavens and Earth - Allah (the Arabic word used to refer to The One and Only God, who muslims consider to be the God of Judeochristian Tradition). Islam teaches that life lived on this Earth is a test for man to determine each individual's ultimate reward or punishment in the afterlife, which is eternal and everlasting. Eastern Religions Hinduism Upanishads describe reincarnation, or samsara. The Bhagavad Gita, an important book for Hinduism talks extensively about the afterlife. Here, the Lord Krishna says that just as a man discards his old clothes and wears new ones; similarly the soul discards the old body and takes on a new one. In Hinduism, the belief is that the body is but a shell, the soul inside is immutable and indestructible and takes on different lives in a cycle of birth and death. The end of this cycle is Moksha or salvation. Hindus also believe in 'Karma'. 'Karma' is the accumulated sums of one's good or bad deeds. According to Hinduism the basic concept of Karma is 'As you sow, you shall reap'. So, if you have a lived a good life you will be rewarded in the afterlife. Similarly your sum of bad deeds will be mirrored in your next life. Buddhism Buddhists believe that rebirth takes place without a self (similar to soul) and that the process of rebirth is simply a continuation of the previous life. The process of being reborn as any other being is based on your karma. From a Buddhist perspective, the current life is a continuation of the past life. If one dies with a peaceful state of mind, this will cause fortunate karma to ripen and a fortunate rebirth as a human or god will follow. If one dies with a negative state of mind, this will ripen negative karma and a lower rebirth such as an animal, ghost, or hell-being will follow. In Tibetan Buddhism the Tibetan Book of the Dead explains the intermediate state of humans between death and reincarnation. The deceased will find the bright light of wisdom, which shows a straightforward path to move upward and leave the cycle of reincarnation. There are various reasons why the deceased do not follow that light. Some had no briefing about the intermediate state in the former life. Others only used to follow their basic instincts like animals. And some have fear, which results from foul deeds in the former life or from insistent haughtiness. In the intermediate state the awareness is very flexible, so it is important to be virtuous, adopt a positive attitude, and avoid negative ideas. Ideas which are rising from subconsciousness can cause extreme tempers and cowing visions. In this situation they have to understand, that these manifestations are just reflections of the inner thoughts. No one can really hurt them, because they have no more material body. The deceased get help from different Buddhas who show them the path to the bright light. The ones who do not follow the path after all will get hints for a better reincarnation. They have to release the things and beings on which or whom they still hang from the life before. It is recommended to choose a family where the parents trust in the Dharma and to reincarnate with the will to care for the welfare of all beings. Sikhism Sikhs also believe in reincarnation. They believe that the soul belongs to the spiritual universe which has its origins in God. It is like a see-saw, the amount of good done in life will store up blessings, thus uniting with God. A soul may need to live many lives before it is one with God. But there is more to it than this; there are four classes that are included in this belief. Above these four classes is God "Waheguru" and you can stay with him if you like or take another step and go to your people and serve them. Below these four classes are non humans such as plants and viruses. You move up and down according to your deeds, a good life and death moves you up to a higher class and a bad life and death results in going down a class. Afterlife in modern science Scientists, in general, either describe the universe and human beings without reference to a soul or to an afterlife, or tend to remain mute on the issue. A notable exception is a famous study conducted in 1901 by physician Duncan MacDougall, who sought to measure the weight purportedly lost by a human body when the soul departed the body upon death. MacDougall weighed dying patients in an attempt to prove that the soul was material, tangible and thus measurable. These experiments are widely considered to have had little if any scientific merit, and although MacDougall's results varied considerably from "21 grams," for some people this figure has become synonymous with the measure of a soul's mass. Urban Legends - Reference Page (Soul man). The title of the 2003 movie 21 Grams is a reference to MacDougall's findings. The Society for Psychical Research was founded in 1884 with the express intention of investigating phenomena relating to Spiritualism and the afterlife. Its members continue to conduct scientific research on the paranormal to this day. Some of the earliest attempts to apply scientific methods to the study of phenomena relating to an afterlife were conducted by this organization. Its earliest members included noted scientists like William Crookes, and philosophers such as Henry Sidgwick and William James. J. B. Rhine, who was critical in the early foundations of parapsychology as a laboratory science, was committed to finding scientific evidence for the spiritual existence of humans. Scientists who have worked in this area include Raymond Moody, Susan Blackmore, Charles Tart, William James, J. B. Rhine, Ian Stevenson, Michael Persinger and Pim van Lommel among others. Near-death experience in survivors of cardiac arrest: a prospective study in the Netherlands Some, such as Francis Crick in 1994, have attempted a ‘scientific search for the soul’. Frank Tipler has argued that physics can explain immortality, though such arguments are not falsifiable and thus do not qualify as science. Charles Tart conducted research into out-of-body experiences, or OBEs, that indicated the possibility that a person might be able to perceive targets at a distance removed from the physical body. Charles Tart - out-of-body experiences and consciousness research Later investigations have both corroborated and failed to corroborate “out-of-body” experiences transcending the confines of the brain. "Further evidence for veridical perception during near-death experiences", Ring and Lawrence, Journal of Near-Death Studies Vol 11, Issue 4, p223-9. In one instance, a hospital placed an LED marquee above its patients’ beds which displayed a hidden message that could only be read if one were looking down from above. , no one who claimed near-death experience or out-of-body experience within that hospital had reported having seen the hidden message. In 2008 however, Penny Sartori, an intensive care nurse from Swansea, published an academic book about near death experiences following 10 years of research. Sartori found that people who went through out-of-body experiences felt as if they floated above themselves and were able to accurately recount what had happened in the room even though their bodily eyes were closed. 'Nurse writes book on near-death' BBC News. Published June 19, 2008. Accessed 6 August, 2008. Scientific investigation of the afterlife also includes the study of (among others) cases of haunting, apparitions of the deceased (including, in some cases, information conveyed by those same apparitions), instrumental transcommunication (recording of paranormal voices on tape), and mediumship. David Fontana (2005): Is there an afterlife. A comprehensive overview of the evidence. A noteworthy recent study in this last area is known as the Scole experiment, a series of mediumistic séances that took place between 1993-98 in the presence of the researchers David Fontana, Arthur Ellison and Montague Keen. This has produced photographs, audio recordings and physical objects which appeared in the séance room (known as apports). Fontana (2005), p. 324-51. See also The Scole Experiment Currently, a large study, headed by Dr. Sam Parnia, is set to examine near-death experiences in cardiac arrest patients. Doctors at 25 UK and US hospitals will study 1,500 survivors to see if people with no heartbeat or brain activity can have "out of body" experiences. Study into near-death experiences BBC News. Published September 18, 2008. Accessed 20 September, 2008. See also Akhirah Atheism Bardo Belief Brig of Dread (Bridge of Dread) Cognitivism Cryonics Death Doomsday Electronic voice phenomenon Elysium Empiricism Epistemology Eschatology Eternity Exaltation (Mormonism) Ghosts Happiness Harrowing of Hell Haunting Health Heaven Hell Humanism (life stance) Immortality Intermediate state Jewish eschatology Life Life extension Limbo Logical positivism Mictlan Near-death experience Omega point Out-of-body experience Pre-Birth communication Preventive medicine Reincarnation Salvation Scientific method Sheol Soul Soul retrieval Suspended animation Truth Undead Valhalla Verification References Further reading Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions edited by Hiroshi Obayashi, Praeger, 1991 Beyond Death: Theological and Philosophical Reflections on Life after Death edited by Dan Cohn-Sherbok and Christopher Lewis, Pelgrave-MacMillan, 1995 The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection by Jane Idelman Smith and Yazbeck Haddad, Oxford UP, 2002 Life After Death: A History of the Afterlife in Western Religion by Alan F. Segal, Doubleday, 2004 Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul by John J. McGraw, Aegis Press, 2004 Beyond the Threshold: Afterlife Beliefs and Experiences in World Religions by Christopher M. Moreman, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008. Is there an afterlife: a comprehensive overview of the evidence by David Fontana, O Books 2005. External links ''Proof of the Afterlife by Mano Singham Book about the Afterlife - A Door to the Afterlife by Rene Jorgensen Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Death and Immortality What does Heaven look like? - A Guide to the Afterlife and Heaven Veritas Research Program The University of Arizona, Tucson Arizona (Extensive 1878 text by William Rounseville Alger) A Door to Enlightenment at Death Afterlife Description & Analysis A View on Life after Death Afterlife insights from Near Death Experiences | Afterlife |@lemmatized ancient:9 egyptian:3 papyrus:1 depict:1 journey:2 afterlife:58 also:14 refer:4 life:49 death:49 hereafter:1 great:1 unknown:2 concept:10 continued:1 existence:13 soul:37 spirit:13 mind:3 biological:1 major:1 view:9 derive:1 religion:15 esotericism:1 metaphysics:1 many:13 popular:2 continue:4 often:1 take:10 place:18 spiritual:11 immaterial:1 realm:7 deceased:6 person:6 usually:2 believe:18 go:14 specific:1 plane:2 typically:1 determine:2 god:25 base:7 action:3 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6,612 | Barbados | Barbados (), situated just east of the Caribbean Sea, is an independent West Indian Continental Island-nation in the western Atlantic Ocean. For over three centuries Barbados was under British rule and maintains Queen Elizabeth II as head of state. Located at roughly 13° North of the equator and 59° West of the prime meridian, it is considered a part of the Lesser Antilles. Its closest island neighbours are Saint Vincent & the Grenadines and Saint Lucia to the west. To the south lies Trinidad and Tobago—with which Barbados now shares a fixed official maritime boundary—and also the South American mainland. Barbados's total land area is about 430 square kilometres (166 square miles), and is primarily low-lying, with some higher in the country's interior. The highest point in Barbados is Mount Hillaby in the parish of Saint Andrew. The geological composition of Barbados is of non-volcanic origin and is predominantly composed of limestone-coral formed by subduction of the South American plate colliding with the Caribbean plate. The island's climate is tropical, with constant trade winds off the Atlantic Ocean serving to keep temperatures mild. Some less developed areas of the country contain tropical woodland and mangroves. Other parts of the interior which contribute to the agriculture industry are dotted with large sugarcane estates and wide, gently sloping pastures, with panoramic views down to the coast also. Barbados's human development index ranking is consistently among the top 75 countries in the world. For example, in 2006, it was ranked 31st in the world, and third in the Americas, behind Canada and the United States. History Etymology According to accounts by descendants of the aboriginal Arawak tribes on other local islands, the original name for Barbados was Ichirouganaim. The reason for the name "Barbados" is controversial. The Portuguese, en route to Brazil AXSES Systems Caribbean Inc., The Barbados Tourism Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia: History of Barbados or the Spanish The Commonwealth of Nations: Barbados - History have been credited as the first Europeans to discover and name the island. The word Barbados means "bearded", but it is a matter of conjecture whether "bearded" refers to the long, hanging roots of the bearded fig-tree (Ficus citrifolia), indigenous to the island; to the bearded Caribs once inhabiting the island as supported by Dr. Richard Allsopp, a Caribbean linguist; or to the foam spraying over the outlying reefs giving the impression of a beard. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position. Another name associated with Barbados or her people is "Bim","Bimshire"and De rock. The origin is uncertain but several theories abound, the National Cultural Foundation of Barbados follows the Dr. Richard Allsopp theory, which is that "Bim" was a word commonly used by slaves and that it derives from the phrase "bi mu" National Cultural Foundation or either ("bem", "Ndi bem", "Nwanyi ibem" or "Nwoke ibem") from an Igbo phrase, meaning "my people." In colloquial or literary contexts, "Bim" can also take a more deific tone, referring to the "goddess" Barbados. The word Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary and the Chamber's Twentieth Century Dictionaries. Another possible source for "Bim" is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, The Rev. N Greenidge (father of one of the island's most famous scholars, Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge) suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were "Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire, and Bimshire". Lastly in the Daily Argosy (of Demerara i.e. Guyana) of 1652 it referred to Bim as a possible corruption of the word "Byam", who was a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims and became a word for all Barbadians. Early history The first indigenous people are thought to be Amerindians who arrived from Venezuela around approximately 350-400 B.C. The Arawak people were the second wave of migrants, arriving from South America around 800. In the thirteenth century, the Caribs arrived from South America in the third wave, displacing both the Arawak and the Salodoid-Barrancoid culture. For the next few centuries, the Caribs — like the Arawak and the Salodoid-Barrancoid — lived in isolation on the island. The Portuguese then briefly claimed Barbados from the mid-1500s to the 1600s; and may have seized the indigenous Caribs on Barbados and used them as slave labour. Other Caribs are believed to have fled the island to neighbouring islands. Apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Portuguese left little impact and by the 1610s, they left for South America, leaving the island uninhabited. British colonial rule British sailors who landed on Barbados in 1625 arrived at the site of present-day Holetown. From the arrival of the first British settlers in 1627–1628 until independence in 1966, Barbados was under uninterrupted British control. Nevertheless, Barbados always enjoyed a large measure of local autonomy. Its House of Assembly began meeting in 1639. Among the initial important British figures was Sir William Courten. With the increased implementation of slave codes, which created differential treatment between Africans and the white workers and planters, the island became increasingly unattractive to poor whites. Black or slave codes were implemented in 1661, 1676, 1682, and 1688. In response to these codes, several slave rebellions were attempted or planned during this time, but none succeeded. However, an increasingly repressive legal system caused the gap between the treatment of typically white indentured servants and black slaves to widen. Imported slaves became much more attractive for the rich planters who would increasingly dominate the island not only economically but also politically. Some have speculated that, because the Africans could withstand tropical diseases and the climate much better than the white slave population, the white population decreased. This is inconsistent with the fact that many poor whites simply migrated to neighbouring islands and remained in tropical climates. Nevertheless, poor whites who had or acquired the means to emigrate often did so. Planters expanded their importation of African slaves to cultivate sugar cane. The Barbados turned from mainly English and Scots-Irish in the seventeenth century to overwhelmingly black by the end of the 18th century. Barbados eventually had one of the world's biggest sugar industries after Jews from Brazil introduced the sugarcane to the island in the mid 1600s. This quickly replaced tobacco plantations on the islands which were previously the main export. As the sugar industry developed into its main commercial enterprise, Barbados was divided into large plantation estates that replaced the smallholdings of the early British settlers. Some of the displaced farmers moved to other British colonies in the Americas, most notably North and South Carolina, and British Guiana, as well as Panama. To work the plantations, planters imported enslaved West Africans to Barbados and other Caribbean islands. The British abolished the slave trade in 1807 but not the institution itself. In 1816, slaves arose in the largest major slave rebellion in the island's history. Twenty thousand slaves from over seventy plantations rebelled. They drove whites off the plantations, but widespread killings did not take place. This was later termed “Bussa's Rebellion” after the slave ranger Bussa, who with his assistants hated slavery, found the treatment of slaves on Barbados to be “intolerable,” and believed the political climate in the UK made the time ripe to peacefully negotiate with planters for freedom (Davis, p. 211; Northrup, p. 191). Bussa's Rebellion failed. One hundred and twenty slaves died in combat or were immediately executed; another 144 were brought to trial and executed; remaining rebels were shipped off the island (Davis, pp. 212–213). Slavery was finally abolished in the British Empire eighteen years later in 1834. In Barbados and the rest of the British West Indian colonies, full emancipation from slavery was preceded by an apprenticeship period that lasted four years. Statue of Lord Nelson in National Heroes Square which predates the more famous Nelson's Column by some 27 years. In 1884, the Barbados Agricultural Society sent a letter to Sir Francis Hincks requesting his private and public views on whether the Dominion of Canada would favourably entertain having the then colony of Barbados admitted as a member of the Canadian Confederation. Asked of Canada were the terms of the Canadian side to initiate discussions, and whether or not the island of Barbados could depend on the full influence of Canada in getting the change agreed to by the United Kingdom. Then in 1952 the Barbados Advocate newspaper polled several prominent Barbadian politicians, lawyers, businessmen, the Speaker of the Barbados House of Assembly and later as first President of the Senate, Sir Theodore Branker , Q.C. and found them to be in favour of immediate federation of Barbados along with the rest of the British Caribbean with complete Dominion Status within five years from the date of inauguration of the West Indies Federation with Canada. However, plantation owners and merchants of British descent still dominated local politics, owing to the high income qualification required for voting. More than 70% of the population, many of them disenfranchised women, were excluded from the democratic process. It was not until the 1930s that the descendants of emancipated slaves began a movement for political rights. One of the leaders of this movement, Sir Grantley Adams, founded the Barbados Labour Party in 1938, then known as the Barbados Progressive League. While being a staunch supporter of the monarchy, Adams and his party also demanded more rights for the poor and for the people. Progress toward a more democratic government in Barbados was made in 1942, when the exclusive income qualification was lowered and women were given the right to vote. By 1949 governmental control was wrested from the planters and, in 1958, Adams became Premier of Barbados. From 1958 to 1962, Barbados was one of the ten members of the West Indies Federation, an organisation doomed by nationalistic attitudes and by the fact that its members, as British colonies, held limited legislative power. Adams served as its first and only "Premier", but his leadership failed in attempts to form similar unions, and his continued defence of the monarchy was used by his opponents as evidence that he was no longer in touch with the needs of his country. Errol Walton Barrow, a fervent reformer, became the new people's advocate. Barrow had left the BLP and formed the Democratic Labour Party as a liberal alternative to Adams' conservative government. Barrow instituted many progressive social programmes, such as free education for all Barbadians, and the School Meals system. By 1961, Barrow had replaced Adams as Premier and the DLP controlled the government. With the Federation dissolved, Barbados had reverted to its former status, that of a self-governing colony. The island negotiated its own independence at a constitutional conference with the United Kingdom in June 1966. After years of peaceful and democratic progress, Barbados finally became an independent state on 30 November 1966, with Errol Barrow its first Prime Minister. Upon independence Barbados maintained historical linkages with Britain by establishing membership to the Commonwealth of Nations grouping, a year later Barbados' International linkages were expanded by obtaining membership to the United Nations and the Organization of American States. Government and politics Parliament Building. Barbados has been an independent country since 30 November 1966. It functions as a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, modeled on the British Westminster system, with Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados, as head of state represented locally by the Governor-General, Clifford Husbands and the Prime Minister as the head of the government. Its Parliament comprises thirty seats. Barbados is a full and participating member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy (CSME), the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), which pertains only to Barbados and Guyana but is expected to replace the UK Privy Council for the entire English-speaking Caribbean eventually, and the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). The Barbados Government's Regional and International affiliations Barbados has a two party system, the two dominant parties being the ruling Democratic Labour Party and the Barbados Labour Party. The Barbados Labour Party (BLP) had been in government for fifteen years, since 1993 until the 2008 general election. Under this administration, the Former Prime Minister, The Right Honourable Owen S. Arthur also acted as the Regional Leader of the CSM (Caribbean Single Market). The Right Honorable David Thompson is the Prime Minister of Barbados. Caribbean: News in the Caribbean - Caribbean360.com On 11 April 2006, the 5-Member UNCLOS Annex VII Arbitral Tribunal, presided over by H.E. Judge Stephen M. Schwebel, rendered after two years of international judicial proceedings, the landmark Barbados/Trinidad and Tobago Award, which resolved the maritime boundary delimitation (in the East, Central and West sectors) to satisfaction of both Parties and committed Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago to resolve their fisheries dispute by means of concluding a new Fisheries Agreement. Geography and climate of Barbados Map of Barbados Beach near Bridgetown, Barbados. Barbados is the easternmost Caribbean island. It is considered relatively flat in comparison to its island neighbours to the west in the Windward Islands, the island rises gently to the central highland region, with the highpoint of the country being Mount Hillaby, in the Scotland District. [340 meters (1,100 ft) above sea level]. The island is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, east of the other West Indies isles. Geologically composed of coral ( thick). The land falls in a series of "terraces" in the west and goes into an incline in the east. Much of the country is circled by coral reefs. In the parish of Saint Michael lies Barbados' capital and main city, Bridgetown. Other major towns scattered across the island include Holetown, in the parish of Saint James; Oistins, in the parish of Christ Church;; and Speightstown, in the parish of Saint Peter. Members of the private real estate industry in Barbados have been proposing the government stand behind their idea for the creation of 2 small artificial islands to be anchored off the west coast of Barbados. According Paul Altman of Altman Realty the envisioned plan, would consist of a twin island project. One islands at in size island that would house new tourism based developments. The second island would be in size and would serve as a national park. Both islands would be a short distance from the Deep Water Harbour in Bridgetown. An island north of the harbour - Peter Thorne, (February 25, 2009); Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) The climate is moderate tropical, with a wet season (June–November) and a more dry season (December–May). The annual precipitation ranges between 40-90 inches (1,000–2,300 mm). Barbados is often spared the worst effects of the region's tropical storms and hurricanes during the rainy season as its far eastern location in the Atlantic Ocean puts it just outside the principal hurricane strike zone. On average a hurricane may strike about once about every 26 years. The last significant hit from a hurricane to cause severe damage to Barbados was Hurricane Janet in 1955. Parishes Map of the parishes of Barbados Barbados is divided into eleven administrative parishes: Christ Church Saint Andrew Saint George Saint James Saint John Saint Joseph Saint Lucy Saint Michael Saint Peter Saint Philip Saint Thomas St.George and St.Thomas are the only parishes not touching the sea Economy Historically, the economy of Barbados had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but in recent years it has diversified into the manufacturing and tourism sectors. Offshore finance and information services have become important foreign exchange earners, and there is a healthy light manufacturing sector. In recent years the Government has been seen as business-friendly and economically sound. Since the late 1990s the island has seen a construction boom, with the development and redevelopment of hotels, office complexes, and homes. The government continues its efforts to reduce unemployment, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises. Unemployment has been reduced from around 14 percent in the past to under 10 percent. Circulating coins 2006 The economy contracted in 2001 and 2002 due to slowdowns in tourism, consumer spending and the impact of the September 11, 2001 attacks, but rebounded in 2003 and has shown growth since 2004. Traditional trading partners include Canada, the Caribbean Community (especially Trinidad and Tobago), the United Kingdom and the United States. Business links and investment flows have become substantial: as of 2003 the island saw from Canada CA$ 25 billion in investment holdings, placing it as one of Canada's top five destinations for Canadian Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Businessman Eugene Melnyk of Toronto, Canada, is said to be Barbados' richest permanent resident. It was thought by key Barbadian industry sources that the year 2006 would have been one of the busiest years for building construction ever in Barbados, as the building-boom on the island entered the final stages for several multi-million dollar projects. The Nation Newspaper | Builders paradise Transport Transport on the island is good, with 'route taxis', called "ZR's" (pronounced "Zed-Rs"), travelling to most points on the island. These small buses can at times be crowded, as passengers are generally never turned down, regardless of the number. However, they will usually take the more scenic routes to destinations. They generally depart from the capital Bridgetown or from Speightstown in the northern part of the island. A Mini Moke at Speightstown beach The island of Barbados's lone airport is the Sir Grantley Adams International Airport (GAIA) (IATA identifier BGI). It receives daily flights by several major airlines from points around the globe, as well as several smaller regional commercial airlines and charters. The airport serves as the main air-transportation hub for the Eastern Caribbean. It is undergoing a US$100 million upgrade and expansion. There are three bus systems running seven days a week (though less frequently on Sundays), and a ride on any of them costs $1.50 BBD. The smaller buses from the two privately-owned systems ("ZRs" and "minibuses") can give change; the larger blue and yellow buses from the government-operated Barbados Transport Board system cannot. Children in school uniform ride for free on the Government buses and for $1.00 on the minibuses and ZRs. Most routes require a connection in Bridgetown. Some drivers within the competitive privately owned systems are reluctant to advise persons to use competing services, even if those would be more suitable. Some hotels also provide visitors with shuttles to points of interest on the island from outside the hotel lobby. There are several locally-owned and -operated vehicle rental agencies in Barbados but there are no multi-national car-rental agencies such as Avis, Europcar or Hertz. However, some such as Top Class Car Rentals http://www.topclassrentals.com are Members of the local Hotel & Tourism Association (BHTA). There is also a helicopter shuttle service, which offers air taxi services to a number of sites around the island, mainly on the West Coast tourist belt. Air and water traffic is regulated by the Barbados Port Authority. Tourist information The island is well developed, and there are internationally known hotels offering world-class accommodation. Time-shares are available, and many of the smaller local hotels and private villas which dot the island have space available if booked in advance. The southern and western coasts of Barbados are popular, with the calm light blue Caribbean Sea and their fine white and pinkish sandy beaches. Along the island's east coast the Atlantic Ocean side are tumbling waves which are perfect for light surfing, but a little bit risky due to under-tow currents. Shopping districts are popular in Barbados, with ample duty-free shopping. There is also a festive night-life in mainly tourist areas such as the Saint Lawrence Gap. Other attractions include wildlife reserves, jewellery stores, scuba diving, helicopter rides, golf, festivals (the largest being the annual crop over festival July/Aug), sightseeing, cave exploration, exotic drinks and fine clothes shopping. Attractions, landmarks and points of interest Tourism accounts for almost one half of the economy. Name / Parish Location: - Christ Church Graeme Hall Nature Sanctuary St. Lawrence Gap Ocean Park Grantley Adams International Airport Chancery Lane Swamp - St. Andrew Chalky Mount potteries Cherry Tree Hill Morgan Lewis Windmill - St. George Francia Great House Gun Hill Signal Station Orchid World- St. James Folkestone Marine Park Lancaster Great House Gallery and Gardens Queen's College - St. John Codrington College Conset Bay St. John Parish Church & church yard Massaiah Street - St. Joseph Andromeda Gardens Flower Forest Hackleton's Cliff Bathsheba- St. Lucy Animal Flower Cave Little Bay - St. Michael Barbados Historical Museum Bridgetown Synagogue and Cemetery Bussa Emancipation Statue Garrison Savannah Kensington Oval Mount Gay Rum Barbados National Museum George Washington House The Salvation Army Divisional Headquaters- St. Peter Barbados Wildlife Reserve Farley Hill National Park St Nicholas Abbey - St. Philip Sunbury Plantation - St. Thomas Clifton Hill Moravian Church Harrison's Cave Sharon Moravian Church Welchman Hall Gully List of: Cities, towns and villages in Barbados. Bridgetown Holetown Oistins Six Cross Roads Speightstown St Lawrence Demographics A bus stop in Barbados High Street Barbados has a population of about 281,968 and a population growth rate of 0.33% (Mid-2005 estimates). Close to 90% of all Barbadians (also known colloquially as Bajan) are of African descent ("Afro-Bajans"). A mix of many African ethnicities, notably the Igbo, Akan and Yoruba people, they are mostly descendants of the slave labourers on the sugar plantations. The remainder of the population includes groups of Europeans ("Anglo-Bajans" / "Euro-Bajans") mainly from the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Chinese locally known as Bajan-Chiney, Bajan Hindus from India and Muslims from Bangladesh and Pakistan, and an influential "Arab-Bajans" group mainly of Christian Syrians and Lebanese descent. Other groups in Barbados include people from the United Kingdom, United States and Canada. Barbadians who return after years of residence in the U.S. are called "Bajan Yankees"; this term is considered derogatory by some. The country's official language is English, and a local dialect of which is referred to as Bajan, spoken by most. In religion, most Barbadians are Christians (67%), chiefly of the Anglican Church, but there are Protestant, Roman Catholic, Jehovah's Witness, Hindu, Muslim, and Jewish minorities. Barbados is a chief destination for emigrants from the South American nation of Guyana. The biggest communities outside the Afro-Caribbean community are: The Indo-Guyanese, an important part of the economy due to the increase of immigrants from partner country Guyana. There are reports of a growing Indo-Bajan diaspora originating from Guyana and India. They introduced soca-chutney , roti and many Indian dishes to Barbados' culture. Mostly from southern India and Hindu states, these 'Desi' peoples are growing in size but smaller than the equivalent communities in Trinidad & Guyana; Hinduism is one of Barbados' growing religions. Euro-Bajans (4% of the population) Barbados: People: Ethnic Groups. World Factbook of CIA have settled in Barbados since the 1500s, originating from England, Ireland and Scotland. In 1643, there were 37,200 whites in Barbados (86% of the population). Population, Slavery and Economy in Barbados, BBC. More commonly they are known as "White Bajans", although some carry Afro-Caribbean traces and vice-versa. Euro-Bajans introduced folk music, such as Irish music and Highland music, and certain place names, such as "Scotland", a mountainous region, and "Trafalgar Square" in Bridgetown, now renamed "Heroes Square". Among White Barbadians there exists an underclass known as Redlegs; the descendants of indentured servants, and prisoners imported to the island. The Irish in the Caribbean 1641-1837: An Overview, By Nini Rodgers, Society for Irish Latin American Studies Chinese-Barbadians (or, as they are known on the island, "Bajan-Chineys") are a small portion of Barbados' Asian demographics, smaller than the equivalent communities of Jamaica and Trinidad. Most if not all first arrived in the 1940s during the Second World War, originating mainly from the then British territory of Hong Kong. Many Chinese-Bajans have the surnames Chin, Chynn or Lee, although other surnames prevail in certain areas of the island. Chinese food and culture is becoming part of everyday Bajan culture. Lebanese and Syrians form the Middle Eastern community on the island and make up 89% of the Muslim population. Middle-Eastern Barbadians are often perceived to be the most successful group in business, along with the Chinese Bajans. During the Arab Israeli Wars, many Syrians and Lebanese headed for the West Indies to escape conflict and poverty in the Middle East. Also Jewish people arrived in Barbados around the same time, creating the biggest synagogue in the West Indies. Latin Americans have been migrating to the island since the 18th century, due to the close proximity of South America, many Venezuelans had migrated to Barbados as labourers via Trinidad. Brazilian Jews, Colombians and Panamanians also live on the island. The Spanish language is now being encouraged to be taught in Barbadian schools over French. Culture Banks beer at dusk The influence of the English on Barbados is more noticeable than on other islands in the West Indies. A good example of this is the island's national sport: cricket. Barbados has brought forth several great cricketers, including Garfield Sobers and Frank Worrell. Citizens are officially called Barbadians; bajans ( pronounced: "bay" "jan" ), The term "Bajan" may have come from a localized pronunciation of the word Barbadian which at times can sound more like "Bar-bajan". The largest carnival-like cultural event which takes place on the island is the Crop Over festival. As in many other Caribbean and Latin American countries, Crop Over is an important event for many people on the island, as well as the thousands of tourists that flock to the island to participate in the annual events. The festival includes musical competitions and other traditional activities. It gets under way from the beginning of July, and ends with the costumed parade on Kadooment Day, held on the first Monday of August. Barbados retains a strong British influence and is referred to by its neighbours as "Little England". Sports in Barbados As in other Caribbean countries of British descent, cricket is a favourite sport. In addition to several warm-up matches and six "Super Eight" matches, Barbados hosted the final of the 2007 Cricket World Cup. They have had many great cricketers such as Sir Garfield Sobers, Sir Frank Worrell, Joel Garner and Sir Clyde Walcott. Obadele Thompson is thus far the only world class sprinter from Barbados; he won a bronze medal at Olympic Games over 100m in 2000. In golf, the Barbados Open is an annual stop on the European Seniors Tour. In December 2006 the WGC-World Cup took place at the country's Sandy Lane resort on the Country Club course, an eighteen-hole course designed by Tom Fazio. Motorsports also play a role, with Rally Barbados occurring each summer and currently being listed on the FIA NACAM calendar. Basketball is a popular sport played at school or college and is increasing in popularity as is volleyball, though volleyball is mainly played inside. At certain beaches such as Brandons beach in St. Michael people do get together to play beach volleyball. Other sports played include hockey, table tennis, road tennis, football, rugby, polo and swimming. Netball is also popular with women in Barbados. National symbols Flower A yellow and red Pride of Barbados (Hibiscus). The national flower is the Pride of Barbados or Hibiscus (L.) Sw., which grows across the island. Flag The tridented centered within the flag is a representation of the mythological Neptune, god of the sea. The trident in its original unbroken form was taken from the former colonial seal, which itself was replaced by the current coat of arms. Used within the national flag, the left and right shafts of the trident were then designed as 'broken' representing the nation of Barbados breaking away from its historical and constitutional ties as a former colony. The three points of the trident represent in Barbados the three principles of democracy - "government of, for and by the people." The broken trident is set in a centered vertical band of gold representing the sands of Barbados' beaches. The gold band itself is surrounded on both sides by vertical bands of ultramarine (blue) representing the sea and sky of Barbados. The design for the flag was created by Grantley W. Prescod and was chosen from an open competition arranged by the Barbados government. Over a thousand entries were received. Government of Barbados National Flag Golden Shield The Golden Shield in the coat of arms carries two "Pride of Barbados" flowers and the "bearded" fig tree (Ficus citrifolia or Ficus barbata), which was common on the island at the time of its settlement by the British and may have contributed to Barbados being so named. Coat of arms The coat of arms depicts two animals which are supporting the shield. On the left is a "dolphin fish", symbolic of the fishing industry and seagoing past of Barbados. On the right is a pelican, symbolic of a small island named Pelican Island that once existed off the coast of Bridgetown. Above the shield is the helmet of Barbados with an extended arm clutching two sugar-cane stalks. The "cross" formation made by the cane stalks represents the saltire cross upon which Saint Andrew was crucified. On the base of the Coat of Arms reads "Pride and Industry" in reference to the country's song. National heroes On April 1998, the Order of National Heroes Act was passed by the Parliament of Barbados. According to the government, the act established that 28 April (the centenary of the birth of Sir Grantley Adams) would be celebrated as National Heroes' Day. The act also declared that there are ten national heroes of Barbados. All of which would be elevated to the title of the The Right Excellent. Government of Barbados - National HeroesHistory of Barbados, The Parliament of Barbados The ten official National Heroes of Barbados are:- Bussa ( - 1816) Sarah Ann Gill (1795 - 1866) Samuel Jackman Prescod (1806 - 1871) Dr. Charles Duncan O’Neal (1879 - 1936) Clement Osbourne Payne (1904 - 1941) Sir Grantley Herbert Adams (1898 - 1987) Rt. Hon. Errol Walton Barrow (1920 - 1987) Sir Hugh Worrell Springer (1913 - 1994) Sir Garfield St. Aubyn Sobers (1936 - ) Sir Frank Leslie Walcott (1916-1999) International rankings GDP - (PPP) per capita: 2004: ranked 59 of 232 countries & territories -- $ 15,700 59th Economist, The, Worldwide quality-of-life index: 2005 ranked 33 out of 111 countries 33rd Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal, Index of Economic Freedom countries: 2005 ranked 32 of 155 countries 32nd International Telecommunication Union, Digital Access Index (Top 10 in Americas): 2002: ranked 45 of 178 countries 45th Literacy rate, countries by literacy rate - by UNDP ranks 5th out of 177 countries -- 99.7% Reporters without borders: 2004: N/A http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=11715 Save the Children, State of the World's Mothers: 2004: N/A http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2004/images/pdf/SOWM_2004_final.pdf Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index: 2004: ranked 21 out of 146 countries surveyed 21st UN, Human Development Index (HDI): 2006: ranked 31st out of 177 countries 31st (3rd in the Americas, after Canada and the United States). 2005: ranked 30th out of 177 countries 30th 2004: ranked 29th out of 177 countries 29th 2003: ranked 27th out of 175 countries 27th 2002: ranked 31st out of 173 countries 31st 2001: ranked 31st out of 162 countries 31st 2000: ranked 30th out of 174 countries 30th 1999: ranked 29th out of 174 countries 29th 1998: N/A World Economic Forum, Global Competitiveness Report/Growth Competitiveness Index: 2006-2007: ranked 31st out of 125 countries 31st (Barbados' debut to the list) World Economic Forum, The Global Information Technology Report 2006-2007's "Networked Readiness Index": 2006-2007: ranked 40th out of 122 countries 40th (Barbados' debut to the list) World garfeildBank: Total GDP per capita 2003 (World Bank): ranked 38 -- $ 15,712 Total GDP (nominal) 2003: ranked 138 -- $ 2,628 See also Commonwealth of Nations List of Barbados-related articles List of Barbados-related topics List of international rankings Outline of Barbados Outline of geography Outline of North America United Nations References Bibliography Burns, Sir Alan 1965. History of the British West Indies. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London England. Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-19-514073-7 Hamshere, Cyril 1972. The British In the Caribbean. Harvard University Pres, Massachusetts USA. ISBN 0-674-08235-4 Northrup, David, ed. The Atlantic Slave Trade, Second Edition. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. ISBN 0-618-11624-9 O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson 2000. An Empire Divided - The American Revolution and the British Caribbean. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia ISBN 0-8122-1732-2 Rogozinski, Jan 1999. A Brief History of the Caribbean - From the Arawak and Carib to the Present. Revised version New York, USA. ISBN 0-8160-3811-2 Scott, Caroline 1999. Insight Guide Barbados. Discovery Channel and Insight Guides; fourth edition, Singapore. ISBN 0-88729-033-7 External links Barbados at UCB Libraries GovPubs Barbados Travel Guide - Largest informational portal of Barbados Barbados Government - official website Barbados Government Informations Service (BGIS) Barbados Investment and Development Corporation Barbados Museum & Historical Society Barbados Statistical Service (BSS) Barbados Tourism Authority - The Ministry of Tourism World's Leading Travel Destination Website for 2008 - Totally Barbados Central Bank of Barbados website Parliament of Barbados official website Parliament of Barbados - Some facts about Barbados be-x-old:Барбадас | Barbados |@lemmatized barbados:138 situate:2 east:6 caribbean:27 sea:6 independent:3 west:17 indian:3 continental:1 island:60 nation:9 western:2 atlantic:6 ocean:6 three:4 century:7 british:23 rule:2 maintains:1 queen:3 elizabeth:2 ii:2 head:4 state:12 locate:1 roughly:1 north:4 equator:1 prime:5 meridian:1 consider:3 part:5 less:3 antilles:1 close:3 neighbour:5 saint:18 vincent:1 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6,613 | Transport_in_Jersey | This article details the variety of means of transportation in Jersey. Air transport Airports: Jersey Airport Rail transport There are no passenger railways in Jersey. Historically there were the Jersey Railway and Jersey Eastern Railway. There is a demonstration line at the Pallot Heritage Steam Museum. Road transport Highways: total: 577 km (1995) paved: NA km unpaved: NA km Buses Buses are operated by Connex Transport Jersey, a local subsidiary of Veolia Transportation. Bus service routes radiate from the Liberation Station in St Helier. Most of the new fleet have easy access for wheelchair users. Explorer tickets are available for 1, 3, 5 and 7 days and allow unlimited travel. EasyLink is a Hop on-Hop off coach service linking Jersey’s bays and attractions. Cycling An Island Cycle Network is signed. A traffic-free route for cyclists and pedestrians links Saint Helier and La Corbière. Driving Jersey vehicle number plate Driving is on the left hand side. The maximum speed limit throughout the entire island is 40 mph (64 km/h), with slower limits on certain stretches of road, such as 20/30mph (32/48km/h) in built up areas and 15mph (24km/h) in Green Lanes. Visitors wishing to drive must possess a Certificate of Insurance or an International Green Card, a valid Driving Licence or International Driving Permit (UK International Driving Permits are not valid). Photocopies are not acceptable. A nationality plate must be displayed on the back of visiting vehicles. It is an offence to hold a mobile phone whilst driving a moving vehicle. Drivers and adult front seat passengers must wear seat belts. Children must wear seat belts or a suitable child/infant restraint, in both front and rear seats. The penalties for drinking and driving in Jersey are up to £2,000 fine or 6 months in prison for the first offence plus unlimited disqualification of driving licence. It is an offence to drive whilst under the influence of drugs. Parking Single yellow lines indicate that parking is prohibited and is liable to a fine. Paycards are used to pay for parking throughout Jersey with the exception of the harbour, airport and waterfront car parks where a pay upon exit scheme is operated. Paycards require scratching off the appropriate day, date, month, and time. Payment by paycards is required for parking wherever the paycard symbol is displayed. Some paycard locations, such as the lay-bys in Victoria Avenue, and car parks in St Brelade's Bay are seasonal. A residents parking scheme operates in St Mark's road and Cheapside. A restricted paycard scheme operates there on Sundays to dissuade non-residents from parking, and came into law on May 1, 2008. On Sundays, paycards in these locations require only scratching off the appropriate date, month, and time, and not the day of the week. In some roads on the outskirts of St Helier and in the harbours, and also in some car parks in St Brelade, parking is free but controlled by parking discs (time wheels) – obtainable from the Town Hall for a small charge. Sea transport Seaports and harbours: Gorey, Saint Aubin, Saint Helier Merchant marine: none (1999 est.) Companies Condor Ferries HD Ferries Manche Îles Express External links www.mybus.je | Transport_in_Jersey |@lemmatized article:1 detail:1 variety:1 mean:1 transportation:2 jersey:10 air:1 transport:5 airport:3 rail:1 passenger:2 railways:1 historically:1 railway:2 eastern:1 demonstration:1 line:2 pallot:1 heritage:1 steam:1 museum:1 road:4 highway:1 total:1 km:4 pave:1 na:2 unpaved:1 bus:3 operate:4 connex:1 local:1 subsidiary:1 veolia:1 service:2 route:2 radiate:1 liberation:1 station:1 st:5 helier:4 new:1 fleet:1 easy:1 access:1 wheelchair:1 user:1 explorer:1 ticket:1 available:1 day:3 allow:1 unlimited:2 travel:1 easylink:1 hop:2 coach:1 link:3 bay:2 attraction:1 cycle:2 island:2 network:1 sign:1 traffic:1 free:2 cyclist:1 pedestrian:1 saint:3 la:1 corbière:1 drive:5 vehicle:3 number:1 plate:2 driving:5 left:1 hand:1 side:1 maximum:1 speed:1 limit:2 throughout:2 entire:1 mph:1 h:3 slow:1 certain:1 stretch:1 build:1 area:1 green:2 lane:1 visitor:1 wish:1 must:4 possess:1 certificate:1 insurance:1 international:3 card:1 valid:2 licence:2 permit:2 uk:1 photocopy:1 acceptable:1 nationality:1 display:2 back:1 visit:1 offence:3 hold:1 mobile:1 phone:1 whilst:2 move:1 driver:1 adult:1 front:2 seat:4 wear:2 belt:2 child:2 suitable:1 infant:1 restraint:1 rear:1 penalty:1 drinking:1 fine:2 month:3 prison:1 first:1 plus:1 disqualification:1 influence:1 drug:1 park:8 single:1 yellow:1 indicate:1 parking:3 prohibit:1 liable:1 paycards:4 use:1 pay:2 exception:1 harbour:3 waterfront:1 car:3 upon:1 exit:1 scheme:3 require:3 scratch:2 appropriate:2 date:2 time:3 payment:1 wherever:1 paycard:3 symbol:1 location:2 lay:1 bys:1 victoria:1 avenue:1 brelade:2 seasonal:1 resident:2 mark:1 cheapside:1 restricted:1 sunday:2 dissuade:1 non:1 come:1 law:1 may:1 week:1 outskirt:1 also:1 control:1 disc:1 wheel:1 obtainable:1 town:1 hall:1 small:1 charge:1 sea:1 seaport:1 gorey:1 aubin:1 merchant:1 marine:1 none:1 est:1 company:1 condor:1 ferry:2 hd:1 manche:1 îles:1 express:1 external:1 www:1 mybus:1 je:1 |@bigram km_unpaved:1 st_helier:2 cyclist_pedestrian:1 saint_helier:2 mph_km:1 mobile_phone:1 st_brelade:2 merchant_marine:1 external_link:1 |
6,614 | Key_frame | A key frame in animation and filmmaking is a drawing that defines the starting and ending points of any smooth transition. They are called "frames" because their position in time is measured in frames on a strip of film. A sequence of keyframes defines which movement the spectator will see, whereas the position of the keyframes on the film, video or animation defines the timing of the movement. Because only two or three keyframes over the span of a second does not create the illusion of movement, the remaining frames are filled with inbetweens. Traditional animation In the workflow of traditional hand-drawn animation, the senior or key artist would draw the keyframes, then, after testing and approval of the rough animation, hand over the scene to his assistant. The assistant does the clean-up and the necessary 'inbetweens', or, in really big studios, only some breakdown which define the movement in more detail, then hand down the scene to his assistant, the 'inbetweener' who does the rest. Animation by means of computer graphics Use of key frames In computer animation this workflow is basically the same. The animator creates the important frames of a sequence, then the software fills in the gap. For example, in Adobe Systems Flash, the animator can specify, in keyframes, the starting and ending position of an object, such as a circle. Flash smoothly translates the object from the starting point to the ending point. This is called tweening. The animator can correct the result at any point in time, shifting keyframes back and forth to improve the timing and dynamics of a movement, or change an 'in between' into an additional keyframe to further refine the movement. A very simple animation created by keyframing. The animation lacks smoothness because each frame is completely independent of any other frame. Keyframing There is also an animation technique known as keyframing. Contrary to tweening, every frame of a keyframed computer animation is directly modified or manipulated by the creator, such that no tweening has actually occurred. This method is similar to the drawing of traditional animation, and is chosen by artists who wish to have complete control over the animation. In-depth examples As noted above, a key frame defines the starting and ending points of any smooth transition. Consider the examples below, created using animated GIFs: As applied to motion An object will move from the top left corner of the frame to the bottom right corner. One of the two keyframes present in this animation will contain the object at the top left corner of the frame, while the other keyframe will show the object at the bottom right corner. Everything in between can be interpolated smoothly. As applied to shape transformations In a shape transformation, the first key frame contains the original shape, while the ending keyframe contains the transformed shape. Shape transformations defined by key frames cannot accurately show how the shape will be transformed in between the two key frames. In Adobe Flash, shape hints can be added to both original and transformed shapes to give the program a better idea of the interpolation. As applied to color transformations When an object changes its color smoothly, the animation can be defined by key frames, the first showing its original color, and the second showing its final color. Use of key frames as a means to change parameters In software packages that support animation, especially 3D graphics packages, there are many parameters that can be changed for any one object. One example of such an object is a light. (In 3D graphics, lights function similarly to real world lights - They cause illumination, cast shadows, and create specular highlights.) Lights have many parameters including light intensity, beam size, light colour, and the texture cast by the light. Supposing that an animator wants the beam size of the light to change smoothly from one value to another within a pre-defined period of time, that could be achieved by using keyframes. At the start of the animation, a beam size value is set. Another value is set for the end of the animation. Thus, the software program automatically interpolates the two values, creating a smooth transition. Video editing In non-linear digital video editing as well as in video compositing software, a key frame is a frame used to indicate the beginning or end of a change made to the signal. For instance, a key frame could be set to indicate the point at which audio will have faded up or down to a certain level. Video compression In video compression, a key frame, also known as an Intra Frame, is a frame in which a complete image is stored in the data stream. In video compression, only changes that occur from one frame to the next are stored in the data stream, in order to greatly reduce the amount of information that must be stored. This technique capitalizes on the fact that most video sources (such as a typical movie) have only small changes in the image from one frame to the next. Whenever a drastic change to the image occurs, such as when switching from one camera shot to another, or at a scene change, a key frame must be created. The entire image for the frame must be output because the visual difference between the two frames is so great that the new image cannot be reproduced incrementally from the previous frame. Because video compression only stores incremental changes between frames (except for key frames), it is not possible to fast forward or rewind to any arbitrary spot in the video stream. That is because the data for a given frame only represents how that frame was different from the preceding frame. For that reason it is beneficial to include key frames at arbitrary intervals while encoding video. For example, a key frame may be output once for each 10 seconds of video, even though the video image does not change enough visually to warrant the automatic creation of the key frame. That would allow seeking within the video stream at a minimum of 10 second intervals. The down side is that the resulting video stream will be larger in size because many key frames were added when they were not necessary for the visual representation of the frame. References External links Motion Blur, Key Frames and the Fencepost Error Frames are not points in time. 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6,615 | Neodymium | Neodymium () is a chemical element with the symbol Nd and atomic number 60. Characteristics Neodymium, a rare earth metal, is present in Mischmetal to the extent of about 18%. The metal has a bright, silvery metallic luster; however, as one of the more reactive rare earth (Lanthanide) metals, it quickly oxidizes in air. The oxide layer then falls off, which exposes the metal to further oxidation. Although it belongs to "rare earth metals," neodymium is not rare at all. It constitutes 38 ppm of the Earth’s crust. Neodymium exists in two allotropic forms, with a transformation from a double hexagonal (α form) to a body-centered cubic structure taking place at 863 °C C. R. Hammond, "The Elements", in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81th edition, CRC press. . Applications Neodymium magnet on a bracket from a hard drive. Neodymium magnets are the strongest permanent magnets known - Nd2Fe14B. These magnets are cheaper, lighter, and stronger than samarium-cobalt magnets. Neodymium magnets appear in products such as microphones, professional loudspeakers, in-ear headphones, guitar and bass guitar pick-ups and computer hard disks where low mass, small volume, or strong magnetic fields are required. Neodymium magnet electric motors have also been responsible for the development of purely electrical model aircraft within the first decade of the 21st century, to the point that these are displacing internal combustion powered models internationally. Neodymium is a component of didymium used for coloring glass to make welder's and glass-blower's goggles. The sharp absorption bands obliterate the strong sodium emission at 589 nm. Neodymium has an unusually large specific heat capacity at liquid-helium temperatures, so is useful in cryocoolers Neodymium lamps are incandescent lamps containing neodymium in the glass to filter out yellow light, resulting in a whiter light more like sunlight Neodymium colors glass in delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm grey. Light transmitted through such glass shows unusually sharp absorption bands; the glass is used in astronomical work to produce sharp bands by which spectral lines may be calibrated. Neodymium is also used to remove the green colour caused by iron contaminants from glass. Neodymium salts are used as a colourant for enamels. Probably because of similarities to Ca2+, Nd3+ has been reported Y. Wei et al. "The Effect of Neodymium (Nd3+) on Some Physiological Activities in Oilseed Rape during Calcium (Ca2+) Starvation" 10th International Rapeceed Congress to promote plant growth. Rare earth element compounds are frequently used in China as fertilizer. Samarium-neodymium dating is useful for determining the age relationships of rocks Team finds Earth's 'oldest rocks' (BBC news) (access date = 2009-05-05) and meteorites. Size and strength of volcanic eruption can be predicted by scanning for neodymium isotopes. Small and large volcanic eruptions produce lava with different neodymium isotope composition. From the composition of isotopes, scientists predict how big the coming eruption will be, and use this information to warn residents of the intensity of the eruption. Certain transparent materials with a small concentration of neodymium ions can be used in lasers as gain media for infrared wavelengths (1054-1064 nm), e.g. Nd:YAG (yttrium aluminium garnet), Nd:YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride), Nd:YVO4 (yttrium orthovanadate), and Nd:glass. The current laser at the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), the HELEN 1-TW neodymium-glass laser, can access the midpoints of pressure and temperature regions and is used to acquire data for modeling on how density, temperature and pressure interact inside warheads. HELEN can create plasmas of around 106 K, from which opacity and transmission of radiation are measured. Neodymium glass Neodymium doped glass slabs used in extremely powerful lasers for inertial confinement fusion. Neodymium glass (Nd:Glass) is produced by the inclusion of neodymium oxide (Nd2O3) in the glass melt. In daylight or incandescent light neodymium glass appears lavender, but it appears pale blue under fluorescent lighting. Neodymium glass solid-state lasers are used in extremely high power (terawatt scale), high energy (megajoules) multiple beam systems for inertial confinement fusion. Nd:Glass lasers are usually frequency tripled to the third harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion devices. Neodymium glass is becoming widely used in incandescent light bulbs, to provide a more "natural" light. Neodymium glass has been patented for use in automobile rear-view mirrors, to reduce the glare at night. The first commercial use of purified neodymium was in glass coloration, starting with experiments by Leo Moser in November 1927. The resulting "Alexandrite" glass remains a signature color of the Moser glassworks to this day. Neodymium glass was widely emulated in the early 1930s by American glasshouses, most notably Heisey, Fostoria ("wisteria"), Cambridge ("heatherbloom"), and Steuben ("wisteria"), and elsewhere (e.g. Lalique, in France, or Murano). Tiffin's "twilight" remained in production from about 1950 to about 1980. Current sources include glassmakers in the Czech Republic, the United States, and China; Caithness Glass in Scotland has also used the colorant extensively. The sharp absorption bands of neodymium cause the glass color to change under different lighting conditions, being reddish-purple under daylight or yellow incandescent light, but blue under white fluorescent lighting, or greenish under trichromatic lighting. This color-change phenomenon is highly prized by collectors. Neodymium in combination with praseodymium gave Moser's "Heliolite" glass. In combination with gold or selenium, beautiful red colors result, such as Moser's "Royalite" or Tiffin's "Wistaria" or some of the colors achieved by Fenton. Since neodymium coloration depends upon "forbidden" f-f transitions deep within the atom, there is relatively little influence on the color from the chemical environment, so the color is impervious to the thermal history of the glass. However, for the best color, iron-containing impurities need to be minimized in the silica used to make the glass. The same "forbiddenness" of the f-f transitions makes rare-earth colorants less intense than those provided by most d-transition elements, so more has to be used in a glass to achieve the desired color intensity. The original Moser recipe used about 5% of neodymium oxide in the glass melt, a sufficient quantity such that Moser referred to these as being "Rare Earth Doped" glasses. Being a strong base, that level of neodymium would have affected the melting properties of the glass, and the lime content of the glass might have had to be adjusted accordingly. History Neodymium was discovered by Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, an Austrian chemist, in Vienna in 1885. He separated neodymium, as well as the element praseodymium, from a material known as didymium by means of fractional crystallization of the double ammonium nitrate tetrahydrates from nitric acid, while following the separation by spectroscopic analysis; however, it was not isolated in relatively pure form until 1925. The name neodymium is derived from the Greek words neos, new, and didymos, twin. Neodymium is frequently misspelled as neodynium. Double nitrate crystallization was the means of commercial neodymium purification until the 1950s. The Lindsay Chemical Division of American Potash and Chemical Corporation, at one time the largest producer of rare earths in the world, offered neodymium oxide purified in this manner in grades of 65%, 85% and 95% purity, at prices ranging from approximately 2 to 20 dollars per pound (in 1960 dollars). Lindsay was the first to commercialize large-scale ion-exchange purification of neodymium, using the technology developed by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University/Ames Laboratory; one pound of their 99% oxide was priced at $35 in 1960; their 99.9% grade only cost 5 dollars more. Starting in the 1950s, high purity (e.g. 99+%) neodymium was primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite sand ((Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements. The metal itself is obtained through electrolysis of its halide salts. Currently, most neodymium is extracted from bastnaesite, (Ce,La,Nd,Pr)CO3F, and purified by solvent extraction. Ion-exchange purification is reserved for preparing the highest purities (typically >4N). (When Molycorp first introduced their 98% grade of neodymium oxide in 1965, made by solvent extraction from Mountain Pass, California, bastnaesite, it was priced at 5 dollars per pound, for small quantities. Lindsay soon discontinued operations.) The evolving technology, and improved purity of commercially available neodymium oxide, was reflected in the appearance of neodymium glass made therefrom that resides in collections today. Early Moser pieces, and other neodymium glass made in the 1930s, have a more reddish or orange tinge than modern versions, which are more cleanly purple, due to the difficulties in removing the last traces of praseodymium when the fractional crystallization technology had to be relied on. Occurrence Neodymium is never found in nature as the free element; rather, it occurs in ores such as monazite sand ((Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)PO4) and bastnäsite ((Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)(CO3)F) that contain small amounts of all the rare earth metals. Neodymium can also be found in Misch metal; it is difficult to separate it from other rare earth elements. Compounds Neodymium compounds include Halides: NdF3, NdCl3, NdBr3, NdI3 Oxides: Nd2O3 Sulfides: NdS, Nd2S3 Nitrides: NdN Isotopes Naturally occurring Neodymium is composed of 5 stable isotopes, 142Nd, 143Nd, 145Nd, 146Nd and 148Nd, with 142Nd being the most abundant (27.2% natural abundance), and 2 radioisotopes, 144Nd and 150Nd. In all, 31 radioisotopes of Neodymium have been characterized up to now, with the most stable being naturally occurring isotopes 144Nd (alpha decay, a half-life (T½) of 2.29×1015 years) and 150Nd (double beta decay, T½ of 7×1018 years). All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 11 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 70 seconds. This element also has 13 known meta states with the most stable being 139mNd (T½ 5.5 hours), 135mNd (T½ 5.5 minutes) and 133m1Nd (T½ ~70 seconds). The primary decay modes before the most abundant stable isotope, 142Nd, are electron capture and positron decay, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 142Nd are element Pr (praseodymium) isotopes and the primary products after are element Pm (promethium) isotopes. Precautions Neodymium metal dust is a combustion and explosion hazard. Neodymium compounds, like all rare earth metals, are of low to moderate toxicity; however its toxicity has not been thoroughly investigated. Neodymium dust and salts are very irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes, and moderately irritating to skin. Breathing the dust can cause lung embolisms, and accumulated exposure damages the liver. Neodymium also acts as an anticoagulant, especially when given intravenously. Neodymium magnets have been tested for medical uses such as magnetic braces and bone repair, but biocompatibility issues have prevented widespread application. Commercially available magnets made from Neodymium are exceptionally strong, and can attract each other from large distances. If not handled carefully, they could come together very quickly and forcefully, causing injuries. A well known example is that of Dirk from the Netherlands, who lost part of his finger when two magnets he was using snapped together from 50 CM away. Another danger is when two such magnets snap together, the force of the hit often causes them to shatter, sending sharp pieces flying around, potentially causing serious injuries. See also Neodymium magnet (NIB or Nd2Fe14B) References "The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium and Uranium", by R.J. Callow, Pergamon Press 1967. Lindsay Chemical Division, American Potash and Chemical Corporation, Price List, 1960. "Chemistry of the Lanthanons", by R.C. Vickery, Butterworths 1953. External links USGS Rare Earth Commodity Summary 2006 WebElements.com – Neodymium It's Elemental – Neodymium | Neodymium |@lemmatized neodymium:63 chemical:6 element:11 symbol:1 nd:12 atomic:2 number:1 characteristic:1 rare:13 earth:14 metal:10 present:1 mischmetal:1 extent:1 bright:1 silvery:1 metallic:1 luster:1 however:4 one:3 reactive:1 lanthanide:1 quickly:2 oxidize:1 air:1 oxide:8 layer:1 fall:1 expose:1 oxidation:1 although:1 belong:1 constitute:1 ppm:1 crust:1 exist:1 two:3 allotropic:1 form:3 transformation:1 double:4 hexagonal:1 α:1 body:1 centered:1 cubic:1 structure:1 take:1 place:1 c:3 r:3 hammond:1 handbook:1 chemistry:3 physic:1 edition:1 crc:1 press:2 application:2 magnet:12 bracket:1 hard:2 drive:1 strong:6 permanent:1 know:4 cheap:1 light:8 samarium:2 cobalt:1 appear:3 product:3 microphone:1 professional:1 loudspeaker:1 ear:1 headphone:1 guitar:2 bass:1 pick:1 ups:1 computer:1 disk:1 low:2 mass:1 small:5 volume:1 magnetic:2 field:1 require:1 electric:1 motor:1 also:7 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6,616 | Andersonville,_Georgia | Andersonville is a city in Sumter County, Georgia, United States. The population was 331 at the 2000 census (174 in 1910). It is in the southwest part of the state, about southwest of Macon, Georgia on the Central of Georgia railroad. During the American Civil War, it was the site of a prisoner-of-war camp which is now Andersonville National Historic Site. Andersonville is part of the Americus Micropolitan Statistical Area. Geography Andersonville is located at (32.197008, -84.141701). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.3 square miles (3.4 km²), all of it land. History Andersonville, originally named Anderson, Georgia, was given the name Andersonville by the United States Postal Service to prevent confusion with another city, also named Anderson. Andersonville is infamous as an American Civil War Union POW camp, Camp Sumter. The town, though very sparsely populated, was in existence before the establishment of the prison camp at the site. A small base known as Civil War village was established for visitors and Confederate soldiers. This former stockade has since become a small town. After the civil war the Andersonville POW camp evolved into a small town with its own hotel, post office and restaurant. Later the Andersonville National Historic Site was established as a memorial to the POWs who died at the camp. There is also a small museum to display how the town was founded and the involvement with the site of the Andersonville POW camp. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The population density was 254.1 people per square mile (98.3/km²). There were 142 housing units at an average density of 109.0/sq mi (42.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% White and 34.74% African American. 1.21% of the population were Hispanic or Latino. There were 124 households out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21. In the city the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $29,107, and the median income for a family was $30,972. Males had a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over. Climate References External links Official website of Andersonville, Georgia AmericusGeorgia.net - Area info... by and for Andersonville Locals | Andersonville,_Georgia |@lemmatized andersonville:12 city:8 sumter:2 county:1 georgia:5 united:3 state:4 population:5 census:3 southwest:2 part:2 macon:1 central:1 railroad:1 american:3 civil:4 war:5 site:5 prisoner:1 camp:7 national:2 historic:2 americus:1 micropolitan:1 statistical:1 area:3 geography:1 locate:1 accord:1 bureau:1 total:1 square:2 mile:2 land:1 history:1 originally:1 name:3 anderson:2 give:1 postal:1 service:1 prevent:1 confusion:1 another:1 also:2 infamous:1 union:1 pow:4 town:4 though:1 sparsely:1 populated:1 existence:1 establishment:1 prison:1 small:4 base:1 know:1 village:1 establish:2 visitor:1 confederate:1 soldier:1 former:1 stockade:1 since:1 become:1 evolve:1 hotel:1 post:1 office:1 restaurant:1 later:1 memorial:1 die:1 museum:1 display:1 found:1 involvement:1 demographic:1 people:2 household:5 family:5 reside:1 density:2 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 african:1 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:1 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:2 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 present:1 non:1 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 year:3 old:2 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:2 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 line:1 include:1 climate:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 americusgeorgia:1 net:1 info:1 local:1 |@bigram micropolitan_statistical:1 census_bureau:1 pow_camp:3 sparsely_populated:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 hispanic_latino:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 external_link:1 |
6,617 | Bernie_Federko | Bernard Allan Federko (born May 12, 1956 in Foam Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada) is a retired professional ice hockey centre who played 14 seasons in the NHL from 1976 to 1990. Playing career Bernie began playing hockey at a young age in his home town of Foam Lake, Saskatchewan. He was captain of the 1971 Bantam provincial champions. He also played Senior hockey with the local Foam Lake Flyers of the Fishing Lake Hockey League, winning the league scoring title as a bantam-aged player. Federko continued his career with the Saskatoon Blades of the WHL where he set and still holds the team record for assists. He played three seasons with the Blades, and in his final year with the club he led the league in assists and points in both the regular season and playoffs. As a reward, Federko was drafted 7th overall by the St. Louis Blues in the 1976 NHL Amateur Draft. He started the next season with the Kansas City Blues of the Central Hockey League and was leading the league in points when he was called up mid-season to play 31 games with St. Louis. He scored three hat tricks in those 31 games. In the 1978–79 NHL season, Federko developed into a bonafide star, as he scored 95 points. Federko would score 100 points in a season four times, and was a consistent and underrated superstar for the Blues. Federko scored at least 90 points in seven of the eight seasons between 1978 and 1986, and became the first player in NHL history to record at least 50 assists in 10 consecutive seasons. However, in an era when Wayne Gretzky was scoring 200 points a season, Federko never really got the attention many felt he deserved. In 1986, in a poll conducted by GOAL magazine, he was named the most overlooked talent in hockey. His General Manager Ron Caron said he was "A great playmaker. He makes the average or above average player look like a star at times. He's such an unselfish player." On March 19, 1988, Federko became the 22nd NHL player to record 1000 career points. After a poor season for Federko in 1988–89, he was traded to the Detroit Red Wings with Tony McKegney for future Blues star Adam Oates, and Paul MacLean. In Detroit, Federko re-united with former Blues head coach Jacques Demers, but he had to play behind Steve Yzerman and did not get his desired ice time. After his lowest point output since his rookie season, Federko decided to retire after the 1989–90 season. Federko was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2002, and is currently a television color commentator for the Blues. He also had his number '24' retired by the Blues on March 16, 1991. Federko was the head coach/general manager of the St. Louis Vipers InLine team of the RHI for the 1993 and 1994 seasons. Awards Named to the WCHL All-Star Team (1976) Named WCHL MVP (1976) Named to the CHL Second All-Star Team (1977) Won Ken McKenzie Trophy as CHL Rookie of the Year (1977) Played in the NHL All-Star Game (1980, 1981) Named NHL Player of the Week (For week ending December 3, 1984) Records St. Louis Blues team record for career games played (927) St. Louis Blues team record for career assists (721) St. Louis Blues team record for career points (1073) Shares St. Louis Blues team record for assists in one game (5 on February 27, 1988) St. Louis Blues team record for career playoff assists (66) St. Louis Blues team record for points in one playoff year (21 in 1986) St. Louis Blues team record for assists in one playoff year (15 in 1982) Career statistics Regular season Playoffs Season Team League GP G A Pts PIM GP G A Pts PIM 1973–74 Saskatoon Blades WCHL 68 22 28 50 19 6 0 0 0 2 1974–75 Saskatoon Blades WCHL 66 39 68 107 30 17 15 7 22 8 1975–76 Saskatoon Blades WCHL 72 72 115 187 108 20 18 27 45 8 1976–77 Kansas City Blues CHL 42 30 39 69 41 -- -- -- -- -- 1976–77 St. Louis Blues NHL 31 14 9 23 15 4 1 1 2 2 1977–78 St. Louis Blues NHL 72 17 24 41 27 -- -- -- -- -- 1978–79 St. Louis Blues NHL 74 31 64 95 14 -- -- -- -- -- 1979–80 St. Louis Blues NHL 79 38 56 94 24 3 1 0 1 2 1980–81 St. Louis Blues NHL 78 31 73 104 47 11 8 10 18 2 1981–82 St. Louis Blues NHL 74 30 62 92 70 10 3 15 18 10 1982–83 St. Louis Blues NHL 75 24 60 84 24 4 2 3 5 0 1983–84 St. Louis Blues NHL 79 41 66 107 43 11 4 4 8 10 1984–85 St. Louis Blues NHL 76 30 73 103 27 3 0 2 2 4 1985–86 St. Louis Blues NHL 80 34 68 102 34 19 7 14 21 17 1986–87 St. Louis Blues NHL 64 20 52 72 32 6 3 3 6 18 1987–88 St. Louis Blues NHL 79 20 69 89 52 10 2 6 8 18 1988–89 St. Louis Blues NHL 66 22 45 67 54 10 4 8 12 0 1989–90 Detroit Red Wings NHL 73 17 40 57 24 -- -- -- -- -- WCHL totals 206 133 211 344 157 43 33 34 67 18 NHL totals 1000 369 761 1130 487 91 35 66 101 83 See also List of NHL players List of NHL seasons List of NHL players with 1000 points Hockey Hall of Fame List of NHL statistical leaders References Total Hockey (Second Edition), Editor - Dan Diamond, ISBN 1–892129–85-X External links Hockey Draft Central St. Louis Blues Website | Bernie_Federko |@lemmatized bernard:1 allan:1 federko:13 bear:1 may:1 foam:3 lake:4 saskatchewan:2 canada:1 retired:1 professional:1 ice:2 hockey:10 centre:1 play:9 season:17 nhl:26 career:8 bernie:1 begin:1 young:1 age:2 home:1 town:1 captain:1 bantam:2 provincial:1 champion:1 also:3 senior:1 local:1 flyer:1 fishing:1 league:6 win:2 score:6 title:1 player:8 continue:1 saskatoon:4 blade:5 whl:1 set:1 still:1 hold:1 team:12 record:11 assist:7 three:2 final:1 year:4 club:1 lead:2 point:11 regular:2 playoff:5 reward:1 draft:3 overall:1 st:24 louis:24 blue:29 amateur:1 start:1 next:1 kansa:1 city:2 central:2 call:1 mid:1 game:5 hat:1 trick:1 develop:1 bonafide:1 star:6 would:1 four:1 time:3 consistent:1 underrated:1 superstar:1 least:2 seven:1 eight:1 become:2 first:1 history:1 consecutive:1 however:1 era:1 wayne:1 gretzky:1 never:1 really:1 get:2 attention:1 many:1 felt:1 deserve:1 poll:1 conduct:1 goal:1 magazine:1 name:5 overlooked:1 talent:1 general:2 manager:2 ron:1 caron:1 say:1 great:1 playmaker:1 make:1 average:2 look:1 like:1 unselfish:1 march:2 poor:1 trade:1 detroit:3 red:2 wing:2 tony:1 mckegney:1 future:1 adam:1 oates:1 paul:1 maclean:1 united:1 former:1 head:2 coach:2 jacques:1 demers:1 behind:1 steve:1 yzerman:1 desired:1 low:1 output:1 since:1 rookie:2 decide:1 retire:2 induct:1 hall:2 fame:2 currently:1 television:1 color:1 commentator:1 number:1 viper:1 inline:1 rhi:1 award:1 wchl:6 mvp:1 chl:3 second:2 ken:1 mckenzie:1 trophy:1 week:2 end:1 december:1 share:1 one:3 february:1 statistic:1 gp:2 g:2 pt:2 pim:2 kansas:1 total:3 see:1 list:4 statistical:1 leader:1 reference:1 edition:1 editor:1 dan:1 diamond:1 isbn:1 x:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 |@bigram ice_hockey:1 hat_trick:1 season_federko:5 wayne_gretzky:1 steve_yzerman:1 hall_fame:2 external_link:1 |
6,618 | Biotite | Two fragments of Biotite Biotite is a common phyllosilicate mineral within the mica group, with the approximate chemical formula K(Mg, Fe)3AlSi3O10(F, OH)2. More generally, it refers to the dark mica series, primarily a solid-solution series between the iron-endmember annite, and the magnesium-endmember phlogopite; more aluminous endmembers include siderophyllite. Biotite was named by J.F.L. Hausmann in 1847 in honour of the French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot, who, in 1816, researched the optical properties of mica, discovering many unique properties. Biotite is a sheet silicate. Iron, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen form sheets that are weakly bond together by potassium ions. It is sometimes called "iron mica" because it is more iron-rich than phlogopite. It is also sometimes called "black mica" as opposed to "white mica" (muscovite) -- both form in some rocks, in some instances side-by-side. Properties Like other mica minerals, biotite has a highly perfect basal cleavage, and consists of flexible sheets, or lamellae, which easily flake off. It has a monoclinic crystal system, with tabular to prismatic crystals with an obvious pinacoid termination. It has four prism faces and two pinacoid faces to form a pseudohexagonal crystal. Although not easily seen because of the cleavage and sheets, fracture is uneven. It has a hardness of 2.5–3, a specific gravity of 2.7–3.1, and an average density of 3.09 g/cm³. It appears greenish to brown or black, and even yellow when weathered. It can be transparent to opaque, has a vitreous to pearly luster, and a grey-white streak. When biotite is found in large chunks, they are called “books” because it resembles a book with pages of many sheets. Under cross polarized light biotite can generally be identified by the gnarled Bird's Eye Extinction. Occurrence Biotite is found in a wide variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks. For instance, biotite occurs in the lava of Mount Vesuvius and in the Monzoni intrusive complex of the western Dolomites. It is an essential phenocryst in some varieties of lamprophyre. Biotite is occasionally found in large cleavable crystals, especially in pegmatite veins, as in New England, Virginia and North Carolina. Other notable occurrences include Bancroft and Sudbury, Ontario. It is an essential constituent of many metamorphic schists, and it forms in suitable compositions over a wide range of pressure and temperature. Uses Biotite is used extensively to constrain ages of rocks, by either potassium-argon dating or argon-argon dating. Because argon escapes readily from the biotite crystal structure at high temperatures, these methods may provide only minimum ages for many rocks. Biotite is also useful in assessing temperature histories of metamorphic rocks, because the partitioning of iron and magnesium between biotite and garnet is sensitive to temperature. Biotite is used in electrical devices, usually as a dielectric in capacitors and thermionic valves. References "The Mineral Biotite". 1995, 1996 Amethyst Gallery Inc. "Biotite". "BIOTITE". LoveToKnow 1911 Online Encyclopedia. 2003, 2004 LoveToKnow. | Biotite |@lemmatized two:2 fragment:1 biotite:18 common:1 phyllosilicate:1 mineral:3 within:1 mica:7 group:1 approximate:1 chemical:1 formula:1 k:1 mg:1 fe:1 f:2 oh:1 generally:2 refer:1 dark:1 series:2 primarily:1 solid:1 solution:1 iron:5 endmember:2 annite:1 magnesium:3 phlogopite:2 aluminous:1 endmembers:1 include:2 siderophyllite:1 name:1 j:1 l:1 hausmann:1 honour:1 french:1 physicist:1 jean:1 baptiste:1 biot:1 research:1 optical:1 property:3 discover:1 many:4 unique:1 sheet:5 silicate:1 aluminium:1 silicon:1 oxygen:1 hydrogen:1 form:4 weakly:1 bond:1 together:1 potassium:2 ion:1 sometimes:2 call:3 rich:1 also:2 black:2 oppose:1 white:2 muscovite:1 rock:5 instance:2 side:2 like:1 highly:1 perfect:1 basal:1 cleavage:2 consist:1 flexible:1 lamella:1 easily:2 flake:1 monoclinic:1 crystal:5 system:1 tabular:1 prismatic:1 obvious:1 pinacoid:2 termination:1 four:1 prism:1 face:2 pseudohexagonal:1 although:1 see:1 fracture:1 uneven:1 hardness:1 specific:1 gravity:1 average:1 density:1 g:1 appear:1 greenish:1 brown:1 even:1 yellow:1 weather:1 transparent:1 opaque:1 vitreous:1 pearly:1 luster:1 grey:1 streak:1 find:3 large:2 chunk:1 book:2 resemble:1 page:1 cross:1 polarize:1 light:1 identify:1 gnarled:1 bird:1 eye:1 extinction:1 occurrence:2 wide:2 variety:2 igneous:1 metamorphic:3 occurs:1 lava:1 mount:1 vesuvius:1 monzoni:1 intrusive:1 complex:1 western:1 dolomite:1 essential:2 phenocryst:1 lamprophyre:1 occasionally:1 cleavable:1 especially:1 pegmatite:1 vein:1 new:1 england:1 virginia:1 north:1 carolina:1 notable:1 bancroft:1 sudbury:1 ontario:1 constituent:1 schist:1 suitable:1 composition:1 range:1 pressure:1 temperature:4 use:3 extensively:1 constrain:1 age:2 either:1 argon:4 dating:2 escape:1 readily:1 structure:1 high:1 method:1 may:1 provide:1 minimum:1 useful:1 assess:1 history:1 partitioning:1 garnet:1 sensitive:1 electrical:1 device:1 usually:1 dielectric:1 capacitor:1 thermionic:1 valve:1 reference:1 amethyst:1 gallery:1 inc:1 lovetoknow:2 online:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram mg_fe:1 jean_baptiste:1 metamorphic_rock:2 mount_vesuvius:1 north_carolina:1 sudbury_ontario:1 potassium_argon:1 argon_argon:1 thermionic_valve:1 |
6,619 | Dutch_West_India_Company | The West India House in Amsterdam, headquarters of the GWC from 1623 to 1647. Warehouse of the GWC in Amsterdam. Dutch West India Company (; ) was a company of Dutch merchants. Among its founding fathers was Willem Usselincx (1567-1647?). On June 3, 1621, it was granted a charter for a trade monopoly in the West Indies (meaning the Caribbean) by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands and given jurisdiction over the African slave trade, Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America. The area where the company could operate consisted of West Africa (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope) and the Americas, which included the Pacific Ocean and the eastern part of New Guinea. The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, between the various trading posts established by the merchants. The company became instrumental in the Dutch colonization of the Americas. Organization and initial activities The GWC was organized similarly to the Dutch East India Company (, abbreviated as VOC), which had a trade monopoly for Asia (mainly present Indonesia) from 1602, except for the fact that the GWC was not allowed to conduct military operations without approval of the Dutch government. Like the VOC, the company had five offices, called chambers (kamers), in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hoorn, Middelburg and Groningen, of which the chambers in Amsterdam and Middelburg contributed most to the company. The board consisted of 19 members, known as the Heeren XIX (the Lords Nineteen). The company was initially relatively successful; in the 1620s and 1630s, many trade posts or colonies were established. The New Netherland area, which included New Amsterdam, covered parts of present-day New York, Connecticut, Delaware, and New Jersey. Other settlements were established on the Netherlands Antilles, several other Caribbean islands, Suriname and Guyana. The largest success for the GWC in its history was the seizure of the Spanish silver fleet, which carried silver from Spanish colonies to Spain by Piet Heyn in 1628; privateering was at first the most profitable activity. In 1630, the colony of New Holland (capital Mauritsstad, present-day Recife) was formed, taking over Portuguese possessions in Brazil. In Africa, posts were established on the Gold Coast (now Ghana) and briefly in Angola. In the Americas, (North America) and sugar (South America) were the most important trade goods, while African Decline This chain of successes quickly ended, however. New Holland was lost to Portuguese Brazil in 1654, after a long war, and many other trading posts were also destroyed or captured by rivaling European nations. The New Netherland colonization effort did not spread further either, in part due to a fierce rivalry with the English, who conquered New Netherland in 1664, and in part due to the difficulty of attracting settlers under the company's initial policy of the Patroon system, which granted vast power over settlers to the men who brought them to the colony. After years of debts, the original GWC folded in 1674, and a new, reorganised company was formed. Piracy was abandoned, and the company concentrated mainly on the African slave trade and its remaining possessions in Suriname and the Antilles. After the British took control of Suriname for several years in the 1780s, the GWC appeared unable to recover. In 1791, the company's stock was bought by the Dutch government, and its territories were placed under Dutch government control. See also Dutch East India Company British East India Company French East India Company List of director generals of New Netherland Economic History of the Netherlands (1500 - 1815) External links Dutch Portuguese Colonial History Dutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps. WIC ship halve maan The GWC ship the Halve Maan. Charter of the Dutch West India Company Text of the Charter of the Dutch West India Company: 1621 Netherlands West India Company GWC | Dutch_West_India_Company |@lemmatized west:7 india:10 house:1 amsterdam:5 headquarters:1 gwc:9 warehouse:1 dutch:13 company:18 merchant:2 among:1 found:1 father:1 willem:1 usselincx:1 june:1 grant:2 charter:4 trade:6 monopoly:2 indie:1 mean:1 caribbean:3 republic:1 seven:1 united:1 netherlands:4 give:1 jurisdiction:1 african:3 slave:2 brazil:4 north:2 america:6 area:2 could:1 operate:1 consist:2 africa:3 tropic:1 cancer:1 cape:1 good:2 hope:1 include:2 pacific:1 ocean:1 eastern:1 part:4 new:11 guinea:1 intended:1 purpose:1 eliminate:1 competition:1 particularly:1 spanish:3 portuguese:6 various:1 trading:2 post:4 establish:4 become:1 instrumental:1 colonization:2 organization:1 initial:2 activity:2 organize:1 similarly:1 east:4 abbreviate:1 voc:2 asia:1 mainly:2 present:3 indonesia:1 except:1 fact:1 allow:1 conduct:1 military:1 operation:1 without:1 approval:1 government:3 like:1 five:1 office:1 call:1 chamber:2 kamers:1 rotterdam:1 hoorn:1 middelburg:2 groningen:1 contribute:1 board:1 member:1 know:1 heeren:1 xix:1 lord:1 nineteen:1 initially:1 relatively:1 successful:1 many:2 colony:4 netherland:4 cover:1 day:2 york:1 connecticut:1 delaware:1 jersey:1 settlement:1 antilles:2 several:2 island:1 suriname:3 guyana:1 large:1 success:2 history:5 seizure:1 silver:2 fleet:1 carry:1 spain:1 piet:1 heyn:1 privateering:1 first:1 profitable:1 holland:2 capital:1 mauritsstad:1 recife:1 form:2 take:2 possession:2 gold:1 coast:1 ghana:1 briefly:1 angola:1 sugar:1 south:1 important:1 decline:1 chain:1 quickly:1 end:1 however:1 lose:1 long:1 war:1 also:2 destroy:1 capture:1 rival:1 european:1 nation:1 effort:1 spread:1 far:1 either:1 due:2 fierce:1 rivalry:1 english:1 conquer:1 difficulty:1 attract:1 settler:2 policy:1 patroon:1 system:1 vast:1 power:1 men:1 bring:1 year:2 debt:1 original:1 fold:1 reorganised:1 piracy:1 abandon:1 concentrate:1 remain:1 british:2 control:2 appear:1 unable:1 recover:1 stock:1 buy:1 territory:1 place:1 see:1 french:1 list:2 director:1 general:1 economic:1 external:1 link:1 colonial:2 ceylon:1 malacca:1 bengal:1 formosa:1 language:1 heritage:1 remains:1 map:1 wic:1 ship:2 halve:2 maan:2 text:1 |@bigram west_indie:1 tropic_cancer:1 pacific_ocean:1 amsterdam_rotterdam:1 netherlands_antilles:1 fierce_rivalry:1 external_link:1 |
6,620 | Morihei_Ueshiba | Morihei Ueshiba (植芝 盛平 Ueshiba Morihei, December 14, 1883–April 26, 1969) was a famous martial artist and founder of the Japanese martial art of aikido. He is often referred to as , meaning "founder", or Ōsensei, "Great Teacher". Early years Morihei Ueshiba was born in Tanabe, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan on December 14, 1883. The only son of Yoroku and Yuki Ueshiba's five children, Morihei was raised in a somewhat privileged setting. His father was a wealthy landowner who also traded in lumber and fishing and was politically active. Ueshiba was a rather weak, sickly child and bookish in his inclinations. At a young age his father encouraged him to take up sumo wrestling and swimming and entertained him with stories of his great-grandfather Kichiemon who was considered a very strong samurai in his era. The need for such strength was further emphasized when the young Ueshiba witnessed his father being attacked by followers of a competing politician. Stevens, John.Aikido; the Way of Harmony. Shambhala Publications, Boston, 1984. Ueshiba is known to have studied several martial arts in his youth but he did not train extensively in most and even his training in Yagyū Shingan-ryū was sporadic due to his military service in those years. Records show that he trained in Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū jujutsu under Tozawa Tokusaburō for a short period in 1901 in Tokyo; Gotō-ha Yagyū Shingan-ryū under Nakai Masakatsu from 1903 to 1908 in Sakai, and judo under Kiyoichi Takagi 1911 in Tanabe. However, it was only after moving to the northern island of Hokkaidō in 1912 with his wife, as part of a settlement effort, that his martial art training took on real depth. For it was here that he began his study of Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu under its reviver Takeda Sokaku. He characterized his early training thus: Takeda Sokaku and Daitō-ryū Retouched photograph of Takeda Sokaku c.1888 The technical curriculum of aikido was undoubtedly most greatly influenced by the teachings of Takeda Sokaku and his system of aiki-jūjutsu called Daitō-ryū. Although disputed by some, the ledger books of Takeda clearly show that Ueshiba spent a great deal of time training in Daitō-ryū between 1915 and 1937. He received the majority of the important scrolls awarded by Takeda at this time including the Hiden Mokuroko, the Hiden Ogi and the Goshin'yo te. Ueshiba received his kyoju dairi certificate, or teaching license, for the system from Takeda in 1922. Takeda had not yet implemented a menkyo license, or highest level of achievement license, into his system at this time. He also received a Kashima Shinden Jikishinkage-ryū sword transmission scroll from Takeda in 1922 in Ayabe. Ueshiba then became a representative of Daitō-ryū, toured with Takeda as a teaching assistant and taught the system to others under the Daitō-ryū name. The basic techniques of aikido seem to have their basis in teachings from various points in the Daitō-ryū curriculum. A source of confusion is the different names used for these techniques in aikido and in the Daitō-ryū system. In part this is because Takeda Tokimune added much of the nomenclature after the period in which Ueshiba studied. In addition the names ikkajo, nikkajo, sankajo used in both Daitō-ryū and the early years of aikido, latter supplanted by terms such as ikkyo, nikkyo, sankyo, were really generic names translating to "first teaching", "second teaching", and so on. In Daitō-ryū these usually refer to groupings of techniques while in aikido they usually refer to specific techniques and joint manipulations. From aiki-jūjutsu to aikido In the earlier years of his teaching, from the 1920s to the mid 1930s, Ueshiba taught the aiki-jūjutsu system he had earned a license in from Takeda Sokaku. His early students' documents bear the term aiki-jūjutsu. Indeed, Ueshiba trained one of the future highest grade earners in Daitō-ryū, Takuma Hisa, in the art before Takeda took charge of Hisa's training. The early form of training under Ueshiba was characterized by the ample use of strikes to vital points (atemi), a larger total curriculum, a greater use of weapons, and a more linear approach to technique than would be found in later forms of aikido. These methods are preserved in the teachings of his early students Kenji Tomiki (who founded the Shodokan Aikido sometimes called Tomiki-ryū), Noriaki Inoue (who founded Shin'ei Taidō), Minoru Mochizuki (who founded Yoseikan Budo), Gozo Shioda (who founded Yoshinkan Aikido) and Morihiro Saito (who preserved his early form of aikido under the Aikikai umbrella sometimes referred to as Iwama-ryū). Many of these styles are considered "pre-war styles", although some of the teachers continued to have contact and influence from Ueshiba in the years after the Second World War. Later, as Ueshiba seemed to slowly grow away from Takeda, he began to implement more changes into the art. These changes are reflected in the differing names with which he referred to his art, first as aiki-jūjutsu, then Ueshiba-ryū, Asahi-ryū, Pranin, Stanley (2006) "Sokaku Takeda in Osaka" Aikidojournal.com aiki budō, and finally aikido. As Ueshiba grew older, more skilled, and more spiritual in his outlook, his art also changed and became softer and more circular. Striking techniques became less important and the formal curriculum became simpler. In his own expression of the art there was a greater emphasis on what is referred to as kokyū-nage, or "breath throws" which are soft and blending, utilizing the opponent's movement in order to throw them. Many of these techniques are rooted in the aiki-no-jutsu portions of the Daitō-ryū curriculum rather than the more direct jujutsu style joint-locking techniques. Onisaburo Deguchi's spiritual influence After Ueshiba left Hokkaidō he came under the influence of Onisaburo Deguchi, the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto-kyō religion in Ayabe. In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth, this connection was to have a major effect in introducing Ueshiba to various elite political circles as a martial artist. The Ueshiba Dojo in Ayabe was used to train members of the Ōmoto-kyō sect. He was involved in the first Ōmoto-kyō Incident, an ill-fated attempt to found a utopian colony in Mongolia. Although Ueshiba eventually distanced himself from both these teachers, their effect on him and his art cannot be overstated. The real birth of Aikido came as the result of three instances of spiritual awakening that Ueshiba experienced. The first happened in 1925, after Ueshiba had defeated a naval officer's bokken (wooden katana) attacks unarmed and without hurting the officer. Ueshiba then walked to his garden and had a spiritual awakening.Onisaburo Deguchi </blockquote> His second experience occurred in 1940 when, "Around 2am as I was performing misogi, I suddenly forgot all the martial techniques I had ever learned. The techniques of my teachers appeared completely new. Now they were vehicles for the cultivation of life, knowledge, and virtue, not devices to throw people with." His third experience was in 1942 during the worst fighting of WWII, Ueshiba had a vision of the "Great Spirit of Peace". "The Way of the Warrior has been misunderstood. It is not a means to kill and destroy others. Those who seek to compete and better one another are making a terrible mistake. To smash, injure, or destroy is the worst thing a human being can do. The real Way of a Warrior is to prevent such slaughter - it is the Art of Peace, the power of love." In 1927, Ueshiba moved to Tokyo where he founded his first dojo, which still exists today under the name Aikikai Hombu Dojo. Between 1940 and 1942 he made several visits to Manchukuo (Japanese occupied Manchuria) to instruct his martial art. In 1942 he left Tokyo and moved to Iwama in the Ibaraki Prefecture where the term "aikido" was first used as a name for his art. Here he founded the Aiki Shuren Dojo, also known as the Iwama dojo. During all this time he traveled extensively in Japan, particularly in the Kansai region teaching his aikido. Morihei Ueshiba died on April 26, 1969. Honors Ueshiba was posthumously awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasure. L'Harmattan web site (in French) Legacy Ueshiba is remembered by his pupils as a master of the martial arts, whose studies transcended technical matters to include a moral and philosophical view of the world based around harmony in the face of aggression. The many branches of aikido in existence today virtually all trace their lineage back to him. Many stories exist about Ueshiba's martial skill. It is said for example that he was able to escape a tight ring of students that surrounded him with swords and attacked simultaneously. Many of these students would later say they had not even seen him go by them. Another story is that he was able to knock someone off their feet with the force of his kiai. There is debate in the aikido world over some of these sensational stories; some dismiss them as myth generated around a genuinely brilliant but human martial artist, whereas others believe that Morihei Ueshiba truly achieved such feats. To this day, Ōmoto-kyō priests oversee a ceremony in Ueshiba's honor every April 29 at the Aiki Shrine in Iwama. Over the years, Ueshiba trained a large number of students, many of whom have grown into great teachers in their own right. Some of them were uchideshi, or live-in students. There are roughly four generations of students. A partial list follows: Aikido Journal Encyclopedia List of Deshi Interview with Kisshomaru Ueshiba in Aikido Journal First (pre-war) generation(c.1921–c.1935) Second (war) generation(c.1936–c.1945) Third (post-war) generation(c.1946–c.1955) Fourth (and last) generation(c.1956–c.1969)Zenzaburo Akazawa (born 1920) since 1933 Masahiro Hashimoto (born 1910) since 1931 Takuma Hisa (1895–1980) since 1934 Yasuhiro Konishi (1893-1983) Noriaki Inoue (1902–1994) since c.1921, nephew of Morihei Ueshiba Ikkusai Iwata (born 1909) since 1930, 9th dan Aikikai Hisao Kamada (1911–1986) since 1929 Minoru Mochizuki (1907–2003) since 1930, 10th dan (received from the International Martial Arts Federation) Aritoshi Murashige (1895–1964) since 1931 Gozo Shioda (1915–1994) since 1932, founder of the Yoshinkan Aikido Rinjiro Shirata (1912–1993) since 1933, 9th dan Isamu Takeshita (1869–1949) since c.1925 Kenji Tomiki (1900–1979) since 1926, was the first 8th dan awarded in aikido in 1942. Shigemi Yonekawa (1910–2005) since 1933 Tsutomu Yukawa (1911–1942) since 1931Tadashi Abe (1926–1984) since 1942, 6th dan Minoru Hirai (1903–1998) since 1939, founder of the Korindo style. Kisaburo Osawa (1911–1991) since 1941, 9th dan Kanshū Sunadomari (born 1923) since 1942, 9th dan Bansen Tanaka (1912–1988) since 1936, 9th dan Saburo Tenryū (1903–1989) since 1939, he was a famous sumo wrestler Koichi Tohei (born 1920) since 1939, only 10th dan awarded by Ueshiba and approved by Aikikai Michio Hikitsuchi (1923–2004) since 1937, 10th dan (verbally awarded by Ueshiba), opened Shingu's Kumano Juku in 1951 (when he was 7th dan)Seiseki Abe (born 1915) since 1952, 10th dan Sadateru Arikawa (1930–2003) since 1947, 9th dan Hiroshi Kato (born 1935) since 1954, 8th dan Yasuo Kobayashi (born 1936) since 1954, 8th dan Yoshio Kuroiwa (born 1932) since 1954, 6th dan Mutsuro Nakazono (born 1918) 7th dan Shoji Nishio (1927–2005) since 1951, 8th dan André Nocquet (1914–1999) since 1955, 8th dan, the first European uchideshi Masamichi Noro (born 1935) since 1955, 6th dan, founder of kinomichi Morihiro Saito (1928–2002) since 1946, 9th dan Mitsugi Saotome (born 1937) since 1955 Hiroshi Tada (born 1929) since 1945, 9th dan Nobuyoshi Tamura (born 1933) since 1953, 8th dan Seigo Yamaguchi (1924–1996) since 1951, 8th danKazuo Chiba (born 1940) since 1958, 8th dan Terry Dobson (1938–1992) since 1960, 5th dan Seishiro Endo (born 1942) since 1964, 8th dan Robert Frager (born 1940) since 1964, 7th dan Gaku Homma (born 1950) founder of Nippon Kan and was the last uchideshi Ueshiba trained before he died. Norihiko Ichihashi (1940–2001) since 1960, 8th dan Shizuo Imaizumi (born 1938) since 1959, 7th dan Mitsunari Kanai (1939–2004) since 1959, 8th dan Yutaka Kurita (born 1940) since 1959, 6th dan Koretoshi Maruyama (born 1936) since 1954, founder Aikido Yuishinkai International Shuji Maruyama (born 1940) since 1959, 6th dan, founder of Kokikai Seijuro Masuda (born 1936) since 1962, 8th dan Robert Nadeau (born 1937) since 1962, 7th dan Kenji Shimizu (born 1940) since 1963, 8th dan Roy Suenaka (born 1940) since 1961, 8th dan Seiichi Sugano (born 1939) since 1959, 8th dan Morito Suganuma (born 1942) since 1964, 8th dan Akira Tohei (1929–1999) since 1956, 8th dan Takeji Tomita (born 1942) since 1961, 7th dan Yoshimitsu Yamada (born 1938) since 1956, 8th dan Hirokazu Kobayashi (1929–1998) Kobayashi aikido Personal traits Morihei Ueshiba regularly practiced cold water misogi, as well as other spiritual and religious rites. He viewed his studies of aikido in this light. As a young man, Ueshiba was renowned for his incredible physical strength. He would later lose much of this muscle, which some believe changed the way he performed aikido technique. Ueshiba was said to be a simple but wise man, and a gifted farmer. In his later years, he was regarded as very kind and gentle as a rule, but there are also stories of terrifying scoldings delivered to his students. For instance, he once thoroughly chastised students for practicing jō (staff) strikes on trees without first covering them in protective padding. Another time, as students sneaked back into the dojo after a night of drinking and brawling, he smashed the first one through the door over the head with a bokken, and proceeded to scold them. References Publications Morihei Ueshiba, The Secret Teachings of Aikido (2008), Kodansha International, ISBN 978-4-7700-3030-6 Morihei Ueshiba, Budo: Teachings of the Founder of Aikido (1996), Kodansha International, ISBN 978-4-7700-2070-3 Morihei Ueshiba, The Essence of Aikido: Spiritual Teachings of Morihei Ueshiba (1998), Kodansha International, ISBN 978-4-7700-2357-5 External links "The Art of Peace", sayings of Morihei Ueshiba translated by John Stevens A Day in the Life of the Founder Morihei Ueshiba, April 1968 - By Gaku Homma. | Morihei_Ueshiba |@lemmatized morihei:14 ueshiba:48 植芝:1 盛平:1 december:2 april:4 famous:2 martial:11 artist:3 founder:10 japanese:2 art:15 aikido:29 often:1 refer:6 mean:2 ōsensei:1 great:7 teacher:5 early:8 year:7 bear:2 tanabe:2 wakayama:1 prefecture:2 japan:2 son:1 yoroku:1 yuki:1 five:1 child:2 raise:1 somewhat:1 privileged:1 setting:1 father:3 wealthy:1 landowner:1 also:5 trade:1 lumber:1 fishing:1 politically:1 active:1 rather:2 weak:1 sickly:1 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6,621 | Mebyon_Kernow | Mebyon Kernow (Cornish for "Sons of Cornwall", often abbreviated MK) is a minor political party in the United Kingdom. The main objective of MK is to establish greater autonomy in Cornwall, through the establishment of a legislative Cornish Assembly. On a national scale Mebyon Kernow have no members elected by the Cornish people to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, nor is the party present in the House of Lords. Locally the party also have no elected county councillors since 2001, but until April 2009 did have a minority of district councillors active. The organisation claim to be civic nationalists rather than ethnic nationalists. Mebyon Kernow History MK was founded on 6 January 1951 at a meeting held in Redruth. Helena Charles was elected the party's first chair. At the first meeting, MK adopted the following objectives: To study local conditions and attempt to remedy any that may be prejudicial to the best interests of Cornwall by the creation of public opinion or other means. To foster the Cornish Language and Literature. To encourage the study of Cornish history from a Cornish point of view. By self knowledge to further the acceptance of the idea of the Celtic character of Cornwall, one of the six Celtic nations. To publish pamphlets, broadsheets, articles and letters in the Press whenever possible, putting forward the foregoing aims. To arrange concerts and entertainments with a Cornish-Celtic flavour through which these aims can be further advanced. To cooperate with all societies concerned with preserving the character of Cornwall. By September 1951 they had officially come to a stance of supporting self-government for Cornwall, in what they hoped at the time would be a federal United Kingdom. MK won its first seat at local level on the Redruth-Camborne Urban Council in 1953. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, MK was in essence a political pressure group rather than a true political party, with members being able to join other political parties as well. However, by the 1970s the group developed into a more coherent and unified organization. During this decade, MK began contesting Westminster parliamentary seats as well as local government ones. On 28 May 1975 Dr James Whetter left MK to form the Cornish Nationalist Party which was campaigning for full Cornish independence. They currently describe their philosophy as based on being: "Cornish, Green, Left of Centre, Decentralist." Mebyon Kernow is a member of the European Free Alliance although it did not contest European Parliament elections in 2004 or 1999. South West, Members elected to the European Parliament on 10 June 2004 The party has close links with Plaid Cymru (their partner in the EFA) including a twinning arrangement with Plaid's Blaenau Gwent branch, and to a lesser extent with the SNP. Daphne du Maurier, the well known novelist, was at one point a member of Mebyon Kernow, as was Andrew George, the Liberal Democrat MP; he still remains sympathetic to many Cornish issues, but is no longer a member since they became a political party. MK have an electoral partnership with the Greens. In the 2005 Westminster elections, MK did not contest the St Ives constituency to make room for the Green Party candidate. In return, the Greens did not stand against MK in any of the other four Cornish constituencies. MK has announced it will contest St Ives at the next general election. MK support the inclusion of the Cornish into the FCPNM In August 2008 MK deputy leader, Conan Jenkin, expressed Mebyon Kernow's support for a proposed legal challenge by Cornwall 2000 over the UK Government's exclusion of the Cornish from the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Cornwall 2000 need to show that they have exhausted all domestic legal avenues by having the case summarily dismissed by the High Court, the Appeal Court and the House of Lords, before the case can be put to the European Court of Human Rights. Mebyon Kernow have requested the support of all of its members for this legal action. MK support the inclusion of the Cornish into the FCPNM Electoral performance In 1979, in the first elections to the European Parliament, Mebyon Kernow's candidate Richard Jenkin was able to attract almost ten percent of the vote in the Cornwall seat. This reflected a decade of steady growth for the party. MK continues to contest parliamentary seats with little electoral success, and also local government seats with more success. They lost their only Cornwall county councillor in 2001. The national electoral results of Mebyon Kernow in Cornwall are shown in the table below. ElectionVotes castShare of Vote1979 European election10,2055.91983 General election1,1511.22 candidates1989 European election4,2241.91994 European election3,3151.51997 General election1,9060.84 candidates2001 General election3,1991.33 candidates2005 General election3,5521.74 candidates (Source: Election Demon) The following table shows Mebyon Kernow's reprasentation within the county of cornwall, including cornish MP's and councillors, as of December 2008. PartyMembers of ParliamentCounty CouncillorsDistrict CouncillorsLiberal Democrats54894Conservative0967Labour054Liberal011Mebyon Kernow009UK Independence Party001Independent01996* * includes all 21 members of the Scilly Islands Council unitary authority (Source Local Council Political Compositions) Since 11 November 2004, there have been four MK councillors on Kerrier District Council, along with one in Restormel (the party leader Dick Cole) and, until his death in 2005, John Bolitho in North Cornwall. One of the MK councillors in Kerrier, Loveday Jenkin, joined the district council government in 2005 becoming the first MK councillor in such a position. In May 2007 Mebyon Kernow achieved its best-ever round of election results in Cornwall’s district and town and parish councils. There were 225 district council seats up for election and MK put up 24 candidates. MK won seven district council seats, a net gain of one; seventeen town/city council seats and four parish council places, a nett gain of one town/parish seat. MK polled about 5 percent of the total votes cast in the district council elections. The seats won included their first seat on Caradon Council for 24 years; defended their seat on North Cornwall District Council; three seats on Kerrier District Council, where they lost one seat; and two on Restormel Borough Council. The results put Mebyon Kernow in third position behind the Liberal Democrats and the Conservative Party and ahead of Labour in several seats including Kerrier, Restormel, North Cornwall and Caradon. The total MK vote in the May 2007 local elections was over 10,000 votes across Cornwall. BBC - 2007 Local Election results Cornish World Magazine In June 2008 Mebyon Kernow's representation on Caradon increased to 3 following the defection of Glenn Renshaw (Saltash Essa) from the Lib Dems and Chris Thomas (Callington) from the Indepependent group, to join the party. In the Town Council elections MK maintained groups of five councillors on both Camborne Town Council and Penzance Town Council, with three new councillors also elected to Truro City Council and is also represented on town councils in Callington, Liskeard and Penryn. Mebyon Kernow achieve best ever election results in 2007 district and town/parish elections Several former Cornish MPs were also members of Mebyon Kernow, including Peter Bessell (Liberal Party), John Pardoe (Liberal Party), David Mudd (Conservative), David Penhaligon (Liberal Party) and currently Andrew George (Liberal Democrats) Stance on Regional Development Agency South West Region. In July 2000 Mebyon Kernow issued the "Declaration for a Cornish Assembly" claiming; Three months later the Cornish Constitutional Convention was held with the objective of establishing a devolved Assembly. In less than two years, it had collected signatures from over 50,000 people, of whom 41 650 were resident in Cornwall, which is about 10 percent of the total Cornish electorate. A delegation led by the West Cornwall Liberal Democrat MP Andrew George and representatives of the Convention (Bert Biscoe, Richard Ford, Dick Cole, David Fieldsend and Andrew Climo) presented the declaration to 10 Downing Street on Wednesday 12 December 2001. BBC News 11 December 2001 Cornwall is part of the South West Regional Assembly and the South West Regional Development Agency administrate economic development, housing and strategic planning. The claim that the SW area covered is an artificially imposed large region and not natural. Mebyon Kernow opposes SWRA Mebyon Kernow says Cornwall needs its own Development Agency Mebyon Kernow wants to break up the SWRDA into small county areas and imploment a Cornish Regional Development Agency. Cornish MPs and Mebyon Kernow demand a Cornish Regional Development Agency 2009 European Parliament elections In April 2009 Mebyon Kernow announced that its list of candidates for the ‘South West Region’ seat in the European Parliament will comprise their six prospective parliamentary candidates for Westminster. The candidates are:- Dick Cole (St Austell and Newquay), Conan Jenkin (Truro and Falmouth), Loveday Jenkin (Camborne and Redruth), Simon Reed (St Ives), Glenn Renshaw (South East Cornwall), Joanie Willett (North Cornwall). Mebyon Kernow announce candidates for the ‘South West Region’ seat in the European Parliament Mebyon Kernow has also committed itself to continuing the fight for a Cornwall only Euro-constituency that would give Cornwall a voice at the heart of Europe. MK fight for Cornwall only Euro-constituency 2009 Cornwall Council elections In April 2009 MK leader Dick Cole announced that he would be officially resigning his job as an archaeologist with Cornwall Council in order to stand for election to the Council. He had previously worked for Cornwall County Council for 14 years, but it is not permitted for employees of Councils to stand for election to the same Council that they work for. Dick Cole to become full time leader of Mebyon Kernow On 12 May 2009 Mebyon Kernow leader Dick Cole announced that 33 candidates will be standing for the Cornwall Council elections on 4 June 2009. MK Cornwall Council candidates 2009 This is the largest number of candidates that MK have ever fielded in a single round of elections to a principal councils or councils. There will be 123 members elected for the new unitary Cornwall Council, replacing the previous 82 councillors on Cornwall County Council and the 249 on the six district councils. Cornwall Council June 2009 Electoral divisions Cornwall Council will provide a wide range of services to more than half a million residents, have an annual budget of more than £1 billion and will be the biggest employer in Cornwall. Cornwall Council 2009 elections Leaders of Mebyon Kernow 1951 Helena Charles 1959 Major Cecil Beer 1970 Len Truran 1973 Richard Jenkin 1991 Loveday Jenkin 1997 Dick Cole See also Kernow X List of topics related to Cornwall Regional Assemblies in England English Core Cities Group Constitutional status of Cornwall Cornish Nationalist Party, an early splinter of MK (1975), often conflated with it. References External links MebyonKernow.org - Official Party Website European Free Alliance | Mebyon_Kernow |@lemmatized mebyon:26 kernow:27 cornish:25 son:1 cornwall:39 often:2 abbreviate:1 mk:29 minor:1 political:6 party:19 united:3 kingdom:3 main:1 objective:3 establish:2 great:1 autonomy:1 establishment:1 legislative:1 assembly:5 national:3 scale:1 member:10 elect:6 people:2 house:3 common:1 present:2 lord:2 locally:1 also:7 county:6 councillor:10 since:3 april:3 minority:2 district:11 active:1 organisation:1 claim:2 civic:1 nationalist:4 rather:2 ethnic:1 history:2 found:1 january:1 meeting:2 hold:2 redruth:3 helena:2 charles:2 first:6 chair:1 adopt:1 following:1 study:2 local:7 condition:1 attempt:1 remedy:1 may:5 prejudicial:1 best:3 interest:1 creation:1 public:1 opinion:1 mean:1 foster:1 language:1 literature:1 encourage:1 point:2 view:1 self:2 knowledge:1 acceptance:1 idea:1 celtic:3 character:2 one:8 six:3 nation:1 publish:1 pamphlet:1 broadsheet:1 article:1 letter:1 press:1 whenever:1 possible:1 put:4 forward:1 foregoing:1 aim:2 arrange:1 concert:1 entertainment:1 flavour:1 far:1 advanced:1 cooperate:1 society:1 concern:1 preserve:1 september:1 officially:2 come:1 stance:2 support:5 government:5 hop:1 time:2 would:3 federal:1 win:3 seat:17 level:1 camborne:3 urban:1 council:36 throughout:1 essence:1 pressure:1 group:5 true:1 able:2 join:3 well:3 however:1 develop:1 coherent:1 unified:1 organization:1 decade:2 begin:1 contest:5 westminster:3 parliamentary:3 dr:1 james:1 whetter:1 leave:2 form:1 campaign:1 full:2 independence:2 currently:2 describe:1 philosophy:1 base:1 green:4 centre:1 decentralist:1 european:12 free:2 alliance:2 although:1 parliament:6 election:20 south:7 west:7 june:4 close:1 link:2 plaid:2 cymru:1 partner:1 efa:1 include:6 twinning:1 arrangement:1 blaenau:1 gwent:1 branch:1 less:2 extent:1 snp:1 daphne:1 du:1 maurier:1 know:1 novelist:1 andrew:4 george:3 liberal:7 democrat:4 mp:5 still:1 remain:1 sympathetic:1 many:1 issue:2 longer:1 become:3 electoral:5 partnership:1 st:4 ives:3 constituency:4 make:1 room:1 candidate:11 return:1 stand:4 four:3 announce:5 next:1 general:5 inclusion:2 fcpnm:2 august:1 deputy:1 leader:6 conan:2 jenkin:7 express:1 proposed:1 legal:3 challenge:1 uk:1 exclusion:1 framework:1 convention:3 protection:1 need:2 show:3 exhaust:1 domestic:1 avenue:1 case:2 summarily:1 dismiss:1 high:1 court:3 appeal:1 human:1 right:1 request:1 action:1 performance:1 richard:3 attract:1 almost:1 ten:1 percent:3 vote:4 reflect:1 steady:1 growth:1 continue:2 little:1 success:2 lose:2 result:5 table:2 electionvotes:1 castshare:1 source:2 demon:1 follow:2 reprasentation:1 within:1 december:3 partymembers:1 parliamentcounty:1 councillorsdistrict:1 councillorsliberal:1 scilly:1 island:1 unitary:2 authority:1 composition:1 november:1 kerrier:4 along:1 restormel:3 dick:7 cole:7 death:1 john:2 bolitho:1 north:4 loveday:3 position:2 achieve:2 ever:3 round:2 town:8 parish:4 seven:1 net:1 gain:2 seventeen:1 city:3 place:1 nett:1 poll:1 total:3 cast:1 caradon:3 year:3 defend:1 three:3 two:2 borough:1 third:1 behind:1 conservative:2 ahead:1 labour:1 several:2 across:1 bbc:2 world:1 magazine:1 representation:1 increase:1 defection:1 glenn:2 renshaw:2 saltash:1 essa:1 lib:1 dems:1 chris:1 thomas:1 callington:2 indepependent:1 maintain:1 five:1 penzance:1 new:2 truro:2 represent:1 liskeard:1 penryn:1 former:1 peter:1 bessell:1 pardoe:1 david:3 mudd:1 penhaligon:1 regional:6 development:6 agency:5 region:4 july:1 declaration:2 claiming:1 month:1 later:1 constitutional:2 devolve:1 collect:1 signature:1 resident:2 electorate:1 delegation:1 lead:1 representative:1 bert:1 biscoe:1 ford:1 fieldsend:1 climo:1 street:1 wednesday:1 news:1 part:1 administrate:1 economic:1 housing:1 strategic:1 planning:1 sw:1 area:2 cover:1 artificially:1 impose:1 large:2 natural:1 oppose:1 swra:1 say:1 want:1 break:1 swrda:1 small:1 imploment:1 demand:1 list:2 comprise:1 prospective:1 austell:1 newquay:1 falmouth:1 simon:1 reed:1 east:1 joanie:1 willett:1 commit:1 fight:2 euro:2 give:1 voice:1 heart:1 europe:1 resign:1 job:1 archaeologist:1 order:1 previously:1 work:2 permit:1 employee:1 number:1 field:1 single:1 principal:1 replace:1 previous:1 division:1 provide:1 wide:1 range:1 service:1 half:1 million:1 annual:1 budget:1 billion:1 big:1 employer:1 major:1 cecil:1 beer:1 len:1 truran:1 see:1 x:1 topic:1 relate:1 england:1 english:1 core:1 status:1 early:1 splinter:1 conflate:1 reference:1 external:1 mebyonkernow:1 org:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram mebyon_kernow:26 kernow_cornish:1 plaid_cymru:1 blaenau_gwent:1 daphne_du:1 du_maurier:1 liberal_democrat:4 st_ives:3 unitary_authority:1 dick_cole:7 bbc_news:1 st_austell:1 external_link:1 |
6,622 | Larry_Niven | Laurence van Cott Niven (born April 30, 1938 Los Angeles, California) is a US science fiction author. Perhaps his best-known work is Ringworld (1970), which received Hugo, Locus, Ditmar, and Nebula awards. His work is primarily hard science fiction, using big science concepts and theoretical physics. It also often includes elements of detective fiction and adventure stories. His fantasy includes The Magic Goes Away series, rational fantasy dealing with magic as a non-renewable resource. Niven also writes humorous stories; one series is collected in The Flight of the Horse. Biography Niven is a great-grandson of oil tycoon Edward L. Doheny, an important figure in the Teapot Dome scandal of the 1920s. He briefly attended the California Institute of Technology and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics (with a minor in psychology) from Washburn University, Topeka, Kansas, in 1962. He did a year of graduate work in mathematics at the University of California at Los Angeles. He has since lived in Los Angeles suburbs, including Chatsworth and Tarzana, as a full-time writer. He married Marilyn Joyce "Fuzzy Pink" Wisowaty, herself a well-known Science Fiction and Regency literature fan, on September 6, 1969. Work Niven is the author of numerous science fiction short stories and novels, beginning with his 1964 story "The Coldest Place". In this story, the coldest place concerned is the dark side of Mercury, which at the time the story was written was thought to be tidally locked with the Sun (it was found to rotate in a 2:3 resonance just months before the story was published). In addition to the Nebula award in 1970 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1970 and the Hugo and Locus awards in 1971 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1971 for Ringworld,, Niven won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story for "Neutron Star" in 1967. He won the same award in 1972, for "Inconstant Moon", and in 1975 for "The Hole Man". In 1976, he won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette for "The Borderland of Sol". Niven has written scripts for various science fiction television shows, including the original Land of the Lost series and Star Trek: The Animated Series, for which he adapted his early story "The Slaver Weapon." He adapted his story "Inconstant Moon" for an episode of the television series The Outer Limits in 1996. He has also written for the DC Comics character Green Lantern including in his stories hard science fiction concepts such as universal entropy and the redshift effect, which are unusual in comic books. The "Bible" for Green Lantern was written by Niven. Many of Niven's stories take place in his Known Space universe, in which humanity shares the several habitable solar systems nearest to the Sun with over a dozen alien species, including aggressive feline Kzinti and very intelligent but cowardly Pierson's Puppeteers, which are frequently central characters. The Ringworld series is set in the Known Space universe. The creation of thoroughly worked-out alien species, which are very different from humans both physically and mentally, is recognized as one of Niven's main strengths. Niven has also written a logical fantasy series The Magic Goes Away, which utilizes an exhaustible resource, called Mana, to power a rule-based "technological" magic. The Draco Tavern series of short stories take place in a more whimsical science fiction universe, told from the point of view of the proprietor of a multi-species bar. The whimsical Svetz series consists of a collection of short stories, The Flight of the Horse, and a novel, Rainbow Mars, which involve a nominal time machine sent back to retrieve long-extinct animals, but which goes, in fact, into alternate realities and brings back mythical creatures such as a Roc and a Unicorn. Much of his writing since the 1970s has been in collaboration with Jerry Pournelle and/or Steven Barnes. Influence Niven's most famous contribution to the SF genre is his concept of the Ringworld, a band of approximately the same diameter as Earth's orbit rotating around a star. The idea's genesis came from Niven's attempts to imagine a more efficient version of a Dyson Sphere, which could produce the illusion of surface gravity through rotation. Given that spinning a Dyson Sphere would result in the atmosphere pooling around the equator, the Ringworld removes all the extraneous parts of the structure, leaving a spinning band landscaped on the sun-facing side, with the atmosphere and inhabitants kept in place through centrifugal force and 1000 mile high perimeter walls (rim walls). When it was pointed out to Niven that the Ringworld was dynamically unstable, in that once the center of rotation drifted away from the central sun, gravity would pull the ring into contact with the star, he used this as a plot element in the sequel novel, The Ringworld Engineers. This idea proved influential, serving as an alternative to a full Dyson Sphere that required fewer assumptions (such as artificial gravity) and allowed a day/night cycle to be introduced (through the use of a smaller ring of "shadow squares", rotating between the ring and its sun). This was further developed by Iain M. Banks in his Culture series, which features about 1/100th ringworld–size megastructures called Orbitals that orbit a star rather than encircling it entirely. Alastair Reynolds also uses ringworlds in his 2008 novel House of Suns. The Ringworld-like namesake of the Halo video game series is the eponymous Halo megastructure/superweapon. It is one of the most visible influences of the Ringworld concept on popular culture. Policy involvement In 2007, Niven, in conjunction with a group of science fiction writers known as SIGMA, led by Pournelle, began advising the U.S. Department of Homeland Security as to future trends affecting terror policy and other topics. Niven was an adviser to Ronald Reagan on the creation of the Star Wars anti missile policy, as covered in the BBC documentary "Pandora's Box" by Adam Curtis. Other works One of Niven's most humorous works is "Man of Steel, Woman of Kleenex", in which he uses real-world physics to underline the difficulties of Superman and a human woman (Lois Lane or Lana Lang) mating. Larry Niven's novels frequently make use of the stasis field concept, which he also popularized. In several titles and elsewhere Niven employs terms that are double entendre in that they are apparently metaphorical, but are in fact, meant to be taken literally, or sometimes vice versa. A few examples of this are: The novel Destiny's Road is in fact about a road on a planet called Destiny. In the Ringworlds past there was an event known as "The Fall of the Cities", in which floating cities literally fell out of the sky and crashed to the ground. In his short story, "At The Core," his albino hero Beowulf Shaeffer begins a trip to the Galactic core, but eventually has to turn back because the galactic center is in fact exploding, and sending a deadly wave of hard radiation before it, which prompts some ruminations on cowardice, and yields the revelation at the end of story that the phrase in the title had been meant metaphorically after all. The short story "There is a Tide" begins by speaking of a metaphorical tide of fate which guides one's destiny. But the existence of literal tides on a planet in the story is a key to the plot. The novel The Integral Trees features long straight floating trees which are curved at each end in opposite directions, giving them the shape of the mathematical integral sign, but are themselves integral to the lifecycle of the inhabitants. The novel Footfall at first seems to refer to the elephantine Fithp invaders striding across the Earth, but is actually revealed to be the aliens dropping an asteroid nicknamed the Foot onto the Earth. The title of the short story "Locusts" continues this theme. Niven's Law Larry Niven is also known in science fiction fandom for "Niven's Law": There is no cause so right that one cannot find a fool following it. Over the course of his career Niven has added to this first law a list of Niven's Laws which he describes as "how the Universe works" as far as he can tell. Bibliography Known Space World of Ptavvs (1966) A Gift from Earth (1968) Neutron Star (collection) (1968) The Shape of Space (collection) (1969) Protector (1973)Hugo and Locus SF Awards nominee, 1974 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1974 Tales of Known Space: The Universe of Larry Niven (collection) (1975) The Long Arm of Gil Hamilton (short story collection) (1976) The Patchwork Girl (1980) Three Books of Known Space (omnibus) (1989) World of Ptavvs / A Gift From Earth / Neutron Star (omnibus) (1991) Flatlander: The Collected Tales of Gil 'the Arm' Hamilton (omnibus) (1995) Fleet of Worlds Larry Niven and Edward M. Lerner (2007) Juggler of Worlds Larry Niven and Edward M. Lerner (2008)RingworldRingworld (1970) Nebula Award, 1970 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1970 Hugo and Locus SF Awards winner, 1971 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1971 The Ringworld Engineers (1980)Hugo and Locus SF Awards nominee, 1981 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1981 Guide to Larry Niven's Ringworld (1994) (with Kevin Stein) The Ringworld Throne (1996) Ringworld's Children (2004) Man-Kzin anthologies Man-Kzin Wars (1988) Man-Kzin Wars II (1989) Man-Kzin Wars III (1990) Man-Kzin Wars IV (1991) Man-Kzin Wars V (1992) Man-Kzin Wars VI (1994) Man-Kzin Wars VII (1995) Man Kzin Wars VIII: Choosing Names (1998) Man-Kzin Wars IX (2002) Man-Kzin Wars X: The Wunder War (2003) Man-Kzin Wars XI (2005) Destiny's Forge (2007) Man-Kzin Wars XII (2009) With Jerry Pournelle Inferno (1976)Hugo and Nebula Awards nominee, 1976 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1976 Lucifer's Hammer (1977)Hugo Award nominee, 1978 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1978 Oath of Fealty (1982) Footfall (1985)Hugo and Locus SF Awards nominee, 1986 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1986 Escape from Hell (2009, sequel to Inferno) Moties The Mote in God's Eye (1974)Hugo, Nebula and Locus SF Awards nominee, 1975 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1975 The Gripping Hand aka The Moat Around Murcheson's Eye (1993) Golden Road (set in the same fantasy world as The Magic Goes Away) The Burning City (2000) Burning Tower (2005) Heorot''' (with Steven Barnes and Jerry Pournelle) The Legacy of Heorot (1987) Beowulf's Children (1995 UK as The Dragons of Heorot)Destiny's Road (1997) (Written alone by Niven, not precisely a continuation of the Heorot series. Located in the same universeevents from the first two novels are briefly mentioned.) Dream Park (with Steven Barnes)Dream Park (1981)Locus SF Award nominee, 1982 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1982 The Barsoom Project (1989) The California Voodoo Game aka The Voodoo Game (1992)The Descent of Anansi (1982)Achilles' Choice (1991)Saturn's Race (2001) The StateA World Out of Time (1976)Locus SF Award nominee, 1977 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1977 The Integral Trees (1984)Nebula Award nominee, 1984 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1984 ; Locus SF Award winner, and Hugo nominee, 1985 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1985 The Smoke Ring (1987) Magic Goes Away The Magic Goes Away (1978) The Magic May Return (1981) More Magic (1984)The Time of the Warlock (Greendragon Press)(1984) The Magic Goes Away Collection (omnibus) (2005) Graphic novels and comics Death By Ecstasy: Illustrated Adaptation of the Larry Niven Novella (1991) Green Lantern: Ganthet's Tale (1992, DC Comics, ISBN 1-56389-026-7) (with John Byrne) The Magic Goes Away, graphic novel illustrated by Jan Duursema, DC Comics "Not Long before the End" was adapted by Doug Moench and Vicente Alcazar, and "All the Myriad Ways" by writer-artist Howard Chaykin, both for Marvel Comics' black-and-white anthology magazine Unknown Worlds of Science Fiction. Short story collections All the Myriad Ways (1971) The Flight of the Horse (1973) Inconstant Moon (1973) A Hole in Space (1974) Convergent Series (1979) Niven's Laws (1984) Limits (1985) N-Space (1990) Playgrounds of the Mind (1991) Bridging the Galaxies (1993) Crashlander (1994) Scatterbrain (2003) Larry Niven Short Stories Volume 1 (2003) Larry Niven Short Stories Volume 2 (2003) Larry Niven Short Stories Volume 3 (2003) The Draco Tavern (2006) Other Novels The Flying Sorcerers (with David Gerrold) (1971) Berserker Base: A Collaborative Novel (1984) (with Poul Anderson, Edward Bryant, Stephen R. Donaldson, Fred Saberhagen, Connie Willis and Roger Zelazny) Fallen Angels (1991) (with Jerry Pournelle and Michael Flynn) Rainbow Mars (1999) Building Harlequin's Moon (2005) (with Brenda Cooper) References External links http://www.larryniven.org - Fan website, sanctioned by Niven Biography Bibliography on SciFan Larry Niven on Fantastic Fiction | Larry_Niven |@lemmatized laurence:1 van:1 cott:1 niven:35 bear:1 april:1 los:3 angeles:3 california:4 u:2 science:11 fiction:12 author:2 perhaps:1 best:3 know:6 work:8 ringworld:14 receive:1 hugo:12 locus:10 ditmar:1 nebula:6 award:18 primarily:1 hard:3 use:6 big:1 concept:5 theoretical:1 physic:2 also:7 often:1 include:6 element:2 detective:1 adventure:1 story:24 fantasy:4 magic:11 go:8 away:8 series:13 rational:1 deal:1 non:1 renewable:1 resource:2 write:7 humorous:2 one:6 collect:1 flight:3 horse:3 biography:2 great:1 grandson:1 oil:1 tycoon:1 edward:4 l:1 doheny:1 important:1 figure:1 teapot:1 dome:1 scandal:1 briefly:2 attend:1 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6,623 | Montenegro | {{Infobox Country |native_name = Crna GoraЦрна Гора |conventional_long_name = Montenegro |common_name = Montenegro |demonym = Montenegrin |image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg |image_map = Europe location MNO.png |map_caption = |national_motto = |national_anthem = Oj, svijetla majska zoro"Oh, Bright Dawn of May" |official_languages = Montenegrin |capital = Image:Grb Podgorice2.png Podgorica1 |latd=42 |latm=47 |latNS=N |longd=19 |longm=28 |longEW=E |largest_city = capital |government_type = Parliamentary republic |leader_title1 = President |leader_title2 = Prime Minister |leader_title3 = Speaker |leader_name1 = Filip Vujanović |leader_name2 = Milo Đukanović |leader_name3 = Ranko Krivokapić |area_rank = 160th |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area_km2 = 13,812 |area_sq_mi = 5,019 |percent_water = 1.5 |population_estimate = 678,177 CIA World Factbook: Montenegro |population_estimate_rank = 162nd |population_estimate_year = July 2008 |population_census = 620,145 |population_census_year = 2003 |population_density_km2 = 50 |population_density_sq_mi = 115.6 |population_density_rank = 121st |GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |GDP_PPP = $6.944 billion |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11,092 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = 2008 |GDP_nominal = $4.822 billion |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $7,702 |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |sovereignty_type = Establishment |sovereignty_note = |established_event1 = Independence of Duklja (Montenegrin predecessor) from Byzantine Empire |established_date1 = 1042 |established_event2= Duklja recognised as a kingdom by the Pope |established_date2 = 1077 |established_event3 = Zeta (former Duklja) annexed by Serbian Empire |established_date3 = 1186 |established_event4 = Independence of Zeta (later called Montenegro) from Serbian Empire |established_date4 = 1356 |established_event5 = Cetinje founded |established_date5 = 1484 |established_event6 = Annexed by Ottoman Empire, semi-independent |established_date6 = 1499 |established_event7 = Independence recognized |established_date7 = 1878 |established_event8 = Self-declared unification with Serbia |established_date8 = 1918 |established_event9 = Independence from Serbia and Montenegro |established_date9 = 2006 |HDI_year = 2006 |HDI = 0.822 |HDI_rank = 64th |HDI_category = high |currency = Euro (€)2 |currency_code = EUR |country_code = |time_zone = CET |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = CEST |utc_offset_DST = +2 |demonym = Montenegrin |drives_on = right |cctld = .me (.yu)3 |calling_code = 382 |ISO_3166-1_alpha2 = ME |ISO_3166-1_alpha3 = MNE |ISO_3166-1_num = 499 |vehicle_code = MNE |footnotes = 1 The traditional old capital of Montenegro is Cetinje.2 Adopted unilaterally; Montenegro is not a formal member of the Eurozone.3 .me became active in September 2007. Suffix .yu will exist until September 2009. }} Montenegro ( or ), (Montenegrin: Crna Gora/Црна Гора, ) (meaning "Black Mountain" in Montenegrin) is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast, Kosovo to the East and Albania to the southeast http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?hl=en&tab=wl&q=goo . Its capital and largest city is Podgorica, while Cetinje is designated as the Prijestonica (Пријестоница), meaning the former Royal Capital City. Basic data of Montenegro . Montenegro is a member of the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, CEFTA, Council of Europe and Montenegro is also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean. It is also a potential candidate for membership in the European Union and NATO. The thousand-year history of the Montenegrin state begins in the 9th century with the emergence of Duklja, a vassal state of Byzantium. In those formative years, Duklja was ruled by the Vojislavljevic dynasty. In 1042, at the end of his 25-year rule, King Vojislav won a decisive battle near Bar against Byzantium, and Duklja became independent. Duklja's power and prosperity reached their zenith under King Vojislav's son, King Mihailo (1046-81), and his son King Bodin (1081-1101). http://www.montenegro.org/duklja.html . From the 11th century, it started to be referred to as Zeta. It ended with its incorporation into Raska, and beginning with the Crnojevic dynasty, Zeta was more often referred to as Crna Gora or by the Venetian term . A sovereign principality http://www.montenegro.org/balsic.html since the Late Middle Ages, Montenegro saw its independence from the Ottoman Empire formally recognized in 1878. From 1918, it was a part of various incarnations of Yugoslavia. On the basis of a referendum held on 21 May 2006, Montenegro declared independence on 3 June. On 28 June 2006, it became the 192nd member state of the United Nations, List of members to the United Nations by joining date and on 11 May 2007 the 47th member state of the Council of Europe. Directorate of Communication - The Republic of Montenegro becomes 47th Council of Europe member state On 15 December 2008, Montenegro presented its official application to the European Union, with the hopes of gaining EU candidate status by 2009. Montenegro files EU membership application Name Montenegro's native name, Crna Gora, sometimes transliterated as Tsrna Gora ("Black Mountain"), is mentioned for the first time in 1296 by Serbian King Stefan Uroš II Milutin in his edict to the Serbian Orthodox Zeta Episcopate seat at the Vranjina island in Lake Skadar from 1296 Geography . The origin of the term lies in the Slavic reference to excessively mountainous regions, often emerging in the medieval Serbian realm. Mentioned afterwards in most House of Nemanjić's edicts and in subsequent Venetian sources in the 13th and 14th centuries, signifying the area of the Upper Zeta, the name stabilized itself for a Principality in the second half of the 15th century under Lord Ivan Crnojević, mostly confounding erroneously the term with the dynasty's name, which both have similar roots. The region itself became remembered as Old Montenegro (Стара Црна Гора/Stara Crna Gora) as by the 19th century the The Highlands were added to the state, and Montenegro further increased its size several times by the 20th century during wars against the Ottomans, expanding its name to and annexing Old Herzegovina and parts of Old Serbia, most notably Metohija and southern Rashka. The state changed little to modern day reference, losing Metohija and gaining the Bay of Kotor. The name of the region gave the name to its people, the Montenegrins (Црногорци/Crnogorci). The country's name in most Western European languages, including English, reflects an adoption of the Venetian term , meaning "black mount", which probably dates back to the era of Venetian hegemony over the area in the Middle Ages. Other languages, particularly nearby ones, use their own direct translation of the term "black mountain" (e.g. Albanian: , Bulgarian: Черна гора, Cherna gora, Czech: , Greek: / Mayrovoúnio, , Romanian: , Slovenian: , , Turkish: )). Names from further afield include , and (pinyin: "hēishān". this literal translation is used in Mainland China and Hong Kong; Taiwanese Mandarin uses "méngtènèigēluó", a phonetic transcription of "Montenegro" ). The ISO Alpha-2 code for Montenegro is ME and the Alpha-3 Code is MNE. ISO 3166-1 Newsletter No. V-12, Date: 2006-09-26 History 1080 AD. The zenith of Dukljan power Ancient Times The first recorded settlers of present-day Montenegro were Illyrians, the Docleata. In 9 AD the Romans conquered the region of present-day Montenegro. Slavs massively colonized the area in the 5th and 6th centuries, forming a semi-independent principality, Duklja, that was involved in Balkan medieval politics with ties to Rascia and Byzantium and to a lesser extent Bulgaria. Middle Ages Duklja gained its independence from the Byzantine Empire in 1042. In the next few decades Duklja expanded its territory to the neighbouring Rascia and Bosnia and also became recognised as a kingdom. Its power started declining at the ending of the 11th century and by 1186, it was conquered by Stefan Nemanja and incorporated into Serbian realm. The newly acquired land, then called Zeta, was governed by the Serbian Nemanjic dynasty. After the Serbian Empire collapsed in the second half of the 14th century, another family came to prominence by expanding their power in the region, the Balšićs. In 1421 it was annexed to the Serbian Despotate, but after 1455 another noble family from Zeta, the Crnojevićs, ruled Montenegro. They were to rule Montenegro until 1499, making it the last free monarchy of the Balkans before it fell to the Ottomans, who annexed it to the sanjak of Skadar. For a short time Montenegro existed as a separate autonomous sanjak in 1514–1528, another version of which existed again some time between 1597 and 1614. Ottoman Rule and Metropolitanate Principality of Montenegro In the 16th century Montenegro developed a form of special and unique autonomy within the Ottoman Empire: the local Montenegrin clans were also free of many bonds due to Montenegro's autonomy. Nevertheless the Montenegrins refused to accept Ottoman reign and in the 17th century raised numerous rebellions, culminating with the Ottoman defeat in the Great Turkish War at the end of that century. Montenegro became a theocracy led by the Montenegrin Orthodox Metropolitans, flourishing since the Petrović-Njegoš became the traditional Prince-Bishops (whose title was "Vladika of Montenegro"). The Venetian Republic introduced governors that meddled in Montenegrin politics; when the republic was succeeded by the Austrian Empire in 1797, the governors were abolished by Prince-Bishop Petar II in 1832. His predecessor Petar I contributed to the unification of Montenegro with the Highlands. Kingdom of Montenegro Nicholas I of Montenegro, the only king of Montenegro. 20th Century Under Nicholas I, the Principality of Montenegro vastly advanced and enlarged several times in the Montenegro-Turkish Wars and achieved recognition of independence in 1878. Modernization of the state followed, culminating with the draft of a Constitution in 1905. Political rifts for the first time emerged between the reigning People's Party that supported democratization of the ruler's autocratic regime and unconditional union with Serbia and the minor pro-monarch True People's Party. In 1910 Montenegro became a Kingdom. It initiated the Balkan wars in 1912 and 1913 in which the Ottomans lost all lands in the Balkans, achieving a common border with Serbia, but the Skadar was awarded to a newly created Albania. In World War I in 1914 Montenegro sided with Serbia against the Central Powers, suffering a full scale defeat to Austria-Hungary in early 1916. In 1918 the Allies liberated Montenegro, which was subsequently merged with Serbia. In 1904 Montenegro declared war on Japan in support of Russia. However, Montenegro inexplicably failed to adhere to the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905 and so remained at war with Japan until 1918, although no hostilities occurred. In 1922 Montenegro formally became the Zeta Area of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and in 1929 it became a part of a larger Zeta Banate of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In World War II Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis forces in 1941, who established a puppet Independent State of Montenegro, liberated by the Yugoslav Partisans in 1944. Montenegro became a constituent republic of the communist Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), its capital renamed to Titograd in honor of Partisan leader and SFRY president Josip "Tito" Broz. More and more autonomy was established, until the Socialist Republic of Montenegro ratified a new constitution 1974 (however, this RFM remained a constituent republic of the SFRY). After the dissolution of the SFRY in 1992, Montenegro remained part of a smaller Federal Republic of Yugoslavia along with Serbia. In the referendum on remaining in Yugoslavia in 1992, 95.96% of the votes were cast for remaining in the federation with Serbia, although the turnout was at 66% because of a boycott by the Muslim, Albanian and Catholic minorities as well as the pro-independence Montenegrins. The opposition claimed that the poll was organized under anti-democratic conditions, during wartime in the former Yugoslavia, with widespread propaganda from the state-controlled media in favor of a pro-federation vote. There is no impartial report on the fairness of the referendum, as the 1992 referendum was totally unmonitored, unlike the 2006 vote, which has been closely monitored by the European Union. During the 1991–1995 Bosnian War and Croatian War, Montenegrin members of police and military forces participated in the attacks on Dubrovnik, Croatia http://www.croatiatraveller.com/southern_dalmatia/Dubrovnik/bombing.html and Bosnian towns along with Serbian troops, aggressive acts aimed at acquiring more territories by force, characterized by a consistent pattern of gross and systematic violations of human rights http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/47/a47r121.htm . Montenegrin General Pavle Strugar has since been convicted for his part in the bombing of Dubrovnik. http://www.yihr.org/uploads/newsletters/eng/28.pdf Bosnian refugees were arrested by Montenegrin police and transported to Serb camps in Foča, where they were subjected to systematic torture and executed. http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/ANX/VIII-03.htm#III.A.25 "Porodica Nedžiba Loje o Njegovom Hapšenju i Deportaciji 1992". Godine In 1996, Milo Đukanović's government severed ties between Montenegro and the Serbian regime, which was then under Milošević. Montenegro formed its own economic policy and adopted the German Deutsche Mark as its currency. It has since adopted the Euro, though it is not formally part of the Eurozone currency union. Subsequent governments of Montenegro carried out pro-independence policies, originally restored by the Liberal Alliance of Montenegro, and political tensions with Serbia simmered despite the political changes in Belgrade. Targets in Montenegro were bombed by NATO forces during Operation Allied Force in 1999, although the extent of these attacks was very limited in both time and the area affected. During the Kosovo War, ethnic Albanians took refuge in Montenegro, but were still under threat by Serbian soldiers, who were able to take refugees back into Serbian controlled areas and torture them. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/war-in-the-balkans-montenegro--albanian-refugees-tortured-by-serbs-1090436.html In the spring of 1999, 21 Albanians died in several separate and unexplained incidents in Montenegro, according to the republic’s prosecutor. Another group of around 60 Albanian refugees was fired upon in Kaludjerski Laz by Yugoslav Army members, leading to the death of six people, including a woman aged 80 and a child, killed in crossfire that allegedly came from three machine-gun posts of the then Yugoslav Army. http://kosovo.birn.eu.com/en/1/70/3221/ In all, 23 Albanians were killed in Kaludjerski Laz, and Montenegrin prosecutors have charged 8 soldiers, among which is Predrag Strugar, son of convicted Montenegrin war criminal General Pavle Strugar, with "inhuman treatment against civilians". http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL152349220080801 In 2002, Serbia and Montenegro came to a new agreement regarding continued cooperation and entered into negotiations regarding the future status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In 2003, the Yugoslav federation was replaced in favor of a looser state union named Serbia and Montenegro. 21st Century Independence Front page of Pobjeda following the successful independence referendum The status of the union between Montenegro and Serbia was decided by the referendum on Montenegrin independence on May 21, 2006. A total of 419,240 votes were cast, representing 86.5% of the total electorate. 230,661 votes or 55.5% were for independence and 185,002 votes or 44.5% were against. BBC News: Montenegro vote result confirmed The 45,659 difference narrowly surpassed the 55% threshold needed to validate the referendum under the rules set by the European Union. According to the electoral commission, the 55% threshold was passed by only 2,300 votes. Serbia, the member-states of the European Union, and the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council have all recognised Montenegro's independence. The 2006 referendum was monitored by five international observer missions, headed by an OSCE/ODIHR monitoring team, and around 3,000 observers in total (including domestic observers from CEMI, CEDEM and other organizations). The OSCE/ODIHR joined efforts with the observers of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly (OSCE PA), the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe (CLRAE) and the European Parliament (EP) to form an International Referendum Observation Mission (IROM). The IROM—in its preliminary report—"assessed compliance of the referendum process with OSCE commitments, Council of Europe commitments, other international standards for democratic electoral processes, and domestic legislation." Furthermore, the report assessed that the competitive pre-referendum environment was marked by an active and generally peaceful campaign and that "there were no reports of restrictions on fundamental civil and political rights." On June 3, 2006, the Parliament of Montenegro declared the independence of Montenegro, BBC News: Montenegro declares independence formally confirming the result of the referendum on independence. Serbia did not obstruct the ruling, confirming its own independence and declaring the union of Serbia and Montenegro ended shortly thereafter. Relations between Serbia and Montenegro were strained on September 6, 2007 after Montenegro banned Serbian Orthodox Church leader Bishop Filaret from entering the country. The tension escalated when an adviser to the Serbian prime minister called Montenegro a quasi-state, prompting Podgorica to seek an apology and lodge a protest with Serbia's government http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90777/6257839.html . The Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia, Božidar Đelić, sent a note of apology to Montenegro following the statement made by Serbian Premier's Aide Aleksandar Simic. http://www.mfa.gov.yu/Policy/Minister/100907_e.html Vijesti: Crna Gora tražila javno izvinjenje zbog afere "kvazidržava" Geography Map of Montenegro Gulf of Kotor. Internationally, Montenegro borders Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Albania. Historically, its territory was divided into "nahije". Some of the biggest cities and towns in Montenegro are: Podgorica (capital; 136,473 inhabitants) Nikšić (58,212) Pljevlja (21,377) Bijelo Polje (15,883) Cetinje (The former royal capital and the seat of the throne; 15,137) Bar (13,719) Herceg Novi (12,739) Berane (11,776) Montenegro ranges from high peaks along its borders with Serbia and Albania, a segment of the Karst of the western Balkan Peninsula, to a narrow coastal plain that is only one to four miles (6 km) wide. The plain stops abruptly in the north, where Mount Lovćen and Mount Orjen plunge into the inlet of the Bay of Kotor. Montenegro's large Karst region lies generally at elevations of 1,000 metres (3,281 ft) above sea level; some parts, however, rise to 2,000 metres (6,560 ft), such as Mount Orjen (1,894 m/6,214 ft), the highest massif among the coastal limestone ranges. The Zeta River valley, at an elevation of 500 meters (1,640 ft), is the lowest segment. The mountains of Montenegro include some of the most rugged terrain in Europe. They average more than 2,000 metres (6,560 ft) in elevation. One of the country's notable peaks is Bobotov Kuk in the Durmitor mountains, which reaches a height of 2,522 metres (8,274 ft). The Montenegrin mountain ranges were among the most ice-eroded parts of the Balkan Peninsula during the last glacial period. Longest beach: Velika Plaža, Ulcinj — 13,000 m (8 miles) Highest peak: Zla Kolata, Prokletije at 2,534 m Largest lake: Skadar Lake — 391 km² (151 sq mi) of surface area Deepest canyon: Tara River Canyon — 1,300 m (4,265 ft) Biggest bay: Bay of Kotor National parks: Durmitor — 390 km² (150 sq mi), Lovćen — 64 km² (25 sq mi), Biogradska Gora — 54 km² (21 sq mi), Skadar Lake — 400 km² (154 sq mi) UNESCO World Heritage sites: Durmitor and Tara River Canyon, old city of Kotor. Government and politics Local self-government in Montenegro; red represents the municipalities in which the ruling DPS governs and blue are administered by the pro-Serbian oppositionSee also: Foreign relations of Montenegro, Military of MontenegroMontenegro is defined as a "Civic, democratic, ecological state of social justice, based on the reign of Law". It is an independent and sovereign Republic. It proclaimed its new Constitution on 22 October 2007. President Filip Vujanović The President of Montenegro (Montenegrin: Predsjednik Crne Gore) is the head of state, elected for a period of five years through direct elections. The President represents the republic in the country and abroad, promulgates laws by ordinance, calls elections for the Parliament, proposes candidates for the Prime Minister, president and justices of the Constitutional Court to the Parliament, proposes to the Parliament calling of a referendum, grants amnesty for criminal offences prescribed by the national law, confers decoration and awards, and performs all other duties in accordance with the Constitution. The President is also a member of the Supreme Defence Council. Official Residence of President of Montenegro is at Cetinje. Current President of Montenegro is Filip Vujanović, vice-president of the ruling Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro. The Government of Montenegro (Montenegrin: Vlada Crne Gore) is the executive branch of government authority of Montenegro. The Government is headed by the Prime Minister, and consists of the deputy prime ministers as well as ministers. Milo Đukanović is the Prime Minister of Montenegro and head of the Government. Government is formed by members of Coalition for a European Montenegro, which was victorious at 2009 parliamentary election. The Parliament of Montenegro (Montenegrin: Skupština Crne Gore) is the unicameral legislative body. It passes all laws in Montenegro, ratifies international treaties, appoints the Prime Minister, ministers, and justices of all courts, adopts the budget and performs other duties as established by the Constitution. The Parliament can pass a vote of no-confidence on the Government by a majority of the members. One representative is elected per 6,000 voters, which in turn results in a reduction of total number of representatives in the Parliament of Montenegro. The current president of the Parliament is Ranko Krivokapić. The present parliament contains 81 seats. According to 2009 parliamentary election, Coalition for a European Montenegro has the majority in Parliament of Montenegro, with 47 out of 81 seats. Symbols A new official flag of Montenegro was adopted on July 13 2004, by the Montenegrin legislature. The new flag is based on the royal standard of King Nikola I of Montenegro. This flag was all red with a silver border, a silver coat of arms, and the initials НІ in Cyrillic script (corresponding to NI in Latin script) representing King Nikola I. The border and arms were changed from silver to gold in the modern flag and the royal cypher in the centre of the arms are omitted from the modern arms and replaced with a golden lion. The national day of 13 July marks the date in 1878 when the Congress of Berlin recognised Montenegro as the 27th independent state in the world President Vujanovic’s Closing Speech at the Crans Montana Forum and the start of one of the first popular uprisings in Europe against the Axis Powers on 13 July 1941 in Montenegro. In 2004, the Montenegrin legislature selected a popular Montenegrin traditional song, Oh, Bright Dawn of May, as the national anthem. Montenegro's official anthem during the reign of King Nikola was (To our beautiful Montenegro). The Montenegrin popular anthem has unofficially been Onamo, 'namo! since King Nikola I wrote it in the 1860s. Administrative subdivisions Montenegro is divided into twenty-one municipalities (opština), and two urban municipalities, subdivisions of Podgorica municipality: Andrijevica Bar Berane Bijelo Polje Budva Cetinje Danilovgrad Herceg Novi Kolašin Kotor Mojkovac Nikšić Plav Plužine Pljevlja Podgorica * Golubovci * Tuzi Rožaje Šavnik Tivat Ulcinj Žabljak Municipalities of Montenegro Economy Budva is one of the main tourist destinations The economy of Montenegro is mostly service-based market economy in late transition. According to IMF, nominal GDP of Montenegro was $4.822 billion in 2008. The GDP PPP for 2008 was $6.944 billion, or $11,091 per capita. Although GDP grew at impressive 10,7% in 2007, a slowdown is expected due to late-2000s recession. In 2007, service sector made up for 72,4% of GDP, industry was second largest contributor with 17,6%, trailed by agriculture at 10% . Aluminum and steel production and agricultural processing make up for most of Montenegrin industry. Tourism is an important contributor to Montenegrin economy. Approximately one million tourists visited Montenegro in 2007, resulting in €480 million of tourism revenue. Tourism is the backbone of future economic development strategy for Montenegro. The growth of the Montenegrin economy may be hampered by significant dependence on foreign direct investment, and thus susceptibility to external shocks and high export/import trade deficit . Infrastructure Podgorica Airport Montenegrin road infrastructure is not on par with European standards. Although road network is extensive, there are no roads built to full motorway standard. The projects that should change that fact include Bar - Boljare motorway and Montenegrin section of Adriatic Ionian motorway. Building of those motorways is considered as national priority, as both are important for uniform regional economic development of Montenegro, and development of Montenegro as an elite tourist destination. Current European routes that pass through Montenegro are E65 and E80. The backbone of Montenegrin rail network is Belgrade - Bar railway. This railway intersects with Nikšić - Tirana at Podgorica, however, this railway is not used for passenger service. Montenegro has two international airports, at Podgorica and Tivat. The two airports served 1,1 million passengers in 2008. Montenegro Airlines is flag carrier of Montenegro. The Port of Bar is Montenegro's main seaport. Tourism Montenegro is well suited for development of all kinds of tourism, as it has both a picturesque coast and a mountainous northern region. The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s, yet, the Yugoslav wars that were fought in neighboring countries during the 1990s crippled the tourist industry and destroyed the image of Montenegro as a tourist destination. It was not until 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays. The Government of Montenegro has set the development of Montenegro as an elite tourist destination a top priority. It is a national strategy to make tourism a major, if not the single largest, contributor to the Montenegrin economy. A number of steps were taken to attract foreign investors into Montenegro's tourism industry. Some large projects are already under way, such as Porto Montenegro, while other locations, like Jaz Beach, Buljarica, Velika Plaža and Ada Bojana, have perhaps the greatest potential to attract future investments and become premium tourist spots on the Adriatic. Some of the problems that currently hamper the development of Montenegrin tourism are inadequate infrastructure, notably the road infrastructure in the north, and electricity and water supply in the south of the country. The informal construction is also a problem. Demographics Ethnic map of the Republic of Montenegro according to the 2003 census. Ethnicity According to 2003 census, Montenegro has 620,145 citizens. If the methodology used up to 1991 was used in the 2003 census, Montenegro would officially have 673,094 citizens. Most recent estimates stake somewhere below 700,000 inhabitants. When the census was taken Montenegro was a non-national civic state. In the meantime, the Constitution was changed, hence it now recognizes the major ethnic groups living in it: Montenegrins, Serbs, Bosniaks, Albanians, Muslims and Croats. It should be noted that divison between Montenegrins and Serbs is mainly on the basis of political identification. Thus, the number of "Montenegrins" and "Serbs" fluctuates wildly from census to census, not due to real changes in the populace, but due to changes in how people experience their identity. Ethnic composition according to the 2004 official data: Official results of the 2003 Montenegrin census Number % TOTAL 620,145 100 Montenegrins 267,669 43.16 Serbs 198,414 31.99 Bosniaks 48,184 7.77 Albanians 45,163 5.03 Ethnic Muslims 24,625 3.97 Croats 6,811 1.1 Roma 2,601 0.42 Yugoslavs 1,860 0.3 others 38,818 6.26 Language Linguistic map of the Republic of Montenegro according to the 2003 census. :Blue: Serbian language Red: Montenegrin language Violet: Albanian language Green: Bosniac language Yellow: Bosnian language Most citizens speak the Serbian language of the Iyekavian dialect. However, as of 2004 the moves for an independent Montenegrin language were promoted and with the new 2007 Constitution it became Montenegro's prime official language. Next to it, Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Croatian are recognized in usage. All of these languages except for Albanian are virtually identical in common usage. Number % TOTAL 620,145 100 Serbian 393,740 63.49 Montenegrin 136,208 21.96 Bosnian/Bosniac 34,078 5.49 Albanian 32,603 5.26 Croatian 2,791 0.45 other 20,725 3.34 Religion Most Montenegrin inhabitants are Orthodox Christians, followers of the Serbian Orthodox Church's Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral. The religious institutions all have guaranteed rights and are separate from the state. There is a sizeable number of Sunni Muslims in Montenegro that maintain their own Islamic Community of Montenegro. There is also a small Roman Catholic population, divided onto the Archdiocese of Antivari headed by Primate of Serbia and the Diocese of Kotor that is a part of the Church of Croatia. Religious determination according to the census: Number % TOTAL 620,145 100 Orthodox 460,383 74.24 Muslim 110,034 17.74 Roman Catholic 21,972 3.54 other 27,756 4.48 According the newest report, there are 24,610 total refugees from the Yugoslav wars in Montenegro, forming 4.2% of the total population. 16,136 are refugees from Kosovo after 1999 and 8,474 expelled from Croatia and Bosnia. Culture The Church of Our Lady of the Rocks, an example of Roman Catholic architecture in Montenegro. National Museum of Montenegro in Cetinje (Former Palace of King Nikola I) The culture of Montenegro has been shaped by a variety of influences throughout history. The influence of Orthodox, Slavonic, Central European, Islamic, and seafaring Adriatic cultures (notably parts of Italy, like the Republic of Venice) have been the most important in recent centuries. Montenegro has many significant cultural and historical sites, including heritage sites from the pre-Romanesque, Gothic and Baroque periods. The Montenegrin coastal region is especially well known for its religious monuments, including the Cathedral of Saint Tryphon in Kotor Kotor (Cattaro under the Venetians), the basilica of St. Luke (over 800 years), Our Lady of the Rocks (Škrpjela), the Savina Monastery and others. Montenegro's medieval monasteries contain thousands of square metres of frescos on their walls. The traditional folk dance of the Montenegrins is the Oro, a circle dance that involves dancers standing on each other's shoulders in a circle while one or two dancers are dancing in the middle. The first literary works written in the region are ten centuries old, and the first Montenegrin book was printed five hundred years ago. The first state-owned printing press was located in Cetinje in 1494, where the first South Slavic book, Oktoih, was printed the same year. Ancient manuscripts, dating from the thirteenth century, are kept in the Montenegrin monasteries. Montenet - History of Montenegro: Crnojevic Rule Montenegro's capital Podgorica and the former royal capital of Cetinje are the two most important centers of culture and the arts in the country. Ethical Beliefs A very important dimension of Montenegrin culture is the ethical ideal of Čojstvo i Junaštvo, roughly translated as "Humanity and Bravery". Another result of its centuries long warrior history, it is the unwritten code of Chivalry that stipulates that to deserve a true respect of its people, a person has to show virtues of integrity, dignity, humility, self-sacrifice for the just cause, respect for others, and Rectitude along with the bravery. In the old days of battle, it resulted in Montenegrins fighting to the death as being captured was considered the greatest shame. This code of conduct is still very much ingrained, to greater or lesser extent, in every Montenegrin's ethical beliefs system and it is essential that it be kept in mind in order to truly understand them. Coming from non-warrior backgrounds, most of other South-Slavic nations never fully grasp it, resulting in reactions from totally ignoring it, in the best case, to mocking it or ignorantly equating it with backwardness. Most of extraordinary examples of Montenegrin conduct during its long history can be traced to the code. Education Education in Montenegro is regulated by the Montenegrin Ministry of Education and Science. Education starts in either pre-schools or elementary schools. Children enroll in elementary schools (Montenegrin: Osnovna škola}}) at the age of 6; it lasts 9 years. The students may continue their secondary education, which lasts 4 years (3 years for trade schools) and ends with graduation (Matura). Higher education (Montenegrin: Srednja škola) lasts with a certain first degree after 3 to 6 years. Sport Morača Sports Center, venue of Eurobasket 2005 Serbia and Montenegro were represented by a single football team in the 2006 FIFA World Cup tournament, despite having formally split just weeks prior to its start. Following this event, this team has been inherited by Serbia, while a new one was organized to represent Montenegro in international competitions. UEFA: Montenegro set for big adventure On March 24, 2007, the Montenegrin national team came from behind to win its first ever fixture, 2-1, in a friendly game against Hungary at the Podgorica Stadium. Montenegro take a bow at victory On their 119th Session in Guatemala City in July 2007, the International Olympic Committee granted recognition and membership to the newly formed Montenegrin National Olympic Committee. Montenegro made its debut at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Water polo is one of the most popular sports in the country. Montenegro won the European Championships in Malaga, Spain on July 13, 2008 over Serbia 6-5 in a game that was tied 5-5 after four quarters. This was Montenegro's first major international competition for which they had to qualify through two LEN tournaments. Montenegro’s first division in water polo consists of five clubs, all with an annual budget of one million Euros and more - VK Primorac Kotor (2007 and 2008 Montenegro champions), VK Jadran Herceg Novi (2006 champions of Serbia-Montenegro), VK Budvanska Rivijera Budva, VK Prcanj and VK Bijela. From the coming season 2008-09 they will be joined by a sixth club, VK Cattaro. Additionally, they qualified for the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing but did not win. In popular culture The first official international representation of Montenegro as an independent state was in the Miss World 2006 celebrated on September 30, 2006 in Warsaw, Poland. Ivana Knežević from the city of Bar was the first Miss Montenegro at any international beauty pageant. Both Montenegro and Serbia competed separately in this pageant for the first time after the state union came to an end. Part of the 2006 James Bond film Casino Royale is set in Montenegro, although the filming was done in Czech Republic. Nero Wolfe, the eccentric fictional detective created by American writer Rex Stout, is Montenegrin by birth. One Nero Wolfe novel, The Black Mountain, takes place in Tito-era Montenegro. Jay Gatsby, the main character of the F. Scott Fitzgerald novel The Great Gatsby, had been given a medal of honour by the Montenegrin King Nicholas I. The setting for Franz Lehár 1905 operetta The Merry Widow is the Paris embassy of the Grand Duchy of Pontevedro. Pontevedro is a fictionalized version of Montenegro and several of the characters were loosely based on actual Montenegrin nobility. Montenegrin holidays A view of Sveti Stefan island in the Budva municipality. +Holidays Date Name Notes 1 January New Year's Day (non-working holiday) 7 January Orthodox Christmas (non-working) 14 January Julian New Year's Day 25 April Orthodox Good Friday Date for 2008 only 27 April Orthodox Easter Date for 2008 only 28 April Orthodox Easter Monday Date for 2008 only 1 May Labour Day (non-working) 9 May Victory Day 21 May Independence Day (non-working) 13 July Statehood Day (non-working) See also References ^ Montenegrin Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2006 census - [hhttp://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Albanians/id/1906781] Further reading Realm of the Black Mountain: A History of Montenegro by Elizabeth Roberts (Hurst & Co, 2007) ISBN 978-1-85065-868-9Montenegro: The Divided Land by Thomas Fleming (2002) ISBN 0-9619364-9-5 External links Government The Government of Montenegro Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Montenegro from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Republic of Montenegro Economy portal MONTENEGROWING.ME Other Photogallery - Montenegro's nature Montenegro Pictures – Montenegro Cultural Heritage Montenegro Video Portal – Tourism website with HD Video Information and News for Montenegro's South Coast Region be-x-old:Чарнагорыя | Montenegro |@lemmatized infobox:1 country:12 crna:6 goraцрна:1 гора:4 montenegro:161 demonym:2 montenegrin:53 flag:6 svg:2 coat:2 arm:5 europe:11 location:2 mno:1 png:2 oj:1 svijetla:1 majska:1 zoro:1 oh:2 bright:2 dawn:2 may:10 capital:10 image:2 grb:1 latd:1 latm:1 latns:1 n:1 longd:1 longm:1 longew:1 e:2 parliamentary:5 republic:18 president:12 prime:9 minister:11 speaker:1 filip:3 vujanović:3 milo:3 đukanović:3 ranko:2 krivokapić:2 cia:1 world:7 factbook:1 july:7 billion:4 establishment:1 independence:20 duklja:11 predecessor:2 byzantine:2 empire:9 recognise:4 kingdom:6 pope:1 zeta:11 former:6 annex:5 serbian:22 later:1 call:5 cetinje:9 found:1 ottoman:9 semi:2 independent:9 recognize:4 self:3 declare:6 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6,624 | Film_editing | Film editing is the process of selecting and joining together shots, connecting the resulting sequences, and ultimately creating a finished motion picture. It is an art of storytelling. Film editing is the only art that is unique to cinema, separating film-making from other art forms that preceded it (such as photography, theater, dance, writing, and directing), although there are close parallels to the editing process in other art forms like poetry or novel writing. Film editing is often referred to as the "invisible art" because when it is well-practiced, the viewer can become so engaged that he or she is not even aware of the editor's work. On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art, technique, and practice of assembling shots into a coherent whole. A film editor is a person who practices film editing by assembling the footage. However, the job of an editor isn’t simply to mechanically put pieces of a film together, cut off film slates, or edit dialogue scenes. A film editor must creatively work with the layers of images, story, dialogue, music, pacing, as well as the actors' performances to effectively "redirect" and even rewrite the film to craft a cohesive whole. Editors usually play a dynamic role in the making of a film. With the advent of digital editing, film editors and their assistants have become responsible for many areas of filmmaking that used to be the responsibility of others. For instance, in past years, picture editors dealt only with just that -- picture. Sound, music, and (more recently) visual effects editors dealt with the practicalities of other aspects of the editing process, usually under the direction of the picture editor and director. However, digital systems have increasingly put these responsibilities on the picture editor. It is common, especially on lower budget films, for the assistant editors or even the editor to cut in music, mock up visual effects, and add sound effects or other sound replacements. These temporary elements are usually replaced with more refined final elements by the sound, music, and visual effects teams hired to complete the picture. Film editing is an art that can be used in diverse ways. It can create sensually provocative montages; become a laboratory for experimental cinema; bring out the emotional truth in an actor's performance; create a point of view on otherwise obtuse events; guide the telling and pace of a story; create an illusion of danger where there is none; and even create a vital subconscious emotional connection to the viewer, among many other possibilities. Early experiments Edwin S. Porter is generally thought to be the American filmmaker who first put film editing to use. Porter worked as an electrician as a young sailor before joining the film laboratory of Thomas Alva Edison in the late 1890s. Early films by Thomas Edison (whose company invented a motion camera and projector) and others were short films that were one long, static, locked-down shot. Motion in the shot was all that was necessary to amuse an audience, so the first films simply showed activity such as traffic moving on a city street. There was no story and no editing. Each film ran as long as there was film in the camera. When Edison's motion picture studio wanted to increase the length of the short films, Edison came to Porter. Porter made the breakthrough film Life of an American Fireman in 1903. The film was among the first that had a plot, action, and even a closeup of a hand pulling a fire alarm. Other films were to follow. Porter's ground-breaking film, The Great Train Robbery is still shown in film schools today as an example of early editing form. It was produced in 1903 and was one of the first examples of dynamic, action editing (the piecing together scenes shot at different times and places and for emotional impact unavailable in a static long shot). Being one of the first film hyphenates (film director, editor and engineer) Porter also invented and utilized some of the very first (albeit primitive) special effects such as double exposures, miniatures and split-screens. Porter discovered two important aspects of motion picture language: that the screen image does not need to show a complete person from head to toe and that splicing together two shots creates in the viewer's mind a contextual relationship. These were the key discoveries that made all non-live or non live-on-videotape narrative motion pictures and television possible—that shots (in this case whole scenes since each shot is a complete scene) can be photographed in widely different locations over a period of time (hours, days or even months) and combined into a narrative whole. Arthur Knight, The Liveliest Art, Mentor Books, New American Library, 1957, p.25. That is, The Great Train Robbery contains scenes shot on sets of a telegraph station, a railroad car interior, and a dance hall, with outdoor scenes at a railroad water tower, on the train itself, at a point along the track, and in the woods. But when the robbers leave the telegraph station interior (set) and emerge at the water tower, the audience believes they went immediately from one to the other. Or that when they climb on the train in one shot and enter the baggage car (a set) in the next, the audience believes they are on the same train. Sometime around 1918, Russian director Lev Kuleshov did an experiment that proves this point. (See Kuleshov Experiment) He took an old film clip of a head shot of a noted Russian actor and intercut the shot with a shot of a bowl of soup, then with a child playing with a teddy bear, then with a shot of an elderly woman in a casket. When he showed the film to people they praised the actor's acting—the hunger in his face when he saw the soup, the delight in the child, and the grief when looking at the dead woman. Arthur Knight, The Liveliest Art, Mentor Books, New American Library, 1957, pp.72-73. Of course, the shot of the actor was made years before the other shots and he never "saw" any of the items. The simple act of juxtaposing the shots in a sequence made the relationship. History of film editing technology The original editing machine: an upright Moviola. Steenbeck film editing machine rollers Before the widespread use of non-linear editing systems, the initial editing of all films was done with a positive copy of the film negative called a film workprint (cutting copy in UK) by physically cutting and taping together pieces of film, using a splicer and threading the film on a machine with a viewer such as a Moviola, or "flatbed" machine such as a Kem or Steenbeck. Today, most films are edited digitally (on systems such as Avid or Final Cut Pro) and bypass the film positive workprint altogether. In the past, the use of a film positive (not the original negative) allowed the editor to do as much experimenting as he or she wished, without the risk of damaging the original. When the film workprint had been cut to a satisfactory state, it was then used to make an edit decision list (EDL). The negative cutter referred to this list while processing the negative, splitting the shots into rolls, which were then contact printed to produce the final film print or answer print. Today, production companies have the option of bypassing negative cutting altogether. With the advent of digital intermediate ("DI"), the physical negative does not necessarily need to be physically cut and hot spliced together; rather the negative is optically scanned into computer(s) and a cut list is conformed by a DI editor. Assistant Editors Assistant editors aid the editor and director in collecting and organizing all the elements needed to edit the film. When editing is finished, they oversee the various lists and instructions necessary to put the film into its final form. Editors of large budget features will usually have a team of assistants working for them. The first assistant editor is in charge of this team, and may do a small bit of picture editing as well, if necessary. The other assistants will have set tasks, usually helping each other when necessary to complete the many time-sensitive tasks at hand. In addition, an apprentice editor may be on hand to help the assistants. An apprentice is usually someone who is learning the ropes of assisting. Television shows typically have one assistant per editor. This assistant is responsible for every task required to bring the show to final form. Lower budget features and documentaries will also commonly have only one assistant. The organizational aspects job could best be compared to database management. When a film is shot, every piece of picture or sound is coded with numbers and timecode. It is the assistant's job to keep track of these numbers in a database, which, in non-linear editing, is linked to the computer program. The editor and director cut the film using digital copies of the original film and sound, commonly referred to as an "offline" edit. When the cut is finished, it is the assistant's job to bring the film or television show "online". They create lists and instructions that tell the picture and sound finishers how to put the edit back together with the high quality original elements. Assistant editing can be seen as a career path to eventually becoming an editor. Many assistants, however, do not choose to pursue advancement to editor, and are very happy at the assistant level, working long and rewarding careers on many films and television shows. Women in film editing In the early years of film, editing was considered a technical job; editors were expected to "cut out the bad bits" (Avent, 74) and string the film together. Indeed, when the Motion Picture Editors Guild was formed, they chose to be "below the line," that is, not a creative guild, but a technical one. This was very helpful to women. Women were not usually able to break in to the "creative" positions; directors, cinematographers, producers, and executives were almost always men. Editing afforded creative women a place to assert their mark on the film making process. Many film editors were women, for example Anne Bauchens, Margaret Booth, Adrienne Fazan, Eda Warren, and Blanche Sewell. Although not the majority today, women are still part of the field of working editors. Credit controversies One current controversy is that assistant editors are increasingly responsible for planning, managing, and checking the visual effects of a feature film, yet cannot receive credit for it. Technically, this task is assigned to a visual effects editor. However, many mid and low-level films will save money by putting the responsibility on the assistant editor, an idea that makes great sense since the assistant is closest to the footage and the cut. However, the Motion Picture Editors Guild does not allow assistants to receive more than one credit, so they never get credit for the vast amount of visual effects management that they do. (Unless, of course, they give up their assistant credit.) Another controversy is that although assistants and other editorial staff work on the picture from the first day of shooting to the last day of mixing, they appear almost at the end of the credit roll. They may be on the film for a year or more, yet be placed way behind someone else who worked on the set for a day. The reason for this placement goes back to the early days of film. For much of film's history, credit rolls were not as long as they are now. The tradition established was to list persons in order that they contributed to the film. But about thirty years ago, credit rolls began to grow greatly in length. They may last up to ten minutes now. Assistants appear chronologically in the post-production section, about eight minutes in to such a roll. By contrast, a set PA, who may have worked only for a short time, would appear in the production section, about four minutes in. Picture editors, who have front end credit (at the head of the film or head of the credit roll) are not affected. Recently, the Motion Picture Editors Guild issued a letter to producers, asking that they move their editorial staffs up the credit roll. Owing to strong traditions in studio film policy, and habit, not many features have volunteered to move their editing staffs up. Editors Guild Magazine - Columns - Union Made Post-production Editor's cut There are several editing stages and the editor's cut is the first. An editor's cut (sometimes referred to as the "assembly edit" or "rough cut") is normally the first pass of what the final film will be when it reaches picture lock, where the clips are chosen and placed directly in the timeline in the final order. The film editor usually starts working while principal photography starts. Likely, prior to cutting, the editor and director will have seen and/or discussed "dailies" (raw footage shot each day) as shooting progresses. Screening dailies gives the editor a ballpark idea of the director's intentions. Because it is the first pass, the editor's cut might be longer than the final film. The editor continues to refine the cut while shooting continues, and often the entire editing process goes on for many months and sometimes more than a year, depending on the film. Director's cut When shooting is finished, the director can then turn his full attention to collaborating with the editor and further refining the cut of the film. This is the time that is set aside where the film editor's first cut is molded to fit the director's vision. In the United States, under DGA rules, directors receive a minimum of ten weeks after completion of principal photography to prepare their first cut. While collaborating on what is referred to as the "director's cut", the director and the editor go over the entire movie with a fine-tooth comb; scenes and shots are re-ordered, removed, shortened and otherwise tweaked. Often it is discovered that there are plot holes, missing shots or even missing segments which might require that new scenes be filmed. Because of this time working closely and collaborating - a period that is normally far longer, and far more intimately involved, than the entire production and filming - most directors and editors form a unique artistic bond. Final cut Often after the director has had his chance to oversee a cut, the subsequent cuts are supervised by one or more producers, who represent the production company and/or movie studio. There have been several conflicts in the past between the director and the studio, sometimes leading to the use of the "Alan Smithee" credit signifying when a director no longer wants to be associated with the final release. Emotional versus Physical continuity Continuity is a film term that suggest that a series of shots should be physically continuous, as if the camera simply changed angles in the course of a single event. For instance, if in one shot a beer glass is empty, it should not be full in the next shot. Live coverage of a sporting event would be an example of footage that is very continuous. Since the live operators are cutting from one live feed to another, the physical action of the shots matches very closely. Many people regard inconsistencies in continuity as mistakes, and often the editor is blamed. In film, however, continuity is very nearly last on a film editor's list of important things to maintain. Technically, continuity is the responsibility of the script supervisor and film director, who are together responsible for preserving continuity and preventing errors from take to take and shot to shot. The script supervisor, who sits next to the director during shooting, keeps the physical continuity of the edit in mind as shots are set up. He is the editor's watchman. If shots are taken out of sequence, as is often the case, he will be alert to make sure that beer glass is in the appropriate state. The editor utilizes the script supervisor's notes during post-production to log and keep track of the vast amounts of footage and takes that a director might shoot. However, to most editors what is more important than continuity is the editing of emotional and storytelling aspects of any given film - something that is much more abstract and harder to judge. (Which is why films often take much longer to edit than to shoot.) Emotional continuity, and the clarity of storytelling always take precedence over "technicalities". In fact, very often something that is physically discontinuous will be completely unnoticeable if the emotional rhythm of the scene "feels" right. If you were to slow down scenes from many of your favorite movies, you could easily find many minuscule physical differences from one cut to the next, which are completely hidden by the course of the emotional events. However, if a continuity error is glaring enough (as in the case of the beer glass), and the edit is emotionally necessary, the editor may try to order a visual effect to fix the problem. Such an effect is not "cheating" or unnecessary. As a rule, anything that distracts from the storytelling is worthy of elimination. A good example of a continuity error is in the film Braveheart with Mel Gibson. In one of the battle scenes you see William Wallace (Mel Gibson) and his army of Scottish rebels charging into battle with the English. At one moment, you see him with no weapon. Then you see him with his claymore in hand. Then again he has no weapon. Then a pick axe. And when he finally closes in on the enemy, you see him draw his claymore from his back. This often goes unnoticed by audiences and it does not cause any real problems. The whole idea of this scene is to show the rebels fiercely charging into battle, and this small error in no way harms that idea. Methods of montage In motion picture terminology, a montage (from the French for "putting together" or "assembly") is a film editing technique. There are at least three senses of the term: In French film practice, "montage" has its literal French meaning and simply identifies editing. In Soviet filmmaking of the 1920s, "montage" was a method of juxtaposing shots to derive new meaning that did not exist in either shot alone. In classical Hollywood cinema, a "montage sequence" is a short segment in a film in which narrative information is presented in a condensed fashion. This is the most common meaning among laymen. Soviet montage Lev Kuleshov was among the very first to theorize about the relatively young medium of the cinema in the 1920s. For him, the unique essence of the cinema — that which could be duplicated in no other medium — is editing. He argues that editing a film is like constructing a building. Brick-by-brick (shot-by-shot) the building (film) is erected. His often-cited Kuleshov Experiment established that montage can lead the viewer to reach certain conclusions about the action in a film. Montage works because viewers infer meaning based on context. Although, strictly speaking, U.S. film director D.W. Griffith was not part of the montage school, he was one of the early proponents of the power of editing — mastering cross-cutting to show parallel action in different locations, and codifying film grammar in other ways as well. Griffith's work in the teens was highly regarded by Kuleshov and other Soviet filmmakers and greatly influenced their understanding of editing. Sergei Eisenstein was briefly a student of Kuleshov's, but the two parted ways because they had different ideas of montage. Eisenstein regarded montage as a dialectical means of creating meaning. By contrasting unrelated shots he tried to provoke associations in the viewer, which were induced by shocks. Montage sequence A montage sequence consists of a series of short shots that are edited into a sequence to condense narrative. It is usually used to advance the story as a whole (often to suggest the passage of time), rather than to create symbolic meaning. In many cases, a song plays in the background to enhance the mood or reinforce the message being conveyed. Classic examples are the training montages in Sylvester Stallone's Rocky series of movies. Continuity editing What became known as the popular 'classical Hollywood' style of editing was developed by early European and American directors, in particular D.W. Griffith in his films such as The Birth of a Nation and Intolerance. The classical style ensures temporal and spatial continuity as a way of advancing narrative, using such techniques as the 180 degree rule, Establishing shot, and Shot reverse shot. Alternatives to continuity editing (Non-traditional or Experimental) Early Russian filmmakers such as Lev Kuleshov further explored and theorized about editing and its ideological nature. Sergei Eisenstein developed a system of editing that was unconcerned with the rules of the continuity system of classical Hollywood that he called Intellectual montage. Alternatives to traditional editing were also the folly of early surrealist and dada filmmakers such as Luis Buñuel (director of the 1929 Un Chien Andalou) and René Clair (director of 1924's Entr'acte which starred famous dada artists Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray). Both filmmakers, Clair and Buñuel, experimented with editing techniques long before what is referred to as "MTV style" editing. The French New Wave filmmakers such as Jean Luc Godard and François Truffaut and their American counterparts such as Andy Warhol and John Cassavetes also pushed the limits of editing technique during the late 1950s and throughout the 1970s. French New Wave films and the non-narrative films of the 1960s used a carefree editing style and did not conform to the traditional editing etiquette of Hollywood films. Like its dada and surrealist predecessors, French New Wave editing often drew attention to itself by its lack of continuity, its demystifying self-reflexive nature (reminding the audience that they were watching a film), and by the overt use of jump cuts or the insertion of material not often related to any narrative. Editing techniques Stanley Kubrick noted that the editing process is the one phase of production that is truly unique to motion pictures. Every other aspect of film making originated in a different medium than film (photography, art direction, writing, sound recording), but editing is the one process that is unique to film. Kubrick was quoted as saying: "I love editing. I think I like it more than any other phase of film making. If I wanted to be frivolous, I might say that everything that precedes editing is merely a way of producing film to edit." Walker, Alexander, Stanley Kubrick Directs,, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972. Edward Dmytryk stipulates seven "rules of cutting" that a good editor should follow: Dmytryk, Edward, On Film Editing, New York: "Rule 1: Never make a cut without a positive reason." "Rule 2: When undecided about the exact frame to cut on, cut long rather than short."Dmytryk, p.23 "Rule 3: Whenever possible cut 'in movement'." Dmytryk, p.27 "Rule 4: The 'fresh' is preferable to the 'stale'." Dmytryk, p.37 "Rule 5: All scenes should begin and end with continuing action." Dmytryk, p.38 "Rule 6: Cut for proper values rather than proper 'matches'." Dmytryk, p.44 "Rule 7: Substance first—then form." Dmytryk, p.145 According to Walter Murch, when it comes to film editing, there are six main criteria for evaluating a cut or deciding where to cut. They are (in order of importance, most important first): Emotion — Does the cut reflect what the editor believes the audience should be feeling at that moment? Story — Does the cut advance the story? Rhythm — Does the cut occur "at a moment that is rhythmically interesting and 'right'" (Murch, 18)? Eye-trace — Does the cut pay respect to "the location and movement of the audience's focus of interest within the frame" (Murch, 18)? Two-dimensional plane of the screen — Does the cut respect the 180 degree rule? Three-dimensional space of action — Is the cut true to the physical/spatial relationships within the diegesis? Murch assigned notional percentage values to each of the criteria. Emotion, with 51%, outweighed the combined value of all the other criteria. References Dmytryk, Edward. On Film Editing: An Introduction to the Art of Film Construction, Boston: Focal Press, 1984. Morales, Morante, Luis Fernando (2000) Teoría y Práctica de la Edición en videoUniversidad de San Martin de Porres, Lima, Perú Murch, Walter. In the Blink of an Eye: a Perspective on Film Editing, Silman-James Press, 2d rev. ed., 2001. ISBN 1-879505-62-2 See also 180 degree rule 30 degree rule A Roll (Footage) B Roll Cinematic techniques Compositing (Keying) Cut Axial cut Cross-cutting Fast cutting Jump cut Long take Match cut Slow cutting Cutaway Edit decision list (EDL) Film transition Dissolve L cut (split edit) Wipe Filmmaking Kuleshov Effect List of film-related topics Motion Picture Editors Guild (MPEG) Motion picture terminology Moviola Re-edited film Scene Sequence Shot Establishing shot Insert Master shot Point of view shot Shot reverse shot Video editing Wikibooks Mewa Film User's Guide Movie Making Manual Wikiversity Portal:Filmmaking External links The Art of the Guillotine | Film_editing |@lemmatized film:106 editing:26 process:8 select:1 join:2 together:10 shot:41 connect:1 result:1 sequence:8 ultimately:1 create:8 finished:1 motion:13 picture:22 art:12 storytelling:4 unique:5 cinema:5 separate:1 making:4 form:8 precede:2 photography:4 theater:1 dance:2 writing:2 direct:2 although:4 close:3 parallel:2 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6,625 | Inch | An inch (plural: inches; symbol or abbreviation: in or, sometimes, ″ – a double prime) is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including Imperial units, and United States customary units. There are 36 inches in a yard and 12 inches in a foot. A corresponding unit of area is the square inch and a corresponding unit of volume is the cubic inch. The inch is usually the universal unit of measurement in the United States, and is widely used in the United Kingdom, and Canada, despite the introduction of metric to the latter two in the 1960s and 1970s, respectively. The inch is still commonly used informally, although somewhat less, in other Commonwealth nations such as Australia; an example being the long standing tradition of measuring the height of newborn children in inches rather than centimetres. Measuring tape capable of measuring down to inch International inch Effective July 1, 1959, the United States and countries of the British Commonwealth defined the length of the international yard to be 0.9144 meters. Brian Lasater, The Dream of the West, Pt II (Lulu.com, 2008), p256 Consequently, the international inch is defined to be equal to 25.4 millimeters. The international standard symbol for inch is in (see ISO 31-1, Annex A). In some cases, the inch is denoted by a double prime, which is often approximated by double quotes, and the foot by a prime, which is often approximated by an apostrophe. The two parts are sometimes separated by a dash (for example, 6 feet 2 inches is denoted by 6′-2″). In most languages the word "Thumb" means an Inch. Equivalence to other units of length Mid-19th century tool for converting between different standards of the inch 1 international inch is equal to: 1,000 thou (1 thou is 0.001 inches.) 1,000 mil (1 mil = 1 thou = 0.001 inches) 1,000,000 microinches (1 μin is one millionth of an inch.) about 0.08333 feet (1 foot is equal to 12 inches.) about 0.02778 yards (1 yard is equal to 36 inches.) 2.54 centimeters (1 centimeter is equal to about 0.3937 international inches.) Historical origin The origin of the inch is disputed. Historically, in different parts of the world (even different cities within the same country) and at different points in time, the inch has referred to similar but different standard lengths. The English word inch comes from Latin uncia meaning "one twelfth part" (in this case, one twelfth of a foot); the word ounce (one twelfth of a troy pound) has the same origin. In some other languages, the word for "inch" is similar to or the same as the word for "thumb"; for example, inch/thumb; inch/thumb; inch, pulgar thumb; inch, polegar thumb; inch, tumme thumb; inch/thumb; inch, anguli finger; inch/thumb. Given the etymology of the word "inch", it would seem that the inch is a unit derived from the foot, but this was probably only so in Latin and in Roman times. In English, there are records of fairly precise definitions for the size of an inch (whereas the definitions for the size of a foot are probably anecdotal), so it seems that the foot was then defined as 12 times this length. For example, the old English ynche was defined (by King David I of Scotland in about 1150) as the width of an average man's thumb at the base of the nail, even including the requirement to calculate the average of a small, a medium, and a large man's measures. To account for the much larger length later called an inch, there are also attempts to link it to the distance between the tip of the thumb and the first joint of the thumb, but this may be speculation. There are records of the unit being used circa AD 1000 (both Laws of Æthelbert and Laws of Ælfred). An Anglo-Saxon unit of length was the barleycorn. After 1066, 1 inch was equal to 3 barleycorn, which continued to be its legal definition for several centuries, with the barleycorn being the base unit. One of the earliest such definitions is that of 1324, where the legal definition of the inch was set out in a statute of Edward II of England, defining it as "three grains of barley, dry and round, placed end to end, lengthwise". Similar definitions are recorded in both English and Welsh mediæval law tracts. One, dating from the first half of the 10th century, is contained in the Laws of Hywel Dda (see Hywel Dda) which superseded those of Dyvnwal, an even earlier definition of the inch in Wales. Both definitions, as recorded in Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales (vol i., pp. 184,187,189), are that "three lengths of a barleycorn is the inch". Charles Butler, a mathematics teacher at Cheam School, in 1814 recorded the old legal definition of the inch to be "three grains of sound ripe barley being taken out the middle of the ear, well dried, and laid end to end in a row", and placed the barleycorn, not the inch, as the base unit of the English Long Measure system, from which all other units were derived. John Bouvier similarly recorded in his 1843 law dictionary that the barleycorn was the fundamental measure. Butler observed, however, that "[a]s the length of the barley-corn cannot be fixed, so the inch according to this method will be uncertain", noting that a standard inch measure was now (by his time) kept in the Exchequer chamber, Guildhall, and that was the legal definition of the inch. This was a point also made by George Long in his 1842 Penny Cyclopædia, observing that standard measures had since surpassed the barleycorn definition of the inch, and that to recover the inch measure from its original definition, in the event that the standard measure were destroyed, would involve the measurement of large numbers of barleycorns and taking their average lengths. He noted that this process would not perfectly recover the standard, since it might introduce errors of anywhere between one hundredth and one tenth of an inch in the definition of a yard. One source says that the inch was at one time defined in terms of the yard, itself supposedly defined as the distance between Henry I of England's nose and his thumb. This is unlikely as Henry was born in 1068. Prior to the adoption of the international inch (see above), the United Kingdom and most countries of the British Commonwealth defined the inch in terms of the Imperial Standard Yard. But Canada had its own, different, definition of the inch, defined in terms of metric units. The Canadian inch was defined to be equal to 25.4 millimeters, the amount later accepted as the international inch. Metric or decimal inch A metric inch (25 mm instead of 25.4 mm) was the equivalent of an inch under a former proposal for the metrification and unification of the English system of measures. It is now considered to be a strange unit of measurement. In Sweden, between 1855 to 1863, the existing Swedish "working inch" of ~24.74 mm was replaced by a "decimal inch" of ~29.69 mm which was one tenth of the Swedish foot. Proponents argued that a decimal system simplifies calculations. However, having two different Swedish inch measures (and the English inch on top of that) proved to be complicated. So in a transition period between 1878 and 1889 the metric units were introduced as the overall standard measures. However, the various inches survived some time in building and construction trades. References See also Anthropic units English units Gry Guz Imperial unit Pyramid inch United States customary units | Inch |@lemmatized inch:67 plural:1 symbol:2 abbreviation:1 sometimes:2 double:3 prime:3 name:1 unit:20 length:10 number:2 different:8 system:4 include:2 imperial:3 united:6 state:4 customary:2 yard:7 foot:10 corresponding:2 area:1 square:1 volume:1 cubic:1 usually:1 universal:1 measurement:3 widely:1 use:3 kingdom:2 canada:2 despite:1 introduction:1 metric:5 latter:1 two:3 respectively:1 still:1 commonly:1 informally:1 although:1 somewhat:1 less:1 commonwealth:3 nation:1 australia:1 example:4 long:3 standing:1 tradition:1 measure:13 height:1 newborn:1 child:1 rather:1 centimetre:1 tape:1 capable:1 international:8 effective:1 july:1 country:3 british:2 define:10 meter:1 brian:1 lasater:1 dream:1 west:1 pt:1 ii:2 lulu:1 com:1 consequently:1 equal:7 millimeter:2 standard:9 see:4 iso:1 annex:1 case:2 denote:2 often:2 approximate:2 quote:1 apostrophe:1 part:3 separate:1 dash:1 language:2 word:6 thumb:13 mean:1 equivalence:1 mid:1 century:3 tool:1 convert:1 thou:3 mil:2 microinches:1 μin:1 one:11 millionth:1 centimeter:2 historical:1 origin:3 dispute:1 historically:1 world:1 even:3 city:1 within:1 point:2 time:6 refer:1 similar:3 english:8 come:1 latin:2 uncia:1 meaning:1 twelfth:3 ounce:1 troy:1 pound:1 pulgar:1 polegar:1 tumme:1 anguli:1 finger:1 give:1 etymology:1 would:3 seem:2 derive:2 probably:2 roman:1 record:6 fairly:1 precise:1 definition:14 size:2 whereas:1 anecdotal:1 old:2 ynche:1 king:1 david:1 scotland:1 width:1 average:3 man:2 base:3 nail:1 requirement:1 calculate:1 small:1 medium:1 large:3 account:1 much:1 later:2 call:1 also:3 attempt:1 link:1 distance:2 tip:1 first:2 joint:1 may:1 speculation:1 circa:1 ad:1 law:6 æthelbert:1 ælfred:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 barleycorn:8 continue:1 legal:4 several:1 early:2 set:1 statute:1 edward:1 england:2 three:3 grain:2 barley:3 dry:2 round:1 place:2 end:4 lengthwise:1 welsh:1 mediæval:1 tract:1 date:1 half:1 contain:1 hywel:2 dda:2 supersede:1 dyvnwal:1 wale:2 ancient:1 institute:1 vol:1 pp:1 charles:1 butler:2 mathematics:1 teacher:1 cheam:1 school:1 sound:1 ripe:1 take:2 middle:1 ear:1 well:1 laid:1 row:1 john:1 bouvier:1 similarly:1 dictionary:1 fundamental:1 observe:2 however:3 corn:1 cannot:1 fix:1 accord:1 method:1 uncertain:1 note:2 keep:1 exchequer:1 chamber:1 guildhall:1 make:1 george:1 penny:1 cyclopædia:1 since:2 surpass:1 recover:2 original:1 event:1 destroy:1 involve:1 process:1 perfectly:1 might:1 introduce:2 error:1 anywhere:1 hundredth:1 tenth:2 source:1 say:1 term:3 supposedly:1 henry:2 nose:1 unlikely:1 bear:1 prior:1 adoption:1 canadian:1 amount:1 accept:1 decimal:3 mm:4 instead:1 equivalent:1 former:1 proposal:1 metrification:1 unification:1 consider:1 strange:1 sweden:1 exist:1 swedish:3 work:1 replace:1 proponent:1 argue:1 simplifies:1 calculation:1 top:1 prove:1 complicate:1 transition:1 period:1 overall:1 various:1 survive:1 building:1 construction:1 trade:1 reference:1 anthropic:1 gry:1 guz:1 pyramid:1 |@bigram cubic_inch:1 inch_centimeter:1 anglo_saxon:1 hywel_dda:2 inch_mm:3 |
6,626 | Geography_of_Morocco | True-color image of Morocco from Terra spacecraft Topography of Morocco Morocco's and Western Sahara's cities and main towns Introduction Morocco is a Northern African country, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and the annexed Western Sahara. A large part of Morocco is mountainous. The Atlas Mountains are located mainly in the center and the south of the country. The Rif Mountains are located in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by the Berber people. Geography statistics Geographic coordinates: Map references: Africa Area (excluding the annexed Western Sahara): total: 446 550 km² land: 446 300 km² water: 250 km² Area - comparative: slightly larger than California Land boundaries: total: 2 017.9 km border countries: Algeria 1 559 km, Western Sahara 443 km, Spain (Ceuta) 6.3 km, Spain (Melilla) 9.6 km Coastline: 1 835 km Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles (44 km) continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Physical geography Climate: Mediterranean, becoming more extreme in the interior Terrain: northern coast and interior are mountainous with large areas of bordering plateaus, intermontane valleys, and rich coastal plains Geography - note: strategic location along Strait of Gibraltar Elevation extremes: lowest point: Sebkha Tah -55 m highest point: Jbel Toubkal 4165 m Land use and natural resources Natural resources: phosphates, iron ore, manganese, lead, zinc, fish, salt Land use: arable land: 21% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 47% forests and woodland: 20% other: 11% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 12 580 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards: northern mountains geologically unstable and subject to earthquakes; periodic droughts Environment Ecoregions Terrestrial ecoregions Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe Mediterranean woodlands and forests Mediterranean acacia-argania dry woodlands and succulent thickets Temperate coniferous forests Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests Montane grasslands and shrublands Mediterranean High Atlas juniper steppe Deserts and xeric shrublands North Saharan steppe and woodlands Freshwater ecoregions Permanent Maghreb Temporary Maghreb Marine ecoregions Alboran Sea Saharan Upwelling bjv j j j j jbj Current environmental issues Land degradation/desertification (soil erosion resulting from farming of marginal areas, overgrazing, destruction of vegetation); water supplies contaminated by raw sewage; siltation of reservoirs; oil pollution of coastal waters International environmental agreements Morocco is party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea References CIA Factbook: Morocco External links European Digital Archive on the Soil Maps of the world Soil Maps of Morocco Gallery | Geography_of_Morocco |@lemmatized true:1 color:1 image:1 morocco:8 terra:1 spacecraft:1 topography:1 western:4 sahara:4 city:1 main:1 town:1 introduction:1 northern:3 african:1 country:4 border:3 north:3 atlantic:1 ocean:1 mediterranean:8 sea:4 algeria:2 annexed:2 large:3 part:1 mountainous:2 atlas:2 mountain:3 locate:2 mainly:2 center:1 south:1 rif:1 range:1 inhabit:1 berber:1 people:1 geography:3 statistic:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 map:3 reference:2 africa:1 area:4 exclude:1 total:2 land:7 water:3 comparative:1 slightly:1 california:1 boundary:1 km:9 spain:2 ceuta:1 melilla:1 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 contiguous:1 zone:2 nautical:3 mile:3 continental:1 shelf:1 depth:2 exploitation:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 territorial:1 physical:1 climate:2 become:1 extreme:2 interior:2 terrain:1 coast:1 plateau:1 intermontane:1 valley:1 rich:1 coastal:2 plain:1 note:1 strategic:1 location:1 along:1 strait:1 gibraltar:1 elevation:1 low:1 point:2 sebkha:1 tah:1 high:2 jbel:1 toubkal:1 use:2 natural:3 resource:2 phosphate:1 iron:1 ore:1 manganese:1 lead:1 zinc:1 fish:1 salt:1 arable:1 permanent:3 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:5 woodland:5 est:2 irrigated:1 hazard:1 geologically:1 unstable:1 subject:1 earthquake:1 periodic:1 drought:1 environment:1 ecoregions:4 terrestrial:1 scrub:1 dry:2 steppe:3 acacia:1 argania:1 succulent:1 thicket:1 temperate:1 coniferous:1 conifer:1 mixed:1 montane:1 grassland:1 shrublands:2 juniper:1 desert:1 xeric:1 saharan:2 woodlands:1 freshwater:1 maghreb:2 temporary:1 marine:2 alboran:1 upwelling:1 bjv:1 j:4 jbj:1 current:1 environmental:3 issue:1 degradation:1 desertification:2 soil:3 erosion:1 result:1 farm:1 marginal:1 overgrazing:1 destruction:1 vegetation:1 supply:1 contaminate:1 raw:1 sewage:1 siltation:1 reservoir:1 oil:1 pollution:2 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 endanger:1 specie:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 dumping:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 ship:1 marpol:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratify:1 modification:1 law:1 cia:1 factbook:1 external:1 link:1 european:1 digital:1 archive:1 world:1 gallery:1 |@bigram western_sahara:4 atlantic_ocean:1 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 contiguous_zone:1 zone_nautical:2 nautical_mile:3 mile_km:3 continental_shelf:1 exploitation_exclusive:1 coastal_plain:1 strait_gibraltar:1 iron_ore:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:2 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 periodic_drought:1 terrestrial_ecoregions:1 woodland_scrub:1 temperate_coniferous:1 coniferous_forest:1 xeric_shrublands:1 alboran_sea:1 soil_erosion:1 raw_sewage:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 marine_dumping:1 dumping_nuclear:1 ozone_layer:1 pollution_marpol:1 cia_factbook:1 external_link:1 |
6,627 | Homeostasis | Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος, hómos, "similar"; and ιστημι, histēmi, "standing still"; defined by Walter Bradford Cannon in 1929 + 1932 Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy: ... aber vom Menschen wissen wir nichts, (English title: Robots, Men and Minds), translated by Dr. Hans-Joachim Flechtner. page 115. Econ Verlag GmbH (1970), Duesseldorf, Wien. 1st edition. ) is the property of a system, either open or closed, that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition. Typically used to refer to a living organism, the concept came from that of milieu interieur that was created by Claude Bernard and published in 1865. Multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustment and regulation mechanisms make homeostasis possible. Biological With regard to any given life system parameter, an organism may be a conformer or a regulator. Regulators try to maintain the parameter at a constant level over possibly wide ambient environmental variations. On the other hand, conformers allow the environment to determine the parameter. For instance, endothermic animals maintain a constant body temperature, while exothermic (both ectotherm and poikilotherm) animals exhibit wide body temperature variation. Examples of endothermic animals include mammals and birds, examples of exothermic animals include reptiles and some sea animals. Conformers may still have behavioral adaptations allowing them to exert some control over a given parameter. For instance, reptiles often rest on sun-heated rocks in the morning to raise their body temperature. Vice versa, regulators are usually responsive to external circumstances: if the same sun-baked boulder happens to host a ground squirrel, its metabolism will adjust to the lesser need for internal heat production. Thermal image of a cold-blooded tarantula (cold-blooded or exothermic) on a warm-blooded human hand (endothermic). An advantage of homeostatic regulation is that it allows an organism to function effectively in a broad range of environmental conditions. For example, ectotherms tend to become sluggish at low temperatures, whereas a co-located endotherm may be fully active. That thermal stability comes at a price since an automatic regulation system requires additional energy. One reason snakes may eat only once a week is that they use much less energy to maintain homeostasis. Most homeostatic regulation is controlled by the release of hormones into the bloodstream. However other regulatory processes rely on simple diffusion to maintain a balance. Homeostatic regulation extends far beyond the control of temperature. All animals also regulate their blood glucose, as well as the concentration of their blood. Mammals regulate their blood glucose with insulin and glucagon. These hormones are released by the pancreas, the inadequate production of the two for any reason, would result in diabetes. The kidneys are used to remove excess water and ions from the blood. These are then expelled as urine. The kidneys perform a vital role in homeostatic regulation in mammals, removing excess water, salt, and urea from the blood. These are the body's main waste products. Another homeostatic regulation occurs in the gut. Homeostasis of the gut is not fully understood but it is believed that Toll-like receptor (TLR) expression profiles contribute to it. Intestinal epithelial cells exhibit important factors that contribute to homeostasis: 1) They have different cellular distribution of TLR’s compared to the normal gut mucosa. An example of this is how TLR5 (activated by flagellin) can redistribute to the basolateral membrane which is the perfect place where flagellin can be detected. Ann M O'Hara, Fergus Shanahan The gut flora as a forgotten organ. EMBO reports 7, 688 - 693 (01 Jul 2006) 2) The enterocytes express high levels of TLR inhibitor Toll-interacting protein (TOLLIP). TOLLIP is a human gene that is a part of innate immune system and is highest in a healthy gut, it correlates to luminal bacterial load. Ann M O'Hara, Fergus Shanahan The gut flora as a forgotten organ. EMBO reports 7, 688 - 693 (01 Jul 2006) 3) Surface enterocytes also express high levels of Interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) -containing inhibitory molecule. IL-1R are also referred to as single immunoglobulin IL-1R (SIGIRR). Animals deficient of this are more susceptible to induced colitis, implying that SIGIRR might possibly play a role in tuning mucosal tolerance towards commensal flora. Ann M O'Hara, Fergus Shanahan The gut flora as a forgotten organ. EMBO reports 7, 688 - 693 (01 Jul 2006) Nucleotide-binding Oligomerization Domain containing 2 (NOD2) is suggested to have an affect on suppressing inflammatory cascades based on recent evidence. It is believed to modulate signals transmitted through TLRs, TLR3, 4, and 9 specifically. Mutation of it has resulted in Crohn's disease. Excessive T-helper 1 responses to resident flora in the gut are controlled by inhibiting the controlling influence of regulatory T cells and tolerance-inducing dendritic cells. Sleep timing depends upon a balance between homeostatic sleep propensity, the need for sleep as a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode, and circadian rhythms which determine the ideal timing of a correctly structured and restorative sleep episode. Control Mechanisms All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the variable being regulated: The receptor is the sensing component that monitors and responds to changes in the environment. When the receptor senses a stimulus, it sends information to a control center, the component that sets the range at which a variable is maintained. The control center determines an appropriate response to the stimulus. In most homeostatic mechanisms the control center is the brain. The control center then sends signals to an effector which can be muscles, organs or other structures that receive signals from the control center. After receiving the signal, a change occurs to correct the deviation by either enhancing it with positive feedback or depressing it with negative feedback Marieb, Elaine N. & Hoehn, Katja (2007). Human Anatomy & Physiology (Seventh ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Positive Feedback Positive feedback is a mechanism by which an output is enhanced, such as protein levels. However, in order to avoid any fluctuation in the protein level, the mechanism is inhibited stochastically (I), therefore when the concentration of the activated protein (A) is past the threshold ([I]), the loop mechanism is activated and the concentration of A increases exponentially if d[A]=k [A] Positive feedback mechanisms are designed to accelerate or enhance the output created by a stimulus that has already been activated. Unlike negative feedback mechanisms that initiate to maintain or regulate physiological functions within a set and narrow range, the positive feedback mechanisms are designed to push levels out of normal ranges. To achieve this purpose, a series of events initiates a cascading process that builds to increase the effect of the stimulus. This process can be beneficial but is rarely used by the body due to risks of the acceleration becoming uncontrollable. One positive feedback example event in the body is blood platelet accumulation, which, in turn, causes blood clotting in response to a break or tear in the lining of blood vessels. Another example is the release of oxytocin to intensify the contractions that take place during childbirth. Positive feedback can also be harmful. One particular example is when a fever causes a positive feedback within homeostasis that pushes the temperature continually higher. Body temperature can reach extremes of 45°C (113°F), at which cellular proteins denature, causing the active site in proteins to change, thus causing metabolism to stop, resulting in death. Negative Feedback Negative feedback mechanism consists of reducing the output or activity of any organ or system back to its normal range of functioning. A good example of this is regulating blood pressure. Blood vessels can sense resistance of blood flow against the walls when blood pressure increases. The blood vessels act as the receptors and they relay this message to the brain. The brain then sends a message to the heart and blood vessels, both are the effectors. The heart rate would decrease as the blood vessels increase in diameter (or vasodilation). This change would result in the blood pressure to fall back to its normal range. The opposite would happen when blood pressure decreases, and would cause vasoconstriction. Another important example is when the body is deprived of food. The body would then reset the metabolic set point to a lower than normal value. This would allow the body to continue to function, at a slower rate, even though the body is starving. Therefore people who deprive themselves of food while trying to lose weight, would find it easy to shed weight initially and much harder to lose more after. This is due to the body readjusting itself to a lower metabolic set point to allow the body to survive with its low supply of energy. Exercise can change this effect by increasing the metabolic demand. Another good example of negative feedback mechanism is temperature control. The hypothalamus, which monitors the body temperature, is capable of determining even the slightest of variation of normal body temperature (37 degrees Celsius). Response to such variation could be stimulation of glands that produces sweat to reduce the temperature or signaling various muscles to shiver to increase body temperature. Both feedbacks are equally important for the healthy functioning of ones body. Complications can arise if any of the two feedbacks are affected or altered in any way. Homeostatic Imbalance Much disease results from disturbance of homeostasis, a condition known as homeostatic imbalance. As it ages, every organism will lose efficiency in its control systems. The inefficiencies gradually result in an unstable internal environment that increases the risk for illness. In addition, homeostatic imbalance is also responsible for the physical changes associated with aging. Even more serious than illness and other characteristics of aging, is death. Heart failure has been seen where nominal negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, and destructive positive feedback mechanisms then take over. Diseases that result from a homeostatic imbalance include diabetes, dehydration, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, gout, and any disease caused by a toxin present in the bloodstream. All of these conditions result from the presence of an increased amount of a particular substance. In ideal circumstances, homeostatic control mechanisms should prevent this imbalance from occurring, but, in some people, the mechanisms do not work efficiently enough or the quantity of the substance exceeds the levels at which it can be managed. In these cases, medical intervention is necessary to restore the balance, or permanent damage to the organs may result. Varieties The Dynamic Energy Budget theory for metabolic organisation delineates structure and (one or more) reserves in an organism. Its formulation is based on three forms of homeostasis: Strong homeostasis, wherein structure and reserve do not change in composition. Since the amount of reserve and structure can vary, this allows a particular change in the composition of the whole body (as explained by the Dynamic Energy Budget theory). Weak homeostasis, wherein the ratio of the amounts of reserve and structure becomes constant as long as food availability is constant, even when the organism grows. This means that the whole body composition is constant during growth in constant environments. Structural homeostasis, wherein the sub-individual structures grow in harmony with the whole individual; the relative proportions of the individuals remain constant. Ecological Ecological homeostasis is found in a climax community of maximum permitted biodiversity, given the prevailing ecological conditions. An example of disturbed ecosystems or sub-climax biological communities was the island of Krakatoa after its major eruption in 1883: the established stable homeostasis of the previous forest climax ecosystem was destroyed and all life eliminated from the island. In the years after the eruption, Krakatoa went through a sequence of ecological changes in which successive groups of new plant or animal species followed one another, leading to increasing biodiversity and eventually culminating in a re-established climax community. This ecological succession on Krakatoa occurred in a number of stages; a sere is defined as "a stage in a sequence of events by which succession occurs". The complete chain of seres leading to a climax is called a prisere. In the case of Krakatoa, the island reached its climax community, with eight hundred different recorded species, in 1983, one hundred years after the eruption that cleared all life off the island. Evidence confirms that this number has been homeostatic for some time, with the introduction of new species rapidly leading to elimination of old ones. The evidence of Krakatoa, and other disturbed or virgin ecosystems, shows that the initial colonization by pioneer or R strategy species occurs through positive feedback reproduction strategies, wherein species are weeds, producing huge numbers of possible offspring, but investing little in the success of any one. Rapid boom and bust plague or pest cycles are observed with such species. As an ecosystem starts to approach climax, these species get replaced by more sophisticated climax species, which, through negative feedback, adapt themselves to specific environmental conditions. These species, closely controlled by carrying capacity, follow K strategies, wherein species produce fewer numbers of potential offspring, but invest more heavily in securing the reproductive success of each one to the micro-environmental conditions of its specific ecological niche. It begins with a pioneer community and ends with a climax community. This climax community occurs when the ultimate vegetation has achieved equilibrium with the local environment. Such ecosystems form nested communities or heterarchies, in which homeostasis at one level contributes to homeostatic processes at another holonic level. For example, the loss of leaves on a mature rainforest tree creates space for new growth, and contributes to the plant litter and soil humus build-up upon which such growth depends. Of equal importance, a mature rainforest tree reduces the sunlight falling on the forest floor and helps prevent invasion by other species. But trees too fall to the forest floor, and a healthy forest glade is dependent upon a constant rate of forest regrowth, produced by the fall of logs, and the recycling of forest nutrients through the respiration of termites and other insect, fungal, and bacterial decomposers. In a similar manner, such forest glades contribute ecological services, such as the regulation of microclimates or of the hydrological cycle for an ecosystem, and a number of different ecosystems act together to maintain homeostasis, perhaps of a number of river catchments within a bioregion. A diversity of bioregions, in like manner, makes up a stable homeostatic biological region or biome. In the Gaia hypothesis, James Lovelock stated that the entire mass of living matter on Earth (or any planet with life) functions as a vast homeostatic superorganism that actively modifies its planetary environment to produce the environmental conditions necessary for its own survival. In this view, the entire planet maintains homeostasis. Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is still open to debate. However, some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted. For example, when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, certain plants are able to grow better and thus act to remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When sunlight is plentiful and atmospheric temperature climbs, the phytoplankton of the ocean surface waters thrive and produce more dimethyl sulfide, DMS. The DMS molecules act as cloud condensation nuclei, which produce more clouds, and thus increase the atmospheric albedo and this feeds back to lower the temperature of the atmosphere. As scientists discover more about Gaia, vast numbers of positive and negative feedback loops are being discovered, that, together, maintain a metastable condition, sometimes within very broad range of environmental conditions. Reactive Example of use: "Reactive homeostasis is an immediate response to a homeostatic challenge such as predation." However, any homeostasis is impossible without reaction - because homeostasis is and must be a "feedback" phenomenon. The phrase "reactive homeostasis" is simply short for: "reactive compensation reestablishing homeostasis", that is to say, "reestablishing a point of homeostasis." - it should not be confused with a separate kind of homeostasis or a distinct phenomenon from homeostasis; it is simply the compensation (or compensatory) phase of homeostasis. Other fields The term has come to be used in other fields, as well. Risk An actuary may refer to risk homeostasis, where (for example) people that have anti-lock brakes have no better safety record than those without anti-lock brakes, because the former unconsciously compensate for the safer vehicle via less-safe driving habits. Previous to the innovation of anti-lock brakes, certain maneuvers involved minor skids, evoking fear and avoidance: now the anti-lock system moves the boundary for such feedback, and behavior patterns expand into the no-longer punitive area. It has also been suggested that ecological crises are an instance of risk homeostasis in which behavior known to be dangerous continues until dramatic consequences actually occur. Stress Sociologists and psychologists may refer to stress homeostasis, the tendency of a population or an individual to stay at a certain level of stress, often generating artificial stresses if the "natural" level of stress is not enough. Jean Francois Lyotard, a postmodern theorist, has applied this term to societal 'power centers' that he describes as being 'governed by a principle of homeostasis,' for example, the scientific hierarchy, which will sometimes ignore a radical new discovery for years because it destabilizes previously-accepted norms. (See The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge by Jean-Francois Lyotard) Waste Andrew Potter has used the term waste homeostasis in reference to the lack of net gain from energy-saving technologies. Conversational A 2007 study purported to find (and show clinically) conversational homeostasis in which overly-familiar people (such as spouses) condense their speech so much that they are actually worse at communicating novel information than strangers are, while not being conscious of this problem. Metabolic Some herbal medicines, known as adaptogens, have been defined to function as non-toxic metabolic regulators that can enhance metabolic homeostasis during stress. Winston, David & Maimes, Steven. “ADAPTOGENS: Herbs for Strength, Stamina, and Stress Relief,” Healing Arts Press, 2007. See also Acclimatization Allostasis Apoptosis Biological rhythm Claude Bernard Cybernetics Enantiostasis Gaia hypothesis Health Homeorhesis Milieu interieur Metabolism Osmosis Protobiont Self-organization Aging Steady state Lenz's law Le Chatelier's principle References | Homeostasis |@lemmatized homeostasis:32 greek:1 ὅμος:1 hómos:1 similar:2 ιστημι:1 histēmi:1 standing:1 still:3 define:3 walter:1 bradford:1 cannon:1 karl:1 ludwig:1 von:1 bertalanffy:1 aber:1 vom:1 menschen:1 wissen:1 wir:1 nichts:1 english:1 title:1 robot:1 men:1 mind:1 translate:1 dr:1 han:1 joachim:1 flechtner:1 page:1 econ:1 verlag:1 gmbh:1 duesseldorf:1 wien:1 edition:1 property:1 system:8 either:2 open:2 close:1 regulate:6 internal:3 environment:7 tend:2 maintain:9 stable:3 constant:9 condition:11 typically:1 use:7 refer:4 living:1 organism:6 concept:1 come:3 milieu:2 interieur:2 create:3 claude:2 bernard:2 publish:1 multiple:1 dynamic:3 equilibrium:2 adjustment:1 regulation:8 mechanism:15 make:2 possible:2 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6,628 | Insert_(filmmaking) | In film, an insert is a shot of part of a scene as filmed from a different angle and/or focal length from the master shot. Inserts cover action already covered in the master shot, but emphasize a different aspect of that action due to the different framing. An insert is different from a cutaway in that the cutaway is of action not covered in the master shot. There are more exact terms to use when the new, inserted shot is another view of actors: close-up, head shot, knee shot, two shot. So the term "insert" is often confined to views of objects--and body parts, other than the head. Thus: CLOSE-UP of the gunfighter, INSERT of his hand quivering above the holster, TWO SHOT of his friends watching anxiously, INSERT of the clock ticking. Often inserts of this sort are done separately from the main action, by a second-unit director using stand-ins. Inserts and cutaways can both be vexatious for directors, as care must be taken to preserve continuity by keeping the objects in the same relative position as in the main take, and having the lighting the same. The 1975 movie Inserts directed by John Byrum about a pornographic film production, which starred Richard Dreyfuss and was originally released with an X rating, took its name from the double meaning that "insert" both refers to this film technique (often used in pornographic filmmaking) and to sexual intercourse. See also Cutaway (film) | Insert_(filmmaking) |@lemmatized film:5 insert:10 shot:9 part:2 scene:1 different:4 angle:1 focal:1 length:1 master:3 cover:3 action:4 already:1 emphasize:1 aspect:1 due:1 framing:1 cutaway:4 exact:1 term:2 use:3 new:1 inserted:1 another:1 view:2 actor:1 close:2 head:2 knee:1 two:2 often:3 confine:1 object:2 body:1 thus:1 gunfighter:1 hand:1 quiver:1 holster:1 friend:1 watch:1 anxiously:1 clock:1 ticking:1 sort:1 separately:1 main:2 second:1 unit:1 director:2 stand:1 vexatious:1 care:1 must:1 take:3 preserve:1 continuity:1 keep:1 relative:1 position:1 light:1 movie:1 direct:1 john:1 byrum:1 pornographic:2 production:1 star:1 richard:1 dreyfus:1 originally:1 release:1 x:1 rating:1 name:1 double:1 meaning:1 refers:1 technique:1 filmmaking:1 sexual:1 intercourse:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram focal_length:1 sexual_intercourse:1 |
6,629 | Honey | A jar of honey with honey dipper A capped frame of honeycomb Honey is a sweet aliment produced by honey bees (and some other species) and derived from the nectar of flowers. According to the United States National Honey Board and various international food regulations, "honey stipulates a pure product that does not allow for the addition of any other substance…this includes, but is not limited to, water or other sweeteners". Africas National Honey Board This article refers exclusively to the honey produced by honey bees (the genus Apis); honey produced by other bees or other insects has very different properties. Honey gets its sweetness from the monosaccharides fructose and glucose and has approximately the same relative sweetness as that of granulated sugar (97% of the sweetness of sucrose, a disaccharide). National Honey Board. "Carbohydrates and the Sweetness of Honey". Last accessed May 5, 2008. http://www.honey.com/downloads/carb.pdf Oregon State University. "Sugar Sweetness". Last accessed May 5, 2008. http://food.oregonstate.edu/sugar/sweet.html Honey has attractive chemical properties for baking, and a distinctive flavor which leads some people to prefer it over sugar and other sweeteners. Most micro-organisms do not grow in honey because of its low water activity of 0.6. However, honey frequently contains dormant endospores of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which can be dangerous to infants as the endospores can transform into toxin-producing bacteria in the infant's immature intestinal tract, leading to illness and even death (see Potential health hazards below). The study of pollens and spores in raw honey (melissopalynology) can determine floral sources of honey. Vaughn M. Bryant, Jr. "Pollen Contents of Honey". CAP Newsletter 24(1):10–24, 2001. Because bees carry an electrostatic charge, and can attract other particles, the same techniques of melissopalynology can be used in area environmental studies of radioactive particles, dust, or particulate pollution. A main effect of bees collecting nectar to make honey is pollination, which is crucial for flowering plants. Pollination Background. University of Georgia Honey Bee Program. Last accessed April 14, 2007. http://www.ent.uga.edu/bees/Pollination/Background.htm Beekeepers encourage overproduction of honey within the hive so that the excess can be taken without endangering the bees. When sources of food for the bees are short, beekeepers may have to give the bees supplementary nutrition. Supplementary nutrition usually comes in the form of sugar (sucrose) mixed with water at proper ratios. Doug Somerville. "Honey bee nutrition and supplementary feeding." Agnote:DAI/178, July 2000. New South Wales Department of Agriculture. http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/3271 Formation A honey bee on calyx of goldenrod Honey is created by bees as a food source. In cold weather or when food sources are scarce, bees use their stored honey as their source of energy. National Honey Board. "Honey and Bees." Last accessed April 14, 2007. http://www.honey.com/consumers/kids/beefacts.asp By contriving for bee swarms to nest in artificial hives, people have been able to semi-domesticate the insects, and harvest excess honey. In the hive there are three types of bee: a single female queen bee, a seasonally variable number of male drone bees to fertilize new queens, and some 20,000 to 40,000 female worker bees. Val Whitmyre. "The Plight of the Honeybees." University of California. Last accessed April 14, 2007. http://groups.ucanr.org/mgnapa/Articles/Honeybees.htm The worker bees raise larvae and collect the nectar that will become honey in the hive. Leaving the hive, they collect sugar-rich flower nectar and return. In the process, they release Nasonov pheromones. These pheromones lead other bees to rich nectar sites by "smell". Roger Hoopingarner. B-Plus: Beekeeping Report from Michigan State University. No. 18 Spring-Summer, 1990. cyberbee.net/Archive/bplus/pdf/bplus18.pdf Honeybees also release Nasonov pheromones at the entrance to the hive, which enables returning bees to return to the proper hive. In the hive the bees use their "honey stomachs" to ingest and regurgitate the nectar a number of times until it is partially digested. Standifer LN. "Honey Bee Nutrition And Supplemental Feeding". Excerpted from "Beekeeping in the United States." Last accessed April 14, 2007. http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/bkCD/HBBiology/nutrition_supplements.htm The bees work together as a group with the regurgitation and digestion until the product reaches a desired quality. It is then stored in honeycomb cells. After the final regurgitation, the honeycomb is left unsealed. However, the nectar is still high in both water content and natural yeasts which, unchecked, would cause the sugars in the nectar to ferment. The process continues as bees inside the hive fan their wings, creating a strong draft across the honeycomb which enhances evaporation of much of the water from the nectar. This reduction in water content raises the sugar concentration and prevents fermentation. Ripe honey, as removed from the hive by a beekeeper, has a long shelf life and will not ferment if properly sealed. Nutrition Honey is a mixture of sugars and other compounds. With respect to carbohydrates, honey is mainly fructose (about 38.5%) and glucose (about 31.0%), making it similar to the synthetically produced inverted sugar syrup which is approximately 48% fructose, 47% glucose, and 5% sucrose. Honey's remaining carbohydrates include maltose, sucrose, and other complex carbohydrates. Honey contains trace amounts of several vitamins and minerals. USDA Nutrient Data Laboratory "Honey." Last accessed August 24, 2007. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/ As with all nutritive sweeteners, honey is mostly sugars and is not a significant source of vitamins or minerals. Honey also contains tiny amounts of several compounds thought to function as antioxidants, including chrysin, pinobanksin, vitamin C, catalase, and pinocembrin. The specific composition of any batch of honey depends on the flowers available to the bees that produced the honey. Typical honey analysis Fructose: 38.5% Glucose: 31.0% Sucrose: 1.0% Water: 17.0% Other sugars: 9.0% (maltose, melezitose) Ash: 0.17% Other: 3.38% Honey has a density of about 1.36 kilograms per liter (36% denser than water). Isotope ratio mass spectrometry can be used to detect addition of corn syrup or sugar cane sugars by the carbon isotopic signature. Addition of sugars originated from corn or sugar cane (C4 plants, unlike the plants used by bees which are predominantly C3 plants) skews the isotopic ratio of sugars present in honey, but does not influence the isotopic ratio of proteins; in an unadulterated honey the carbon isotopic ratios of sugars and proteins should match. As low as 7% level of addition can be detected. Classification by floral source Generally, honey is classified by the floral source of the nectar from which it was made. Honeys can be from specific types of flower nectars, from indeterminate origin, or can be blended after collection. Blended Most commercially available honey is blended, meaning that it is a mixture of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density or geographic origin. Polyfloral Polyfloral honey, also known as wildflower honey, is derived from the nectar of many types of flowers. The taste may vary from year to year, and the aroma and the flavour can be more or less intense, depending on which bloomings are prevalent. Wildflower honey Monofloral Monofloral honey is made primarily from the nectar of one type of flower. Different monofloral honeys have a distinctive flavor and colour because of differences between their principal nectar sources. Honey colours In order to produce monofloral honey beekeepers keep beehives in an area where the bees have access to only one type of flower. In practice, because of the difficulties in containing bees, a small proportion of any honey will be from additional nectar from other flower types. Typical examples of North American monofloral honeys are clover, orange blossom, sage, eucalyptus, tupelo, manuka, buckwheat, and sourwood. Some typical European examples include thyme, thistle, heather, acacia, dandelion, sunflower, honeysuckle, and varieties from lime and chestnut trees. In North Africa, such as Egypt, examples include clover, cotton, and citrus, mainly orange blossoms. Honeydew honey Instead of taking nectar, bees can take honeydew, the sweet secretions of aphids or other plant sap-sucking insects. Honeydew honey is very dark brown in colour, with a rich fragrance of stewed fruit or fig jam and is not as sweet as nectar honeys. Honeydew honey Germany's Black Forest is a well known source of honeydew-based honeys, as well as some regions in Bulgaria. Honeydew honey is popular in some areas, but in other areas beekeepers have difficulty selling the stronger flavored product. The production of Honeydew honey has some complications and dangers. The honey has a much larger proportion of indigestibles than light floral honeys, which can cause dysentery to the bees, resulting in the death of colonies in areas with cold winters. Good beekeeping management requires the removal of honeydew prior to winter in colder areas. Bees collecting this resource also have to be fed protein supplements, as honeydew lacks the protein-rich pollen accompaniment gathered from flowers. Packaging and processing Honey comb Generally, honey is bottled in its familiar liquid form. However, honey is sold in other forms, and can be subjected to a variety of processing methods. Comb honey Comb honey is honey meant to be consumed still in the honeybees' wax comb. Comb honey traditionally is collected by using standard wooden frames in honey supers. The frames are collected and the comb cut out in chunks before packaging. As an alternative to this labor intensive method, plastic rings or cartridges can be used that do not require manual cutting of the comb, and speed packaging. Comb honey harvested in the traditional manner is also referred to as "Cut-Comb honey" http://www.beeworks.com/informationcentre/honey_processing.html Chunk honey is honey packed in widemouth containers consisting of one or more pieces of comb honey immersed in extracted liquid honey. Organic Certified Organic Honey is honey or honey combs produced, processed, and packaged in accordance with national regulations, and certified as such by some government body or an independent organic farming certification organization. In the United Kingdom, the standard covers not only the origin of bees, but also the siting of the apiaries. These must be on land that is certified as organic, and within a radius of 4 miles from the apiary site, nectar and pollen sources must consist essentially of organic crops or uncultivated areas. Organic honey . According to TheOrganicReport.com, organic honey is quite scarce to find because most beekeepers "routinely use sulfa compounds and antibiotics to control bee diseases, carbolic acid to remove honey from the hive, and calcium cyanide to kill colonies before extracting the honey, not to mention that conventional honeybees gather nectar from plants that have been sprayed with pesticides." TheOrganicReport.com Varieties of processing Crystallized honey is honey in which some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from solution as the monohydrate. Also called "granulated honey." Pasteurized honey is honey that has been heated in a pasteurization process.Pasteurization in honey reduces the moisture level, destroys yeast cells, and liquefies crystals in the honey. While this process sterilizes the honey and improves shelf-life, it has some disadvantages. Excessive heat-exposure also results in product deterioration, as it increases the level of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and reduces enzyme (e.g. diastase) activity. The heat also affects appearance, taste, and fragrance. Heat processing can also darken the natural honey color (browning). http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/K1P2LW881884HUM0.pdf Raw honey is honey as it exists in the beehive or as obtained by extraction, settling or straining without adding heat above 120 °F. Raw honey contains some pollen and may contain small particles of wax. Local raw honey is sought after by allergy sufferers as the pollen impurities are thought to lessen the sensitivity to hay fever (see Medical Applications below). Strained honey is honey which has been passed through a mesh material to remove particulate material (pieces of wax, propolis, other defects) without removing pollen, minerals or valuable enzymes. Ultrafiltered honey is honey processed by very fine filtration under high pressure to remove all extraneous solids and pollen grains. The process typically heats honey to 150–170 °F to more easily pass through the fine filter. Ultrafiltered honey is very clear and has a longer shelf life, because it crystallizes more slowly because of the high temperatures breaking down any sugar seed crystals, making it preferred by the supermarket trade. The heating process degrades certain qualities of the honey similar to the aforementioned pasteurization process. Ultrasonicated honey is honey that has been processed by ultrasonication, a non-thermal processing alternative for honey. When honey is exposed to ultrasonication, most of the yeast cells are destroyed. Yeast cells that survive sonication generally lose their ability to grow. This reduces the rate of honey fermentation substantially. Ultrasonication also eliminates existing crystals and inhibits further crystallization in honey. Ultrasonically aided liquefaction can work at substantially lower temperatures of approx. 35 °C and can reduce liquefaction time to less than 30 seconds. http://www.hielscher.com/ultrasonics/honey_01.htm Whipped honey, also called creamed honey, spun honey, churned honey, candied honey, and honey fondant, is honey that has been processed to control crystallization. Whipped honey contains a large number of small crystals in the honey. The small crystals prevent the formation of larger crystals that can occur in unprocessed honey. The processing also produces a honey with a smooth spreadable consistency. Preservation Because of its unique composition and the complex processing of nectar by the bees which changes its chemical properties, honey is suitable for long term storage and is easily assimilated even after long preservation. History knows examples of honey preservation for decades, and even centuries. The main goal is to prevent the fermentation of the honey. Honey should also be protected from oxidation. The ideal example is the natural process of bees sealing of the honey in honeycomb cells with wax caps. The best honey is in the uncut honey combs. After being removed from the comb, honey is very vulnerable, and the main losses of quality take place during preservation and distribution. A number of special prerequisites are, however, necessary to achieve the conservation. These include sealing the product in vessels of chosen material, kept in a favorable environment of specific humidity, temperature, etc. Honey should not be preserved in metal containers, because the acids in the honey may promote oxidation of the vessel. This leads to increased content of heavy metals in honey, decreases the amount of nutrients, and may lead to stomach discomfort or even poisoning. High quality honey can also be purchased on the market. An article. http://20minut.ua/news/69702 Traditionally honey was stored in ceramic or wooden containers, however glass is now the favored material. While ceramic vessels are still a viable option, honey stored in wooden containers may be discolored or take on flavors imparted from the vessel. Traditionally honey was preserved in deep cellars, but not together with wine or other products. [ Wine: From Neolithic Times to the 21st Century Stefan K. Estreicher] As honey has a strong tendency to absorb outside smells and moisture, it is advisable to keep it in clean, hermetically sealed vessels. For the same reasons, it is not advisable to preserve honey uncovered in a refrigerator, especially together with other foods and products. It is also advisable to keep it in opaque vessels, or stored in a dark place. Optimal preservation temperature is +4 to +10 °C (39 to 50 °F). Honey should be stored in a dark, dry place, preventing it from absorbing any moisture. If excessive moisture is absorbed by the honey, it can ferment. Which honey is better. Beekeeping in Ukraine. http://beekeeping.com.ua/user/agrosvitukr/articles/2007_10_jakyimed.html When conventional preservation methods are applied, it is not recommended to preserve the honey for longer than 2 (maximum 3) years. Excessive heat can have detrimental effects on the nutritional value of honey. An Interview by "Rivenska Gazeta" with Hryhoriy Deputat, Head of the Brotherhood of Beekeepers of Ukraine in Rivenska Oblast http://www.gazeta.rv.ua/?n=7574 Veterinary and Sanitary Expertize of bee honey in the contemporary ecological conditions of Ukraine. PhD Dissertation by Melnyk, Maria Vasylivna. National Agrarian University of Ukraine. http://www.lib.ua-ru.net/inode/14366.html Heating up to 37°С causes loss of nearly 200 components, part of which are antibacterial. Heating up to 40°С destroys invertase, an important enzyme. Heating up to 50°С turns the honey into caramel (the most valuable honey sugars become analogous to sugar). Generally any larger temperature fluctuation (10°С is ideal for preservation of ripe honey) causes decay." My tender sweet honey. Experience of a famous beekeeper-scientist Vasyl Solomka. "Halytski Kontrakty" Ukrainian Business Weekly Magazine. http://www.kontrakty.com.ua/ukr/gc/nomer/2003/20/29.html Acacia honey is known to be more resistant to crystallization. Acacia honey Honey will cure and improve the health of a child. An article by Borys Skachko, chief of the phytotherapy and systematic prevention and rehabilitation methods department of the scientific and production company "Yustas". "Vashe Zdorovya" (Your Health). A Medical Newspaper of Ukraine. A newspaper of the Ministry of Health Protection of Ukraine. http://www.vz.kiev.ua/pop/13-06/1.shtml Distinguishing quality honey Honey grading Honey grading is performed voluntarily based upon USDA standards. The quality of honey is graded based upon a number of factors including: soluble solids, water content, flavor, aroma, clarity, absence of defects, and color. The honey grade scale is: Grade A - Good Grade B - Reasonably Good Grade C - Fairly Good Substandard - Poor, Failing Indicators of quality High quality honey can be distinguished by, fragrance, taste, and consitency. Ripe, freshly collected, high quality honey at 20°C (68°F) should flow from a knife in a straight stream, without breaking into separate drops. Honey production After falling down the honey should form a bead. The honey when poured should form small, temporary layers that disappear fairly quickly, indicating high viscosity. If not, it indicates excessive water content (over 20%) Honey production of the product. Honey with excessive water content is not suitable for long term preservation. Basic Honey Processing In jars, fresh honey should appear as a pure, consistent fluid and should not set in layers. Within a few weeks to a few months of extraction, many varieties of honey crystallize into a cream-coloured solid. Some varieties of honey, including tuepelo, acacia, and sage crystallize less regularly. www.honey.com/downloads/crystallization.pdf Honey may be heated during bottling at temperatures of 104-120°F to delay or inhibit crystallization without degrading the honey. Although, lack of crystallization is not proof of excessive heating or pasteurization. www.honey.com/downloads/crystallization.pdf http://www.rawhoneybest.com/ If transparent and reluctant to thicken, this may indicate that the bees were fed with sugar syrup or even sugar itself, which is bad for the bees and leads to inferior honey. Honey spoil A fluffy film on the surface of the honey (like a white foam), or marble-coloured or white-spotted crystallization on a containers sides, is formed by air bubbles trapped during the bottling process. Honey answeres This is an characteristic of unpasteurized honey. A 2008 Italian study determined that nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can be used to distinguish between different honey types, and can be used to pinpoint the area where it was produced. Researchers were able to identify differences in acacia and polyfloral honeys by the differing proportions of fructose and sucrose, as well as differing levels of aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine. This ability allows greater ease of selecting compatible stocks. Chemical & Engineering News Vol. 86 No. 35, 1 Sept. 2008, "Keeping Tabs on Honey", p. 43 TheOrganicReport.com Honey in history, culture, and folklore Honey use and production has a long and varied history. In many cultures, honey has associations that go beyond its use as a food. Honey is frequently a talisman and symbol of sweetness. Ancient times Honey collection is an ancient activity. Eva Crane's The Archaeology of Beekeeping [The Archaeology of Beekeeping, Eva Crane (1983)] states that humans began hunting for honey at least 10,000 years ago. She evidences this with a cave painting in Valencia, Spain. The painting is a Mesolithic rock painting, showing two female honey-hunters collecting honey and honeycomb from a wild bee hive. The two women are depicted in the nude, carrying baskets, and using a long wobbly ladder in order to reach the wild nest. In Ancient Egypt, honey was used to sweeten cakes and biscuits, and was used in many other dishes. Ancient Egyptian and Middle-Eastern peoples also used honey for embalming the dead. Larry Gonick The Cartoon History of the Universe Vol.2 In the Roman Empire, honey was possibly used instead of gold to pay taxes. Pliny the Elder devotes considerable space in his book Naturalis Historia to the bee and honey, and its many uses. The fertility god of Egypt, Min, was offered honey Enchanted heart . In some parts of post-classical Greece, like Rhodes, it was formerly the custom for a bride to dip her fingers in honey and make the sign of the cross before entering her new home. Enchanted heart Religious significance In Jewish tradition, honey is a symbol for the new year—Rosh Hashana. At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped in honey and eaten to bring a sweet new year. Some Rosh Hashana greetings show honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast. In some congregations, small straws of honey are given out to usher in the new year. In Islam, there is an entire Surah in the Qur'an called al-Nahl (the Honey Bee). According to hadith, Prophet Muhammad strongly recommended honey for healing purposes. Sahih Bukhari vol. 7, book 71, number 584, 585, 588 and 603. The Qur'an also promotes honey as a nutritious and healthy food: "And thy Lord taught the bee to build its cells in hills, on trees and in (men's) habitations…there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colours, wherein is healing for mankind. Verily in this is a Sign for those who give thought". Translation of Quran 16:68–69 In Buddhism, honey plays an important role in the festival of Madhu Purnima, celebrated by Buddhists in India and Bangladesh. The day commemorates Buddha's making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness. The legend has it that while he was there, a monkey brought him honey to eat. On Madhu Purnima, Buddhists remember this act by giving honey to monks. The monkey's gift is frequently depicted in Buddhist art. The Old Testament contains many references to honey. In The Book of Judges, Samson found a swarm of bees and honey in the carcass of a lion (14:8). In Matthew 3:4, John the Baptist is said to have lived for a long period of time in the wilderness on a diet consisting of locusts and wild honey. The book of Exodus famously describes the Promised Land as a "land flowing with milk and honey" (33:3). However, the claim has been advanced that the original Hebrew (devash) actually refers to the sweet syrup produced from the juice of the date. In Western culture The word "honey", along with variations like "honey bun" and the abbreviation "hon", has become a term of endearment in most of the English-speaking world. In some places it is used for loved ones; in others, such as the American South, it is used when addressing casual acquaintances or even strangers. Also, in many children’s books bears are depicted as eating honey, (e.g. Winnie the Pooh) even though most bears actually eat a wide variety of foods, and bears seen at beehives are usually more interested in bee larvae than honey. The American Bear Association In some European languages even the word for 'bear' (e.g. in Russian 'medvéd', in Czech 'medvěd, in Hungarian medve, in Croatian 'medvjed') is coined from the noun which means 'honey' and the verb which means 'to eat' (perhaps save Hungarian, in which case 'méz' is honey, however to eat is 'enni'. Medve may be a loanword). Honey is sometimes sold in bear-shaped jars or squeeze bottles. Modern Uses As a food and in cooking The main uses of honey are in cooking, baking, as a spread on breads, and as an addition to various beverages such as tea and as a sweetener in commercial beverages such as Sprecher's root beer. Honey is the main ingredient in the alcoholic beverage mead, which is also known as "honey wine" or "honey beer" (although it is neither wine nor beer). It is also used as an adjunct in beer. Its glycemic index ranges from 31 to 78 depending on the variety. Gov.au/reports Vegans and honey During early vegan movements in the 1940s, The Vegan Society in England defined veganism as "the practice of living on the products of the plant kingdom to the exclusion of flesh, fish, fowl, eggs, honey, animal milk and its derivatives, and encourages the use of alternatives for all commodities derived wholly or in part from animals." (emphasis added) http://www.vegsource.com/jo/essays/namegame.htm Following this, some vegans do not eat honey as it is considered an animal product. http://www.vegetus.org/honey/honey.htm However, there is active debate in the vegan community on the status of honey as an animal product and its appropriateness for human consumption. http://compassionatespirit.com/is-honey-vegan.htm In medicine For at least 2700 years, honey has been used by humans to treat a variety of ailments through topical application, but only recently have the antiseptic and antibacterial properties of honey been chemically explained. Wound Gels that contain antibacterial honey and have regulatory approval for wound care are now available to help conventional medicine in the battle against drug resistant strains of bacteria MRSA. As an antimicrobial agent honey may have the potential for treating a variety of ailments. One New Zealand researcher says a particular type of honey may be useful in treating MRSA infections. Antibacterial properties of honey are the result of the low water activity causing osmosis, hydrogen peroxide effect, and high acidity. Honey appears to be effective in killing drug-resistant biofilms which are implicated in chronic rhinosinusitis. ScienceDaily. (2008). Honey Effective In Killing Bacteria That Cause Chronic Sinusitis. Osmotic effect Honey is primarily a saturated mixture of two monosaccharides. This mixture has a low water activity; most of the water molecules are associated with the sugars and few remain available for microorganisms, so it is a poor environment for their growth. If water is mixed with honey, it loses its low water activity, and therefore no longer possesses this antimicrobial property. Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen peroxide in honey is activated by dilution. However, unlike medical hydrogen peroxide, commonly 3% by volume, it is present in a concentration of only 1 mmol/L in honey. Honey chelates and deactivates the free ion, which starts the formation of oxygen free radicals produced by hydrogen peroxide and the antioxidant constituents in honey help clean up oxygen free radicals present. http://www.worldwidewounds.com/2001/november/Molan/honey-as-topical-agent.html C6H12O6 + H2O + O2 → C6H12O7 + H2O2 When used topically (as, for example, a wound dressing), hydrogen peroxide is produced by dilution with body fluids. As a result, hydrogen peroxide is released slowly and acts as an antiseptic. In diabetic ulcers Topical honey has been used successfully in a comprehensive treatment of diabetic ulcers when the patient cannot use other topical antibiotics. Jennifer Eddy of UW Health's Eau Claire Family Medicine Clinic, "UW STUDY TESTS TOPICAL HONEY AS A TREATMENT FOR DIABETIC ULCERS", University of Wisconsin-Madison, 5/2/07 Acidity The pH of honey is commonly between 3.2 and 4.5. This relatively acidic pH level prevents the growth of many bacteria. Nutraceutical effects Antioxidants in honey have even been implicated in reducing the damage done to the colon in colitis. Such claims are consistent with its use in many traditions of folk medicine. For throats Honey has also been used for centuries as a treatment for sore throats and coughs, and according to recent research may in fact be as effective as many common cough medicines. The Guardian Society 04/12/2007 It is important to remember however that this is an initial study with a small sample size. Mixed with lemon juice and consumed slowly, honey coats the throat, alleviating discomfort. The antibacterial and antiseptic properties of honey aid in healing sore throats and laryngitis. Other medical applications Some studies suggest that the topical use of honey may reduce odors, swelling, and scarring when used to treat wounds; it may also prevent the dressing from sticking to the healing wound. Honey has been shown to be an effective treatment for conjunctivitis in rats. Though widely believed to alleviate allergies, local honey has been shown to be no more effective than placebos in controlled studies of ocular allergies. However, a recent study has shown pollen collected by bees to exert an anti allergenic effect, mediated by an inhibition of IgE immunoglobulin binding to mast cells. This inhibited mast cell degranulation and thus reduced allergic reaction. Honey mixed with water and vinegar was also used as a vermifuge. The concoction was called Oxymellin. A review in the Cochrane Library suggests that honey could reduce the time it takes for a burn to heal - up to four days sooner in some cases. The review included 19 studies with 2,554 participants. Although the honey treatment healed moderate burns faster than traditional dressings did, the author recommends viewing the findings with caution, since a single researcher performed all of the burn studies. Honey Holds Some Promise for Treating Burns Newswise, Retrieved on October 7, 2008. Potential health hazards Because of the natural presence of botulinum endospores in honey, children under one year of age should not be given honey. The more developed digestive systems of older children and adults generally destroy the spores. Infants, however, can contract botulism from honey. National Honey Board Fact Sheet. "Infant Botulism." Honey produced from the flowers of rhododendrons, mountain laurels, sheep laurel, and azaleas may cause honey intoxication. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, excessive perspiration, nausea, and vomiting. Less commonly, low blood pressure, shock, heart rhythm irregularities, and convulsions may occur, with rare cases resulting in death. Honey intoxication is more likely when using "natural" unprocessed honey and honey from farmers who may have a small number of hives. Commercial processing, with pooling of honey from numerous sources generally dilutes any toxins. FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition's Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook."Grayanotoxin" Toxic honey may also result when bees are in close proximity to tutu bushes (Coriaria arborea) and the vine hopper insect (Scolypopa australis). Both are found throughout New Zealand. Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper insects feeding on the tutu plant. This introduces the poison tutin into honey. National Beekeepers Association, New Zealand - Toxic Honey "Toxic Honey" Only a few areas in New Zealand (Coromandel Peninsula, Eastern Bay of Plenty and the Marlborough Sound) frequently produce toxic honey. Symptoms of tutin poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability, stupor, coma, and violent convulsions. In order to reduce the risk of tutin poisoning, humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New Zealand. Since December 2001, New Zealand beekeepers have been required to reduce the risk of producing toxic honey by closely monitoring tutu, vine hopper, and foraging conditions within 3 km of their apiary. Honey producing countries Honey output in 2005 China is the world's largest producer of honey China continues to dominate world honey production (accessed 17 APR 2009) In 2005, China, Turkey, and the U.S. were the top producers of natural honey, reports the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). FAO.org Mexico is also an important producer of honey, providing about ten percent of the world's supply. Much of this (about one-third) comes from the Yucatán Peninsula. Honey production began there when the Apis mellifera and the A. Mellifer ligustica were introduced there early in the 20th century. Most of Mexico's Yucatán producers are small, family operations who use original traditional techniques, moving hives to take advantage of the various tropical and sub-tropical flowers. The honey-producing cycle depends on the rainy season. The first and best harvest takes place in the dry season between February and May. Many species flower at this time. After the rainy season begins, there are still plenty of flowers but the bees have a difficult time traveling for nectar and producing the honey because of the weather conditions. Bees may not make enough for sale and what may be produced is of lower-quality. Honey is also one of the gourmet products of the French island of Corsica. Corsican honey is certified as to its origin (Appellation d'origine contrôlée) just as French wines are. Miel de Corse mele di Corsica, la gamme variétale AOC AOP List of European Honeys with PDO/PGI PDO/PGI Listing - Other Animal Products (accessed 04/Aug/2008) Greece Μέλι "βανίλια" Μαινάλου - "Vanilla" honey of Mount Mainalo, Arcadia (made from fir blossom pollen) Spain Miel de Galicia or Mel de Galicia Miel de Granada Miel de La Alcarria France Miel d’Alsace Miel de Corse Miel de Provence Miel de Sapin des Vosges Italy Miele della Lunigiana Luxembourg Miel luxembourgeois de marque nationale Malta Ghasel Poland Miód wrzosowy z Borów Dolnośląskich Bartnik Sądecki APIS Apiculture Cooperative Portugal Mel da Serra da Lousã Mel da Serra de Monchique Mel da Terra Quente Mel das Terras Altas do Minho Mel de Barroso Mel do Alentejo Mel do Parque de Montezinho Mel do Ribatejo Norte Mel dos Açores Gallery of the honey harvesting process See also Beekeeping Bee bread Folk medicine Honey bee Honey flow Mead Nectar Royal jelly Syrup National honey show Notes References The Hive: The Story Of The Honeybee. London, Great Britain: John Murray (Publishers). ISBN 0 7195 6598 7 External links Different types with picture U.S. National Honey Board Value-Added Products From Beekeeping, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Beekeeping and Sustainable Livelihoods, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations be-x-old:Мёд | Honey |@lemmatized jar:3 honey:296 dipper:1 capped:1 frame:3 honeycomb:6 sweet:7 aliment:1 produce:21 bee:52 specie:2 derive:3 nectar:22 flower:14 accord:4 united:6 state:5 national:10 board:6 various:3 international:1 food:14 regulation:2 stipulate:1 pure:2 product:14 allow:2 addition:5 substance:1 include:11 limit:1 water:17 sweetener:4 africas:1 article:5 refer:3 exclusively:1 genus:1 apis:3 insect:4 different:4 property:7 get:1 sweetness:6 monosaccharide:2 fructose:5 glucose:5 approximately:2 relative:1 granulate:2 sugar:24 sucrose:6 disaccharide:1 carbohydrate:4 last:7 access:4 may:23 http:22 www:17 com:16 downloads:3 carb:1 pdf:6 oregon:1 university:6 oregonstate:1 edu:3 html:6 attractive:1 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6,630 | Francis_Scott_Key | Maryland Historical Society plaque marking the birthplace of Francis Scott Key Fort McHenry looking towards the position of the British ships (with the Francis Scott Key Bridge in the distance on the upper left) Francis Scott Key (August 1, 1779–January 11, 1843) was an American lawyer, author, and amateur poet, from Georgetown, who wrote the words to the United States' national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner." Life Francis Scott Key was born to Ann Louis Penn Dagworthy (Charlton) and Captain John Ross Key at the family plantation Terra Rubra in what was Frederick County and is now Carroll County, Maryland. His father John Ross Key was a lawyer, a judge and an officer in the Continental Army. He studied law at St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland and also learned under his uncle Philip Barton Key. Hubbell, Jay B. The South in American Literature: 1607-1900. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1954: 300. "The Star-Spangled Banner" During the War of 1812, Key, accompanied by the American Prisoner Exchange Agent Colonel John Stuart Skinner, dined aboard the British ship HMS Tonnant, as the guests of three British officers: Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane, Rear Admiral Sir George Cockburn, and Major General Robert Ross. Skinner and Key were there to negotiate the release of a prisoner, Dr. William Beanes. Beanes was a resident of Upper Marlboro, Maryland and had been captured by the British after he placed rowdy stragglers under citizen's arrest with a group of men. Skinner, Key, and Beanes were allowed to return to their own sloop, but were not allowed to return to Baltimore because they had become familiar with the strength and position of the British units and with the British intent to attack Baltimore. As a result of this, Key was unable to do anything but watch the bombarding of the American forces at Fort McHenry during the Battle of Baltimore on the night of September 13–September 14, 1814. Hubbell, Jay B. The South in American Literature: 1607-1900. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1954: 301. When the smoke cleared, Key was able to see an American flag still waving. On the way back to Baltimore, he was inspired to write a poem describing his experience, "The Defence of Fort McHenry", which he published in the Patriot on September 20, 1814. He intended to fit the rhythms of composer John Stafford Smith's "To Anacreon in Heaven". It has become better known as "The Star Spangled Banner". Under this name, the song was adopted as the American national anthem, first by an Executive Order from President Woodrow Wilson in 1916 (which had little effect beyond requiring military bands to play it) and then by a Congressional resolution in 1931, signed by President Herbert Hoover. Later life In 1832, Key served as the attorney for Sam Houston during his trial in the U.S. House of Representatives for assaulting another Congressman. Sam Houston. Handbook of Texas Online. He published a prose work called The Power of Literature, and Its Connection with Religion in 1834. In 1835, Key prosecuted Richard Lawrence for his unsuccessful attempt to assassinate President of the United States Andrew Jackson. In 1843, Key died at the home of his daughter Elizabeth Howard in Baltimore from pleurisy and was initially interred in Old Saint Paul's Cemetery in the vault of John Eager Howard. In 1866, his body was moved to his family plot in Frederick at Mount Olivet Cemetery. Though Key had written poetry from time to time, often with heavily religious themes, these works were not collected and published until 14 years after his death. The Key Monument Association erected a memorial in 1898 and the remains of both Francis Scott Key and his wife were placed in a crypt in the base of the monument. Other related items In 1861, Key's grandson was imprisoned in Fort McHenry with the Mayor of Baltimore, George William Brown, and other locals deemed to be pro-South. Key was a distant cousin and the namesake of F. Scott Fitzgerald whose full name was Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald. His direct descendants include geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan, guitarist Dana Key, and the American fashion designer and socialite Pauline de Rothschild. His sister, Anne Phoebe Charlton Key, married Roger B. Taney, future Chief Justice of the United States and author of the Court's Dred Scott decision. Key's son, Philip Barton Key was shot and killed by General Daniel Sickles in 1859 after General Sickles discovered that his wife was having an affair with Philip Barton Key. Robert Altman credited Key with the "title song" of Brewster McCloud, though it contained only John Stafford Smith's instrumentals. Monuments and memorials Plaque commemorating the death of Francis Scott Key placed by the DAR in Baltimore. The Howard family vault at Saint Paul's Cemetery, Baltimore, Maryland. Two bridges are named in his honor. The first is the Francis Scott Key Bridge between the Rosslyn section of Arlington County, Virginia, and Georgetown in Washington, D.C.. Scott's Georgetown home, which was demolished in 1947 (as part of construction for the Whitehurst Freeway), was located where the bridge intersects with M St., the location is now the Francis Scott Key park. The other bridge is the Francis Scott Key Bridge, part of the Baltimore Beltway crossing the outer harbor of Baltimore, Maryland. Baltimore's Francis Scott Key Bridge is located at the approximate point where the British anchored to shell Fort McHenry. St. John's College, Annapolis, which Key graduated from in 1796, has an auditorium named in his honor. Francis Scott Key was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970. He is buried at Mount Olivet Cemetery in Frederick. His family plot is next to Thomas Johnson, the first governor of Maryland, and friend Barbara Fritchie, who allegedly waved the American flag out of her home in defiance of Stonewall Jackson's march through the city during the Civil War. Francis Scott Key Hall at the University of Maryland, College Park is named in his honor. It is on the longest mall of any university in the United States. The George Washington University also has a residence hall in Key's honor at the corner of 19th and F Streets. Francis Scott Key also has a school named after him in Brooklyn, New York. I.S 117 is a junior high school located in the Fort Greene section of Brooklyn on Willoughby Avenue. It houses 6th, 7th, and 8th grade classrooms as well as a District 75 Special Education unit. The Special Education classes include children who are emotionally disturbed. For more information on the school and its programs please visit the schools main site, P369k, located in Downtown Brooklyn. Francis Scott Key High School in rural Carroll County, Maryland. Francis Scott Key Middle School (at least three) Francis Scott Key Mall in Frederick County, Maryland. The Frederick Keys minor league baseball team is named after FSK. A monument to Key was commissioned by San Francisco businessman James Lick, who donated some $60,000 for a sculpture of Key to be raised in Golden Gate Park. The travertine monument was executed by sculptor William W. Story in Rome in 1885-87. Ibid. The city of San Francisco recently allocated some $140,000 to renovate the Key monument, which was about to be lost to environmental degradation if repairs weren't made. Repairs were recently finished on the monument located in the music concourse outside the de Young Museum. The US Navy named a submarine in his honor, the USS Francis Scott Key Media See also War of 1812 Notes External links Short biography Francis Scott Keys's biographic sketch at Find A Grave Francis Scott Key biography at Cyber Hymnal | Francis_Scott_Key |@lemmatized maryland:10 historical:1 society:1 plaque:2 mark:1 birthplace:1 francis:20 scott:23 key:47 fort:6 mchenry:5 look:1 towards:1 position:2 british:7 ship:2 bridge:7 distance:1 upper:2 left:1 august:1 january:1 american:9 lawyer:2 author:2 amateur:1 poet:1 georgetown:3 write:3 word:1 united:4 state:4 national:2 anthem:2 star:3 spangle:3 banner:3 life:2 bear:1 ann:1 louis:1 penn:1 dagworthy:1 charlton:2 captain:1 john:8 ross:3 family:4 plantation:1 terra:1 rubra:1 frederick:5 county:5 carroll:2 father:1 judge:1 officer:2 continental:1 army:1 study:1 law:1 st:3 college:3 annapolis:2 also:4 learn:1 uncle:1 philip:3 barton:3 hubbell:2 jay:2 b:3 south:3 literature:3 durham:2 north:2 carolina:2 duke:2 university:5 press:2 war:3 accompany:1 prisoner:2 exchange:1 agent:1 colonel:1 stuart:1 skinner:3 din:1 aboard:1 hm:1 tonnant:1 guest:1 three:2 vice:1 admiral:2 alexander:1 cochrane:1 rear:1 sir:1 george:3 cockburn:1 major:1 general:3 robert:2 negotiate:1 release:1 dr:1 william:3 beanes:3 resident:1 marlboro:1 capture:1 place:3 rowdy:1 straggler:1 citizen:1 arrest:1 group:1 men:1 allow:2 return:2 sloop:1 baltimore:11 become:2 familiar:1 strength:1 unit:2 intent:1 attack:1 result:1 unable:1 anything:1 watch:1 bombarding:1 force:1 battle:1 night:1 september:3 smoke:1 clear:1 able:1 see:2 flag:2 still:1 wave:2 way:1 back:1 inspire:1 poem:1 describe:1 experience:1 defence:1 publish:3 patriot:1 intend:1 fit:1 rhythm:1 composer:1 stafford:2 smith:2 anacreon:1 heaven:1 well:2 know:1 name:8 song:2 adopt:1 first:3 executive:1 order:1 president:3 woodrow:1 wilson:1 little:1 effect:1 beyond:1 require:1 military:1 band:1 play:1 congressional:1 resolution:1 sign:1 herbert:1 hoover:1 late:1 serve:1 attorney:1 sam:2 houston:2 trial:1 u:2 house:2 representative:1 assault:1 another:1 congressman:1 handbook:1 texas:1 online:1 prose:1 work:2 call:1 power:1 connection:1 religion:1 prosecute:1 richard:1 lawrence:1 unsuccessful:1 attempt:1 assassinate:1 andrew:1 jackson:2 die:1 home:3 daughter:1 elizabeth:1 howard:3 pleurisy:1 initially:1 inter:1 old:1 saint:2 paul:2 cemetery:4 vault:2 eager:1 body:1 move:1 plot:2 mount:2 olivet:2 though:2 poetry:1 time:2 often:1 heavily:1 religious:1 theme:1 collect:1 year:1 death:2 monument:7 association:1 erect:1 memorial:2 remains:1 wife:2 crypt:1 base:1 related:1 item:1 grandson:1 imprison:1 mayor:1 brown:1 local:1 deem:1 pro:1 distant:1 cousin:1 namesake:1 f:2 fitzgerald:2 whose:1 full:1 direct:1 descendant:1 include:2 geneticist:1 thomas:2 hunt:1 morgan:1 guitarist:1 dana:1 fashion:1 designer:1 socialite:1 pauline:1 de:2 rothschild:1 sister:1 anne:1 phoebe:1 marry:1 roger:1 taney:1 future:1 chief:1 justice:1 court:1 dred:1 decision:1 son:1 shoot:1 kill:1 daniel:1 sickle:2 discover:1 affair:1 altman:1 credit:1 title:1 brewster:1 mccloud:1 contain:1 instrumentals:1 commemorate:1 dar:1 two:1 honor:5 rosslyn:1 section:2 arlington:1 virginia:1 washington:2 c:1 demolish:1 part:2 construction:1 whitehurst:1 freeway:1 locate:5 intersect:1 location:1 park:3 beltway:1 cross:1 outer:1 harbor:1 approximate:1 point:1 anchor:1 shell:1 graduate:1 auditorium:1 induct:1 songwriter:1 hall:3 fame:1 bury:1 next:1 johnson:1 governor:1 friend:1 barbara:1 fritchie:1 allegedly:1 defiance:1 stonewall:1 march:1 city:2 civil:1 long:1 mall:2 residence:1 corner:1 street:1 school:6 brooklyn:3 new:1 york:1 junior:1 high:2 greene:1 willoughby:1 avenue:1 grade:1 classroom:1 district:1 special:2 education:2 class:1 child:1 emotionally:1 disturbed:1 information:1 program:1 please:1 visit:1 main:1 site:1 downtown:1 rural:1 middle:1 least:1 minor:1 league:1 baseball:1 team:1 fsk:1 commission:1 san:2 francisco:2 businessman:1 james:1 lick:1 donate:1 sculpture:1 raise:1 golden:1 gate:1 travertine:1 execute:1 sculptor:1 w:1 story:1 rome:1 ibid:1 recently:2 allocate:1 renovate:1 lose:1 environmental:1 degradation:1 repair:2 make:1 finish:1 music:1 concourse:1 outside:1 young:1 museum:1 navy:1 submarine:1 uss:1 medium:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 short:1 biography:2 biographic:1 sketch:1 find:1 grave:1 cyber:1 hymnal:1 |@bigram fort_mchenry:5 star_spangle:3 spangle_banner:3 annapolis_maryland:1 north_carolina:2 vice_admiral:1 rear_admiral:1 woodrow_wilson:1 herbert_hoover:1 andrew_jackson:1 distant_cousin:1 scott_fitzgerald:1 fashion_designer:1 robert_altman:1 memorial_plaque:1 plaque_commemorate:1 baltimore_maryland:2 hall_fame:1 stonewall_jackson:1 league_baseball:1 san_francisco:2 environmental_degradation:1 external_link:1 |
6,631 | Eta | Handwritten variant of lowercase eta, from the Byzantine period Eta (uppercase Η, lowercase η; ) is the seventh letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 8. Letters that arose from Eta include the Latin H and the Cyrillic letter И. In Modern Greek the letter, pronounced , represents a close front unrounded vowel, . In Classical Greek, it represented a long open-mid front unrounded vowel, . History The letter shape H was originally used in most Greek dialects to represent the sound /h/, a voiceless glottal fricative. In this function, it was borrowed in the 8th century BC by the Etruscan and other Old Italic alphabets, which were based on the Euboean form of the Greek alphabet. This ultimately gave rise to the Latin alphabet with its letter H. In the East Ionic dialect, however, the sound /h/ disappeared by the sixth century BC, and the letter was re-used initially to represent a development of a long vowel , which later merged in East Ionic with instead. In 403 BC, Athens took over the Ionian spelling system and with it the vocalic use of H (even though it still also had the /h/ sound itself at that time). This later became the standard orthography in all of Greece. Other regional variants of the Greek alphabet (epichoric alphabets), in dialects that still preserved the sound /h/, employed various glyph shapes for consonantal Heta side by side with the new vocalic Eta for some time. One of them was a tack-like shape, looking like the left half of an H. This system was first used in the southern Italian colonies of Heracleia and Tarentum. When Greek orthography was codified by grammarians in the Hellenistic era, they used a diacritic symbol derived from this half-H shape to signal the presence of /h/, and added as its counterpart a reverse-shaped diacritic to denote absence of /h/. These symbols were the origin of the rough breathing and smooth breathing diacritics that became part of classical Greek orthography. Nick Nicholas (2003), "Greek /h/" Tack-shaped archaic consonantal Heta, together with a lowercase variant designed for modern typography. In the typographic conventions of modern epigraphy, the archaic consonantal H in ancient inscriptions is usually rendered by means of a lowercase Latin letter h. Sometimes, symbols directly representing the old half-H glyph shape are also used. The Unicode standard of computer encoding introduced code points designed for this usage in its version 5.1 of April 2008. Like other archaic letters, they come in a lowercase and uppercase variant (U+0370 and U+0371), to cater for the needs of modern typography. Summary of repertoire for FDAM 3 of ISO/IEC 10646 During the time of post-classical Koiné Greek, the sound represented by Eta was raised and merged with several other formerly distinct vowels. Thus in Modern Greek, Eta is pronounced and represents the sound /i/ (a close front unrounded vowel). It shares this function with several other letters (ι, υ) and digraphs (ει, οι), which are all pronounced alike (see iotacism). Eta was also borrowed with the sound value of [i] into the Cyrillic alphabet, where it gave rise to the Cyrillic letter И. Symbol Small eta is sometimes used in place of eng (ŋ) when eng is not available, because of their similar appearance. The upper-case letter Η is used as a symbol in: Textual criticism, the Alexandrian text-type (from Hesychius, its once-supposed editor). Chemistry, enthalpy. H as symbol of enthalpy sometimes is said to be a Greek eta, but since enthalpy comes from ἐνθάλπος (smooth breathing and epsilon), it is more likely a Latin H for 'heat'. The lower-case letter η is used as a symbol in: Thermodynamics, the efficiency of a Carnot heat engine. Chemistry, the hapticity, or the number of electrons shared between a metal center and a ligand in a coordination compound. For example, an allyl group can coordinate to palladium in the η¹ mode or the η³ mode. Optics, the refractive index of an optical medium (although the letter n is more common). It may also refer to the electromagnetic impedance of a medium. Particle physics, to represent the η mesons. Quantum Field Theory (physics), to represent the metric tensor. Statistics, η2 is the "partial regression coefficient". η is the symbol for the linear predictor of a generalized linear model, and can also be used to denote the median of a population. Economics, η is the elasticity. Astronomy, the seventh brightest (usually) star in a constellation. See Bayer designation. Experimental particle physics, η stands for pseudorapidity. Mathematics, η-conversion, see lambda calculus Fluid dynamics, η stands for viscosity. Mathematics, the Dirichlet eta function, Dedekind eta function, and Weierstrass eta function. Biology, a DNA polymerase found in higher eukaryotes and implicated in Translesion Synthesis. Neural network backpropagation, η stands for the learning rate. Telecommunications Eta stands for efficiency Electronics, η stands for the ideality factor of a bipolar transistor, and has a value close to 1.000. It appears in contexts where the transistor is used as a temperature sensing device, e.g. the thermal "diode" transistor that is embedded within a computer's microprocessor. Power Electronics, η stands for the efficiency of a power supply, defined as the output power divided by the input power. Atmospheric science, η represents absolute atmospheric vorticity. References | Eta |@lemmatized handwritten:1 variant:4 lowercase:5 eta:13 byzantine:1 period:1 uppercase:2 η:14 seventh:2 letter:14 greek:13 alphabet:7 system:3 numeral:1 value:3 arise:1 include:1 latin:4 h:18 cyrillic:3 и:2 modern:5 pronounce:3 represent:10 close:3 front:3 unrounded:3 vowel:5 classical:3 long:2 open:1 mid:1 history:1 shape:7 originally:1 use:11 dialect:3 sound:7 voiceless:1 glottal:1 fricative:1 function:5 borrow:2 century:2 bc:3 etruscan:1 old:2 italic:1 base:1 euboean:1 form:1 ultimately:1 give:2 rise:2 east:2 ionic:2 however:1 disappear:1 sixth:1 initially:1 development:1 later:1 merge:2 instead:1 athens:1 take:1 ionian:1 spelling:1 vocalic:2 even:1 though:1 still:2 also:5 time:3 late:1 become:2 standard:2 orthography:3 greece:1 regional:1 epichoric:1 preserve:1 employ:1 various:1 glyph:2 consonantal:3 heta:2 side:2 new:1 one:1 tack:2 like:3 look:1 left:1 half:3 first:1 southern:1 italian:1 colony:1 heracleia:1 tarentum:1 codify:1 grammarian:1 hellenistic:1 era:1 diacritic:3 symbol:8 derive:1 signal:1 presence:1 add:1 counterpart:1 reverse:1 denote:2 absence:1 origin:1 rough:1 breathing:3 smooth:2 part:1 nick:1 nicholas:1 archaic:3 together:1 design:2 typography:2 typographic:1 convention:1 epigraphy:1 ancient:1 inscription:1 usually:2 render:1 mean:1 sometimes:3 directly:1 unicode:1 computer:2 encode:1 introduce:1 code:1 point:1 usage:1 version:1 april:1 come:2 u:2 cater:1 need:1 summary:1 repertoire:1 fdam:1 iso:1 iec:1 post:1 koiné:1 raise:1 several:2 formerly:1 distinct:1 thus:1 share:2 ι:1 υ:1 digraph:1 ει:1 οι:1 alike:1 see:3 iotacism:1 small:1 place:1 eng:2 ŋ:1 available:1 similar:1 appearance:1 upper:1 case:2 textual:1 criticism:1 alexandrian:1 text:1 type:1 hesychius:1 suppose:1 editor:1 chemistry:2 enthalpy:3 say:1 since:1 ἐνθάλπος:1 epsilon:1 likely:1 heat:2 low:1 thermodynamics:1 efficiency:3 carnot:1 engine:1 hapticity:1 number:1 electron:1 metal:1 center:1 ligand:1 coordination:1 compound:1 example:1 allyl:1 group:1 coordinate:1 palladium:1 mode:2 optic:1 refractive:1 index:1 optical:1 medium:2 although:1 n:1 common:1 may:1 refer:1 electromagnetic:1 impedance:1 particle:2 physic:3 meson:1 quantum:1 field:1 theory:1 metric:1 tensor:1 statistic:1 partial:1 regression:1 coefficient:1 linear:2 predictor:1 generalized:1 model:1 median:1 population:1 economics:1 elasticity:1 astronomy:1 brightest:1 star:1 constellation:1 bayer:1 designation:1 experimental:1 stand:6 pseudorapidity:1 mathematics:2 conversion:1 lambda:1 calculus:1 fluid:1 dynamic:1 viscosity:1 dirichlet:1 dedekind:1 weierstrass:1 biology:1 dna:1 polymerase:1 find:1 high:1 eukaryote:1 implicate:1 translesion:1 synthesis:1 neural:1 network:1 backpropagation:1 learning:1 rate:1 telecommunication:1 electronics:2 ideality:1 factor:1 bipolar:1 transistor:3 appear:1 context:1 temperature:1 sense:1 device:1 e:1 g:1 thermal:1 diode:1 embed:1 within:1 microprocessor:1 power:4 supply:1 define:1 output:1 divide:1 input:1 atmospheric:2 science:1 absolute:1 vorticity:1 reference:1 |@bigram front_unrounded:3 unrounded_vowel:3 voiceless_glottal:1 glottal_fricative:1 italic_alphabet:1 iso_iec:1 cyrillic_alphabet:1 textual_criticism:1 carnot_heat:1 refractive_index:1 metric_tensor:1 bayer_designation:1 lambda_calculus:1 dna_polymerase:1 neural_network:1 bipolar_transistor:1 diode_transistor:1 |
6,632 | Industrial_archaeology_of_Dartmoor | The remains of the wheelpit at Huntingdon mine on southern Dartmoor. The industrial archaeology of Dartmoor covers a number of the industries which have, over the ages, occurred on Dartmoor, and the remaining evidence surrounding them. Currently only a few industries are economically significant, yet all three will inevitably leave their own traces on the moor: china clay mining, farming and tourism. A good general guide to the commercial activities on Dartmoor at the end of the 19th century is William Crossing's The Dartmoor Worker. Mining The Wheal Betsy engine house. In former times, lead, silver, tin and copper were mined extensively on Dartmoor. The most obvious evidence of mining to the casual visitor to Dartmoor are the remains of the old engine-house at Wheal Betsy which is alongside the A386 road between Tavistock and Okehampton. The word Wheal has a particular meaning in Devon and Cornwall being either a tin or a copper mine, however in the case of Wheal Betsy it was principally lead and silver which were mined. Once widely practised by many miners across the moor, by the early 1900s only a few tinners remained, and mining had almost completely ceased twenty years later. Some of the more significant mines were Eylesbarrow, Knock Mine, Vitifer Mine and Hexworthy Mine. The last active mine in the Dartmoor area was Great Rock Mine, which shut down in 1969. The Uses of Dartmoor Rock. Dartmoor National Park Authority. Retrieved on 2007-06-15. Quarrying One of the granite quarries near Haytor. Dartmoor granite has been used in many Devon and Cornish buildings. The prison at Princetown was built from granite taken from Walkhampton Common. When the horse tramroad from Plymouth to Princetown was completed in 1823, large quantities of granite were more easily transported. The granite quarries around Haytor were the source of the stone used in several famous structures, including the New London Bridge, completed in 1831. This granite was transported from the moor via the Haytor Granite Tramway, stretches of which are still visible. Peat-cutting Peat-cutting for fuel occurred at some locations on Dartmoor until certainly the 1970s, usually for personal consumption. The right of Dartmoor commoners to cut peat for fuel is known as turbary. These rights were conferred a long time ago, predating most written records. The area once known as the Turbary of Alberysheved between the River Teign and the headwaters of the River Bovey is mentioned in the Perambulation of the Forest of Dartmoor of 1240 (by 1609 the name of the area had changed to Turf Hill). An attempt was made to commercialise the cutting of peat in 1901 at Rattle Brook Head, however this quickly failed. Warrens The significance of the term warren nowadays is not what it once was. In the Middle Ages it was a privileged place, and the creatures of the warren were protected by the king 'for his princely delight and pleasure'. Until early in the 20th century, rabbits were kept on a commercial scale, both for their flesh and their fur. The evidence for this is plentiful as there are still extant a number of warrens which are manifestly man-made, and in place names such as Ditsworthy Warren and Warren House Inn. Also, whilst walking on Dartmoor near one of the many warrens, it is entirely possible that you might accidentally stumble into a weasel-trap, placed there originally to capture weasels and stoats attempting to get at the rabbits. The subject of warrening on Dartmoor is addressed in Eden Phillpotts' story The River. Farming Farming has been practised on Dartmoor since time immemorial. The dry-stone walls which separate fields and mark boundaries give an idea of the extent to which the landscape has been shaped by farming. There is little or no arable farming within the moor, mostly being given over to livestock farming on account of the thin and rocky soil. Some Dartmoor farms are remote in the extreme. 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6,633 | Orchidaceae | Orchidaceae (or Orchid family) is the largest family of the flowering plants (Angiospermae). Number of orchids Orchid Fact File, Royal Botanic gardens, Kew Its name is derived from the genus Orchis. The Royal Botanical Gardens of Kew list 880 genera and nearly 22,000 accepted species, but the exact number is unknown (perhaps as many as 25,000) CLASSIFICATION OF ORCHIDACEAE IN THE AGE OF DNA DATA because of taxonomic disputes. The number of orchid species equals about four times the number of mammal species, or more than twice the number of bird species. It also encompasses about 6–11% of all seed plants. Taxonomic exaggeration and its effects on orchid conservation About 800 new orchid species are added each year. The largest genera are Bulbophyllum (2,000 species), Epidendrum (1,500 species), Dendrobium (1,400 species) and Pleurothallis (1,000 species). The family also includes the Vanilla (the genus of the vanilla plant), Orchis (type genus) and many commonly cultivated plants like some Phalaenopsis or Cattleya. Moreover, since the introduction of tropical species in the 19th century, horticulturists have more than 100,000 hybrids and cultivars. Distribution Orchidaceae are cosmopolitan, occurring in almost every habitat apart from deserts and glaciers. The great majority are to be found in the tropics, mostly Asia, South America and Central America. They are found above the Arctic Circle, in southern Patagonia and even on Macquarie Island, close to Antarctica. The following list gives a rough overview of their distribution: tropical America: 250 to 270 genera tropical Asia: 260 to 300 genera tropical Africa: 230 to 270 genera Oceania: 50 to 70 genera Europe and temperate Asia: 40 to 60 genera North America: 20 to 25 genera Taxonomy This family is totally recognised, and the APG II system of 2003 places it in the order Asparagales. The taxonomy of this family is in constant flux, as new studies continue to identify more classificatory elements. Five subfamilies are now recognised. The cladogram has been made according to the APG system: Ecology A majority of orchids are perennial epiphytes, which grow anchored to trees or shrubs in the tropics and subtropics. Other species are lithophytes, growing on rocks or very rocky soil, or are terrestrial. Nearly all temperate orchids are terrestrial. Some orchids, like Neottia and Corallorhiza, lack chlorophyll and are unable to photosynthesize. Instead, these species obtain energy and nutrients by parasitising soil fungi through the formation of orchid mycorrhizas. The fungi involved include those that form ectomycorrhizas with trees and other woody plants, parasites such as Armillaria, and saprotrophs. Leake JR. 2005. Plants parasitic on fungi: unearthing the fungi in myco-heterotrophs and debunking the ‘saprophytic’ plant myth. Mycologist 19: 113–122. (abstract)). These orchids are known as myco-heterotrophs, but were formerly (incorrectly) described as saprophytes due to the belief that they gained their nutrition by breaking down organic matter. While only a few species are achlorophyllous holoparasites, all orchids are myco-heterotrophic during germination and seedling growth and even photosynthetic adult plants may continue to obtain carbon from their mycorrhizal fungi. Description Orchids are easily distinguished, as they share some very evident apomorphies. Among these: bilaterally symmetric (zygomorphic), many resupinate, one petal (labellum) is always highly modified, stamens and carpels are fused, and the seeds are extremely small. Leaves Like most monocots, orchids generally have simple leaves with parallel veins, although some Vanilloideae have a reticulate venation. They may be ovate, lanceolate, or orbiculate and very variable in size. Their characteristics are often diagnostic. They are normally alternate on the stem, often plicate, and have no stipules. Orchid leaves often have siliceous bodies called stegmata in the vascular bundle sheaths (not present in the Orchidoideae) and are fibrous. The structure of the leaves corresponds to the specific habitat of the plant. Species that typically bask in sunlight, or grow on sites which can be occasionally very dry, have thick, leathery leaves and the laminas are covered by a waxy cuticle to retain their necessary water supply. Shade species, on the other hand, have long, thin leaves. The leaves of most orchids are perennial, that is they live for several years, while others, especially those with plicate leaves, shed them annually and develop new leaves together with new pseudobulbs, as in Catasetum. The leaves of some orchids are considered ornamental. The leaves of the Macodes sanderiana, a semiterrestrial or lithophyte, show a sparkling silver and gold veining on a light green background. The cordate leaves of Psychopsiella limminghei are light brownish green with maroon-puce markings, created by flower pigments. The attractive mottle of the leaves of Lady's Slippers from tropical and subtropical Asia, (Paphiopedilum) is caused by uneven distribution of chlorophyll. Also Phalaenopsis schilleriana is a pastel pink orchid with leaves spotted dark green and light green. The Jewel Orchid (Ludisia discolor) is grown more for its colorful leaves than its fairly inconspicuous white flowers. Some orchids, as Dendrophylax lindenii (Ghost Orchid), Aphyllorchis and Taeniophyllum depend on their green roots for photosynthesis and lack normally developed leaves, as do all of the heterotrophic species. Stem and roots All orchids are perennial herbs and lack any permanent woody structure. Orchids can grow according to two patterns: Monopodial: The stems grows from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year and the stem grows longer accordingly. The stem of orchids with a monopodial growth can reach several metres in length, as in Vanda and Vanilla. Sympodial: The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots which grow to a certain size, bloom and then stop growing, to be then replaced. Sympodial orchids grow laterally rather than vertically, following the surface of their support. The growth continues by development of new leads, with their own leaves and roots, sprouting from or next to those of the previous year, as in Cattleya. While a new lead is developing, the rhizome may start its growth again from a so-called 'eye', an undeveloped bud, thereby branching. Orchis lactea showing the two tubers Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers. The root caps of terrestrials are smooth and white. Some sympodial terrestrials, such as Orchis and Ophrys, have two subterranean tuberous roots. One is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops. In warm and humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs. Epiphytic orchids have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis called velamen has the function to absorb humidity. It is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. The cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support. Nutrients mainly come from animal droppings and other organic detritus on their supporting surface. The pseudobulb of Prosthechea fragrans The base of the stem of sympodial epiphytes, or in some species essentially the entire stem, may be thickened to form what is called a pseudobulb that contains nutrients and water for drier periods. The pseudobulb has a smooth surface with lengthwise grooves and can have different shapes, often conical or oblong. Its size is very variable; in some small species of Bulbophyllum it is no longer than two millimeters, while in the largest orchid in the world, Grammatophyllum speciosum (giant orchid), it can reach three meters. Some Dendrobium have long, canelike pseudobulbs with short, rounded leaves over the whole length, some other orchids have hidden or extremely small pseudobulbs, completely included inside the leaves. With ageing the pseudobulb sheds its leaves and becomes dormant. At this stage it is often called a backbulb. A pseudobulb then takes over, exploiting the last reserves accumulated in the backbulb, which eventually dies off too. A pseudobulb typically lives for about five years. Flower Dactylorhiza sambucina, Orchidoideae for reference Orchidaceae are well known for the many structural variations in their flowers. Some orchids have single flowers but most have a racemose inflorescence, sometimes with a large number of flowers. The flowering stem can be basal, that is produced from the base of the tuber, like in Cymbidium, apical, meaning it grows from the apex of the main stem, like in Cattleya, or axillary, from the leaf axil, as in Vanda. As an apomorphy of the clade, orchid flowers are primitively zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical), although in some genera like Mormodes, Ludisia, Macodes this kind of symmetry may be difficult to notice. The orchid flower, like most flowers of monocots has two whorls of sterile elements. The outer whorl has three sepals and the inner whorl has three petals. The sepals are usually very similar to the petals (and thus called tepals, 1), but may be completely distinct. The upper medial petal, called the labellum or lip (6),, is always modified and enlarged. The inferior ovary (7) or the pedicel usually rotates 180 degrees, so that the labellum, goes on the lower part of the flower, thus becoming suitable to form a platform for pollinators. This characteristic, called resupination occurs primitively in the family and is considered apomorphic (the torsion of the ovary is very evident from the picture). Some orchids have secondarily lost this resupination, e. g. Zygopetalum and Epidendrum secundum. The normal form of the sepals can be found in Cattleya, where they form a triangle. In Paphiopedilum (Venus slippers) the lower two sepals are fused together into a synsepal, while the lip has taken the form of a slipper. In Masdevallia all the sepals are fused. Orchid flowers with abnormal numbers of petals or lips are called peloric. Peloria is a genetic trait, but its expression is environmentally influenced and may appear random. Longitudinal section of a flower of Vanilla planifolia Orchid flowers primitively had three stamens, but this situation is now limited to the genus Neuwiedia. Apostasia and the Cypripedioideae have two stamens, the central one being sterile and reduced to a staminode. All of the other orchids, the clade called Monandria, retain only the central stamen, the others being reduced to staminodes (4). The filaments of the stamens are always adnate (fused) to the style to form cylindrical structure called the gynostemium or column (2). In the primitive Apostasioideae this fusion is only partial, in the Vanilloideae it is more deep, while in Orchidoideae and Epidendroideae it is total. The stigma (9) is very asymmetrical as all of its lobes are bent towards the centre of the flower and lay on the bottom of the column. Pollen is released as single grains, like in most other plants, in the Apostasioideae, Cypripedioideae and Vanilloideae. In the other subfamilies, that comprise the great majority of orchids, the anther (3), carries and two pollinia. A pollinium is a waxy mass of pollen grains held together by the glue-like alkaloid viscin, containing both cellulosic stands and mucopolysaccharides. Each pollinium is connected to a filament which can take the form of a caudicle, like in Dactylorhiza or Habenaria or a stipe, like in Vanda. Caudicles or stipes hold the pollinia to the viscidium, a sticky pad which sticks the pollinia to the body of pollinators. At the upper edge of the stigma of single-anthered orchids, in front of the anther cap, there is the rostellum (5), a slender extension involved in the complex pollination mechanism. As aforementioned, the ovary is always inferior (located behind the flower). It is three-carpelate and one or, more rarely, three-partitioned, with parietal placentation (axile in the Apostasioideae). Pollination Orchids have developed highly specialized pollination systems and thus the chances of being pollinated are often scarce. This is why orchid flowers usually remain receptive for very long periods and why most orchids deliver pollen in a single mass; each time pollination succeeds thousands of ovules can be fertilized. Pollinators are often visually attracted by the shape and colours of the labellum. The flowers may produce attractive odours. Although absent in most species, nectar may be produced in a spur (8) of the labellum, on the point of the sepals or in the septa of the ovary, the most typical position amongst the Asparagales. In orchids that produce pollinia, pollination happens as some variant of the following. When the pollinator enters into the flower, it touches a viscidium, which promptly sticks to its body, generally on the head or abdomen. While leaving the flower, it pulls the pollinium out of the anther, as it is connected to the viscidium by the caudicle or stipe. The caudicle then bends and the pollinium is moved forwards and downwards. When the pollinator enters another flower of the same species, the pollinium has taken such position that it will stick to the stigma of the second flower, just below the rostellum, pollinating it. The possessors of orchids may be able to reproduce the process with a pencil, small paintbrush, or other similar device. Ophrys apifera is about to self-pollinate Some orchids mainly or totally rely on self-pollination, especially in colder regions where pollinators are particularly rare. The caudicles may dry up if the flower hasn't been visited by any pollinator and the pollina then fall directly on the stigma. Otherwise the anther may rotate and then enter the stigma cavity of the flower (as in Holcoglossum amesianum). The labellum of the Cypripedioideae is poke-shaped and has the function to trap visiting insects. The only exit leads to the anthers that deposit pollen on the visitor. In some extremely specialized orchids, like the Eurasian genus Ophrys, the labellum is adapted to have a colour, shape and odour which attracts male insects via mimicry of a receptive female. Pollination happens as the insect attempts to mate with flowers. Many neotropical orchids are pollinated by male orchid bees, which visit the flowers to gather volatile chemicals they require to synthesize pheromonal attractants. Each type of orchid places the pollinia on a different body part of a different species of bee, so as to enforce proper cross-pollination. An underground orchid in Australia, Rhizanthella slateri, never sees the light of day and depends on ants and other terrestrial insects to pollinate it. Catasetum, a genus discussed briefly by Darwin actually launches its viscid pollinia with explosive force when an insect touches a seta, knocking the pollinator off the flower. After pollination the sepals and petals fade and wilt, but they usually remain attached to the ovary. Asexual reproduction Some species, as some Phalaenopsis, Dendrobium and Vanda, produce offshoots or plantlets formed from one of the nodes along the stem, through the accumulation of growth hormones at that point. These shoots are known as keiki. Fruits and seeds Cross-section of an orchid capsule, the longitudinal slits The ovary typically develops into a capsule that is dehiscent by 3 or 6 longitudinal slits, while remaining closed at both ends. The ripening of a capsule can take 2 to 18 months. The seeds are generally almost microscopic and very numerous, in some species over a million per capsule. After ripening they blow off like dust particles or spores. They lack endosperm and must enter symbiotic relationship with various mycorrhizal basidiomyceteous fungi that provide them the necessary nutrients to germinate, so that all orchid species are mycoheterotrophic during germination and reliant upon fungi to complete their lifecycle. As the chance for a seed to meet a fitting fungus is very small, only a minute fraction of all the seeds released grow into an adult plant. In cultivation, germination typically takes weeks, while there is a report of one paphiopedilum that took fifteen years. Horticultural techniques have been devised for germinating seeds on a nutrient-containing gel, eliminating the requirement of the fungus for germination, greatly aiding the propagation of ornamental orchids. The main component for the sowing of orchids in artificial conditions is the agar agar. The substance is put together with some type of carbohydrate (actually, some kind of glucose) which provides qualitative organic feed. Such substance may be banana, pineapple, peach or even tomato puree or coconut milk. After the cooking of the agar agar (it has to be cooked in sterile conditions) the mix is poured into test tubes or jars where the substance begins to jelly. The seeds have to be put in the dish above boiling water, in the steam because that secures sterile conditions. The test tubes are put diagonally after that. Evolution A study in the scientific journal Nature has hypothesized that the origin of orchids goes back much longer than originally expected. An extinct species of stingless bee, Proplebeia dominicana, was found trapped in Miocene amber about 15-20 million years ago. The bee was carrying pollen of a previously unknown orchid taxon, Meliorchis caribea, on its wings. This find is the first evidence of fossilised orchids to date. The extinct orchid M. caribea has been placed within the extant tribe Cranichideae, subtribe Goodyerinae (subfamily Orchidoideae). This indicates that orchids may have an ancient origin and have arisen 76 to 84 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous. In other words, they may have co-existed with dinosaurs. It shows also that at that time insects were active pollinators of orchids. According to M.W. Chase et al. (2001) the overall biogeography and phylogenetic patterns of Orchidaceae show that they are even older and may go back roughly 100 million years The origin and biogeography of Orchidaceae .In Pridgeon , A.M. , Cribb, PJ ., Chase,MW, and Rasmussen , F.eds .Genera orchidacearum .Vol. 2 . pp. 1-5 Oxford University Press , Oxford Using the molecular clock method, it was possible to determine the age of the major branches of the orchid family. This also confirmed that the subfamily Vanilloideae is a branch at the basal dichotomy of the monandrous orchids, and must have evolved very early in the evolution of the family. Since this genus occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, from tropical America to tropical Asia, New Guinea and West Africa, and the continents began to split about 100 million years ago, significant biotic exchange must have occurred after this split (since the age of Vanilla is estimated at 60 to 70 million years). Uses Vanilla fruits drying One orchid genus, Vanilla, is commercially important, used as a foodstuff flavouring. The underground tubers of terrestrial orchids (mainly Orchis mascula (Early Purple Orchid)) are ground to a powder and used for cooking, such as in the hot beverage salep or the so-called "fox-testicle ice cream" salepi dondurma. The scent of orchids is frequently analysed by perfumists (using Gas-liquid chromatography) to identify potential fragrance chemicals. The other important use of orchids is their cultivation for the enjoyment of the flowers. Most cultivated orchids are tropical or subtropical, but quite a few which grow in colder climates can be found on the market. Temperate species available at nurseries include Ophrys apifera (Bee Orchid), Gymnadenia conopsea (Fragrant Orchid), Anacamptis pyramidalis (Pyramidal Orchid) and Dactylorhiza fuchsii (Common Spotted Orchid). Orchids of all types have also often been sought by collectors of both species and hybrids. As such many hundreds of societies and clubs worldwide have been established. These can be small local clubs like Sutherland Shire Orchid Society or larger national organisations like American Orchid Society. Both serve to encourage cultivation and collection of orchids, but some go further by concentrating on conservation or research. The term botanical orchid loosely denotes those small flowered tropical orchids belonging to several genera (not necessarily related to each other) that don't fit into the "Florist" orchid category. A few of these genera contain enormous numbers of species. Some, such as Pleurothallis and Bulbophyllum, contain approximately 1700 and 2000 species, respectively, and are often extremely vegetatively diverse. The primary use of the term is among orchid hobbyists wishing to describe unusual species they grow, though it is also used to distinguish naturally occurring orchid species from horticulturally created hybrids. Cultivated Phalaenopsis lindenii A few of the most common orchids found in "casual" culture are: Anguloa Cattleya Cymbidium Laelia Dendrobium Phalaenopsis Paphiopedilum Oncidium Vanda Epidendrum Brassia Bulbophyllum Catasetum Sophronitis Miltonia Phaius The National Orchid Garden in the Singapore Botanic Gardens is considered by some to be among the finest collections of orchids in cultivation open to the public. Orchids, like tulips, have become a major market throughout the world. Buyers now bid hundreds of dollars on new hybrids or improved ones. Because of their apparent ease in hybridization, they are now becoming one of the most popular cut-flowers on the market. Genera The following are amongst the most notable genera of the orchid family: Aa Abdominea Acampe Acanthephippium Aceratorchis Acianthus Acineta Acrorchis Ada Aerangis Aeranthes Aerides Aganisia Agrostophyllum Amitostigma Anacamptis Ancistrochilus Angraecum Anguloa Ansellia Aorchis Aplectrum Arethusa Armodorum Ascocenda Ascocentrum Ascoglossum Australorchis Auxopus Baptistonia Barbrodia Barkeria Barlia Bartholina Beloglottis Biermannia Bletilla Brassavola Brassia Bulbophyllum Calypso Catasetum Cattleya Cirrhopetalum Cleisostoma Clowesia Coelogyne Coryanthes Cymbidium Cyrtopodium Cypripedium Dactylorhiza Dendrobium Disa Dracula Encyclia Epidendrum Epipactis Eria Eulophia Gongora Goodyera Grammatophyllum Gymnadenia Habenaria Herschelia Laelia Lepanthes Liparis Ludisia Lycaste Masdevallia Maxillaria Meliorchis Mexipedium Miltonia Mormodes Odontoglossum Oeceoclades Oncidium Ophrys Orchis Paphiopedilum Paraphalaenopsis Peristeria Phaius Phalaenopsis Pholidota Phragmipedium Platanthera Pleione Pleurothallis Promenaea Pterostylis Renanthera Renantherella Restrepia Restrepiella Rhynchostylis Roezliella Saccolabium Sarcochilus Satyrium Selenipedium Serapias Sophronitis Spiranthes Stanhopea Stelis Thrixspermum Trias Trichocentrum Trichoglottis Vanda Vanilla Zeuxine Zygopetalum Gallery See also Moyobamba, known as the 'City of Orchids', which has some 3,500 species of orchid native to the area The Orchid Thief, a non-fiction book written by Susan Orlean Adaptation., a movie based on the Susan Orlean book The Orchid Thief Nero Wolfe, a fictional detective and orchidophile Orchidelirium the Victorian era of flower madness in which collecting and discovering Orchid reached extraordinary levels. Footnotes References Arditti, J. 1992. Fundamentals of orchid biology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. ISBN 0471549061. Batygina, T. B., Bragina, E. A., and Vasilyeva, E. 2003. The reproductive system and germination in orchids. Acta Biol. Cracov. ser. Bot. 45: 21–34. Berg Pana, H. 2005. Handbuch der Orchideen-Namen. Dictionary of Orchid Names. Dizionario dei nomi delle orchidee. Ulmer, Stuttgart. Judd, Walter S., Christopher S. Campbell, Elizabeth A. Kellogg, Peter F. Stevens, Michael J. Donoghue: Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, Sinauer Associates Inc. 2007. ISBN 0878934073. Kreutz, C. A. J. 2004. Kompendium der Europaischen Orchideen. Catalogue of European Orchids. Kreutz Publishers, Landgraaf, Netherlands Ramírez, S., et al. Nature 448, 1042–1045 (2007). D. Lee Taylor and Thomas D. Bruns: Ectomycorrhizal mutualism by two nonphotosynthetic orchids; Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA; Vol. 94, pp. 4510–4515, April 1997 (on line). Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 7, May 2006 [and more or less continuously updated since]. Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, Schimper: Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen. 4. Auflage, Gustav Fischer, Jena 1900, p. 459. External links Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) International Orchid Register (with search capability) Orchids of Brazil Orchidaceae of Chile, by Chileflora The North of England Orchid Society founded in 1897 and possibly the oldest orchid society in the World World Orchid Iconography at the Swiss Orchid Foundation Homepage | Orchidaceae |@lemmatized orchidaceae:7 orchid:103 family:9 large:5 flowering:2 plant:13 angiospermae:1 number:8 fact:1 file:1 royal:3 botanic:2 garden:4 kew:2 name:2 derive:1 genus:21 orchis:6 botanical:2 list:2 nearly:2 accepted:1 specie:32 exact:1 unknown:2 perhaps:1 many:7 classification:1 age:4 dna:1 data:1 taxonomic:2 dispute:1 equal:1 four:1 time:3 mammal:1 twice:1 bird:1 also:8 encompass:1 seed:8 exaggeration:1 effect:1 conservation:2 new:9 add:2 year:11 bulbophyllum:5 epidendrum:4 dendrobium:5 pleurothallis:3 include:4 vanilla:8 type:4 commonly:1 cultivate:2 like:16 phalaenopsis:6 cattleya:6 moreover:1 since:4 introduction:1 tropical:10 century:1 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6,634 | Inedia | Inedia is the alleged ability to live without food, which has been dismissed by the scientific community. Breatharianism is a related concept, in which believers claim food and possibly water are not necessary, and that humans can be sustained solely by prana (the vital life force in Hinduism), or according to some, by the energy in sunlight. The terms breatharianism or inedia may also refer to this philosophy practiced as a lifestyle in place of the usual diet. While it is often seen as an esoteric practice performed by eastern ascetics, recently some groups and individuals have promoted the practice as an option for anybody, once the proper techniques for accessing it are made known (sometimes only after paying enormous fees, e.g. in the case of the "Breatharian Institute of America") Wiley Brooks website: Initiation workshops. ). The word "inedia" simply means "fasting" in Latin, and was first used to describe a fast-based lifestyle within Catholic tradition, which holds that certain saints were able to survive for extended periods of time without food or drink other than the Eucharist. Jasmuheen Jasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was probably the most famous advocate of breatharianism during the 1990s. She claimed "I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea. My body runs on a different kind of nourishment." Breatharianism at apologeticsindex.org Several interviewers found her house full of food, but she claimed the food was for her husband. In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program 60 Minutes for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods. Greve claimed that she failed because on the first day of the test she had been confined in a hotel room near a busy road, saying that the stress and pollution kept her from getting the nutrients she needed from the air. "I asked for fresh air. Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air. I couldn’t even breathe", she said. On the third day the test moved to a mountainside retreat where she could get plenty of fresh air and live happily. After Greve had fasted for four days, Dr. Beres Wenck, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test. According to the doctor, Greve’s pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, she was "quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%." Towards the end of the test, she said, "Her pulse is about double what it was when she started. The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure. 60 Minutes would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue. She should stop now." The test was stopped. Dr. Wink said, "Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health." She challenged the results of the program, saying, "Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem." Though she claims thousands of followers, mostly in Germany, there is no evidence that any have lived for long periods of time without any food at all. Jasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 ("presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle"). She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for Living on Light. Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and "more recent channelled material" of the Count of St Germain. She claims that her DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to "absorb more hydrogen". When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance. Deaths The well-publicized deaths of 49-year-old Australian-born Scotland resident Verity Linn, 31-year-old Munich kindergarten teacher Timo Degen, and 53-year-old Melbourne resident Lani Marcia Roslyn Morris, while attempting to enter the breatharian "diet", have drawn further criticism of the idea. Jim Vadim Pesnak, 63, and his wife Eugenia, 60, went to jail for three years on charges of manslaughter for their involvement in the death of Morris. Verity Lynn, the Scottish woman who inadvertently killed herself by choosing the breatharian "diet" was a nominee for the 1999 Darwin Awards. She "took to the highlands", the article says, "with only a tent and her grit and determination." She died of hypothermia and dehydration, aggravated by lack of food. Jasmuheen claimed that her death was brought on by a psycho-spiritual problem, rather than a physiological one. Jasmuheen has denied any involvement with the three deaths and claims she cannot be held responsible for the actions of her followers. In reference to the death of Lani Morris, she said that perhaps Morris was "not coming from a place of integrity and did not have the right motivation". Wiley Brooks Wiley Brooks is a purported breatharian, and founder of the "Breatharian Institute of America". He was first introduced to the public in 1980, when he appeared on the TV show That's Incredible!. Wiley has stopped teaching in recent years, so he can "devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely." Wiley Brooks website through Internet Archive Wiley Brooks believes that he has found "four major deterrents" which prevented him from living without food: "people pollution", "food pollution", "air pollution" and "electro pollution". In 1983 he was allegedly observed leaving a Santa Cruz 7-Eleven with a Slurpee, hot dog and Twinkies. He told Colors magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance. sonoma papers On his website, Brooks explains that his future followers must first prepare by combining the junk food diet with the meditative incantation of five magic "fifth-dimensional" words which appear on his website. Five magic words download (MS Word document) Wiley Brooks website: Five magic words In the "Question and Answer" section of his website, Brooks explains that the "Double Quarter-Pounder with Cheese" meal from McDonald's possesses a special "base frequency" and that he thus recommends it as occasional food for beginning breatharians. 5 magic words Q&A He then goes on to reveal that the secret of Diet Coke is "liquid light". Prospective disciples are asked after some time on this junk food/magic word preparation to revisit his website in order to test if they can feel the magic. He further mentions that those interested can call him on his fifth-dimensional phone number in order to get the correct pronunciation of the five magic words. In case the line is busy, prospective recruits are asked to meditate on the five magic words for a few minutes, and then try calling again; he does not explain how anyone can meditate with words they cannot yet pronounce. Brooks's "institute", in the past, charged varying fees to prospective clients who wished to learn how to live without food, which ranged from US$15 million to $25 million. Initiation workshops from the Internet Archive These charges have historically been presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires, Fees via Internet archive Initiation workshops through Internet Archive. Retrieved January 2008 New lower fees have been set to $10,000 with an initial deposit of $2,000. Hira Ratan Manek Hira Ratan Manek (born September 12, 1937) claims that since June 18, 1995, he has lived exclusively on water, and occasional tea, coffee, and buttermilk. He says sunlight is the key to his health, citing the Jainist Tirthankara Mahavira, ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Native Americans as his inspiration. According to his website, three extended periods of his fasting have been observed under control of scientific and medical teams: the first lasting 211 days in 1995-96 in Calicut, India, under the direction of Dr C. K. Ramachandran. During that period he is reported to have lost 41 kg. The second study lasted 411 days in 2000-2001 in Ahmedabad, India, under the direction of a 21 member team of medical doctors and scientists led by Dr Sudhir Shah and Dr K. K. Shah, a past President of the Indian Medical Association and current Chairman of the Jainist Doctors' Federation. The latter group aims to "Promote scientific research and medical education based on principles of Jainism" . Dr K. K. Shah said "Fasting is a method of curing the meditation of mind and body which has been proved by great jain monks, sanyasis and munis of ancient times. There is a need to propagate these methods during this age of increasing diseases of the body and mind due to overconsumptions and increasing with fasting would help maintain perfection.". Dr Sudhir Shah was also involved in the study of Prahlad Jani. The paper published by Dr Sudhir Shah makes it clear that dozens of people had access to Hira Ratan Manek during the study and he went on at least one excursion: "Most surprisingly, he had himself climbed the famous Shatrunjay mountain (Palitana hill) on 4.4.01, on 401st day of his legendary fasting along with 500 fellowmen without anybody’s help, within 1.5 Hrs. only". The paper reports that the subject lost 19 kg of weight during the study period. Neither the experiment, as described in the paper, nor the paper itself have been validated by any well-known Western scientific or medical journal. The third study lasted 130 days in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at Thomas Jefferson University and the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of Dr. Andrew Newberg and Dr. George C. Brainard. Dr Sudhir Shah, who led the previous study, acted as an advisor and consultant to the USA team. However, Dr. Andrew Newberg said that Hira stayed at the University of Pennsylvania only for brain scans on studies of meditation, not his ability to fast indefinitely. Newberg denied ever undertaking the 130-day study. Prahlad Jani Prahlad Jani, a sadhu, spent ten days under strict observation by physicians in Ahmedabad, India, in 2003. The study was led by Dr Sudhir Shah, the same doctor who led the study of Hira Ratan Manek. Reportedly, during the observation, he was given only 100 millilitres of water a day to use as mouthwash, which was collected and measured after he used it, to make sure he hadn't consumed any. Throughout the observation, he passed no urine or stool, but doctors say urine appeared to form in the bladder, only to be reabsorbed. However, despite Jani's claim to have gone without food for decades, Jani was not engaged in strenuous exercise during the ten-day trial, and longer trials were not recorded under similarly strict observation. Further, his weight did drop slightly during the 10 days, casting some doubt on his claim to go indefinitely without food. Jani claims a goddess sustains him through amrit that filters down through a hole in his palate. The Indian Rationalists label him a "village fraud". On June 26, 2006, The Discovery Channel aired a documentary called "The Boy with Divine Powers" featuring a 5 minute interview with Prahlad Jani and Dr. Sudhir Shah. Religious traditions of inedia Roman Catholicism Roman Catholicism also has traditions of inedia, in which saints, as well as Jesus, are claimed to have been able to go for months or years without any food (or with no food but Communion). Such saints include: Alpais of Cudot Helen Enselmini Elisabeth the Good Lydwina of Schiedam Mary Ann de Paredes Marthe Robin (allegedly 53 years) Nicholas of Flue (According to legend, he survived for nineteen years with no food except for the Eucharist.) Therese Neumann Alexandrina Maria da Costa However, it must be noted that, in these cases, such acts can not be compared to the breatharian diet. Likewise, the survival of the saints could be considered to be miracles. As a result, such reports are religious in nature, not dietary. The church has not recommended such acts for common people. Hinduism Paramahansa Yogananda's Autobiography of a Yogi details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Giri Bala and Therese Neumann. Criticism and skepticism Mainstream scientific theories about nutrition and generally accepted common sense both indicate that a person who follows this practice even in the short term would die of starvation or dehydration. Nutritionists say that carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol are the body's only sources of energy. How to Eat Healthy. WebMD Test Your Weight Loss Wisdom. MedicineNet Macronutrients: the Importance of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat Even when the body is fasting, it burns carbohydrates, fats, and proteins for energy, and they come from the body's own reserves. A breatharian would first burn glycogen (a carbohydrate) and then body fat and muscle (a source of protein). What happens to your body as a breatharian? Howstuffworks Breatharians have seldom submitted themselves to medical testing, and currently there is no evidence to support their claims. In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died. Prominent skeptic James Randi has this to say about breatharianism: There are some claims that are far too implausible to warrant any serious examination, such as the "Breatharian" claims in which the applicant states that he can survive without food or water. Science conclusively tells us all we need to know about such matters, and the James Randi Educational Foundation feels no obligation to engage applicants in such delusions. randi.org See also Fasting Fasting girls Sungazing Johnny Lovewisdom Anorexia mirabilis Ram Bahadur Bomjon: Feats of Inedia References External links A list of historical and contemporary breatharians Breatharianism (Speculations) Case studies The German Michael Werner Fasting fakir flummoxes physicians — BBC article about Prahlad Jani Prahlad Jani — Ten Day Study Medical Case Summary BBC story: Guru condemned as 'dangerous' BBC story: Woman 'starved herself to death' Scientist skips food, 'survives" by solar energy — article about Dr. Michael Werner, who claims to have not eaten anything in four years Sunlight, water are the only sustenance he needs — article about Hira Ratan Manek Dr. Sudhir Shah's synopsis of Hira Ratan Manek's 411 day supervised fast - episode of 60 Minutes (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment) Proponent sites Jasmuheen.com — Jasmuheen's organization Solar Healing Center — Hira Ratan Manek's official website Breatharian.info inedia.info Criticism Skeptic's Dictionary article on Breatharianism Breatharian information from the Rick A. 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6,635 | Hearse | A modern day hearse; this one was used to transport the body of former US President Ronald Reagan during his state funeral A hearse is a funeral vehicle, a conveyance for the casket from e.g. a church to a cemetery, a similar burial site, or a crematorium. In the funeral trade, they are often called funeral coaches. History Hearses were originally horse-drawn, but silent electric motorised examples that were used in Paris were reported in the pages of Scientific American May 1907 and petrol-driven hearses began to be produced from 1909 in the United States. Motorised hearses became more widely accepted in the 1920s. The vast majority of hearses since then have been based on larger, more powerful car chassis, generally retaining the front end up to and possibly including the front doors but with custom bodywork to the rear to contain the coffin. Some early hearses also served as ambulances. A few cities experimented with funeral trolley cars and/or subway cars to carry both the casket and mourners to cemeteries, but these were not popular. North America and Europe Normally more luxurious brands of car are used as a base; the vast majority of hearses in the United States and Canada are Cadillacs and Lincolns. In Europe, Mercedes-Benz, Jaguar, Opel, Ford and Volvo are common contemporary bases, and in the past, Daimler and even Rolls-Royce limousines were converted, though their cost is generally considered prohibitive. Cadillac produced what it termed a "commercial chassis". This was a strengthened version of the long-wheelbase Fleetwood limousine frame to carry the extra weight of bodywork, rear deck and cargo. Designed for professional car use, the rear of the Cadillac commercial chassis was considerably lower than the passenger car frame, thereby lowering the rear deck height as well for ease of loading and unloading. They were shipped as incomplete cars to coachbuilders for final assembly. A commercial chassis Cadillac was little more than a complete rolling chassis, front end sheet metal with lighting and trim, dashboard and controls. Rear quarter panels and sometimes the front door shells were shipped with the chassis for use in the finished coachwork. Today, most hearses are made from converted sedans on stretched wheelbases. The fleet division of Ford Motor Company sells a Lincoln Town Car with a special "hearse package" strictly to coachbuilders. Shipped without rear seat, rear interior trim, rear window or decklid, the hearse package also features a heavy-duty suspension, brakes, charging system and tires and was once offered on a modified Ford Expedition SUV chassis with the Triton V10 truck engine. Hearses and other funeral service vehicles are often equipped with light bars and other flashing lights similar to those found in emergency vehicles in order to increase the visibility of the vehicle while in processions. Since the working life of a hearse is generally one of light duty and short, sedate drives, hearses remain serviceable for a long time; hearses 30 years old or more may still be in service, although some funeral homes replace them at least once a decade. , a new hearse in the USA usually costs in the range of $40,000 to $65,000. Horse-drawn hearse, Manchester, UK, 2007 Two styles of hearse bodywork are common. The older style is the limousine style; these have narrow pillars and lots of glass. These are more popular in the United Kingdom, among others. More popular in the United States is the landau style, with a heavily-padded leather or (later) vinyl roof, and long blind rear quarters, similarly covered, and decorated with large metal S-shaped bars designed to resemble those used to lower the tops on some horse-drawn coaches. It is common practice in the USA for the windows to be curtained, while in the UK the windows are normally left unobscured. Hearses resemble station wagons strictly because of the shape of the rear ends of conventional ones. Until the late 1970s, it was common for hearses in the USA to be combination coaches which also could serve in the ambulance role; these were common in rural areas. Car-based ambulances and combination coaches were unable to meet stricter Federal specifications for such vehicles and were discontinued after 1979. Due to the costs of owning an expensive custom vehicle that sits idle "80 to 90 percent of the week" , individual funeral homes reduce costs by renting or utilizing a shared motor pool. Japan A Buddhist-style Japanese hearse In Japan, hearses can come in two styles: "Foreign" style, which is similar in build and style to an American hearse, or a "Japanese" style, in which the rear area of the vehicle is modified to resemble a small, ornate Buddhist temple. This generally requires the rear of the vehicle to be extensively altered; commonly, the rear roof is cut away from the front windows back and all interior parts are removed from the rear as well. The ornate Buddhist-style rear area, generally constructed of wood and in which the casket or urn is placed, is built on top of this empty cavity and most often is wider than the base of the vehicle, so that it sticks out on the sides, over the rear body panels. Popular bases for these are not limited to large sedans, but also minivans and even pickup trucks by companies like Nissan and Toyota. There are regional differences of ornaments. Nagoya style decorates not only the upper half of the body, but the lower half as well. Kansai style has a relatively modest decorations unpainted . Kanazawa style is known for having a red body (other styles mostly have black bodies) with gilded ornaments. Tokyo style, found anywhere else in Japan, features painted/gilded ornaments on the upper half of the body, like in a photograph on right. "Foreign" style hearses are mostly similar in appearance to their US counterparts, although their exterior dimensions and interiors reflect the Japanese preference for smaller, less ornate caskets (this in light of the national preference for cremation). This means that, in contrast to American hearses, the rear quarter panels require less, and sometimes no, alteration. These are generally built from station wagons such as the Nissan Stagea, or from executive sedans such as the Toyota Celsior (Lexus LS430 in the US) and Nissan Cima (Infiniti Q45 in the US). Interestingly, American market vehicles such as the Lincoln Town Car and Cadillac DeVille, which are otherwise fairly uncommon in Japan, are often converted to hearses in both styles. Others A Motorcycle-style hearse In recent times, the Motorcycle plus side-hearse has become more popular. This type of hearse is a motorcycle with a special side-vehicle built to carry a casket or an urn. These hearses are often used during the funeral of motorcycle enthusiasts. Perhaps owing to the morbid nature of the hearse, its luxurious accommodations for the driver, or both, the hearse has a number of enthusiasts who own and drive retired hearses. There are several hearse clubs. Amongst enthusiasts, the 1959 Cadillac Miller Meteor hearse is considered one of the most desirable due to its especially ornate styling and appearances in feature films, notably the Ecto-1 in the Ghostbusters. The famed Harold and Maude car was a 1959 Cadillac Superior hearse. People who make hearses include; Coleman Milne, Binz, Duffy and Fearghas Quinn of Ireland. They are based on Mercedes and GM Vauxhall/Opel. Celebrity hearse enthusiasts include rock singer Neil Young and two-time NASCAR Nextel Cup Champion Tony Stewart, who had his hearse customised for a television show. Sam the Sham of the Pharaohs (known for Wooly Bully and Lil' Red Riding Hood) was known for transporting all his equipment in a 1952 Packard hearse. Images See also Car body style First Call vehicle Flower car The Hearse - A 1980 horror film External links The Dallas Trocars Funeral Car Club - Regional club comprised of privately owned hearses and funeral coaches The National Hearse and Ambulance Association - Uniting hearse and ambulance owners across the world The Professional Car Society hearses, flower cars, car-based ambulances, limousines Australian and other funeral cars Website showing hearses from around the world and their different styles Last Ride Hearse Society Hearses, ambulances, limos etc Yorkshire based but worldwide club Grim Rides, a hearse enthusiasts' website Nilsson Special Vehicles The Classic Hearse Register UK based club for owners and enthusiasts of funeral vehicles. The Corpse Drivers Belgium and France based club for owners and enthusiasts of funeral vehicles. Leichenwagenforum Germany based club for owners and enthusiasts of funeral vehicles. Packards / Imperials Page Site specializing in Henney-Packard funeral vehicles. | Hearse |@lemmatized modern:1 day:1 hearse:49 one:4 use:7 transport:2 body:7 former:1 u:4 president:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 state:4 funeral:16 vehicle:17 conveyance:1 casket:5 e:1 g:1 church:1 cemetery:2 similar:4 burial:1 site:2 crematorium:1 trade:1 often:5 call:2 coach:5 history:1 originally:1 horse:3 drawn:3 silent:1 electric:1 motorise:2 example:1 paris:1 report:1 page:2 scientific:1 american:4 may:2 petrol:1 driven:1 begin:1 produce:2 united:4 become:2 widely:1 accept:1 vast:2 majority:2 since:2 base:12 large:3 powerful:1 car:18 chassis:7 generally:6 retain:1 front:5 end:3 possibly:1 include:3 door:2 custom:2 bodywork:3 rear:17 contain:1 coffin:1 early:1 also:5 serve:2 ambulance:7 city:1 experiment:1 trolley:1 subway:1 carry:3 mourner:1 popular:5 north:1 america:1 europe:2 normally:2 luxurious:2 brand:1 canada:1 cadillacs:1 lincolns:1 mercedes:2 benz:1 jaguar:1 opel:2 ford:3 volvo:1 common:5 contemporary:1 past:1 daimler:1 even:2 roll:1 royce:1 limousine:4 convert:2 though:1 cost:4 consider:2 prohibitive:1 cadillac:6 term:1 commercial:3 strengthened:1 version:1 long:3 wheelbase:2 fleetwood:1 frame:2 extra:1 weight:1 deck:2 cargo:1 design:2 professional:2 considerably:1 low:2 passenger:1 thereby:1 lower:2 height:1 well:3 ease:1 load:1 unload:1 ship:3 incomplete:1 coachbuilder:2 final:1 assembly:1 little:1 complete:1 rolling:1 sheet:1 metal:2 lighting:1 trim:2 dashboard:1 control:1 quarter:3 panel:3 sometimes:2 shell:1 finished:1 coachwork:1 today:1 make:2 converted:1 sedan:3 stretched:1 fleet:1 division:1 motor:2 company:2 sell:1 lincoln:2 town:2 special:3 package:2 strictly:2 without:1 seat:1 interior:3 window:3 decklid:1 feature:3 heavy:1 duty:2 suspension:1 brake:1 charge:1 system:1 tire:1 offer:1 modified:1 expedition:1 suv:1 triton:1 truck:2 engine:1 service:2 equip:1 light:4 bar:2 flash:1 find:2 emergency:1 order:1 increase:1 visibility:1 procession:1 work:1 life:1 short:1 sedate:1 drive:2 remain:1 serviceable:1 time:3 hear:1 year:1 old:2 still:1 although:2 home:2 replace:1 least:1 decade:1 new:1 usa:3 usually:1 range:1 manchester:1 uk:3 two:3 style:20 narrow:1 pillar:1 lot:1 glass:1 kingdom:1 among:1 others:2 landau:1 heavily:1 pad:1 leather:1 later:1 vinyl:1 roof:2 blind:1 similarly:1 cover:1 decorate:2 shaped:1 resemble:3 top:2 practice:1 curtain:1 leave:1 unobscured:1 station:2 wagon:2 shape:1 conventional:1 late:1 combination:2 could:1 role:1 rural:1 area:3 unable:1 meet:1 strict:1 federal:1 specification:1 discontinue:1 due:2 expensive:1 sit:1 idle:1 percent:1 week:1 individual:1 reduce:1 rent:1 utilize:1 share:1 pool:1 japan:4 buddhist:3 japanese:3 come:1 foreign:2 build:4 modify:1 small:2 ornate:4 temple:1 require:2 extensively:1 alter:1 commonly:1 cut:1 away:1 windows:1 back:1 part:1 remove:1 construct:1 wood:1 urn:2 place:1 empty:1 cavity:1 wide:1 stick:1 side:3 limit:1 minivan:1 pickup:1 like:2 nissan:3 toyota:2 regional:2 difference:1 ornament:3 nagoya:1 upper:2 half:3 kansai:1 relatively:1 modest:1 decoration:1 unpainted:1 kanazawa:1 know:3 red:2 mostly:2 black:1 gilded:1 tokyo:1 anywhere:1 else:1 paint:1 gild:1 photograph:1 right:1 appearance:2 counterpart:1 exterior:1 dimension:1 reflect:1 preference:2 less:2 national:2 cremation:1 mean:1 contrast:1 alteration:1 stagea:1 executive:1 celsior:1 lexus:1 cima:1 infiniti:1 interestingly:1 market:1 deville:1 otherwise:1 fairly:1 uncommon:1 motorcycle:4 recent:1 plus:1 type:1 enthusiast:8 perhaps:1 owe:1 morbid:1 nature:1 accommodation:1 driver:2 number:1 retire:1 several:1 club:7 amongst:1 miller:1 meteor:1 desirable:1 especially:1 styling:1 film:2 notably:1 ecto:1 ghostbusters:1 famed:1 harold:1 maude:1 superior:1 people:1 coleman:1 milne:1 binz:1 duffy:1 fearghas:1 quinn:1 ireland:1 gm:1 vauxhall:1 celebrity:1 rock:1 singer:1 neil:1 young:1 nascar:1 nextel:1 cup:1 champion:1 tony:1 stewart:1 customise:1 television:1 show:2 sam:1 sham:1 pharaoh:1 wooly:1 bully:1 lil:1 rid:1 hood:1 equipment:1 packard:2 image:1 see:1 first:1 flower:2 horror:1 external:1 link:1 dallas:1 trocars:1 comprise:1 privately:1 association:1 uniting:1 owner:4 across:1 world:2 society:2 australian:1 website:2 around:1 different:1 last:1 ride:2 limos:1 etc:1 yorkshire:1 worldwide:1 grim:1 nilsson:1 classic:1 register:1 corpse:1 belgium:1 france:1 leichenwagenforum:1 germany:1 packards:1 imperial:1 specialize:1 henney:1 |@bigram ronald_reagan:1 horse_drawn:3 vast_majority:2 mercedes_benz:1 roll_royce:1 load_unload:1 ford_motor:1 pickup_truck:1 anywhere_else:1 harold_maude:1 nextel_cup:1 external_link:1 |
6,636 | Conversion_of_units | Conversion of units refers to conversion factors between different units of measurement for the same quantity. Techniques Rounding of results The process of making a conversion cannot produce a more precise result than the original quoted figure. Appropriate rounding of results is normally performed after conversion. (See significant figures). Tables of conversion factors This article gives lists of conversion factors for each of a number of physical quantities, which are listed in the index. For each physical quantity, a number of different units (some only of historical interest) are shown and expressed in terms of the corresponding unit. + Legend Symbol Definition ≡ exactly equal to ≈ approximately equal to indicates that digits repeat infinitely (e.g. corresponds to ) (H) of chiefly historical interest Length + LengthName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units metre (SI base unit) m ≡ Distance light travels in 1/299 792 458 of a second in vacuum = 1 m ångström Å ≡ 1 m = 0.1 nm astronomical unit AU ≈ Distance from Earth to Sun ≈ 149 597 871 464 m United States Naval Observatory. (2009). Selected Astronomical Constants, 2009. Accessed May 10, 2009 bohr, atomic unit of length a0 ≡ Bohr radius of hydrogen ≈ 5.291 772 085 9 ± 3.6 m "NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty."(2006). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Accessed 22 February 2008. barleycorn (H) ≡ ⅓ in (see note above about rounding) ≈ 0.008 m cable length (Imperial) ≡ 608 ft = 185.318 4 m cable length (International) ≡ 1/10 nmi = 185.2 m cable length (U.S.) ≡ 720 ft = 219.456 m chain (Gunter's; Surveyor's) ch ≡ 66 ft ≡ 4 rods Lide, D. (Ed.). (1990). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (71st ed). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Section 1. = 20.116 8 m cubit (H) ≡ Distance from fingers to elbow ≈ 18in ≈ 0.5 m ell (H) ell ≡ 45 in = 1.143 mfathom fm ≡ 6 ft = 1.828 8 m fermi fm ≡ 1 m = 1 m finger ≡ 7/8 in = 0.022 225 m finger (cloth) ≡ 4 ½ in = 0.114 3 m foot (Benoît)(H) ft (Ben) ≈ 0.304 799 735 m foot (Clarke's; Cape)(H) ft (Cla) ≈ 0.304 797 265 4 m foot (Indian)(H) ft Ind ≈ 0.304 799 514 m foot (International) ft ≡ ⅓ yd = 12 inches = 0.304 8 m foot (Sear's)(H) ft (Sear) ≈ 0.304 799 47 m foot (U.S. Survey) ft (US) ≡ 1 200/3 937 m National Bureau of Standards. (June 30, 1959). Refinement of values for the yard and the pound. Federal Register, viewed September 20, 2006 at National Geodetic Survey web site. ≈ 0.304 800 610 m french; charriere F ≡ ⅓ mm = 3.3 m furlong fur ≡ 10 chains = 660 ft = 220 yd = 201.168 m geographical mile (H) ≡ 6 082 ft = 1 853.793 6 m hand ≡ 4 in = 0.101 6 m inch in ≡ 1/36 yd = 1/12 ft = 0.025 4 m league (land) lea ≡ 3 US Statute miles National Institute of Standards and Technology General Tables of Units of Measurement = 4 828.032 m light-day ≡ 24 light-hours = 2.590 206 837 12 m light-hour ≡ 60 light-minutes = 1.079 252 848 8 m light-minute ≡ 60 light-seconds = 1.798 754 748 m light-second ≡ Distance light travels in one second in vacuum = 2.997 924 58 m light-year l.y. ≡ Distance light travels in vacuum in 365.25 days The International Astronomical Union and Astronomical Units = 9.460 730 472 580 8 m line ln ≡ 1/12 in Klein, Herbert Arthur. (1988). The Science of Measurement: a Historical Survey. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications 0-4862-5839-4. = 0.002 116 m link (Gunter's; Surveyor's) lnk ≡ 1/100 ch = 0.201 168 m link (Ramsden's; Engineer's) lnk ≡ 1 ft = 0.304 8 m mickey ≡ 1/200 in = 1.27 m micron µ ≡ 1 m mil; thou mil ≡ 1 in = 2.54 m mil (Sweden and Norway) mil ≡ 10 km = 10 000 m mile mi ≡ 1 760 yd = 5 280 ft = 80 chains = 1 609.344 m mile (U.S. Survey) mi ≡ 5 280 ft (US Survey feet) = 5 280 × 1 200/3 937 m ≈ 1 609.347 219 m nail (cloth) ≡ 2 ¼ in = 0.057 15 m nautical league NL; nl ≡ 3 nmi = 5 556 m nautical mile(international) NM; nmi ≡ 1 852 m International System of Units, 8th ed. (2006), Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Section 4.1 Table 8. = 1 852 m nautical mile (Admiralty) NM (Adm); nmi (Adm) ≡ 6 080 ft ≡ 1 853.184 m pace ≡ 2.5 ft = 0.762 m palm ≡ 3 in = 0.076 2 m parsec pc Distance of star with parallax shift of one arc second from a base of one astronomical unit ≈ 3.085 677 82 ± 6 m P. Kenneth Seidelmann, Ed. (1992). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. p. 716 and s.v. parsec in Glossary. point (American, English) Whitelaw, Ian. (2007). A Measure of All Things: The Story of Man and Measurement. New York: Macmillan 0-312-37026-1. p. 152. De Vinne, Theodore Low (1900). The practice of typography: a treatise on the processes of type-making, the point system, the names, sizes, styles and prices of plain printing types 2nd ed. New York: The Century Co. p. 142–150. pt ≡ 1/72.272 in ≈ 0.000 351 450 m point (Didot; European) Pasko, Wesley Washington (1894). American dictionary of printing and bookmaking. (1894). New York: Howard Lockwood. p. 521. pt of pied du roi;After 1878:≡ 5/133 cm ≈ 0.000 375 97 m;After 1878:≈ 0.000 375 939 85 m point (metric) pt ≡ 3/8 mm = 0.000 375 m point (PostScript) pt ≡ 1/72 in = 0.000 352 7 m point (TeX) pt ≡ 1/72.27 in = 0.000 351 459 8 m quarter ≡ ¼ yd = 0.228 6 m rod; pole; perch (H) rd ≡ 16 ½ ft = 5.029 2 m rope (H) rope ≡ 20 ft = 6.096 m span (H) ≡ 9 in = 0.228 6 m spat Units: S ≡ 1 m stick (H) ≡ 2 in = 0.050 8 m pm, stigma, or bicron ≡ 1 m telegraph mile (H) mi ≡ 6 087 ft = 1 855.317 6 m twip twp ≡ 1/1 440 in = 1.763 8 m x unit; siegbahn xu ≈ 1.002 1 m yard (International) yd ≡ 0.914 4 m National Bureau of Standards. (June 30, 1959). Refinement of values for the yard and the pound. Federal Register, viewed September 20, 2006 at National Geodetic Survey web site. ≡ 3 ft ≡ 36 in ≡ 0.914 4 m Area + AreaName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units acre (international) ac ≡ 10 sq ch = 4840 sq yd = 4046.856 422 4 m2 acre (U. S. survey) ac ≡ 10 sq ch = 4840 sq yd = 4046.873 m2 Thompson, A. and Taylor, B.N. (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 811. p. 57. are a ≡ 100 m2 barn b ≡ 10−28 m2 barony ≡ 4000 ac = 1.618 742 568 96 m2 board bd ≡ 1 in × 1 ft = 7.741 92 m2 boiler horsepower equivalent direct radiation bhp EDR ≡ (1 ft2) (1 bhp) / (240 BTUIT/h) ≈ 12.958 174 m2 circular inch circ in ≡ π/4 sq in ≈ 5.067 075 m2 circular mil; circular thou circ mil ≡ π/4 mil2 ≈ 5.067 075 m2 cord ≡ 192 bd = 1.486 448 64 m2 dunam ≡ 1000 m2 = 1000 m2 hectare ha ≡ 10 000 m2 = 10 000 m2 hide ≡ 100 ac = 4.046 856 422 4 m2 rood ro ≡ ¼ ac = 1011.714 105 6 m2 shed ≡ 10−52 m2 square chain sq ch ≡ 1 sq ch ≡ .10 ac = 404.685 642 24 m2 square foot sq ft ≡ 1 ft × 1 ft = 9.290 304 m2 square inch sq in ≡ 1 in × 1 in = 6.4516 m2 square kilometre km2 ≡ 1 km2 = 106 m2 square link sq lnk ≡ 1 lnk2 = 4.046 856 422 4 m2 square metre (SI unit) m2 ≡ 1 m × 1 m = 1 m2 square mil; square thou sq mil ≡ 1 mil × 1 mil = 6.4516 m2 square mile; section sq mi ≡ 1 mi × 1 mi = 2.589 988 110 336 m2 square rod/pole/perch sq rd ≡ 1 sq rd = 25.292 852 64 m2 square U.S. Survey foot sq ft ≡ 1 sq ft (US) ≈ 9.290 341 161 327 49 m2 square U.S. Survey mile sq mi ≡ 1 sq mi (US) ≈ 2.589 998 m2 square yard sq yd ≡ 1 yd × 1 yd = 0.836 127 36 m2 stremma ≡ 1000 m2 = 1000 m2 township ≡ 36 sq mi (US) ≈ 9.323 994 m2 yardland ≡ 30 ac = 1.214 056 926 72 m2 Volume + VolumeName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units acre foot ac ft ≡ 1 ac x 1 ft = 43560 ft3 = 1 233.481 837 547 52 m3 cubic metre (SI unit) m3 ≡ 1 m × 1 m × 1 m = 1 m3 litre L ≡ 1 dm3 Barry N. Taylor, Ed.,NIST Special Publication 330: The International System of Units (SI) (2001 Edition), Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 43,"The 12th Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM)…declares that the word “liter” may be employed as a special name for the cubic decimeter". = 0.001 m3 lambda λ ≡ 1 mm3 = 1 m3 drop (metric) ≡ 1/20 mL = 50.0 m3 minim (Imperial) min ≡ 1/480 fl oz (Imp) = 1/60 fl dr (Imp) = 59.193 880 2083 m3 minim (U.S.) min ≡ 1/480 US fl oz = 1/60 US fl dr = 61.611 519 921 875 m3 drop (U.S.) (alt) gtt ≡ 1/456 US fl oz ≈ 64.854 231 m3 drop (Imperial) (alt) gtt ≡ 1/1824 gi (Imp) ≈ 77.886 684 m3 drop (U.S.) gtt ≡ 1/360 US fl oz = 82.148 693 229 16 m3 drop (medical) ≡ 1/12 ml = 83.03 m3 drop (Imperial) gtt ≡ 1/288 fl oz (Imp) = 98.656 467 0138 m3 dash (U.S.) ≡ 1/96 US fl oz = ½ US pinch = 308.057 599 609 375 m3 dash (Imperial) ≡ 1/384 gi (Imp) = ½ pinch (Imp) = 369.961 751 302 08 3 m3 pinch (U.S.) ≡ 1/48 US fl oz = ⅛ US tsp = 616.115 199 218 75 m3 pinch (Imperial) ≡ 1/192 gi (Imp) = ⅛ tsp (Imp) = 739.923 502 604 16 m3 fluid scruple (Imperial) fl s ≡ 1/24 fl oz (Imp) = 1.183 877 604 16 m3 fluid drachm (Imperial) fl dr ≡ ⅛ fl oz (Imp) = 3.551 632 812 5 m3 fluid dram (U.S.); U.S. fluidram fl dr ≡ ⅛ US fl oz = 3.696 691 195 312 5 m3 teaspoon (Canadian) tsp ≡ 1/6 fl oz (Imp) = 4.735 510 41 6 m3 teaspoon (U.S.) tsp ≡ 1/6 US fl oz = 4.928 921 595 m3 teaspoon (metric) ≡ 5.0 m3 teaspoon (Imperial) tsp ≡ 1/24 gi (Imp) = 5.919 388 020 83 m3 dessertspoon (Imperial) ≡ 1/12 gi (Imp) = 11.838 776 0416 m3 tablespoon (Canadian) tbsp ≡ ½ fl oz (Imp) = 14.206 531 25 m3 tablespoon (U.S.) tbsp ≡ ½ US fl oz = 14.786 764 782 5 m3 tablespoon (metric) ≡ 15.0 m3 cubic inch cu in ≡ 1 in × 1 in × 1 in = 16.387 064 m3 tablespoon (Imperial) tbsp ≡ 5/8 fl oz (Imp) = 17.758 164 062 5 m3 pony ≡ 3/4 US fl oz = 22.180 147 171 875 m3 fluid ounce (Imperial) fl oz (Imp) ≡ 1/160 gal (Imp) = 28.413 062 5 m3 fluid ounce (U.S.) US fl oz ≡ 1/128 gal (US) = 29.573 529 562 5 m3 shot ≡ 1 US fl oz ≈ 29.57 m3 jigger ≡ 1½ US fl oz ≈ 44.36 m3 gill (U.S.) gi (US) ≡ 4 US fl oz = 118.294 118 25 m3 gill (Imperial); Noggin gi (Imp); nog ≡ 5 fl oz (Imp) = 142.065 312 5 m3 cup (Canadian) c (CA) ≡ 8 fl oz (Imp) = 227.304 5 m3 cup (U.S.) c (US) ≡ 8 US fl oz ≡ 1/16 gal (US) = 236.588 236 5 m3 cup (metric) c ≡ 250.0 m3 breakfast cup ≡ 10 fl oz (Imp) = 284.130 625 m3 pint (U.S. fluid) pt (US fl) ≡ ⅛ gal (US) = 473.176 473 m3 pint (U.S. dry) pt (US dry) ≡ 1/64 bu (US lvl) ≡ ⅛ gal (US dry) = 550.610 471 357 5 m3 pint (Imperial) pt (Imp) ≡ ⅛ gal (Imp) = 568.261 25 m3 fifth ≡ 1/5 US gal = 757.082 356 8 m3 quart (U.S. fluid) qt (US) ≡ ¼ gal (US fl) = 946.352 946 m3 quart (U.S. dry) qt (US) ≡ 1/32 bu (US lvl) = ¼ gal (US dry) = 1.101 220 942 715 m3 quart (Imperial) qt (Imp) ≡ ¼ gal (Imp) = 1.136 522 5 m3 pottle; quartern ≡ ½ gal (Imp) = 80 fl oz (Imp) = 2.273 045 m3 board-foot fbm ≡ 144 cu in = 2.359 737 216 m3 gallon (U.S. fluid; Wine) gal (US) ≡ 231 cu in = 3.785 411 784 m3 gallon (U.S. dry) gal (US) ≡ ⅛ bu (US lvl) = 4.404 883 770 86 m3 gallon (Imperial) gal (Imp) ≡ = 4.546 09 m3 beer gallon beer gal ≡ 282 cu in = 4.621 152 048 m3 peck (U.S. dry) pk ≡ ¼ US lvl bu = 8.809 767 541 72 m3 peck (Imperial) pk ≡ 2 gal (Imp) = 9.092 18 m3 bucket (Imperial) bkt ≡ 4 gal (Imp) = 0.018 184 36 m3 timber foot ≡ 1 cu ft = 0.028 316 846 592 m3 cubic foot cu ft ≡ 1 ft × 1 ft × 1 ft = 0.028 316 846 592 m3 firkin ≡ 9 gal (US) = 0.034 068 706 056 m3 bushel (U.S. dry level) bu (US lvl) ≡ 2150.42 cu in = 0.035 239 070 166 88 m3 bushel (Imperial) bu (Imp) ≡ 8 gal (Imp) = 0.036 368 72 m3 bushel (U.S. dry heaped) bu (US) ≡ 1 ¼ bu (US lvl) = 0.044 048 837 708 6 m3 strike (U.S.) ≡ 2 bu (US lvl) = 0.070 478 140 333 76 m3 strike (Imperial) ≡ 2 bu (Imp) = 0.072 737 44 m3 kilderkin ≡ 18 gal (Imp) = 0.081 829 62 m3 sack (U.S.) ≡ 3 bu (US lvl) = 0.105 717 210 500 64 m3 sack (Imperial); bag ≡ 3 bu (Imp) = 0.109 106 16 m3 barrel (U.S. dry) bl (US) ≡ 105 qt (US) = 105/32 bu (US lvl) = 0.115 628 198 985 075 m3 barrel (U.S. fluid) fl bl (US) ≡ 31½ gal (US) = 0.119 240 471 196 m3 coomb ≡ 4 bu (Imp) = 0.145 474 88 m3 barrel (petroleum) bl; bbl ≡ 42 gal (US) = 0.158 987 294 928 m3 barrel (Imperial) bl (Imp) ≡ 36 gal (Imp) = 0.163 659 24 m3 hogshead (U.S.) hhd (US) ≡ 2 fl bl (US) = 0.238 480 942 392 m3 seam ≡ 8 bu (US lvl) = 0.281 912 561 335 04 m3 quarter; pail ≡ 8 bu (Imp) = 0.290 949 76 m3 hogshead (Imperial) hhd (Imp) ≡ 2 bl (Imp) = 0.327 318 48 m3 cord-foot ≡ 16 cu ft = 0.453 069 545 472 m3 butt, pipe ≡ 126 gal (wine) = 0.476 961 884 784 m3 perch per ≡ 16½ ft × 1½ ft × 1 ft = 0.700 841 953 152 m3 cubic yard cu yd ≡ 27 cu ft = 0.764 554 857 984 m3 tun ≡ 252 gal (wine) = 0.953 923 769 568 m3 displacement ton ≡ 35 cu ft = 0.991 089 630 72 m3 water ton ≡ 28 bu (Imp) = 1.018 324 16 m3 freight ton ≡ 40 cu ft = 1.132 673 863 68 m3 wey (U.S.) ≡ 40 bu (US lvl) = 1.409 562 806 675 2 m3 load ≡ 50 cu ft = 1.415 842 329 6 m3 register ton ≡ 100 cu ft = 2.831 684 659 2 m3 last ≡ 80 bu (Imp) = 2.909 497 6 m3 cord (firewood) ≡ 8 ft × 4 ft × 4 ft = 3.624 556 363 776 m3 cubic fathom cu fm ≡ 1 fm × 1 fm × 1 fm = 6.116 438 863 872 m3 acre-inch ≡ 1 ac × 1 in = 102.790 153 128 96 m3 cubic mile cu mi ≡ 1 mi × 1 mi × 1 mi = 4 168 181 825.440 579 584 m3 Angle + AngleName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units radian (SI unit) rad ≡ 180°/π ≡ 1 rad centesimal second of arc " ≡ 1 grad/10000 ≈ 1.570 796 µrad arcsecond " ≡ 1°/3600 ≈ 4.848 137 µrad centesimal minute of arc ' ≡ 1 grad/100 ≈ 0.157 080 mrad minute of arc ' ≡ 1°/60 ≈ 0.290 888 mrad angular mil µ ≡ 2π/6400 rad ≈ 0.981 748 mrad grad; gradian; gon grad ≡ 2π/400 rad = 0.9° ≈ 15.707 963 mrad degree (of arc) ° ≡ π/180 rad ≈ 17.453 293 mrad sign ≡ 30° ≈ 0.523 599 rad octant ≡ 45° ≈ 0.785 398 rad sextant ≡ 60° ≈ 1.047 198 rad quadrant ≡ 90° ≈ 1.570 796 rad Solid angle + Solid angleName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units steradian sr (SI derived unit) Mass Note: see Weight for detail of mass/weight distinction and conversion + MassName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to unitsRelation to avoirdupois units kilogram, grave kg; G (SI base unit) electron rest mass, atomic unit of mass me ≈ 9.109 382 15 ± 45 kg CODATA Value: atomic uint of mass. (2006). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 16 September 2008. electronvolt eV ≡ 1 eV (energy unit) / c2 = 1.782 6×10−36 kg unified atomic mass unit u; AMU ≈ 1.660 538 73 ± 1.3 kg dalton Da ≈ 1.660 902 10 ± 1.3 kg gamma γ ≡ 1 μg point ≡ 1/100 ct = 2 mg mite ≡ 1/20 gr = 3.239 945 5 mg mite (metric) ≡ 1/20 g = 50 mg grain gr ≡ 64.798 91 mg crith ≈ 89.9349 mg carat (metric) ct ≡ 200 mg carat kt ≡ 3 1/6 gr ≈ 205.196 548 333 mg sheet ≡ 1/700 lb av = 647.9891 mg scruple (apothecary) s ap ≡ 20 gr = 1.295 978 2 g pennyweight dwt; pwt ≡ 1/20 oz t = 1.555 173 84 g dram (avoirdupois) dr av ≡ 27 11/32 gr = 1.771 845 195 312 5 g dram (apothecary; troy) dr t ≡ 60 gr = 3.887 934 6 g hyl (CGS unit) ≡ 1 gee × 1 g × 1 s2/m = 9.806 65 g ounce (avoirdupois) oz av ≡ 1/16 lb = 28.349 523 125 g assay ton (short) AT ≡ 1 mg × 1 sh tn ÷ 1 oz t ≈ 29.166 667 g ounce (apothecary; troy) oz t ≡ 1/12 lb t = 31.103 476 8 g assay ton (long) AT ≡ 1 mg × 1 long tn ÷ 1 oz t ≈ 32.666 667 g mark ≡ 8 oz t = 248.827 814 4 g pound (troy) lb t ≡ 5760 grains = 0.373 241 721 6 kg pound (avoirdupois) lb av ≡ 7000 grains = 0.453 592 37 kg pound (metric) ≡ 500 g clove ≡ 8 lb av = 3.628 738 96 kg stone st ≡ 14 lb av = 6.350 293 18 kg hyl (MKS unit) ≡ 1 gee × 1 kg × 1 s2/m = 9.806 65 kg quarter (Imperial) ≡ 1/4 long cwt = 2 st = 28 lb av = 12.700 586 36 kg slug; geepound slug ≡ 1 gee × 1 lb av × 1 s2/ft ≈ 14.593 903 kg bag (Portland cement) ≡ 94 lb av = 42.637 682 78 kg short hundredweight; cental sh cwt ≡ 100 lb av = 45.359 237 kg long hundredweight long cwt or cwt ≡ 112 lb av = 50.802 345 44 kg bag (coffee) ≡ 60 kg = 60 kg quintal (metric) q ≡ 100 kg wey ≡ 252 lb = 18 st = 114.305 277 24 kg (variants exist) long quarter (informal) ≡ ¼ long tn = 254.011 727 2 kg quarter (informal) ≡ ¼ short tn = 226.796 185 kg kip kip ≡ 1000 lb av = 453.592 37 kg short ton sh tn ≡ 2000 lb = 907.184 74 kg tonne (mts unit) t ≡ 1000 kg long ton long tn or ton ≡ 2240 lb = 1016.046 908 8 kg barge ≡ 22 ½ sh tn = 20,411.656 65 kg Zentner Ztr. Definitions vary; see The Swiss Federal Office for Metrology gives Zentner on a German language web page and quintal on the English translation of that page; the unit is marked "spécifiquement suisse !" and Rowlett, Russ. A Dictionary of Units of Measurement. Viewed October 14, 2006 at http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/dictZ.html . See also discussion at Talk:Conversion of units#Zentner In physics, the pound of mass is sometimes written lbm to distinguish it from the pound-force (lbf). It should not be read as the mongrel unit "pound metre". Density The unit for density is: kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) Metric units outside the SI kilograms per litre (kg/L). Water generally has a density around 1 kg/L, making this a convenient unit. kilograms per cubic decimeter (kg/dm3) grams per millilitre (g/mL), grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc or g/cm3). These are numerically equivalent to kg/L (1 kg/L = 1 kg/dm3 = 1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL). In U.S. customary units or Imperial units, the units of density include: ounces per cubic inch (oz/cu in) pounds per cubic inch (lb/cu in) pounds per cubic foot (lb/cu ft) pounds per cubic yard (lb/cu yd) pounds per gallon (for U.S. or imperial gallons) (lb/gal) pounds per U.S. bushel (lb/bu) slugs per cubic foot. Time + Time, tName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units second s time of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2 hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom at 0 K (but other seconds are sometimes used in astronomy) (SI base unit) Planck time ≡ (G/c5)½ ≈ 1.351 211 868 s atomic unit of time au ≡ a0/(α·c) ≈ 2.418 884 254 s svedberg S ≡ 10−13 s = 100 fs shake ≡ 10−8 s = 10 ns sigma ≡ 10−6 s = 1 μs jiffy ≡ 1/60 s ≈ .016667 s jiffy (alternate) ≡ 1/100 s = 10 ms helek ≡ 1/1080 h ≈ 3.333333 s minute min ≡ 60 s milliday md ≡ 86 400 s / 1000 ≡ 86.4 s moment ≡ 90 s ≡ 90 s ke(traditional) ≡ 1/100 d ≡ 864 s quarter (of an hour) ke ≡ 1/96 d ≡ 900 s hour h ≡ 60 min = 3600 s day d ≡ 24 h = 86 400 s day d ≡ average time between consecutive midnights ≈ 86400 s week wk ≡ 7 d = 604 800 s fortnight ≡ 2 wk = 1 209 600 s month (hollow) mo ≡ 29 d = 2 505 600 s month mo ≡ 30 d = 2 592 000 s month (full) mo ≡ 31 d = 2 678 400 s year (Calendar) a, y, or yr ≡ 365 d = 31 536 000 s year (Gregorian) a, y, or yr ≡ 365.2425 d = 31 556 952 s year (Julian) a, y, or yr ≡ 365.25 d = 31 557 600 s sidereal year a, y, or yr ≡ time taken for Sun to return to the same position with respect to the stars of the celestial sphere ≈ 365.256363 d ≈ 31 558 149.7632 s Olympiad ≡ 4 a of 365 d = 1.2614 s lustre; lustrum ≡ 5 a of 365 d = 1.5768 s octaeteris ≡ 8 a of 365 d = 2.522 88 s decade ≡ 10 a of 365 d = 3.1536 s enneadecaeteris; Metonic cycle ≡ 110 mo (hollow) + 125 mo (full) = 19 a of 365 d = 5.996 16 s Callippic cycle ≡ 441 mo (hollow) + 499 mo (full) = 76 a of 365.25 d = 2.398 377 6 s century (Calendar) ≡ 100 a of 365 d = 3.1536 s century (Julian) ≡ 100 a of 365.25 d = 3.155 76 s Hipparchic cycle ≡ 4 Callippic cycles - 1 d = 9.593 424 s millennium (Calendar) ≡ 1000 a of 365 d = 365,000 d = 3.1536 s millennium (Gregorian) ≡ 1000 a of 365.2425 d = 356,242.5 d = 3.155 695 2 s millennium (Julian) ≡ 1000 a of 365.25 d = 365,250 d = 3.155 76 s Sothic cycle ≡ 1461 a of 365 d = 4.607 409 6 s generation Speed or velocity + SpeedName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units metre per second (SI unit) m/s ≡ 1 m/s foot per hour fph ≡ 1 ft/h ≈ 8.466 667 m/s furlong per fortnight ≡ furlong/fortnight ≈ 1.663 095 m/s inch per minute ipm ≡ 1 in/min ≈ 4.23 333 m/s foot per minute fpm ≡ 1 ft/min = 5.08 m/s inch per second ips ≡ 1 in/s = 2.54 m/s kilometre per hour km/h ≡ 1 km/h ≈ 2.777 778 m/s foot per second fps ≡ 1 ft/s = 3.048 m/s mile per hour mph ≡ 1 mi/h = 0.447 04 m/s knot kn ≡ 1 NM/h = 1.852 km/h ≈ 0.514 444 m/s knot (Admiralty) kn ≡ 1 NM (Adm)/h = 1.853 184 km/h ≈ 0.514 773 m/s mile per minute mpm ≡ 1 mi/min = 26.8224 m/s mile per second mps ≡ 1 mi/s = 1.609 344 km/s = 1609.344 m/s speed of light in vacuum c ≡ 299 792 458 m/s = 299 792 458 m/s speed of sound in air s ≈ 344 m/s at 20 °C, 60% relative humidity Lide, 1990, p. 14-35. mach M ≡ 331 m/s ≈ 331 m/s A velocity consists of a speed combined with a direction; the speed part of the velocity takes units of speed. Acceleration + AccelerationName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units metre per second squared (SI unit) m/s2 ≡ 1 m/s2 = 1 m/s2 foot per hour per second fph/s ≡ 1 ft/(h·s) ≈ 8.466 667 m/s2 inch per minute per second ipm/s ≡ 1 in/(min·s) ≈ 4.233 333 m/s2 foot per minute per second fpm/s ≡ 1 ft/(min·s) = 5.08 m/s2 galileo Gal ≡ 1 cm/s2 = 10−2 m/s2 inch per second squared ips2 ≡ 1 in/s2 = 2.54 m/s2 foot per second squared fps2 ≡ 1 ft/s2 = 3.048 m/s2 mile per hour per second mph/s ≡ 1 mi/(h·s) = 4.4704 m/s2 knot per second kn/s ≡ 1 kn/s ≈ 5.144 444 m/s2 standard gravity g ≡ 9.806 65 m/s2 mile per minute per second mpm/s ≡ 1 mi/(min·s) = 26.8224 m/s2 mile per second squared mps2 ≡ 1 mi/s2 = 1.609 344 m/s2 Force + ForceName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units atomic unit of force ≡ me·α2·c2/a0 ≈ 8.238 722 06 N CODATA Value: atomic unit of force. (2006). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 14 September 2008. dyne (cgs unit) dyn ≡ g·cm/s2 = 10−5 N milligrave-force, gravet-force mGf; gf ≡ g × 1 g = 9.806 65 mN pound lb ≡ slug·ft/s2 = 4.448230531 N kilogram-force; kilopond; grave-force kgf; kp; Gf ≡ g × 1 kg = 9.806 65 N kip; kip-force kip; kipf; klbf ≡ g × 1000 lb = 4.448 221 615 260 5 N newton (SI unit) N ≡ kg·m/s2 = 1 N ounce-force ozf ≡ g × 1 oz = 0.278 013 850 953 781 2 N pound-force lbf ≡ g × 1 lb = 4.448 221 615 260 5 N poundal pdl ≡ 1 lb·ft/s2 = 0.138 254 954 376 N sthene (mts unit) sn ≡ 1 t·m/s2 = 1 N ton-force tnf ≡ g × 1 sh tn = 8.896 443 230 521 N</td> See also: Conversion between weight (force) and mass Pressure or mechanical stress + PressureName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units atmosphere (standard) atm ≡ 101 325 Pa Barry N. Taylor, (April 1995), Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (NIST Special Publication 811), Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 57–68. atmosphere (technical) at ≡ 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.80665 Pa bar bar ≡ 105 Pa barye (cgs unit) ≡ 1 dyn/cm2 = 0.1 Pa centimetre of mercury cmHg ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 cm × g ≈ 1.333 22 Pa centimetre of water (4 °C) cmH2O ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 × 1 cm × g ≈ 98.0638 Pa foot of mercury (conventional) ftHg ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 ft × g ≈ 40.636 66 Pa foot of water (39.2 °F) ftH2O ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 × 1 ft × g ≈ 2.988 98 Pa inch of mercury (conventional) inHg ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 in × g ≈ 3.386 389 Pa inch of water (39.2 °F) inH2O ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 × 1 in × g ≈ 249.082 Pa kilogram-force per square millimetre kgf/mm2 ≡ 1 kgf/mm2 = 9.806 65 Pa kip per square inch ksi ≡ 1 kipf/sq in ≈ 6.894757 Pa micron (micrometre) of mercury mHg ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 m × g ≈ 0.001 torr ≈ 0. 133 322 4 Pa millimetre of mercury mmHg ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 mm × g ≈ 1 torr ≈ 133.322 4 Pa millimetre of water (3.98 °C) mmH2O ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 × 1 mm × g = 0.999972 kgf/m2 = 9.806 38 Pa pascal (SI unit) Pa ≡ N/m2 = kg/(m·s2) = 1 Pa Barry N. Taylor, (April 1995), Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (NIST Special Publication 811), Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 5. pièze (mts unit) pz ≡ 1000 kg/m·s2 = 1 Pa = 1 kPa pound per square foot psf ≡ 1 lbf/ft2 ≈ 47.880 25 Pa poundal per square foot pdl/sq ft ≡ 1 pdl/sq ft ≈ 1.488 164 Pa pound per square inch psi ≡ 1 lbf/in2 ≈ 6.894 757 Pa short ton per square foot ≡ 1 sh tn × g / 1 sq ft ≈ 95.760 518 Pa torr torr ≡ 101 325/760 Pa ≈ 133.322 4 Pa Torque + TorqueName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units Newton metre (SI unit) N·m ≡ N × m = kg·m2/s2 = 1 N·m foot-poundal ft pdl ≡ 1 lb·ft2/s2 = 4.214 011 009 380 48 N·m inch-pound force in lbf ≡ g × 1 lb × 1 in = 0.112 984 829 027 616 7 N·m foot-pound force ft lbf ≡ g × 1 lb × 1 ft = 1.355 817 948 331 400 4 N·m Energy + EnergyName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units joule (SI unit) J ≡ m·N = W·s = V·A·s = kg·m2/s2 = 1 J= electronvolt eV ≡ e × 1 V ≈ 1.602 177 33 J ± 4.9 rydberg Ry ≡ R∞·ℎ·c ≈ 2.179 872 J hartree, atomic unit of energy Eh ≡ me·α2·c2 (= 2 Ry) ≈ 4.359 744 J erg (cgs unit) erg ≡ 1 g·cm2/s2 = 10−7 J foot-poundal ft pdl ≡ 1 lb·ft2/s2 = 4.214 011 009 380 48 J cubic centimetre of atmosphere; standard cubic centimetre cc atm; scc ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm3 = 0.101 325 J inch-pound force in lbf ≡ g × 1 lb × 1 in = 0.112 984 829 027 616 7 J foot-pound force ft lbf ≡ g × 1 lb × 1 ft = 1.355 817 948 331 400 4 J calorie (20 °C) cal20 °C ≈ 4.1819 J calorie (thermochemical) calth ≡ 4.184 J calorie (15 °C) cal15 °C ≡ 4.1855 J calorie (International Table) calIT ≡ 4.1868 J calorie (mean) calmean ≈ 4.190 02 J calorie (3.98 °C) cal3.98 °C ≈ 4.2045 J kilocalorie; large calorie kcal; Cal ≡ 1000 calIT = 4.1868 J litre-atmosphere l atm; sl ≡ 1 atm × 1 L = 101.325 J gallon-atmosphere (US) US gal atm ≡ 1 atm × 1 gal (US) = 383.556 849 013 8 J gallon-atmosphere (imperial) imp gal atm ≡ 1 atm × 1 gal (imp) = 460.632 569 25 J British thermal unit (thermochemical) BTUth ≈ 1.054 350 J British thermal unit (ISO) BTUISO ≡ 1.0545 J British thermal unit (63 °F) BTU63 °F ≈ 1.0546 J British thermal unit (60 °F) BTU60 °F ≈ 1.054 68 J British thermal unit (59 °F) BTU59 °F ≡ 1.054 804 J British thermal unit (International Table) BTUIT = 1.055 055 852 62 J British thermal unit (mean) BTUmean ≈ 1.055 87 J British thermal unit (39 °F) BTU39 °F ≈ 1.059 67 J Celsius heat unit (International Table) CHUIT ≡ 1 BTUIT × 1 K/°R = 1.899 100 534 716 J cubic foot of atmosphere; standard cubic foot cu ft atm; scf ≡ 1 atm × 1 ft3 = 2.869 204 480 934 4 J cubic yard of atmosphere; standard cubic yard cu yd atm; scy ≡ 1 atm × 1 yd3 = 77.468 520 985 228 8 J cubic foot of natural gas ≡ 1000 BTUIT = 1.055 055 852 62 J horsepower-hour hp·h ≡ 1 hp × 1 h = 2.684519537696172792 J kilowatt-hour; Board of Trade Unit kW·h; B.O.T.U. ≡ 1 kW × 1 h = 3.6 J thermie th ≡ 1 McalIT = 4.1868 J therm (U.S.) ≡ 100 000 BTU59 °F = 105.4804 J therm (E.C.) ≡ 100 000 BTUIT = 105.505 585 262 J ton of TNT tTNT ≡ 1 Gcalth = 4.184 J barrel of oil equivalent bboe ≈ 5.8 ×106 BTU59 °F ≈ 6.12 J ton of coal equivalent TCE ≡ 7 Gcalth = 29.3076 J ton of oil equivalent TOE ≡ 10 Gcalth = 41.868 J quad ≡ 1015 BTUIT = 1.055 055 852 62 J Power + PowerName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units watt (SI unit) W ≡ J/s = N·m/s = kg·m2/s3 = 1 W= lusec lusec ≡ 1 L·µmHg/s Russ Rowlett. (2005). How Many: A Dictionary of Units of Measure. Viewed 5 November 2006 at http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/ ≈ 1.333 W foot-pound-force per hour ft lbf/h ≡ 1 ft lbf/h ≈ 3.766 161 W atmosphere cubic centimetre per minute atm ccm ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm3/min = 1.688 75 W foot-pound-force per minute ft lbf/min ≡ 1 ft lbf/min = 2.259 696 580 552 334 W atmosphere–cubic centimetre per second atm ccs ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm3/s = 0.101 325 W BTU (International Table) per hour BTUIT/h ≡ 1 BTUIT/h ≈ 0.293 071 W atmosphere–cubic foot per hour atm cfh ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/h = 0.797 001 244 704 W foot-pound-force per second ft lbf/s ≡ 1 ft lbf/s = 1.355 817 948 331 400 4 W litre-atmosphere per minute L·atm/min ≡ 1 atm × 1 L/min = 1.688 75 W calorie (International Table) per second calIT/s ≡ 1 calIT/s = 4.1868 W BTU (International Table) per minute BTUIT/min ≡ 1 BTUIT/min ≈ 17.584 264 W atmosphere-cubic foot per minute atm·cfm ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/min = 47.820 074 682 24 W square foot equivalent direct radiation sq ft EDR ≡ 240 BTUIT/h ≈ 70.337 057 W litre-atmosphere per second L·atm/s ≡ 1 atm × 1 L/s = 101.325 W horsepower (metric) hp ≡ 75 m kgf/s = 735.498 75 W horsepower (European electrical) hp ≡ 75 kp·m/s = 736 W horsepower (Imperial mechanical) hp ≡ 550 ft lbf/s = 745.699 871 582 270 22 W horsepower (Imperial electrical) hp ≡ 746 W ton of air conditioning ≡ 1 t ice melted / 24 h ≈ 3504. W poncelet p ≡ 100 m kgf/s = 980.665 W BTU (International Table) per second BTUIT/s ≡ 1 BTUIT/s = 1.055 055 852 62 W atmosphere-cubic foot per second atm cfs ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/s = 2.869 204 480 934 4 W ton of refrigeration (IT) ≡ 1 BTUIT × 1 sh tn/lb ÷ 10 min/s ≈ 3.516 853 W ton of refrigeration (Imperial) ≡ 1 BTUIT × 1 lng tn/lb ÷ 10 min/s ≈ 3.938 875 W boiler horsepower bhp ≈ 34.5 lb/h × 970.3 BTUIT/lb ≈ 9.810 657 W Angular momentum + Action, Angular momentumName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units SI unit J·s ≡ kg·m2/s = 1 J·s atomic unit of action au ≡ ℏ = ℎ/2 ≈ 1.054 571 596 J·s cgs unit erg·s = 10−7 J·s Dynamic viscosity + Dynamic viscosityName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units pascal second (SI unit) Pa·s ≡ N·s/m2 , kg/(m·s) = 1 Pa·s poise (cgs unit) P ≡ 10−1 Pa·s Kinematic viscosity + Kinematic viscosityName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to SI unit m2/s ≡ m2/s = 1 m2/s stokes (cgs unit) St ≡ 10−4 m2/s Electric current + Electric currentName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units ampere (SI base unit) A 1 A esu per second; statampere (cgs unit) esu/s ≡ (0.1 A·m/s) /c ≈ 3.335 641 A electromagnetic unit; abampere (cgs unit) abamp ≡ 10 A Electric charge + Electric chargeName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units coulomb (SI unit) C ≡ A·s = 1 C atomic unit of charge au ≡ e ≈ 1.602 176 462 C statcoulomb; franklin; electrostatic unit (cgs unit) statC; Fr; esu ≡ (0.1 A·m) /c ≈ 3.335 641 C abcoulomb; electromagnetic unit (cgs unit) abC; emu ≡ 10 C faraday F ≡ 1 mol × NA·e ≈ 96,485.3383 C Electric Dipole + Electric DipoleName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units coulomb metre C•m ≡ coulomb × metre Electromotive force + Voltage, Electromotive forceName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units volt (SI unit) V ≡ kg·m2/(A·s3) = 1 V abvolt (cgs unit) abV ≡ 1 V statvolt (cgs unit) statV ≡ c· (1 μJ/A·m) = 299.792 458 V Electrical resistance + Electrical resistanceName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units ohm (SI unit) Ω ≡ V/A = kg·m2/(A2·s3) Capacitance + Capacitor's Ability to Store ChargeName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to unitsfaradFamount of capacitance for which a potential difference of one volt results in a static charge of one coulomb Inductance + InductanceName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units henry (SI unit) H ≡ = 1 H Magnetic field also known as "magnetic flux density" and "magnetic induction" + Magnetic fieldName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units teslas T webers per square meter(SI unit) amperes/meter A/m gauss G ≡maxwell / cm2 10-4 T Standard for the Use of the International System of Units (SI): The Modern Metric System IEEE/ASTM SI 10-1997. (1997). New York and West Conshohocken, PA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and American Society for Testing and Materials. Tables A.1 through A.5. Magnetic flux + magnetic fluxName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units weber Wb magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of one turn, would produce in it an electromotive force of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 second Temperature Note: see Temperature conversion for more detail + TemperatureName of unitSymbolDefinitionConversion to Kelvin Kelvin K 0 K ≡ absolute zero (when an ideal gas would theoretically occupy no space) 1 K degree centesimal °C befor 1954, 0 °C ≡ triple point of H2O; after 1954, 0.01 °C ≡ triple point of H2O [K] ≈ [°C] + 273.15 degree Celsius °C 0°C ≡ freezing pt. of H2O, 100°C ≡ boiling pt. of H2O at 1 atm [K] = [°C] + 273.15 degree Rankine °R; °Ra 0 °R ≡ absolute zero [K] = [°R] × 5⁄9 degree Fahrenheit °F 0 °F ≡ freezing pt. of H2O+NaCl, 180°F between freezing and boiling pt of H2O @ 1atm [K] = ([°F] + 459.67) × 5⁄9 degree Delisle °De [K] = 373.15 − [°De] × 2⁄3 degree Newton °N [K] = [°N] × 100⁄33 + 273.15 degree Réaumur °Ré [K] = [°Ré] × 5⁄4 + 273.15 degree Rømer °Rø [K] = ([°Rø] − 7.5) × 40⁄21 + 273.15 Information entropy + Information entropyName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to Relation to bits SI unit J/K ≡ J/K = 1 J/K nat; nip; nepit nat ≡ kB = 1.3806505(23) × 10−23 J/K bit; shannon bit; b; Sh ≡ ln(2) × kB = 9.569940(16) × 10−24 J/K = 1 bit ban; hartley ban; Hart ≡ ln(10) × kB = 3.1790653(53) × 10−23 J/K nibble ≡ 4 bits = 3.8279760(64) × 10−23 J/K = 22 bit byte B ≡ 8 bits = 7.655952(13) × 10−23 J/K = 23 bit kilobyte (decimal) kB ≡ 1000 B = 7.655952(13) × 10−20 J/K kilobyte (kibibyte) KB; KiB ≡ 1024 B = 7.839695(13) × 10−20 J/K = 210*23 bit Often, information entropy is measured in shannons, whereas the (discrete) storage space of digital devices is measured in bits. Thus, uncompressed redundant data occupy more than one bit of storage per shannon of information entropy. The multiples of a bit listed above are usually used with this meaning. Other times the bit is used as a measure of information entropy and is thus a synonym of shannon. Radioactivity + RadioactivityName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units Becquerel (SI base unit) Bq ≡ disintegration per second s<sup>-1<sup> = 1 Bq Rutherford rd ≡ 1 MBq = 1 * 106 Bq curie Ci ≡ 3.7 * 1010 Bq = 3.7 * 1010 Bq Ambler Thompson & Barry N. Taylor. (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). (Special Publication 811. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 10. Luminance + LuminanceName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units candela per square metre (SI base unit) ≡ cd/m2 = 1 cd/m2 lambert L ≡ (104/π) cd/m2 ≈ 3183.09886 cd/m2 Radioactivity - absorbed dose + Radioactivity - absorbed doseName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units gray Gy ≡ 1J/kg = 1m2·s-2 Ambler Thompson & Barry N. Taylor. (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). (Special Publication 811. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 5. = 1 Gy rad rad ≡ 0.01 Gy = 0.01 Gy Radioactivity - equivalent dose + Radioactivity - equivalent doseName of unitSymbolDefinitionRelation to units Sievert (SI base unit) Sv = 1 Sv Röntgen equivalent man rem ≡ 0.01 Sv = 0.01 Sv Software tools Home and office computers come with converters in bundled spreadsheet applications or can access free converters via the Internet. Units and measurements can be easily converted using these tools, but only if the units are explicitly defined and the conversion is compatible (e.g., cmHg to kPa). Free conversion software Units (software), a popular cross-platform command-line utility Converter, contextual unit converter for Mozilla Firefox browsers Converber, portable application converting utility calculla calculla - online web converters iMetrix - unit converter for xp Unit Converter Add-in for Excel - allow a large selection of unit conversions within the Microsoft Excel spread sheet program. uniteasy online scientific unit conversion General commercial sources of converters Advanced electronic calculators have unit-conversion functionality. Spreadsheet programs usually provide conversion functions or formulas or the user can write their own. Commercial mathematical, scientific and technical applications often include converters. References See also Units of measurement Units conversion by factor-label False precision Accuracy and precision Significant figures Approximate conversion of units. Temperature conversion International System of Units English units Imperial units United States customary units External links A dictionary of units of measurement NIST: Fundamental physical constants — Non-SI units (PDF) British law: Units of measurement regulations 1995 The Unified Code for Units of Measure Units, Symbols, and Conversions XML Dictionary Online Conversion Calculators Very extensive list of conversions from-to equvalent units. | Conversion_of_units |@lemmatized conversion:22 unit:150 refers:1 factor:4 different:2 measurement:9 quantity:3 technique:1 round:2 result:4 process:2 make:2 cannot:1 produce:2 precise:1 original:1 quoted:1 figure:3 appropriate:1 rounding:1 normally:1 perform:1 see:8 significant:2 table:11 article:1 give:2 list:4 number:2 physical:3 index:1 historical:3 interest:2 show:1 express:1 term:1 corresponding:1 legend:1 symbol:2 definition:2 exactly:1 equal:2 approximately:1 indicate:1 digits:1 repeat:1 infinitely:1 e:6 g:47 corresponds:1 h:42 chiefly:1 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6,637 | March | March is the third month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, and one of the seven months which are 31 days long. March in the Southern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent of September in the Northern Hemisphere. The name of March comes from ancient Rome, when March was the first month of the year and named Martius after Mars, the Roman god of war. In Rome, where the climate is Mediterranean, March is the first month of spring, a logical point for the beginning of the year as well as the start of the military campaign season. January became the first month of the calendar year either under King Numa Pompilius (circa 713 B.C.) or under the Decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers differ).The numbered year began on March 1 in Russia until the end of the fifteenth century. Great Britain and her colonies continued to use March 25 until 1752, which was when they ultimately adopted the Gregorian calendar. Many other cultures and religions still celebrate the beginning of the New Year in March. In Finnish, the month is called maaliskuu, which originates from maallinen kuu, meaning earthy month, because during maaliskuu, earth finally became visible under the snow. Historical names for March include the Saxon Lentmonat, named after the equinox and gradual lengthening of days, and the eventual namesake of Lent. Saxons also called March Rhed-monat or Hreth-monath (deriving from their goddess Rhedam/Hreth), and Angles called it Hyld-monath. In leap years, March starts on the same day of the week as September and December at the end of common years. Events in March March, from the Très riches heures du duc de Berry Easter eggs. Easter is usually celebrated in March or in April American Red Cross Month Fire Prevention Month (The Philippines) Women's History Month (United States) The wearing of a Martenitsa in Bulgaria and Mărţişor in Romania, March 1 Saint David's Day, March 1 National Reading Day (United States), March 2 Texas Independence Day, March 2: State holiday in Texas, United States Mardi Gras (February 3 to March 9 in regular years, February 4 to March 9 in leap years) Ash Wednesday (February 4 to March 10 in regular years, February 5 to March 10 in leap years) World Maths Day, the 1st Wednesday in March International Women's Day, March 8 Pluto Planet Day (New Mexico), March 13 (discussed here) White Day(Asia), March 14 Pi Day, March 14 The Ides of March, the anniversary of the assassination of Julius Caesar by Brutus, Cassius, Casca and others (March 15) Anniversary of the 1848 Hungarian Revolution, March 15 Saint Patrick's Day, March 17 Saint Joseph's Day, March 19 The equinox, named the vernal or spring equinox in the northern hemisphere and the autumnal equinox in the southern hemisphere, occurs on dates varying from 19 March to 21 March (in UTC) Nowruz: New Year's Day in Iran and several other countries; also a holiday in Turkey and Central Asian countries as well, celebrated on the day of the equinox Good Friday, a Friday between March 20 and April 23, being the last Friday before Easter Human Rights' Day (South Africa), March 21 Easter, the first Sunday after the first full moon on or after March 21, sometimes in April World Water Day, March 22 Pakistan Day, March 23 Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship, March 23 Annunciation, March 25 Celebration of the Greek War of Independence, March 25, 1821 Last day of Japanese fiscal year and school calendar, March 31. Hanami, the traditional Japanese custom of enjoying the beauty of flowers, starts around this time of the year. Prince Kūhiō Day, March 26: state holiday in the State of Hawaii, United States Bangladeshi Independence Day, March 26 1971 Moustache March (), United States March symbols The Daffodil, The floral emblem of March March's birthstone is aquamarine and bloodstone. They mean courage. Its birth flower is the daffodil http://www.birthflowersguide.com/march-birth-flower.html References External links Astronomy Answers article on the seasons be-x-old:Сакавік | March |@lemmatized march:50 third:1 month:10 year:15 gregorian:2 calendar:4 one:1 seven:1 day:22 long:1 southern:2 hemisphere:4 seasonal:1 equivalent:1 september:2 northern:2 name:5 come:1 ancient:1 rome:2 first:5 martius:1 mar:1 roman:2 god:1 war:2 climate:1 mediterranean:1 spring:2 logical:1 point:1 beginning:2 well:2 start:3 military:1 campaign:1 season:2 january:1 become:2 either:1 king:1 numa:1 pompilius:1 circa:1 b:1 c:1 decemvirs:1 bc:1 writer:1 differ:1 numbered:1 begin:1 russia:1 end:2 fifteenth:1 century:1 great:1 britain:1 colony:1 continue:1 use:1 ultimately:1 adopt:1 many:1 culture:1 religion:1 still:1 celebrate:3 new:3 finnish:1 call:3 maaliskuu:2 originate:1 maallinen:1 kuu:1 mean:2 earthy:1 earth:1 finally:1 visible:1 snow:1 historical:1 include:1 saxon:2 lentmonat:1 equinox:5 gradual:1 lengthening:1 eventual:1 namesake:1 lent:1 also:2 rhed:1 monat:1 hreth:2 monath:2 derive:1 goddess:1 rhedam:1 angle:1 hyld:1 leap:3 week:1 december:1 common:1 event:1 très:1 riches:1 heures:1 du:1 duc:1 de:1 berry:1 easter:4 egg:1 usually:1 april:3 american:1 red:1 cross:1 fire:1 prevention:1 philippine:1 woman:2 history:1 united:5 state:8 wearing:1 martenitsa:1 bulgaria:1 mărţişor:1 romania:1 saint:3 david:1 national:1 reading:1 texas:2 independence:3 holiday:3 mardi:1 gras:1 february:4 regular:2 ash:1 wednesday:2 world:2 maths:1 international:1 pluto:1 planet:1 mexico:1 discuss:1 white:1 asia:1 pi:1 ides:1 anniversary:2 assassination:1 julius:1 caesar:1 brutus:1 cassius:1 casca:1 others:1 hungarian:2 revolution:1 patrick:1 joseph:1 vernal:1 autumnal:1 occur:1 date:1 vary:1 utc:1 nowruz:1 iran:1 several:1 country:2 turkey:1 central:1 asian:1 good:1 friday:3 last:2 human:1 right:1 south:1 africa:1 sunday:1 full:1 moon:1 sometimes:1 water:1 pakistan:1 polish:1 friendship:1 annunciation:1 celebration:1 greek:1 japanese:2 fiscal:1 school:1 hanami:1 traditional:1 custom:1 enjoy:1 beauty:1 flower:3 around:1 time:1 prince:1 kūhiō:1 hawaii:1 bangladeshi:1 moustache:1 symbols:1 daffodil:2 floral:1 emblem:1 birthstone:1 aquamarine:1 bloodstone:1 courage:1 birth:2 http:1 www:1 birthflowersguide:1 com:1 html:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 astronomy:1 answer:1 article:1 x:1 old:1 сакавік:1 |@bigram gregorian_calendar:2 southern_hemisphere:2 northern_hemisphere:2 numa_pompilius:1 très_riches:1 riches_heures:1 heures_du:1 du_duc:1 easter_egg:1 mardi_gras:1 ash_wednesday:1 julius_caesar:1 brutus_cassius:1 spring_equinox:1 autumnal_equinox:1 floral_emblem:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
6,638 | Hadrian | Publius Aelius Hadrianus Inscription in Athens, year 112 AD: CIL III, 550 = InscrAtt 3 = IG II, 3286 = Dessau 308 = IDRE 2, 365: P(ublio) Aelio P(ubli) f(ilio) Serg(ia) Hadriano / co(n)s(uli) VIIviro epulonum sodali Augustali leg(ato) pro pr(aetore) Imp(eratoris) Nervae Traiani / Caesaris Aug(usti) Germanici Dacici Pannoniae inferioris praetori eodemque / tempore leg(ato) leg(ionis) I Minerviae P(iae) F(idelis) bello Dacico item trib(uno) pleb(is) quaestori Imperatoris / Traiani et comiti expeditionis Dacicae donis militaribus ab eo donato bis trib(uno) leg(ionis) II / Adiutricis P(iae) F(idelis) item legionis V Macedonicae item legionis XXII Primigeniae P(iae) F(idelis) seviro / turmae eq(uitum) R(omanorum) praef(ecto) feriarum Latinarum Xviro s(tlitibus) i(udicandis) //...(text in greek) (as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after his apotheosis, known as Hadrian in English; January 24, 76 – July 10, 138) was emperor of Rome from AD 117 to 138, as well as a Stoic and Epicurean philosopher. A member of the gens Aelia, Hadrian was the third of the so-called Five Good Emperors, or the second of the recently proposed Ulpio-Aelian dynasty. By Alicia M. Canto, vid. and footnote 1, specially ; see later , p.13 (2005) or (2006) Hadrian was born Publius Aelius Hadrianus in Italica Alicia M. Canto, "Itálica, patria y ciudad natal de Adriano (31 textos históricos y argumentos contra Vita Hadr. 1, 3", Athenaeum vol. 92.2, 2004, pp. 367–408 . or, less probably, in Rome, As Canto states, it exists only one ancient quote of Hadrian's birth in Rome (SHA, Vita Hadr 2,4, probably interpolated), opposite to 25 ancient authors who affirm that he was born in Italica. Among these ancient sources is included his own imperial horoscope, which remained in the famous Antigonus of Nicaea's collection (end of the 2nd. century A.D.). This horoscope was well studied by prominent authors as F. H. Cramer, Astrology in Roman Law and Politics, Mem.Amer.Philos.Soc. nr. 37 , Philadelphia, 1954 (repr. 1996), see for Hadrian p. 162–178, fn. 121b and 122, etc.: "...Hadrian -whose horoscope is absolutely certain- surely was born in southern Spain... (in) SHA, Hadrian, 2, 4, the birth was erroneusly assigned to Rome instead of Italica, the actual birth-place of Hadrian...", or O. Neugebauer and H. B. Van Hoesen in their magisterial compilation Greek Horoscopes, Mem.Amer.Philos.Soc. nr. 48, Philadelphia, 1959, nr. L76, see now here, ed. 1987 pp. 80, 90-91 and his footnote 19. They came also to the conclusion that the astronomic parallel of the Hadrian’s birth is situated in the Baetica, today Andalusia: “...L40 agrees exactly with the geographical latitude of southern Spain, the place of origin of Hadrian and his family...”.. "since Hadrian was born in Italica (southern Spain, near Seville, latitude about 37° 30)...". from a well-established family which had originated in Picenum in Italy and had subsequently settled in Italica, Hispania Baetica (the republican Hispania Ulterior), near the present day location of Seville, Spain. His predecessor Trajan was a maternal cousin of Hadrian's father. Eutr. VIII. 6: "...nam eum (Hadrianum) Traianus, quamquam consobrinae suae filium..." and SHA, Vita Hadr. I, 2: ...pater Aelius Hadrianus cognomento Afer fuit, consobrinus Traiani imperatoris. Trajan never officially designated a successor, but, according to his wife, Pompeia Plotina, Trajan named Hadrian emperor immediately before his death. Trajan's wife was well-disposed toward Hadrian: Hadrian may well have owed his succession to her. Hadrian's presumed indebtedness to Plotina was widely regarded as the reason for Hadrian's succession. However, there is evidence that he accomplished his succession on his own governing and leadership merits while Trajan was still alive. For example, between the years AD 100–108 Trajan gave several public examples of his personal favour towards Hadrian, such as betrothing him to his grandniece, Vibia Sabina, designating him quaestor Imperatoris, comes Augusti, giving him Nerva's diamond "as hope of succession", proposing him for consul suffectus, and other gifts and distinctions. The young Hadrian was Trajan's only direct male family/marriage/bloodline. The support of Plotina and of L. Licinius Sura (died in AD 108) were nonetheless extremely important for Hadrian, already in this early epoch. After A.M. Canto, in , specifically pp. 322, 328, 341 and footnote 124, where she stands out SHA, Vita Hadr. 1.2: pro filio habitus (years 93); 3.2: ad bellum Dacicum Traianum familiarius prosecutus est (year 101) or, principally, 3.7: quare adamante gemma quam Traianus a Nerva acceperat donatus ad spem successionis erectus est (year 107). Early life Although it was an accepted part of Hadrian's personal history that Hadrian was born in Italica located in the province called Hispania Baetica (the southernmost Roman province in the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal), he himself stated in his autobiography, now lost, that he was born in Rome on 24 January 76 of a family originally Italian, But see footnotes 4 and 5. but Hispanian for many generations. However, this may be made up so Hadrian would look like a pure-bred Roman instead of being from the provinces. Historia Augusta, 'Hadrian', I-II, here explicitly citing the autobiography. This is one of the passages in the Historia Augusta where there is no reason to suspect invention. But see now the Canto's 31 contrary arguments in the op.cit. supra; among them, in the same Historia Augusta and, from the same author, Aelius Spartianus, Vita Sev. 21: Falsus est etiam ipse Traianus in suo municipe ac nepote diligendo, see also , and, characterizing him as a man of provinces (Canto, ibid.): Vita Hadr. 1,3: Quaesturam gessit Traiano quater et Articuleio consulibus, in qua cum orationem imperatoris in senatu agrestius pronuntians risus esset, usque ad summam peritiam et facundiam Latinis operam dedit His father was the Hispano-Roman Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, who as a senator of praetorian rank would spend much of his time in Rome. On the numerous senatorial families from Hispania residing at Rome and its vicinity around the time of Hadrian’s birth see R.Syme, 'Spaniards at Tivoli', in Roman Papers IV (Oxford, 1988), pp.96-114. Tivoli (Tibur) was of course the site of Hadrian’s own imperial villa. Hadrian’s forefathers came from Hadria, modern Atri, an ancient town of Picenum in Italy, but the family had settled in Italica in Hispania Baetica soon after its founding by Scipio Africanus. Afer was a paternal cousin of the future Emperor Trajan. His mother was Domitia Paulina who came from Gades (Cádiz). Paulina was a daughter of a distinguished Hispano-Roman Senatorial family. Hadrian’s elder sister and only sibling was Aelia Domitia Paulina, married with the triple consul Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus, his niece was Julia Serviana Paulina and his great-nephew was Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, from Barcino. His parents died in 86 when Hadrian was ten, and the boy then became a ward of both Trajan and Publius Acilius Attianus (who was later Trajan’s Praetorian Prefect). Royston Lambert, Beloved And God, pp.31–32. Hadrian was schooled in various subjects particular to young aristocrats of the day, and was so fond of learning Greek literature that he was nicknamed Graeculus ("Greekling"). Hadrian visited Italica when (or never left it until) he was 14, when he was recalled by Trajan who thereafter looked after his development. He never returned to Italica although it was later made a colonia in his honour. Aul.Gell., Noct.Att. XVI, 13, 4, and some inscriptions in the city with C(olonia) A(elia) A(ugusta) I(talica) His first military service was as a tribune of the Legio II Adiutrix. Later, he was to be transferred to the Legio I Minervia in Germany. When Nerva died in 98, Hadrian rushed to inform Trajan personally. He later became legate of a legion in Upper Pannonia and eventually governor of said province. He was also archon in Athens for a brief time, and was elected an Athenian citizen. The inscription in footnote 1 His career before becoming emperor follows: decemvir stlitibus iudicandis - sevir turmae equitum Romanorum - praefectus Urbi feriarum Latinarum - tribunus militum legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis (95, in Pannonia Inferior) - tribunus militum legionis V Macedonicae (96, in Moesia Inferior) - tribunus militum legionis XXII Primigeniae Piae Fidelis (97, in Germania Superior) - quaestor (101) - ab actis senatus - tribunus plebis (105) - praetor (106) - legatus legionis I Minerviae Piae Fidelis (106, in Germania Inferior) - legatus Augusti pro praetore Pannoniae Inferioris (107) - consul suffectus (108) - septemvir epulonum (before 112) - sodalis Augustalis (before 112) - archon Athenis (112/13) - legatus Syriae (117). H. W. Benario in Hadrian was active in the wars against the Dacians (as legate of the V Macedonica) and reputedly won awards from Trajan for his successes. Due to an absence of military action in his reign, Hadrian's military skill is not well attested; however, his keen interest and knowledge of the army and his demonstrated skill of administration show possible strategic talent. Hadrian joined Trajan's expedition against Parthia as a legate on Trajan’s staff. Anthony Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor, p. 68 Neither during the initial victorious phase, nor during the second phase of the war when rebellion swept Mesopotamia did Hadrian do anything of note. However when the governor of Syria had to be sent to sort out renewed troubles in Dacia, Hadrian was appointed as a replacement, giving him an independent command. Anthony Birley, p. 75 Trajan, seriously ill by that time, decided to return to Rome while Hadrian remained in Syria to guard the Roman rear. Trajan only got as far as Selinus before he became too ill to go further. While Hadrian may have been the obvious choice as successor, he had never been adopted as Trajan's heir. As Trajan lay dying, nursed by his wife, Plotina (a supporter of Hadrian), he at last adopted Hadrian as heir. Since the document was signed by Plotina, it has been suggested that Trajan may have already been dead. Elizabeth Speller, p. 26 Emperor Securing power The Roman empire in 125 AD, under the rule of Hadrian. Castel Sant'Angelo, the ancient Hadrian Mausoleum. This famous statue of Hadrian in Greek dress was revealed in 2008 to have been forged in the Victorian era by cobbling together a head of Hadrian and an unknown body. For years the statue had been used by historians as proof of Hadrian's love of Hellenic culture. Hadrian quickly secured the support of the legions— one potential opponent, Lusius Quietus, was instantly dismissed. Royston Lambert The Senate's endorsement followed when possibly falsified papers of adoption from Trajan were presented (although he had been the ward of Trajan). The rumor of a falsified document of adoption carried little weight — Hadrian's legitimacy arose from the endorsement of the Senate and the Syrian armies. Marble statue of Hadrian (Istanbul Archeological Museum). Hadrian did not at first go to Rome — he was busy sorting out the East and suppressing the Jewish revolt that had broken out under Trajan, then moving on to sort out the Danube frontier. Instead, Attianus, Hadrian's former guardian, was put in charge in Rome. There he "discovered" a plot involving four leading Senators including Lusius Quietus and demanded of the Senate their deaths. There was no question of a trial — they were hunted down and killed out of hand. Because Hadrian was not in Rome at the time, he was able to claim that Attianus had acted on his own initiative. According to Elizabeth Speller the real reason for their deaths was that they were Trajan's men. Elizabeth Speller. Hadrian and the military Despite his own great stature as a military administrator, Hadrian's reign was marked by a general lack of major military conflicts, apart from the Second Roman-Jewish War. He surrendered Trajan's conquests in Mesopotamia, considering them to be indefensible. There was almost a war with Parthia around 121, but the threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace. The peace policy was strengthened by the erection of permanent fortifications along the empire's borders (limites, sl. limes). The most famous of these is the massive Hadrian's Wall in Great Britain, and the Danube and Rhine borders were strengthened with a series of mostly wooden fortifications, forts, outposts and watchtowers, the latter specifically improving communications and local area security. To maintain morale and keep the troops from getting restive, Hadrian established intensive drill routines, and personally inspected the armies. Although his coins showed military images almost as often as peaceful ones, Hadrian's policy was peace through strength, even threat. Elizabeth Speller, p. 69 Cultural pursuits and patronage Hadrian has been described, by Ronald Syme among others, as the most versatile of all the Roman Emperors. He also liked to display a knowledge of all intellectual and artistic fields. Above all, Hadrian patronized the arts: Hadrian's Villa at Tibur (Tivoli) was the greatest Roman example of an Alexandrian garden, recreating a sacred landscape, lost in large part to the despoliation of the ruins by the Cardinal d'Este who had much of the marble removed to build Villa d'Este. In Rome, the Pantheon, originally built by Agrippa but destroyed by fire in 80, was rebuilt under Hadrian in the domed form it retains to this day. It is among the best preserved of Rome's ancient buildings and was highly influential to many of the great architects of the Italian Renaissance and Baroque periods. From well before his reign, Hadrian displayed a keen interest in architecture, but it seems that his eagerness was not always well received. For example, Apollodorus of Damascus, famed architect of the Forum of Trajan, dismissed his designs. When Trajan, predecessor to Hadrian, consulted Apollodorus about an architectural problem, Hadrian interrupted to give advice, to which Apollodorus replied, "Go away and draw your pumpkins. You know nothing about these problems." "Pumpkins" refers to Hadrian's drawings of domes like the Serapeum in his Villa. It is rumored that once Hadrian succeeded Trajan to become emperor, he had Apollodorus exiled and later put to death. It is very possible that this later story was a later attempt to defame his character, as Hadrian, though popular among a great many across the empire, was not universally admired, either in his lifetime or afterward. Hadrian wrote poetry in both Latin and Greek; one of the few surviving examples is a Latin poem he reportedly composed on his deathbed (see below). He also wrote an autobiography – not, apparently, a work of great length or revelation, but designed to scotch various rumours or explain his various actions. The work is lost but was apparently used by the writer — whether Marius Maximus or someone else – on whom the Historia Augusta principally relied for its vita of Hadrian: at least, a number of statements in the vita have been identified (by Ronald Syme and others) as probably ultimately stemming from the autobiography. Hadrian was a passionate hunter, already from the time of his youth according to one source. Historia Augusta, Hadrian 2.1. In northwest Asia, he founded and dedicated a city to commemorate a she-bear he killed. Fox, Robin The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian Basic Books. 2006 pg 574 It is documented that in Egypt he and his beloved Antinous killed a lion. In Rome, eight reliefs featuring Hadrian in different stages of hunting on a building that began as a monument celebrating a kill. Another of Hadrian's contributions to "popular" culture was the beard, which symbolised his philhellenism. Except for Nero (also a great lover of Greek culture), all Roman emperors before Hadrian were clean shaven. Most of the emperors after Hadrian would be portrayed with beards. Their beards, however, were not worn out of an appreciation for Greek culture but because the beard had, thanks to Hadrian, become fashionable. Hadrian was a humanist and deeply Hellenophile in all his tastes. He favoured the doctrines of the philosophers Epictetus, Heliodorus and Favorinus, but was generally considered an Epicurean, as were some of his friends such as Caius Bruttius Praesens. At home he attended to social needs. Hadrian mitigated but did not abolish slavery, had the legal code humanized and forbade torture. He built libraries, aqueducts, baths and theaters. Hadrian is considered by many historians to have been wise and just: Schiller called him "the Empire's first servant", and British historian Edward Gibbon admired his "vast and active genius", as well as his "equity and moderation". In 1776, he stated that Hadrian's epoch was part of the "happiest era of human history". While visiting Greece in 126, Hadrian attempted to create a kind of provincial parliament to bind all the semi-autonomous former city states across all Greece and Ionia (in Asia Minor). This parliament, known as the Panhellenion, failed despite spirited efforts to instill cooperation among the Hellenes. Hadrian was especially famous for his relationship with a Greek youth, Antinous, whom he met in Bithynia in 124 when the boy was thirteen or fourteen. While touring Egypt in 130, Antinous mysteriously drowned in the Nile. Deeply saddened, Hadrian founded the Egyptian city of Antinopolis, and had Antinous deified - an unprecedented honour for one not of the ruling family. Hadrian died at his villa in Baiae. He was buried in a mausoleum on the western bank of the Tiber, in Rome, a building later transformed into a papal fortress, Castel Sant'Angelo. The dimensions of his mausoleum, in its original form, were deliberately designed to be slightly larger than the earlier Mausoleum of Augustus. According to Cassius Dio a gigantic equestrian statue was erected to Hadrian after his death. "It was so large that the bulkiest man could walk through the eye of each horse, yet because of the extreme height of the foundation persons passing along on the ground below believe that the horses themselves as well as Hadrian are very small." Hadrian's travels Purpose This aureus by Hadrian celebrates the games held in honor of the 874th birthday of Rome. The Stoic-Epicurean Emperor traveled broadly, inspecting and correcting the legions in the field. Even prior to becoming emperor, he had traveled abroad with the Roman military, giving him much experience in the matter. More than half his reign was spent outside of Italy. Other emperors often left Rome to simply go to war, returning soon after conflicts concluded. A previous emperor, Nero, once traveled through Greece and was condemned for his self indulgence. Hadrian, by contrast, traveled as a fundamental part of his governing, and made this clear to the Roman senate and the people. He was able to do this because at Rome he possessed a loyal supporter within the upper echelons of Roman society, a military veteran by the name of Marcius Turbo. Also, there are hints within certain sources that he also employed a secret police force, the frumentarii, to exert control and influence in case anything should go wrong while he journeyed abroad. Hadrian's visits were marked by handouts which often contained instructions for the construction of new public buildings. Hadrian was willful of strengthening the Empire from within through improved infrastructure, as opposed to conquering or annexing perceived enemies. This was often the purpose of his journeys; commissioning new structures, projects and settlements. His almost evangelical belief in Greek culture strengthened his views: like many emperors before him, Hadrian's will was almost always obeyed. His traveling court was large, including administrators and likely architects and builders. The burden on the areas he passed through were sometimes great. While his arrival usually brought some benefits it is possible that those who had to carry the burden were of different class to those who reaped the benefits. For example, huge amounts of provisions were requisitioned during his visit to Egypt, this suggests that the burden on the mainly subsistence farmers must have been intolerable, causing some measure of starvation and hardship. Elizabeth Speller, pp. 74–81. At the same time, as in later times all the way through the European Renaissance, kings were welcomed into their cities or lands, and the financial burden was completely on them, and only indirectly on the poorer class. Hadrian's first tour came in 121 and was initially aimed at covering his back to allow himself the freedom to concern himself with his general cultural aims. He traveled north, towards Germania and inspected the Rhine-Danube frontier, allocating funds to improve the defenses. However it was a voyage to the Empire's very frontiers that represented his perhaps most significant visit; upon hearing of a recent revolt, he journeyed to Britannia. Britannia Hadrian's Wall (Vallum Hadriani), a fortification in Northern England (viewed from Vercovicium) Hadrian's Gate, in Antalya, southern Turkey was built to honour Hadrian who visited the city in 130 CE. Prior to Hadrian's arrival on Great Britain there had been a major rebellion in Britannia, spanning roughly two years (119–121). The Historia Augusta notes that 'the Britons could not be kept under Roman control; Pompeius Falco was sent to Britain to restore order (Birley 123) and coins of 119-120 refer to this. It was here where in 122 he initiated the building of Hadrian's Wall (the exact Latin name of which is unknown). The purpose of the wall is academically debated. In 1893, Haverfield stated categorically that the Wall was a means of military defence. This prevailing, early 20th century view was challenged by Collingwood in 1922. Since then, other points of view have been put forwards; the wall has been seen as a marker to the limits of Romanitas, Johnson, Hadrian's Wall (English Heritage Publications, 1989) as a monument to Hadrian to gain glory in lieu of military campaigns, as work to keep the Army busy and prevent mutiny and waste through boredom, or to safeguard the frontier province of Britannia, by preventing future small scale invasions and unwanted immigration from the northern country of Caledonia (now modern day Scotland). Caledonia was inhabited by tribes known to the Romans as Caledonians. Hadrian realized that the Caledonians would refuse to cohabitate with the Romans. He also was aware that although Caledonia was valuable, the harsh terrain and highlands made its conquest costly and unprofitable for the Empire at large. Thus, he decided instead on building a wall. Unlike the Germanic limes, built of wood palisades, the lack of suitable wood in the area required a stone construction; Birley 131-133 nevertheless, the Western third of the wall, from modern-day Carlisle to the River Irthing, was built of turf because of the lack of suitable building stone. This problem also led to the narrowing of the width of the wall, from the original 12 feet to 7, saving masonry. Breeze and Dobson (2000) pp. 15-17. Hadrian is perhaps most famous for the construction of this wall whose ruins still span many miles and to date bear his name. In many ways it represents Hadrian's will to improve and develop within the Empire, rather than waging wars and conquering. Under him, a shrine was erected in York to Britain as a Goddess, and coins were struck which introduced a female figure as the personification of Britain, labeled BRITANNIA. By the end of 122 he had concluded his visit to Britannia, and from there headed south by sea to Mauretania. Parthia and Anatolia In 123, he arrived in Mauretania where he personally led a campaign against local rebels. Royston Lambert, pp. 41–42. However this visit was to be short, as reports came through that the Eastern nation of Parthia was again preparing for war, as a result Hadrian quickly headed eastwards. On his journey east it is known that at some point he visited Cyrene during which he personally made available funds for the training of the young men of well bred families for the Roman military. This might well have been a stop off during his journey East. Cyrene had already benefited from his generosity when he in 119 had provided funds for the rebuilding of public buildings destroyed in the recent Jewish revolt. Anthony Birley, pp. 151–152. When Hadrian arrived on the Euphrates, he characteristically solved the problem through a negotiated settlement with the Parthian king Osroes I. He then proceeded to check the Roman defenses before setting off West along the coast of the Black Sea. Anthony Birley, pp. 153 – 155 He probably spent the winter in Nicomedia, the main city of Bithynia. As Nicomedia had been hit by an earthquake only shortly prior to his stay, Hadrian was generous in providing funds for rebuilding. Thanks to his generosity he was acclaimed as the chief restorer of the province as a whole. It is more than possible that Hadrian visited Claudiopolis and there espied the beautiful Antinous, a young boy who was destined to become the emperor's beloved. Sources say nothing about when Hadrian met Antinous, however, there are depictions of Antinous that shows him as a young man of 20 or so. As this was shortly before Antinous's drowning in 130 Antinous would more likely have been a youth of 13 or 14. Anthony Birley, pp. 157–158. It is possible that Antinous may have been sent to Rome to be trained as page to serve the emperor and only gradually did he rise to the status of imperial favorite. Royston Lambert, pp. 60–61. After meeting Antinous, Hadrian traveled through Anatolia. The route he took is uncertain. Various incidents are described such as his founding of a city within Mysia, Hadrianutherae, after a successful boar hunt. (The building of the city was probably more than a mere whim — lowly populated wooded areas such as the location of the new city were already ripe for development). Some historians dispute whether Hadrian did in fact commission the city's construction at all. At about this time, plans to build a temple in Asia minor were written up. The new temple would be dedicated to Trajan and Hadrian and built with dazzling white marble. Anthony Birley, pp. 164–167. Greece Temple of Zeus in Athens. The Pantheon was rebuilt by Hadrian. The climax of this tour was the destination that the hellenophile Hadrian must all along have had in mind, Greece. He arrived in the autumn of 124 in time to participate in the Eleusinian Mysteries. By tradition at one stage in the ceremony the initiates were supposed to carry arms but this was waived to avoid any risk to the emperor among them. At the Athenians' request he conducted a revision of their constitution — among other things a new phyle (tribe) was added bearing his name. Anthony Birley, pp. 175-177. During the winter he toured the Peloponnese. His exact route is uncertain, however Pausanias reports of tell-tale signs, such as temples built by Hadrian and the statue of the emperor built by the grateful citizens of Epidaurus in thanks to their "restorer". He was especially generous to Mantinea which supports the theory that Antinous was in fact already Hadrian's lover because of the strong link between Mantinea and Antinous's home in Bithynia. Anthony Birley, pp. 177 – 180 By March 125, Hadrian had reached Athens presiding over the festival of Dionysia. The building program that Hadrian initiated was substantial. Various rulers had done work on building the Temple of Olympian Zeus — it was Hadrian who ensured that the job would be finished. He also initiated the construction of several public buildings on his own whim and even organized the building of an aqueduct. Anthony Birley, pp. 182–184. Return to Italy On his return to Italy, Hadrian made a detour to Sicily. Coins celebrate him as the restorer of the island though there is no record of what he did to earn this accolade. Anthony Birley, pp. 189–190. Back in Rome he was able to see for himself the completed work of rebuilding the Pantheon. Also completed by then was Hadrian's villa nearby at Tibur a pleasant retreat by the Sabine Hills for whenever Rome became too much for him. At the beginning of March 127 Hadrian set off for a tour of Italy. Once again, historians are able to reconstruct his route by evidence of his hand-outs rather than the historical records. For instance, in that year he restored the Picentine earth goddess Cupra in the town of Cupra Maritima. At some unspecified time he improved the drainage of the Fucine lake. Less welcome than such largesse was his decision to divide Italy into 4 regions under imperial legates with consular rank. Being effectively reduced to the status of mere provinces did not go down well and this innovation did not long outlive Hadrian. Anthony Birley, pp. 191–200. Hadrian fell ill around this time, though the nature of his sickness is not known. Whatever the illness was, it did not stop him from setting off in the spring of 128 to visit Africa. His arrival began with the good omen of rain ending a drought. Along with his usual role as benefactor and restorer he found time to inspect the troops and his speech to the troops survives to this day. Royston Lambert, pp. 71–72. Hadrian returned to Italy in the summer of 128 but his stay was brief before setting off on another tour that would last three years. Anthony Birley, pp. 213–214. Greece, Asia and Egypt In September 128 Hadrian again attended the Eleusinian mysteries. This time his visit to Greece seems to have concentrated on Athens and Sparta — the two ancient rivals for dominance of Greece. Hadrian had played with the idea of focusing his Greek revival round Amphictyonic League based in Delphi but he by now had decided on something far grander. His new Panhellenion was going to be a council that would bring together Greek cities wherever they might be found. The meeting place was to be the new temple to Zeus in Athens. Having set in motion the preparations — deciding whose claim to be a Greek city was genuine would in itself take time — Hadrian set off for Ephesus. Anthony Birley, pp. 215–220. In October 130, while Hadrian and his entourage were sailing on the Nile, Antinous drowned, for unknown reasons, though accident, suicide, murder or religious sacrifice have all been postulated. The emperor was grief stricken. He ordered Antinous deified, and cities were named after the boy, medals struck with his effigy, and statues erected to him in all parts of the empire. Temples were built for his worship in Bithynia, Mantineia in Arcadia, and Athens, festivals celebrated in his honour and oracles delivered in his name. The city of Antinopolis or Antinoe was founded on the ruins of Besa where he died (Cassius Dio, LIX.11; Historia Augusta, Hadrian). Greece, Judaea, Illyricum Hadrian’s movements subsequent to the founding of Antinopolis on October 30, 130 are obscure. Whether or not he returned to Rome, he spent the winter of 131–32 in Athens and probably remained in Greece or further East because of the Jewish rebellion which broke out in Judaea in 132 (see below). Inscriptions make it clear that he took the field in person against the rebels with his army in 133; he then returned to Rome, probably in that year and almost certainly (judging again from inscriptions) via Illyricum. Ronald Syme, "Journeys of Hadrian" (1988), pp. 164-169. Second Roman-Jewish War In 130, Hadrian visited the ruins of Jerusalem, in Judaea, left after the First Roman-Jewish War of 66–73. He rebuilt the city, renaming it Aelia Capitolina after himself and Jupiter Capitolinus, the chief Roman deity. A new temple dedicated to the worship of Jupiter was built on the ruins of the old Jewish Second Temple, which had been destroyed in 70. Cassius Dio, Roman history 69.12.1 In addition, Hadrian abolished circumcision, which was considered by Romans and Greeks as a form of bodily mutilation and hence "barbaric". Historia Augusta, Hadrian 14.2. These anti-Jewish policies of Hadrian triggered in Judaea a massive Jewish uprising, led by Simon bar Kokhba and Akiba ben Joseph. Following the outbreak of the revolt, Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britain, and troops were brought from as far as the Danube. Roman losses were very heavy, and it is believed that an entire legion, the XXII Deiotariana was destroyed. livius.org account(Legio XXII Deiotariana) Indeed, Roman losses were so heavy that Hadrian's report to the Roman Senate omitted the customary salutation "I and the legions are well". Cassius Dio 69, 14.3 However, Hadrian's army eventually put down the rebellion in 135, after three years of fighting. According to Cassius Dio, during the war 580,000 Jews were killed, 50 fortified towns and 985 villages razed. The final battle took place in Beitar, a fortified city 10 km. southwest of Jerusalem. The city only fell after a lengthy siege, and Hadrian did not allow the Jews to bury their dead. According to the Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 57a-58b; Lamentations Rabbah 2.2 §4; after the war Hadrian continued the persecution of Jews. He attempted to root out Judaism, which he saw as the cause of continuous rebellions, prohibited the Torah law, the Hebrew calendar and executed Judaic scholars (see Ten Martyrs). The sacred scroll was ceremonially burned on the Temple Mount. In an attempt to erase the memory of Judaea, he renamed the province Syria Palaestina (after the Philistines), and Jews were forbidden from entering its rededicated capital. When Jewish sources mention Hadrian it is always with the epitaph "may his bones be crushed" (שחיק עצמות), an expression never used even with respect to Vespasian or Titus who destroyed the Second Temple. Final years Succession Bust of Hadrian, National Archaeological Museum of Athens Hadrian spent the final years of his life at Rome. In 134, he took an Imperial salutation or the end of the Second Jewish War (which was not actually concluded until the following year). In 136, he dedicated a new Temple of Venus and Roma on the former site of Nero's Golden House. About this time, suffering from poor health, he turned to the problem of the succession. In 136 he adopted one of the ordinary consuls of that year, Lucius Ceionius Commodus, who took the name Lucius Aelius Caesar. He was both the stepson and son-in-law of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, one of the "four consulars" executed in 118, but was himself in delicate health. Granted tribunician power and the governorship of Pannonia, Aelius Caesar held a further consulship in 137, but died on January 1, 138. Anthony Birley, pp. 289-292. Following the death of Aelius Caesar, Hadrian next adopted Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus (the future emperor Antoninus Pius), who had served as one of the four imperial legates of Italy (a post created by Hadrian) and as proconsul of Asia. On 25 February 138 Antoninus received tribunician power and imperium. Moreover, to ensure the future of the dynasty, Hadrian required Antoninus to adopt both Lucius Ceionius Commodus (son of the deceased Aelius Caesar) and Marcus Annius Verus (who was the grandson of an influential senator of the same name who had been Hadrian’s close friend; Annius was already betrothed to Aelius Caesar’s daughter Ceionia Fabia). Hadrian’s precise intentions in this arrangement are debatable. Though the consensus is that he wanted Annius Verus (who would later become the Emperor Marcus Aurelius) to succeed Antoninus, it has also been argued that he actually intended Ceionius Commodus, the son of his own adopted son, to succeed, but was constrained to show favour simultaneously to Annius Verus because of his strong connections to the Hispano-Narbonensian nexus of senatorial families of which Hadrian himself was a part. It may well not have been Hadrian, but rather Antoninus Pius — who was Annius Verus’s uncle – who advanced the latter to the principal position. The fact that Annius would divorce Ceionia Fabia and re-marry to Antoninus' daughter Annia Faustina points in the same direction. When he eventually became Emperor, Marcus Aurelius would co-opt Ceionius Commodus as his co-Emperor (under the name of Lucius Verus) on his own initiative. The adoptions: Anthony Birley, pp. 294-295; T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', Journal of Roman Studies (1967), Ronald Syme, Tacitus, p. 601. Antoninus as a legate of Italy: Anthony Birley, p. 199. The ancient sources present Hadrian's last few years as marked by conflict and unhappiness. The adoption of Aelius Caesar proved unpopular, not least with Hadrian's brother-in-law Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus and Servianus' grandson Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. Servianus, though now far too old, had stood in line of succession at the beginning of the reign; Fuscus is said to have had designs on the imperial power for himself, and in 137 he may have attempted a coup in which his grandfather was implicated. Whatever the truth, Hadrian ordered that both be put to death. Anthony Birley, pp. 291-292. Servianus is reported to have prayed before his execution that Hadrian would "long for death but be unable to die". Dio 69.17.2 The prayer was fulfilled; as Hadrian suffered from his final, protracted illness, he had to be prevented from suicide on several occasions. Anthony Birley, p. 297. Death Hadrian died in 138 on the tenth day of July, in his villa at Baiae at age 62. The cause of death is believed to have been heart failure. Dio Cassius and the Historia Augusta record details of his failing health, and a study published in 1980 drew attention to classical sculptures of Hadrian that show he had diagonal earlobe creases – a characteristic associated with coronary heart disease. Diagonal Earlobe Creases, Type A Behavior and the Death of Emperor Hadrian ; Nicholas L. Petrakis, MD, West J Med. 1980 January; 132(1): 87–91. Hadrian was buried first at Puteoli, near Baiae, on an estate which had once belonged to Cicero. Soon after, his remains were transferred to Rome and buried in the Gardens of Domitia, close by the almost-complete mausoleum. Upon the completion of the Tomb of Hadrian in Rome in 139 by his successor Antoninus Pius, his body was cremated, and his ashes were placed there together with those of his wife Vibia Sabina and his first adopted son, Lucius Aelius, who also died in 138. Antoninus also had him deified in 139 and given a temple on the Campus Martius. Poem by Hadrian According to the Historia Augusta Hadrian composed shortly before his death the following poem: Historia Augusta, Hadrian 25.9; Antony Birley, p. 301. Animula, vagula, blandula Hospes comesque corporis Quae nunc abibis in loca Pallidula, rigida, nudula, Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos... P. Aelius Hadrianus Imp. Little soul, roamer and charmer Body's guest and companion Who soon will depart to places Darkish, chilly and misty An end to all your jokes... Notes References Primary sources Cassius Dio or Dio Cassius Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Augustan History. Translated by David Magie Aurelius Victor, Caesares, XIV. Latin Anon., Excerpta of Aurelius Victor: Epitome de Caesaribus, XIII. Latin Inscriptions: Smallwood, E.M., Documents Illustrating the Principates of Nerva Trajan and Hadrian, Cambridge, 1966. Secondary sources Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. I, 1776. The Online Library of Liberty Reprinted in Further reading Bernard W. Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Hadrian, 1923; External links Historia Augusta: Life of Hadrian Hadrian, in: De Imperatoribus Romanis, An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Hadrian coinage Temple of Hadrian Quicktime VR, Rome Catholic Encyclopedia article A Bibliography Major scultoric find at Sagalassos (Turkey), August 2, 2007 (between 13 and 16 feet in height, four to five meters), with some splendid photos courtesy of the Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project Next exhibition on Hadrian in the British Museum, 24 July – 26 October 2008: "Hadrian, Empire and Conflict". 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6,639 | Input%2Foutput | In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world – possibly a human, or another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation. I/O devices are used by a person (or other system) to communicate with a computer. For instance, keyboards and mouses are considered input devices of a computer, while monitors and printers are considered output devices of a computer. Devices for communication between computers, such as modems and network cards, typically serve for both input and output. Note that the designation of a device as either input or output depends on the perspective. Mouses and keyboards take as input physical movement that the human user outputs and convert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these devices is input for the computer. Similarly, printers and monitors take as input signals that a computer outputs. They then convert these signals into representations that human users can see or read. (For a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving input.) In computer architecture, the combination of the CPU and main memory (i.e. memory that the CPU can read and write to directly, with individual instructions) is considered the brain of a computer, and from that point of view any transfer of information from or to that combination, for example to or from a disk drive, is considered I/O. The CPU and its supporting circuitry provide memory-mapped I/O that is used in low-level computer programming in the implementation of device drivers. Interface I/O Interface is required whenever the I/O device is driven by the processor. The interface must have necessory logic to interpret the device address generated by the processor. Handshaking should be implemented by the interface using appropriate commands like (BUSY,READY,WAIT) the processor can communicate with I/O device through the interface. If incase different data formated being exchanged; interface must be able to convert serial data to parallel form and vice-versa. There must be provision for generating interrupts and the corresponding type numbers for further processing by the processor if required A computer that uses memory-mapped I/O accesses hardware by reading and writing to specific memory locations, using the same assembler language instructions that computer would normally use to access memory. Higher-level implementation Higher-level operating system and programming facilities employ separate, more abstract I/O concepts and primitives. For example, most operating systems provide application programs with the concept of files. The C and C++ programming languages, and operating systems in the Unix family, traditionally abstract files and devices as streams, which can be read or written, or sometimes both. The C standard library provides functions for manipulating streams for input and output. In the context of the ALGOL 68 programming language, the input and output facilities are collectively referred to as transput. The ALGOL 68 transput library recognizes the following standard files/devices: stand in, stand out, stand errors and stand back. An alternative to special primitive functions is the I/O monad, which permits programs to just describe I/O, and the actions are carried out outside the program. This is notable because the I/O functions would introduce side-effects to any programming language, but now purely functional programming is practical.. Addressing mode There are many ways through which data can be read or stored in the memory. Each method is an addressing mode, and has its own advantages and limitations. There are many type of addressing modes such as direct addressing, indirect addressing, immediate addressing, index addressing, based addressing, based-index addressing, implied addressing, etc. Direct address In this type of address of the data is a part of the instructions itself. When the processor decodes the instruction, it gets the memory address from where it can be read/store the required information. Mov Reg. [Addr] Here the Addr operand points to a memory location which holds the data and copies it into the specified Reg. Indirect address Here the address can be stored in a register. The instructions will have the register which has the address. So to fetch the data, the instruction must be decoded appropriate register selected. The contents of the register will be treated as the address using this address appropriate memory location is selected and data is read/written. Port-mapped I/O Port-mapped I/O usually requires the use of instructions which are specifically designed to perform I/O operations. See also C file input/output | Input%2Foutput |@lemmatized compute:1 input:13 output:12 refers:1 communication:2 information:4 processing:3 system:7 computer:13 outside:2 world:1 possibly:1 human:4 another:1 signal:5 data:9 receive:2 send:1 term:1 also:2 use:9 part:2 action:2 perform:3 operation:2 device:12 person:1 communicate:2 instance:1 keyboard:2 mouse:2 consider:4 monitor:2 printer:2 modem:1 network:1 card:1 typically:1 serve:1 note:1 designation:1 either:1 depends:1 perspective:1 take:2 physical:1 movement:1 user:3 convert:3 understand:1 similarly:1 representation:2 see:3 read:7 process:1 reading:1 architecture:1 combination:2 cpu:3 main:1 memory:10 e:1 write:4 directly:1 individual:1 instruction:7 brain:1 point:2 view:1 transfer:1 example:2 disk:1 drive:2 support:1 circuitry:1 provide:3 map:3 low:1 level:3 program:4 implementation:2 driver:1 interface:6 require:3 whenever:1 processor:5 must:4 necessory:1 logic:1 interpret:1 address:12 generate:2 handshaking:1 implement:1 appropriate:3 command:1 like:1 busy:1 ready:1 wait:1 incase:1 different:1 format:1 exchange:1 able:1 serial:1 parallel:1 form:1 vice:1 versa:1 provision:1 interrupt:1 corresponding:1 type:3 number:1 access:2 hardware:1 specific:1 location:3 assembler:1 language:4 would:2 normally:1 high:2 operating:1 programming:5 facility:2 employ:1 separate:1 abstract:2 concept:2 primitive:2 operate:2 application:1 file:4 c:4 unix:1 family:1 traditionally:1 stream:2 sometimes:1 standard:2 library:2 function:3 manipulate:1 context:1 algol:2 collectively:1 refer:1 transput:2 recognize:1 following:1 stand:4 error:1 back:1 alternative:1 special:1 monad:1 permit:1 describe:1 carry:1 notable:1 introduce:1 side:1 effect:1 purely:1 functional:1 practical:1 mode:3 many:2 way:1 store:3 method:1 advantage:1 limitation:1 direct:2 addressing:7 indirect:2 immediate:1 index:2 base:2 implied:1 etc:1 decode:2 get:1 required:1 mov:1 reg:2 addr:2 operand:1 hold:1 copy:1 specify:1 register:4 fetch:1 select:2 content:1 treat:1 port:2 mapped:1 usually:1 specifically:1 design:1 |@bigram input_output:7 vice_versa:1 |
6,640 | Larissa | The eternal symbol of the city, artistic display. Larissa (, Lárisa) is a city and the capital of the Thessaly periphery of Greece, and capital of the Larissa Prefecture. It is a principal agricultural centre and a national transportation hub, linked by rail with the port of Volos and with Thessaloniki and Athens. The population of the greater area is around 250,000, and takes in the Municipalities of Nikaia, Giannouli and other smaller suburban communities. According to archaeological evidence, the capital of Thessaly, Larissa, lies atop a site that has been inhabited since the tenth millennium before Christ. A major commercial and industrial centre, Larissa sits in the middle of the plain of Thessaly, a few kilometers off the Athens-Thessaloniki National Road. Legend has it that Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, died here. Geography There are a number of highways E75 and the main railway from Athens to Thessaloniki (Salonika) crosses Thessaly. The region is directly linked to the rest of Europe through International Airport of Central Greece located in Nea Anchialos in a small distance from Larissa. Larissa lies on the river Pineios. The Larissa Chasma, a deep gash in the surface of Dione, a natural satellite of Jupiter, was named after Larissa. History Antiquity Traces of Paleolithic human settlement have been recovered from the area, but it was peripheral to areas of advanced culture. Curtis Runnels and Tjeerd H. van Andel. "The Lower and Middle Paleolithic of Thessaly, Greece" Journal of Field Archaeology 20.3 (Autumn 1993:299–317) summarises the survey carried out in June 1991. The area around Larissa was extremely fruitful; it was agriculturally important and in antiquity was known for its horses. The city finally moved closer to the rest of Greece. The name Larissa,<ref>"The city and the plain around it were settled in prehistoric times, and its name must be early, but it is first mentioned in connection with the aristocratic Aleuadai, whose home it was." (Richard Stillwell, William L. MacDonald, Marian Holland McAllister, eds., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (Princeton University Press) 1976, 's.v. "Larissa, or Larisa, or Pelasgis, Thessaly").</ref> inherited from the Pelasgian settlers— an alternative name for the district was Pelasgiotis— was common to many Pelasgian towns: the ancient Greek word larissa means "stronghold" . In Greek mythology the nymph Larissa was a daughter of the primordial man Pelasgus. Pausanias, 2.24.1 Larissa is thought to be where the famous Greek physician Hippocrates and the famous philosopher Gorgias of Leontini died. When Larissa ceased minting the federal coins it shared with other Thessalian towns and adopted its own coinage in the late fifth century BC, it chose local types for its coins. The obverse depicted the nymph of the local spring, Larissa, for whom the town was named; probably the choice was inspired by the famous coins of Kimon depicting the Syracusan nymph Arethusa. The reverse depicted a horse in various poses. The horse was an appropriate symbol of Thessaly, a land of plains, which was well-known for its horses. Usually there is a male figure; he should perhaps be seen as the eponymous hero of the Thessalians, Thessalos, who is probably also to be identified on many of the earlier, federal coins of Thessaly. Larissa was indeed the birthplace of Meno, who thus became, along with Xenophon and a few others, one of the generals leading several thousands Greeks from various places, in the ill-fated expedition of 404 (retold in Xenophon's Anabasis) meant to help Cyrus the Younger, son of Darius II, king of Persia, overthrow his elder brother Artaxerxes II and take over the throne of Persia (Meno is featured in Plato's dialogue bearing his name, in which Socrates uses the example of "the way to Larissa" to help explain Meno the difference between true opinion and science (Meno, 97a–c) ; this "way to Larissa" might well be on the part of Socrates an attempt to call to Meno's mind a "way home", understood as the way toward one's true and "eternal" home reached only at death, that each man is supposed to seek in his life). Cities and Locations of Ancient Greece. Larissa Hellenistic and Roman era Larissa, sometimes written Larisa on ancient coins and inscriptions, is near the site of the Homeric Argissa. It appears in early times, when Thessaly was mainly governed by a few aristocratic families, as an important city under the rule of the Aleuadae, whose authority extended over the whole district of Pelasgiotis. This powerful family possessed for many generations before 369 BC the privilege of furnishing the tagus, the local term for the strategos of the combined Thessalian forces. The principal rivals of the Aleuadae were the Scopadac of Crannon, the remains of which (called by the Turks Old Larissa) are about 14 miles south west. The inhabitants sided with Athens during the Peloponnesian War. As the chief city of ancient Thessaly, Larissa was directly annexed by Philip II of Macedon in 344, and from then on Larissa was under Macedonian control; in 196 B.C. Larissa became an ally of Rome and was the headquarters of the Thessalian League. Modern Greek era Since the 5th century it has been the seat of an archbishop. The town was taken from the Byzantine Empire by Bulgaria and later held by Serbia, with which it passed in the 15th century under the rule of the Ottoman Turks. Larissa was the headquarters of Ali Pasha during the Greek War of Independence, and of the crown prince Constantine during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. The flight of the Greek army from here to Pharsala took place on the April 23 1897. Until 1881 Larissa was the seat of a pasha in the wilaya of Iannina; and known in Turkish as Yenişehr-i Fenar'' (New Town in Greece). Its long subjection to Ottoman rule has left little trace of antiquity. In the 19th century, there was a small village in the outskirts of town very unusually inhabited by Africans from the Sudan, a curious remnant of the forces collected by Ali Pasha. In the 19th century, the town produced leather, cotton, silk and tobacco. Fevers and agues were prevalent owing to bad drainage and the overflowing of the river; and the death-rate was higher than the birth rate. It was also renowned for the minarets of its mosques (four of which were still in use in the early part of the 20th century) and the Muslim burial grounds. A considerable portion of the Turkish population emigrated in 1881. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, Turkish troops entered the city once again in April 25. After a treaty for peace was signed, they withdrew and Larissa remained permanently in Greece. This was followed by a further exodus of Turks in 1898. Historical population Larissa from space, November 2004 1889: 13,610 (city) 1907: 18,001 (city) 1907: 95,066 (prefecture) 1991: 113,781 (city) 1991: 277,973 (prefecture) 2001: 126,076 (city) 2001: 279,305 (prefecture) Archaeological sites Ancient Theatre A' Ancient Theatre B' Fortress Hill & Ancient Agora Museums Municipal Gallery-G.I. Katsigras Museum Historical & Folklore Museum Archaeological & Byzantine (Diachronic) Museum Veterinary Military Museum Folklore Society of Larissa Sites of interest Ancient Theatre St Achilles Cathedral in the hill of frourio The Church of Agios Achilios (Cathedral) on the ancient Acropolis / Frourio Hill Nike's Monument Mylos Theatrical & Cultural Complex Alkazar Park & Municipal Open Amphitheatre The memorial of Hyppocrates City Center's Pedestrian Zone Old Town (Lachanàdika-Frourio / Castle) The traditional houses at Tabakika Sentient Pinios River Park Municipal Observatory Byzantines ruins of Laou Square Phneios Places of interest near Larissa Tempi Valley Mt. Olympus Agiokampos Beach Ancient city of Lakeria Old Town of Aghià Pinios River Delta & Aquatic Zone Stomio Beach Historical village of Ambelakia Districts (quarters) The Municipality of Larissa is divided into two Municipal Districts (Larissa and Terpsithea). The Municipal District of Larissa is subdivided into four city-districts (31 city areas) and two suburban districts (Amphithea and Koulourion). The Municipal District of Terpsithea is subdivided into two suburban districts (Terpsithea and Argyssa). 1.Saint Achellios 2.Saint Nikolaos 3.Saint Athanasios 4.Alkazar 5.Hippocrates 6.Papastavrou 7.Ambelokipoi 8.Saints Saranta 9.Lachanokipoi 10.Nea Smyrne-Kamynia 11.Kalyvia-Saint Marina 12.Charavgi 13.Toumba-OKE 14.Pyrovolika-Pharos 15.Averof-Sekfo 16.Nea Politia 17.Saint Georgios 18.Pinioupolis 19.Philippoupolis 20.Livadaki 21.Epirotika 22.Neapolis 23.Saint Konstantinos 24.Stathmos 25.Anthoupolis 26.Saint Thomas 27.Saint Paraskevi-Mezourlo 28.Neraida 29.Anatoli 30.Kampos 31.Potamoupolis Transport Larissa's Urban Bus System Larissa's Interurban System Larissa Central Railway Station at Mezourlo Freight Railway station at Larissa Airport Larissa Tram (planned) Higher education and research University of Thessaly School of Medicine Technological Educational Institute of Larissa National Agricultural Research Foundation Agricultural School of Larissa Sports Two football teams are based in Larissa. Larissa F.C. currently play in Super League Greece. They were Greek Champions in 1988 and Cup Winners in 1985 & 2007. They are the only team from outside Athens or Thessaloniki to have won the Greek League. Fourth Division club Apollonas Larissa also play in the town. Olympia Larissas BC (A1 Ethniki) Basketball team AEL 1964 BC/Gymnastikos S. Larissas A1 Ethniki Alkazar Sport Complex Alkazar Arena Stadium / AEL Arena Alkazar National Stadium Municipal Swimming Pool Equestrian Club of Larissa Neapolis Palais de Sports Larissa's Nautical Club Alkazar Golf Center The Ice Skating Rink Festivals Achilleia Festival Pinios Festival Ippokrateia Festival Mediterrenean Festival of Young Cinematographers Memorial Festival of the Lost Homelands Choral Musical Festival The Carnival Festival of Tyrnavos Wine Festival of Ampelon Apple Festival of Aghià Sea Festival of Stomio Famous people Larissa mythological nymph from Thessaly Medius of Larissa (4th century BC) friend of Alexander the Great Philo of Larissa (1st century BC) philosopher Hippocrates (460 BC–370 BC) ancient physician Achillius of Larissa (270–330) saint George Seremetis (1879–1950) lawyer, mayor of Thessaloniki Kostas Gousgounis (1931) porn actor Georgios Souflias (1941) politician Lakis Lazopoulos actor, comedian, script author & director Petros Efthimiou (1950) politician Georgios Mitsibonas (1962–1997) footballer M. Karagatsis (1908–1960) novelist, journalist Vassilis Karapialis (1965) footballer Dimitris P. Kraniotis (1966) poet & medical doctor Paraskevas Boubourakas (1972) fashion model Konstantinos Chalkias (1974) footballer Alexis Georgoulis (1974) actor Yannis Goumas (1975) footballer Dimosthenis Dikoudis (1977) basketball player Fani Halkia (1979) hurdler Ekaterini Voggoli (1970) discus thrower Dimitris Spanoulis (1979) basketball player Theofanis Gekas (1980) footballer Vaggelis Moras (1981) footballer Vassilis Spanoulis (1982) basketball player Sotiris Skipis (1881–1952) poet Achilleas Tzartzanos (1873–1946) linguist, philologist Takis Tloupas (1920–2003) photographer Giorgakis Olympios (1772–1821) armatolos Anna Vagena actress Nestoras Kommatos (1977) basketball player Antonis Vratsanos (1919-2008) awarded "Senior Commander of the Order of Honor" for his action of resistance against foreign occupation troops in the years 1941-44 Twin Towns — Sister Cities Larissa is twinned with: Bălţi in Moldova Banská Bystrica in Slovakia Knoxville, Tennessee in United States Stara Zagora in Bulgaria Rybnik in Poland, since 13 June, 2003 Ürgüp in Turkey See also CERETETH, Center of Technology Thessaly 2013 Mediterranean Games Larissa-Volos Notes External links Larissa; 1911 Encyclopedia article. Official Website Region of Thessaly Official Website VOLOS — LARISSA 2013 Bid for the XVII MEDITERRENEAN GAMES Official Website International airport of Central Greece | Larissa |@lemmatized eternal:2 symbol:2 city:17 artistic:1 display:1 larissa:54 lárisa:1 capital:3 thessaly:14 periphery:1 greece:9 prefecture:4 principal:2 agricultural:3 centre:2 national:4 transportation:1 hub:1 link:3 rail:1 port:1 volos:3 thessaloniki:5 athens:5 population:3 great:2 area:5 around:3 take:4 municipality:2 nikaia:1 giannouli:1 small:3 suburban:3 community:1 accord:1 archaeological:3 evidence:1 lie:2 atop:1 site:5 inhabit:2 since:3 tenth:1 millennium:1 christ:1 major:1 commercial:1 industrial:1 sits:1 middle:2 plain:3 kilometer:1 road:1 legend:1 hippocrates:4 father:1 medicine:2 die:2 geography:1 number:1 highway:1 main:1 railway:3 salonika:1 cross:1 region:2 directly:2 rest:2 europe:1 international:2 airport:3 central:3 locate:1 nea:3 anchialos:1 distance:1 river:4 pineios:1 chasma:1 deep:1 gash:1 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6,641 | Kuomintang | The Kuomintang of China http://www.kmt.org.tw/english/page.aspx?type=para&mnum=105 ( or in English; kuomintang - Definitions from Dictionary.com,(中國國民黨\中国国民党,pinyin: Zhōngguó Guómíndǎng); in Mandarin abbreviated KMT; Hanyu Pinyin: Guómíndǎng, GMD), translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party, is a political party of the Republic of China (ROC), commonly known as Taiwan. It is the founding and the ruling political party of the ROC. The headquarters of the KMT is located in Taipei, Taiwan, and it is currently the majority party in terms of seats in the Legislative Yuan, and the oldest political party in the Republic of China. The KMT is a member of the International Democrat Union. Current president Ma Ying-jeou is the seventh KMT member to hold the office of the presidency. Together with the People First Party and Chinese New Party, the KMT forms what is known as the Taiwanese Pan-Blue coalition, which supports eventual reunification with the mainland. However, the KMT has been forced to moderate their stance by advocating political and legal status quo of modern Taiwan. The KMT accepts a One China Principle and defines "One China" to mean the Republic of China and not the People's Republic of China. In order to ease tensions with the People's Republic of China, the KMT endorses the "three noes" policy - no unification, no independence and no use of force. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2008/01/21/2003398185 The KMT was founded by Song Jiaoren and Sun Yat-sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution. Later led by Chiang Kai-shek, it ruled much of China from 1928 until its retreat to Taiwan in 1949 after defeat by the Communist Party of China (CPC) during the Chinese Civil War. There, the KMT controlled the government under a single party state until reforms in the late 1970s through the 1990s loosened its grip on power. The ROC was once referred to synonymously with the KMT and known simply as "Nationalist China" after its ruling party. Support Support for the Kuomintang in the Republic of China encompasses a wide range of groups. Kuomintang support tends to be higher in northern Taiwan and in urban areas, where it draws its backing from small to medium and self-employed business owners, who make up the majority of commercial interests in Taiwan. Big businesses are also likely to support the KMT because of its policy of maintaining commercial links with mainland China. The KMT also has strong support in the labor sector because of the many labor benefits and insurance implemented while the KMT was in power. The KMT traditionally has strong cooperation with labor unions, teachers, and government workers. Among the ethnic groups in Taiwan, the KMT has solid support among mainlanders and their descendants for ideological reasons and among Taiwanese aboriginals. Opponents of the KMT include strong supporters of Taiwan independence, and rural residents particularly in southern Taiwan, though supporters of unification include Hoklo and supporters of independence include mainlanders. There is opposition due to an image of KMT both as a mainlanders' and a Chinese nationalist party out of touch with local values. History Early years, Sun Yat-sen era The Kuomintang was founded in Guangdong Province on August 25, 1912 from a collection of several revolutionary groups that had successfully overthrown the Qing Dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution, including the Revolutionary Alliance, as a moderate democratic socialist party. Thus, the party traces its roots to the Revive China Society, which was founded in 1895 and merged with several other anti-monarchist societies as the Revolutionary Alliance in 1905. Sun Yat-sen, who had just stepped down as provisional president of the Republic of China, was chosen as its overall leader under the title of premier (), and Huang Xing was chosen as Sun's deputy. However, the most influential member of the party was the third ranking Song Jiaoren, who mobilized mass support from gentry and merchants for the KMT in winning the 1912 National Assembly election, on a platform of promoting constitutional parliamentary democracy. Though the party had an overwhelming majority in the first National Assembly, President Yuan Shikai started ignoring the parliamentary body in making presidential decisions, counter to the Constitution, and assassinated its parliamentary leader Song Jiaoren in Shanghai in 1913. Members of the KMT led by Sun Yat-sen staged the Second Revolution in July 1913, a poorly planned and ill-supported armed rising to overthrow Yuan, and failed. Yuan dissolved the KMT in November (whose members had largely fled into exile in Japan) and dismissed the parliament early in 1914. Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor in December 1915. Chiang Kai-shek, who assumed the leadership of the Kuomintang (KMT) after the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925 While exiled in Japan in 1914, Sun established the Chinese Revolutionary Party, but many of his old revolutionary comrades, including Huang Xing, Wang Jingwei, Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming, refused to join him or support his efforts in inciting armed uprising against Yuan Shikai. In order to join the Chinese Revolutionary Party, members must take an oath of personal loyalty to Sun, which many old revolutionaries regarded as undemocratic and contrary to the spirit of the revolution. Thus, many old revolutionaries did not join Sun's new organisation, and he was largely sidelined within the Republican movement during this period. Sun returned to China in 1917 to establish a rival government at Guangzhou, but was soon forced out of office and exiled to Shanghai. There, with renewed support, he resurrected the KMT on October 10, 1919, but under the name of the Chinese Kuomintang, as the old party had simply been called the Kuomintang. In 1920, Sun and the KMT were restored in Guangdong. In 1923, the KMT and its government accepted aid from the Soviet Union after being denied recognition by the western powers. Soviet advisers – the most prominent of whom was Mikhail Borodin, an agent of the Comintern – began to arrive in China in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, establishing a Leninist party structure that lasted into the 1990s. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was under Comintern instructions to cooperate with the KMT, and its members were encouraged to join while maintaining their separate party identities, forming the First United Front between the two parties. Soviet advisers also helped the Nationalists set up a political institute to train propagandists in mass mobilization techniques, and in 1923 Chiang Kai-shek, one of Sun's lieutenants from the Tongmenghui days, was sent to Moscow for several months' military and political study. At the first party congress in 1924, which included non-KMT delegates such as members of the CCP, they adopted Sun's political theory, which included the Three Principles of the People - nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood. Chiang Kai-shek assumes leadership Nationalist soldiers during the Second Sino-Japanese War. When Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, the political leadership of the Nationalist Party fell to Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin, respectively the left wing and right wing leaders of the Kuomintang. The real power, however, lay with Chiang Kai-shek who, as superintendent of the Whampoa Military Academy, was in near complete control of the military. With this military power, the Kuomintang confirmed their power on Guangzhou and Guangdong (the province containing Guangzhou) and Guangxi (the province north of Guangdong). The Nationalists now had a rival government in direct opposition to the warlord government based in the northern city of Beijing . Unlike Sun Yat-sen, whom he admired greatly, Chiang Kai-shek, who assumed leadership of the Kuomintang in 1926, had little contact or knowledge of the West. Sun Yat-sen had forged all his political, economic, and revolutionary ideas primarily from Western materials that he had learned in Hawaii and later in Europe. Chiang Kai-shek, however, knew almost nothing about the West; he was firmly rooted in his Chinese identity and the Chinese culture he was steeped. As his life progressed, he became more militantly attached to Chinese culture and traditions. His few trips to the West confirmed his pro-Chinese outlook and he studied the Chinese classics and Chinese histories assiduously . Of the three Principles of the People of Sun Yat-sen, then, the principle he most ardently and passionately adhered to was the principle of nationalism. Chiang was also particularly committed to Sun's idea of "political tutelage"; using this ideology, Chiang built himself into the dictator of the Republic of China, both in the Chinese Mainland, and when the national government was relocated to Taiwan . Following the death of Sun Yat-sen, General Chiang Kai-shek emerged as the KMT leader and launched the Northern Expedition to defeat the northern warlords and unite China under the party. With their power confirmed in the southeast, the Nationalist government appointed Chiang Kai-shek commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army, and the Northern Expedition to suppress the warlords began. Chiang had to defeat three separate warlords and two independent armies. Chiang, with Soviet supplies, used blitzkrieg tactics and, in nine months, he had conquered the southern half of China. A split, however, erupted between the Chinese Communist Party and the Nationalist Party; this split threatened the Northern Expedition. Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, however, healed the split by ordering the Chinese Communists to obey the Kuomintang leadership in everything. Once this split had been healed, Chiang Kai-shek resumed his Northern Expedition and, with the help of Communist strikes, managed to take Shanghai. There he began to eliminate the Communists in what is today known as the Shanghai massacre of 1927 and the Nationalist government, which had moved to Wuhan, dismissed him. Unfazed, Chiang set up his own alternative government in Nanjing. When the Wuhan government collapsed in February 1928, Chiang Kai-shek was the only Nationalist government still standing . When Kuomintang forces took Beijing, as the city was the de jure internationally recognized capital, though previously controlled by the feuding warlords, this event allowed the Kuomintang to receive widespread diplomatic recognition in the same year. The capital was moved from Beijing to Nanjing, the original capital of the Ming Dynasty, and thus a symbolic purge of the final Qing elements. This period of KMT rule in China between 1927 and 1937 became and is still known as the Nanjing decade. Finance minister of China and Kuomintang official H.H. Kung and two other Chinese Kuomintang officials visited Germany in 1937 and were received by Adolf Hitler. kung with hitler (dead link) Kung and chinese kuomintang with adolf hitler (dead link) In sum, the KMT began as a heterogeneous group advocating American-inspired federalism and provincial independence. However, after its reorganization along Soviet lines, the party aimed to establish a centralized one party state with one ideology - Three Principles of the People. This was even more evident following Sun's elevation into a cult figure after his death. The control by one single party began the period of "political tutelage," whereby the party was to control the government while instructing the people on how to participate in a democratic system. After several military campaigns and with the help of German military advisors (German planned fifth "extermination campaign"), the Communists were forced to withdraw from their bases in southern and central China into the mountains in a massive military retreat known famously as the Long March, an undertaking which would eventually increase their reputation among the peasants. Out of the 86,000 Communist soldiers that broke out of the pocket, only 20,000 would make the 10,000 km march to Shaanxi province. The Kuomintang continued to attack the Communists. This was in line with Chiang's policy of solving internal conflicts (warlords and communists) before fighting external invasions (Japan). However, Zhang Xueliang, who believed that the Japanese invasion constituted the greater prevailing threat, took Chiang hostage during the Xi'an Incident in 1937 and forced Chiang to agree to an alliance with the Communists in the total war against the Japanese. The Second Sino-Japanese War had officially started, and would last until the Japanese surrender in 1945. However in many situations the alliance was in name only; after a brief period of cooperation, the armies began to fight the Japanese separately, rather than as coordinated allies. Conflicts between KMT and communists were still common during the war, and documented claims of Communist attacks upon the KMT forces, and vice versa, abound. In these incidents, it should be noted that The KMT armies typically utilized more traditional tactics while the Communists chose guerilla tactics, leading to KMT claims that the Communists often refused to support the KMT troops, choosing to withdraw and let the KMT troops take the brunt of Japanese attacks. These same guerilla tactics, honed against the Japanese forces, were used to great success later during open civil war, as well as the Allied forces in the Korean War and the U.S. forces in the Vietnam War. Full-scale civil war between the Communists and KMT resumed after the defeat of Japan. The Communist armies, previously a minor faction, grew rapidly in influence and power due to several errors on the KMT's part: first, the KMT reduced troop levels precipitously after the Japanese surrender, leaving large numbers of able-bodied, trained fighting men who became unemployed and disgruntled with the KMT as prime recruits for the Communists. Second, the KMT government proved thoroughly unable to manage the economy, allowing hyperinflation to result. Among the most despised and ineffective efforts it undertook to contain inflation was the conversion to the gold standard for the national treasury and the Gold Standard Script () in August 1948, outlawing private ownership of gold, silver, and foreign exchange, collecting all such precious metals and foreign exchange from the people and issuing the Gold Standard Script in exchange. The new script became worthless in only ten months and greatly reinforced the nationwide perception of KMT as a corrupt or at best inept entity. Third, Chiang Kai-shek ordered his forces to defend the urbanized cities. This decision gave the Communists a chance to move freely through the countryside. At first, the KMT had the edge with the aid of weapons and ammunition from the United States. However, with the country suffering from hyperinflation, widespread corruption and other economic ills, the KMT continued to lose popular support. At the same time, the suspension of American aid and tens of thousands of deserted or decommissioned soldiers being recruited to the Communist cause tipped the balance of power quickly to the Communist side, and the overwhelming popular support for the Communists in most of the country made it all but impossible for the KMT forces to carry out successful assaults against the Communists. By the end of 1949, the Communists controlled almost all of mainland China, as the KMT retreated to Taiwan with a significant amount of China's national treasures and 2 million people, including military forces and refugees. Some party members stayed in the mainland and broke away from the main KMT to found the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang, which still currently exists as one of the eight minor registered parties in the People's Republic of China. KMT in Taiwan The former KMT headquarters in Taipei City; the imposing structure directly faced the Presidential Building, was seen as a symbol of the party's wealth and dominance. In 1895, Taiwan, including the Penghu islands, became a Japanese colony, a concession by the Qing Empire after it lost the First Sino-Japanese War. After Japan's defeat at the end of World War II in 1945, General Order No. 1 instructed Japan, who surrendered to the US, to surrender its troops in Taiwan to the forces of the Republic of China Kuomintang. Taiwan was placed under the administrative control of the Republic of China by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), and the ROC put Taiwan under military occupation. Tensions between the local Taiwanese and mainlanders from mainland China increased in the intervening years culminating in a flashpoint on February 27, 1947 in Taipei when a dispute between a female cigarette vendor and an anti-smuggling officer triggered civil disorder and protests that would last for days. The uprising turned bloody and was shortly put down by the ROC Army in the 228 Incident. As a result of the 228 Incident in 1947, Taiwanese people endured what is called the "White Terror", a KMT-led political repression. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949, the commanders of the PRC People's Liberation Army believed that Kinmen and Matsu had to be taken before a final assault on Taiwan. KMT fought the Battle of Kuningtou and stopped the invasion. In 1950 Chiang took office in Taipei under the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion. The provision declared martial law in Taiwan and halted some democratic processes, including presidential and parliamentary elections, until the mainland could be recovered from the Communists. KMT estimated it would take 3 years to defeat the Communists. The slogan was "prepare in the first year, start fighting in the second, and conquer in the third year." However, various factors, including international pressure, are believed to have prevented the KMT from militarily engaging the Communists full-scale. A cold war with a couple of minor military conflicts was resulted in the early years. The various government bodies previously in Nanjing were re-established in Taipei as the KMT-controlled government actively claimed sovereignty over all China. The Republic of China in Taiwan retained China's seat in the United Nations until 1971 . Chiang Ching-kuo , was the son of Chiang Kai-shek and Leader of the Kuomintang (KMT) between 1975 – 1988. Until the 1970s, KMT successfully pushed ahead with land reforms, developed the economy, implemented a democratic system in a lower level of the government, improved cross-Taiwan Strait relations, and created the Taiwan economic miracle. However KMT controlled the government under a one-party authoritarian state until reforms in the late 1970s through the 1990s. The ROC in Taiwan was once referred to synonymously with the KMT and known simply as "Nationalist China" after its ruling party. In the 1970s, the KMT began to allow for "supplemental elections" in Taiwan to fill the seats of the aging representatives in parliament. Although opposition parties were not permitted, Tangwai (or, "outside the party") representatives were tolerated. In the 1980s, the KMT focused on transforming the government from a single-party system to a multi-party democracy one and embracing "Taiwanizing". With the founding of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) in 1986, the KMT started competing against the DPP in Parliamentary elections. In 1991, martial law ceased when President Lee Teng-Hui terminated the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion. All parties started to be allowed to compete at all levels of elections, including the presidential election. Lee Teng-hui, the ROC's first democratically elected President and the leader of the KMT during the 1990s, announced his advocacy of "special state-to-state relations" with the PRC. The PRC associated it with Taiwan independence. The KMT faced a split in 1994 that led to the formation of the Chinese New Party, alleged to be a result of Lee's "corruptive ruling style". The New Party has, since the purging of Lee, largely reintegrated into KMT. A much more serious split in the party occurred as a result of the 2000 Presidential election. Upset at the choice of Lien Chan as the party's presidential nominee, former party Secretary-General James Soong launched an independent bid, which resulted in the expulsion of Soong and his supporters and the formation of the People's First Party (PFP). The KMT candidate placed third behind Soong in the elections. After the election, Lee's strong relationship with the opponent became apparent. In order to prevent defections to the PFP, Lien moved the party away from Lee's pro-independence policies and became more favorable toward Chinese reunification. This shift led to Lee's expulsion from the party and the formation of the Taiwan Solidarity Union. Current issues and challenges Lien Chan [middle] and Wu Po-hsiung [second left] and the Kuomintang touring the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum in Nanjing, the People's Republic of China. The Pan-Blue coalition visited the mainland in 2005. As the ruling party on Taiwan, the KMT amassed a vast business empire of banks, investment companies, petrochemical firms, and television and radio stations, thought to have made it the world's richest political party, with assets once estimated to be around US$ 2–10 billion. Although this war chest appeared to help the KMT until the mid-1990s, it later led to accusations of corruption (see Black gold (politics)). After 2000, the KMT's financial holdings appeared to be more of a liability than a benefit, and the KMT started to divest its assets. However, the transactions were not disclosed and the whereabouts of the money earned from selling assets (if it has gone anywhere) is unknown. There were accusations in the 2004 presidential election that the KMT retained assets that were illegally acquired. Currently, there is a law proposed by the DPP in the Legislative Yuan to recover illegally acquired party assets and return them to the government; however, since the pan-Blue alliance, the KMT and its smaller partner PFP, control the legislature, it is very unlikely to be passed. The KMT also acknowledged that part of its assets were acquired through extra-legal means and thus promised to "retro-endow" them to the government. However, the quantity of the assets which should be classified as illegal are still under heated debate; Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), in its capacity as ruling party from 2000–2008, claimed that there is much more that the KMT has yet to acknowledge. Also, the KMT actively sold assets under its title in order to quench its recent financial difficulties, which the DPP argues is illegal. Former KMT Chairman Ma Ying-Jeou's position is that the KMT will sell some of its properties at below market rates rather than return them to the government and that the details of these transactions will not be publicly disclosed. In December 2003, then-KMT chairman (present chairman emeritus) and presidential candidate Lien Chan initiated what appeared to some to be a major shift in the party's position on the linked questions of Chinese reunification and Taiwan independence. Speaking to foreign journalists, Lien said that while the KMT was opposed to "immediate independence," it did not wish to be classed as "pro-reunificationist" either. At the same time, Wang Jin-pyng, speaker of the Legislative Yuan and the Pan-Blue Coalition's campaign manager in the 2004 presidential election, said that the party no longer opposed Taiwan's "eventual independence." This statement was later clarified as meaning that the KMT opposes any immediate decision on unification and independence and would like to have this issue resolved by future generations. The KMT's position on the cross-strait relationship was redefined as hoping to remain in the current neither-independent-nor-united situation. Ma Ying-jeou, the current ROC President and was the former chairman of the Kuomintang from 2005 to 2007. In 2005, then-party chairman Lien Chan announced that he was to leave his office. The two leading contenders for the position include Ma Ying-jeou and Wang Jin-pyng. On April 5, 2005, Taipei Mayor Ma Ying-jeou said he wished to lead the opposition Kuomintang with Wang Jin-pyng. On 16 July 2005, Ma was elected as KMT chairman in the first contested leadership in Kuomintang's 93-year history. Some 54 percent of the party's 1.04 million members cast their ballots. Ma Ying-jeou garnered 72.4 percent of vote share, or 375,056 votes, against Wang Jin-pyng's 27.6 percent, or 143,268 votes. After failing to convince Wang to stay on as a vice chairman, Ma named holdovers Wu Po-hsiung (吳伯雄), Chiang Pin-kung (江丙坤), and Lin Cheng-chi (林澄枝), as well as long-time party administrator and strategist John Kuan (關中), as vice-chairmen; all appointments were approved by a hand count of party delegates. There has been a recent warming of relations between the pan-blue coalition and the PRC, with prominent members of both the KMT and PFP in active discussions with officials on the Mainland. In February 2004, it appeared that KMT had opened a campaign office for the Lien-Soong ticket in Shanghai targeting Taiwanese businessmen. However, after an adverse reaction in Taiwan, the KMT quickly declared that the office was opened without official knowledge or authorization. In addition, the PRC issued a statement forbidding open campaigning in the Mainland and formally stated that it had no preference as to which candidate won and cared only about the positions of the winning candidate. On March 28, 2005, thirty members of the Kuomintang (KMT), led by KMT vice chairman Chiang Pin-kung, arrived in mainland China. This marked the first official visit by the KMT to the mainland since it was defeated by communist forces in 1949 (although KMT members including Chiang had made individual visits in the past). The delegates began their itinerary by paying homage to the revolutionary martyrs of the Tenth Uprising at Huanghuagang. They subsequently flew to the former ROC capital of Nanjing to commemorate Sun Yat-sen. During the trip KMT signed a 10-points agreement with the CPC. The opponents regarded this visit as the prelude of the third KMT-CPC cooperation. Weeks afterwards, in May, Chairman Lien Chan visited the mainland and met with Hu Jintao. No agreements were signed because Chen Shui-bian's government threatened to prosecute the KMT delegation for treason and violation of R.O.C. laws prohibiting citizens from collaborating with Communists. On February 13, 2007, Ma was indicted by the Taiwan High Prosecutors Office on charges of allegedly embezzling approximately NT$11 million (US$339,000), regarding the issue of "special expenses" while he was mayor of Taipei. Shortly after the indictment, he submitted his resignation as chairman of the Kuomintang at the same press conference at which he formally announced his candidacy for President. Ma argued that it was customary for officials to use the special expense fund for personal expenses undertaken in the course of their official duties. In December 2007, Ma was acquitted of all charges and immediately filed suit against the prosecutors who are also appealing the acquittal. Regarding to the White Terror in Taiwan, KMT's chairman and president of ROC stated out again, that KMT is not willing to make a formal apology. He rejects this with the explanation, that he doesn't care much about history and thinks that a “victimization complex” is to blame for a downturn in Taiwan's economy. Michael Richardson:“Ma Ying-jeou blames 'victimization complex' for Taiwan's economic downturn in video-conference”, 12. May 2009, examiner.com Elections and results Pan-blue supporters at a rally during the 2004 presidential election. The KMT won a landslide victory in the Republic of China Presidential Election on March 22, 2008. The KMT fielded former Taipei mayor and former KMT chairman Ma Ying-jeou to run against the DPP's Frank Hsieh. Ma won by a large margin of 17% against Hsieh. Ma took office on May 20, 2008 and ended 8 years of the DPP presidency. The KMT also won a landslide victory in the 2008 legislative elections, winning 81 of 113 seats, or 71.7% of seats in the Legislative Yuan. These two elections gave the KMT firm control of both the executive and legislative yuans. Prior to this, the party's voters had defected to both the PFP and TSU, and the KMT did poorly in the December 2001 legislative elections and lost its position as the largest party in the Legislative Yuan. However, the party did well in the 2002 local government mayoral and council election with Ma Ying-jeou, its candidate for Taipei mayor, winning reelection by a landslide and its candidate for Kaohsiung mayor narrowly losing but doing surprisingly well. Since 2002, the KMT and PFP have coordinated electoral strategies. In 2004, the KMT and PFP ran a joint presidential ticket, with Lien running for president and Soong running for vice-president. The loss of the presidential election of 2004 to DPP President Chen Shui-bian by merely over 30,000 votes was a bitter disappointment to party members, leading to large scale rallies for several weeks protesting alleged electoral fraud and the "odd circumstances" of the shooting of President Chen. However, the fortunes of the party were greatly improved when the KMT did well in the legislative elections held in December 2004 by maintaining its support in southern Taiwan achieving a majority for the pan-blue coalition. Soon after the election, there appeared to be a falling out with the KMT's junior partner the People's First Party and talk of a merger seemed to have ended. This split appeared to widen in early 2005, as the leader of the PFP, James Soong appeared to be reconciling with President Chen Shui-Bian and the Democratic Progressive Party. Many PFP members including legislators and municipal leaders have defected to the KMT, and the PFP is seen as a fading party. The KMT won a decisive victory in the 3-in-1 local elections of December 2005, replacing the DPP as the largest party at the local level. This was seen as a major victory for the party ahead of legislative elections in 2007. There were elections for the two municipalities of the ROC, Taipei and Kaohsiung on December 2006. The KMT won a clear victory in Taipei, but lost to the DPP in the southern city of Kaohsiung by the slim margin of 1,100 votes. After 8 years of the KMT legislative majority sharing rule with a DPP president, the KMT regained the presidency by winning the 2008 Presidential Election. The citizens of the ROC elected Presidential candidate Ma Ying Jeou and Vice-Presidential candidate Vincent Siew. This followed an earlier election in January of the Legislative Yuan in which the KMT increased their control of the legislature by winning 3 quarters of the total seats. Organisation The Kuomintang headquarters in Taipei City. In June 2006, the Kuomintang Central Committee moved to Bade building, a much more modest building, and has sold the original headquarters to private investors of the EVA Airways Corporation. The KMT maintains offices in all the major Chinatowns of the world. Its United States party headquarters are located in San Francisco Chinatown, directly across the Chinese Six Companies. The Kuomintang Eastern U.S. headquarters is in New York Chinatown. List of leaders of the Kuomintang (1912–1914) President: Song Jiaoren (1912–1913) Premier: Sun Yat-sen (1913–1914) List of leaders of the Kuomintang of China (1919–present) Premier: Sun Yat-sen (1919–1925) Zhang Renjie (1925–1926) Chairman of Central Executive Committee: Hu Hanmin (1927–1931) Wang Jingwei (1931–1933) Chiang Kai-shek (1933–1938) (self-proclaimed) Director-General: Chiang Kai-shek (1926–1927)Vacancy (1927–1935) Hu Hanmin (1935–1936)Vacancy (1936–1938) Chiang Kai-shek (1938–1975) Chairman: Chiang Ching-kuo (1975–1988) Lee Teng-hui (1988-2000) Lien Chan (2000-2005) Ma Ying-jeou (2005-2007) Wu Po-hsiung (2007) (acting) Chiang Pin-kung (2007) (acting) Wu Po-hsiung (April 2007–present) Current vice chairpersons Chan Chuen-pao (詹春柏) Lin Fong-cheng (林豐正) Chiang Pin-kung (江丙坤) Chiang Shou-Yan (蔣孝嚴) Wu Tun-Yi (吳敦義) Tseng Yon-Chun (曾永權) Chu Eric LiLuan (朱立倫) Hwan Ming-Huai (黃敏惠) List of Secretaries-General of the Kuomintang of China Seceretaries-General of the Central Executive Committee: Yeh Ch'u-ts'ang (葉楚傖) (1926–1927) Post abolished (1927–1929) Chen Li-fu (陳立夫) (1929–1931) Ting Wei-feng (丁惟汾) (1931) Yeh Ch'u-ts'ang (1931–1938) Chu Chia-hua (朱家驊) (1938–1939) Yeh Ch'u-ts'ang (1939–1941) Wu Tieh-cheng (吳鐵城) (1941–1948) Cheng Yen-feng (鄭彥棻) (1948–1950) Seceretaries-General of the Central Reform Committee: Chang Chi-yun (張其昀) (1950–1952) Seceretaries-General of the Central Committee: Chang Chi-yun (1952–1954) Chang Li-sheng (張厲生) (1954–1959) Tang Tsung (唐縱) (1959–1964) Ku Feng-hsiang (谷鳳翔) (1964–1968) Chang Pao-shu (張寶樹) (1968–1979) Chiang Yen-si (蔣彥士) (1979–1985) Ma Su-lei (馬樹禮) (1985–1987) Lee Huan (李煥) (1987–1989) James Soong (宋楚瑜) (1989–1993) Hsu Shui-teh (許水德) (1993–1996) Wu Po-hsiung (吳伯雄) (1996–1998) Chang Hsiao-yen (章孝嚴) (1998–1999) Huang Kun-fei (黃昆輝) (1999-2000) Lin Fong-cheng (林豐正) (2000-2005) Chan Chuen-pao (詹春柏) (2005-2007) Wu Tun-yi (吳敦義) (2007-present) See also History of the Republic of China Politics of the Republic of China Military of the Republic of China Elections in the Republic of China List of political parties of the Republic of China List of assets owned by the Kuomintang Administrative divisions of the Republic of China Political status of Taiwan Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang History of the Kuomintang cultural policy References </div> Notes Further reading Chris Taylor, "Taiwan's Seismic shift," Asian Wall Street Journal, February 4 2004 (not available online) External links Kuomintang Official Website Kuomintang News Network The History of Kuomintang Kuomintang Supporters in Mainland China main website/Union of Chinese Nationalists | Kuomintang |@lemmatized kuomintang:40 china:46 http:2 www:2 kmt:112 org:1 tw:1 english:2 page:1 aspx:1 type:1 para:1 mnum:1 definition:1 dictionary:1 com:3 中國國民黨:1 中国国民党:1 pinyin:2 zhōngguó:1 guómíndǎng:2 mandarin:1 abbreviate:1 hanyu:1 gmd:1 translate:1 chinese:24 nationalist:13 party:74 political:15 republic:21 roc:12 commonly:1 know:8 taiwan:36 founding:2 rule:6 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6,642 | Jehoshaphat | Statues of Josaphat and Ezechias on the Monastery of El Escorial. Jehoshaphat (alternately spelled Jehosaphat, Josaphat, or Yehoshafat) () was the successor of Asa, king of Judah. His children included Jehoram of Judah. Historically, his name has sometimes been connected with the Valley of Jehosaphat, J. D. Douglas, ed., The New Bible Dictionary (Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, MI, 1965) 604) where, according to Joel 3:2, the God of Israel will gather all nations for judgment. Reign Jehoshaphat took the throne at the age of thirty-five (1 Kings 22:42). William F. Albright has dated the reign of Jehoshaphat to 873 – 849 BC. E. R. Thiele held that he became coregent with his father Asa in Asa's thirty-ninth year, 872/871 BC, the year Asa was afflicted with a severe disease in his feet, and then became sole regent when Asa died of the disease in 870/869 BC, his own death occurring in 848/847 BC. Edwin R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (3rd ed.; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983) 96, 97, 217. As explained in the Rehoboam article, Thiele's chronology for the first kings of Judah contained an internal inconsistency that later scholars corrected by dating these kings one year earlier, so that Jehoshaphat's dates are taken as one year earlier in the present article: coregency beginning in 873/871, sole reign commencing in 871/870, and death in 849/848 BC. Jehoshaphat spent the first years of his reign fortifying his kingdom against Israel (2 Chronicles 17:1, 2). The Bible lauds the king for the repression of sodomitic activity (1 Kings 22:46), and for destroying the cult images or "idols" of Baal in the land (1 Kings 22:43). In the third year of his reign Jehoshaphat sent out priests and Levites over the land to instruct the people in the Law (2 Chr. 17:7-9), an activity that was commanded for a Sabbatical year in Deuteonomy 31:10-13. The author of 2 Chronicles generally praises his reign, stating that the kingdom enjoyed a great measure of peace and prosperity, the blessing of God resting on the people "in their basket and their store." Alliances Michelangelo's Asa-Jehoshaphat-Joram. The man on the left is generally considered to be Jehoshaphat. Jehosaphat also pursued alliances with his contemporaries ruling the northern kingdom, the first being with Ahab, which was based on marriage. This alliance led to much disgrace, and brought disaster on his kingdom (1 Kings 22:1-33) with the Battle of Ramoth-Gilead. While Jehoshaphat safely returned from this battle, he was confronted by the prophet Jehu, son of Hanani, (2 Chr. 19:1-3) about this alliance. We are told that Jehoshaphat repented, and returned to his former course of opposition to all idolatry, and promoting the worship of God and in the government of his people (2 Chr. 19:4-11). Again he entered into an alliance with Ahaziah, the king of Israel, for the purpose of carrying on maritime commerce with Ophir. But the fleet that was then equipped at Ezion-Gever was immediately wrecked. A new fleet was fitted out without the cooperation of the king of Israel, and although it was successful, the trade was not prosecuted (2 Chr. 20:35-37; 1 Kings 22:48-49). He subsequently joined Jehoram, king of Israel, in a war against the Moabites, who were under tribute to Israel. This war was successful. The Moabites were subdued; but seeing Mesha's act of offering his own son in a human sacrifice on the walls of Kir-haresheth filled Jehoshaphat with horror, and he withdrew and returned to his own land (2 Kings 3:4-27). Last notable event of his reign Triumph of Jehosaphat over Adad of Syria. Illustration by Jean Fouquet (1470s) for Flavius Josephus's Jewish Antiquities. The last notable event of his reign occurred when the Moabites formed a great and powerful confederacy with the surrounding nations, and marched against Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 20). The allied forces were encamped at Ein Gedi. The king and his people were filled with alarm, and betook themselves to God in prayer. The king prayed in the court of the temple, "O our God, will you not judge them? For we have no power to face this vast army that is attacking us. We do not know what to do; but our eyes are upon you." Amid the silence that followed, the voice of Jahaziel the Levite was heard announcing that the next day all this great host would be overthrown. So it was, for they quarreled among themselves, and slew one another, leaving to the people of Judah only to gather the rich spoils of the slain. This was recognized as a great deliverance wrought for them by God. Soon after this victory Jehoshaphat died after a reign of twenty-five years at the age of sixty (1 Kings 22:50). According to some sources (such as the Jewish commentator Rashi) he actually died two years later, but gave up his throne earlier for unknown reasons. Chronological notes The calendars for reckoning the years of kings in Judah and Israel were offset by six months, that of Judah starting in Tishri (in the fall) and that of Israel in Nisan (in the spring). Cross-synchronizations between the two kingdoms therefore often allow narrowing of the beginning and/or ending dates of a king to within a six-month range. For Jehoshaphat, the Scriptural data allow the narrowing of the beginning of his sole reign to some time between Tishri 1 of 871 BC and the day before Nisan 1 of the 870 BC. For calculation purposes, this should be taken as the Judean year beginning in Tishri of 871/870 BC, or more simply 871 BC. His death occurred at some time between Nisan 1 of 848 BC and Tishri 1 of that same BC year, i.e. in the Judean regnal year 849/848 BC, which for calculation purposes can be taken as 849 BC. These dates are one year earlier than those given in the third edition of Thiele's Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, thereby correcting an internal consistency that Thiele never resolved, as explained in the Rehoboam article. See also Jewish Encyclopedia: "Jehoshaphat" Great Men of The Old Testament: Jehoshaphat} From Bethel Church of God References | Jehoshaphat |@lemmatized statue:1 josaphat:2 ezechias:1 monastery:1 el:1 escorial:1 jehoshaphat:16 alternately:1 spell:1 jehosaphat:4 yehoshafat:1 successor:1 asa:6 king:20 judah:6 child:1 include:1 jehoram:2 historically:1 name:1 sometimes:1 connect:1 valley:1 j:1 douglas:1 ed:2 new:2 bible:2 dictionary:1 eerdmans:1 grand:2 rapid:2 mi:2 accord:2 joel:1 god:7 israel:8 gather:2 nation:2 judgment:1 reign:10 take:4 throne:2 age:2 thirty:2 five:2 william:1 f:1 albright:1 date:5 bc:13 e:2 r:2 thiele:5 hold:1 become:2 coregent:1 father:1 ninth:1 year:14 afflict:1 severe:1 disease:2 foot:1 sole:3 regent:1 die:3 death:3 occur:3 edwin:1 mysterious:2 number:2 hebrew:2 zondervan:1 kregel:1 explain:2 rehoboam:2 article:3 chronology:1 first:3 contain:1 internal:2 inconsistency:1 late:1 scholar:1 correct:2 one:4 earlier:4 present:1 coregency:1 begin:1 commence:1 spend:1 fortify:1 kingdom:5 chronicle:2 laud:1 repression:1 sodomitic:1 activity:2 destroy:1 cult:1 image:1 idol:1 baal:1 land:3 third:2 send:1 priest:1 levites:1 instruct:1 people:5 law:1 chr:5 command:1 sabbatical:1 deuteonomy:1 author:1 generally:2 praise:1 state:1 enjoy:1 great:5 measure:1 peace:1 prosperity:1 blessing:1 rest:1 basket:1 store:1 alliance:5 michelangelo:1 joram:1 man:1 left:1 consider:1 also:2 pursue:1 contemporary:1 rule:1 northern:1 ahab:1 base:1 marriage:1 lead:1 much:1 disgrace:1 bring:1 disaster:1 battle:2 ramoth:1 gilead:1 safely:1 return:3 confront:1 prophet:1 jehu:1 son:2 hanani:1 tell:1 repent:1 former:1 course:1 opposition:1 idolatry:1 promote:1 worship:1 government:1 enter:1 ahaziah:1 purpose:3 carry:1 maritime:1 commerce:1 ophir:1 fleet:2 equip:1 ezion:1 gever:1 immediately:1 wreck:1 fit:1 without:1 cooperation:1 although:1 successful:2 trade:1 prosecute:1 subsequently:1 join:1 war:2 moabites:3 tribute:1 subdue:1 see:2 mesha:1 act:1 offer:1 human:1 sacrifice:1 wall:1 kir:1 haresheth:1 fill:2 horror:1 withdraw:1 last:2 notable:2 event:2 triumph:1 adad:1 syria:1 illustration:1 jean:1 fouquet:1 flavius:1 josephus:1 jewish:3 antiquity:1 form:1 powerful:1 confederacy:1 surround:1 march:1 allied:1 force:1 encamp:1 ein:1 gedi:1 alarm:1 betook:1 prayer:1 prayed:1 court:1 temple:1 judge:1 power:1 face:1 vast:1 army:1 attack:1 u:1 know:1 eye:1 upon:1 amid:1 silence:1 follow:1 voice:1 jahaziel:1 levite:1 hear:1 announce:1 next:1 day:2 host:1 would:1 overthrow:1 quarrel:1 among:1 slew:1 another:1 leave:1 rich:1 spoil:1 slain:1 recognize:1 deliverance:1 wrought:1 soon:1 victory:1 twenty:1 sixty:1 source:1 commentator:1 rashi:1 actually:1 two:2 later:1 give:2 unknown:1 reason:1 chronological:1 note:1 calendar:1 reckon:1 offset:1 six:2 month:2 start:1 tishri:4 fall:1 nisan:3 spring:1 cross:1 synchronization:1 therefore:1 often:1 allow:2 narrowing:2 beginning:3 end:1 within:1 range:1 scriptural:1 data:1 time:2 calculation:2 judean:2 simply:1 regnal:1 edition:1 thereby:1 consistency:1 never:1 resolve:1 encyclopedia:1 men:1 old:1 testament:1 bethel:1 church:1 reference:1 |@bigram el_escorial:1 f_albright:1 r_thiele:2 thiele_mysterious:2 ramoth_gilead:1 jean_fouquet:1 flavius_josephus:1 ein_gedi:1 |
6,643 | H._R._Giger | Hans Ruedi Giger (; born in Chur, Grisons Canton, Switzerland, February 5, 1940) is an Academy Award-winning Swiss painter, sculptor, and set designer best known for his design work on the film Alien. Biography Born in 1940 to a chemist’s family in Chur, Switzerland, went to the Catholic Marienheim and then transferred to Auntie Grittli’s Reformational Kindergarten. He moved in 1962 to Zurich, where he studied architecture and industrial design at the School of Applied Arts. By 1964 Giger lived in the Venedigstrasse in Enge, Zurich. During the day, he attended the School of Applied Arts in Zurich, second year, Interior Design and Industrial Design department. Work Giger's unique style and thematic execution is frequently imitated in modern art practice. His design for the Alien was inspired by his painting Necronom IV and earned him an Oscar in 1980. His third published book of paintings, titled Necronomicon (followed by Necronomicon II in 1985), continued his rise to international prominence, as did the frequent appearance of his art in the magazine Omni. Giger is also well known for artwork on a number of popular records. Style Birth Machine sculpture in Gruyeres Giger got his start with small ink drawings before progressing to oil paintings. For most of his career, Giger has worked predominantly in airbrush, creating monochromatic canvasses depicting surreal, nightmarish dream-scapes. He has largely abandoned large airbrush works in favor of works with pastels, markers or ink. His most distinctive stylistic innovation is that of a representation of human bodies and machines in a cold, interconnected relationship, described as "biomechanical". His paintings often display fetishistic sexual imagery. His main influences were painters Ernst Fuchs and Salvador Dalí. He met Salvador Dalí, to whom he was introduced by painter Robert Venosa. He was also a personal friend of Timothy Leary. Giger is perhaps the best-known sufferer of night terrors and his paintings are all to some extent inspired by his experiences with that particular sleep disorder. He was originally educated as an architect and made his first paintings as a way of art therapy. Documentary In 2007, Giger and his work were subjects of a 19-minute documentary which toured internationally. http://www.psfilmfest.org/festival/film/detail.aspx?id=19130&FID=31 The documentary explores the H.R. Giger Museum & Giger Bar at Chateau St. Germain (Gruyeres, Switzerland), and was released on DVD in May 2008. Obscenity lawsuit Copies of Giger's Work 219: Landscape XX, better known as Penis Landscape, were included in an insert with the Dead Kennedys album Frankenchrist, and became the centerpiece of a 1986 obscenity lawsuit against Eric Reed Boucher, a.k.a. Jello Biafra, the vocalist and songwriter for the San Francisco punk rock band. Other works Entrance to Giger bar in Chur. Giger has created furniture designs, particularly the Harkonnen Capo Chair for an unproduced movie version of the novel Dune that was originally slated to be directed by Alejandro Jodorowski. Many years later, David Lynch directed the film, using only extremely limited rough ideas from Giger. Giger had wished to work with Lynch, as he had said that Lynch's film Eraserhead was the closest thing to portraying Giger's art in film (even including the films that Giger himself had worked on), as cited in one of Giger's Necronomicon books. Giger has applied his biomechanical style to interior design, and several "Giger Bars" sprang up in Tokyo, New York and two in his native Switzerland, although as of 2009 only the Swiss bars remain open. One such example was The Limelight in Manhattan, circa 1993 -- at the time, its bars featured faux embryos in jars, floating in a backlit pinkish fluid. His art has greatly influenced tattooists and fetishists worldwide. Ibanez guitars has released an H.R. Giger signature series; the Ibanez ICHRG2, an Ibanez Iceman, features the work "NY City VI", the Ibanez RGTHRG1 has the work "NY City XI" printed on it, and the S Series SHRG1Z has a metal coated engraving of the work "Biomechanical Matrix" on it. There is also a 4 string SRX bass; SRXHRG1, that has "N.Y. City X" printed on it. Pop culture Giger is often referred to in pop culture and especially in works of the science fiction and cyberpunk genres. Novelist William Gibson (who wrote an early script for Alien³) seems particularly fascinated, presenting in Virtual Light a minor character, Lowell, with New York XXIV tattooed across his back and a secondary character, Yamazaki in Idoru specifically describes the buildings of nanotech Japan as Giger-esque. Movies Dune (designs for unproduced Alejandro Jodorowsky adaptation of the Frank Herbert novel; The movie Dune was later made in an adaptation by David Lynch.) Alien (designed, among other things, the Alien itself, The Derelict and the Space Jockey) Alien3 (designed the puma like Alien bodyshape, plus a number of unused concepts, many mentioned on the special features disc of Alien3) Poltergeist II: The Other Side Killer Condom Species (designed Sil and the Ghost train in a dream sequence) Batman Forever (designed radically different envisioning of the Batmobile; design not used in the film) Future-Kill (designed artwork for the movie poster) Work for recording artists Celtic Frost: To Mega Therion Magma: Attahk Emerson Lake and Palmer: Brain Salad Surgery Steve Stevens' Atomic Playboys Deborah Harry, portraits for Koo Koo album cover and videos "Backfired" and "Now I Know You Know" (1981) hide: Hide Your Face Danzig: Danzig III: How the Gods Kill Dead Kennedys' album Frankenchrist, Poster insert of Landscape XX (which led to an obsenity trial) Atrocity - Hallucinations Black Sun Productions Island: album cover for Pictures Korn's Jonathan Davis commissioned Giger to sculpt his microphone stand. Three microphone stands were made but only one given to Davis. Carcass used Life Support 1993 for the cover of their 1993 album, Heartwork. Designed the stage for Mylène Farmer's 1999 "Mylenium" tour. Blondie's Chris Stein commissioned Lieber Guitars to create Stein's unique "Gigerstein" guitar based on Giger's artwork. Helped to design the first professional video clip of "Böhse Onkelz" called "Dunkler Ort" (dark location) from their album "Ein böses Märchen...aus tausend finsteren Nächten", which was released in 2000. Ibanez Guitars has released second generation of H.R. Giger Signature Models hr giger RG & hr giger S series with legacy artwork on the guitar body, second generation of 4-string guitar bass SRXHRG1 also released with the same concept. Interior decoration Giger Bars in Switzerland's Chur and Gruyères Museum H. R. Giger in Gruyères Computer games Dark Seed and its sequel, Dark Seed II, both adventure games for the Amiga, Amiga CD32, and the PC, were published by Cyberdreams. The games were also released for the PlayStation and Saturn in Japan. References External links Museum HR Giger H.R. Giger's personal and official website Official website Official Giger database Official U.S. publisher's site. Official site for the documentary "H.R. Giger's Sanctuary" | H._R._Giger |@lemmatized han:1 ruedi:1 giger:34 bear:2 chur:4 grison:1 canton:1 switzerland:5 february:1 academy:1 award:1 win:1 swiss:2 painter:3 sculptor:1 set:1 designer:1 best:2 know:6 design:16 work:15 film:7 alien:5 biography:1 chemist:1 family:1 go:1 catholic:1 marienheim:1 transfer:1 auntie:1 grittli:1 reformational:1 kindergarten:1 move:1 zurich:3 study:1 architecture:1 industrial:2 school:2 applied:2 art:7 live:1 venedigstrasse:1 enge:1 day:1 attend:1 second:3 year:2 interior:3 department:1 unique:2 style:3 thematic:1 execution:1 frequently:1 imitate:1 modern:1 practice:1 inspire:2 painting:6 necronom:1 iv:1 earn:1 oscar:1 third:1 publish:2 book:2 title:1 necronomicon:3 follow:1 ii:3 continue:1 rise:1 international:1 prominence:1 frequent:1 appearance:1 magazine:1 omni:1 also:5 well:1 artwork:4 number:2 popular:1 record:2 birth:1 machine:2 sculpture:1 gruyere:2 get:1 start:1 small:1 ink:2 drawing:1 progress:1 oil:1 career:1 predominantly:1 airbrush:2 create:3 monochromatic:1 canvass:1 depict:1 surreal:1 nightmarish:1 dream:2 scape:1 largely:1 abandon:1 large:1 favor:1 pastel:1 marker:1 distinctive:1 stylistic:1 innovation:1 representation:1 human:1 body:2 cold:1 interconnected:1 relationship:1 describe:2 biomechanical:3 often:2 display:1 fetishistic:1 sexual:1 imagery:1 main:1 influence:2 ernst:1 fuchs:1 salvador:2 dalí:2 meet:1 introduce:1 robert:1 venosa:1 personal:2 friend:1 timothy:1 leary:1 perhaps:1 sufferer:1 night:1 terror:1 extent:1 experience:1 particular:1 sleep:1 disorder:1 originally:2 educate:1 architect:1 make:3 first:2 way:1 therapy:1 documentary:4 subject:1 minute:1 tour:2 internationally:1 http:1 www:1 psfilmfest:1 org:1 festival:1 detail:1 aspx:1 id:1 fid:1 explore:1 h:6 r:6 museum:3 bar:6 chateau:1 st:1 germain:1 release:6 dvd:1 may:1 obscenity:2 lawsuit:2 copy:1 landscape:3 xx:2 good:1 penis:1 include:2 insert:2 dead:2 kennedy:2 album:6 frankenchrist:2 become:1 centerpiece:1 eric:1 reed:1 boucher:1 k:1 jello:1 biafra:1 vocalist:1 songwriter:1 san:1 francisco:1 punk:1 rock:1 band:1 entrance:1 furniture:1 particularly:2 harkonnen:1 capo:1 chair:1 unproduced:2 movie:4 version:1 novel:2 dune:3 slat:1 direct:2 alejandro:2 jodorowski:1 many:2 later:2 david:2 lynch:4 use:3 extremely:1 limited:1 rough:1 idea:1 wish:1 say:1 eraserhead:1 close:1 thing:2 portray:1 even:1 cite:1 one:3 apply:1 several:1 spring:1 tokyo:1 new:2 york:2 two:1 native:1 although:1 remain:1 open:1 example:1 limelight:1 manhattan:1 circa:1 time:1 feature:3 faux:1 embryo:1 jar:1 float:1 backlit:1 pinkish:1 fluid:1 greatly:1 tattooists:1 fetishist:1 worldwide:1 ibanez:5 guitar:6 signature:2 series:3 iceman:1 ny:2 city:3 vi:1 xi:1 print:2 metal:1 coat:1 engraving:1 matrix:1 string:2 srx:1 bass:2 n:1 x:1 pop:2 culture:2 refer:1 especially:1 science:1 fiction:1 cyberpunk:1 genre:1 novelist:1 william:1 gibson:1 write:1 early:1 script:1 seem:1 fascinate:1 present:1 virtual:1 light:1 minor:1 character:2 lowell:1 xxiv:1 tattooed:1 across:1 back:1 secondary:1 yamazaki:1 idoru:1 specifically:1 building:1 nanotech:1 japan:2 esque:1 jodorowsky:1 adaptation:2 frank:1 herbert:1 among:1 derelict:1 space:1 jockey:1 puma:1 like:1 bodyshape:1 plus:1 unused:1 concept:2 mention:1 special:1 disc:1 poltergeist:1 side:1 killer:1 condom:1 specie:1 sil:1 ghost:1 train:1 sequence:1 batman:1 forever:1 radically:1 different:1 envisioning:1 batmobile:1 future:1 kill:2 poster:2 artist:1 celtic:1 frost:1 mega:1 therion:1 magma:1 attahk:1 emerson:1 lake:1 palmer:1 brain:1 salad:1 surgery:1 steve:1 stevens:1 atomic:1 playboy:1 deborah:1 harry:1 portrait:1 koo:2 cover:3 videos:1 backfire:1 hide:2 face:1 danzig:2 iii:1 god:1 lead:1 obsenity:1 trial:1 atrocity:1 hallucination:1 black:1 sun:1 production:1 island:1 picture:1 korn:1 jonathan:1 davis:2 commission:2 sculpt:1 microphone:2 stand:2 three:1 give:1 carcass:1 life:1 support:1 heartwork:1 stage:1 mylène:1 farmer:1 mylenium:1 blondie:1 chris:1 stein:2 lieber:1 gigerstein:1 base:1 help:1 professional:1 video:1 clip:1 böhse:1 onkelz:1 call:1 dunkler:1 ort:1 dark:3 location:1 ein:1 böses:1 märchen:1 aus:1 tausend:1 finsteren:1 nächten:1 generation:2 model:1 hr:3 rg:1 legacy:1 decoration:1 gruyères:2 computer:1 game:3 seed:2 sequel:1 adventure:1 amiga:2 pc:1 cyberdreams:1 playstation:1 saturn:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:5 website:2 database:1 u:1 publisher:1 site:2 sanctuary:1 |@bigram painter_sculptor:1 salvador_dalí:2 timothy_leary:1 http_www:1 aspx_id:1 r_giger:6 jello_biafra:1 san_francisco:1 punk_rock:1 ibanez_guitar:2 science_fiction:1 frank_herbert:1 batman_forever:1 video_clip:1 amiga_amiga:1 external_link:1 |
6,644 | Metamorphosis | A dragonfly in its final moult, undergoing metamorphosis from its nymph form to an adult. Metamorphosis is a biological process by which an animal physically develops after birth or hatching, involving a conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal's form or structure through cell growth and differentiation. Some insects, amphibians, mollusks, crustaceans, Cnidarians, echinoderms and tunicates undergo metamorphosis, which is usually (but not always) accompanied by a change of habitat or behavior. Scientific usage of the term is exclusive, and is not applied to general aspects of cell growth, including rapid growth spurts. References to "metamorphosis" in mammals are imprecise and only colloquial, but historically idealist ideas of transformation and monadology, as in Goethe's Metamorphosis of Plants, influenced the development of ideas of evolution. Etymology The word "metamorphosis" derives from Greek μεταμόρφωσις, "transformation, transforming" Metamorphosis, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus , from μετα- (meta-), "change" + μορφή (morfe) "form" Online Etymology Dictionary . Insect metamorphosis Metamorphosis usually proceeds in distinct stages, starting with larva or nymph, optionally passing through pupa, and ending as adult. There are two main types of metamorphosis in insects, hemimetabolism and holometabolism. Incomplete metamorphosis in the grasshopper with different instar nymphs The immature stages of a species that metamorphoses are usually called larvae, and in these stages may grow quite quickly. But in the complex metamorphosis of many insect species, only the first stage is called a larva and sometimes even that bears a different name; the distinction depends on the nature of the metamorphosis. An example of metamorphosis where the name is changed is that of a tadpole. When a tadpole metamorphoses, it becomes amphibious, whereas a tadpole itself may not be considered amphibious. In hemimetabolism, the development of larva often proceeds in repeated stages of growth and ecdysis (moulting), these stages are called instars. The juvenile forms closely resemble adults, but are smaller and, if the adult has wings, lack wings. This process is also known as "simple", "gradual" or "incomplete" metamorphosis. The differences between juveniles in different instars are small, often just differences in body proportions and the number of segments. In holometabolism, the larvae differ markedly from the adults. Insects which undergo holometabolism pass through a larval stage, then enter an inactive state called pupa, or chrysalis, and finally emerge as adults. Holometabolism is also known as "complete" and "complex" metamorphosis. Whilst inside the pupa, the insect will excrete digestive juices, to destroy much of the larva's body, leaving a few cells intact. The remaining cells will begin the growth of the adult, using the nutrients from the broken down larva. This process of cell death is called histolysis, and cell regrowth histogenesis. Whether the insect spends more time in its adult stage or in its juvenile form depends on the species. Notable examples are the mayfly, whose non-eating, adult stage lives for one day, and the cicada, whose juvenile stage live underground for 13 or 17 years. These species have incomplete metamorphosis. Typically, though not exclusively, species in which the adult form outlives the juvenile form undergo complex metamorphosis. Many observations have indicated that programmed cell death plays a considerable role during physiological processes of multicellular organisms, particularly during embryogenesis and metamorphosis. Hormonal control Insect growth and metamorphosis are controlled by hormones synthesized by endocrine glands near the front of the body. Some cells of an insect's brain secrete a hormone that activates thoracic glands, which secrete a second hormone, usually Ecdysone (a steroid), that induces metamorphosis. Moreover, the corpora allata produce the juvenile hormone, whose effect is to prevent the development of adult characteristics while allowing ecdysis. Therefore, the insect is subject to a series of molting, controlled by Ecdysone, until the production of juvenile hormone ceases and metamorphosis occurs. Amphibian metamorphosis Stages in the metamorphosis of a frog. Amphibian metamorphosis undergoes a single change from a larva, called a tadpole, to an adult. In the typical amphibian lifecycle, eggs are laid in water. The tadpole then emerges from the egg, and swims freely within the water. The tadpole has gills, a tail and a small circular mouth. The tadpole will grow, until it begins metamorphosis. Metamorphosis begins with the development of the hind legs, then the front legs. The lungs develop, and the tadpole begins to swim to the surface of the water to breathe. The intestine shortens to accommodate a carnivorous diet, and the eyes migrate rostrally and dorsally. In frogs the tail is absorbed by the body, for the last stage of metamorphosis. There are many deviations from the typical amphibian lifecycle. Some species of salamander do not need to metamorphose to be sexually mature, and will only metamorphose under certain environmental stresses. Many species of frog from the tropics lay their eggs on land, where the tadpoles undergo metamorphosis within the egg. Once they hatch, they are immature copies of the adults, sometimes possessing a tail which is re-absorbed in a couple of days. Fish metamorphosis Little known is that also fish, i.e. bony fish, undergo metamorphosis. Individuals hatched from fish eggs are called larvae, since they turn into adults only via resorbing or removal of preceding organs. See also Ametabolism Hypermetamorphosis Morphogenesis References Davies, R.G., "Outlines of Entomology", Chapman and Hall: chapter 3 Williamson D I (2003). "The Origins of Larvae", xviii + 261 pp, ISBN 1-4020-1514-3. Kluwer. Dordrecht. External links Description of metamorphosis and its different forms Info on butterflies and butterfly metamorphosis Info on insect hormones - | Metamorphosis |@lemmatized dragonfly:1 final:1 moult:2 undergo:7 metamorphosis:34 nymph:3 form:8 adult:14 biological:1 process:4 animal:2 physically:1 develop:2 birth:1 hatching:1 involve:1 conspicuous:1 relatively:1 abrupt:1 change:5 structure:1 cell:8 growth:6 differentiation:1 insect:11 amphibian:5 mollusk:1 crustacean:1 cnidarian:1 echinoderm:1 tunicate:1 usually:4 always:1 accompany:1 habitat:1 behavior:1 scientific:1 usage:1 term:1 exclusive:1 apply:1 general:1 aspect:1 include:1 rapid:1 spurt:1 reference:2 mammal:1 imprecise:1 colloquial:1 historically:1 idealist:1 idea:2 transformation:2 monadology:1 goethe:1 plant:1 influence:1 development:4 evolution:1 etymology:2 word:1 derive:1 greek:2 μεταμόρφωσις:1 transform:1 henry:1 george:1 liddell:1 robert:1 scott:1 english:1 lexicon:1 perseus:1 μετα:1 meta:1 μορφή:1 morfe:1 online:1 dictionary:1 proceeds:1 distinct:1 stage:12 start:1 larva:9 optionally:1 pass:1 pupa:3 end:1 two:1 main:1 type:1 hemimetabolism:2 holometabolism:4 incomplete:3 grasshopper:1 different:4 instar:3 immature:2 specie:7 call:7 may:2 grow:2 quite:1 quickly:1 complex:3 many:4 first:1 sometimes:2 even:1 bear:1 name:2 distinction:1 depend:2 nature:1 example:2 tadpole:9 metamorphose:3 become:1 amphibious:2 whereas:1 consider:1 often:2 proceed:1 repeated:1 ecdysis:2 juvenile:7 closely:1 resemble:1 small:3 wing:2 lack:1 also:4 know:3 simple:1 gradual:1 difference:2 body:4 proportion:1 number:1 segment:1 differ:1 markedly:1 pas:1 larval:1 enter:1 inactive:1 state:1 chrysalis:1 finally:1 emerge:2 complete:1 whilst:1 inside:1 excrete:1 digestive:1 juice:1 destroy:1 much:1 leave:1 intact:1 remain:1 begin:4 use:1 nutrient:1 break:1 death:2 histolysis:1 regrowth:1 histogenesis:1 whether:1 spend:1 time:1 notable:1 mayfly:1 whose:3 non:1 eating:1 live:2 one:1 day:2 cicada:1 underground:1 year:1 typically:1 though:1 exclusively:1 outlive:1 observation:1 indicate:1 programmed:1 play:1 considerable:1 role:1 physiological:1 multicellular:1 organism:1 particularly:1 embryogenesis:1 hormonal:1 control:3 hormone:6 synthesize:1 endocrine:1 gland:2 near:1 front:2 brain:1 secrete:2 activate:1 thoracic:1 second:1 ecdysone:2 steroid:1 induce:1 moreover:1 corpus:1 allata:1 produce:1 effect:1 prevent:1 characteristic:1 allow:1 therefore:1 subject:1 series:1 molting:1 production:1 cease:1 occurs:1 frog:3 single:1 typical:2 lifecycle:2 egg:5 lay:2 water:3 swim:2 freely:1 within:2 gill:1 tail:3 circular:1 mouth:1 hind:1 leg:2 lung:1 surface:1 breathe:1 intestine:1 shorten:1 accommodate:1 carnivorous:1 diet:1 eye:1 migrate:1 rostrally:1 dorsally:1 absorb:2 last:1 deviation:1 salamander:1 need:1 sexually:1 mature:1 certain:1 environmental:1 stress:1 tropic:1 land:1 hatch:2 copy:1 possess:1 couple:1 fish:4 little:1 e:1 bony:1 individual:1 since:1 turn:1 via:1 resorb:1 removal:1 precede:1 organ:1 see:1 ametabolism:1 hypermetamorphosis:1 morphogenesis:1 davy:1 r:1 g:1 outline:1 entomology:1 chapman:1 hall:1 chapter:1 williamson:1 origin:1 larvae:1 xviii:1 pp:1 isbn:1 kluwer:1 dordrecht:1 external:1 link:1 description:1 info:2 butterfly:2 |@bigram george_liddell:1 liddell_robert:1 lexicon_perseus:1 closely_resemble:1 differ_markedly:1 larval_stage:1 multicellular_organism:1 endocrine_gland:1 secrete_hormone:1 gland_secrete:1 hind_leg:1 sexually_mature:1 egg_hatch:1 bony_fish:1 external_link:1 |
6,645 | Luton_Town_F.C. | Luton Town Football Club are an English professional football club based in the town of Luton, Bedfordshire. They play their home matches at Kenilworth Road, where they have been based since 1905. The club will compete in the Conference National, the fifth tier of English football, for the first time during the 2009–10 season. Formed in 1885, the club was the first in the south of England to turn professional, making payments to players as early as 1890 and turning fully professional only a year later. However, Luton were not a First Division club until 1955–56, and did not reach a major final until 1959. Luton Town's most recent spell as a major club began in 1981–82, when the club won the Second Division and were promoted to the First Division. Winning the League Cup in 1987–88 with a 3–2 win over Arsenal, they remained a First Division club until relegation in 1991–92 signalled the end of major success. More recently, Luton Town have been subject to a spectacular collapse through the Football League, with financial difficulties causing the club to fall from the Football League Championship in 2006–07 to the Conference National only three years later, ending an 89-year Football League membership. History Luton Town Football Club were formed on Sunday, 11 April 1885, as the product of a merger of the two leading local teams, Luton Town Wanderers and Excelsior. They were initially based at Excelsior's Dallow Lane ground, but moved in 1897 to Dunstable Road. Luton were the first professional club in southern England, becoming fully professional in 1891; payments to chosen individual players began the year before. The Luton Town team of 1919–20, the final Southern League season. Luton joined the Football League in 1897, but left three years later. Poor attendances, high wages, and excessive travel and accommodation costs brought on by the club's isolated location crippled the club financially. The club was far from the northern heartlands of the Football League, and so it was too expensive for the club to even compete. Luton did, however, enjoy success in the United League during their early years, and were founder members of the Southern Football League in 1894. Only eight years after arriving at Dunstable Road Luton moved again, arriving at their current ground, Kenilworth Road, in 1905. Captain and left winger Bob Hawkes became Luton's first international player when he was picked to play for England against Ireland on 16 February 1907. Luton first adopted their white and black colours for the 1920–21 season, the same year as they rejoined the Football League. Before this time, they had worn sky blue shirts with white shorts and navy socks. Such was the quality of Luton's team at this time that despite playing in the third tier, a fixture between Ireland and England at Windsor Park on 22 October 1921 saw three Luton players on the pitch — Louis Bookman and Allan Mathieson for Ireland, and top goalscorer Ernie Simms for England. However, Luton only finished fourth, and the spine of the team was sold on. Luton stayed in the Third Division South until 1937, when they were crowned champions, and were promoted to the Second Division. During that season striker Joe Payne scored 55 goals in 39 games, including 10 in one match which remains a Football League record. In 1955–56 Luton finally reached the top flight, when they were promoted to the First Division. A few years of success followed, including an FA Cup Final defeat to Nottingham Forest in 1959. Luton player Syd Owen was voted FWA Footballer of the Year at the end of that season. However, they were relegated the following season, and fell to the Fourth Division by 1965. Luton won the Fourth Division in 1968, with players like Bruce Rioch, John Moore and David Pleat in the side. Two years later Malcolm Macdonald fired them to another promotion, and Eric Morecambe became a director of the club. Luton Town won promotion back to the First Division in 1973–74, but were relegated the following season by a solitary point. Pleat was made manager in 1978, and by 1982–83 Luton were back in the top flight. The last day of the first season back at the top saw a dramatic last day escape from relegation at Maine Road, courtesy of a late winner from Yugoslav substitute Raddy Antić, prompting Pleat's now famous dance across the pitch. The club achieved their highest ever league position, 7th, in 1987, and won the League Cup a year later with a 3–2 win over Arsenal. With ten minutes left on the clock and Arsenal 2–1 ahead, a penalty save from stand-in goalkeeper Andy Dibble sparked Luton into life. Luton rallied to equalise through Danny Wilson, before Brian Stein scored the winner with the last kick of the match. The club reached the Final again in 1989, but lost 3–1 to Nottingham Forest. In 1992 Luton were relegated again, and have not been in the top flight since. In 1996 they were relegated to the third tier, and missed out on bouncing back at the first attempt in the play-offs. They stayed in the Second Division until 2001, when another relegation sent Luton into the Third Division despite the best efforts of Joe Kinnear, who arrived halfway through the season. During the summer, Kinnear built a new squad that bounced back at the first attempt, finishing second behind Plymouth Argyle. A time of uncertainty under controversial chairman John Gurney in 2003 threatened the club's very existence, as Kinnear lost his job and fan protests engulfed the club before Gurney was ousted. Gurney's only legacy proved to be the appointment of Mike Newell as manager. Newell would take Luton into the Football League Championship in 2005, after being crowned champions of League One, and then to 10th place in 2005–06. However, Luton were relegated the next season, only kept off the bottom by Leeds United. Kevin Blackwell arrived as manager in the second half of the 2006–07 campaign, and he overhauled the squad during the summer. The team he built finished bottom of League One, albeit with a ten point deduction for entering administration. Blackwell was sacked in January, and former player Mick Harford was brought in as his replacement. Due to financial irregularites, Luton were docked 10 points for the 2008–09 season — and then 20 more points by the Football League for exiting administration without a Company Voluntary Arrangement. Luton Town therefore started on minus 30 points. The points deductions proved too much in the end, as Luton Town had their relegation from the Football League confirmed on 13 April 2009 after a draw with Chesterfield. A respite was found in the Football League Trophy, where Luton came from behind in the final to win the competition for the first time, beating Scunthorpe United 3–2 after extra time. Club Identity The club's nickname, the Hatters, reflects the town's historical connection with the hat making trade, which has been prominent in Luton since the 17th century. The club are strongly associated with two very different colour schemes. Throughout the majority of their history, Luton have worn white shirts, black shorts and either white or black socks, permanently adopted in 1920. Before this time they had mainly worn a combination of light blue and white. In 1973, Luton suddenly changed to orange and navy, a completely new colour scheme, in order to make Luton Town more recognisable. However, only six years later Luton returned to playing in white, though the orange and navy motif remained as trim. Navy shorts were adopted in 1984, to complete what is now the currently favoured Luton Town look. Luton kept these colours until 1999–00, when they spent a solitary season in orange and blue, and for 2000–01 white and black returned, albeit with orange trim. A simple white and black outfit finally returned in the 2007–08 season, but in the summer of 2008 a poll of fans was taken, and the decision was taken to return to the white, navy and orange palette previously favoured during the club's most successful years. Originally, Luton Town simply used their town's crest as their own in a manner similar to many other teams of the time. Indeed, all but one of the badges in Luton Town's history have included the town crest. The club didn't adopt their own crest until 1973, the same time as the radical switch to orange, when a new badge was adopted featuring the club's new colours predominantly. The new emblem depicted a stylised orange football, bearing the letters "Lt", and the club's name in navy blue text around it. In 1987 the club switched back to a derivative of the town emblem, with the shield portion of the heraldic crest also becoming the club's badge. The only similarity with the previous design was the inclusion of the club name around the shield in navy blue. The "rainbow" badge, introduced in 1994, featured the town crest below an orange and blue bow which curved around to meet two footballs, positioned on either side of the shield. The design was completed by a continuation of the orange and blue lines below the shield, with the club name across them in white. This badge was used until 2005, when a badge very similar to the 1987 version returned — the only noticeable differences being black text rather than blue, and the inclusion of a straw boater rather than the outstretched arm depicted in the heraldic crest. The crest remains in use to this day, the only alteration being the addition of the club's founding year, 1885, in 2008. The first sponsor to appear on a Luton Town shirt was Tricentrol, a local motor company based in Dunstable, who sponsored the club from March 1980 to 1982; the deal was worth £50,000. Subsequent sponsors have been Bedford Trucks (1982 to 1990), Vauxhall (1990 to 1991), Universal Salvage Auctions (1991 to 1999), SKF (1999 to 2003), Travel Extras (2003 to 2005) and Electrolux (2005 to 2008). Carbrini Sportswear agreed a two year deal to sponsor Luton's shirts ahead of the 2008–09 season. . Stadia The club currently play at the 10,226 all-seater Kenilworth Road Stadium in the Bury Park area of Luton, where they have been based since 1905. Before that, Luton Town played at Dallow Lane from 1885 to 1897, then Dunstable Road until 1905. The stadium is named after the road which runs along one end of it, though the official address of the club is 1 Maple Road. Opposite the eponymous Kenilworth Stand is the Oak Road End, once the favoured stand for Luton supporters, which is now away fans only. The Main Stand is flanked by the David Preece Stand, and opposite them stand a row of executive boxes. These boxes replaced the Bobbers Stand in 1986, as the club sought to maximise income. The original Main Stand burnt down in a mysterious fire in 1920, and was replaced by the current stand before the 1922–23 campaign. The ground underwent extensive redevelopment during the 1930s, and the capacity by the start of World War II was 30,000. Floodlights were installed at the ground before the 1953–54 season, but it was 20 years before modernisation continued. In 1973 the Bobbers Stand became all-seated, and in 1985 the grass pitch was replaced with an artificial playing surface, that quickly became unpopular and derided as "the plastic pitch". A serious incident involving hooliganism after a match against Millwall in 1985 caused the club's chairman, Conservative MP David Evans to react harshly, banning all visiting supporters from the ground, and introducing membership cards that would be required even by home fans to attend matches. Work began months later on converting the ground to an all-seater. Away fans returned for 1990–91, and grass a year later. The David Preece Stand was erected in 1991, but the conversion of the Kenilworth Stand to an all-seater wasn't fully completed in 2005. New stadium The club have been looking for a new site since 1955. A move to Milton Keynes was mooted several times, most notably in the 1980s, but was never executed. The club itself has only managed to get as far as planning application for a new ground once, for the Kohlerdome proposed by chairman David Kohler in 1995. The Kohlerdome plans were turned down by the Secretary of State in 1998, and Kohler left soon after. Most recently, in 2007, the club's owners proposed a controversial plan to relocate the club to a site near Junction 12 of the M1 motorway, near Harlington and Toddington. This plan was very unpopular with both Luton Town supporters and the local authorities, and never got off the ground. A planning application was made on the club's behalf by former chairman Cliff Bassett, but the application was withdrawn almost immediately following the club's takeover in 2008. , the club is undertaking an independent feasibility study to determine a viable location to move to, though redeveloping Kenilworth Road has not been ruled out. Supporters and rivalries Luton Town are well supported in comparison to their current peers, with an average home attendance of 6,019 in 2008–09. Average attendances at Kenilworth Road have dwindled since the installation of seats and the club's gradual fall from grace, dropping from 13,452 in 1982–83 to their present level — a slump of 55% over 26 years. The club have two major supporters' groups — the official Luton Town Supporters Club and the breakaway Loyal Luton Supporters Club. There also exists a Supporters' Trust, affiliated with both clubs, called Trust in Luton, an Industrial and provident society which owns shares in the club and elects a representative to the club's board. The Luton Town MIGs are the hooligan firm associated with the club. The club produces an official match programme for home games, called Hatters. There is also an free fanzine distributed by the local press, called Half-time Orange, which was launched at the start of the 2007–08 season and releases ten issues per season. The club mascot is a character known as either Happy Harry or Harry the Hatter, who appears on the pitch before matches. Luton Town's traditional rivals are Watford, and the two maintain a bitter rivalry to this day. Luton hold the superior record in the fixture; out of 119 competitive first class matches Luton have won 53 and Watford 37, with 29 draws. There is also an animosity between Luton Town fans and those of Hammersmith club Queens Park Rangers. Statistics and records League standings by season.Horizontal black lines represent league divisions. The record for most appearances for Luton is held by Bob Morton, with 572 in all competitions and 495 in the league. Only four players, Gordon Turner, Andy Rennie, Brian Stein and Steve Howard, have scored more than 100 goals for Luton, with 276, 163, 154 and 103 respectively. The first player to be capped while playing for Luton was left winger Robert Hawkes, who took to the field for England against Ireland at Goodison Park on 16 February 1907. The most capped player is Mal Donaghy, who earned 58 Northern Ireland caps while at the club. The first player to score in an international match was Joe Payne, who scored twice in his only game for England against Finland on 20 May 1937. Payne also holds the Football League record for most goals in a game — he hit 10 past Bristol Rovers on 13 April 1936. The club's largest wins have been a 15–0 victory over Great Yarmouth Town on 21 November 1914 in the FA Cup and a 12–0 win over Bristol Rovers in the League on 13 April 1936. Luton's largest defeat was a 9–0 reverse against Small Heath in the Second Divison on 12 November 1898. Luton's highest home attendances have been 30,069 against Blackpool in the FA Cup on 4 March 1959 and 27,911 against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the League on 5 November 1955. These records will almost certainly stand forever unless Luton Town relocate to a larger ground, as Kenilworth Road's present capacity is less than half of both of these figures. The highest transfer fee ever received for a Luton Town player is the £3 million West Bromwich Albion paid for Curtis Davies on 31 August 2005. The most expensive player Luton Town have ever bought was Lars Elstrup, who cost £850,000 from Odense Boldklub on 21 August 1989. Players As of 28 May 2009. Current squad The club also fields a reserve team and a youth team at Under-18 level. A Centre of Excellence is run by the club for boys in the Under-9 to Under-16 age groups. Notable former players Backroom staff As of 2 May 2009. Directors Chairman: Nick Owen Advisory Board: Paul Ballantyne, Bob Curson, Andrew Cook, Godfrey Ingram, Mick Pattinson, David Wilkinson Managing Director: Gary Sweet Directors: Antony Brown, Stephen Browne Acting Club Secretary: Gary Sweet Management Team manager: Mick Harford First team coaches: Alan Neilson, Kevin Watson Coach: Dmitri Kharine Director of Youth: Alan Neilson Managers As of 2 May 2009. Only managers in charge for a minimum of 50 competitive matches are counted. NameNationalityFromToMatchesWonDrawnLostWin %Present Honours Luton Town's major honours are detailed below. For a list of all club honours, see List of Luton Town F.C. statistics and records#Honours and achievements. Honour Year(s) Football League Second Division champions 1981–82 runners-up 1954–55, 1973–74 Football League Third Division / Football League One champions 1936–37, 2004–05 runners-up 1969–70 Football League Fourth Division / Football League Third Division champions 1967–68 runners-up 2001–02 FA Cup runners-up 1958–59 semi-finalists 1984–85, 1987–88, 1993–94 League Cup winners 1987–88 runners-up 1988–89 Full Members Cup runners-up 1987–88 Football League Trophy winners 2008–09 Footnotes A. Calculated by adding together all the home league attendances for the 2008–09 season to calculate the total attendance (138443) and then dividing by the number of home league matches (23) to reach an average of 6019.3, rounded down to 6019. B. Before the start of the 2004–05 season, Football League re-branding saw Division One become the Football League Championship. Divisions Two and Three became Leagues One and Two, respectively. C. Upon its formation for the 1992–93 season, the FA Premier League became the top tier of English football; the First, Second and Third Divisions then became the second, third and fourth tiers, respectively. References General Specific External links Luton Town Official website | Luton_Town_F.C. |@lemmatized luton:68 town:34 football:28 club:61 english:3 professional:5 base:5 bedfordshire:1 play:8 home:7 match:11 kenilworth:8 road:13 since:6 compete:2 conference:2 national:2 fifth:1 tier:5 first:20 time:11 season:21 form:2 south:2 england:7 turn:3 make:5 payment:2 player:15 early:2 fully:3 year:20 later:8 however:6 division:20 reach:4 major:5 final:5 recent:1 spell:1 begin:3 win:11 second:9 promote:3 league:38 cup:8 arsenal:3 remain:4 relegation:4 signal:1 end:6 success:3 recently:2 subject:1 spectacular:1 collapse:1 financial:2 difficulty:1 cause:2 fall:2 championship:3 three:4 membership:2 history:3 sunday:1 april:4 product:1 merger:1 two:9 lead:1 local:4 team:10 wanderer:2 excelsior:2 initially:1 dallow:2 lane:2 ground:9 move:4 dunstable:4 southern:3 become:10 choose:1 individual:1 join:1 leave:5 poor:1 attendance:6 high:4 wage:1 excessive:1 travel:2 accommodation:1 cost:2 bring:2 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6,646 | Matilda_of_Tuscany | Matilda of Tuscanyfrom Cod. Vat. lat. 4922 (1115) Matilda's signature ("Matilda, Dei gratia si quid est"), quite tremulous due to her old age. Notitia Confirmationis (Prato, June 1107), Archivio Storico Diocesano of Lucca, Diplomatico Arcivescovile, perg. ++ I29 Matilda of Canossa (Italian: Matilde, Latin: Matilda, Mathilda; 1046 – 24 July 1115), called la Gran Contessa or the Great Countess, was an Italian noblewoman, the principal Italian supporter of Pope Gregory VII during the Investiture Controversy. She is one of the few medieval women to be remembered for her military accomplishments. She is called "of Canossa" after the ancestral family castle of Canossa, but in English she is often described as Matilda of Tuscany. Childhood and regency She was the daughter of Boniface III, count of many counties, among them: Reggio, Modena, Mantua, Brescia, and Ferrara. As this string of titles implies, he held a great estate on both sides of the Apennines, though the greater part was in Lombardy and Emilia. Matilda's mother was Beatrice, a daughter of Frederick II, Duke of Upper Lorraine, and of Matilda, daughter of Herman II of Swabia. Matilda's place of birth is unknown. Mantua, Modena, Cremona, and Verona have all been suggested, though scholarly opinion favours Lucca or the nearby castle of Porcari. Duff, 31. Boniface can be placed in Lucca in 1047 and Beatrice purchased Porcari in 1044. Based on her fluency in German, some authors have asserted that she was born in Lorraine, her mother's province. She was her parents' youngest child, but her father was murdered in 1052 and one year later (1053) her older sister Beatrice (namesake of their mother) also died. The elder Beatrice, in order to protect her children's inheritance, married Godfrey the Bearded, a cousin who had been duke of Upper Lorraine before rebelling against the Emperor Henry III. The two were married in 1053 or 1054 in the church of San Pietro at Mantua by Pope Leo IX himself as he returned from a trip to Germany. At the same time Matilda was betrothed to Godfrey the Hunchback, a son of Godfrey the Bearded by a previous marriage and thus her stepbrother. Henry III was enraged by Beatrice's unauthorised marriage to his enemy and he descended into Italy in the early spring of 1055, arriving at Verona in April and then Mantua by Easter. Beatrice wrote to him seeking a safe-conduct to explain herself; this granted she travelled with her young son Frederick, now margrave of Tuscany, and her mother, Matilda, a sister of the emperor's grandmother Gisela. The younger Matilda was left in either Lucca or Canossa and she may have passed the next few years between those two places in the custody of her stepfather. Initially Henry refused to see Beatrice, but eventually he had her imprisoned in rough conditions, though the young Frederick was treated more appropriately, but he died in Henry's custody nonetheless (the rumours that he was murdered are baseless Duff, 35 and n1. ). The death of her brother made the eight-year-old Matilda the sole heiress of the vast lands of her father, under her mother's guardianship. With his wife now imprisoned, Godfrey returned to Germany to stir up rebellion and draw Henry out of Italy, but the emperor merely took Beatrice and Frederick with him. Some later historian aver that Beatrice went willingly to see her former homelands. Whatever the case, Godfrey and his ally, Baldwin V of Flanders, had forced the emperor to come to terms of peace by mid-1056 and Godfrey was permitted to return to Italy to administer his stepdaughter's estates. Henry soon died and the council which was held under the direction of Pope Victor II at Cologne formally restored Godfrey to imperial favour. He and Beatrice were back in Italy by late that year. Matilda's family became heavily involved in the series of disputed papal elections of the last half of the eleventh century. Her stepfather's brother Frederick became Pope Stephen IX, while both of the following two popes, Nicholas II and Alexander II had been Tuscan bishops. Matilda made her first journey to Rome with her family in the entourage of Nicholas in 1059. Her parents' forces were used to protect these popes and fight against anti-popes. Some stories claim the adolescent Matilda took the field in some of these engagements, but no evidence supports this. Under the tutelage of Arduino della Padule, however, she did learn the military arts, such as horseriding and arms. According to Lodovico Vedriani, two suits of her armour existed in the "Quattro Castelli" until 1622, when they were sold in the market of Reggio. The "Qattro Castelli" were four castles — Montezane, Montelucio, Montevetro, and Bianell (Bibianello) — perched by Matilda atop hills to guard the route up to Canossa. Matilda could speak "the Teuton tongue" (German) and "the beautiful language of the Franks" (French) according to her biographer, Domnizo. She could also write in Latin. Sometime in this period Matilda finally married her stepbrother Godfrey. Matilda gave birth in 1071 to a daughter, Beatrice. Virtually all current biographies of Matilda assert that the child died in its first year of infancy, however genealogies contemporaneous with Michelangelo Buonarroti claimed that Beatrice survived, and Michelangelo himself claimed to be a descendent of Beatrix and, therefore, Matilda. Michelangelo's claim was supported at the time by the reigning Count of Canossa. The Catholic Church, possibly motivated by its claim against her property, has always asserted that Matilda never had any child at all. Matilda and Godfrey became estranged after Godfrey the Bearded's death in 1069, and he returned to Germany, where he eventually received the duchy of Lower Lorraine. Conflict between Henry IV and the Papacy Matilda from the Vita Mathildis, accepting her biography from its monkish author Domnizo and guarded by a man-at-arms (left). Both Matilda's mother and husband died in 1076, leaving her in sole control of her great Italian patrimony as well as lands in Lorraine, while at the same time matters in the conflict between Pope Gregory VII and the German king Henry IV were at a crisis point. The Pope had excommunicated the King, causing a weakening of Henry's German support. Henry crossed the Alps that winter, appearing early in 1077 as a barefoot penitent in the snow before the gates of Matilda's ancestral castle of Canossa, where the pope was staying. This famous meeting did not settle matters for long. In 1080 Henry was excommunicated again, and the next year he crossed the Alps, aiming either to get the pope to end the excommunication and crown him emperor, or to depose the pope in favor of someone more co-operative. Matilda controlled all the western passages over the Apennines, forcing Henry to approach Rome via Ravenna. Even with this route open, he would have difficulties besieging Rome with a hostile territory at his back. Some of his allies defeated Matilda at the battle of Volta Mantovana (near Mantua) in October 1080, and by December the citizens of Lucca, then the capital of Tuscany, had revolted and driven out her ally Bishop Anselm. She is believed to have commissioned the renowned Ponte della Maddalena where the Via Francigena crosses the river Serchio at Borgo a Mozzano just north of Lucca. In 1081, Matilda suffered some further losses, and Henry formally deposed her in July. This was not enough to eliminate her as a source of trouble, for she retained substantial allodial holdings. She remained as Pope Gregory's chief intermediary for communication with northern Europe even as he lost control of Rome and was holed up in the Castel Sant'Angelo. After Henry had obtained the Pope's seal, Matilda wrote to supporters in Germany only to trust papal messages that came though her. Henry's control of Rome enabled him to have his choice of pope, Antipope Clement III, consecrated and in turn for this pope to crown Henry as emperor. That done, Henry returned to Germany, leaving it to his allies to attempt Matilda's dispossession. These attempts foundered after Matilda routed them at Sorbara (near Modena) on July 2, 1084. Gregory VII died in 1085, and Matilda's forces, with those of Prince Jordan I of Capua (her off and on again enemy), took to the field in support of a new pope, Victor III. In 1087, Matilda led an expedition to Rome in an attempt to install Victor, but the strength of the imperialist counterattack soon convinced the pope to retire from the city. Around 1090, Matilda married again, to Welf V of Bavaria, from a family (the Welfs) whose very name was later to become synonymous with alliance to the popes in their conflict with the German emperors (see Guelphs and Ghibellines). This forced Henry to return to Italy, where he drove Matilda into the mountains. He was humbled before Canossa, this time in a military defeat in October 1092, from which his influence in Italy never recovered. In 1095, Henry attempted to reverse his fortunes by seizing Matilda's castle of Nogara, but the countess's arrival at the head of an army forced him to retreat. In 1097, Henry withdrew from Italy altogether, after which Matilda reigned virtually uncontested, although she did continue to launch military operations designed to restore her authority and regain control of the towns that had remained loyal to the emperor. She ordered or commanded successful expeditions against Ferrara (1101), Parma (1104), Prato (1107) and Mantua (1114). In 1111, at Bianello, she was made viceroy of Liguria by the Emperor Henry V. Matilda of Canossaby Bernini in the Saint Peter's Basilica (Rome). Death and legacy Matilda's death of gout in 1115 at Bondeno di Rocore marked the end of an era in Italian politics. She left her allodial property to the Pope for reasons not known. Henry had promised some of the cities in her territory he would appoint no successor after he deposed her. In her place the leading citizens of these cities took control, and we enter the era of the city-states in northern Italy. In the 17th century her body was removed to the Vatican, where it now lies in St. Peter's Basilica. The story of Matilda and Henry IV featured in Luigi Pirandello's play Enrico IV. 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6,647 | Cathode | Diagram of a copper cathode in a galvanic cell. A cathode is an electrode through which electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device. Mnemonic: CCD (Cathode Current Departs). From an electrochemical point of view, positively charged cations invariably move toward the cathode and/or negatively charged anions move away from it to balance the electrons arriving from external circuitry. This does not mean that cathode polarity is always negative; cathode polarity depends on the device type, and can even vary according to the operating mode. Examples: In a discharging battery or galvanic cell (drawing) the cathode is the positive terminal, toward the direction of conventional current. This outward current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive cathode (chemical energy is responsible for this "uphill" motion). It is continued externally by electrons moving inwards, negative charge moving one way amounting to positive current flowing the other way. In a recharging battery, or an electrolytic cell, the cathode is the negative terminal, which sends current back to the external generator. In a diode, it is the negative terminal at the pointed end of the arrow symbol, where current flows out of the device. Note electrode naming for diodes is always based on the direction of the forward current (that of the arrow, in which the current flows "most easily"), even for types such as zener diodes or solar cells where the current of interest is the reverse current. In a cathode ray tube, it is the negative terminal where electrons flow in from the wiring and leave for the tube's near vacuum, constituting a positive current flowing out of the device. An electrode through which current flows the other way (into the device) is termed an anode. Etymology The word was coined in 1834 from the Greek κάθοδος (kathodos), 'descent' or 'way down', by William Whewell, who had been consulted Ross, S, Faraday Consults the Scholars: The Origins of the Terms of Electrochemistry in Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London (1938-1996), Volume 16, Number 2 / 1961, Pages: 187 - 220, consulted 2006-12-22 by Michael Faraday over some new names needed to complete a paper on the recently discovered process of electrolysis. In that paper Faraday explained that when an electrolytic cell is oriented so that electric current traverses the "decomposing body" (electrolyte) in a direction "from East to West, or, which will strengthen this help to the memory, that in which the sun appears to move", the cathode is where the current leaves the electrolyte, on the West side: "kata downwards, `odos a way ; the way which the sun sets" ( Faraday, Michael, Experimental Researches in Electricity. Seventh Series, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886), Volume 124, 01 Jan 1834, Page 77, consulted 2006-12-27 (in which Faraday introduces the words electrode, anode, cathode, anion, cation, electrolyte, electrolyze) , reprinted in Faraday, Michael, Experimental Researches in Electricity, Volume 1, 1849, reprint of series 1 to 14, freely accessible Gutenberg.org transcript consulted 2007-01-11 ). The use of 'West' to mean the 'out' direction (actually 'out' → 'West' → 'sunset' → 'down') may appear unnecessarily contrived. Previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term "exode" (the doorway where the current exits). His motivation for changing it to something meaning 'the West electrode' (other candidates had been "westode", "occiode" and "dysiode") was to make it immune to a possible later change in the direction convention for current, whose exact nature was not known at the time. The reference he used to this effect was the Earth's magnetic field direction, which at that time was believed to be invariant. He fundamentally defined his arbitrary orientation for the cell as being that in which the internal current would run parallel to and in the same direction as a hypothetical magnetizing current loop around the local line of latitude which would induce a magnetic dipole field oriented like the Earth's. This made the internal current East to West as previously mentioned, but in the event of a later convention change it would have become West to East, so that the West electrode would not have been the 'way out' any more. Therefore "exode" would have become inappropriate, whereas "cathode" meaning 'West electrode' would have remained correct with respect to the unchanged direction of the actual phenomenon underlying the current, then unknown but, he thought, unambiguously defined by the magnetic reference. In retrospect the name change was unfortunate, not only because the Greek roots alone do not reveal the cathode's function any more, but more importantly because, as we now know, the Earth's magnetic field direction on which the "cathode" term is based is subject to reversals whereas the current direction convention on which the "exode" term was based has no reason to change in the future. Since the later discovery of the electron, an easier to remember, and more durably technically correct (although historically false), etymology has been suggested: cathode, from the Greek kathodos, 'way down', 'the way (down) into the cell (or other device) for electrons'. Flow of electrons The flow of electrons is always from anode to cathode outside of the cell or device, regardless of the cell or device type and operating mode, with the exception of diodes where electrode naming always assumes current flows in the forward direction (that of the arrow symbol), i.e., electrons flow in the opposite direction, even when the diode reverse-conducts either by accident (breakdown of a normal diode) or by design (breakdown of a Zener diode, photo-current of a photodiode or solar cell). Chemistry cathode In chemistry, a cathode is the (negative or positive, depending on whether the cell is electrolytic or galvanic) electrode of an electrochemical cell at which reduction occurs. The cathode supplies electrons to the positively charged cations which flow to it from the electrolyte (even if the cell is galvanic, i.e., when the cathode is positive and therefore would be expected to repel the positively charged cations; this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal/electrolyte systems in a galvanic cell). Electrolytic cell In an electrolytic cell, the cathode is where the negative polarity is applied to drive the cell. Common results of reduction at the cathode are hydrogen gas or pure metal from metal ions. When discussing the relative reducing power of two redox agents, the couple for generating the more reducing species is said to be more "cathodic" with respect to the more easily reduced reagent. Galvanic cell In a galvanic cell, the cathode is where the positive pole is connected to allow the circuit to be completed: as the anode of the galvanic cell gives off electrons, they return from the circuit into the cell through the cathode. Electroplating metal cathode When metal ions are reduced from ionic solution onto the cathode, they form a pure metal surface on the cathode. Items to be plated with pure metal are attached to and become part of the cathode in the electrolytic solution. Electronics and physics cathode In physics or electronics, a cathode is an electrode that emits electrons into the device. Vacuum tubes In a vacuum tube or electronic vacuum system, the cathode emits free electrons. Electrons are extracted from metal electrodes either by heating the electrode, causing thermionic emission, or by applying a strong electric field and causing field electron emission. Electrons can also be emitted from the electrodes of certain metals when light of frequency greater than the threshold frequency falls on it. This effect is called photoelectric emission. Cold cathodes and hot cathodes Cathodes used for field electron emission in vacuum tubes are called cold cathodes. Heated electrodes or hot cathodes, frequently called filaments, are much more common. Most radios and television sets prior to the 1970s used filament-heated-cathode electron tubes for signal selection and processing; to this day, a hot cathode forms the source of the electron beam(s) in cathode ray tubes in many television sets and computer monitors. Hot electron emitters are also used as the electrodes in fluorescent lamps and in the source tubes of X-ray machines. Diodes In a semiconductor diode, the cathode is the N–doped layer of the PN junction with a high density of free electrons as a result of doping, and an equal density of fixed positive charges, which are the dopants that have been thermally ionized. In the anode, the converse applies: It features a high density of free "holes" and consequently fixed negative dopants which have captured an electron (hence the origin of the holes). When P and N-doped layers are placed in contact, diffusion ensures that electrons flow from high to low density areas: That is, from the N to the P side. They leave behind the fixed positively charged dopants near the junction. Similarly, holes diffuse from P to N leaving behind fixed negative ionised dopants near the junction. These layers of fixed positive and negative charges, collectively known as the depletion layer because they are depleted of free electrons and holes. The depletion layer at the junction is at the origin of the diode's rectifying properties. This is due to the resulting internal field and corresponding potential barrier which inhibit current flow in reverse applied bias which increases the internal depletion layer field. Conversely, they allow it in forwards applied bias where the applied bias reduces the built in potential barrier. Electrons which diffuse from the cathode into the P-doped layer, or anode, become what is termed "minority carriers" and tend to recombine there with the majority carriers, which are holes, on a timescale characteristic of the material which is the p-type minority carrier lifetime. Similarly, holes diffusing into the N-doped layer become minority carriers and tend to recombine with electrons. In equilibrium, with no applied bias, thermally assisted diffusion of electrons and holes in opposite directions across the depletion layer ensure a zero net current with electrons flowing from cathode to anode and recombining, and holes flowing from anode to cathode across the junction or depletion layer and recombining. Like a typical diode, there is a fixed anode and cathode in a zener diode, but it will conduct current in the reverse direction (electrons from anode to cathode) if its breakdown or Zener voltage is exceeded. See also Anode Battery Cathode bias Electrode Electrolysis Electrolytic cell Electron tube Oxidation-reduction PEDOT Primary cell terminology References External links The Cathode Ray Tube site How to define anode and cathode | Cathode |@lemmatized diagram:1 copper:1 cathode:50 galvanic:8 cell:23 electrode:17 electric:3 current:27 flow:16 polarized:1 electrical:1 device:9 mnemonic:1 ccd:1 departs:1 electrochemical:2 point:1 view:1 positively:4 charge:7 cation:4 invariably:1 move:6 toward:2 negatively:1 anion:2 away:1 balance:1 electron:29 arrive:1 external:3 circuitry:1 mean:4 polarity:3 always:4 negative:10 depend:2 type:4 even:4 vary:1 accord:1 operating:2 mode:2 example:1 discharging:1 battery:3 draw:1 positive:10 terminal:4 direction:14 conventional:1 outward:1 carry:1 internally:1 ion:3 electrolyte:7 chemical:1 energy:1 responsible:1 uphill:1 motion:1 continue:1 externally:1 inwards:1 one:1 way:9 amount:1 recharging:1 electrolytic:7 send:1 back:1 generator:1 diode:12 pointed:1 end:1 arrow:3 symbol:2 note:2 name:3 base:3 forward:3 easily:2 zener:4 solar:2 interest:1 reverse:4 ray:4 tube:10 wiring:1 leave:4 near:3 vacuum:5 constitute:1 term:6 anode:13 etymology:2 word:2 coin:1 greek:3 κάθοδος:1 kathodos:2 descent:1 william:1 whewell:1 consult:5 ross:1 faraday:7 scholar:1 origin:3 electrochemistry:1 record:1 royal:2 society:2 london:2 volume:3 number:1 page:2 michael:3 new:1 need:1 complete:2 paper:2 recently:1 discover:1 process:1 electrolysis:2 explain:1 orient:2 traverse:1 decomposing:1 body:1 east:3 west:9 strengthen:1 help:1 memory:1 sun:2 appear:2 side:2 kata:1 downwards:1 odos:1 set:3 experimental:2 research:2 electricity:2 seventh:1 series:2 philosophical:1 transaction:1 jan:1 introduce:1 electrolyze:1 reprint:2 freely:1 accessible:1 gutenberg:1 org:1 transcript:1 use:6 actually:1 sunset:1 may:1 unnecessarily:1 contrive:1 previously:2 relate:1 first:1 reference:4 cite:1 straightforward:1 exode:3 doorway:1 exit:1 motivation:1 change:5 something:1 candidate:1 westode:1 occiode:1 dysiode:1 make:2 immune:1 possible:1 late:3 convention:3 whose:1 exact:1 nature:1 know:3 time:2 effect:2 earth:3 magnetic:4 field:8 believe:1 invariant:1 fundamentally:1 define:3 arbitrary:1 orientation:1 internal:4 would:7 run:1 parallel:1 hypothetical:1 magnetizing:1 loop:1 around:1 local:1 line:1 latitude:1 induce:1 dipole:1 like:2 mention:1 event:1 become:5 therefore:2 inappropriate:1 whereas:2 remain:1 correct:2 respect:2 unchanged:1 actual:1 phenomenon:1 underlie:1 unknown:1 think:1 unambiguously:1 retrospect:1 unfortunate:1 root:1 alone:1 reveal:1 function:1 importantly:1 subject:1 reversal:1 reason:1 future:1 since:1 discovery:1 easy:1 remember:1 durably:1 technically:1 although:1 historically:1 false:1 suggest:1 outside:1 regardless:1 exception:1 naming:1 assumes:1 e:2 opposite:2 conduct:2 either:2 accident:1 breakdown:3 normal:1 design:1 photo:1 photodiode:1 chemistry:2 whether:1 reduction:3 occur:1 supply:1 expect:1 repel:1 charged:1 due:2 potential:3 relative:2 solution:3 different:1 metal:9 system:2 apply:4 drive:1 common:2 result:3 hydrogen:1 gas:1 pure:3 discuss:1 reduce:4 power:1 two:1 redox:1 agent:1 couple:1 generate:1 reducing:1 specie:1 say:1 cathodic:1 reagent:1 pole:1 connect:1 allow:2 circuit:2 give:1 return:1 electroplate:1 ionic:1 onto:1 form:2 surface:1 item:1 plat:1 attach:1 part:1 electronics:2 physic:2 emit:3 electronic:1 free:4 extract:1 heat:3 cause:2 thermionic:1 emission:4 strong:1 also:3 certain:1 light:1 frequency:2 great:1 threshold:1 fall:1 call:3 photoelectric:1 cold:2 hot:4 frequently:1 filament:2 much:1 radio:1 television:2 prior:1 signal:1 selection:1 processing:1 day:1 source:2 beam:1 many:1 computer:1 monitor:1 emitter:1 fluorescent:1 lamp:1 x:1 machine:1 semiconductor:1 n:5 dope:3 layer:10 pn:1 junction:5 high:3 density:4 doping:1 equal:1 fix:3 dopants:4 thermally:2 ionize:1 converse:1 applies:1 feature:1 hole:8 consequently:1 capture:1 hence:1 p:5 doped:1 place:1 contact:1 diffusion:2 ensures:1 low:1 area:1 behind:2 similarly:2 diffuse:3 fixed:3 ionised:1 collectively:1 depletion:5 deplete:1 rectifying:1 property:1 correspond:1 barrier:2 inhibit:1 bias:5 increase:1 conversely:1 applied:2 build:1 minority:3 carrier:4 tend:2 recombine:3 majority:1 timescale:1 characteristic:1 material:1 lifetime:1 equilibrium:1 assist:1 across:2 ensure:1 zero:1 net:1 recombining:1 typical:1 voltage:1 exceed:1 see:1 oxidation:1 pedot:1 primary:1 terminology:1 link:1 site:1 |@bigram galvanic_cell:6 cathode_electrode:2 positively_charge:3 negatively_charge:1 electrolytic_cell:5 zener_diode:3 cathode_ray:3 william_whewell:1 michael_faraday:1 anode_cathode:7 magnetic_field:2 magnetic_dipole:1 electrochemical_cell:1 vacuum_tube:3 thermionic_emission:1 fluorescent_lamp:1 semiconductor_diode:1 cathode_anode:1 external_link:1 |
6,648 | Linked_list | In computer science, a linked list is data structure that consists of a sequence of data records such that in each record there is a field that contains a reference (i.e., a link) to the next record in the sequence. Image:Singly-linked-list.svgA linked list whose nodes contain two fields: an integer value and a link to the next node Linked lists are among the simplest and most common data structures, and are used to implement many important abstract data structures, such as stacks, queues, hash tables, symbolic expressions, skip lists, and many more. The principal benefit of a linked list over a conventional array is that the order of the linked items may be different from the order that the data items are stored in memory or on disk. For that reason, linked lists allow insertion and removal of nodes at any point in the list, with a constant number of operations. On the other hand, linked lists by themselves do not allow random access to the data, or any form of efficient indexing. Thus, many basic operations — such as obtaining the last node of the list, or finding a node that contains a given data, or locating the place where a new node should be inserted — may require scanning most of the list elements. Linked lists can be implemented in most languages. Languages such as Lisp and Scheme have the data structure built in, along with operations to access the linked list. Procedural or object-oriented languages such as C, C++, and Java typically rely on mutable references to create linked lists. History Linked lists were developed in 1955-56 by Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw and Herbert Simon at RAND Corporation as the primary data structure for their Information Processing Language. IPL was used by the authors to develop several early artificial intelligence programs, including the Logic Theory Machine, the General Problem Solver, and a computer chess program. Reports on their work appeared in IRE Transactions on Information Theory in 1956, and several conference proceedings from 1957-1959, including Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference in 1957 and 1958, and Information Processing (Proceedings of the first UNESCO International Conference on Information Processing) in 1959. The now-classic diagram consisting of blocks representing list nodes with arrows pointing to successive list nodes appears in "Programming the Logic Theory Machine" by Newell and Shaw in Proc. WJCC, February 1957. Newell and Simon were recognized with the ACM Turing Award in 1975 for having "made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing". The problem of machine translation for natural language processing led Victor Yngve at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to use linked lists as data structures in his COMIT programming language for computer research in the field of linguistics. A report on this language entitled "A programming language for mechanical translation" appeared in Mechanical Translation in 1958. LISP, standing for list processor, was created by John McCarthy in 1958 while he was at MIT and in 1960 he published its design in a paper in the Communications of the ACM, entitled "Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine, Part I". One of LISP's major data structures is the linked list. By the early 1960s, the utility of both linked lists and languages which use these structures as their primary data representation was well established. Bert Green of the MIT Lincoln Laboratory published a review article entitled "Computer languages for symbol manipulation" in IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics in March 1961 which summarized the advantages of the linked list approach. A later review article, "A Comparison of list-processing computer languages" by Bobrow and Raphael, appeared in Communications of the ACM in April 1964. Several operating systems developed by Technical Systems Consultants (originally of West Lafayette Indiana, and later of Chapel Hill, North Carolina) used singly linked lists as file structures. A directory entry pointed to the first sector of a file, and succeeding portions of the file were located by traversing pointers. Systems using this technique included Flex (for the Motorola 6800 CPU), mini-Flex (same CPU), and Flex9 (for the Motorola 6809 CPU). A variant developed by TSC for and marketed by Smoke Signal Broadcasting in California, used doubly linked lists in the same manner. The TSS operating system, developed by IBM for the System 360/370 machines, used a double linked list for their file system catalog. The directory structure was similar to Unix, where a directory could contain files and/or other directories and extend to any depth. A utility flea was created to fix file system problems after a crash, since modified portions of the file catalog were sometimes in memory when a crash occurred. Problems were detected by comparing the forward and backward links for consistency. If a forward link was corrupt, then if a backward link to the infected node was found, the forward link was set to the node with the backward link. A humorous comment in the source code where this utility was invoked stated "Everyone knows a flea collar gets rid of bugs in cats". Basic concepts and nomenclature Each record of a linked list is often called an element or node. The field of each node that contains address of the next node is usually called the next link or next'' pointer. The remaining fields may be called the data, information, value, or payload fields. The head of a list is its first node, and the tail is the list minus that node (or a pointer thereto). In Lisp and some derived languages, the tail may be called the CDR (pronounced could-R) of the list, while the payload of the head node may be called the CAR. Linear and circular lists In the last node of a list, the link field often contains a null reference, a special value that is interpreted by programs as meaning "there is no such node". A less common convention is to make it point to the first node of the list; in that case the list is said to be circular or circularly linked; otherwise it is said to be open or linear. Image:Circularly-linked-list.svgA circular linked list Simply-, doubly-, and multiply-linked lists In a doubly-linked list, each node contains, besides the next-node link, a second link field pointing to the previous node in the sequence. The two links may be called forward(s) and backwards. Linked lists that lack such pointers are said to be simply linked, or simple linked lists. Image:Doubly-linked-list.svgA doubly-linked list whose nodes contain three fields: an integer value, the link forward to the next node, and the link backward to the previous node The technique known as XOR-linking allows a doubly-linked list to be implemented using a single link field in each node. However, this technique requires the ability to do bit operations on addresses, and therefore may not be available in some high-level languages. In a multiply-linked list, each node contains two or more link fields, each field being used to connect the same set of data records in a different order (e.g., by name, by department, by date of birth, etc.). (While doubly-linked lists can be seen as special cases of multiply-linked list, the fact that the two orders are opposite to each other leads to simpler and more efficient algorithms, so they are usually treated as a separate case.) Sentinel nodes In some implementations, extra sentinel or dummy nodes may be added before the first data record and/or after the last one. This convention simplifies and accelerates some list-handling algorithms, by ensuring that all links can be safely dereferenced and that every list (even one that contains no data elements) always has a "first" and "last" node. Empty lists An empty list is a list that contains no data records. This is usually the same as saying that it has zero nodes. If sentinel nodes are being used, the list is usually said to be empty when it has only sentinel nodes. Hash linking The link fields need not be physically part of the nodes. If the data records are stored in an array and referenced to by their indices, the link field may be stored in a separate array with the same index as the data record. List handles Since a reference to the first node gives access to the whole list, that reference is often called the address, pointer, or handle of the latter. Algorithms that manipulate linked lists usually get such handles to the input lists and return the handles to the resulting lists. In fact, in the context of such algorithms, the word "list" often means "list handle". In some situations, however, it may be convenient to refer to a list by a handle that consists of two links, pointing to its first and last nodes. Combining alternatives The alternatives listed above may be arbitrarily combined in almost every way, so one may have circular doubly-linked lists without sentinels, circular simply-lists with sentinels, etc. Tradeoffs As with most choices in computer programming and design, no method is well suited to all circumstances. A linked list data structure might work well in one case, but cause problems in another. This is a list of some of the common tradeoffs involving linked list structures. Linked lists vs. arrays Array Linked list IndexingΘ(1)Θ(n) Inserting / Deleting at endΘ(1) Θ(1) or Θ(n) If maintaining a link to the tail of the list, time is O(1); if the entire list must be searched to locate the tail link, O(n) Inserting / Deleting in middle (with iterator) Θ(n) Θ(1) Persistent No Singly yes Locality Great Poor Linked lists have several advantages over arrays. Insertion of an element at a specific point of a list is a constant-time operation, whereas insertion in an array may require moving half of the elements, or more. While one can "delete" an element from an array in constant time by somehow marking its slot as "vacant", an algorithm that iterates over the elements may have to skip a large number of vacant slots. Moreover, arbitrarily many elements may be inserted into a linked list, limited only by the total memory available; while an array will eventually fill up, and then have to be resized — an expensive operation, that may not even be possible if memory is fragmented. Similarly, an array from which many elements are removed may have to be resized in order to avoid wasting too much space. On the other hand, arrays allow random access, while linked lists allow only sequential access to elements. Singly-linked lists, in fact, can only be traversed in one direction. This makes linked lists unsuitable for applications where it's useful to look up an element by its index quickly, such as heapsort. Sequential access on arrays is also faster than on linked lists on many machines, because they have greater locality of reference and thus profit more from processor caching. Another disadvantage of linked lists is the extra storage needed for references, which often makes them impractical for lists of small data items such as characters or boolean values. It can also be slow, and with a naïve allocator, wasteful, to allocate memory separately for each new element, a problem generally solved using memory pools. Some hybrid solutions try to combine the advantages of the two representations. Unrolled linked lists store several elements in each list node, increasing cache performance while decreasing memory overhead for references. CDR coding does both these as well, by replacing references with the actual data referenced, which extends off the end of the referencing record. A good example that highlights the pros and cons of using arrays vs. linked lists is by implementing a program that resolves the Josephus problem. The Josephus problem is an election method that works by having a group of people stand in a circle. Starting at a predetermined person, you count around the circle n times. Once you reach the nth person, take them out of the circle and have the members close the circle. Then count around the circle the same n times and repeat the process, until only one person is left. That person wins the election. This shows the strengths and weaknesses of a linked list vs. an array, because if you view the people as connected nodes in a circular linked list then it shows how easily the linked list is able to delete nodes (as it only has to rearrange the links to the different nodes). However, the linked list will be poor at finding the next person to remove and will need to recurse through the list until it finds that person. An array, on the other hand, will be poor at deleting nodes (or elements) as it cannot remove one node without individually shifting all the elements up the list by one. However, it is exceptionally easy to find the nth person in the circle by directly referencing them by their position in the array. The list ranking problem concerns the efficient conversion of a linked list representation into an array. Although trivial for a conventional computer, solving this problem by a parallel algorithm is complicated and has been the subject of much research. Simply-linked linear lists vs. other lists While doubly-linked and/or circular lists have advantages over simply-linked linear lists, linear lists offer some advantages that make them preferable in some situations. For one thing, a simply-linked linear list is a recursive data structure, because it contains a pointer to a smaller object of the same type. For that reason, many operations on simply-linked linear lists (such as merging two lists, or enumerating the elements in reverse order) often have very simple recursive algorithms, much simpler than any solution using iterative commands. While one can adapt those recursive solutions for doubly-linked and circularly-linked lists, the procedures generally need extra arguments and more complicated base cases. Linear simply-linked lists also allow tail-sharing, the use of a common final portion of sub-list as the terminal portion of two different lists. In particular, if a new node is added at the beginning of a list, the former list remains available as the tail of the new one — a simple example of a persistent data structure. Again, this is not true with the other variants: a node may never belong to two different circular or doubly-linked lists. In particular, end-sentinel nodes can be shared among simply-linked non-circular lists. One may even use the same end-sentinel node for every such list. In Lisp, for example, every proper list ends with a link to a special node, denoted by nil or (), whose CAR and CDR links point to itself. Thus a Lisp procedure can safely take the CAR or CDR of any list. Indeed, the advantages of the fancy variants are often limited to the complexity of the algorithms, not in their efficiency. A circular list, in particular, can usually be emulated by a linear list together with two variables that point to the first and last nodes, at no extra cost. Doubly-linked vs. singly-linked Double-linked lists require more space per node (unless one uses xor-linking), and their elementary operations are more expensive; but they are often easier to manipulate because they allow sequential access to the list in both directions. In particular, one can insert or delete a node in a constant number of operations given only that node's address. To do the same in a singly-linked list, one must have the previous node's address. Some algorithms require access in both directions. On the other hand, they do not allow tail-sharing, and cannot be used as persistent data structures. Circularly-linked vs. linearly-linked A circularly linked list may be a natural option to represent arrays that are naturally circular, e.g. for the corners of a polygon, for a pool of buffers that are used and released in FIFO order, or for a set of processes that should be time-shared in round-robin order. In these applications, a pointer to any node serves as a handle to the whole list. With a circular list, a pointer to the last node gives easy access also to the first node, by following one link. Thus, in applications that require access to both ends of the list (e.g., in the implementation of a queue), a circular structure allows one to handle the sructure by a single pointer, instead of two. A circular list can be split into two circular lists, in constant time, by giving the addresses of the last node of each piece. The operation consists in swapping the contents of the link fields of those two nodes. Applying the same operation to any two nodes nodes in two distinct lists joins the two list into one. This property greatly simplifies some algorithms and data structures, such as the quad-edge and face-edge. The simplest representation for an empty circular list (when such thing makes sense) has no nodes, and is represented by a null pointer. With this choice, many algorithms have to test for this special case, and handle it separately. By contrast, the use of null to denote an empty linear list is more natural and often creates fewer special cases. Using sentinel nodes Sentinel node may simplify certain list operations, by ensuring that the next and/or previous nodes exist for every element, and that even empty lists have at least one node. One may also use a sentinel node at the end of the list, with an appropriate data field, to eliminate some end-of-list tests. For example, when scanning the list looking for a node with a given value x, setting the sentinel's data field to x makes it unnecessary to test for end-of-list inside the loop. Another example is the merging two sorted lists: if their sentinels have data fields set to +∞, the choice of the next output node does not need special handling for empty lists. However, sentinel nodes use up extra space (especially in applications that use many short lists), and they may complicate other operations (such as the creation of a new empty list). However, if the circular list is used merely to simulate a linear list, one may avoid some of this complexity by adding a single sentinel node to every list, between the last and the first data nodes. With this convention, an empty list consists of the sentinel node alone, pointing to itself via the next-node link. The list handle should then be a pointer to the last data node, before the sentinel, if the list is not empty; or to the sentinel itself, if the list is empty. The same trick can be used to simplify the handling of a doubly-linked linear list, by turning it into a circular doubly-linked list with a single sentinel node. However, in this case, the handle should be a single pointer to the dummy node itself. Ford, William and Topp, William Data Structures with C++ using STL Second Edition (2002). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-085850-1, pp. 466-467 Linked list operations When manipulating linked lists in-place, care must be taken to not use values that you have invalidated in previous assignments. This makes algorithms for inserting or deleting linked list nodes somewhat subtle. This section gives pseudocode for adding or removing nodes from singly, doubly, and circularly linked lists in-place. Throughout we will use null to refer to an end-of-list marker or sentinel, which may be implemented in a number of ways. Linearly-linked lists Singly-linked lists Our node data structure will have two fields. We also keep a variable firstNode which always points to the first node in the list, or is null for an empty list. record Node { data // The data being stored in the node next // A reference to the next node, null for last node } record List { Node firstNode // points to first node of list; null for empty list } Traversal of a singly-linked list is simple, beginning at the first node and following each next link until we come to the end: node := list.firstNode while node not null { (do something with node.data) node := node.next } The following code inserts a node after an existing node in a singly linked list. The diagram shows how it works. Inserting a node before an existing one cannot be done; instead, you have to locate it while keeping track of the previous node. function insertAfter(Node node, Node newNode) { // insert newNode after node newNode.next := node.next node.next := newNode } Inserting at the beginning of the list requires a separate function. This requires updating firstNode. function insertBeginning(List list, Node newNode) { // insert node before current first node newNode.next := list.firstNode list.firstNode := newNode } Similarly, we have functions for removing the node after a given node, and for removing a node from the beginning of the list. The diagram demonstrates the former. To find and remove a particular node, one must again keep track of the previous element. function removeAfter(node node) { // remove node past this one obsoleteNode := node.next node.next := node.next.next destroy obsoleteNode } function removeBeginning(List list) { // remove first node obsoleteNode := list.firstNode list.firstNode := list.firstNode.next // point past deleted node destroy obsoleteNode } Notice that removeBeginning() sets list.firstNode to null when removing the last node in the list. Since we can't iterate backwards, efficient "insertBefore" or "removeBefore" operations are not possible. Appending one linked list to another can be inefficient unless a reference to the tail is kept as part of the List structure, because we must traverse the entire first list in order to find the tail, and then append the second list to this. Thus, if two linearly-linked lists are each of length , list appending has asymptotic time complexity of . In the Lisp family of languages, list appending is provided by the append procedure. Many of the special cases of linked list operations can be eliminated by including a dummy element at the front of the list. This ensures that there are no special cases for the beginning of the list and renders both insertBeginning() and removeBeginning() unnecessary. In this case, the first useful data in the list will be found at list.firstNode.next. Circularly-linked list In a circularly linked list, all nodes are linked in a continuous circle, without using null. For lists with a front and a back (such as a queue), one stores a reference to the last node in the list. The next node after the last node is the first node. Elements can be added to the back of the list and removed from the front in constant time. Circularly-linked lists can be either singly or doubly linked. Both types of circularly-linked lists benefit from the ability to traverse the full list beginning at any given node. This often allows us to avoid storing firstNode and lastNode, although if the list may be empty we need a special representation for the empty list, such as a lastNode variable which points to some node in the list or is null if it's empty; we use such a lastNode here. This representation significantly simplifies adding and removing nodes with a non-empty list, but empty lists are then a special case. circularly-linked lists Assuming that someNode is some node in a non-empty circular simply-linked list, this code iterates through that list starting with someNode: function iterate(someNode) if someNode ≠ null node := someNode do do something with node.value node := node.next while node ≠ someNode Notice that the test "while node ≠ someNode" must be at the end of the loop. If it were replaced by the test "" at the beginning of the loop, the procedure would fail whenever the list had only one node. This function inserts a node "newNode" into a circular linked list after a given node "node". If "node" is null, it assumes that the list is empty. function insertAfter(Node node, Node newNode) if node = null newNode.next := newNode else newNode.next := node.next node.next := newNode Suppose that "L" is a variable pointing to the last node of a circular linked list (or null if the list is empty). To append "newNode" to theend of the list, one may do insertAfter(L, newNode) L = newNode To insert "newNode" at the beginning of the list, one may do insertAfter(L, newNode) if L = null L = newNode Linked lists using arrays of nodes Languages that do not support any type of reference can still create links by replacing pointers with array indices. The approach is to keep an array of records, where each record has integer fields indicating the index of the next (and possibly previous) node in the array. Not all nodes in the array need be used. If records are not supported as well, parallel arrays can often be used instead. As an example, consider the following linked list record that uses arrays instead of pointers: record Entry { integer next; // index of next entry in array integer prev; // previous entry (if double-linked) string name; real balance; } By creating an array of these structures, and an integer variable to store the index of the first element, a linked list can be built: integer listHead; Entry Records[1000]; Links between elements are formed by placing the array index of the next (or previous) cell into the Next or Prev field within a given element. For example: IndexNextPrevNameBalance 014Jones, John123.45 1-10Smith, Joseph234.56 2 (listHead)4-1Adams, Adam0.00 3Ignore, Ignatius999.99 402Another, Anita876.54 5 6 7 In the above example, ListHead would be set to 2, the location of the first entry in the list. Notice that entry 3 and 5 through 7 are not part of the list. These cells are available for any additions to the list. By creating a ListFree integer variable, a free list could be created to keep track of what cells are available. If all entries are in use, the size of the array would have to be increased or some elements would have to be deleted before new entries could be stored in the list. The following code would traverse the list and display names and account balance: i := listHead; while i >= 0 { '// loop through the list print i, Records[i].name, Records[i].balance // print entry i = Records[i].next; } When faced with a choice, the advantages of this approach include: The linked list is relocatable, meaning it can be moved about in memory at will, and it can also be quickly and directly serialized for storage on disk or transfer over a network. Especially for a small list, array indexes can occupy significantly less space than a full pointer on many architectures. Locality of reference can be improved by keeping the nodes together in memory and by periodically rearranging them, although this can also be done in a general store. Naïve dynamic memory allocators can produce an excessive amount of overhead storage for each node allocated; almost no allocation overhead is incurred per node in this approach. Seizing an entry from a pre-allocated array is faster than using dynamic memory allocation for each node, since dynamic memory allocation typically requires a search for a free memory block of the desired size. This approach has one main disadvantage, however: it creates and manages a private memory space for its nodes. This leads to the following issues: It increase complexity of the implementation. Growing a large array when it is full may be difficult or impossible, whereas finding space for a new linked list node in a large, general memory pool may be easier. Adding elements to a dynamic array will occasionally (when it is full) unexpectedly take linear (O(n)) instead of constant time (although it's still an amortized constant). Using a general memory pool leaves more memory for other data if the list is smaller than expected or if many nodes are freed. For these reasons, this approach is mainly used for languages that do not support dynamic memory allocation. These disadvantages are also mitigated if the maximum size of the list is known at the time the array is created. Language support Many programming languages such as Lisp and Scheme have singly linked lists built in. In many functional languages, these lists are constructed from nodes, each called a cons or cons cell. The cons has two fields: the car, a reference to the data for that node, and the cdr, a reference to the next node. Although cons cells can be used to build other data structures, this is their primary purpose. In languages that support Abstract data types or templates, linked list ADTs or templates are available for building linked lists. In other languages, linked lists are typically built using references together with records. Here is a complete example in C: #include <stdio.h> /* for printf */ #include <stdlib.h> /* for malloc */ struct node { int data; struct node *next; /* pointer to next element in list */ }; struct node *list_add(struct node **p, int i) { struct node *n = malloc(sizeof(struct node)); if (n == NULL) return NULL; n->next = *p; /* the previous element (*p) now becomes the "next" element */ *p = n; /* add new empty element to the front (head) of the list */ n->data = i; return *p; } void list_remove(struct node **p) /* remove head */ { if (*p != NULL) { struct node *n = *p; *p = (*p)->next; free(n); } } struct node **list_search(struct node **n, int i) { while (*n != NULL) { if ((*n)->data == i) { return n; } n = &(*n)->next; } return NULL; } void list_print(struct node *n) { if (n == NULL) { printf("list is empty\n"); } while (n != NULL) { printf("print %p %p %d\n", n, n->next, n->data); n = n->next; } } int main(void) { struct node *n = NULL; list_add(&n, 0); /* list: 0 */ list_add(&n, 1); /* list: 1 0 */ list_add(&n, 2); /* list: 2 1 0 */ list_add(&n, 3); /* list: 3 2 1 0 */ list_add(&n, 4); /* list: 4 3 2 1 0 */ list_print(n); list_remove(&n); /* remove first (4) */ list_remove(&n->next); /* remove new second (2) */ list_remove(list_search(&n, 1)); /* remove cell containing 1 (first) */ list_remove(&n->next); /* remove second to last node (0) */ list_remove(&n); /* remove last (3) */ list_print(n); return 0; } Internal and external storage When constructing a linked list, one is faced with the choice of whether to store the data of the list directly in the linked list nodes, called internal storage, or merely to store a reference to the data, called external storage. Internal storage has the advantage of making access to the data more efficient, requiring less storage overall, having better locality of reference, and simplifying memory management for the list (its data is allocated and deallocated at the same time as the list nodes). External storage, on the other hand, has the advantage of being more generic, in that the same data structure and machine code can be used for a linked list no matter what the size of the data is. It also makes it easy to place the same data in multiple linked lists. Although with internal storage the same data can be placed in multiple lists by including multiple next references in the node data structure, it would then be necessary to create separate routines to add or delete cells based on each field. It is possible to create additional linked lists of elements that use internal storage by using external storage, and having the cells of the additional linked lists store references to the nodes of the linked list containing the data. In general, if a set of data structures needs to be included in multiple linked lists, external storage is the best approach. If a set of data structures need to be included in only one linked list, then internal storage is slightly better, unless a generic linked list package using external storage is available. Likewise, if different sets of data that can be stored in the same data structure are to be included in a single linked list, then internal storage would be fine. Another approach that can be used with some languages involves having different data structures, but all have the initial fields, including the next (and prev if double linked list) references in the same location. After defining separate structures for each type of data, a generic structure can be defined that contains the minimum amount of data shared by all the other structures and contained at the top (beginning) of the structures. Then generic routines can be created that use the minimal structure to perform linked list type operations, but separate routines can then handle the specific data. This approach is often used in message parsing routines, where several types of messages are received, but all start with the same set of fields, usually including a field for message type. The generic routines are used to add new messages to a queue when they are received, and remove them from the queue in order to process the message. The message type field is then used to call the correct routine to process the specific type of message. Example of internal and external storage Suppose you wanted to create a linked list of families and their members. Using internal storage, the structure might look like the following: record member { // member of a family member next string firstName integer age } record family { // the family itself family next string lastName string address member members // head of list of members of this family } To print a complete list of families and their members using internal storage, we could write: aFamily := Families // start at head of families list while aFamily ≠ null { // loop through list of families print information about family aMember := aFamily.members // get head of list of this family's members while aMember ≠ null { // loop through list of members print information about member aMember := aMember.next } aFamily := aFamily.next } Using external storage, we would create the following structures: record node { // generic link structure node next pointer data // generic pointer for data at node } record member { // structure for family member string firstName integer age } record family { // structure for family string lastName string address node members // head of list of members of this family } To print a complete list of families and their members using external storage, we could write: famNode := Families // start at head of families list while famNode ≠ null { // loop through list of families aFamily = (family)famNode.data // extract family from node print information about family memNode := aFamily.members // get list of family members while memNode ≠ null { // loop through list of members aMember := (member)memNode.data // extract member from node print information about member memNode := memNode.next } famNode := famNode.next } Notice that when using external storage, an extra step is needed to extract the record from the node and cast it into the proper data type. This is because both the list of families and the list of members within the family are stored in two linked lists using the same data structure (node), and this language does not have parametric types. As long as the number of families that a member can belong to is known at compile time, internal storage works fine. If, however, a member needed to be included in an arbitrary number of families, with the specific number known only at run time, external storage would be necessary. Speeding up search Finding a specific element in a linked list, even if it is sorted, normally requires O(n) time (linear search). This is one of the primary disadvantages of linked lists over other data structures. In addition to the variants discussed above, below are two simple ways to improve search time. In an unordered list, one simple heuristic for decreasing average search time is the move-to-front heuristic, which simply moves an element to the beginning of the list once it is found. This scheme, handy for creating simple caches, ensures that the most recently used items are also the quickest to find again. Another common approach is to "index" a linked list using a more efficient external data structure. For example, one can build a red-black tree or hash table whose elements are references to the linked list nodes. Multiple such indexes can be built on a single list. The disadvantage is that these indexes may need to be updated each time a node is added or removed (or at least, before that index is used again). Related data structures Both stacks and queues are often implemented using linked lists, and simply restrict the type of operations which are supported. The skip list is a linked list augmented with layers of pointers for quickly jumping over large numbers of elements, and then descending to the next layer. This process continues down to the bottom layer, which is the actual list. A binary tree can be seen as a type of linked list where the elements are themselves linked lists of the same nature. The result is that each node may include a reference to the first node of one or two other linked lists, which, together with their contents, form the subtrees below that node. An unrolled linked list is a linked list in which each node contains an array of data values. This leads to improved cache performance, since more list elements are contiguous in memory, and reduced memory overhead, because less metadata needs to be stored for each element of the list. A hash table may use linked lists to store the chains of items that hash to the same position in the hash table. A heap shares some of the ordering properties of a linked list, but is almost always implemented using an array. Instead of references from node to node, the next and previous data indexes are calculated using the current data's index. References National Institute of Standards and Technology (August 16, 2004). Definition of a linked list. Retrieved December 14, 2004. Antonakos, James L. and Mansfield, Kenneth C., Jr. Practical Data Structures Using C/C++ (1999). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-280843-9, pp. 165–190 Collins, William J. Data Structures and the Java Collections Framework (2002,2005) New York, NY: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-282379-8, pp. 239–303 Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford Introductions to Algorithms (2003). MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-03293-7, pp. 205–213, 501–505 Green, Bert F. Jr. (1961). Computer Languages for Symbol Manipulation. IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics. 2 pp. 3–8. McCarthy, John (1960). Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine, Part I. Communications of the ACM. HTML DVI PDF PostScript Donald Knuth. Fundamental Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Sections 2.2.3–2.2.5, pp.254–298. Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 10.2: Linked lists, pp.204–209. Newell, Allen and Shaw, F. C. (1957). Programming the Logic Theory Machine. Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference. pp. 230–240. Parlante, Nick (2001). Linked list basics. Stanford University. PDF Sedgewick, Robert Algorithms in C (1998). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-31452-5, pp. 90–109 Shaffer, Clifford A. A Practical Introduction to Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis (1998). NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-660911-2, pp. 77–102 Wilkes, Maurice Vincent (1964). An Experiment with a Self-compiling Compiler for a Simple List-Processing Language. Annual Review in Automatic Programming 4, 1. Published by Pergamon Press. Wilkes, Maurice Vincent (1964). Lists and Why They are Useful. Proceeds of the ACM National Conference, Philadelphia 1964 (ACM Publication P-64 page F1-1); Also Computer Journal'' 7, 278 (1965). Kulesh Shanmugasundaram (April 4, 2005). Linux Kernel Linked List Explained. External links Description from the Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures Some linked list materials are available from the Stanford University Computer Science department: Introduction to Linked Lists Linked List Problems SimCList, an open source C library for linked lists SGLib, an collection of algorithms for operating on linked lists (and other containers) shared singly linked list implementations Patent for the idea of having nodes which are in several linked lists simultaneously (note that this technique was widely used for many decades before the patent was granted) Non-patented data structure for having nodes which are in several linked lists simultaneously qDecoder's C/C++ linked-list implementation — open-source library flash actionscript 3 opensource implementation of double linked list — open-source library | Linked_list |@lemmatized computer:12 science:2 link:158 list:304 data:80 structure:47 consist:4 sequence:3 record:28 field:27 contain:17 reference:28 e:6 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6,649 | Ceuta | Ceuta is an autonomous city of Spain located on the North African side of the Strait of Gibraltar, on the Mediterranean, which separates it from the Spanish mainland. The area of Ceuta is approximately 28 km². Ceuta is dominated by a hill called Monte Hacho, on which there is a fort used by the Spanish Army. Monte Hacho is one of the possible locations for the southern of the Pillars of Hercules of Greek Legend, the other possibility being Jebel Musa. The city, together with the other autonomous city of Melilla and a number of Mediterranean islands, is claimed by Morocco. History Moat of the Royal Wall of Ceuta. Ceuta's strategic location has made it the crucial waypoint of many cultures' trade and military ventures — beginning with the Carthaginians in the 5th century BC, who called the city Abyla. It was not until the Romans took control in about A.D. 42 that the port city (then named Septem) assumed an almost exclusive military purpose. Approximately 400 years later, the Vandals ousted the Romans from control, and later it fell to the Visigoths of Hispania and the Byzantines. In 710, as Muslim armies approached the city, its Byzantine governor Julian (also described as "king of the Ghomara") changed sides and urged them to invade the Iberian Peninsula. Under the leadership of Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad, Ceuta was used as a prime staging ground for an assault on Visigothic Hispania soon after. After Julian's death the Arabs took direct control of the city; this was resented by the surrounding indigenous Berber tribes, who destroyed it in a Kharijite rebellion led by Maysara al-Haqir in 740. It lay in waste until refounded in the 9th century by Majakas, chief of the Majkasa Berber tribe, who started the short-lived dynasty of the Banu Isam. Under his great-grandson they briefly paid allegiance to the Idrisids; the dynasty finally ended when he abdicated in favour of the Umayyad Caliph of Cordoba Abd ar-Rahman III in 931, so the city returned to the Hispanic Andalusian rule like Melilla in 927 and Tanger in 951. Chaos ensued with the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031, but eventually Ceuta, together with the rest of Muslim Spain were taken over by the Almoravids in 1084. The Almoravids were succeeded by the Almohads who conquered Ceuta in 1147 ruling it, apart from Ibn Hud's rebellion of 1232, until the Hafsids of Tunisia took it in 1242. The Hafsids' influence in the west rapidly waned, and the city expelled them in 1249; after this, it went through a period of political instability during which the city was disputed between the Kingdom of Fez and the Kingdom of Granada. In 1387, Ceuta was conquered for the last time by the Kingdom of Fez, with Aragonese help. In 1415, Ceuta was occupied by the Portuguese during the reign of John I of Portugal. (Battle of Ceuta) After the king of Spain became the king of Portugal in 1580, the majority of the population of Ceuta became of Spanish origin. This went to the extent of Ceuta being the only city of the Portuguese Empire that sided with Spain when Portugal regained its independence in 1640 and war broke out between the two countries. The formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain was recognized by the Treaty of Lisbon by which, on January 1 1668, King Afonso VI of Portugal formally ceded Ceuta to Carlos II of Spain. However, the originally Portuguese flag and coat of arms of Ceuta remained unchanged and modern day Ceuta flag features the configuration of the Portuguese shield. The flag's background is also the same as that of the flag of Lisbon. When Spain recognized the independence of Spanish Morocco in 1956, Ceuta and the other plazas de soberanía remained under Spanish rule as they were considered integral parts of the Spanish state. The City of Ceuta Culturally, modern Ceuta is considered part of the Spanish region of Andalusia. Indeed, it was until recently attached to the province of Cádiz — the Spanish coast being only 20 km away. It is a cosmopolitan city, with a large ethnic Berber Muslim minority as well as a Sephardic Jewish and Hindu [http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/Resistir/monte/Renegado/elpepuesp/20090322elpepinac_9/Tes minorities. On November 5, 2007, King Juan Carlos I visited the city, sparking great enthusiasm from the local population and protests from the Moroccan government. Ceuta y Melilla son España, dice Juan Carlos I; Sebta y Melilia son nuestras, responde Mohamed VI It was the first time a Spanish head of state had visited Ceuta in 80 years. Administration Map of Ceuta (Perejil islet is just off the coast, to the left of the image) Ceuta is known officially in Spanish as Ciudad Autónoma de Ceuta (lit., Autonomous City of Ceuta), with a rank between a standard Spanish city and an autonomous community. Before the Statute of Autonomy, Ceuta was part of the Cádiz province. Ceuta is part of the territory of the European Union. The city was a free port before Spain joined the European Union in 1986. Now it has a low-tax system within the European Monetary System. As of 2006, its population was 75,861. Ceuta does not have an airport. There is, however, a regular helicopter service linking it to Málaga Airport. Access to and from Ceuta is by ferry or land. Political status A sign welcoming visitors to Ceuta, showing the flags of Ceuta, Spain and the European Union. Since 1995 Ceuta is, along with Melilla, one of the two autonomous cities in Spain Ley Orgánica 1/1995, de 13 de marzo, Estatuto de Autonomía de Ceuta . The government of Morocco has repeatedly called for Spain to transfer the sovereignty of Ceuta and Melilla, along with uninhabited islets such as Isla Perejil, drawing comparisons with Spain's territorial claim to Gibraltar. In both cases, the national governments and local populations of the disputed territories reject these claims by a large majority. The Spanish position states that both Ceuta and Melilla are integral parts of the Spanish state, and have been since the 15th century, whereas Gibraltar, being a British Overseas Territory, is not and never has been part of the United Kingdom. A rocky relationship | World news | guardian.co.uk Ceuta is subdivided into 63 barriadas (neighborhoods), such as Barriada de Berizu, Barriada de P. Alfonso, Barriada del Sarchal, and El Hacho. http://www.elpueblodeceuta.es/200708/20070819/200708195101.html http://www.planetware.com/i/map/MAR/ceuta-map.jpg Códigos postales de Ceuta en Ceuta Climate Ecclesiastical history By the Concordat of 1851 the diocese of Ceuta, a suffragan of the Andalusian archbishopric of Seville, was suppressed and incorporated in the Diocese of Cádiz y Ceuta, whose bishop usually was the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta. The agreement, however, was not implemented until 1879. Economy The official currency of Ceuta is the euro. It is part of a special low tax zone in Spain. Economic Data of Ceuta, de ceutna digital Ceuta is one of two Spanish port cities on the northern shore of Africa, along with Melilla. They are historically military strongholds, free ports, oil ports, and also fishing and smuggling centers. pp. 6–7, IBRU, Boundary and Territory Briefing. Ceuta and the Spanish Sovereign Territories: Spanish and Moroccan Today the economy of the city depends heavily on its port (now in expansion) and its industrial and retail centres. Economic Data of Ceunta, de ceutna digital Ceuta Heliport is now used to connect the city to Mainland Spain by air. Along with Melilla, Ceuta is the main link to and from the plazas de soberanía, especially the Islas Chafarinas. Over 2.5 million passengers used this port annually during the 1980s en route to Morocco or to mainland Spain. As of the mid-1990s, Spain adopted a policy of downplaying use of the port, to deemphasize the economic significance of the city. Ceuta is a major Mediterranean port. As recently as the 1960s it was the primary port for all of Spain. Sister cities Aci Catena, Italy Algeciras, Spain Cádiz, Spain Guadalajara, Mexico Melilla, Spain Churches Parroquia De Santa Maria De Los Remedios Comunidad Israelita De Ceuta Parroquia De San Francisco Santa Iglesia Catedral Parroquia Santa Maria De Africa — Casa Parroquial Vicaria General Del Obispado De Ceuta Parroquia Santa Teresa De Jesus De Ceuta Schools Centro de Educación Infantil y Primaria Andrés Manjón Centro de Educación Infantil y Primaria Lope De Vega Centro de Educación Infantil Globitos Instituto de Educación Secundaria Puertas del Campo Colegio Sta. María Micaela Instituto de Educación Secundaria Almina Centro de Educación Infantil y Primaria Maestro José Acosta Colegio Severo Ochoa Centro de Educación Infantil y Primaria Santiago Ramón y Cajal See also Ceuta border fence Isla Perejil Spanish Morocco Rock of Gibraltar References External links Information on the history of Ceuta Official Ceuta government website Official Expoceuta website Time Magazine: Al-Qaeda Eyes Spain's 'Lost City' Spain's North African enclaves Documentary about illegal immigrants trying to reach Ceuta from Morocco Satellite image of Ceuta Images of Ceuta be-x-old:Сэўта | Ceuta |@lemmatized ceuta:59 autonomous:5 city:24 spain:22 locate:1 north:2 african:2 side:3 strait:1 gibraltar:4 mediterranean:3 separate:1 spanish:17 mainland:3 area:1 approximately:2 dominate:1 hill:1 call:3 monte:3 hacho:3 fort:1 use:5 army:2 one:3 possible:1 location:2 southern:1 pillar:1 hercules:1 greek:1 legend:1 possibility:1 jebel:1 musa:1 together:2 melilla:9 number:1 island:1 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6,650 | Itanium | Itanium is the brand name for 64-bit Intel microprocessors that implement the Intel Itanium architecture (formerly called IA-64). Intel has released two processor families using the brand: the original Itanium and the Itanium 2. Starting November 1, 2007, new members of the second family are again called Itanium. The processors are marketed for use in enterprise servers and high-performance computing systems. The architecture originated at Hewlett-Packard (HP), and was later jointly developed by HP and Intel. Itanium's architecture differs dramatically from the x86-64 architectures used in other Intel processors. The Itanium architecture is based on explicit instruction-level parallelism, in which the compiler makes the decisions about which instructions to execute in parallel. By contrast, other superscalar architectures depend on elaborate processor circuitry to keep track of instruction dependencies during runtime. This alternative approach helps current Itanium processors execute up to six instructions per clock cycle. After a protracted development process marked by many delays, the first Itanium processor, codenamed Merced, was released in 2001, and more powerful Itanium processors have been released periodically. HP produces most Itanium-based systems, but several other manufacturers also developed systems based on Itanium. , Itanium is the fourth-most deployed microprocessor architecture for enterprise-class systems, behind x86-64, IBM POWER, and SPARC. Intel released the current Itanium version, codenamed Montvale, in November 2007. The follow-on, a quad-core processor codenamed Tukwila, was itself originally planned for release in 2007 but is now announced to ship to OEMs in the first quarter of 2010. Journalist John C. Dvorak, commenting in 2009 on the history of the Itanium processor, said "This continues to be one of the great fiascos of the last 50 years." Tech columnist Ashlee Vance commented that the delays and underperformance "turned the product into a joke in the chip industry." History Itanium Server Sales forecast history. Development: 1989–2001 In 1989, HP determined that reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architectures were approaching a processing limit at one instruction per cycle. HP researchers investigated a new architecture, later named explicitly parallel instruction computing (EPIC), that allows the processor to execute multiple instructions in each clock cycle. EPIC implements a form of very long instruction word (VLIW) architecture, in which a single instruction word contains multiple instructions. With EPIC, the compiler determines in advance which instructions can be executed at the same time, so the microprocessor simply executes the instructions and does not need elaborate mechanisms to determine which instructions to execute in parallel. The goal of this approach is two-fold: first, to enable deeper inspection of the code to identify additional opportunities for parallel execution; and, second, to simplify processor design and reduce energy consumption by eliminating the need for runtime scheduling circuitry. HP determined that it was no longer cost-effective for individual enterprise systems companies such as itself to develop proprietary microprocessors, so HP partnered with Intel in 1994 to develop the IA-64 architecture, which derived from EPIC. Intel was willing to undertake a very large development effort on IA-64 in the expectation that the resulting microprocessor would be used by the majority of enterprise systems manufacturers. HP and Intel initiated a large joint development effort with a goal of delivering the first product, Merced, in 1998. During development, Intel, HP, and industry analysts predicted that IA-64 would dominate in servers, workstations, and high-end desktops, and eventually supplant RISC and complex instruction set computer (CISC) architectures for all general-purpose applications. Compaq and Silicon Graphics decided to abandon further development of the Alpha and MIPS architectures respectively in favor of migrating to IA-64. Several groups developed operating systems for the architecture, including Microsoft Windows, Linux, and UNIX variants such as HP-UX, Solaris, Tru64 UNIX, and Monterey/64 (the latter three were canceled before reaching the market). By 1997, it was apparent that the IA-64 architecture and the compiler were much more difficult to implement than originally thought, and the delivery of Merced began slipping. Technical difficulties included the very high transistor counts needed to support the wide instruction words and the large caches. There were also structural problems within the project, as the two parts of the joint team used different methodologies and had slightly different priorities. Since Merced was the first EPIC processor, the development effort encountered more unanticipated problems than the team was accustomed to. In addition, the EPIC concept depends on compiler capabilities that had never been implemented before, so more research was needed. Intel announced the official name of the processor Itanium, on October 4, 1999. Within hours, the name Itanic had been coined in an online chat room, a reference to Titanic, the "unsinkable" ocean liner which sank in 1912. Itanic has since often been used by The Register, Scott McNealy, and others, implying that the multibillion dollar investment in Itanium—and the tremendous early hype—would be followed by its relatively quick demise. Itanium (Merced): 2001–02 By the time Itanium was released in June, 2001, it was no longer superior to contemporaneous RISC and CISC processors. Itanium competed at the low-end (primarily 4-CPU and smaller systems) with servers based on x86 processors, and at the high end with IBM's POWER architecture and Sun Microsystems' SPARC architecture. Intel repositioned Itanium to focus on high-end business and HPC computing, attempting to duplicate x86's successful "horizontal" market (i.e., single architecture, multiple systems vendors). The success of this initial processor version was limited to replacing PA-RISC in HP systems, Alpha in Compaq systems and MIPS in SGI systems, though IBM also delivered a supercomputer based on this processor. POWER and SPARC remained strong, while the 32-bit x86 architecture continued to grow into the enterprise space. With economies of scale fueled by its enormous installed base, x86 has remained the preeminent "horizontal" architecture in enterprise computing. Only a few thousand systems using the original Merced Itanium processor were sold, due to relatively poor performance, high cost and limited software availability. Recognizing that the lack of software could be a serious issue moving forward, Intel made thousands of these early systems available to independent software vendors (ISVs) to stimulate development. HP and Intel brought the next-generation Itanium 2 processor to market a year later. Itanium processor familyOriginal Itanium logoOriginal Itanium 2 logo2006 Itanium 2 logo2008 Itanium logoOriginal logoVersion 2 logo2006 logo2008 new logo Itanium 2: 2002–present Itanium 2 in 2003 The Itanium 2 processor was released in 2002, and was marketed for enterprise servers rather than for the whole gamut of high-end computing. The first Itanium 2, code-named McKinley, was jointly developed by HP and Intel. It relieved many of the performance problems of the original Itanium processor, which were mostly caused by an inefficient memory subsystem. McKinley contained 221 million transistors, of which 25 million were for logic, measured 19.5 mm by 21.6 mm (421 mm2) and was fabricated in a 180 nm, bulk CMOS process with six layers of aluminium metallization. Naffzinger, Samuel D. et al. (2002). "The implementation of the Itanium 2 microprocessor". IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 1448–1460. In 2003, AMD released the Opteron, which implemented its 64-bit architecture (x86-64). Opteron gained rapid acceptance in the enterprise server space because it provided an easy upgrade from x86. Intel responded by implementing x86-64 in its Xeon microprocessors in 2004. Intel released a new Itanium 2 family member, codenamed Madison, in 2003. Madison used a 130 nm process and was the basis of all new Itanium processors until Montecito was released in June 2006. In March 2005, Intel announced that it was working on a new Itanium processor, codenamed Tukwila, to be released in 2007. Tukwila would have four processor cores and would replace the Itanium bus with a new Common System Interface, which would also be used by a new Xeon processor. Later that year, Intel revised Tukwila's delivery date to late 2008. In November 2005, the major Itanium server manufacturers joined with Intel and a number of software vendors to form the Itanium Solutions Alliance to promote the architecture and accelerate software porting. The Alliance announced that its members would invest $10 Billion in Itanium solutions by the end of the decade. In 2006, Intel delivered Montecito, a dual-core processor that roughly doubled performance and decreased energy consumption by about 20 percent. Intel released the current Itanium version, codenamed Montvale, in November 2007.. In May 2009 the schedule for Tukwila, its followon, was revised again, with release to OEMs planned for the first quarter of 2010. In comparison with its Xeon family of server processors, Itanium is not a high-volume product for Intel. Intel does not release production numbers, but one industry analyst estimated that the production rate was 200,000 processors per year in 2007. According to Gartner Inc., the total number of Itanium servers sold by all vendors in 2007 was about 55,000. This compares with 417,000 RISC servers (spread across all RISC vendors) and 8.4 million x86 servers. From 2001 through 2007, IDC reports that a total of 184,000 Itanium-based systems have been sold. For the combined POWER/SPARC/Itanium systems market, IDC reports that POWER captured 42% and SPARC captured 32%, while Itanium-based system revenue reached 26% in the second quarter of 2008. According to an IDC analyst, in 2007 HP accounted for perhaps 80% of Itanium systems revenue. According to Gartner, in 2008 HP accounted for 95% of Itanium sales. Architecture The Intel Itanium architecture Intel has extensively documented the Itanium instruction set and microarchitecture, and the technical press has provided overviews. The architecture has been renamed several times during its history. HP originally called it PA-WideWord. Intel later called it IA-64, then Itanium Processor Architecture (IPA), before settling on Intel Itanium Architecture, but it is still widely referred to as IA-64. It is a 64-bit register-rich explicitly-parallel architecture. The base data word is 64 bits, byte-addressable. The logical address space is 264 bytes. The architecture implements predication, speculation, and branch prediction. It uses a hardware register renaming mechanism rather than simple register windowing for parameter passing. The same mechanism is also used to permit parallel execution of loops. Speculation, prediction, predication, and renaming are under control of the compiler: each instruction word includes extra bits for this. This approach is the distinguishing characteristic of the architecture. The architecture implements 128 integer registers, 128 floating point registers, 64 one-bit predicates, and eight branch registers. The floating point registers are 82 bits long to preserve precision for intermediate results. Instruction execution Each 128-bit instruction word contains three instructions, and the fetch mechanism can read up to two instruction words per clock from the L1 cache into the pipeline. When the compiler can take maximum advantage of this, the processor can execute six instructions per clock cycle. The processor has thirty functional execution units in eleven groups. Each unit can execute a particular subset of the instruction set, and each unit executes at a rate of one instruction per cycle unless execution stalls waiting for data. While not all units in a group execute identical subsets of the instruction set, common instructions can be executed in multiple units. The execution unit groups include: Six general-purpose ALUs, two integer units, one shift unit Four data cache units Six multimedia units, two parallel shift units, one parallel multiply, one population count Two 82-bit floating-point multiply-accumulate units, two SIMD floating-point multiply-accumulate units (two 32-bit operations each) Sharangpani, Harsh; Arora, Ken (2000). "Itanium Processor Microarchitecture". IEEE Micro. pp. 38–39. Three branch units The compiler can often group instructions into sets of six that can execute at the same time. Since the floating-point units implement a multiply-accumulate operation, a single floating point instruction can perform the work of two instructions when the application requires a multiply followed by an add: this is very common in scientific processing. When it occurs, the processor can execute four FLOPs per cycle. For example, the 800 MHz Itanium had a theoretical rating of 3.2 GFLOPS and the fastest Itanium 2, at 1.67 GHz, was rated at 6.67 GFLOPS. Memory architecture From 2002 to 2006, Itanium 2 processors shared a common cache hierarchy. They had 16 KB Transistorized memory, such as RAM, and cache is specified using binary meanings for K (10241 instead of 10001), M (10242 instead of 10002), G (10243 instead of 10003), ... of Level 1 instruction cache and 16 KB of Level 1 data cache. The L2 cache was unified (both instruction and data) and is 256 KB. The Level 3 cache was also unified and varied in size from 1.5 MB to 24 MB. The 256 KB L2 cache contains sufficient logic to handle semaphore operations without disturbing the main arithmetic logic unit (ALU). Main memory is accessed through a bus to an off-chip chipset. The Itanium 2 bus was initially called the McKinley bus, but is now usually referred to as the Itanium bus. The speed of the bus has increased steadily with new processor releases. The bus transfers 2x128 bits per clock cycle, so the 200 MHz McKinley bus transferred 6.4 GB/s Bus speed is specified using decimal meanings for K (10001), M (10002), G (10003), ... and the 533 MHz Montecito bus transfers 17.056 GB/s. Architectural changes Itanium processors released prior to 2006 had hardware support for the IA-32 architecture to permit support for legacy server applications, but performance for IA-32 code was much worse than for native code and also worse than the performance of contemporaneous x86 processors. In 2005, Intel developed the IA-32 Execution Layer (IA-32 EL), a software emulator that provides better performance. With Montecito, Intel therefore eliminated hardware support for IA-32 code. In 2006, with the release of Montecito, Intel made a number of enhancements to the basic processor architecture including: Hardware Multithreading: Each processor core maintains context for two threads of execution. When one thread stalls during memory access, the other thread can execute. Intel calls this "coarse multithreading" to distinguish it from the "hyperthreading technology" Intel integrated into some x86 and x86-64 microprocessors. Coarse multithreading is well matched to the Intel Itanium Architecture and results in an appreciable performance gain. Hardware Support for Virtualization: Intel added Intel Virtualization Technology (Intel VT), which provides hardware assists for core virtualization functions. Virtualization allows a software "hypervisor" to run multiple operating system instances on the processor concurrently. Cache Enhancements: Montecito added a split L2 cache, which included a dedicated 1 MB L2 cache for instructions. The original 256 KB L2 cache was converted to a dedicated data cache. Montecito also included up to 12MB of on-die L3 cache. Hardware support Systems +Server manufacturers' Itanium productsCompanylatest productname from to nameCPUsCompaq 2001 2001 Proliant 590 1-4IBM 2001 2005 x455 1-16Dell 2001 2005 PowerEdge 7250 1-4Unisys 2002 2009ES7000/one 1-32HP 2001 now Integrity 1-128SGI 2001 now Altix 4000 1-2048Hitachi 2001 now BladeSymphony1000 1-8Bull 2002 now NovaScale 1-32NEC 2002 now Express5800/1000 1-32Fujitsu 2005 now PRIMEQUEST 1-32 As of 2009, several manufacturers offer Itanium systems, including HP, SGI, NEC, Fujitsu, Hitachi, and Groupe Bull. In addition, Intel offers a chassis that can be used by system integrators to build Itanium systems. HP, the only one of the industry's top four server manufacturers to offer Itanium-based systems today, manufactures at least 80% of all Itanium systems. HP sold 7200 systems in the first quarter of 2006. The bulk of systems sold are enterprise servers and machines for large-scale technical computing, with an average selling price per system in excess of US$200,000. A typical system uses eight or more Itanium processors. Chipsets The Itanium bus interfaces to the rest of the system via a chipset. Enterprise server manufacturers differentiate their systems by designing and developing chipsets that interface the processor to memory, interconnections, and peripheral controllers. The chipset is the heart of the system-level architecture for each system design. Development of a chipset costs tens of millions of dollars and represents a major commitment to the use of the Itanium. IBM created a chipset in 2003, and Intel in 2002, but neither of them has developed chipsets to support newer technologies such as DDR2 or PCI Express. Currently, modern chipsets for Itanium supporting such technologies are manufactured by HP, Fujitsu, SGI, NEC, and Hitachi. The upcoming Itanium processor (Tukwila) has been designed to share a common chipset with the Intel Xeon processor EX (Intel’s Xeon processor designed for four processor and larger servers). The goal is to provide system development and cost-saving synergies for server OEMs, many of whom develop both Itanium- and Xeon-based servers. Software support In order to allow more software to run on the Itanium, Intel supported the development of effective compilers for its platform, especially its own suite of compilers. GCC, Open64 and MS Visual Studio 2005 (and later) are also able to produce machine code for Itanium. As of 2008, Itanium is supported by Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008, multiple Linux distributions (including Debian, Gentoo, Red Hat and Novell SuSE), FreeBSD, and HP-UX, OpenVMS, and NonStop from HP, all natively. HP also sells a virtualization technology for Itanium called Integrity Virtual Machines. Itanium also supports mainframe environment GCOS from Groupe Bull and several IA-32 operating systems via Instruction Set Simulators. Using QuickTransit, application binary software for IRIX/MIPS and Solaris/SPARC can run via "dynamic binary translation" on Linux/Itanium. According to the Itanium Solutions Alliance, as of early 2008, over 13,000 applications are available for Itanium based systems, though Sun has contested Itanium application counts in the past. The ISA also supports Gelato, an Itanium HPC user group and developer community that ports and supports open source software for Itanium. The software requirements for Itanium were criticized by noted computer scientist Donald Knuth, who said, "... The Itanium approach ... was supposed to be so terrific—until it turned out that the wished-for compilers were basically impossible to write." InformIT: Interview with Donald Knuth Competition The Itanium 2 competes in the enterprise server and high-performance computing (HPC) markets. Itanium's major competitors include Sun Microsystems' UltraSPARC IV+, Fujitsu's SPARC64 VII, IBM's POWER6, AMD's Opteron, and Intel's own Xeon servers. Throughout its history, Itanium has had the best floating point performance relative to fixed-point performance of any general-purpose microprocessor. This capability is useful in HPC systems but is not needed for most enterprise server workloads. By 2005, Itanium systems accounted for about 14% of HPC systems revenue, but the percentage has declined as the industry shifts to x86-64 clusters for this application. An October 2008 paper by Gartner on the Tukwila processor stated that "...the future roadmap for Itanium looks as strong as that of any RISC peer like Power or SPARC." Supercomputers and high-performance computing Percentage of Top500 systems (x86 includes x86-64) An Itanium-based computer first appeared on list of the TOP500 supercomputers in November 2001. The best position ever achieved by an Itanium 2 based system in the list was #2, achieved in June 2004, when Thunder (LLNL) entered the list with an Rmax of 19.94 Teraflops. In November 2004, Columbia entered the list at #2 with 51.8 Teraflops, and there was at least one Itanium-based computer in the top 10 from then until June 2007. The peak number of Itanium-based machines on the list occurred in the November 2004 list, at 84 systems (16.8%); by November 2008, this had dropped to nine systems (1.8%). New Itanium implementations in high performance computing (HPC) are primarily for research areas (such as biochemical research) where typical workloads perform better on large, shared memory systems rather than distributed clusters. These systems typically have 16 to 64 processors, and are not comparable in size to the supercomputers on the TOP500 list. Processors Released processors The Itanium processors show a steady progression in capability. Merced was a proof of concept. McKinley dramatically improved the memory hierarchy and allowed Itanium to become reasonably competitive. Madison, with the shift to a 130 nm process, allowed for enough cache space to overcome the major performance bottlenecks. Montecito, with a 90 nm process, allowed for a dual-core implementation and a major improvement in performance per watt. Montvale added three new features: core-level lockstep, demand-based switching and front-side bus frequency of up to 667 MHz. Codenameprocess released Clock L2 Cache/coreL3 Cache/core Bus dies/device cores/die watts/device comments ItaniumMerced180 nm 2001-06 733 MHz 96 KB none 266 MHz111162MB off-die L3 cache 800 MHz none 130 4MB off-die L3 cache Itanium 2McKinley180 nm 2002-07-08 900 MHz 256 KB 1.5 MB 400 MHz11130 HW branchlong 1 GHz 3 MB 130Madison130 nm 2003-06-301.3 GHz 3 MB 130 1.4 GHz 4 MB 130 1.5 GHz 6 MB 130 2003-09-081.4 GHz 1.5 MB 130 2004-041.4 GHz 3 MB 130 1.6 GHz 3 MB 130 Deerfield130 nm 2003-09-081.0 GHz 1.5 MB 62Low voltage Hondo130 nm 2004-Q11.1 GHz 4 MB 400 MHz2126032 MB L4Fanwood130 nm 2004-11-081.6 GHz 3 MB 533 MHz11130 1.3 GHz 3 MB 400 MHz62?Low voltageMadison 9M130 nm 2004-11-081.6 GHz 9 MB 400 MHz130 2005-07-051.67 GHz 6 MB 667 MHz130 2005-07-181.67 GHz 9 MB 667 MHz130Montecito90 nm 2006-07-181.4 GHz 256 KB+1 MB 12 MB 400 MHz12104Virtualization,Multithread,no HW IA-32 1.6 GHz 12 MB 533 MHz12104Montvale90 nm 2007-10-311.66 GHz 4-18 MB 400-667 MHz11-275-104Core-level lockstep,demand-based switching Future processors , some information is known for the following: Tukwila was originally planned for release in 2007, but was delayed several times. In February 2009 Intel announced a delay to allow an enhancement to the memory controllers. The device will use a 65 nm process, include four cores, 30 MB on-die caches, Hyper-Threading technology and integrated memory controllers, It will implement double-device data correction, which helps to fix memory errors. Tukwila will also implement Intel QuickPath Interconnect to replace the Itanium bus-based architecture. It will have a peak interprocessor bandwidth of 96 GB/s and a peak memory bandwidth of 34 GB/s. With Quickpath, the processor has integrated memory controllers and interfaces the memory directly, and uses QPI interfaces to directly connect to other processors and IO Hubs. QuickPath is also used on Intel processors using the Nehalem architecture, so Tukwila will probably be able to use chipsets used by Nehalem. Tukwila will incorporate four memory controllers, each of which supports multiple DDR3 DIMMs via a separate memory controller , much like the upcoming Nehalem-based Xeon processor, code name Beckton. Poulson will be the follow-on processor to Tukwila. It will use a 32 nm silicon process technology and will feature four or more cores, multithreading enhancements, and new instructions to take advantage of parallelism, especially in virtualization. Kittson will follow Poulson. Few details are known other than the existence of the codename. Timeline 1989: HP begins investigating EPIC 1994: June: HP and Intel announce partnership 1995: September: HP, Novell, and SCO announce plans for a "high volume UNIX operating system" to deliver "64-bit networked computing on the HP/Intel architecture" 1996: October: Compaq announces it will use IA-64 1997: June: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $38bn/yr by 2001 October: Dell announces it will use IA-64 December: Intel and Sun announce joint effort to port Solaris to IA-64 1998: March: SCO admits HP/SCO Unix alliance is now dead June: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $30bn/yr by 2001 June: Intel announces Merced will be delayed, from second half of 1999 to first half of 2000 September: IBM announces it will build Merced-based machines October: Project Monterey is formed to create a common UNIX for IA-64 1999: February: Project Trillian is formed to port Linux to IA-64 August: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $25bn/yr by 2002 October: Intel Announces the Itanium name October: the term Itanic is first used 2000: February: Project Trillian delivers source code June: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $25bn/yr by 2003 July: Sun and Intel drop Solaris-on-Itanium plans August: AMD releases specification for x86-64, a set of 64-bit extensions to Intel's own x86 architecture intended to compete with IA-64. It will eventually market this under the name "AMD64" 2001: June: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $15bn/yr by 2004 June: Project Monterey dies July: Itanium is released October: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $12bn/yr by the end of 2004 November: IBM's 320-processor Titan NOW Cluster at National Center for Supercomputing Applications is listed on the TOP500 list at position #34 November: Compaq delays Itanium Product release due to problems with processor December: Gelato is formed 2002: March: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $5bn/yr by end 2004 June: Itanium 2 is released 2003: April: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $9bn/yr by end 2007 April: AMD releases Opteron, the first processor with x86-64 extensions June: Intel releases the "Madison" Itanium 2 2004: February: Intel announces it has been working on its own x86-64 implementation (which it will eventually market under the name "Intel 64") June: Intel releases its first processor with x86-64 extensions, a Xeon processor codenamed "Nocona" June: Thunder, a system at LLNL with 4096 Itanium 2 processors, is listed on the TOP500 list at position #2 November: Columbia, an SGI Altix 3700 with 10160 Itanium 2 processors at NASA Ames Research Center, is listed on the TOP500 list at position #2. December: Itanium system sales for 2004 reach $1.4bn 2005: January: HP ports OpenVMS to Itanium February: IBM server design drops Itanium support June: An Itanium 2 sets a record SPECfp2000 result of 2,801 in a Hitachi, Ltd. Computing blade. September: Itanium Solutions Alliance is formed September: Dell exits the Itanium business October: Itanium server sales reach $619M/quarter in the third quarter. October: Intel announces one-year delays for Montecito, Montvale, and Tukwila 2006: January: Itanium Solutions Alliance announces a $10bn collective investment in Itanium by 2010 February: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $6.6bn/yr by 2009 June: Intel releases the dual-core "Montecito" Itanium 2 2007: October: Intel releases the "Montvale" Itanium 2 November: Intel renames the family back to Itanium. See also List of Intel Itanium microprocessors References External links Intel Itanium Home Page Intel Itanium Specifications Intel Itanium opened cartridge processor images at cpu-collection.de Some undocumented Itanium 2 microarchitectural information IA-64 tutorial, including code examples | Itanium |@lemmatized itanium:131 brand:2 name:9 bit:14 intel:65 microprocessor:10 implement:11 architecture:39 formerly:1 call:7 ia:25 release:29 two:11 processor:66 family:5 use:26 original:4 start:1 november:12 new:13 member:3 second:4 market:9 enterprise:12 server:26 high:12 performance:15 compute:5 system:58 originate:1 hewlett:1 packard:1 hp:29 later:6 jointly:2 develop:10 differs:1 dramatically:2 base:21 explicit:1 instruction:35 level:7 parallelism:2 compiler:10 make:3 decision:1 execute:14 parallel:8 contrast:1 superscalar:1 depend:2 elaborate:2 circuitry:2 keep:1 track:1 dependency:1 runtime:2 alternative:1 approach:5 help:2 current:3 six:6 per:10 clock:6 cycle:7 protracted:1 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6,651 | Microevolution | Microevolution is the occurrence of small-scale changes in allele frequencies in a population, over a few generations, also known as change at or below the species level Macroevolution: Its definition, Philosophy and History . These changes may be due to several processes: mutation, natural selection, artificial selection, gene flow and genetic drift. Population genetics is the branch of biology that provides the mathematical structure for the study of the process of microevolution. Ecological genetics concerns itself with observing microevolution in the wild. Typically, observable instances of evolution are examples of microevolution; for example, bacterial strains that have antibiotic resistance. Microevolution can be contrasted with macroevolution, which is the occurrence of large-scale changes in gene frequencies in a population over a geological time period (i.e. consisting of extended microevolution). The difference is largely one of approach. Microevolution is reductionist, but macroevolution is holistic. Each approach offers different insights into the evolution process. Origin of the term The term was first used by Harvard-educated botanist Robert Greenleaf Leavitt in the journal Botanical Gazette in 1909, addressing what he called the "mystery" of how formlessness gives rise to form. Leavitt, Robert Botanical Gazette 1909 vol.47 no.1 Jan. A Vegetative Mutant, and the Principle of Homoeosis in Plants http://www.jstor.org/pss/2466778 ..The production of form from formlessness in the egg-derived individual, the multiplication of parts and the orderly creation of diversity among them, in an actual evolution, of which anyone may ascertain the facts, but of which no one has dissipated the mystery in any significant measure. This microevolution forms an integral part of the grand evolution problem and lies at the base of it, so that we shall have to understand the minor process before we can thoroughly comprehend the more general one... However, Leavitt was using the term to describe what we would now call developmental biology, it was not until Russian Entomologist Yuri Filipchenko used the terms "macroevolution" and "microevolution" in 1927 in his German language work, "Variabilität und Variation", that it attained its modern usage. The term was later brought into the English-speaking world by Theodosius Dobzhansky in his book Genetics and the Origin of Species (1937). Misuse The term 'microevolution' has recently become popular among the anti-evolution movement, and in particular among young Earth creationists. The claim that microevolution is qualitatively different from macroevolution is fallacious as the main difference between the two processes is that one occurs within a few generations, whilst the other is seen to occur over thousands of years (ie. a quantitative difference). Claim CB902: "Microevolution is distinct from macroevolution", TalkOrigins Archive Essentially they describe the same process. The attempt to differentiate between microevolution and macroevolution is considered to have no scientific basis by any mainstream scientific organization, including the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Evolution Press Release American Association for the Advancement of Science See also Macroevolution References External links Microevolution (UC Berkeley) Microevolution vs Macroevolution | Microevolution |@lemmatized microevolution:15 occurrence:2 small:1 scale:2 change:4 allele:1 frequency:2 population:3 generation:2 also:2 know:1 specie:2 level:1 macroevolution:9 definition:1 philosophy:1 history:1 may:2 due:1 several:1 process:6 mutation:1 natural:1 selection:2 artificial:1 gene:2 flow:1 genetic:1 drift:1 genetics:3 branch:1 biology:2 provide:1 mathematical:1 structure:1 study:1 ecological:1 concern:1 observe:1 wild:1 typically:1 observable:1 instance:1 evolution:6 example:2 bacterial:1 strain:1 antibiotic:1 resistance:1 contrast:1 large:1 geological:1 time:1 period:1 e:1 consist:1 extend:1 difference:3 largely:1 one:4 approach:2 reductionist:1 holistic:1 offer:1 different:2 insight:1 origin:2 term:6 first:1 use:3 harvard:1 educate:1 botanist:1 robert:2 greenleaf:1 leavitt:3 journal:1 botanical:2 gazette:2 address:1 call:2 mystery:2 formlessness:2 give:1 rise:1 form:3 vol:1 jan:1 vegetative:1 mutant:1 principle:1 homoeosis:1 plant:1 http:1 www:1 jstor:1 org:1 ps:1 production:1 egg:1 derive:1 individual:1 multiplication:1 part:2 orderly:1 creation:1 diversity:1 among:3 actual:1 anyone:1 ascertain:1 fact:1 dissipate:1 significant:1 measure:1 integral:1 grand:1 problem:1 lie:1 base:1 shall:1 understand:1 minor:1 thoroughly:1 comprehend:1 general:1 however:1 describe:2 would:1 developmental:1 russian:1 entomologist:1 yuri:1 filipchenko:1 german:1 language:1 work:1 variabilität:1 und:1 variation:1 attain:1 modern:1 usage:1 later:1 bring:1 english:1 speaking:1 world:1 theodosius:1 dobzhansky:1 book:1 misuse:1 recently:1 become:1 popular:1 anti:1 movement:1 particular:1 young:1 earth:1 creationists:1 claim:2 qualitatively:1 fallacious:1 main:1 two:1 occur:2 within:1 whilst:1 see:2 thousand:1 year:1 ie:1 quantitative:1 distinct:1 talkorigins:1 archive:1 essentially:1 attempt:1 differentiate:1 consider:1 scientific:2 basis:1 mainstream:1 organization:1 include:1 american:2 association:2 advancement:2 science:2 press:1 release:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 v:1 |@bigram genetic_drift:1 antibiotic_resistance:1 holistic_approach:1 http_www:1 jstor_org:1 developmental_biology:1 talkorigins_archive:1 association_advancement:2 external_link:1 uc_berkeley:1 |
6,652 | Manhattan_(cocktail) | A Manhattan is a cocktail made with whiskey, sweet vermouth, ice, and bitters. Commonly used whiskeys include rye (the traditional choice), Canadian, bourbon and Tennessee. Proportions of whiskey to vermouth vary, from a very sweet 1:1 ratio to a much less sweet 4:1 ratio. The cocktail is often stirred with ice and strained into a cocktail glass, where it is garnished with a Maraschino cherry with a stem. Recipe for a Manhattan Cocktail A Manhattan is also frequently served on the rocks in an old-fashioned glass (lowball glass). The Manhattan is one of six basic drinks listed in David A. Embury's classic The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks. It has been called a drinking man's cocktail—strong, urbane, and simple. It has also been called the "king of cocktails." Origin and history A popular history suggests that the drink originated at the Manhattan Club in New York City in the early 1870s, where it was invented for a banquet hosted by Jennie Jerome (Lady Randolph Churchill, Winston's mother) in honor of presidential candidate Samuel J. Tilden. The success of the banquet made the drink fashionable, later prompting several people to request the drink by referring to the name of the club where it originated — "the Manhattan cocktail." Cocktail Times.com | Holiday Cocktail Party LISTSERV 14.4 The original "Manhattan cocktail" was a mix of "American Whiskey, Italian Vermouth and Angostura bitters". FOXNews.com - Tipplers Toast the Cocktail on Its 200th 'Anniversary' - Celebrity Gossip | Entertainment News | Arts And Entertainment However, there are prior references to various similar cocktail recipes called "Manhattan" and served in the Manhattan area. By one account it was invented in the 1860s by a bartender named Black at a bar on Broadway near Houston Street. Variations The Manhattan is subject to considerable variation and innovation, and is often a way for the best bartenders to show off their creativity. Some shake the ingredients with ice in a cocktail shaker instead of stirring it, creating a froth on the surface of the drink. Angostura are the classic bitters, but orange bitters, Peychaud's Bitters, and others may be used; using Fernet-Branca yields what is called a Fanciulli cocktail. Some make their own bitters and syrups, substitute comparable digestifs in place of vermouth, specialize in local or rare whiskeys, or use other exotic ingredients. A lemon peel may be used as garnish. Some add juice from the cherry jar or Maraschino liqueur to the cocktail for additional sweetness and color. Originally, bitters were considered an integral part of any cocktail, as the ingredient that differentiated a cocktail from a sling. The origin of cocktails Over time, those definitions of cocktail and sling have become archaic, as sling has fallen out of general use (other than in certain drink names), and cocktail can mean any drink that resembles a martini, or simply any mixed drink. Accordingly, bitters are frequently omitted from a Manhattan unless specifically requested; purists, however, maintain that bitters are required to offset the sweetness of the whiskey and vermouth. Using more vermouth and less whiskey to create a milder Manhattan may actually make the drink taste stronger to some drinkers because of the intense flavor of sweet red vermouth. The following are other variations on the classic Manhattan: A Rob Roy is made with Scotch whisky. A Dry Manhattan is made with dry vermouth instead of sweet vermouth and served with a twist. A Perfect Manhattan is made with equal parts sweet and dry vermouth. A Brandy Manhattan is made with brandy rather than rye. A Metropolitan is similar to a brandy manhattan, but with a 3-to-1 ratio of cognac or brandy to vermouth. A Cuban Manhattan is a Perfect Manhattan with dark rum as its principal ingredient. A Latin Manhattan is made with equal parts of white rum, sweet and dry vermouth, and a splash of Maraschino cherry juice, served up with a twist. In pop culture A Dry Manhattan was made famous by Frank Sinatra and the "Rat Pack" (Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis, Jr., Peter Lawford and Joey Bishop). Manhattans, along with cosmopolitans, were frequently consumed on the HBO television series Sex and the City. Travel Article Twentysix - Island Travel The cocktail is featured most notably in the final scene of episode 90, HBO: Sex and the City: Episode Guide: Summary: Season 6: Episode 90 where the main characters enjoy several rounds of the cocktail at a trendy bar. http://www.hbo.com/city/img/episode/season06_2/ep90_4women_restaurant.jpg The narration by the protagonist explicitly uses the characters' affinity for the Manhattan cocktail as a symbol of their love of life in the Borough of Manhattan. In the animated television series The Simpsons, in the episode "Bart the Murderer", Bart Simpson is spared by the Springfield mafia for making "supoib" Manhattans for them. Bart the Murderer On the small North Frisian island of Föhr, the Manhattan cocktail is a standard drink at almost every cafe restaurant, and 'get together' of locals. Föhr-Digital.de - Essen und Trinken The story goes, that many of the people of Föhr emigrated to Manhattan during deep sea fishing trips, took a liking to the drink, and brought it back to Föhr with them. The drink is usually mixed 1 part (the 'perfect' is said to be half white/half red) Vermouth to 2 parts Whiskey, with a dash of bitters, served ice cold, in an ice cold glass, or with ice and a cherry garnish. In Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy, Veronica Corningstone orders a Manhattan and asks the bartender to "kick the vermouth in the side with a pair of steel-toed boots." See also List of cocktails References | Manhattan_(cocktail) |@lemmatized manhattan:28 cocktail:25 make:11 whiskey:8 sweet:7 vermouth:14 ice:6 bitter:10 commonly:1 used:1 include:1 rye:2 traditional:1 choice:1 canadian:1 bourbon:1 tennessee:1 proportion:1 vary:1 ratio:3 much:1 less:2 often:2 stir:2 strain:1 glass:4 garnish:3 maraschino:3 cherry:4 stem:1 recipe:2 also:3 frequently:3 serve:5 rock:1 old:1 fashion:1 lowball:1 one:2 six:1 basic:1 drink:13 list:2 david:1 embury:1 classic:3 fine:1 art:2 mix:2 call:4 drinking:1 man:1 strong:2 urbane:1 simple:1 king:1 origin:2 history:2 popular:1 suggest:1 originate:2 club:2 new:1 york:1 city:4 early:1 invent:2 banquet:2 host:1 jennie:1 jerome:1 lady:1 randolph:1 churchill:1 winston:1 mother:1 honor:1 presidential:1 candidate:1 samuel:1 j:1 tilden:1 success:1 fashionable:1 later:1 prompt:1 several:2 people:2 request:2 refer:1 name:3 time:2 com:3 holiday:1 party:1 listserv:1 original:1 american:1 italian:1 angostura:2 foxnews:1 tippler:1 toast:1 anniversary:1 celebrity:1 gossip:1 entertainment:2 news:1 however:2 prior:1 reference:2 various:1 similar:2 area:1 account:1 bartender:3 black:1 bar:2 broadway:1 near:1 houston:1 street:1 variation:3 subject:1 considerable:1 innovation:1 way:1 best:1 show:1 creativity:1 shake:1 ingredient:4 shaker:1 instead:2 create:2 froth:1 surface:1 orange:1 peychaud:1 others:1 may:3 use:7 fernet:1 branca:1 yield:1 fanciulli:1 syrup:1 substitute:1 comparable:1 digestifs:1 place:1 specialize:1 local:2 rare:1 exotic:1 lemon:1 peel:1 add:1 juice:2 jar:1 liqueur:1 additional:1 sweetness:2 color:1 originally:1 consider:1 integral:1 part:5 differentiate:1 sling:3 definition:1 become:1 archaic:1 fall:1 general:1 certain:1 mean:1 resemble:1 martini:1 simply:1 mixed:2 accordingly:1 omit:1 unless:1 specifically:1 purist:1 maintain:1 require:1 offset:1 milder:1 actually:1 taste:1 drinker:1 intense:1 flavor:1 red:2 following:1 rob:1 roy:1 scotch:1 whisky:1 dry:5 twist:2 perfect:3 equal:2 brandy:4 rather:1 metropolitan:1 cognac:1 cuban:1 dark:1 rum:2 principal:1 latin:1 white:2 splash:1 pop:1 culture:1 famous:1 frank:2 sinatra:2 rat:1 pack:1 dean:1 martin:1 sammy:1 davis:1 jr:1 peter:1 lawford:1 joey:1 bishop:1 along:1 cosmopolitan:1 consume:1 hbo:3 television:2 series:2 sex:2 travel:2 article:1 twentysix:1 island:2 feature:1 notably:1 final:1 scene:1 episode:5 guide:1 summary:1 season:1 main:1 character:2 enjoy:1 round:1 trendy:1 http:1 www:1 img:1 jpg:1 narration:1 protagonist:1 explicitly:1 affinity:1 symbol:1 love:1 life:1 borough:1 animated:1 simpson:2 bart:3 murderer:2 spar:1 springfield:1 mafia:1 supoib:1 small:1 north:1 frisian:1 föhr:4 standard:1 almost:1 every:1 cafe:1 restaurant:1 get:1 together:1 digital:1 de:1 essen:1 und:1 trinken:1 story:1 go:1 many:1 emigrate:1 deep:1 sea:1 fish:1 trip:1 take:1 liking:1 bring:1 back:1 usually:1 say:1 half:2 dash:1 cold:2 anchorman:1 legend:1 ron:1 burgundy:1 veronica:1 corningstone:1 order:1 ask:1 kick:1 side:1 pair:1 steel:1 toed:1 boot:1 see:1 |@bigram manhattan_cocktail:6 commonly_used:1 maraschino_cherry:2 churchill_winston:1 presidential_candidate:1 angostura_bitter:1 foxnews_com:1 cocktail_recipe:1 rob_roy:1 scotch_whisky:1 dry_vermouth:3 frank_sinatra:2 sammy_davis:1 peter_lawford:1 http_www:1 bart_simpson:1 cafe_restaurant:1 |
6,653 | Absolute_zero | Absolute zero is a temperature marked by a 0 entropy configuration. It is the coldest temperature theoretically possible and cannot be reached by artificial or natural means. Temperature is an entropically defined quantity that effectively determines the number of thermodynamically accessible states of a system within an energy range. Absolute zero physically possesses quantum mechanical zero-point energy. Having a limited temperature has several thermodynamic consequences; for example, at absolute zero all molecular motion does not cease but does not have enough energy for transference to other systems, it is therefore correct to say that at 0 kelvin molecular energy is minimal. In addition, any particle with zero energy would violate Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle, which states that the location and momentum of a particle cannot be known at the same time. A particle at absolute zero would be at rest, so both its position, and momentum (0), would be known simultaneously. By international agreement, absolute zero is defined as precisely 0 K on the Kelvin scale, which is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale, and −273.15° on the Celsius scale. Absolute zero is also precisely equivalent to 0 °R on the Rankine scale (same as Kelvin but measured in Fahrenheit intervals), and −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale. Though it is not theoretically possible to cool any substance to 0 K, scientists have made great advancements in achieving temperatures close to absolute zero, where matter exhibits quantum effects such as superconductivity and superfluidity. For the kinematics of the molecules, on a larger scale, which is easier to understand see kinetic energy. History One of the first to discuss the possibility of an "Absolute Cold" on such a scale was Robert Boyle who in his 1665 New Experiments and Observations touching Cold, stated the dispute which is the primum frigidum is very well known among naturalists, some contending for the earth, others for water, others for the air, and some of the moderns for nitre, but all seeming to agree that: Limit to the 'degree of cold' The question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first attacked by the French physicist Guillaume Amontons in 1702, in connection with his improvements in the air thermometer and in his instrument temperatures were indicated by the height at which a column of mercury was sustained by a certain mass of air, the volume or "spring" which of course varied with the heat to which it was exposed. Amontons therefore argued that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air in it was reduced to nothing. On the scale he used, the boiling-point of water was marked at +73 and the melting-point of ice at 51, so that the zero of his scale was equivalent to about −240 on the Celsius scale. This remarkably close approximation to the modern value of −273.15 °C http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-1/2-1-1/kelvin.html for the zero of the air-thermometer was further improved upon in 1779 by Johann Heinrich Lambert, who gave the value −270 °C and observed that this temperature might be regarded as absolute cold. Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period. Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing-point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below. John Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3,000 °C as the natural zero of temperature. Lord Kelvin's work After J.P. Joule had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different point of view , and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature which was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was based solely on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics. It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at −273.15 °C, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the air-thermometer. Additional Information It can be shown from the laws of thermodynamics that absolute zero can never be achieved artificially, though it is possible to reach temperatures close to it through the use of cryocoolers. This is the same principle that ensures no machine can be 100% efficient. Laser cooling is another technique used to take temperatures to within a billionth of a degree of 0K. Cosmos Online - Verging on absolute zero (http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/features/online/2176/verging-absolute-zero) At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties including superconductivity, superfluidity, and Bose-Einstein condensation. In order to study such phenomena, scientists have worked to obtain ever lower temperatures. In 1994, researchers at NIST achieved a then-record cold temperature of 700 nK (billionths of a Kelvin). In November 2000, nuclear spin temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology's Low Temperature Lab. However, this was the temperature of one particular degree of freedom—a quantum property called nuclear spin—not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees in freedom. In February 2003, the Boomerang Nebula was found to be −272.15 °C; 1 K, the coldest place known outside a laboratory. The nebula is 5,000 light-years from Earth and is in the constellation Centaurus. Thermodynamics near absolute zero At temperatures near 0 K, nearly all molecular motion ceases and S = 0 for any adiabatic process. Pure substances can (ideally) form perfect crystals as T0. Max Planck's strong form of the third law of thermodynamics states the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. The original Nernst heat theorem makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy change for any isothermal process approaches zero as T0 The implication is that the entropy of a perfect crystal simply approaches a constant value. The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T = 0 as coincident with the adiabat S = 0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T = 0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature. (≈ Callen, pp. 189-190) An even stronger assertion is that It is impossible by any procedure to reduce the temperature of a system to zero in a finite number of operations. (≈ Guggenheim, p. 157) A perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational symmetry along three (not usually orthogonal) axes. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For substances which have two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and graphite for carbon, there is a kind of "chemical degeneracy". The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at T = 0 even though each is perfectly ordered. Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous materials, simply get "frozen in" at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur. Using the Debye model, the specific heat and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to T 3, while the enthalpy and chemical potential are proportional to T 4. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their T = 0 limiting values and approach with zero slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10 K. Even the less detailed Einstein model shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish at absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of thermal expansion. Maxwell's relations show that various other quantities also vanish. These phenomena were unanticipated. Since the relation between changes in the Gibbs energy, the enthalpy and the entropy is thus, as T decreases, ΔG and ΔH approach each other (so long as ΔS is bounded). Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes (including chemical reactions) result in a decrease in G as they proceed toward equilbrium. If ΔS and/or T are small, the condition ΔG < 0 may imply that ΔH < 0, which would indicate an exothermic reaction that releases heat. However, this is not required; endothermic reactions can proceed spontaneously if the TΔS term is large enough. More than that, the slopes of the temperature derivatives of ΔG and ΔH converge and are equal to zero at T = 0, which ensures that ΔG and ΔH are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures, justifying the approximate empirical Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot, which says that the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one which evolves the greatest amount of heat, i.e., an actual process is the most exothermic one. (Callen, pp. 186-187) Relation with Bose Einstein Condensates A Bose-Einstein Condensate is a substance that behaves very unusually but only at extremely low temperatures, maybe a few billionths of a degree above absolute zero. Absolute temperature scales Absolute or thermodynamic temperature is conventionally measured in kelvins (Celsius-scaled increments), and increasingly rarely in the Rankine scale (Fahrenheit-scaled increments). Absolute temperature is uniquely determined up to a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the "degree", so the ratios of two absolute temperatures, T2/T1, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition comes from the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution over energies, or from the quantum analogs: Fermi-Dirac statistics (particles of half-integer spin) and Bose-Einstein statistics (particles of integer spin), all of which give the relative numbers of particles as (decreasing) exponential functions of energy over kT. On a macroscopic level, a definition can be given in terms of the efficiencies of "reversible" heat engines operating between hotter and colder thermal reservoirs. Lowest observed temperatures The average background temperature of the Universe today is 2.73 Kelvin, but it has spatial fluctuations. For example, the Boomerang Nebula has been spraying out gas at a speed of 500,000 km/h (over 300,000 mph) for the last 1,500 years. That has cooled it down to 1 K, as deduced by astronomical observation. This is might be the lowest natural temperature recorded. Much lower temperatures, however, can be achieved in the laboratory. The current (May 2009) world record was set in 1999 at 100 picokelvin by cooling a piece of rhodiummetal. Negative temperatures Certain semi-isolated systems, such as a system of non-interacting spins in a magnetic field, can achieve negative temperatures; however, they are not actually colder than absolute zero. They can be however thought of as "hotter than T = ∞", as energy will flow from a negative temperature system to any other system with positive temperature upon contact. See also Absolute hot Celsius Cosmic microwave background radiation (this spacetime currently has a background temperature of roughly 2.7 K) Delisle scale Fahrenheit Heat ITS-90 Kelvin Orders of magnitude (temperature) Planck temperature Rankine scale Thermodynamic (absolute) temperature Triple point Wind chill Notes References External links Lansing state journal Verging on absolute zero - Cosmos Online | Absolute_zero |@lemmatized absolute:28 zero:34 temperature:43 mark:2 entropy:7 configuration:1 cold:9 theoretically:2 possible:5 cannot:2 reach:2 artificial:1 natural:3 mean:1 entropically:1 define:2 quantity:3 effectively:1 determine:3 number:3 thermodynamically:1 accessible:1 state:7 system:8 within:2 energy:10 range:3 physically:1 possess:1 quantum:4 mechanical:2 point:7 limited:1 several:1 thermodynamic:5 consequence:1 example:2 molecular:4 motion:2 cease:2 enough:2 transference:1 therefore:2 correct:1 say:2 kelvin:10 minimal:1 addition:1 particle:6 would:5 violate:1 heisenberg:1 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6,654 | Community_emergency_response_team | In the United States a Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) can refer to one of five federal programs promoted under the umbrella organization Citizen Corps, which is funded in part by the Stafford Act; an implementation of the federal CERT program, administered by a local sponsoring agency, which receives Stafford grant funding, and provides standardized training and an implementation framework to community members; an organization of volunteer emergency workers who have received specific training in basic disaster response skills, and who agree to supplement existing emergency responders in the event of a major disaster. Sometimes programs and organizations take different names, such as Neighborhood Emergency Response Team (NERT), or Neighborhood Emergency Team (NET). History The concept of widespread local volunteer emergency responders was implemented and developed by the Los Angeles Fire Department in 1985. The Whittier Narrows earthquake of 1987 showed the need for preparing citizens to take care of themselves and their loved ones after a disaster. In the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake, residents of San Francisco's Marina District help run lengths of fire hose from a fireboat to firefighters ashore after the hydrant system failed. Later, the Fire Department worked with the community to form the City's NERT program (Neighborhood Emergency Response Team). The National Emergency Response Team, was established in 1993 after Hurricane Andrew by the four Van Deventer brothers. When thousands of people were left without food, shelter, and clothing for an extended amount of time, the founding members of NERT saw this as a need that they could help with, so they banded together and formed NERT to provide relief supply to a ravaged community. Since that time NERT has grown into a national organization. (Citation needed) By 1993, the Federal Emergency Management Agency had made the program available nationwide; by 2003, CERT programs were offered in 45 states. CERT and Citizen Corps were transferred to the Office of Domestic Preparedness (now the Office of Grants and Training) in August 2004. CERT Organization A local government agency, often a fire department or emergency management agency, agrees to sponsor CERT within its jurisdiction. The sponsoring agency is responsible for training and deploying CERT members. The sponsoring agency is also responsible for receiving and disbursing any federal and state Citizen Corps grant funds allocated to its CERT program. Many sponsoring agencies employ a full-time community-service person as liaison to the CERT members. In some communities, the liaison is a volunteer and CERT member. As people are trained and agree to join the community emergency response effort, a CERT is formed. Initial efforts may result in a team with only a few members from across the community. As the number of members grow, a single community-wide team may subdivide following the Incident Command System (ICS) principle of Span of control until the ideal distribution is achieved: one or more teams are formed at each neighborhood within a community. Multiple CERTs are organized into a hierarchy of teams consistent with ICS principles. Some CERTs form a club or service corporation, and recruit volunteers to perform training on behalf of the sponsoring agency. This reduces the financial and human resource burden on the sponsoring agency. When not responding to disasters, CERTs may raise funds for emergency response equipment in their community; provide first-aid, crowd control or other services at community events; hold planning, training, or recruitment meetings; conduct or participate in disaster response exercises. Some sponsoring agencies use Citizen Corps grant funds to purchase response tools and equipment for their members and/or team(s) (subject to Stafford Act limitations). Most CERTs also acquire their own supplies, tools, and equipment. As community members, CERTs are aware of the specific needs of their community and can equip accordingly. CERT Response When disaster strikes, CERTs respond. A team may self-activate (self-deploy) when their own neighborhood is affected by disaster. An effort is made to report their response status to the sponsoring agency. A self-activated team will size-up the loss in their neighborhood and begin performing the skills they have learned to minimize further loss of life, property, and environment. They will continue to respond safely until redirected or relieved by the sponsoring agency or professional responders on-scene. Teams in neighborhoods not affected by disaster may be deployed/activated by the sponsoring agency. The sponsoring agency may communicate with neighborhood CERT leaders through an organic communication team. In some areas the communications may be by amateur radio, FRS/GMRS/MURS radio, dedicated telephone or fire-alarm networks. In other areas, relays of bicycle-equipped runners can effectively carry mail between the teams and the local emergency operations center. The sponsoring agency will activate and dispatch teams as indicated by gathered intelligence for an individual incident and the required response. Teams may be dispatched to respond generally in affected neighborhoods, or organized into specific strike-forces to provide support to the Operations branch as needed. CERT members may also augment support staff at an incident command post or Emergency Operations Center. Because much of CERT training concerns the Incident Command System and organization, CERT members fit easily into larger command structures. While responding, CERT members are temporary volunteer government workers. In some areas (such as California and Kansas) registered, activated CERT members are eligible for worker's compensation for on-the-job injuries during declared disasters. CERT Team Member Roles The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recommends that the standard, ten-person team be comprised as follows: CERT Team Leader. Generally, the first CERT team member arriving on the scene becomes team leader, and is the designated Incident Commander (IC) until the arrival of someone more competent. This person makes the IC initial assessment of the scene and determines the appropriate course of action for team members; assumes role of Safety Officer until assigned to another team member; assigns team member roles if not already assigned; designates triage area, treatment area, morgue, and vehicle traffic routes; coordinates and directs team operations; determines logistical needs (water, food, medical supplies, transportation, equipment, etc.) and determines ways to meet those needs through team members or citizen volunteers on the scene; collects and writes reports on the operation and victims; and communicates and coordinates with the incident commander, local authorities, and other CERT team leaders. The team leader is identified by two pieces of crossed tape on the hard hat. Safety Officer. Checks team members prior to deployment to ensure they are safe and equipped for the operation; determines safe or unsafe working environments; ensures team accountability; supervises operations (when possible) where team members and victims are at direct physical risk, and alerts team members when unsafe conditions arise. Fire Suppression Team (2 people). Work under the supervision of the Team Leader to suppress small fires in designated work areas or as needed; when not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the search and rescue team or triage team; assist in evacuation and transport as needed; assist in the triage or treatment area as needed, other duties as assigned; communicate with Team Leader. Search and Rescue Team (2). Work under the supervision of the Team Leader, searching for and providing rescue of victims as is prudent under the conditions; when not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the Fire Suppression Team, assist in the triage or treatment area as needed; other duties as assigned; communicate with Team Leader. Medical Triage Team (2). Work under the supervision of the Team Leader, providing START triage for victims found at the scene; marking victims with category of injury per the standard operating procedures; when not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the Fire Suppression Team if needed, assist the Search and Rescue Team if needed, assist in the Medical Triage Area if needed, assist in the Treatment Area if needed, other duties as assigned; communicate with Team Leader. Medical Treatment Team (2). Work under the supervision of the Team Leader, providing medical treatment to victims within the scope of their training. This task is normally accomplished in the Treatment Area, however, it may take place in the affected area as well. When not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the Fire Suppression Team as needed, assist the Medical Triage Team as needed; other duties as assigned; communicate with the Team Leader. Additional teams may also be created to guard the morgue, locate supplies and food, convey messages to and from other CERT teams and local authorities, and other duties on an as-needed basis as identified by the team leader. Because every CERT member in a community receives the same core instruction, any team member has the training necessary to assume any of these roles. This is important during a disaster response because not all members of a regular team may be available to respond. Hasty teams may be formed by whichever members are responding at the time. Additionally, members may need to adjust team roles due to stress, fatigue, injury, or other circumstances. In the short term, CERTs perform data gathering, especially to locate mass-casualties requiring professional response, or situations requiring professional rescues, simple fire-fighting tasks (e.g. small fires, turning off gas), light search and rescue, damage evaluation of structures, triage and first aid. In the longer term, CERTs may assist in the evacuation of residents, or assist with setting up a neighborhood shelter. CERT Training While state and local jurisdictions will implement training in the manner that best suits the community, the Citizen Corps CERT program has an established curriculum. Jurisdictions may augment the training, but are strongly encouraged to deliver the entire core content. The Citizen Corps CERT core curriculum for the basic course is composed of the following nine units (time is instructional hours): Unit 1: Disaster Preparedness (2.5 hrs). Topics include (in part) identifying local disaster threats, disaster impact, mitigation and preparedness concepts, and an overview of Citizen Corps and CERT. Hands on skills include team-building exercises, and shutting off utilities. Unit 2: Fire Safety (2.5 hrs). Students learn about fire chemistry, mitigation practices, hazardous materials identification, suppression options, and are introduced to the concept of size-up. Hands-on skills include using a fire extinguisher to suppress a live flame, and wearing basic protective gear. Unit 3: Disaster Medical Operations part 1 (2.5 hrs). Students learn to identify and treat certain life-threatening conditions in a disaster setting, as well as START triage. Hands-on skills include performing head-tilt/chin-lift, practicing bleeding control techniques, and performing triage as an exercise. Unit 4: Disaster Medical Operations part 2 (2.5 hrs). Topics cover mass casualty operations, public health, assessing patients, and treating injuries. Students practice patient assessment, and various treatment techniques. Unit 5: Light Search and Rescue Operations (2.5 hrs). Size-up is expanded as students learn about assessing structural damage, marking structures that have been searched, search techniques, as well as rescue techniques and cribbing. Hands-on activities include lifting and cribbing an object, and practicing rescue carries. Unit 6: CERT Organization (1.5 hrs). Students are introduced to several concepts from the Incident Command System, and local team organization and communication is explained. Hands-on skills include a table-top exercise focusing on incident command and control. Unit 7: Disaster Psychology (1 hr). Responder well-being and dealing with victim trauma are the topics of this unit. Unit 8: Terrorism and CERT (2.5 hrs). Students learn how terrorists may choose targets, what weapons they may use, and identifying when chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or explosive weapons may have been deployed. Students learn about CERT roles in preparing for and responding to terrorist attacks. A table-top exercise highlights topics covered. Unit 9: Course Review and Disaster Simulation (2.5 hrs). Students take a written exam, then participate in a real-time practical disaster simulation where the different skill areas are put to the test. A critique follows the exercise where students and instructors have an opportunity to learn from mistakes and highlight exemplary actions. Students may be given a certificate of completion at the conclusion of the course. Citizen Corps CERT training emphasizes safely 'doing the most good for the most people as quickly as possible' when responding to a disaster. For this reason, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training is not included in the core curriculum, as it is time- and responder-intensive. However, many jurisdictions encourage or require CERT members to obtain CPR training. Each unit of Citizen Corps CERT training is ideally delivered by professional responders or other experts in the field addressed by the unit. This is done to help build unity between CERT members and responders, keep the attention of students, and help the professional response organizations be comfortable with the training which CERT members receive. Each course of instruction is ideally facilitated by one or more instructors certified in the CERT curriculum by the state or sponsoring agency. Facilitating instructors provide continuity between units, and help ensure that the CERT core curriculum is being delivered successfully. Facilitating instructors also perform set-up and tear-down of the classroom, provide instructional materials for the course, record student attendance and other tasks which assist the professional responder in delivering their unit as efficiently as possible. Citizen Corps CERT training is provided free to interested members of the community, and is delivered in a group classroom setting. People may complete the training without obligation to join a CERT. Citizen Corps grant funds can be used to print and provide each student with a printed manual. Some sponsoring agencies use Citizen Corps grant funds to purchase disaster response tool kits. These kits are offered as an incentive to join a CERT, and must be returned to the sponsoring agency when members resign from CERT. Because uniformed volunteer disaster responders are accorded a higher level of trust than unaffiliated volunteers when responding in a disaster, many sponsoring agencies require a criminal background-check of all trainees before allowing them to participate on a CERT. The Citizen Corps CERT curriculum (including the Train-the-Trainer course) was updated during the last half of 2008 to reflect feedback from instructors across the nation. The update is in final review, and is scheduled for release during the first quarter of 2009. Recruitment A San Francisco NERT Helmet The sponsoring agency, the Citizen Corps Council if one exists, and the CERT members themselves work to promote awareness of the program in the community and recruit new members. Most effective programs run a program on a very predictable schedule so civilians can locate the training. For example, one effective format has a four-hour training program on the first Saturday morning of each month. About 1% of adults will train simply because the training is available. More will train if the area is prone to periodic disasters, or the government effectively recruits public-service groups and schools. Civilians are recruited with advertising in schools, businesses, parks, recreation programs, libraries, and open-houses for fire and police departments. CERT participation becomes much wider if the recruiting and training is made into a social occasion. One of the best social recruiting methods is to ask trainees to go door-to-door in their neighborhoods. This mobilizes CERT trainees to establish neighborhood teams. Typically, the volunteer distributes flyers that offer a "yard party" on a patriotic holiday, and then hosts it. The classic way to recruit a neighborhood team is to offer food on a patriotic occasion. Flyers or pamphlets at the meeting give the training schedules. The social occasion gives people a place to meet and lets interested persons find each other and organize. The first step of each training meeting is always to register attendees. A notice and newsletter is mailed or e-mailed to previous attendees to arrive just before the next training session. The city also uses attendance to certify people, giving the city a database of trained volunteers. During registration, the trainee gets a name tag, with a colored dot, or group number. The CERT organization may run a lottery to encourage attendance. The tickets are given at registration. The premiums are given after the training, and may include items purchased by the government (tools or supplies) as well as commercial promotional offerings from local businesses, such as free lunches or sample products. After this, the group splits into parts (assigned by the colored dots on their badges) and trains. Having several training groups permits large groups to use facilities in rotation with lectures and demonstrations. Topics for a week-end training session usually include: "need for disaster preparedness", "fire safety and fire extinguisher use", "first aid and triage", "logistics and communication", "sheltering", "search and rescue", and "team organization". In some areas, auxiliary classes are offered to train communicators, radiological safety officers, shelter cooking and organization, staffing of the emergency operations center, and advanced CPR and first-aid. After the training, the lots are drawn and the premiums are distributed. After a trainee graduates and passes the background check, they may get a service uniform, possibly a protective helmet or emergency-colored windbreaker with organizational logos. More information: Starting and Maintaining a CERT Organization: Resource Center. See also Emergency management Incident command system ZAKA External links U.S. Citizen Corps CERT CERT Team directory LAFD / Los Angeles City CERT | Community_emergency_response_team |@lemmatized united:1 state:5 community:18 emergency:18 response:16 team:65 cert:60 refer:1 one:7 five:1 federal:5 program:13 promote:2 umbrella:1 organization:13 citizen:17 corp:15 fund:6 part:5 stafford:3 act:2 implementation:2 administer:1 local:10 sponsoring:14 agency:21 receive:5 grant:6 funding:1 provide:11 standardized:1 training:27 framework:1 member:34 volunteer:10 worker:3 specific:3 basic:3 disaster:25 skill:7 agree:3 supplement:1 exist:2 responder:9 event:2 major:1 sometimes:1 take:4 different:2 name:2 neighborhood:13 nert:6 net:1 history:1 concept:4 widespread:1 implement:2 develop:1 los:2 angeles:2 fire:18 department:4 whittier:1 narrow:1 earthquake:2 show:1 need:19 prepare:2 care:1 love:1 loma:1 prieta:1 resident:2 san:2 francisco:2 marina:1 district:1 help:5 run:3 length:1 hose:1 fireboat:1 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6,655 | Old_English_(Ireland) | The Old English () were the descendants of the settlers who came to Ireland from Wales, Normandy and England after the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169-71. Many of the Old English became assimilated into Irish society over the centuries and their nobility were effectively the ruling class in the land up to the 16th century. Some were dispossessed, however, in the political and religious conflicts during and after the Tudor re-conquest of Ireland in the 16th and 17th centuries, largely due to their continued adherence to the Catholic religion. The so called "New English" Protestant settlers had largely replaced them as the governing and landowning class of Ireland by 1700. The name Old English was coined in the late sixteenth century to describe the section of the above community which lived within the heart of English-ruled Ireland, the Pale. In medieval Ireland Old English was the term applied from the 1580s to those Irish descended on the patrilineal side from a wave of late medieval Norman, French, Welsh, English, Breton and Flemish settlers who went to Ireland to claim territory and lands in the wake of the Norman conquest of Ireland in 1169-72. London-based Norman-English governments expected the "Old English" to promote English rule in Ireland, through the use of the English language, law, trade, currency, social customs and farming methods. The realisation of this aim was most advanced in the Pale and the walled towns. The "Old English" community in Ireland was never monolithic. In some areas, especially in the Pale around Dublin, south county Wexford, Kilkenny, Limerick and Cork, the term referred to relatively urbanised communities, who often spoke the English language (though sometimes in arcane local dialects like Yola), used English law and in some respects lived in a manner similar to that found in England. However, in 1515 one Old English official lamented that 'all the common people of the said half counties [of the Pale], that obeyeth the King’s laws, for the most part be of Irish birth, of Irish habit, and of Irish language.’ ‘State of Ireland & plan for its reformation’ in State Papers Ireland, Henry VIII, ii, 8 Irish was at least widely spoken even in this small area but most probably the dominant language. English administrators such as Fynes Moryson, writing in the last years of the sixteenth century, shared the latter view of what he termed the "English-Irish": ‘the English Irish and the very citizens (excepting those of Dublin where the lord deputy resides) though they could speak English as well as we, yet commonly speak Irish among themselves, and were hardly induced by our familiar conversation to speak English with us’. Cited in Graham Kew (ed.), The Irish Sections of Fynes Moryson’s unpublished itinerary (IMC, Dublin, 1998), p. 50. Moryson's views on the cultural fluidity of the so-called English Pale were echoed by other commentators such as Richard Stanihurst who, while protesting the Englishness of the Palesmen in 1577, opined that 'Irish was universally gaggled in the English Pale'. Cited in S. J. Connolly, Contested Island: Ireland 1460-1630 (Oxford, 2007), p. 29. Beyond the Pale the term, if it was applied, referred to a thin layer of landowners and nobility, who ruled over Gaelic Irish freeholders and tenants. The division between the Pale and the rest of Ireland was therefore in reality not rigid or impermeable but rather one of gradated cultural and economic differences across the area. Consequently, the English identity expressed by Old English representatives of the Pale when writing in English to the English crown often contrasted radically with their cultural affinities and kinship ties to the Gaelic world around them and this difference between their cultural reality and their expressed identity is a central reason for Old English support for Catholicism. See Vincent Carey, ‘Bi-lingualism and identity formation in sixteenth-century Ireland’ in Hiram Morgan (ed.), Political Ideology in Ireland, 1541-1641 (Dublin, 1999) for a study of this aspect of Old English culture and identity. However, in much of the rest of Ireland, the term referred to a thin layer of landowners and nobility, who ruled over Gaelic Irish freeholders and tenants. In the provinces, the Old English (known as Gaill - foreigners - in the Irish language), were at times indistinguishable from the surrounding Gaelic lords and chieftains. Dynasties such as the Fitzgeralds, Butlers and Burkes adopted the native language, legal system, and other customs such as fostering and intermarriage with the Gaelic Irish and the patronage of Irish poetry and music. Such people became regarded as more Irish than the Irish themselves as a result of this process (see also Norman Ireland). The most accurate name for the community throughout the late medieval period was Hiberno-Norman, a name which captures the distinctive blended culture which this community created and operated within. In an effort to halt the "Gaelicization" of the Old English community, the Irish Parliament passed the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1367, which among other things, banned the use of the Irish language, wearing of Irish clothes and banned Gaelic Irish people from living within walled towns. There was no religious division in medieval Ireland, beyond the requirement that English-born prelates should run the Irish church. However after the 1530s most of the pre-16th century inhabitants continued their allegiance to Roman Catholicism, even after the Protestant Reformation in England. Tudor re-conquest In contrast, the New English, the wave of settlers who came to Ireland from the Elizabethan era onwards during the Tudor re-conquest of Ireland, kept their English identity, religious, social and cultural traditions and unlike the Normans and the Old English, remained distinct for the first few generations. The new settlers were more self consciously English and largely (though not entirely) Protestant and most looked on Ireland as a conquered country that needed to be "civilised" and converted to the Protestant religion. The poet Edmund Spenser was one of the chief advocates of this view. He argued in "A View on the Present State of Ireland" (1595), that a failure to fully conquer Ireland had led previous generations of English settlers to become corrupted by the native Irish culture. To the "New English", many of the Old English were "degenerate", having adopted Irish customs and retaining the Catholic religion. It was their exclusion from the government of Ireland, on the grounds of their religious dissidence, in the course of the 16th century that alienated the Old English from the state and eventually propelled them into a common identity with the Gaelic Irish as Irish Catholics. The first confrontation between the Old English and the English government in Ireland came with the cess crisis of 1556–1583. During this period, the Pale community resisted paying for the English army in Ireland to put down a string of revolts ending with the Desmond Rebellions (1569-73 and 1579-83). The term "Old English" was coined at this time, as the Pale community emphasised their English identity and loyalty to the crown, while at the same time refusing to cooperate with the wishes of the English Lord Deputy of Ireland. Originally, the conflict was a civil issue, as the Palesmen objected to paying new taxes that had not first been approved by them in the Parliament of Ireland. However, the dispute also took on a religious dimension, especially after 1570, when Elizabeth I of England was excommunicated by the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis. In reply, Elizabeth banned the Jesuits. Rebels such as James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald (of the Hiberno-Norman Desmond dynasty) portrayed their rebellion as a "Holy War" and indeed received money and troops from the Papacy. In the Second Desmond Rebellion (1579-83), a prominent Pale Lord, James Eustace, Viscount of Baltinglass joined the rebels for religious reasons. Before the rebellion was over, several hundred Old English Palesmen had been hanged, either for rebellion or because they were suspected of rebellion because of their religion. This episode marked an important break between the Pale and the English Government and between the Old and New English. In the subsequent Nine Years War (1594–1603) the Pale and the Old English towns remained loyal to the English Crown during another rebellion. It was the re-organisation of the English government in Ireland along Protestant lines in the early 17th century that eventually severed the main political ties between the Old English and England itself, particularly following the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. Firstly, in 1609, Catholics were banned from serving in public office in Ireland. In 1613, the constituencies of the Irish Parliament were changed so that the New English Protestants would be a majority in it. Thirdly, in the 1630s many of the Old English landowning class had to reconfirm their land titles, with some paying fines or losing land in the process (see Plantations of Ireland). The political response of the Old Community was to appeal directly to the King of England, first James I and then Charles I for a package of reforms, known as The Graces including religious toleration and civil equality to Catholics in return for increased taxes. However, on several occasions in 1620s and 1630s, they agreed to pay the higher taxes, only for the monarch or his viceroy to defer some concessions. Such Old English writers as Geoffrey Keating were by then arguing, for example in the Irish-language Foras Feasa ar Éirinn (1634) that the true identity of the Old English was Catholic and Irish, rather than English. Dispossession and defeat In 1641, many of the Old English community made a decisive break with their past as loyal subjects by joining the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Many factors influenced the decision of the Old English to join the rebellion, among them fear of the rebels and fear of government reprisals against all Catholics. However, the main long term reason was a desire to reverse the anti-Catholic policies that had been pursued by the English authorities over the previous 40 years in Ireland. Nevertheless, despite their formation of an Irish government in Confederate Ireland, the Old English identity was still an important division within the Irish Catholic community. During the Irish Confederate Wars (1641-53), the Old English were often accused by the Gaelic Irish of being too ready to sign a treaty with Charles I of England at the expense of the interests of Irish landowners and the Catholic religion. The ensuing Cromwellian conquest of Ireland (1649-53), saw the ultimate defeat of the Catholic cause and the dispossession of the Old English nobility. While this cause was briefly revived before the Williamite war in Ireland (1689-91), by 1700, the Protestant descendants of the New English had become the dominant class in the country, along with the Old English families (and men of Gaelic origin such as William Conolly) who chose to comply with the new realities. In the course of the eighteenth century, the old distinction between Old English and Gaelic Irish Catholics faded away, as more of the country became Anglicized and social divisions were defined, against the backdrop of the Penal Laws (Ireland) almost solely in sectarian terms of Catholic and Protestant, rather than ethnic ones. However, changing religion was not banned, and many Old English like Edmund Burke were Protestants but with a sympathy and understanding for the unfair position of Catholics in his day. Others in the landed gentry like the viscounts Dillon and the lords Dunsany were Old English families who converted religion to save their lands and titles. The Old English FitzGerald dukes of Leinster held the premier title in the Irish House of Lords when it was abolished in 1800; the republican Lord Edward Fitzgerald was a brother of the second duke. Collective identity of the Old English Historians disagree about what to call the Old English community at different times in its existence and how to define this community's sense of collective identity. Irish historian Edward MacLysaght makes the distinction in his Surnames of Ireland book between 'Hiberno-Norman' and 'Anglo-Norman' surnames. This sums up the fundamental difference between "Queen's English Rebels" and the Loyal Lieges. The Geraldines of Desmond or the Burkes of Connacht, for instance, could not accurately be described as "Old English" as that was not their political and cultural world. The Butlers of Ormond on the other hand could not accurately be described as 'Hiberno-Norman' in their political outlook and alliances, especially after they married into the English royal family. Some historians now refer to them as "Cambro-Normans", and Seán Duffy of Trinity College, Dublin invariably uses that term rather than the misleading "Anglo-Norman" (most Normans came via Wales, not England), but after many centuries in Ireland and just a century in Wales or England it seems quite odd that their entire history since 1169 is now known by a description, Old English, which only came in the late sixteenth century. The earliest known reference to the term, "Old English" community is in the 1580s (Nicholas Canny, Ireland, from Reformation to Restoration). The community of Norman descent prior to then used numerous epithets to describe themselves but it was only as a result of the political crisis of the 1580s that the Old English community emerged. Some contend it is ahistorical to trace a single "Old English" community back to 1169 as the real Old English community was a product of the late sixteenth century in the Pale. Until then identity was much more fluid; it was the administration's policies which created an oppositional and clearly defined Old English community. Brendan Bradshaw, in his study of the poetry of late sixteenth century Tír Chónaill, points out that in the Irish the Normans were not called Seanghaill ("Old Foreigners") there but rather they were called Fionnghaill and Dubhghaill. He argued in a lecture to the Mícheál Ó Cléirigh Institute in University College, Dublin that the poets referred to those of Norman stock who were completely hibernicised thus with the purpose of granting them a longer vintage in Ireland that they had (Fionnghaill- Norwegian Vikings; Dubhghaill= Danish Vikings). This follows on from his earlier arguments that the term Éireannaigh as we currently know it also emerged during this period in the poetry books of the Uí Bhroin of Wicklow as a sign of unity between Gaeil and Gaill; he viewed it as a sign of an emerging Irish nationalism. Breandán Ó Buachalla essentially agreed with him, Tom Dunne and Tom Bartlett were less sure. Footnotes See also The Deeds of the Normans in Ireland The Tribes of Galway | Old_English_(Ireland) |@lemmatized old:46 english:80 descendant:2 settler:6 come:5 ireland:42 wale:3 normandy:1 england:9 norman:18 invasion:1 many:7 become:5 assimilated:1 irish:41 society:1 century:15 nobility:4 effectively:1 ruling:1 class:4 land:5 dispossess:1 however:8 political:7 religious:7 conflict:2 tudor:3 conquest:5 largely:3 due:1 continued:1 adherence:1 catholic:14 religion:7 call:5 new:9 protestant:9 replace:1 governing:1 landowning:2 name:3 coin:2 late:6 sixteenth:6 describe:4 section:2 community:19 live:3 within:4 heart:1 ruled:1 pale:15 medieval:4 term:11 apply:2 descend:1 patrilineal:1 side:1 wave:2 french:1 welsh:1 breton:1 flemish:1 go:1 claim:1 territory:1 wake:1 london:1 base:1 government:7 expect:1 promote:1 rule:3 use:5 language:8 law:4 trade:1 currency:1 social:3 custom:3 farm:1 method:1 realisation:1 aim:1 advanced:1 walled:2 town:3 never:1 monolithic:1 area:3 especially:3 around:2 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6,656 | Kiwi | Kiwi are flightless birds endemic to New Zealand, in the genus Apteryx and family Apterygidae. At around the size of a domestic chicken, kiwi are by far the smallest living ratites and lay the largest egg in relation to its body size. San Diego Zoo There are five recognised species - all of which are endangered. The kiwi is a national symbol of New Zealand. Species There are five accepted species of kiwi (one of which has four sub-species), plus one to be formally described. The largest species is the Great Spotted Kiwi or Roroa, Apteryx haastii, which stands about high and weighs about . (Males about ) It has grey-brown plumage with lighter bands. The female lays just one egg, with both sexes incubating. Population is estimated to be over 20,000, distributed through the more mountainous parts of northwest Nelson, the northern West Coast, and the Southern Alps. The Maori name for the Great Spotted Kiwi is roroa, or roa. The very small Little Spotted Kiwi, Apteryx owenii is unable to withstand predation by introduced pigs, stoats and cats and is extinct on the mainland because of these reasons. About 1350 remain on Kapiti Island and it has been introduced to other predator-free islands and appears to be becoming established with about 50 'Little Spots' on each island. A docile bird the size of a bantam, it stands high and the female weighs . She lays one egg which is incubated by the male. The Maori name for the Little Spotted Kiwi is kiwi pukupuku. The distribution of each species of kiwi Little Spotted Kiwi (Apteryx owenii). The Rowi, also known as the Okarito Brown Kiwi or Apteryx rowi, is a recently identified species, slightly smaller, with a greyish tinge to the plumage and sometimes white facial feathers. Females lay as many as three eggs in a season, each one in a different nest. Male and female both incubate. Distribution of these kiwi are limited to a small area on the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand, however studies of ancient DNA have revealed that in prehuman times it was far more widespread up the west coast of the South Island and was present in the lower half of the North Island where it was the only kiwi species detected. Shepherd, L.D. & Lambert, D.M. (2008) The Tokoeka, Apteryx australis, relatively common species of kiwi known from south and west parts of South Island that occurs at most elevations. It is approximately the size of the Great Spotted Kiwi and is similar in appearance to the Brown Kiwi but its plumage is lighter in colour. Ancient DNA studies have shown that in prehuman times the distribution of this species included the east coast of the South Island. There are several subspecies of the Tokoeka recognised: The Stewart Island Tokoeka, Apteryx australis lawryi, is a subspecies of Tokoeka from Stewart Island. The Northern Fiordland Tokoeka ( Apteryx australis ?) and Southern Fiordland Tokoeka (Apteryx australis ?) live in the remote southwest part of South Island known as Fiordland. These sub-species of Tokoeka are relatively common and are nearly tall. The Haast Tokoeka, Apteryx australis ?, is the rarest subspecies of kiwi with only about 300 individuals. It was identified as a distinct form in 1993. It only occurs in a restricted area in South Island's Haast Range at an altitude of . This form is distinguished by a more strongly downcurved bill and more rufous plumage. The North Island Brown Kiwi, Apteryx mantelli or Apteryx australis before 2000 (and still in some sources), is widespread in the northern two-thirds of the North Island and, with about 35,000 remaining, is the most common kiwi. Females stand about high and weigh about , the males about . The North Island Brown has demonstrated a remarkable resilience: it adapts to a wide range of habitats, even non-native forests and some farmland. The plumage is streaky red-brown and spiky. The female usually lays two eggs, which are incubated by the male. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA, ecology, behaviour, morphology, geographic distribution and parasites of the North Island Brown Kiwi has led scientists to propose that the Brown Kiwi is three distinct species. The North Island Brown Kiwi; the Okarito Brown Kiwi (Rowi), whose distribution is restricted to a single site on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand; and a third distinct population of the North Island Brown Kiwi, the Southern Tokoeka, distributed in the in lowland forest to the north of Franz Josef glacier in the South Island and on Stewart Island/Rakiura, with a small population near Haast being another possibly distinct species, the Haast Tokoeka. Biology Evolution It was long presumed that the kiwi's closest relatives were the other New Zealand ratites, the moa. However, recent DNA studies indicate that the Ostrich is more closely related to the moa and the kiwi's closest relatives are the Emu and the cassowaries. This theory suggests that the kiwi's ancestors arrived in New Zealand from elsewhere in Australasia well after the moa. According to British scientists, the kiwi may be an ancient import from Australia. Researchers at Oxford University have found DNA evidence connected to Australia's Emu and the Ostrich of Africa. Upon examining DNA from New Zealand's native moa, they believe that the kiwi is more closely related to its Australian cousins. News in Science Behaviour and ecology North Island Brown Kiwi Prior to the arrival of humans in the 13th century or earlier, New Zealand's only endemic mammals were three species of bat, and the ecological niches that in other parts of the world were filled by creatures as diverse as horses, wolves and mice were taken up by birds (and, to a lesser extent, reptiles). Kiwi are shy and usually nocturnal. Their mostly nocturnal habits may be a result of habitat intrusion by predators, including humans. In areas of New Zealand where introduced predators have been removed, such as sanctuaries, kiwi are often seen in daylight. They prefer subtropical and temperate podocarp and beech forests, but they are being forced to adapt to different habitat, such as sub-alpine scrub, tussock grassland, and the mountains. Kiwi have a highly developed sense of smell, unusual in a bird, and are the only birds with nostrils at the end of their long beak. Kiwi eat small invertebrates, seeds, grubs, and many varieties of worms. They also may eat fruit, small crayfish, eels and amphibians. Because their nostrils are located at the end of their long beaks, Kiwi can locate insects and worms underground without actually seeing or feeling them, due to their keen sense of smell. Once bonded, a male and female kiwi tend to live their entire lives as a monogamous couple. During the mating season, June to March, the pair call to each other at night, and meet in the nesting burrow every three days. These relationships may last for up to 20 years. SavetheKiwi.org.nz formerly KiwiRecovery.org They are unique among other birds in that they have a functioning pair of ovaries. Kiwi eggs can weigh up to one quarter the weight of the female. Usually only one egg is laid per season. The kiwi lays the biggest egg in propotion to its size of any bird in the world Auckland Zoo's Official Guide Book. In the section on wilderness New Zealand , so even though the kiwi is about the size of a domestic chicken, it is able to lay eggs that are about six times the size of a chicken's egg Savethekiwi.org San Diego Zoo, Kiwi Eggs are smooth in texture, and are ivory or green-ish white. The male incubates the egg, except for the Great spotted kiwi, A. haastii, where both parents are involved. The incubation period is 63-92 days. Producing the huge egg places a lot of demands on the female. For the thirty days it takes to grow the fully developed egg the female must eat three times her normal amount of food. Two to three days before the egg is laid there is little space left inside the female for her stomach and she is forced to fast. Piper, R. (2007) Morphology Their adaptation to a terrestrial life is extensive: like all ratites they have no keel on the breastbone to anchor wing muscles, and barely any wings. The vestiges are so small that they are invisible under the kiwi's bristly, hair-like, two-branched feathers. While birds generally have hollow bones to minimise weight and make flight practicable, kiwi have marrow, in the style of mammals. With no constraints on weight from flight requirements, some Brown Kiwi females carry and lay a single egg. Like most other ratites, they have no preen gland. Their bill is long, pliable, and sensitive to the touch, and their eyes have a reduced pecten. Their feathers lack barbules, and aftershafts, and they have large vibrissae around the gape. They have 13 flight feathers, no tail, just a small pygostyle. Finally, their gizzard is weak and their caeca is long and narrow. Davies, S. J. J. F. (2003) Relationship with humans Kiwi on 1898 New Zealand stamp. Kiwi and Māori Māori traditionally believe that kiwi are under the protection of Tane Mahuta, god of the forest. Kiwi feathers are particularly important to Māori, as they are used for kahu-kiwi – ceremonial cloaks "Kiwi and people: early history", Te Ara . Today, while kiwi feathers are still used, they are gathered from kiwi that die naturally or through road accidents or predation, and Māori no longer hunt kiwi, but consider themselves their guardians. http://www.savethekiwi.org.nz/about-the-bird/kiwi-a-maori.html Discovery and documentation The first kiwi specimen to be studied by Europeans was a kiwi skin brought to George Shaw by Captain Andrew Barclay aboard the ship Providence, who was reported to have been given it by a sealer in Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour) around 1811. George Shaw gave the kiwi its scientific name and drew sketches of the way he imagined a live bird to look which appeared as plates 1057 and 1058 in volume 24 of The Naturalist's Miscellany in 1813. Etymology The widely recognised origin for the name Kiwi (kē'wē, , "kee-wee"), is from the Māori language (1825–1835) Random House Unabridged Dictionary and as "of imitative origin" from the call. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language However, there is another theory that the name stems from the fact that, with its long decurved bill and hairy brown body, it is similar to the Polynesian word kivi, used for the bristle-thighed curlew. So when the first settlers arrived, they simply reused this word for the new found bird http://www.savethekiwi.org.nz/about-the-bird/kiwi-a-maori.html The genus name Apteryx is Greek, meaning without wing: a-, without or not; pterux, wing. Gotch, A. F. (1995)) As a national symbol The kiwi as a symbol first appeared in the late 19th century in New Zealand regimental badges. It was later featured in the badges of the South Canterbury Battalion in 1886 and the Hastings Rifle Volunteers in 1887. Soon after, kiwis appeared in many military badges, and in 1906 when Kiwi Shoe Polish was widely sold in the UK and the USA the symbol became more widely known. During the First World War, the name "kiwi" for New Zealand soldiers came into general use, and a giant kiwi, (now known as the Bulford Kiwi), was carved on the chalk hill above Sling Camp in England. Use has now spread so that now all New Zealanders overseas and at home are commonly referred to as "kiwis". The kiwi has since become the most well-known national symbol for New Zealand, and kiwis are prominent in the coat of arms, crests and badges of many New Zealand cities, clubs and organisations. The New Zealand dollar is often referred to as "the kiwi" Kiwi dollar nears six year low against greenback. NZ Herald . Programme for saving endangered Kiwi To protect the endangered Kiwi, a number of trusts and protection programme have been set up. These including: BNZ save the Kiwi Trust Otanewainuku Kiwi Trust Rainbow Springs Karori Wildlife Sanctuary Trust Moehau Environment Group See also Aroha Island Footnotes References American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, The Fourth Edition, Copyright © 2006 by Houghton Mifflin Company Bizarre and Beautiful Noses. Sante Fe, New Mexico: John Muir Publications, 1993. Burbidge, M.L., Colbourne, R.M., Robertson, H.A., and Baker, A.J. (2003). Molecular and other biological evidence supports the recognition of at least three species of brown kiwi. Conservation Genetics, 4(2):167-177 Cooper, Alan et al. (2001). Complete mitochondrial genome sequences of two extinct moas clarify ratite evolution. Nature, 409: 704-707. Piper, Ross (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press Kiwi Recovery News In Science NHNZ has made a 60 minute television documentary called Kiwi a Natural History, produced in 1991. Random House Unabridged Dictionary © Random House, Inc. 2006 San Diego Zoo San Diego Zoo, Kiwi SavetheKiwi.org Shepherd, L.D. & Lambert, D.M. (2008) Ancient DNA and conservation: lessons from the endangered kiwi of New Zealand Molecular Ecology 17, 2174–2184 External links Great Spotted Kiwi - ARKive Kiwi: New Zealand Department of Conservation Willowbank Wildlife Reserve, Christchurch, New Zealand Online Encyclopedia entry "Kiwi" TerraNature pages on kiwi How the Kiwi Lost his Wings (a Maori legend) Kiwi in Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand | Kiwi |@lemmatized kiwi:85 flightless:1 bird:12 endemic:2 new:23 zealand:20 genus:2 apteryx:13 family:1 apterygidae:1 around:3 size:7 domestic:2 chicken:3 far:2 small:9 living:1 ratite:5 lay:10 large:3 egg:16 relation:1 body:2 san:4 diego:4 zoo:5 five:2 recognised:1 specie:15 endanger:4 national:3 symbol:5 accepted:1 one:7 four:1 sub:3 plus:1 formally:1 describe:1 great:5 spotted:7 roroa:2 haastii:2 stand:3 high:3 weigh:3 male:7 grey:1 brown:15 plumage:5 light:1 band:1 female:12 sex:1 incubate:5 population:3 estimate:1 distribute:2 mountainous:1 part:4 northwest:1 nelson:1 northern:3 west:5 coast:5 southern:3 alp:1 maori:5 name:7 roa:1 little:5 owenii:2 unable:1 withstand:1 predation:2 introduced:1 pig:1 stoat:1 cat:1 extinct:2 mainland:1 reason:1 remain:1 kapiti:1 island:23 introduce:2 predator:3 free:1 appear:4 become:3 establish:1 spot:2 docile:1 bantam:1 weighs:1 pukupuku:1 distribution:5 rowi:3 also:3 know:6 okarito:2 recently:1 identify:2 slightly:1 greyish:1 tinge:1 sometimes:1 white:2 facial:1 feather:6 many:4 three:7 season:3 different:2 nest:1 limit:1 area:3 south:10 however:3 study:4 ancient:4 dna:7 reveal:1 prehuman:2 time:4 widespread:2 present:1 low:2 half:1 north:9 detect:1 shepherd:2 l:3 lambert:2 tokoeka:10 australis:6 relatively:2 common:3 occur:2 elevation:1 approximately:1 similar:2 appearance:1 lighter:1 colour:1 show:1 include:3 east:1 several:1 subspecies:3 recognise:2 stewart:3 lawryi:1 fiordland:3 live:3 remote:1 southwest:1 nearly:1 tall:1 haast:4 rare:1 individual:1 distinct:4 form:2 restricted:1 range:2 altitude:1 distinguish:1 strongly:1 downcurved:1 bill:3 rufous:1 mantelli:1 still:2 source:1 two:5 third:2 remaining:1 demonstrate:1 remarkable:1 resilience:1 adapt:2 wide:1 habitat:3 even:2 non:1 native:2 forest:4 farmland:1 streaky:1 red:1 spiky:1 usually:3 analysis:1 mitochondrial:2 ecology:3 behaviour:2 morphology:2 geographic:1 parasite:1 lead:1 scientist:2 propose:1 whose:1 restrict:1 single:2 site:1 lowland:1 franz:1 josef:1 glacier:1 rakiura:1 near:1 another:2 possibly:1 biology:1 evolution:2 long:6 presume:1 closest:2 relative:2 moa:5 recent:1 indicate:1 ostrich:2 closely:2 relate:2 emu:2 cassowary:1 theory:2 suggest:1 ancestor:1 arrive:2 elsewhere:1 australasia:1 well:2 accord:1 british:1 may:4 import:1 australia:2 researcher:1 oxford:1 university:1 find:1 evidence:2 connect:1 africa:1 upon:1 examine:1 believe:2 australian:1 cousin:1 news:2 science:2 prior:1 arrival:1 human:3 century:2 earlier:1 mammal:2 bat:1 ecological:1 niche:1 world:3 fill:1 creature:1 diverse:1 horse:1 wolf:1 mouse:1 take:2 less:1 extent:1 reptiles:1 shy:1 nocturnal:2 mostly:1 habit:1 result:1 intrusion:1 remove:1 sanctuary:2 often:2 see:3 daylight:1 prefer:1 subtropical:1 temperate:1 podocarp:1 beech:1 force:2 alpine:1 scrub:1 tussock:1 grassland:1 mountain:1 highly:1 developed:1 sense:2 smell:2 unusual:2 nostril:2 end:2 beak:2 eat:3 invertebrate:1 seed:1 grub:1 variety:1 worm:2 fruit:1 crayfish:1 eel:1 amphibian:1 locate:2 insect:1 underground:1 without:3 actually:1 feel:1 due:1 keen:1 bond:1 tend:1 entire:1 life:2 monogamous:1 couple:1 mating:1 june:1 march:1 pair:2 call:3 night:1 meet:1 nesting:1 burrow:1 every:1 day:4 relationship:2 last:1 year:2 savethekiwi:5 org:6 nz:4 formerly:1 kiwirecovery:1 unique:1 among:1 functioning:1 ovary:1 quarter:1 weight:3 per:1 big:1 propotion:1 auckland:1 official:1 guide:1 book:1 section:1 wilderness:1 though:1 able:1 six:2 smooth:1 texture:1 ivory:1 green:1 ish:1 except:1 parent:1 involve:1 incubation:1 period:1 produce:2 huge:1 place:1 lot:1 demand:1 thirty:1 grow:1 fully:1 develop:1 must:1 normal:1 amount:1 food:1 space:1 leave:1 inside:1 stomach:1 fast:1 piper:2 r:2 adaptation:1 terrestrial:1 extensive:1 like:3 keel:1 breastbone:1 anchor:1 wing:5 muscle:1 barely:1 vestige:1 invisible:1 bristly:1 hair:1 branch:1 generally:1 hollow:1 bone:1 minimise:1 make:2 flight:3 practicable:1 marrow:1 style:1 constraint:1 requirement:1 carry:1 preen:1 gland:1 pliable:1 sensitive:1 touch:1 eye:1 reduce:1 pecten:1 lack:1 barbules:1 aftershaft:1 vibrissa:1 gape:1 tail:1 pygostyle:1 finally:1 gizzard:1 weak:1 caecum:1 narrow:1 davy:1 j:3 f:2 stamp:1 māori:5 traditionally:1 protection:2 tane:1 mahuta:1 god:1 particularly:1 important:1 use:5 kahu:1 ceremonial:1 cloak:1 people:1 early:1 history:2 te:2 ara:2 today:1 gather:1 die:1 naturally:1 road:1 accident:1 longer:1 hunt:1 consider:1 guardian:1 http:2 www:2 html:2 discovery:1 documentation:1 first:4 specimen:1 european:1 skin:1 bring:1 george:2 shaw:2 captain:1 andrew:1 barclay:1 aboard:1 ship:1 providence:1 report:1 give:2 sealer:1 port:1 jackson:1 sydney:1 harbour:1 scientific:1 draw:1 sketch:1 way:1 imagine:1 look:1 plate:1 volume:1 naturalist:1 miscellany:1 etymology:1 widely:3 origin:2 kē:1 wē:1 kee:1 wee:1 language:3 random:3 house:3 unabridged:2 dictionary:4 imitative:1 american:2 heritage:2 english:2 stem:1 fact:1 decurved:1 hairy:1 polynesian:1 word:2 kivi:1 bristle:1 thighed:1 curlew:1 settler:1 simply:1 reuse:1 found:1 greek:1 mean:1 pterux:1 gotch:1 late:1 regimental:1 badge:4 later:1 feature:1 canterbury:1 battalion:1 hastings:1 rifle:1 volunteer:1 soon:1 kiwis:1 military:1 shoe:1 polish:1 sell:1 uk:1 usa:1 war:1 soldier:1 come:1 general:1 giant:1 bulford:1 carve:1 chalk:1 hill:1 sling:1 camp:1 england:1 spread:1 zealander:1 overseas:1 home:1 commonly:1 refer:2 since:1 prominent:1 coat:1 arm:1 crest:1 city:1 club:1 organisation:1 dollar:2 nears:1 greenback:1 herald:1 programme:2 save:2 protect:1 number:1 trust:4 set:1 bnz:1 otanewainuku:1 rainbow:1 spring:1 karori:1 wildlife:2 moehau:1 environment:1 group:1 aroha:1 footnote:1 reference:1 fourth:1 edition:1 copyright:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 company:1 bizarre:1 beautiful:1 nose:1 sante:1 fe:1 mexico:1 john:1 muir:1 publication:1 burbidge:1 colbourne:1 robertson:1 h:1 baker:1 molecular:2 biological:1 support:1 recognition:1 least:1 conservation:3 genetics:1 cooper:1 alan:1 et:1 al:1 complete:1 genome:1 sequence:1 clarify:1 nature:1 ross:1 extraordinary:1 animal:2 encyclopedia:3 curious:1 greenwood:1 press:1 recovery:1 nhnz:1 minute:1 television:1 documentary:1 natural:1 inc:1 lesson:1 external:1 link:1 arkive:1 department:1 willowbank:1 reserve:1 christchurch:1 online:1 entry:1 terranature:1 page:1 lose:1 legend:1 |@bigram flightless_bird:1 san_diego:4 diego_zoo:4 spotted_kiwi:7 egg_incubate:2 male_female:2 tokoeka_apteryx:5 apteryx_australis:6 mitochondrial_dna:1 franz_josef:1 closely_relate:2 ecological_niche:1 subtropical_temperate:1 sense_smell:2 savethekiwi_org:5 incubate_egg:1 incubation_period:1 te_ara:2 http_www:2 unabridged_dictionary:2 coat_arm:1 wildlife_sanctuary:1 houghton_mifflin:1 et_al:1 mitochondrial_genome:1 external_link:1 |
6,657 | File_viewer | A file viewer is application software that displays data stored in a computer file in a human-friendly form. The file contents are displayed on the screen, or they may be printed. Also, they may be read aloud using speech synthesis. Overview File viewers do not edit files, still it is common for them to be able to save data in a different file format, or to copy information from the viewed file to clipboard. File viewers have to have sufficient knowledge about the format of the file to be viewed. Even plain text files are not so simple — file viewers may have to handle different code pages and newline styles. The simplest file viewers are filters that translate binary files into plain text (one example antiword). However, in this way some information may be lost. Disassemblers also fall in this category. Another common type of file viewer is picture viewer that can display picture files of various formats. Common features here are thumbnail preview and zooming. For more complex file formats, file viewers are usually provided by the same companies that make editing software that use these formats (viewers may be distributed free of charge, while editors have to be bought). A file viewer is a limited-functionality software in a sense that it does not have a capability to create a file, or modify the content of an existing one. Instead, it is used only to display or print the content. The primary reason behind this missing functionality is due to marketing considerations. For example, a popular software program, Adobe Acrobat, can be used to create a content for most computer platforms, under various operating systems. To ensure that people can access the documents created with Adobe Acrobat the software publisher created a viewer software, the Acrobat Reader, and made it available for free. This viewer software ensures that people can create content that is readable on all supported platform, free of charge, thus making it a more attractive solution. There are many products that can qualify as a file viewer: Microsoft Word or Microsoft PowerPoint viewer are additional examples. In a sense, a web browser is a type of file viewer, which translates, or renders, the HTML markups. Although HTML is plain text, viewing an HTML file in a browser or in a text editor can produce significantly different result. Although web browser are arguably the best file viewer, since they support many graphic, multimedia and document formats, they are still lacking the output quality and the performance of today's leading software packages such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Adobe Acrobat, so creating and using alternative publishing systems and accompanying file viewers still make a lot of business sense. Streaming media There also types of data that are not intended for static display — they have the time dimension. Viewers for such formats are named players. But the essence is the same — presenting file contents in human-friendly form (i.e. displaying video on the screen as intended or playing sound through loudspeakers). And the same problem of different file formats is present. Examples Plain Text Files Less_(Unix) Office documents Microsoft Word Viewer Microsoft Excel Viewer Binary files Text viewer with *Incremental_search for huge files of up to several 100 MByte http://www.bioinformatics.org/straputils/ frhed (win) YaHEbwinPy (multi-platform) Biew http://biew.sourceforge.net/ lfex (lx) http://stoopidsimple.com/lfhex fb (*) http://home.mho.net/jswaby/fb.html Midnight Commander http://www.ibiblio.org/mc/ See also Binary file#Viewing binary files Electronic document Image viewer Media player Text editor Web browser References | File_viewer |@lemmatized file:31 viewer:22 application:1 software:8 display:6 data:3 store:1 computer:2 human:2 friendly:2 form:2 content:6 screen:2 may:5 print:2 also:4 read:1 aloud:1 use:5 speech:1 synthesis:1 overview:1 edit:2 still:3 common:3 able:1 save:1 different:4 format:8 copy:1 information:2 view:4 clipboard:1 sufficient:1 knowledge:1 even:1 plain:4 text:7 simple:2 handle:1 code:1 page:1 newline:1 style:1 filter:1 translate:2 binary:4 one:2 example:4 antiword:1 however:1 way:1 lose:1 disassemblers:1 fall:1 category:1 another:1 type:3 picture:2 various:2 feature:1 thumbnail:1 preview:1 zooming:1 complex:1 usually:1 provide:1 company:1 make:4 distribute:1 free:3 charge:2 editor:3 buy:1 limited:1 functionality:2 sense:3 capability:1 create:6 modify:1 exist:1 instead:1 primary:1 reason:1 behind:1 miss:1 due:1 market:1 consideration:1 popular:1 program:1 adobe:3 acrobat:4 platform:3 operate:1 system:2 ensure:2 people:2 access:1 document:4 publisher:1 reader:1 available:1 readable:1 support:2 thus:1 attractive:1 solution:1 many:2 product:1 qualify:1 microsoft:5 word:2 powerpoint:2 additional:1 web:3 browser:4 render:1 html:4 markup:1 although:2 produce:1 significantly:1 result:1 arguably:1 best:1 since:1 graphic:1 multimedia:1 lack:1 output:1 quality:1 performance:1 today:1 lead:1 package:1 alternative:1 publishing:1 accompany:1 lot:1 business:1 stream:1 medium:2 intend:2 static:1 time:1 dimension:1 name:1 player:2 essence:1 present:2 e:1 video:1 play:1 sound:1 loudspeaker:1 problem:1 unix:1 office:1 excel:1 huge:1 several:1 mbyte:1 http:5 www:2 bioinformatics:1 org:2 straputils:1 frhed:1 win:1 yahebwinpy:1 multi:1 biew:2 sourceforge:1 net:2 lfex:1 lx:1 stoopidsimple:1 com:1 lfhex:1 fb:2 home:1 mho:1 jswaby:1 midnight:1 commander:1 ibiblio:1 mc:1 see:1 electronic:1 image:1 reference:1 |@bigram read_aloud:1 adobe_acrobat:3 acrobat_reader:1 microsoft_powerpoint:2 web_browser:3 microsoft_excel:1 http_www:2 sourceforge_net:1 www_ibiblio:1 ibiblio_org:1 |
6,658 | Molecular_biology | Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these interactions are regulated. Writing in Nature, William Astbury described molecular biology as: "[...]not so much a technique as an approach, an approach from the viewpoint of the so-called basic sciences with the leading idea of searching below the large-scale manifestations of classical biology for the corresponding molecular plan. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and[...]is predominantly three-dimensional and structural—which does not mean, however, that it is merely a refinement of morphology. It must at the same time inquire into genesis and function." Relationship to other "molecular-scale" biological sciences Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology (see Techniques section later in article), but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics and biochemistry. There is not a defined line between these disciplines. The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields: Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry. Genetics is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g. one gene). The study of "mutants" – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called "wild type" or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions (epistasis) can often confound simple interpretations of such "knock-out" studies. Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material. The central dogma of molecular biology where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA. Much of the work in molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at the interface of molecular biology and computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. As of the early 2000s, the study of gene structure and function, molecular genetics, has been amongst the most prominent sub-field of molecular biology. Increasingly many other fields of biology focus on molecules, either directly studying their interactions in their own right such as in cell biology and developmental biology, or indirectly, where the techniques of molecular biology are used to infer historical attributes of populations or species, as in fields in evolutionary biology such as population genetics and phylogenetics. There is also a long tradition of studying biomolecules "from the ground up" in biophysics. Techniques of molecular biology Since the late 1950s and early 1960s, molecular biologists have learned to characterize, isolate, and manipulate the molecular components of cells and organisms. These components include DNA, the repository of genetic information; RNA, a close relative of DNA whose functions range from serving as a temporary working copy of DNA to actual structural and enzymatic functions as well as a functional and structural part of the translational apparatus; and proteins, the major structural and enzymatic type of molecule in cells. Expression cloning One of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is expression cloning. In this technique, DNA coding for a protein of interest is cloned (using PCR and/or restriction enzymes) into a plasmid (known as an expression vector). This plasmid may have special promoter elements to drive production of the protein of interest, and may also have antibiotic resistance markers to help follow the plasmid. This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells. Introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by transformation (via uptake of naked DNA), conjugation (via cell-cell contact) or by transduction (via viral vector). Introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as animal cells, by physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection,electroporation, microinjection and liposome transfection. DNA can also be introduced into eukaryotic cells using viruses or bacteria as carriers, the latter is sometimes called bactofection and in particular uses Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection. In either case, DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, and the protein can now be expressed. A variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell. The protein can be tested for enzymatic activity under a variety of situations, the protein may be crystallized so its tertiary structure can be studied, or, in the pharmaceutical industry, the activity of new drugs against the protein can be studied. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) The polymerase chain reaction is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA. In brief, PCR allows a single DNA sequence to be copied (millions of times), or altered in predetermined ways. For example, PCR can be used to introduce restriction enzyme sites, or to mutate (change) particular bases of DNA, the latter is a method referred to as "Quick change". PCR can also be used to determine whether a particular DNA fragment is found in a cDNA library. PCR has many variations, like reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) for amplification of RNA, and, more recently, real-time PCR (QPCR) which allow for quantitative measurement of DNA or RNA molecules. Gel electrophoresis Gel electrophoresis is one of the principal tools of molecular biology. The basic principle is that DNA, RNA, and proteins can all be separated by means of an electric field. In agarose gel electrophoresis, DNA and RNA can be separated on the basis of size by running the DNA through an agarose gel. Proteins can be separated on the basis of size by using an SDS-PAGE gel, or on the basis of size and their electric charge by using what is known as a 2D gel electrophoresis. Macromolecule blotting and probing The terms northern, western and eastern blotting are derived from what initially was a molecular biology joke that played on the term Southern blotting, after the technique described by Edwin Southern for the hybridisation of blotted DNA. Patricia Thomas, developer of the RNA blot which then became known as the northern blot actually didn't use the term . Further combinations of these techniques produced such terms as southwesterns (protein-DNA hybridizations), northwesterns (to detect protein-RNA interactions) and farwesterns (protein-protein interactions), all of which are presently found in the literature. Southern blotting Named after its inventor, biologist Edwin Southern, the Southern blot is a method for probing for the presence of a specific DNA sequence within a DNA sample. DNA samples before or after restriction enzyme digestion are separated by gel electrophoresis and then transferred to a membrane by blotting via capillary action. The membrane is then exposed to a labeled DNA probe that has a complement base sequence to the sequence on the DNA of interest. Most original protocols used radioactive labels, however non-radioactive alternatives are now available. Southern blotting is less commonly used in laboratory science due to the capacity of other techniques, such as PCR, to detect specific DNA sequences from DNA samples. These blots are still used for some applications, however, such as measuring transgene copy number in transgenic mice, or in the engineering of gene knockout embryonic stem cell lines. Northern blotting The northern blot is used to study the expression patterns a specific type of RNA molecule as relative comparison among of a set of different samples of RNA. It is essentially a combination of denaturing RNA gel electrophoresis, and a blot. In this process RNA is separated based on size and is then transferred to a membrane that is then probed with a labeled complement of a sequence of interest. The results may be visualized through a variety of ways depending on the label used; however, most result in the revelation of bands representing the sizes of the RNA detected in sample. The intensity of these bands is related to the amount of the target RNA in the samples analyzed. The procedure is commonly used to study when and how much gene expression is occurring by measuring how much of that RNA is present in different samples. It is one of the most basic tools for determining at what time, and under what conditions, certain genes are expressed in living tissues. Western blotting Antibodies to most proteins can be created by injecting small amounts of the protein into an animal such as a mouse, rabbit, sheep, or donkey (polyclonal antibodies)or produced in cell culture (monoclonal antibodies). These antibodies can be used for a variety of analytical and preparative techniques. In western blotting, proteins are first separated by size, in a thin gel sandwiched between two glass plates in a technique known as SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis). The proteins in the gel are then transferred to a PVDF, nitrocellulose, nylon or other support membrane. This membrane can then be probed with solutions of antibodies. Antibodies that specifically bind to the protein of interest can then be visualized by a variety of techniques, including colored products, chemiluminescence, or autoradiography. Often, the antibodies are labeled with an enzymes. When a chemiluminescent substrate is exposed to the enzyme it allows detection. Using western blotting techniques allows not only detection but also quantitative analysis. Analogous methods to western blotting can be used to directly stain specific proteins in live cells or tissue sections. However, these immunostaining methods, such as FISH, are used more often in cell biology research. Eastern blotting Eastern blotting technique is to detect post-translational modification of proteins. Proteins blotted on to the PVDF or nitrocellulose membrane are probed for modifications using specific substrates. Arrays A DNA array is a collection of spots attached to a solid support such as a microscope slide where each spot contains one or more single-stranded DNA oligonucleotide fragment. Arrays make it possible to put down a large quantity of very small (100 micrometre diameter) spots on a single slide. Each spot has a DNA fragment molecule that is complementary to a single DNA sequence (similar to Southern blotting). A variation of this technique allows the gene expression of an organism at a particular stage in development to be qualified (expression profiling). In this technique the RNA in a tissue is isolated and converted to labeled cDNA. This cDNA is then hybridized to the fragments on the array and visualization of the hybridization can be done. Since multiple arrays can be made with the exact same position of fragments they are particularly useful for comparing the gene expression of two different tissues, such as a healthy and cancerous tissue. Also, one can measure what genes are expressed and how that expression changes with time or with other factors. For instance, the common baker's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, contains about 7000 genes; with a microarray, one can measure qualitatively how each gene is expressed, and how that expression changes, for example, with a change in temperature. There are many different ways to fabricate microarrays; the most common are silicon chips, microscope slides with spots of ~ 100 micrometre diameter, custom arrays, and arrays with larger spots on porous membranes (macroarrays). There can be anywhere from 100 spots to more than 10,000 on a given array. Arrays can also be made with molecules other than DNA. For example, an antibody array can be used to determine what proteins or bacteria are present in a blood sample. Allele Specific Oligonucleotide Allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO) is a technique that allows detection of single base mutations without the need for PCR or gel electrophoresis. Short (20-25 nucleotides in length), labeled probes are exposed to the non-fragmented target DNA. Hybridization occurs with high specificity due to the short length of the probes and even a single base change will hinder hybridization. The target DNA is then washed and the labeled probes that didn't hybridize are removed. The target DNA is then analyzed for the presence of the probe via radioactivity or fluorescence. In this experiment, as in most molecular biology techniques, a control must be used to ensure successful experimentation. The Illumina Methylation Assay is an example of a method that takes advantage of the ASO technique to measure one base pair differences in sequence. Antiquated technologies In molecular biology, procedures and technologies are continually being developed and older technologies abandoned. For example, before the advent of DNA gel electrophoresis (agarose or polyacrylamide), the size of DNA molecules was typically determined by rate sedimentation in sucrose gradients, a slow and labor-intensive technique requiring expensive instrumentation; prior to sucrose gradients, viscometry was used. Aside from their historical interest, it is often worth knowing about older technology, as it is occasionally useful to solve another new problem for which the newer technique is inappropriate. History While molecular biology was established in the 1930s, the term was first coined by Warren Weaver in 1938. Warren was the director of Natural Sciences for the Rockefeller Foundation at the time and believed that biology was about to undergo a period of significant change given recent advances in fields such as X-ray crystallography. He therefore channeled significant amounts of (Rockefeller Institute) money into biological fields. Clinical significance Clinical research and medical therapies arising from molecular biology are covered under gene therapy See also History of molecular biology Central dogma of molecular biology Cell biology (structures and components of the cell) DNA and chromosome structure Protein biosynthesis (transcription from DNA to RNA, translation from RNA into protein) Protein structure and diversity Molecular modelling Genome Metabolism Important publications in molecular biology List of molecular biology topics Proteome Because of the expense, large instrumentation is usually gathered into a Molecular Biology Core Facility inborn errors of metabolism Molecular microbiology Radioactivity in biological research Quantification of nucleic acids Nucleic acid methods and Protein methods Lab-on-a-chip Notable molecular biologists Sydney Brenner Francis Crick (see also James D. Watson) Erwin Chargaff Rosalind Franklin Francois Jacob Arthur Kornberg Salvador Luria Barbara McClintock Matthew Meselson Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard Linus Pauling Max Perutz Frederick Sanger Frank Stahl Susumu Tonegawa James D. Watson (see also Francis Crick) Maurice Wilkins Alexander Rich Reiji Okazaki Günter Blobel Notes References Cohen, S.N., Chang, A.C.Y., Boyer, H. & Heling, R.B. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 70, 3240 – 3244 (1973). Rodgers, M. The Pandora's box congress. Rolling Stone 189, 37 – 77 (1975). Further reading Keith Roberts, Martin Raff, Bruce Alberts, Peter Walter, Julian Lewis and Alexander Johnson, Molecular Biology of the Cell 4th Edition, Routledge, March, 2002, hardcover, 1616 pages, 7.6 pounds, ISBN 0-8153-3218-1 3th Edition, Garland, 1994, ISBN 0-8153-1620-8 2nd Edition, Garland, 1989, ISBN 0-8240-3695-6 External links | Molecular_biology |@lemmatized molecular:37 biology:38 study:15 level:2 field:9 overlap:1 area:1 chemistry:2 particularly:3 genetics:6 biochemistry:5 chiefly:1 concern:2 understand:2 interaction:7 various:1 system:2 cell:21 include:3 dna:39 rna:20 protein:31 biosynthesis:2 well:2 learn:2 regulate:1 write:1 nature:1 william:1 astbury:1 describe:2 much:5 technique:25 approach:2 viewpoint:1 call:5 basic:4 science:5 lead:1 idea:2 search:1 large:5 scale:2 manifestation:1 classical:1 corresponding:1 plan:1 form:1 biological:5 molecule:9 predominantly:1 three:1 dimensional:1 structural:4 mean:3 however:6 merely:1 refinement:1 morphology:1 must:2 time:6 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6,659 | Enthalpy | In thermodynamics and molecular chemistry, the enthalpy (denoted as H, or specific enthalpy denoted as h) is a thermodynamic property of a fluid. It can be used to calculate the heat transfer during a quasistatic process taking place in a closed thermodynamic system under constant pressure. Enthalpy H is an arbitrary concept but the enthalpy change ΔH is more useful because it is equal to the change in the internal energy of the system, plus the work that the system has done on its surroundings. G.J. Van Wylen and R.E. Sonntag (1985), Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, Section 5.5 (3rd edition), John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, NY. ISBN 0 471 82933 1 The term enthalpy was composed of the prefix en-, meaning "to put into" and the Greek word -thalpein, meaning "to heat", although the original definition is thought to have stemmed from the word "enthalpos" (ένθάλπος). The World of Chemistry noted that whilst ruminating on the origin being credited to Gibbs, the original word was created by Onnes, who had specified its derivation. History Over the history of thermodynamics, several terms have been used to denote what is now known as the enthalpy of a system. Originally, it was thought that the word "enthalpy" was created by Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron and Rudolf Clausius through the publishing of the Clausius-Clapeyron relation in "The Mollier Steam Tables and Diagrams" in 1827, but it was later published that the earliest recording of the word was in 1875, by Josiah Willard Gibbs in the publication "Physical Chemistry: an Advanced Treatise" Physical Chemistry: An Advanced Treatise States that the original creator of the word was Josiah Willard Gibbs, who noted "the familiar definition of enthalpy as introduced by Gibbs in 1875 (‘heat function for constant pressure’)”" , although it is not referenced in Gibbs' works directly The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs, Vol. I do not contain reference to the word enthalpy, but rather reference the heat function for constant pressure. . In 1909, Keith Landler discussed Gibbs' work on the 'heat function for constant pressure' and noted that Heike Kamerlingh Onnes had coined its modern name from the Greek word "enthalpos" (ενθαλπος) meaning "to put heat into." The World of Chemistry noted that whilst ruminating on the origin being credited to Gibbs, the original word was created by Onnes, who had specified its derivation. Original definition The thermodynamic potential H was introduced by the Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes in early 20th century in the following form: where E represents the energy of the system. In the absence of an external field, the enthalpy may be defined, as it is generally known, by: where (all units given in ) H is the enthalpy (joules) U is the internal energy, (joules) p is the pressure of the system, (pascals) V is the volume, (cubic meters) The form pV is motivated by the following example of an isobaric process. Gas undergoing combustion in a cylinder pushes a piston, maintaining constant pressure p and adding heat to the gas. The force is calculated from the area A of the piston and definition of pressure p = F/A: the force is F = pA. By definition, work W done is W = Fx, where x is the distance. Combining gives W = pAx, and the product Ax is the volume traversed by the piston: Ax = V. Thus, the work done by the gas is W = pV, where p is a constant pressure and V the expansion of volume. Including this term allows the discussion of energy changes when not only temperature, but also volume or pressure are changed. Application and extended formula Overview In terms of thermodynamics, enthalpy can be calculated by determining the requirements for creating a system from "nothingness"; the mechanical work required, pV, differs based upon the constancy of conditions present at the creation of the thermodynamic system. Internal energy, U, must be supplied to remove particles from a surrounding in order to allow space for the creation of a system, providing that environmental variables, such as pressure (p) remain constant. This internal energy also includes the energy required for activation and the breaking of bonded compounds into gaseous species. This process is calculated within enthalpy calculations as U + pV, to label the amount of energy or work required to "set aside space for" and "create" the system; describing the work done by both the reaction or formation of systems, and the surroundings. For systems at constant pressure, the change in enthalpy is the heat received by the system plus the non-mechanical work that has been done. Therefore, the change in enthalpy can be devised or represented without the need for compressive or expansive mechanics; for a simple system, with a constant number of particles, the difference in enthalpy is the maximum amount of thermal energy derivable from a thermodynamic process in which the pressure is held constant. The term pV is the work required to displace the surrounding atmosphere in order to vacate the space to be occupied by the system. Relationships As an expansion of the first law of thermodynamics, enthalpy can be related to several other thermodynamic formulae. As with the original definition of the first law; where, as defined by the law; dU represents the infinitesimal increase of the systematic or internal energy. δQ represents the infinitesimal amount of energy attributed or added to the system. δW represents the infinitesimal amount of energy acted out by the system on the surroundings. As a differential expression, the value of H can be defined as DeHoff p 57 where δ represents the inexact differential. U is the internal energy, δQ = TdS is the energy added by heating during a reversible process, δW = pdV is the work done by the system in a reversible process. dS is the increase in entropy (joules per kelvin), p is the constant pressure dV is an infinitesimal volume T is the temperature (kelvin) For a process that is not reversible, the above equation expressing dH in terms of dS and dp still holds because H is a thermodynamic state variable that can be uniquely specified by S and p. We thus have in general: dH = TdS + Vdp It is seen that, if a thermodynamic process is isobaric (i.e., occurs at constant pressure), then dp is zero and thus dH = TdS ≥ δQ The difference in enthalpy is the maximum thermal energy attainable from the system in an isobaric process. This explains why it is sometimes called the heat content. That is, the integral of dH over any isobar in state space is the maximum thermal energy attainable from the system. In a more general form, the first law describes the internal energy with additional terms involving the chemical potential and the number of particles of various types. The differential statement for dH is then: where μi is the chemical potential for an i-type particle, and Ni is the number of such particles. It is seen that, not only must the Vdp term be set to zero by requiring the pressures of the initial and final states to be the same, but the μidNi terms must be zero as well, by requiring that the particle numbers remain unchanged. Any further generalization will add even more terms whose extensive differential term must be set to zero in order for the interpretation of the enthalpy to hold. Heats of reaction The total enthalpy of a system cannot be measured directly; the enthalpy change of a system is measured instead. Enthalpy change is defined by the following equation: ΔH = Hfinal − Hinitial where ΔH is the enthalpy change Hfinal is the final enthalpy of the system, measured in joules. In a chemical reaction, Hfinal is the enthalpy of the products. Hinitial is the initial enthalpy of the system, measured in joules. In a chemical reaction, Hinitial is the enthalpy of the reactants. For an exothermic reaction at constant pressure, the system's change in enthalpy is equal to the energy released in the reaction, including the energy retained in the system and lost through expansion against its surroundings. In a similar manner, for an endothermic reaction, the system's change in enthalpy is equal to the energy absorbed in the reaction, including the energy lost by the system and gained from compression from its surroundings. A relatively easy way to determine whether or not a reaction is exothermic or endothermic is to determine the sign of ΔH. If ΔH is positive, the reaction is endothermic, that is heat is absorbed by the system due to the products of the reaction having a greater enthalpy than the reactants. On the other hand if ΔH is negative, the reaction is exothermic, that is the overall decrease in enthalpy is achieved by the generation of heat. Although enthalpy is commonly used in engineering and science, it is impossible to measure directly, as enthalpy has no datum (reference point). Therefore enthalpy can only accurately be used in a closed system. However, few real world applications exist in closed isolation, and it is for this reason that two or more closed systems cannot be compared using enthalpy as a basis, although sometimes this is done erroneously. Open systems In thermodynamic open systems, matter may flow in and out of the system boundaries. The first law of thermodynamics for open systems states: the increase in the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of energy added to the system by matter flowing in and by heating, minus the amount lost by matter flowing out and in the form of work done by the system. The first law for open systems is given by: dU = dUin − dUout + δQ − δW where Uin is the average internal energy entering the system and Uout is the average internal energy leaving the system During steady, continuous operation, an energy balance applied to an open system equates shaft work performed by the system to heat added plus net enthalpy added. The region of space enclosed by open system boundaries is usually called a control volume, and it may or may not correspond to physical walls. If we choose the shape of the control volume such that all flow in or out occurs perpendicular to its surface, then the flow of matter into the system performs work as if it were a piston of fluid pushing mass into the system, and the system performs work on the flow of matter out as if it were driving a piston of fluid. There are then two types of work performed: flow work described above which is performed on the fluid (this is also often called pV work) and shaft work which may be performed on some mechanical device. These two types of work are expressed in the equation: δW = d(poutVout) − d(pinVin) + δWshaft. Substitution into the equation above for the control volume cv yields: dUcv = dUin + d(pinVin) − dUout − d(poutVout) + δQ − δWshaft. The definition of enthalpy, H, permits us to use this thermodynamic potential to account for both internal energy and pV work in fluids for open systems: dUcv = dHin − dHout + δQ − δWshaft. Note that the previous expression holds true only if the kinetic energy flow rate is conserved between system inlet and outlet. Otherwise, it has to be included in the enthalpy balance. During steady-state operation of a device (see turbine, pump, and engine), the expression above may be set equal to zero. This yields a useful expression for the power generation or requirement for these devices in the absence of chemical reactions: This expression is described by the diagram above. Standard enthalpy changes Standard enthalpy changes describe the change in enthalpy observed in the constituents of a thermodynamic system when going between different states under standard conditions. The standard enthalpy change of vaporization, for example gives the enthalpy change when going from liquid to gas. These enthalpies are reversible; the enthalpy change of going from gas to liquid is the negative of the enthalpy change of vaporization. A common standard enthalpy change is the standard enthalpy change of formation, which has been determined for a large number of substances. The enthalpy change of any reaction under any conditions can be computed, given the standard enthalpy change of formation of all of the reactants and products. Definitions Chemical Properties Standard enthalpy change of reaction {{cquote|Standard enthalpy change of reaction is defined as the enthalpy change observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when, one mole of substance reacts completely under standard conditions.}} Standard enthalpy change of formation Standard enthalpy change of combustion Standard enthalpy change of hydrogenation Standard enthalpy change of atomization Physical Properties Standard enthalpy change of solution Standard enthalpy change of fusion Standard enthalpy change of vapourization Standard enthalpy change of sublimation Standard enthalpy change of denaturation Lattice enthalpy Specific enthalpy The specific enthalpy of a working mass is a property of that mass used in thermodynamics, defined as h = u + pv where u is the specific internal energy, p is the pressure, and v is specific volume. In other words, h = H/m where m is the mass of the system. The SI unit for specific enthalpy is joules per kilogram. See also Calorimetry Calorimeter Departure function Entropy Hess's law Isenthalpic process Thermodynamic databases for pure substances Notes References Haase, R. In Physical Chemistry: An Advanced Treatise; Jost, W., Ed.; Academic: New York, 1971; p 29. Gibbs, J. W. In The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs, Vol. I; Yale University Press: New Haven, CT, reprinted 1948; p 88. Laidler, K. The World of Physical Chemistry; Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1995; p 110. C.Kittel, H.Kroemer In Thermal Physics; S.R Furphy and Company, New York, 1980; p246 DeHoff, R. Thermodynamics in Materials Science: 2nd ed.''; Taylor and Francis Group, New York, 2006. External links Enthalpy - Eric Weisstein's World of Physics Enthalpy - Georgia State University UC Berkeley video lecture on enthalpy and entropy Enthalpy example calculations - Texas A&M University Chemistry Department Enthalpy - Water and Steam Enthalpy | Enthalpy |@lemmatized thermodynamics:8 molecular:1 chemistry:8 enthalpy:72 denote:3 h:12 specific:6 thermodynamic:13 property:4 fluid:5 use:7 calculate:4 heat:15 transfer:1 quasistatic:1 process:10 take:1 place:1 closed:4 system:52 constant:13 pressure:17 arbitrary:1 concept:1 change:34 δh:6 useful:2 equal:5 internal:12 energy:29 plus:3 work:23 surroundings:5 g:1 j:4 van:1 wylen:1 r:4 e:3 sonntag:1 fundamental:1 classical:1 section:1 edition:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 inc:1 new:5 york:4 ny:1 isbn:1 term:11 compose:1 prefix:1 en:1 mean:3 put:2 greek:2 word:10 thalpein:1 although:4 original:6 definition:8 think:2 stem:1 enthalpos:2 ένθάλπος:1 world:5 note:6 whilst:2 ruminate:2 origin:2 credit:2 gibbs:10 create:5 onnes:4 specify:3 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6,660 | Josiah_Wedgwood | Josiah Wedgwood Etruria Hall, the family home, built 1768–1771 by Joseph Pickford. It was restored as part of the 1986 Stoke-on-Trent Garden Festival and is now part of a four-star hotel. Anti-slavery image Josiah Wedgwood (12 July 1730 – 3 January 1795) was an English potter, credited with the industrialization of the manufacture of pottery. He was a member of the Darwin-Wedgwood family, most famously including his grandson, Charles Darwin. Biography Early life Born in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent, the twelfth and youngest child of Thomas Wedgwood and Mary Wedgwood (née Stringer; d. 1766), Josiah was raised within a family of English Dissenters. He survived a childhood bout of smallpox to serve as an apprentice potter under his eldest brother Thomas Wedgwood IV. Smallpox left Josiah with a permanently weakened knee which resulted in having to have his right leg amputated, which made him unable to work the foot pedal of a potter's wheel. As a result, he concentrated from an early age on designing pottery rather than making it. In his early twenties, Wedgwood began working with the most renowned English pottery-maker of his day, Thomas Whieldon. There he began experimenting with a wide variety of pottery techniques, an experimentation that coincided with the burgeoning early industrial city of Manchester, which was nearby. Inspired, Wedgwood leased the Ivy Works in his home town of Burslem and set to work. Over the course of the next decade, his experimentation (and a considerable injection of capital from his marriage to a richly endowed distant cousin, Sarah Wedgwood) transformed the sleepy artisan works into the first true pottery factory. Marriage and children Wedgwood married Sarah Wedgwood (a third cousin). Together, they had seven children: Susannah Wedgwood (1765–1817) (married Robert Darwin, parents of the English naturalist Charles Darwin) John Wedgwood (1766–1844) Josiah Wedgwood II (1769–1843) Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805) (no children) Catherine Wedgwood (1774–1823) (no children) Sarah Wedgwood (1776–1856) (no children) Mary Anne Wedgwood Work Wedgwood's work was of very high quality: when visiting his workshop, if he saw an offending vessel that failed to meet with his standards, he would smash it with his stick, exclaiming, "This will not do for Josiah Wedgwood!" He was also keenly interested in the scientific advances of his day and it was this interest that underpinned his adoption of its approach and methods to revolutionize the quality of his pottery. His unique glazes began to distinguish Josiah's wares from anything else on the market. By 1763 he was receiving orders from the highest levels of the British nobility, including Queen Charlotte. Wedgwood convinced her to let him name the line of pottery she purchased "Queen's Ware", and trumpeted the royal association in his paperwork and stationery. In 1774 the Empress Catherine of Russia ordered the Green Frog Service from Wedgwood; it can still be seen in the Hermitage Museum. Hermitage Museum An even earlier commission from Catherine was the Husk Service (1770), now on exhibit in Peterhof. As a burgeoning industrialist, Wedgwood was a major backer of the Trent and Mersey Canal dug between the River Trent and River Mersey, during which time he became friends with Erasmus Darwin. Later that decade, his burgeoning business caused him to move from the smaller Ivy Works to the newly-built Etruria Works, which would run for 180 years. The factory was so-named after the Etruria district of Italy, where black porcelain dating to Etruscan times was being excavated. Wedgwood found this porcelain inspiring, and his first major commercial success was its duplication with what he called "Black Basalt". Not long after the new works opened, continuing trouble with his smallpox-afflicted knee made necessary the amputation of his right leg. In 1780, his long-time business partner Thomas Bentley died, and Wedgwood turned to Darwin for help in running the business. As a result of the close association that grew up between the Wedgwood and Darwin families, Josiah's eldest daughter would later marry Erasmus' son. One of the children of that marriage, Charles Darwin, would also marry a Wedgwood — Emma, Josiah's granddaughter. Essentially, this double-barreled inheritance of Josiah's money permitted Charles Darwin the life of leisure that allowed him the time to formulate his theory of evolution. In the latter part of his life, Wedgwood's obsession was to duplicate the Portland Vase, a blue and white glass vase dating to the first century BC. For three years he worked on the project, eventually producing what he considered a satisfactory copy in 1789. After passing on his company to his sons, Wedgwood died at home, probably of cancer of the jaw, in 1795. He was buried three days later in the parish church of Stoke-on-Trent. Seven years later a marble memorial tablet commissioned by his sons was installed there. He belonged to the fourth generation of a family of potters whose traditional occupation continued through another five generations. Wedgwood's company is still a famous name in pottery today (as part of Waterford Wedgwood; see Waterford Crystal), and "Wedgwood China" is the commonly used term for his Jasperware, the blue (or sometimes green) china with overlaid white decoration, still common throughout the world. He was an active member of the Lunar Society and is remembered on the Moonstones in Birmingham. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1783 for the development of a pyrometer. He was also a prominent slavery abolitionist. He mass produced cameos depicting the seal for the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade and had them widely distributed, which thereby became a popular and celebrated image. The actual design of the cameo was probably done by either William Hackwood or Henry Webber who were modellers in his factory. PBS Wedgewood is credited as the inventor of modern marketing, specifically direct mail, money-back guarantees, traveling salesmen, self-service, free delivery, buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues "They Broke It", New York Times, January 9, 2009 . Locomotive A locomotive was named after Josiah Wedgwood and ran on the Churnet Valley Railway. See also Josiah Wedgwood & Sons References Sources Dolan, Brian (2004). Wedgwood: The First Tycoon. Viking Adult. ISBN 0-670-03346-4. External links Wedgwood website Wedgwood collection at the Lady Lever Art Gallery Wedgwood Museum The Great Crash, Jenny Uglow, The Guardian, February 7, 2009 | Josiah_Wedgwood |@lemmatized josiah:12 wedgwood:38 etruria:3 hall:1 family:5 home:3 built:1 joseph:1 pickford:1 restore:1 part:4 stoke:3 trent:5 garden:1 festival:1 four:1 star:1 hotel:1 anti:1 slavery:2 image:2 july:1 january:2 english:4 potter:4 credit:2 industrialization:1 manufacture:1 pottery:8 member:2 darwin:9 famously:1 include:2 grandson:1 charles:4 biography:1 early:5 life:3 bear:1 burslem:2 twelfth:1 young:1 child:7 thomas:5 mary:2 née:1 stringer:1 raise:1 within:1 dissenter:1 survive:1 childhood:1 bout:1 smallpox:3 serve:1 apprentice:1 eldest:2 brother:1 iv:1 leave:1 permanently:1 weaken:1 knee:2 result:3 right:2 leg:2 amputate:1 make:3 unable:1 work:11 foot:1 pedal:1 wheel:1 concentrate:1 age:1 design:2 rather:1 twenty:1 begin:3 renowned:1 maker:1 day:3 whieldon:1 experiment:1 wide:1 variety:1 technique:1 experimentation:2 coincide:1 burgeon:3 industrial:1 city:1 manchester:1 nearby:1 inspire:1 lease:1 ivy:2 town:1 set:1 course:1 next:1 decade:2 considerable:1 injection:1 capital:1 marriage:3 richly:1 endow:1 distant:1 cousin:2 sarah:3 transform:1 sleepy:1 artisan:1 first:4 true:1 factory:3 married:2 third:1 together:1 seven:2 susannah:1 robert:1 parent:1 naturalist:1 john:1 ii:1 catherine:3 anne:1 high:2 quality:2 visit:1 workshop:1 saw:1 offending:1 vessel:1 fail:1 meet:1 standard:1 would:4 smash:1 stick:1 exclaim:1 also:4 keenly:1 interested:1 scientific:1 advance:1 interest:1 underpin:1 adoption:1 approach:1 method:1 revolutionize:1 unique:1 glaze:1 distinguish:1 ware:2 anything:1 else:1 market:1 receive:1 order:2 level:1 british:1 nobility:1 queen:2 charlotte:1 convince:1 let:1 name:4 line:1 purchase:1 trumpet:1 royal:2 association:2 paperwork:1 stationery:1 empress:1 russia:1 green:2 frog:1 service:3 still:3 see:3 hermitage:2 museum:3 even:1 commission:2 husk:1 exhibit:1 peterhof:1 industrialist:1 major:2 backer:1 mersey:2 canal:1 dug:1 river:2 time:5 become:2 friend:1 erasmus:2 later:4 business:3 cause:1 move:1 small:1 newly:1 build:1 run:2 year:3 district:1 italy:1 black:2 porcelain:2 date:2 etruscan:1 excavate:1 find:1 inspiring:1 commercial:1 success:1 duplication:1 call:1 basalt:1 long:2 new:2 open:1 continue:2 trouble:1 afflict:1 necessary:1 amputation:1 partner:1 bentley:1 die:2 turn:1 help:1 close:1 grow:1 daughter:1 marry:2 son:4 one:3 emma:1 granddaughter:1 essentially:1 double:1 barrel:1 inheritance:1 money:2 permit:1 leisure:1 allow:1 formulate:1 theory:1 evolution:1 latter:1 obsession:1 duplicate:1 portland:1 vase:2 blue:2 white:2 glass:1 century:1 bc:1 three:2 project:1 eventually:1 produce:2 consider:1 satisfactory:1 copy:1 pass:1 company:2 probably:2 cancer:1 jaw:1 bury:1 parish:1 church:1 marble:1 memorial:1 tablet:1 instal:1 belong:1 fourth:1 generation:2 whose:1 traditional:1 occupation:1 another:1 five:1 famous:1 today:1 waterford:2 crystal:1 china:2 commonly:1 used:1 term:1 jasperware:1 sometimes:1 overlaid:1 decoration:1 common:1 throughout:1 world:1 active:1 lunar:1 society:3 remember:1 moonstone:1 birmingham:1 elect:1 development:1 pyrometer:1 prominent:1 abolitionist:1 mass:1 cameo:2 depict:1 seal:1 abolition:1 slave:1 trade:1 widely:1 distribute:1 thereby:1 popular:1 celebrated:1 actual:1 either:1 william:1 hackwood:1 henry:1 webber:1 modeller:1 pbs:1 wedgewood:1 inventor:1 modern:1 marketing:1 specifically:1 direct:1 mail:1 back:1 guarantee:1 travel:1 salesman:1 self:1 free:2 delivery:1 buy:1 get:1 illustrate:1 catalogue:1 break:1 york:1 locomotive:2 ran:1 churnet:1 valley:1 railway:1 reference:1 source:1 dolan:1 brian:1 tycoon:1 viking:1 adult:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 collection:1 lady:1 lever:1 art:1 gallery:1 great:1 crash:1 jenny:1 uglow:1 guardian:1 february:1 |@bigram josiah_wedgwood:6 stoke_trent:3 charles_darwin:4 leg_amputate:1 richly_endow:1 distant_cousin:1 keenly_interested:1 anything_else:1 hermitage_museum:2 erasmus_darwin:1 commonly_used:1 travel_salesman:1 external_link:1 |
6,661 | Pseudoscience | Pseudoscience is a methodology, belief, or practice that is claimed to be scientific, or that is made to appear to be scientific, but which does not adhere to an appropriate scientific methodology, "Pseudoscientific - pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific", from the Oxford American Dictionary, published by the Oxford English Dictionary. Hansson, Sven Ove (1996). “Defining Pseudoscience”, Philosophia Naturalis, 33: 169–176, cited in "Science and Pseudo-science" (2008) in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Stanford article states: "Many writers on pseudoscience have emphasized that pseudoscience is non-science posing as science. The foremost modern classic on the subject (Gardner 1957) bears the title Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. According to Brian Baigrie (1988, 438), “[w]hat is objectionable about these beliefs is that they masquerade as genuinely scientific ones.” These and many other authors assume that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the following two criteria (Hansson 1996): (1) it is not scientific, and (2) its major proponents try to create the impression that it is scientific." For example, Hewitt et al. Conceptual Physical Science Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 18, 2003) ISBN 0-321-05173-4, Bennett et al. The Cosmic Perspective 3e Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 25, 2003) ISBN 0-8053-8738-2 See also, e.g., Gauch HG Jr. Scientific Method in Practice (2003) lacks supporting evidence or plausibility, The National Science Foundation adopts the definition of (Shermer, 1997): "claims presented so that they appear [to be] scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and plausibility" (Shermer 1997, p. 33). In contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to describe and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed at building a testable body of knowledge open to rejection or confirmation" (Shermer 1997, p. 17). cited by or otherwise lacks scientific status. "A pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method or as having the status that scientific truths now have.", from the Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition 1989. The term comes from the Greek root pseudo- (false or pretending) and "science" (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge"). An early recorded use was in 1843 by French physiologist François Magendie, Magendie, F (1843) An Elementary Treatise on Human Physiology. 5th Ed. Tr. John Revere. New York: Harper, p 150. Magendie refers to phrenology as "a pseudo-science of the present day" (note the hyphen). who is considered a pioneer in experimental physiology. The term is derogatory, because it is used to indicate that something is being inaccurately or deceptively portrayed as science. Laudan, Larry (1983). “The demise of the demarcation problem”, in R.S. Cohan and L. Laudan (eds.), Physics, Philosophy, and Psychoanalysis, pp. 111–127. Accordingly, those labeled as practicing or advocating a "pseudoscience" normally dispute this characterization. "Science and Pseudoscience" in. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy There is disagreement among philosophers of science and among commentators in the scientific community about whether there is a reliable objective way to distinguish "pseudoscience" from non-mainstream "science". The philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend in particular is associated with the view that attempts to distinguish science from non-science are flawed and pernicious. "The idea that science can, and should, be run according to fixed and universal rules, is both unrealistic and pernicious. ... the idea is detrimental to science, for it neglects the complex physical and historical conditions which influence scientific change. It makes our science less adaptable and more dogmatic:" Professor Paul DeHart Hurd Memorial Resolution: Paul DeHart Hurd. retrieved 8 April 2009 argued that a large part of gaining scientific literacy is "being able to distinguish science from pseudo-science such as astrology, quackery, the occult, and superstition". Hurd, P. D. (1998). "Scientific literacy: New minds for a changing world". Science Education, 82, 407–416.. Abstract online at www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/32148/ABSTRACT; retrieved 6 November. 2006 As it is taught in certain introductory science classes, pseudoscience is any subject that appears superficially to be scientific, or whose proponents state that it is scientific, but which nevertheless contravenes the testability requirement or substantially deviates from other fundamental aspects of the scientific method. For example, a course is offered at the University of Maryland entitled "Science & Pseudoscience" Pseudoscience, Scientism, and Science: A Short Course The Teaching of Courses in the Science and Pseudoscience of Psychology: Useful Resources HON 120 Natural Sciences and Society Spring 2006 Dr What is science? What is pseudoscience? Pseudoscience has been characterised by the use of vague, exaggerated or untestable claims, over-reliance on confirmation rather than refutation, lack of openness to testing by other experts, and a lack of progress in theory development. Background A typical 19th century phrenology chart. In the 1820s, phrenologists claimed that the mind was located in areas of the brain, and were attacked for doubting that mind came from the non-material soul. Their idea of reading "bumps" in the skull to predict personality traits was later discredited. p. 128 Phrenology was first called a pseudoscience in 1843 and continues to be widely considered pseudoscience. The standards for determining whether a body of knowledge, methodology, or practice is scientific can vary from field to field. There are, however, a number of basic principles that are widely agreed upon by scientists, such as reproducibility and intersubjective verifiability. e.g. Gauch HG Jr. Scientific Method in Practice (2003) 3-5 ff Such principles aim to ensure that relevant evidence can be reproduced and/or measured given the same conditions, which allows further investigation to determine whether a hypothesis or theory related to given phenomena is both valid and reliable for use by others, including other scientists and researchers. It is expected that the scientific method will be applied throughout, and that bias will be controlled or eliminated, by double-blind studies, or statistically through fair sampling procedures. All gathered data, including experimental/environmental conditions, are expected to be documented for scrutiny and made available for peer review, thereby allowing further experiments or studies to be conducted to confirm or falsify results, as well as to determine other important factors such as statistical significance, confidence intervals, and margins of error. Gauch (2003), 191 ff, especially Chapter 6, "Probability", and Chapter 7, "inductive Logic and Statistics" In the mid-20th century Karl Popper suggested the criterion of falsifiability to distinguish science from non-science. Popper, KR (1959) "The Logic of Scientific Discovery". Statements such as "God created the universe" may be true or false, but no tests can be devised that could prove them false, so they are not scientific; they lie outside the scope of science. Popper subdivided non-science into philosophical, mathematical, mythological, religious and/or metaphysical formulations on the one hand, and pseudoscientific formulations on the other—though without providing clear criteria for the differences. Karl R. Popper: Science: Conjectures and Refutations. Conjectures and Refutations (1963), p. 43–86; He gave astrology and psychoanalysis as examples of pseudoscience, and Einstein's theory of relativity as an example of science. More recently, Paul Thagard (1978) proposed that pseudoscience is primarily distinguishable from science when it is less progressive than alternative theories over a long period of time, and the failure of proponents to acknowledge or address problems with the theory. Thagard PR (1978) "Why astrology is a pseudoscience" (1978) In PSA 1978, Volume 1, ed. Asquith PD and Hacking I (East Lansing: Philosophy of Science Association, 1978) 223 ff. Mario Bunge has suggested the categories of "belief fields" and "research fields" to help distinguish between science and pseudoscience. Bunge M (1983) "Demarcating science from pseudoscience" Fundamenta Scientiae 3:369-388 Philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend has argued, from a sociology of knowledge perspective, that a distinction between science and non-science is neither possible nor desirable. Feyerabend P Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge (1975) For a perspective on Feyerabend from within the scientific community, see, e.g., Gauch (2003) at p.4: "Such critiques are unfamiliar to most scientists, although some may have heard a few distant shots from the so-called science wars." Among the issues which can make the distinction difficult are that both the theories and methodologies of science evolve at differing rates in response to new data. Thagard PR (1978) "Why astrology is a pseudoscience" (1978) In PSA 1978, Volume 1, ed. Asquith PD and Hacking I (East Lansing: Philosophy of Science Association, 1978) 223 ff. Thagard writes, at 227, 228: "We can now propose the following principle of demarcation: A theory or discipline which purports to be scientific is pseudoscientific if and only if: it has been less progressive than alternative theories over a long period of time, and faces many unsolved problems; but the community of practitioners makes little attempt to develop the theory towards solutions of the problems, shows no concern for attempts to evaluate the theory in relation to others, and is selective in considering confirmations and non confirmations." In addition, the specific standards applicable to one field of science may not be those employed in other fields. Thagard also writes from a sociological perspective and states that "elucidation of how science differs from pseudoscience is the philosophical side of an attempt to overcome public neglect of genuine science." Skeptics, most prominently represented by Richard Dawkins, Mario Bunge, Carl Sagan and James Randi, and the Brights movement consider all forms of pseudoscience to be harmful, whether or not they result in immediate harm to their adherents. These critics generally consider that the practice of pseudoscience may occur for a number of reasons, ranging from simple naïveté about the nature of science and the scientific method, to deliberate deception for financial or political gain. At the extreme, issues of personal health and safety may be very directly involved, for example in the case of physical or mental therapy or treatment, or in assessing safety risks. In such instances the potential for direct harm to patients, clients, the general public, or the environment may be an issue in assessing pseudoscience. (See also Junk science.) The concept of pseudoscience as antagonistic to bona fide science appears to have emerged in the mid-19th century. Among the first recorded uses of the word "pseudo-science" was in 1844 in the Northern Journal of Medicine, I 387: "That opposite kind of innovation which pronounces what has been recognized as a branch of science, to have been a pseudo-science, composed merely of so-called facts, connected together by misapprehensions under the disguise of principles". Identifying pseudoscience A field, practice, or body of knowledge might reasonably be called pseudoscientific when (1) it is presented as consistent with the accepted norms of scientific research; but (2) it demonstrably fails to meet these norms, most importantly, in misuse of scientific method. Cover JA, Curd M (Eds, 1998) Philosophy of Science: The Central Issues, 1-82 Subjects may be considered pseudoscientific for various reasons; Karl Popper considered astrology to be pseudoscientific simply because astrologers keep their claims so vague that they could never be refuted, whereas Paul R. Thagard considers astrology pseudoscientific because its practitioners make little effort to develop the theory, show no concern for attempts to critically evaluate the theory in relation to others, and are selective in considering evidence. More generally, Thagard stated that pseudoscience tends to focus on resemblances rather than cause-effect relations. Science is also distinguishable from revelation, theology, or spirituality in that it offers insight into the physical world obtained by empirical research and testing. Stephen Jay Gould, "Nonoverlapping magisteria", Natural History , March, 1997 For this reason, both creation science and intelligent design have been labeled as pseudoscience by the mainstream scientific community. Statements from Scientific and Scholarly Organizations. National Center for Science Education. Retrieved on 04-01-2008. The most notable disputes concern the effects of evolution on the development of living organisms, the idea of common descent, the geologic history of the Earth, the formation of the solar system, and the origin of the universe. Royal Society statement on evolution, creationism and intelligent design http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/news.asp?year=&id=4298 Systems of belief that derive from divine or inspired knowledge are not considered pseudoscience if they do not claim either to be scientific or to overturn well-established science. Some statements and commonly held beliefs in popular science may not meet the criteria of science. "Pop" science may blur the divide between science and pseudoscience among the general public, and may also involve science fiction. Popular Science Feature - When Science Fiction is Science Fact Indeed, pop science is disseminated to, and can also easily emanate from, persons not accountable to scientific methodology and expert peer review. If the claims of a given field can be experimentally tested and methodological standards are upheld, it is not "pseudoscience", however odd, astonishing, or counter-intuitive. If claims made are inconsistent with existing experimental results or established theory, but the methodology is sound, caution should be used; science consists of testing hypotheses which may turn out to be false. In such a case, the work may be better described as ideas that are not yet generally accepted. Protoscience is a term sometimes used to describe a hypothesis that has not yet been adequately tested by the scientific method, but which is otherwise consistent with existing science or which, where inconsistent, offers reasonable account of the inconsistency. It may also describe the transition from a body of practical knowledge into a scientific field. Popper KR op. cit. The following have been proposed to be indicators of poor scientific reasoning. Use of vague, exaggerated or untestable claims Assertion of scientific claims that are vague rather than precise, and that lack specific measurements. e.g. Gauch (2003) op cit at 211 ff (Probability, "Common Blunders") Failure to make use of operational definitions (i.e. publicly accessible definitions of the variables, terms, or objects of interest so that persons other than the definer can independently measure or test them). Paul Montgomery Churchland, Matter and Consciousness: A Contemporary Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind (1999) MIT Press. p.90. "Most terms in theoretical physics, for example, do not enjoy at least some distinct connections with observables, but not of the simple sort that would permit operational definitions in terms of these observables. [..] If a restriction in favor of operational definitions were to be followed, therefore, most of theoretical physics would have to be dismissed as meaningless pseudoscience!" (See also: Reproducibility) Failure to make reasonable use of the principle of parsimony, i.e. failing to seek an explanation that requires the fewest possible additional assumptions when multiple viable explanations are possible (see: Occam's Razor) Gauch HG Jr. (2003) op cit 269 ff, "Parsimony and Efficiency" Use of obscurantist language, and misuse of apparently technical jargon in an effort to give claims the superficial trappings of science. Lack of boundary conditions: Most well-supported scientific theories possess well-articulated limitations under which the predicted phenomena do and do not apply. Hines T (1988) Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: A Critical Examination of the Evidence Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. A Skeptical Inquirer Reader Lack of effective controls, such as placebo and double-blind, in experimental design. (see Scientific control) Over-reliance on confirmation rather than refutation Assertions that do not allow the logical possibility that they can be shown to be false by observation or physical experiment (see also: falsifiability) Lakatos I (1970) "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes." in Lakatos I, Musgrave A (eds) Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge pp 91-195; Popper KR (1959) The Logic of Scientific Discovery Assertion of claims that a theory predicts something that it has not been shown to predict e.g. Gauch (2003) op cit at 178 ff (Deductive Logic, "Fallacies"), and at 211 ff (Probability, "Common Blunders") . Scientific claims that do not confer any predictive power are considered at best "conjectures", or at worst "pseudoscience". e.g. http://www.skeptics.org.uk/explanation.php?dir=articles/explanations&article=ignoratio_elenchi.php Macmilllan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Vol 3, "Fallacies" 174 ff, esp. section on "Ignoratio elenchi" Assertion that claims which have not been proven false must be true, and vice versa (see: Argument from ignorance) Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Vol 3, "Fallacies" 174 'ff esp. 177-178</ref> Over-reliance on testimonial, anecdotal evidence or personal experience. This evidence may be useful for the context of discovery (i.e. hypothesis generation) but should not be used in the context of justification (e.g. Statistical hypothesis testing). Bunge M (1983) Demarcating science from pseudoscience Fundamenta Scientiae 3:369-388, 381 Pseudoscience often presents data that seems to support its claims while suppressing or refusing to consider data that conflict with its claims. Thagard (1978)op cit at 227, 228 This is an example of selection bias, a distortion of evidence or data that arises from the way that the data are collected. It is sometimes referred to as the selection effect. Reversed burden of proof. In science, the burden of proof rests on those making a claim, not on the critic. "Pseudoscientific" arguments may neglect this principle and demand that skeptics demonstrate beyond a reasonable doubt that a claim (e.g. an assertion regarding the efficacy of a novel therapeutic technique) is false. It is essentially impossible to prove a universal negative, so this tactic incorrectly places the burden of proof on the skeptic rather than the claimant. Lilienfeld SO (2004) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology Guildford Press (2004) ISBN 1-59385-070-0 Appeals to holism as opposed to reductionism: Proponents of pseudoscientific claims, especially in organic medicine, alternative medicine, naturopathy and mental health, often resort to the "mantra of holism" to explain negative findings. Ruscio J (2001) Clear thinking with psychology: Separating sense from nonsense, Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth Lack of openness to testing by other experts Evasion of peer review before publicizing results (called "science by press conference"). Peer review and the acceptance of new scientific ideas (Warning 469 kB PDF)*Peer review – process, perspectives and the path ahead; Lilienfeld (2004) op cit For an opposing perspective, e.g. Peer Review as Scholarly Conformity Some proponents of theories that contradict accepted scientific theories avoid subjecting their ideas to peer review, sometimes on the grounds that peer review is biased towards established paradigms, and sometimes on the grounds that assertions cannot be evaluated adequately using standard scientific methods. By remaining insulated from the peer review process, these proponents forgo the opportunity of corrective feedback from informed colleagues.<ref>Ruscio (2001) op cit. Some agencies, institutions, and publications that fund scientific research require authors to share data so that others can evaluate a paper independently. Failure to provide adequate information for other researchers to reproduce the claims contributes to a lack of openness. Gauch (2003) op cit 124 ff" Assertion of claims of secrecy or proprietary knowledge in response to requests for review of data or methodology. Absence of progress Failure to progress towards additional evidence of its claims. Lakatos I (1970) "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes." in Lakatos I, Musgrave A (eds.) Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge 91-195; Thagard (1978) op cit writes: "We can now propose the following principle of demarcation: A theory or discipline which purports to be scientific is pseudoscientific if and only if: it has been less progressive than alternative theories over a long period of time, and faces many unsolved problems; but the community of practitioners makes little attempt to develop the theory towards solutions of the problems, shows no concern for attempts to evaluate the theory in relation to others, and is selective in considering confirmations and disconfirmations." Terence Hines has identified astrology as a subject that has changed very little in the past two millennia. Hines T, Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: A Critical Examination of the Evidence, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1988. ISBN 0-87975-419-2. Thagard (1978) op cit 223 ff (see also: Scientific progress) Lack of self correction: scientific research programmes make mistakes, but they tend to eliminate these errors over time. Ruscio J (2001) op cit. p120 By contrast, theories may be accused of being pseudoscientific because they have remained unaltered despite contradictory evidence. The work Scientists Confront Velikovsky (1976) Cornell University, also delves into these features in some detail, as does the work of Thomas Kuhn, e.g. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) which also discusses some of the items on the list of characteristics of pseudoscience. Personalization of issues Tight social groups and granfalloons, authoritarian personality, suppression of dissent and groupthink can enhance the adoption of beliefs that have no rational basis. In attempting to confirm their beliefs, the group tends to identify their critics as enemies. Devilly GJ (2005) Power therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry Austral NZ J Psych 39:437-445(9) Assertion of claims of a conspiracy on the part of the scientific community to suppress the results. e.g. archivefreedom.org which claims that "The list of suppressed scientists even includes Nobel Laureates!" Attacking the motives or character of anyone who questions the claims (see Ad hominem fallacy). Devilly (2005) op cit. e.g. Use of misleading language Creating scientific-sounding terms in order to add weight to claims and persuade non-experts to believe statements that may be false or meaningless. For example, a long-standing hoax refers to water as dihydrogen monoxide (DHMO) and describes it as the main constituent in most poisonous solutions to show how easily the general public can be misled. Using established terms in idiosyncratic ways, thereby demonstrating unfamiliarity with mainstream work in the discipline. Demographics The National Science Foundation stated that, in the USA, "pseudoscientific" beliefs became more widespread during the 1990s, peaked near 2001 and have declined slightly since; nevertheless, pseudoscientific beliefs remain common in the USA. National Science Board. 2006. Science and Engineering Indicators 2006 Two volumes. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation (volume 1, NSB-06-01; NSB 06-01A) As a result, according to the NSF report, there is a lack of knowledge of pseudoscientific issues in society and pseudoscientific practices are commonly followed. Bunge states that "A survey on public knowledge of science in the United States showed that in 1988 50% of American adults [rejected] evolution, and 88% [believed] astrology is a science". Other surveys indicate that about a third of all adult Americans consider astrology to be scientific. Commentators on pseudoscience perceive it in many fields; for example, pseudomathematics is a term used for mathematics-like activity undertaken by either non-mathematicians or mathematicians themselves which does not conform to the rigorous standards usually applied to mathematical theorems. Clinical psychology Neurologists, clinical psychologists and other academics are concerned, Justman, S. (2005). Fool's Paradise: The Unreal World of Pop Psychology. Ivan R. Dee. about the increasing amount of what they consider pseudoscience promoted in psychotherapy and popular psychology, and also about what they see as pseudoscientific therapies such as neuro-linguistic programming, EMDR e.g. Drenth (2003) ; Herbert JD, et al. (2000) Science and pseudoscience in the development of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: implications for clinical psychology. Clin Psychol Rev. 20:945-71 [PMID 11098395]) rebirthing, reparenting, Scientology, and Primal Therapy being adopted by government and professional bodies and by the public. They state that scientifically unsupported therapies used by popular or folk psychology might harm vulnerable members of the public, undermine legitimate therapies, and tend to spread misconceptions about the nature of the mind and brain to society at large. Norcross et al.. Norcross J.C. Garofalo. A. Koocher.G.P. (2006) Discredited psychological treatments and tests: a Delphi poll. Professional Psychology. Research and Practice, 37: 515-522. have approached the science/pseudoscience issue by conducting a survey of experts that seeks to specify which theory or therapy is considered to be definitely discredited, and they outline 14 fields that have been definitely discredited. Psychological explanations Pseudoscientific thinking has been explained in terms of psychology and social psychology. The human proclivity for seeking confirmation rather than refutation (confirmation bias), (Devilly 2005:439) the tendency to hold comforting beliefs, and the tendency to overgeneralize have been proposed as reasons for the common adherence to pseudoscientific thinking. According to Beyerstein (1991), humans are prone to associations based on resemblances only, and often prone to misattribution in cause-effect thinking. Lindeman argues that social motives (i.e., "to comprehend self and the world, to have a sense of control over outcomes, to belong, to find the world benevolent and to maintain one’s self-esteem") are often "more easily" fulfilled by pseudoscience than by scientific information. Furthermore, pseudoscientific explanations are generally not analyzed rationally, but instead experientially. Operating within a different set of rules compared to rational thinking, experiential thinking regards an explanation as valid if the explanation is "personally functional, satisfying and sufficient", offering a description of the world that may be more personal than can be provided by science and reducing the amount of potential work involved in understanding complex events and outcomes. Boundaries between science and pseudoscience The boundary lines between the science and pseudoscience are disputed and difficult to determine analytically, even after more than a century of dialogue among philosophers of science and scientists in varied fields, and despite some basic agreements on the fundaments of scientific methodology. Gauch HG Jr (2003)op cit 3-7. The concept of pseudoscience rests on an understanding that scientific methodology has been misrepresented or misapplied with respect to a given theory, but many philosophers of science maintain that different kinds of methods are held as appropriate across different fields and different eras of human history. Paul Feyerabend, for example, disputes whether any meaningful boundaries can be drawn between pseudoscience, "real" science, and what he calls "protoscience", especially where there is a significant cultural or historical distance. There are well-known cases of currently accepted scientific theories or fields that were originally considered pseudoscientific, for example, continental drift, William F. Williams, editor (2000) Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy Facts on File p. 58 ISBN 0-8160-3351-X cosmology, Hawking, Stephen W. (2000) The Nature of Time and Space, lectures delivered at the Isaac Newton Institute : "Cosmology used to be considered a pseudo-science and the preserve of physicists who may have done useful work in their earlier years but who had gone mystic in their dotage. There are two reasons for this. The first was that there was an almost total absence of reliable observations. Indeed, until the 1920s about the only important cosmological observation was that the sky at night is dark. [However, in recent years] the range and quality of cosmological observations has improved enormously with the developments in technology." ball lightning, Henry H. Bauer, "Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method", p 60 and radiation hormesis. Radiation Hormesis New On The Sepp Web As another example, osteopathy has, according to Kimball Atwood, "for the most part, repudiated its pseudoscientific beginnings and joined the world of rational healthcare." Atwood KC (2004) Naturopathy, pseudoscience, and medicine: myths and fallacies vs truth. Medscape Gen Med6:e53 available online Others, such as phrenology See, e.g., Phrenology: History of a Classic Pseudoscience - by Steven Novella MD or alchemy were originally considered highly scientific, but now are taken as pseudoscience. Further, there are protosciences such as cultural, traditional, or ancient practices such as acupuncture practice and traditional Chinese medicine which do not conform to modern scientific principles, but which are not pseudoscience because their proponents do not claim the practices to be scientific according to today's standards of scientific method. Larry Laudan has suggested that pseudoscience has no scientific meaning and is mostly used to describe our emotions: "If we would stand up and be counted on the side of reason, we ought to drop terms like 'pseudo-science' and 'unscientific' from our vocabulary; they are just hollow phrases which do only emotive work for us". Laudan L (1996) "The demise of the demarcation problem" in Ruse, Michael, But Is It Science?: The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy pp. 337-350. Likewise, Richard McNally states that "The term 'pseudoscience' has become little more than an inflammatory buzzword for quickly dismissing one’s opponents in media sound-bites" and that "When therapeutic entrepreneurs make claims on behalf of their interventions, we should not waste our time trying to determine whether their interventions qualify as pseudoscientific. Rather, we should ask them: How do you know that your intervention works? What is your evidence?" McNally RJ (2003) Is the pseudoscience concept useful for clinical psychology? SRMHP Vol 2 Number 2 The term pseudoscience can also have political implications that eclipse any scientific issues. Imre Lakatos, for instance, points out that the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at one point declared that Mendelian genetics was pseudoscientific and had its advocates, including well-established scientists such as Nikolai Vavilov, sent to Gulags, Mendelian genetics was later rehabilitated, but not until after Vavilov died in the camps and that the "liberal Establishment of the West" denies freedom of speech to topics it regards as pseudoscience, particularly where they run up against social mores. as in debates concerning the relationship of race and intelligence. Imre Lakatos, Science and Pseudoscience (1973 Lecture Transcript) See also List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Further reading References External links Checklist for identifying dubious technical processes and products - Rainer Bunge, PhD Debating pseudoscientists - Philip Plait Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience - Rory Coker, PhD Pseudoscience. What is it? How can I recognize it? - Stephen Lower Science and Pseudoscience - transcript and broadcast of talk by Imre Lakatos Science Needs to Combat Pseudoscience - A statement by 32 Russian scientists and philosophers Science, Pseudoscience, and Irrationalism - Steven Dutch The Seven Warning Signs of Bogus Science - Robert L. 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6,662 | Encyclopedia_Brown | Cover of the first edition of Encyclopedia Brown: Boy Detective from Lodestar Books.Leroy "Encyclopedia" Brown is a fictional boy detective, the main character in a long series of children's novels written by Donald J. Sobol since 1963. Style Books featuring Brown are subdivided into a number of (possibly interlinked) short stories, each of which presents a mystery. The mysteries are intended to be solved by the reader, thanks to the placement of a logical or factual inconsistency somewhere within the text. Brown invariably solves the case by exposing this inconsistency, in the Answers section in the back of the book. Most books follow a formula where the first chapter involves Brown solving a case at the dinner table for his father, the local police chief in the fictional town of Idaville. Encyclopedia solves these cases by briefly closing his eyes while he thinks deeply, then asking a single question which directly leads to him finding the solution. The second mystery often begins in the Brown garage on Rover Avenue, where Encyclopedia has set up his own detective agency to help neighborhood children solve cases for "25 cents per day, plus expenses." This second case usually involves the town bully and mischief maker, Bugs Meany, leader of a gang who call themselves the Tigers, who, after being foiled, will attempt revenge in the third mystery. Legacy The Encyclopedia Brown books experienced some enduring popularity. In 1975, the Mystery Writers of America honored Sobol and his Encyclopedia Brown series with a special Edgar Award. The books were originally published by Lodestar Books (a branch of E.P. Dutton). Bantam Skylark acquired the publishing rights in the 1980s after the demise of Lodestar. Current editions of the books feature new illustrations in place of the originals by Leonard Shortall, updated to contemporary cultural styles. Encyclopedia Brown inspired many other solve-it-yourself mystery stories for younger readers, such as "Einstein" Anderson, and Hawkeye Collins & Amy Adams. TV series on HBO A TV series of Encyclopedia Brown premiered on Home Box Office (HBO) in 1989 with 30-minute episodes. Scott Bremner played the title role, with Laura Bridge playing Sally. The live action series ran a little over 10 episodes, which was produced by Howard Deutch and directed by Savage Steve Holland. HBO's Encyclopedia Brown TV series-Encyclopedia Brown Novel series The Encyclopedia Brown books, in order of publication (parenthesis indicate numbers on original release cover art): (1) Encyclopedia Brown, Boy Detective (1963, ISBN 0-525-67200-1, 1982 reissue ISBN 0-553-15724-8) (2) Encyclopedia Brown Strikes Again (the Case of the Secret Pitch) (1965, ISBN 0-590-01650-4, second title reissue ISBN 0-525-67202-8) (3) Encyclopedia Brown Finds the Clues (1966, ISBN 0-525-67204-4) (4) Encyclopedia Brown Gets His Man (1967, ISBN 0-525-67206-0) (5) Encyclopedia Brown Solves Them All (1968, ISBN 0-525-67212-5) (6) Encyclopedia Brown Keeps The Peace (1969, ISBN 0-525-67208-7) (7) Encyclopedia Brown Saves the Day (1970, ISBN 0-525-67210-9) (8) Encyclopedia Brown Tracks Them Down (1971, ISBN 0-553-15721-3) (9) Encyclopedia Brown Shows the Way (1972, ISBN 0-553-15142-X) (10) Encyclopedia Brown Takes the Case (1973, ISBN 0-553-15723-X) (11) Encyclopedia Brown Lends a Hand (1974, ISBN 0-553-48133-9, reissued as Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Exploding Plumbing and Other Mysteries, ISBN 0-590-44093-4) (12) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Dead Eagles (1975, ISBN 0-590-43343-1) (13) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Midnight Visitor (1977, ISBN0-553-15586-5) (14) Encyclopedia Brown Carries On (1980, ISBN 0-027-86190-2) (15) Encyclopedia Brown Sets the Pace (1981, ISBN 0-027-86200-3) (15½) Encyclopedia Brown Takes the Cake (1982, ISBN 0590078437) (Co-written with Glenn Andrews) (16) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Mysterious Handprints (1985, ISBN 0-553-15739-6) (17) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Treasure Hunt (1988, ISBN 0-553-15650-0) (18) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Disgusting Sneakers (1990, ISBN 0688090125) (19) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Two Spies (1995, ISBN 0385320361) (20) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of Pablo's Nose (1996, ISBN 0385321848) (21) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Sleeping Dog (1998, ISBN 0385325762) (22) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Slippery Salamander (2000, ISBN 0385325797) (23) Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Jumping Frogs (2003, ISBN 0385729316) (24) Encyclopedia Brown Cracks the Case (2007, ISBN 978-0-525-47924-6) Related works Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Strange But True Crimes (1992, ISBN 0590441485) Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Animals (1985, ISBN 0553153463) Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Cars (1987, ISBN 0688062229) Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Crimes Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Outdoors Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Spies Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Sports Encyclopedia Brown's Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts (1979, ISBN 0440023297) Encyclopedia Brown's Second Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts (1981, ISBN 0440022606) Encyclopedia Brown's Third Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts (1985, ISBN 0688057055) References in popular culture There have been several satires of Encyclopedia Brown including one by The Onion. http://www.theonion.com/content/node/29537 Adam Cadre wrote a parody of Encyclopedia Brown which satirizes Wikipedia. http://adamcadre.ac/content/brown/ Jay Russel's novel Brown Harvest is a pastiche of Dashiel Hammett's Red Harvest featuring Brown (unnamed) and several other characters from children's literature as adults. Bill Amend made reference to the Encyclopedia Brown series in the title of a 2001 compilation of FoxTrot comics- Encyclopedias Brown and White. http://www.amazon.com/dp/0740718509 Tom Tomorrow's comic on Salon.com, This Modern World, also occasionally features a parody called "Conservative Jones". In the movie 1408, Mike Enslin (John Cusack) says, "Let's 'Encyclopedia Brown' this bitch," when trying to come up with a rational explanation for the strange, but minor occurrences during his first few minutes in a dreaded hotel room. Zebra Crossing, a theatre company in New York, has created a series of plays featuring the character of Wikipedia Brown. Written by Drayton Hiers and Chloë Bass, and loosely inspired by the young detectives genre (including The Hardy Boys, Scooby Doo, and Hawkeye Collins, as well as Encyclopedia Brown), the series features a pair of detectives in their twenties, solving topical and socially related crimes in the city. The first play, Wikipedia Brown and The Case of The Mysterious Development was workshopped in Bushwick, Brooklyn in fall 2007. In the second season of the television show Veronica Mars, the main character suggests that a client hire Encyclopedia Brown to solve the case. The film Mystery Team is based on Encyclopedia Brown but set in a darker, more comedic tone. An episode of Reno 911! features a skit based around a writer whose house is on fire. Lt. Dangle asks the man about the novel the man wants to save from the fire, which the man says is about a person whose father sends him clues about his death years after the fact. Dangle surmises the plot is a copy of the movie Frequency, while officer Junior thinks it's a ripoff of an Encyclopedia Brown story. Comedian/Actor/Writer B.J. Novak, of NBC's The Office, has a stand up routine entitled "Wikipedia Brown". The bit makes reference to the vast usage of Wikipedia as a research tool. Hip Hop artist Keith Murray references Encyclopedia Brown in his song "The Most Beautifullest Thing in This World," rhyming, "Never fakin I gets down for my crown clown; Shakin the membrane of Encyclopedia Brown." In the episode "Losin' the Wobble" of Robot Chicken, a bit includes Encyclopedia Brown solving the case of why his parents don't get along. In a scene of the movie About Schmidt (Alexander Payne, 2002), the title character, played by Jack Nicholson, is seen reading Encyclopedia Brown Gets His Man (at 1:30:46). Before that, the same character was reading Awaken the Giant Within, by Anthony Robbins. In an episode of Monk, Natalie forces Monk to investigate the theft of a bicycle. When Monk finds the thief's house, he calls himself Encyclopedia Brown and says he and Sally "want our blue bike back." In Sinfest, the character Criminy references Encyclopedia Brown http://www.sinfest.net/archive_page.php?comicID=3182 References External links Encyclopedia Brown at Thrilling Detective Encyclopedia Brown at KidsReads.com | Encyclopedia_Brown |@lemmatized cover:2 first:4 edition:2 encyclopedia:64 brown:72 boy:4 detective:7 lodestar:3 book:19 leroy:1 fictional:2 main:2 character:7 long:1 series:10 child:3 novel:4 write:4 donald:1 j:2 sobol:2 since:1 style:2 feature:7 subdivide:1 number:2 possibly:1 interlink:1 short:1 story:3 present:1 mystery:8 intend:1 solve:9 reader:2 thanks:1 placement:1 logical:1 factual:1 inconsistency:2 somewhere:1 within:2 text:1 invariably:1 case:22 expose:1 answer:1 section:1 back:2 follow:1 formula:1 chapter:1 involve:2 dinner:1 table:1 father:2 local:1 police:1 chief:1 town:2 idaville:1 briefly:1 close:1 eye:1 think:2 deeply:1 ask:2 single:1 question:1 directly:1 lead:1 find:3 solution:1 second:5 often:1 begin:1 garage:1 rover:1 avenue:1 set:3 agency:1 help:1 neighborhood:1 cent:1 per:1 day:2 plus:1 expense:1 usually:1 bully:1 mischief:1 maker:1 bug:1 meany:1 leader:1 gang:1 call:3 tiger:1 foil:1 attempt:1 revenge:1 third:2 legacy:1 experience:1 enduring:1 popularity:1 writer:3 america:1 honor:1 special:1 edgar:1 award:1 originally:1 publish:1 branch:1 e:1 p:1 dutton:1 bantam:1 skylark:1 acquire:1 publishing:1 right:1 demise:1 current:1 new:2 illustration:1 place:1 original:2 leonard:1 shortall:1 update:1 contemporary:1 cultural:1 inspire:2 many:1 young:2 einstein:1 anderson:1 hawkeye:2 collins:2 amy:1 adam:2 tv:3 hbo:3 premier:1 home:1 box:1 office:2 minute:2 episode:5 scott:1 bremner:1 play:5 title:4 role:1 laura:1 bridge:1 sally:2 live:1 action:1 run:1 little:1 produce:1 howard:1 deutch:1 direct:1 savage:1 steve:1 holland:1 order:1 publication:1 parenthesis:1 indicate:1 release:1 art:1 isbn:33 reissue:3 strike:1 secret:1 pitch:1 clue:2 get:4 man:5 solves:1 keep:1 peace:1 save:2 track:1 show:2 way:1 x:2 take:2 lend:1 hand:1 explode:1 plumbing:1 dead:1 eagle:1 midnight:1 visitor:1 carry:1 pace:1 cake:1 co:1 glenn:1 andrew:1 mysterious:2 handprints:1 treasure:1 hunt:1 disgusting:1 sneaker:1 two:1 spy:2 pablo:1 nose:1 sleep:1 dog:1 slippery:1 salamander:1 jumping:1 frog:1 crack:1 relate:1 work:1 strange:2 true:1 crime:3 wacky:6 animal:1 car:1 outdoors:1 sport:1 record:3 weird:3 wonderful:3 fact:4 reference:6 popular:1 culture:1 several:2 satire:1 include:3 one:1 onion:1 http:4 www:3 theonion:1 com:4 content:2 node:1 cadre:1 parody:2 satirize:1 wikipedia:5 adamcadre:1 ac:1 jay:1 russel:1 harvest:2 pastiche:1 dashiel:1 hammett:1 red:1 unnamed:1 literature:1 adult:1 bill:1 amend:1 make:2 compilation:1 foxtrot:1 comic:2 white:1 amazon:1 dp:1 tom:1 tomorrow:1 salon:1 modern:1 world:2 also:1 occasionally:1 conservative:1 jones:1 movie:3 mike:1 enslin:1 john:1 cusack:1 say:3 let:1 bitch:1 try:1 come:1 rational:1 explanation:1 minor:1 occurrence:1 dreaded:1 hotel:1 room:1 zebra:1 crossing:1 theatre:1 company:1 york:1 create:1 drayton:1 hiers:1 chloë:1 bass:1 loosely:1 genre:1 hardy:1 scooby:1 doo:1 well:1 pair:1 twenty:1 topical:1 socially:1 related:1 city:1 development:1 workshopped:1 bushwick:1 brooklyn:1 fall:1 season:1 television:1 veronica:1 mar:1 suggest:1 client:1 hire:1 film:1 team:1 base:2 darker:1 comedic:1 tone:1 reno:1 skit:1 around:1 whose:2 house:2 fire:2 lt:1 dangle:2 want:2 person:1 send:1 death:1 year:1 surmise:1 plot:1 copy:1 frequency:1 officer:1 junior:1 ripoff:1 comedian:1 actor:1 b:1 novak:1 nbc:1 stand:1 routine:1 entitle:1 bit:2 vast:1 usage:1 research:1 tool:1 hip:1 hop:1 artist:1 keith:1 murray:1 song:1 beautifullest:1 thing:1 rhyming:1 never:1 fakin:1 crown:1 clown:1 shakin:1 membrane:1 losin:1 wobble:1 robot:1 chicken:1 parent:1 along:1 scene:1 schmidt:1 alexander:1 payne:1 jack:1 nicholson:1 see:1 read:2 awaken:1 giant:1 anthony:1 robbins:1 monk:3 natalie:1 force:1 investigate:1 theft:1 bicycle:1 thief:1 blue:1 bike:1 sinfest:2 criminy:1 net:1 php:1 comicid:1 external:1 link:1 thrill:1 kidsreads:1 |@bigram weird_wonderful:3 http_www:3 scooby_doo:1 hip_hop:1 robot_chicken:1 jack_nicholson:1 external_link:1 |
6,663 | Malaysian_Armed_Forces | The military of Malaysia is known officially as the Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF, Malay: Angkatan Tentera Malaysia-ATM). It consists of three branches; the Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN, Malay: Tentera Laut Diraja Malaysia-TLDM), the Malaysian Army (Malay: Tentera Darat Malaysia-TD) and the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF, Malay: Tentera Udara Diraja Malaysia-TUDM). General (Jen) Tan Sri Dato' Sri Abdul Aziz bin Hj Zainal, is the Chief of Defence Forces, Malaysia. Role of the MAF The role of the Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF) is to defend the sovereignty and strategic interests of Malaysia from all forms of threat. It is responsible to assist the civilian authorities to overcome all international threats, preserve public order, assist in natural disasters and participate in national development programs. It is also sustaining and upgrading its capabilities in the international sphere in order to uphold the national foreign policy of being involved under the guidance of the United Nations (UN). History Theater of operations The main theaters of operations were within Malaysian borders, primarily to fight an insurgency led by the Communist Party of Malaya (CPM) in what was known as the Emergency. The only foreign incursion of Malaysian territory in modern times were in World War II by Japan (Malaya was then not a unified political entity and consisted of the British Crown Colony of the Straits Settlements, and the British protected Federated Malay States and Unfederated Malay States) and during the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation by Indonesia under the leadership of President Sukarno. Operations on foreign soil have mainly been peacekeeping operations under the auspices of the United Nations. First Emergency (1948-1960) An insurrection and guerrilla war of the Malayan Races Liberation Army organised by the CPM against the British and Malayan administration. Congo Peacekeeping Mission (1960-1962) A contingent of 1,947 personnel were dispatched as part of the United Nations Operation in the Congo or ONUC. This contingent was known as the Malayan Special Force to the Congo and their experiences there were later recounted through the drawings of the cartoonist, Rejabhad. Sarawak Communist Insurgency (1963-1990) An insurrection and guerilla war of the Sarawak Communist Organisation (from 1971, the North Kalimantan Communist Party or NKCP) against the British and Malaysian governments to establish an independent nation comprising the states of Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei. The insurgency ended when the NKCP signed a peace treaty with the Malaysian government in 1990. Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation (1963-1966) An intermittent armed conflict between Malaysia and Indonesia with skirmishes mainly occurring in Sarawak and Sabah in the island of Borneo. In 1964, armed raids were made on Peninsular Malaysia. Combat eased with the deposing of Indonesia's President Sukarno in 1965 by the Indonesian army and the conflict was declared over by both sides in 1966. Communist Insurgency War (1967-1989) A low level resurgence of insurgent activity by the armed elements of the CPM from sanctuaries in the Malaysian-Thai border. The insurgency was only ended after the CPM signed a peace treaty with the Governments of Malaysia and Thailand on 2 December 1989. Iran/Iraq Border (1988-1991) Participated as part of the UN Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group (UNIIMOG) to supervise the Iran–Iraq War ceasefire. Namibia (1989-1990) Contributed a battalion to the UN Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) to supervise Namibia's elections and transition to independence. Western Sahara (1991-present) A contingent of observers under the Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) to help implement a ceasefire between the Polisario Front & Morocco and help promote referendum on area's future. Angola (1991-1995) A contingent was sent under the United Nations Angola Verification Mission II (UNAVEM II) to enforce the ceasefire in Angolan civil war. Iraq/Kuwait Border (1992-2003) A contingent was sent under the United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM) to monitor the demilitarized zone along the Iraq-Kuwait border, deter border violations and report on any hostile action. Cambodia (1992-1993) An observer team was sent under the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) to aid in the administration of Cambodia and to organize and run elections. Bosnia and Herzegovina (1993-1998) A peacekeeping contingent known as MALBATT Command (Malaysia Battalion) was sent initially under the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) from 1993-1995 with deployments at Konjic, Jablanica and Pazarić in Hadžići. Following the Dayton Agreement, forces were redeployed as MALCON Command (Malaysia Contingent) under the NATO led Implementation Force (IFOR) in Operation Joint Endeavor with deployments at Livno, Glamoč and Kupres. MALCON further participated as part of the NATO led Stabilisation Force (SFOR) until 1998. Up to 8,000 troops were eventually deployed in this theater of operations. Liberia (1993-1997) An observer team of 3 officers was sent under the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) to support the efforts of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Liberian National Transitional Government to implement peace agreements signed between the warring parties in Liberia. Somalia (1993-1994) A contingent known as MALBATT was sent under the United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) to take appropriate action, including enforcement measures, to establish throughout Somalia a secure environment for humanitarian assistance. During its deployment, MALBATT was involved in the Battle of Mogadishu which saw 1 personnel killed in action and 7 others wounded in action during the relief operations to aid the surrounded troops of the United States' Task Force Ranger. On 18 January 1994, Lieutenant General Aboo Samah Bin Aboo Bakar was appointed the Commander of UNOSOM II forces. His appointment also saw the United Nations revise the mandate of UNOSOM II to stop using "coercive methods" in the discharge of their duties while retaining "some capability to defend its personnel if circumstances so warrant." UN Chronicle: "Mandate for UNOSOM II revised; 'coercive methods' not to be used - UN Operation in Somalia emphasizes nation building", June 1994 Mozambique (1993-1995) A team of observers were sent under the United Nations Operations in Mozambique (ONUMOZ). (The rest of the entries below require a cleanup) Deployed a contingent called MASMEDTIM/Malaysian Medical Team to Chaman, Pakistan to treat refugees from Afghanistan during the US invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. Deployed approximately a brigade-sized force on islands surrounding Sabah waters in Ops Pasir to prevent the recurrence of Sipadan kidnapping. Deployed a contingent to Acheh after the tsunami disaster in 2004. Deployed MASMEDTIM to Pakistan during the 2005 quake. Deployed in Southern Philippines as a part of monitoring force agreed upon by both the Philippine Government and Moro Islamic Liberation Front/MILF. Deployed in East Timor/East Leste together with Australian, Portuguese and New Zealand forces at the request of East Timor Government. The first team of 25 soldiers from 10 Para Brigade, Royal Intelligence Corp and Commando Regiment were deployed on a fact-finding mission before being reinforced by another 209 soldiers. (as at 27 May 2006) Deployed in South Lebanon on peace keeping role at present after the withdrawal of Israeli Military forces early 2007 (Invation of South Lebanon by Israeli Military). Unit mainly consist of GGK,PASKAL, PASKAU and PARA elements. Other limited participation under UNPKO are United Nations International Police Force (UNIPTF) since December 1995; United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) since Jun 1999; United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) since October 1999; United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) since September 1999 and United Nations Organisation Mission in Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) since February 2000. 18 Malaysian Armed Forces personnel have been killed during UN peacekeeping operations. Current developments Overview In the early 1990s, Malaysia undertook a major program to expand and modernize its armed forces. However, budgetary constraints imposed by the 1997 financial crisis held many of the procurements. The recent economic recovery may lead to relaxation of budgetary constraints on the resumption of major weapons purchases. In October 2000 the Defense Minister also announced a review of national defense and security policy to bring it up to date. The review addressed new security threats that have emerged in the form of low intensity conflicts, such as the kidnapping of Malaysians and foreigners from resort islands located off the east coast of the state of Sabah and risk rising territory dispute with several neighbour countries. Malaysian Army Royal Malaysian Air Force Royal Malaysian Navy National Service In early 2004, the Ministry of Defense also initiated a compulsory National Service program for 17 years old Malaysians. Participants of the Malaysian National Service are chosen randomly. Currently, only 20% of those eligible are inducted but plans call for this program to eventually cover all 17 year olds. Defence Research and Development In light of the increasing crude oil price worldwide, the military had volunteered in a pioneering program to use biodiesel. By next year (2007), all diesel-type vehicle in the Malaysian Armed Forces will be using biodiesel consisting of 95% diesel and 5% oil palm diesel. Although MoD announced a redraw from funding the Eagle ARV research program. Composite Technology and Research Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. (CTRM) joined venture with Kramatic Systems Sdn. Bhd. (IKRAMATIC) and System Consultancy Services Sdn. Bhd.(SCS) had come close with another development, the ALUDRA MK I/MK II. It was reported during the LIMA 07, Malaysian army and Joint Forces Command had showed strong interest toward the indigenous tactical UAV. There is also a new development unveiled during the celebration of the Malaysia's 50th independence. It is a laser guide projectile code name Taming Sari XK98, but no further details were enclosed. It was first spotted by the public when it participated the celebration parade. M4 Carbine Procurement During the Defence Services Asia (DSA) 2006, Malaysia announced that the U.S. made M4 Carbine service rifle will replace the Austrian made Steyr AUG service rifle for all three Malaysian Armed Forces services. This decision has been finalized. Malaysia had also obtained a licensed product line of the rifle. The first batch of the weapon is expected to be delivered by year 2008. Highlight On July 18, 2007, five days after the wreckage of a Nuri (Sikorsky Sea King S-61A4) helicopter was found near Genting Sempah, Pahang, Defense Minister Najib Razak announced that the Malaysian government will call soon for an international tender for new helicopters to replace the aging fleet. The aging Nuri will be retired by year 2010. The requirement for the new procurement includes capacity of 25 passengers as well as limited combat, search and rescue capability. RMAF shortlists four copter makes to replace ageing Nuri Four contender were shortlisted for the final evaluation, they were the Eurocopter EC 725, AgustaWestland EH101, Sikorsky S-92 and Mil MI-171. On September 26, 2008, Malaysian Government announced that the tender is being awarded to Eurocopter. http://www.bernama.com/bernama/v5/newsindex.php?id=361732 DSA 2008 On April 21, 2008, first days of DSA 2008 Ministry Of Defence Malaysia has make a new procument worth RM1.2 billion (USD375 million). The new procument involving 8 unit ACV-S 300 (Mobile Armor Mortar Carrier - 120mm), additional 30 unit ACV 300 with various variant from local firm DRB Hicom Techologies Sdn Bhd (DEFTECH) which expected full delivery on 2010. Another procument involving new 85 HUMVEE Spain version from Master Defence Sdn Bhd, of which 25 are as Igla platform carrier and the rest configured in AGL/HMG role. Additional Information and Links Foreign relations of Malaysia Five Power Defence Arrangements Malaysian Armed Forces Council National Defence University of Malaysia External links Malaysian Army Royal Malaysian Navy Royal Malaysian Air Force - Tentera Udara Diraja Malaysia (TUDM) Royal Malaysian Air Force Museum Malaysian Armed Forces Orbat Bases and Squadrons Perspective from a military personnel in The Liaison Gempur Wira: Premier Military Forum in Malaysia Military, Police & Security Agencies The Elite Navy PASKAL (malaysiandefence.com) References | Malaysian_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized military:8 malaysia:24 know:5 officially:1 malaysian:29 arm:9 force:26 maf:3 malay:6 angkatan:1 tentera:5 atm:1 consist:3 three:2 branch:1 royal:8 navy:4 rmn:1 laut:1 diraja:3 tldm:1 army:6 darat:1 td:1 air:4 rmaf:2 udara:2 tudm:2 general:2 jen:1 tan:1 sri:2 dato:1 abdul:1 aziz:1 bin:2 hj:1 zainal:1 chief:1 defence:7 role:4 defend:2 sovereignty:1 strategic:1 interest:2 form:2 threat:3 responsible:1 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6,664 | Nebula | The Triangulum Emission Garren Nebula NGC 604 The "Pillars of Creation" from the Eagle Nebula A nebula (from Latin: "cloud" ; pl. nebulae or nebulæ, with ligature or nebulas) is an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen gas, helium gas and plasma. Originally nebula was a general name for any extended astronomical object, including galaxies beyond the Milky Way (some examples of the older usage survive; for example, the Andromeda Galaxy was referred to as the Andromeda Nebula before galaxies were discovered by Edwin Hubble). Nebulae often form star-forming regions, such as in the Eagle Nebula. This nebula is depicted in one of NASA's most famous images, the "Pillars of Creation". In these regions the formations of gas, dust and other materials "clump" together to form larger masses, which attract further matter, and eventually will become big enough to form stars. The remaining materials are then believed to form planets, and other planetary system objects. Formation NGC 2024, The Flame Nebula Many nebulae form from the gravitational collapse of gas in the interstellar medium or ISM. As the material collapses under its own weight, massive stars may form in the center, and their ultraviolet radiation ionises the surrounding gas, which creates plasma, making it visible at optical wavelengths. An example of this type of nebula is the Rosette Nebula or the Pelican Nebula. The size of these nebulae, known as HII regions, varies depending on the size of the original cloud of gas, and the number of stars formed can vary too. As the sites of star formation, the formed stars are sometimes known as a young, loose cluster. Some nebulae are formed as the result of supernova explosions, the death throes of massive, short-lived stars. The material thrown off from the supernova explosion is ionized by the supernova remnant. One of the best examples of this is the Crab Nebula, in Taurus. It is the result of a recorded supernova, SN 1054, in the year 1054 and at the centre of the nebula is a neutron star, created during the explosion. Other nebulae may form as planetary nebulae. This is the final stage of a low-mass star's life, like Earth's Sun. Stars with a mass up to 8-10 solar masses evolve into red giants and slowly lose their outer layers during pulsations in their atmospheres. When a star has lost a sufficient amount of material, its temperature increases and the ultraviolet radiation it emits is capable of ionizing the surrounding nebula that it has thrown off. It is 97% Hydrogen and 3% Helium. The main goal in this stage is to achieve equilibrium Diffuse nebulae The Omega Nebula, an example of an emission nebula. The Pleiades. The diffuse nebulae near the stars are examples of reflection nebula. Most nebulae can be described as diffuse nebulae, which means that they are extended and contain no well-defined boundaries. In visible light these nebulae may be divided into emission nebulae and reflection nebulae, a categorization that depends on how the light we see is created. Emission nebulae contain ionized gas (mostly ionized hydrogen) that produces spectral line emission. These emission nebulae are often called HII regions; the term "HII" is used in professional astronomy to refer to ionized hydrogen. In contrast to emission nebulae, reflection nebulae do not produce significant amounts of visible light by themselves but instead reflect light from nearby stars. The Horsehead Nebula, an example of a dark nebula. Dark nebulae are similar to diffuse nebulae, but they are not seen by their emitted or reflected light. Instead, they are seen as dark clouds in front of more distant stars or in front of emission nebulae. Although these nebulae appear different at optical wavelengths, they all appear to be bright sources of emission at infrared wavelengths. This emission comes primarily from the dust within the nebulae. Specific types of nebulae While diffuse nebulae have poorly-defined boundaries, a few nebulae may actually be described as discrete objects with identifiable boundaries. Planetary nebulae The Cat's Eye Nebula, an example of a planetary nebula. Planetary nebulae are nebulae that form from the gaseous shells that are ejected from low-mass asymptotic giant branch stars when they transform into white dwarfs. These nebulae are emission nebulae with spectral emission that is similar to the emission nebulae found in star formation regions. Technically, they are a type of HII region because the majority of hydrogen will be ionized. However, planetary nebulae are denser and more compact than the emission nebulae in star formation regions. Planetary nebulae are so called because the first astronomers who observed these objects thought that the nebulae resembled the disks of planets, although they are not at all related to planets. Protoplanetary nebula The Red Rectangle Nebula, an example of a protoplanetary nebula. A protoplanetary nebula (PPN) is an astronomical object which is at the short-lived episode during a star's rapid stellar evolution between the late asymptotic giant branch (LAGB) phase and the subsequent planetary nebula (PN) phase. A PPN emits strong infrared radiation, and is a kind of reflection nebula. The exact point when a PPN becomes a planetary nebula (PN) is defined by the temperature of the central star. Supernova remnants The Crab Nebula, an example of a supernova remnant. A supernova occurs when a high-mass star reaches the end of its life. When nuclear fusion ceases in the core of the star, the star collapses inward on itself. The gas falling inward either rebounds or gets so strongly heated that it expands outwards from the core, thus causing the star to explode. The expanding shell of gas form a supernova remnant, a special type of diffuse nebula. Although much of the optical and X-ray emission from supernova remnants originates from ionized gas, a substantial amount of the radio emission is a form of non-thermal emission called synchrotron emission. This emission originates from high-velocity electrons oscillating within magnetic fields. Notable named nebulae Ant Nebula Barnard's Loop Boomerang Nebula Cat's Eye Nebula Crab Nebula Eagle Nebula Eta Carinae Nebula Hourglass Nebula Horsehead Nebula Orion Nebula Pelican Nebula Red Square Nebula Ring Nebula Rosette Nebula Tarantula Nebula See also H I region H II region List of diffuse nebulae Magellanic Clouds Messier object Orion Molecular Cloud Complex Timeline of the interstellar medium and intergalactic medium References External links fusedweb.pppl.gov Information on star formation Clickable table of Messier objects | Nebula |@lemmatized triangulum:1 emission:19 garren:1 nebula:74 ngc:2 pillar:2 creation:2 eagle:3 latin:1 cloud:6 pl:1 nebulæ:1 ligature:1 interstellar:3 dust:3 hydrogen:5 gas:10 helium:2 plasma:2 originally:1 general:1 name:2 extended:1 astronomical:2 object:7 include:1 galaxy:3 beyond:1 milky:1 way:1 example:10 old:1 usage:1 survive:1 andromeda:2 refer:2 discover:1 edwin:1 hubble:1 nebulae:9 often:2 form:12 star:24 forming:1 region:9 depict:1 one:2 nasa:1 famous:1 image:1 formation:6 material:5 clump:1 together:1 large:1 mass:6 attract:1 matter:1 eventually:1 become:2 big:1 enough:1 remain:1 believe:1 planet:3 planetary:9 system:1 flame:1 many:1 gravitational:1 collapse:3 medium:3 ism:1 weight:1 massive:2 may:4 center:1 ultraviolet:2 radiation:3 ionise:1 surround:2 create:3 make:1 visible:3 optical:3 wavelength:3 type:4 rosette:2 pelican:2 size:2 know:2 hii:4 varies:1 depend:2 original:1 number:1 vary:1 site:1 formed:1 sometimes:1 young:1 loose:1 cluster:1 result:2 supernova:9 explosion:3 death:1 throe:1 short:2 lived:2 throw:2 ionize:6 remnant:4 best:1 crab:3 taurus:1 recorded:1 sn:1 year:1 centre:1 neutron:1 final:1 stage:2 low:2 life:2 like:1 earth:1 sun:1 solar:1 evolve:1 red:3 giant:3 slowly:1 lose:2 outer:1 layer:1 pulsation:1 atmosphere:1 sufficient:1 amount:3 temperature:2 increase:1 emit:2 capable:1 main:1 goal:1 achieve:1 equilibrium:1 diffuse:7 omega:1 pleiades:1 near:1 reflection:4 describe:2 mean:1 extend:1 contain:2 well:1 define:2 boundary:3 light:5 divide:1 categorization:1 see:4 ionized:1 mostly:1 produce:2 spectral:2 line:1 call:3 term:1 use:1 professional:1 astronomy:1 contrast:1 significant:1 instead:2 reflect:2 nearby:1 horsehead:2 dark:3 similar:2 front:2 distant:1 although:3 appear:2 different:1 bright:1 source:1 infrared:2 come:1 primarily:1 within:2 specific:1 poorly:1 defined:1 actually:1 discrete:1 identifiable:1 cat:2 eye:2 gaseous:1 shell:2 eject:1 asymptotic:2 branch:2 transform:1 white:1 dwarf:1 find:1 technically:1 majority:1 however:1 denser:1 compact:1 first:1 astronomer:1 observe:1 think:1 resemble:1 disk:1 relate:1 protoplanetary:3 rectangle:1 ppn:3 episode:1 rapid:1 stellar:1 evolution:1 late:1 lagb:1 phase:2 subsequent:1 pn:2 emits:1 strong:1 kind:1 exact:1 point:1 central:1 remnants:1 occurs:1 high:2 reach:1 end:1 nuclear:1 fusion:1 cease:1 core:2 inward:2 fall:1 either:1 rebound:1 get:1 strongly:1 heat:1 expand:2 outwards:1 thus:1 cause:1 explode:1 special:1 much:1 x:1 ray:1 originate:2 substantial:1 radio:1 non:1 thermal:1 synchrotron:1 velocity:1 electron:1 oscillate:1 magnetic:1 field:1 notable:1 ant:1 barnard:1 loop:1 boomerang:1 eta:1 carina:1 hourglass:1 orion:2 square:1 ring:1 tarantula:1 also:1 h:2 ii:1 list:1 magellanic:1 messier:1 molecular:1 complex:1 timeline:1 intergalactic:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 fusedweb:1 pppl:1 gov:1 information:1 clickable:1 table:1 messy:1 |@bigram nebula_ngc:1 interstellar_cloud:1 milky_way:1 andromeda_galaxy:1 andromeda_nebula:1 edwin_hubble:1 ultraviolet_radiation:2 hii_region:3 supernova_explosion:2 short_lived:2 supernova_remnant:4 crab_nebula:3 supernova_sn:1 planetary_nebula:8 diffuse_nebula:6 ionized_gas:1 asymptotic_giant:2 infrared_radiation:1 magnetic_field:1 eta_carina:1 carina_nebula:1 magellanic_cloud:1 molecular_cloud:1 external_link:1 |
6,665 | Military_of_Burkina_Faso | The branches of Burkina Faso's military include its Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, and People's Militia. Being a landlocked country, Burkina Faso has no navy. Military statistics Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,688,072 (2002 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,379,010 (2002 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $40.1 million (FY01) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.4% (FY01) Aircraft Inventory Burkina Faso's military aircraft, operated by the Air Force, totals 19 aircraft of 12 different models, including 11 helicopters. Burkina Faso does not operate any fixed-wing combat aircraft. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service Burkina Faso military aviation OrBat ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | CASA CN-235 | | transport Cargo | CASA CN-235 | 1 | |----- | Aérospatiale SA 316 Alouette III | | utility helicopter | SA 316B | 1 | |----- | Avro 748 | | transport | HS.748 2A | 2 | |----- | Beechcraft Super King Air | | transport | Super King Air 200 | 1 | |----- | Eurocopter SA 365Dauphin | | utility helicopter | SA 365N | 2 | |----- | Eurocopter AS 350 Ecureuil | | utility helicopter | AS 350 B2 | 2 | |----- | Mil Mi-8 Hip | | transport helicopter | Mi-8Mi-17 | 32 | |----- | Mil Mi-35 Hind-E | | attack helicopter | Mi-35 | 2 | |----- | Nord 262 | | transport | Nord 262 | 2 | |----- | Reims 172 Skyhawk | | liaison | F172 | 1 | |----- | Reims 337 Skymaster | | liaison | F337 | 1 | |} Weapon Recce 15 Panhard AML, 24 EE-9 Cascavel, 13 M3 Panhard, 30 Ferret, 106 VLRA 4x4, Type 63 chinese rocket launcher AA Gun ZPU-4 Surface-to-air Strela 2 References and links Burkina Faso External links Burkina Faso Air Force - Force Aérienne de Burkina Faso (FABF) | Military_of_Burkina_Faso |@lemmatized branch:1 burkina:8 faso:8 military:9 include:2 army:1 air:6 force:4 national:2 gendarmerie:1 police:1 people:1 militia:1 landlocked:1 country:1 navy:1 statistic:1 manpower:2 availability:1 male:2 age:2 est:2 fit:1 service:2 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:1 expenditures:1 percent:1 gdp:1 aircraft:5 inventory:1 operate:2 total:1 different:1 model:1 helicopter:6 fixed:1 wing:1 combat:1 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:2 version:1 aviation:1 orbat:1 note:1 casa:2 cn:2 transport:5 cargo:1 aérospatiale:1 sa:4 alouette:1 iii:1 utility:3 avro:1 h:1 beechcraft:1 super:2 king:2 eurocopter:2 ecureuil:1 mil:2 mi:4 hip:1 hind:1 e:1 attack:1 nord:2 reims:2 skyhawk:1 liaison:2 skymaster:1 weapon:1 recce:1 panhard:2 aml:1 ee:1 cascavel:1 ferret:1 vlra:1 chinese:1 rocket:1 launcher:1 aa:1 gun:1 zpu:1 surface:1 strela:1 reference:1 link:2 external:1 aérienne:1 de:1 fabf:1 |@bigram burkina_faso:8 manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:1 expenditures_percent:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 aviation_orbat:1 aérospatiale_sa:1 sa_alouette:1 alouette_iii:1 utility_helicopter:3 beechcraft_super:1 eurocopter_ecureuil:1 ecureuil_utility:1 helicopter_mil:1 mil_mi:2 mi_hind:1 panhard_aml:1 rocket_launcher:1 external_link:1 |
6,666 | Mediterranean_Sea | Composite satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean Sea is a sea off the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by the Levant. The name Mediterranean means "in the middle of the land" . It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km² (965,000 sq mi), but its connection to the Atlantic (the Strait of Gibraltar) is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. In oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 metres (4,920 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 meters (about 3.27 miles) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. It was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region — the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Phoenician, Carthaginian, Greek, Levantine, Roman, Moorish and Turkish cultures. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. "For the three quarters of the globe, the Mediterranean Sea is similarly the uniting element and the center of World History." Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel The Philosophy of History, p. 87, Dover Publications Inc., 1956 ISBN 0486201120; 1st ed. 1899 Name The term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning "in the middle of earth" (medius, "middle" + terra, "land, earth"). This is either due to the sea being surrounded by land (especially compared to the Atlantic Ocean) or that it was at the center of the known world. The Mediterranean Sea has been known by a number of alternative names throughout human history. For example the Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum (Latin, "Our Sea"). Occasionally it was known as Mare Internum by (Sallust, Jug. 17). Other examples of alternate names include Mesogeios (Μεσόγειος), meaning "inland, interior" (from μεσο, "middle" + γαιος, "land, earth") entry μεσόγαιος at Liddell & Scott in Greek. Biblically, it has been called the "Hinder Sea", due to its location on the west coast of the Holy Land, and therefore behind a person facing the east, as referenced in the Old Testament, and sometimes translated as "Western Sea", (Deut. 11:24; Joel 2:20), and also the "Sea of the Philistines" (Exod. 23:31), due to the peoples occupying a large portion of its shores near the Israelites. However, primarily it was known as the "Great Sea" (Num. 34:6,7; Josh. 1:4, 9:1, 15:47; Ezek. 47:10,15,20), or simply "The Sea" (1 Kings 5:9; comp. 1 Macc. 14:34, 15:11). In Modern Hebrew, it has been called Hayam Hatikhon (הַיָּם הַתִּיכוֹן), "the middle sea", a literal adaptation of the German equivalent Mittelmeer. In Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, "the white sea". In modern Arabic, it is known as (البحر الأبيض المتوسط), "the White Middle Sea." And, lastly, in Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was referenced as (بحر الروم), or "the Roman/Byzantine Sea." History As a sea around which some of the most ancient human civilizations were arranged, it has had a major influence on the history and ways of life of these cultures. It provided a way of trade, colonization and war, and was the basis of life (via fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages. The combination of similarly-shared climate, geology and access to a common sea has led to numerous historical and cultural connections between the ancient and modern societies around the Mediterranean. Geography and climate A satellite image taken from the side of the Strait of Gibraltar. At left, Europe: at right, Africa. The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar on the west and to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, on the east. The Sea of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The long man-made Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. Large islands in the Mediterranean include Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Naxos and Andros in the eastern Mediterranean; Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula and Malta in the central Mediterranean; and Ibiza, Majorca and Minorca (the Balearic Islands) in the western Mediterranean. The climate is a typical Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork. Oceanography Predominant currents for June. Being nearly landlocked affects the Mediterranean Sea's properties; for instance, tides are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is characterized and immediately recognized by its deep blue color. Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Pinet, Paul R. (1996) Invitation to Oceanography, St Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., ISBN (3rd ed.), p.202 Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward. Pinet, p. 206 This pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar. Pinet, pp. 206–7 Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait's surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically-distinct "Mediterranean Intermediate Water" can persist thousands of kilometers away from its source. Pinet, p. 207 Bordering countries Map of the Mediterranean Sea. Twenty-one modern states have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea. They are: Europe (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey Asia (from north to south): Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt Africa (from east to west): Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco Turkey sits mainly in Asia and partially in Europe. Egypt is mainly in Africa but its Sinai peninsula lies in Asia. The southernmost islands of Italy, the Pelagie islands, are geologically part of the African continent. Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): The British overseas territory of Gibraltar The Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands The British sovereign base area of Akrotiri and Dhekelia The Palestinian territories Andorra, Bulgaria, FYR Macedonia, Jordan, Kosovo, Portugal, San Marino, Serbia and the Vatican City, although they do not border the sea, are often considered Mediterranean countries in a wider sense due to their Mediterranean climate, fauna and flora, and/or their cultural affinity with other Mediterranean countries. Major cities bordering the Mediterranean Sea include Malaga, Valencia, Barcelona, Marseille, Nice, Monaco, Genoa, Rome, Naples, Palermo, Valetta, Messina, Bari, Venice, Trieste, Split, Dubrovnik, Athens, Thessaloniki, Istanbul, Izmir, Antalya, Mersin, Adana, Lattakia, Tripoli (Lebanon), Beirut, Haifa, Tel Aviv, Ashdod, Port Said, Damietta, Alexandria, Benghazi, Tripoli (Libya), Sfax, Tunis, Annaba, Algiers and Oran. Subdivisions According to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) treaties, the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into a number of smaller seas, each with their own designation (from west to east): Europa Point, Gibraltar () the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco, the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands "IHO Codes for Oceans & Seas, and Other Code Systems", Limits of Oceans and Seas, Special Publication 23, 3rd Edition 1953, published by the International Hydrographic Organization , the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy), the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania the Ionian Sea between Italy, Greece, and Albania, the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey the Sea of Marmara between the Aegean and Black Sea Other seas Although not recognized by the IHO treaties, there are some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present: the Catalan Sea, between Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily, the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia, the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete, In the Aegean Sea, the Thracian Sea in its north, the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese, the Sea of Crete north of Crete the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus Other features Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from these associations. In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised: the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the northern Greek region of Macedonia the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia the Gulf of Lion, south of France the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe of Italy the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania the Gulf of Haifa, between Haifa and Akko, Israel the Gulf of Sidra, between Tunisia and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya) the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey) the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey) the Bay of Boka, Bay of Kotor, on the coast of Montenegro the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta Geology The geology of the Mediterranean is complex, involving the break-up and then collision of the African and Eurasian plates and the Messinian Salinity Crisis in the late Miocene when the Mediterranean dried up. Geologically the Mediterranean is an Ocean as Oceanic Crust underlies it. http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/mediterranean-sea/geology.html The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 meters (about 3.27 miles) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for . A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions (which in turn are divided into subdivisions), the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Mediterranean. The Western Mediterranean covers an area of about 0.85 million km² (0.33 million sq mi) and the Eastern Mediterranean about 1.65 million km² (0.64 million sq mi). Geodynamic The geodynamic evolution of the Mediterranean Sea was provided by the convergence of European and African plates. This process was driven by the differential spreading along the Atlantic ridge, which led to the closure of the Tethys Ocean and eventually to the Alpine orogenesis. However, the Mediterranean also hosts wide extensional basins and migrating tectonic arcs, in response to its land-locked configuration. Eastern Mediterranean In middle Miocene times, the collision between the Arabian microplate and Eurasia led to the separation between the Tethys and the Indian Oceans. This process determined profound changes in the oceanic circulation patterns, which shifted global climates towards colder conditions. The Hellenic Arc, which has a land-locked configuration, underwent a widespread extension for the last 20 Myr due to a slab roll-back process. In addition, the Hellenic Arc experienced a rapid rotation phase during the Pleistocene, with a counterclockwise component in its eastern portion and a clockwise trend in the western segment. Central Mediterranean The opening of small oceanic basins of the central Mediterranean follows a trench migration and back-arc opening process that occurred during the last 30 Myr. This phase was characterized by the counterclockwise rotation of the Corsica-Sardinia block, which lasted until the Langhian (ca.16 Ma), and was in turn followed by a slab detachment along the northern African margin. Subsequently, a shift of this active extentional deformation led to the opening of the Tyrrenian basin. Western Mediterranean Since Mesozoic to Tertiary times, during convergence between Africa and Iberia, it developed the Betic-Rif mountain belts. Tectonic models for its evolution include: rapid motion of Alboran microplate, subduction zone and radial extentional collapse caused by convective removal of lithosferic mantle. The development of these intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to the onset of two marine gateways which were progressively closed during the late Miocene by an interplay of tectonic and glacio-eustatic processes. Paleoclimatic Because of its peculiar latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is involved in the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history. Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past. Paleoenvironmental analysis Its semi-enclosed configuration makes the oceanic gateways critical in controlling circulation and environmental evolution in the Mediterranean Sea. Water circulation patterns are driven by a number of interactive factors, such as climate and bathymetry, which can lead to precipitation of evaporites. During late Miocene times, a so-called "Messinian Salinity Crisis" (MSC hereafter) occurred, which was triggered by the closure of the Atlantic gateway. Evaporites accumulated in the Red Sea Basin (late Miocene), in the Carpatian foredeep (middle Miocene) and in the whole Mediterranean area (Messinian). An accurate age estimate of the MSC—5.96 Ma—has recently been astronomically achieved; furthermore, this event seems to have occurred synchronously. The beginning of the MSC is supposed to have been of tectonic origin; however, an astronomical control (eccentricity) might also have been involved. In the Mediterranean basin, diatomites are regularly found underneath the evaporitic deposits, thus suggesting (albeit not clearly so far) a connection between their geneses. The present-day Atlantic gateway, i.e. the Strait of Gibraltar, finds its origin in the early Pliocene. However, two other connections between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea existed in the past: the Betic Corridor (southern Spain) and the Rifian Corridor (northern Morocco). The former closed during Tortonian times, thus providing a "Tortonian Salinity Crisis" well before the MSC; the latter closed about 6 Ma, allowing exchanges in the mammal fauna between Africa and Europe. Nowadays, evaporation is more relevant than the water yield supplied by riverine water and precipitation, so that salinity in the Mediterranean is higher than in the Atlantic. These conditions result in the outflow of warm saline Mediterranean deep water across Gibraltar, which is in turn counterbalanced by an inflow of a less saline surface current of cold oceanic water. In the last few centuries, mankind has done much to alter Mediterranean geology. Structures have been built all along the coastlines, exacerbating and rerouting erosional patterns. Many pollution-producing boats travel the sea that unbalance the natural chemical ratios of the region. Beaches have been mismanaged, and the overuse of the sea's natural and marine resources continues to be a problem. This misuse speeds along and/or confounds natural processes. The actual geography has also been altered by the building of dams and canals. The Mediterranean was once thought to be the remnant of the Tethys Ocean. It is now known to be a structurally younger ocean basin known as Neotethys. Neotethys formed during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic rifting of the African and Eurasian plates. Ecology and biota As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian Salinity Crisis, Hsu K.J., "When the Mediterranean Dried Up" Scientific American, Vol. 227, December 1972, p32 the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded. The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of Bottlenose Dolphins in the western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding grounds for Loggerhead Sea Turtles in Europe. The Alboran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish. In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals. Environmental problems Invasive species The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hypersaline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalized with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonize the Eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean invasion. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species. Invasive species originating from the Red Sea and introduced into the Mediterranean by the construction of the canal have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. Up to this day, about 300 species native to the Red Sea have already been identified in the Mediterranean Sea, and there are probably others yet unidentified. In recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet additional species. Galil, B.S. and Zenetos, A. (2002). A sea change: exotics in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, in: Leppäkoski, E. et al. (2002). Invasive aquatic species of Europe: distribution, impacts and management. pp. 325-336. Pollution Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650 million tons of sewage, 129,000 tons of mineral oil, 60,000 tons of mercury, 3,800 tons of lead and 36,000 tons of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year. http://www.explorecrete.com/nature/mediterranean.html The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.' http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28084.htm Many marine species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. The Mediterranean Monk Seal is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals. http://www.monachus-guardian.org/factfiles/medit01.htm The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per square kilometre. Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags. > References See also Mediterranean Basin Mediterranean climate Mediterranean diet Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Mediterranean Games Mediterranean race Mediterranean sea (oceanography) Mediterranean Union Familial Mediterranean fever History of the Mediterranean region Holy League (Mediterranean) Inland Sea, which is sometimes named the Japanese Mediterranean Sea List of islands in the Mediterranean Suez Canal Babelmed, the site of the Mediterranean cultures Piri Reis, early Mediterranean maps Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean External links Greenpeace campaign "Defending Our Mediterranean": Threats, Solutions and Photo Petition Planblue - Environment and Development in the Mediterranean Region Finding Nino By Marc Llewellyn - winner of the ASTW Travel Book of the Year Award, about the Mediterranean, finding oneself, and becoming a peasant farmer. be-x-old:Міжземнае мора | Mediterranean_Sea 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6,667 | Air_conditioning | Air conditioning refers to the cooling and dehumidification of indoor air for thermal comfort. In a broader sense, the term can refer to any form of cooling, heating, ventilation or disinfection that modifies the condition of air. ASHRAE Terminology of HVAC&R, ASHRAE, Inc., Atlanta, 1991, An air conditioner (often referred to as AC or air con.) is an appliance, system, or mechanism designed to stabilise the air temperature and humidity within an area (used for cooling as well as heating depending on the air properties at a given time), typically using a refrigeration cycle but sometimes using evaporation, most commonly for comfort cooling in buildings and motor-cars. The concept of air conditioning is known to have been applied in Ancient Rome, where aqueduct water was circulated through the walls of certain houses to cool them. Similar techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season. Modern air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th century, and the first large-scale electrical air conditioning was invented and used in 1902 by Willis Haviland Carrier. History While moving heat via machinery to provide air conditioning is a relatively modern invention, the cooling of buildings is not. Wealthy ancient Romans circulated aqueduct water through walls to cool their luxurious houses. The 2nd century Chinese inventor Ding Huan (fl. 180) of the Han Dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Pages 99, 151, 233. In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–762) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Tian) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Pages 134 & 151. During the subsequent Song Dynasty (960–1279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Page 151. Medieval Persia had buildings that used cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season: cisterns (large open pools in a central courtyards, not underground tanks) collected rain water; wind towers had windows that could catch wind and internal vanes to direct the airflow down into the building, usually over the cistern and out through a downwind cooling tower. Ancient air conditioning, The World, January 11, 2007 Cistern water evaporated, cooling the air in the building. Ventilators were invented in medieval Egypt and were widely used in many houses throughout Cairo during the Middle Ages. These ventilators were later described in detail by Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi in 1200, who reported that almost every house in Cairo has a ventilator, and that they cost anywhere from 1 to 500 dinars depending on their sizes and shapes. Most ventilators in the city were oriented towards the Qibla, as was the city in general. David A. King (1984). "Architecture and Astronomy: The Ventilators of Medieval Cairo and Their Secrets", Journal of the American Oriental Society 104 (1), p. 97-133. In the 1600s Cornelius Drebbel demonstrated "turning Summer into Winter" for James I of England by adding salt to water. In 1820, British scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate. In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. History of Air Conditioning Source: Jones Jr., Malcolm. "Air Conditioning". Newsweek. Winter 1997 v130 n24-A p42(2). Retrieved 1 January 2007. He hoped eventually to use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings. He even envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. The History of Air Conditioning Lou Kren, Properties Magazine Inc. Retrieved 1 January 2007. Though his prototype leaked and performed irregularly, Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851 for his ice-making machine. His hopes for its success vanished soon afterwards when his chief financial backer died; Gorrie did not get the money he needed to develop the machine. According to his biographer, Vivian M. Sherlock, he blamed the "Ice King", Frederic Tudor, for his failure, suspecting that Tudor had launched a smear campaign against his invention. Dr. Gorrie died impoverished in 1855 and the idea of air conditioning faded away for 50 years. Early commercial applications of air conditioning were manufactured to cool air for industrial processing rather than personal comfort. In 1902 the first modern electrical air conditioning was invented by Willis Haviland Carrier in Syracuse, NY. Designed to improve manufacturing process control in a printing plant, his invention controlled not only temperature but also humidity. The low heat and humidity were to help maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America was formed to meet rising demand. Over time air conditioning came to be used to improve comfort in homes and automobiles. Residential sales expanded dramatically in the 1950s. In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte, North Carolina, USA, was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning", using it in a patent claim he filed that year as an analogue to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process. He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company. This evaporation of water in air, to provide a cooling effect, is now known as evaporative cooling. The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable gases like ammonia, methyl chloride, and propane which could result in fatal accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr. created the first chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon, in 1928. The refrigerant was much safer for humans but was later found to be harmful to the atmosphere by ozone depletion in the stratosphere. The resulting biological consequences included an increase in skin cancer, damage to plants, and the reduction of ocean plankton. Freon is a trademark name of DuPont for any Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), Hydrogenated CFC (HCFC), or Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant, the name of each including a number indicating molecular composition (R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134A). The blend most used in direct-expansion home and building comfort cooling is an HCFC known as R-22. It is to be phased out for use in new equipment by 2010 and completely discontinued by 2020. R-12 was the most common blend used in automobiles in the US until 1994 when most changed to R-134A. R-11 and R-12 are no longer manufactured in the US, the only source for purchase being the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems. Several non-ozone depleting refrigerants have been developed as alternatives, including R-410A, invented by Honeywell (formerly AlliedSignal) in Buffalo NY and sold under the Genetron (R) AZ-20 name it was first commercially used by Carrier under the brand name Puron. Innovation in air conditioning technologies continue, with much recent emphasis placed on energy efficiency, and improving indoor air quality. Reducing climate change impacts is an important area of innovation, because in addition to greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy use, CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs are potent greenhouse gases when leaked to the atmosphere. For example, R-22 (also known as HCFC-22) has a global warming potential about 1,800 times higher than CO2 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Table 2.14 . As an alternative to conventional refrigerants, natural alternatives like CO2 (R-744) have been proposed. The current status in Air Conditioning - papers & presentations Air conditioning applications Air conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into comfort and process. Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that remains relatively constant in a range preferred by humans despite changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads. Air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible, for otherwise they'd have to be built narrower or with light wells so that inner spaces receive sufficient outdoor air via natural ventilation. Air conditioning also allows buildings to be taller since wind speed increases significantly with altitude making natural ventilation impractical for very tall buildings. Comfort applications for various building types are quite different and may be categorized as Low-Rise Residential buildings, including single family houses, duplexes, and small apartment buildings High-Rise Residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and apartment blocks Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce, including offices, malls, shopping centers, restaurants, etc. Institutional buildings, which includes hospitals, governmental, academic, and so on. Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is desired. In addition to buildings, air conditioning can be used for many types of transportation - motor-cars and other land vehicles, trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for a process being carried out, regardless of internal heat and humidity loads and external weather conditions. Although often in the comfort range, it is the needs of the process that determine conditions, not human preference. Process applications include these: Hospital operating theatres, in which air is filtered to high levels to reduce infection risk and the humidity controlled to limit patient dehydration. Although temperatures are often in the comfort range, some specialist procedures such as open heart surgery require low temperatures (about 18 °C, 64 °F) and others such as neonatal relatively high temperatures (about 28 °C, 82 °F). Cleanrooms for the production of integrated circuits, pharmaceuticals, and the like, in which very high levels of air cleanliness and control of temperature and humidity are required for the success of the process. Facilities for breeding laboratory animals. Since many animals normally only reproduce in spring, holding them in rooms at which conditions mirror spring all year can cause them to reproduce year-round. Aircraft air conditioning. Although nominally aimed at providing comfort for passengers and cooling of equipment, aircraft air conditioning presents a special process because of the low air pressure outside the aircraft. Data centers Textile factories Physical testing facilities Plants and farm growing areas Nuclear facilities Chemical and biological laboratories Mines Industrial environments Food cooking and processing areas In both comfort and process applications the objective may be to not only control temperature, but also humidity, air quality and air movement from space to space. Humidity control Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the humidity of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the dewpoint) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air, (much like an ice-cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass), sending the water to a drain and removing water vapor from the cooled space and lowering the relative humidity. Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space. In food retailing establishments large open chiller cabinets act as highly effective air dehumidifying units. A specific type of air conditioner that is used only for dehumidifying is called a dehumidifier. A dehumidifier is different from a regular air conditioner in that both the evaporator and condensor coils are placed in the same air path, and the entire unit is placed in the environment that is intended to be conditioned (in this case dehumidified), rather than requiring the condensor coil to be outdoors. Having the condensor coil in the same air path as the evaporator coil produces warm, dehumidified air. The evaporator (cold) coil is placed first in the air path, dehumidifying the air exactly as a regular air conditioner does. The air next passes over the condensor coil re-warming the now dehumidified air. Note that the terms "condensor coil" and "evaporator coil" do not refer to the behavior of water in the air as it passes over each coil; instead they refer to the phases of the refrigeration cycle. Having the condensor coil in the main air path rather than in a separate, outdoor air path (as in a regular air conditioner) results in two consequenses-- the output air is warm rather than cold, and the unit is able to be placed anywhere in the environment to be conditioned, without a need to have the condensor outdoors. Unlike a regular air conditioner, a dehumidifier will actually heat a room just as an electric heater that draws the same amount of power (watts) as the dehumidifier. A regular air conditioner transfers energy out of the room by means of the condensor coil, which is outside the room (outdoors). This is a thermodynamic system where the room serves as the system and energy is transferred out of the system. Conversely with a dehumidifier, no energy is transferred out of the thermodynamic system (room) because the air conditioning unit (dehumidifier) is entirely inside the room. Therefore all of the power consumed by the dehumidifier is energy that is input into the thermodynamic system (the room), and remains in the room (as heat). In addition, if the condensed water has been removed from the room, the amount of heat needed to boil that water has been added to the room. This is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler. Dehumidifiers are commonly used in cold, damp climates to prevent mold growth indoors, especially in basements. They are also sometimes used in hot, humid climates for comfort because they reduce the humidity which causes discomfort (just as a regular air conditioner, but without cooling the room). The engineering of physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures is named Psychrometrics. Health implications A poorly maintained air-conditioning system can occasionally promote the growth and spread of microorganisms, such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaires' disease, or thermophilic actinomycetes, Sick building syndrome but as long as the air conditioner is kept clean these health hazards can be avoided. Conversely, air conditioning, including filtration, humidification, cooling, disinfection, etc., can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where an appropriate atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. Air conditioning can have a positive effect on sufferers of allergies and asthma. Home Control of Asthma & Allergies In serious heat waves, air conditioning can save the lives of the elderly. Some local authorities even set up public cooling centers for the benefit of those without air conditioning at home. Poorly operating air conditioning systems can generate sound levels that contribute to hearing loss, if exposures are endured over a long term. These levels are similar to the exposure of living near a busy highway or airport for a considerable length of time. Properly functioning air conditioners are much quieter. In many people, the air flow (draught) caused by an otherwise clean air conditioning system of a car may cause acute sinusitis. Energy use It should be noted that in a thermodynamically closed system, any energy input into the system that is being maintained at a set temperature (which is a standard mode of operation for modern air conditioners) requires that the energy removal rate from the air conditioner increase. This increase has the effect that for each unit of energy input into the system (say to power a light bulb in the closed system) this requires the air conditioner to remove that energy. In order to do that the air conditioner must increase its consumption by the inverse of its efficiency times the input of energy. As an example, presume that inside the closed system a 100 watt light bulb is activated, and the air conditioner has an efficiency of 200%. The air conditioner's energy consumption will increase by 50 watts to compensate for this, thus making the 100 W light bulb utilise a total of 150 W of energy. Note that it is typical for air conditioners to operate at "efficiencies" of significantly greater than 100% , see Coefficient of performance. Automobile air conditioners Air conditioner systems are designed to allow the driver and or passengers to feel more comfortable during uncomfortably warm humid or hot trips in a vehicle. Cars in hot climates often are fitted with air conditioning. There has been much debate and discussion on what the usage of an air conditioner does to the gas mileage of a vehicle. Factors such as wind resistance aerodynamics and engine power and weight have to be factored into finding the true variance between using the air conditioning system and not using it when figuring out difference in actual gas mileage. Other factors on the impact on the engine and an overall engine heat increase can have a impact on the cooling system of the vehicle. The Packard Motor Car Company was the first automobile manufacturer to build air conditioners into its cars, beginning in 1939. Michigan Fast Facts and Trivia, retrieved 15 December 2008 These air conditioners were originally optional, and could be installed for an extra $274 (about $4,050 in 2007 dollars), Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Timeline, retrieved 15 December 2008 though they took up the entire trunk space and were not very efficient. General Motors introduced a more efficient air conditioner beginning with its 1954 Pontiac V8 models, but automobile air conditioners would not become truly commonplace until the 1970s and 1980s. Car Air Conditioning, retrieved 15 December 2008 Portable air conditioners A portable air conditioner is one on wheels that can be easily transported inside a home or office. They are currently available with capacities of about 6,000 to 60,000 BTU/h (1,800 to 18,000 watts output) and with and without electric resistance heaters. Portable true air conditioners come in two forms, split and hose. Evaporative coolers, sometimes called conditioners, are also portable. Air-cooled portable air conditioners are compressor-based refrigerant system that use air to exchange heat, in the same way as a car or typical household air conditioner. With this type of system the air is dehumidified as it is cooled. They collect water condensed from the cooled air, and produce hot air which must be vented outside of the cooled area (they transfer heat from the air in the cooled area to air which must be vented). A split system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit. Hose systems, which can be Air-to-Air and Monoblock, are vented to the outside via air ducts. The "monoblock" version collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The Air-to-Air version re-evaporates the water and discharges it through the ducted hose, and can run continuously. A single-duct unit draws air out of the room to cool its condenser, and then vents it outside. This air is replaced by hot air from outside or other rooms, thus reducing efficiency. Modern units run on approximately 1 to 3 ratio i.e., to produce 3 kW of cooling this will use 1 kW of electricity. A dual-duct unit draws air from outside to cool its condenser instead of from inside the room, and thus is more efficient than most single-duct units. As a rule of thumb, 400 square feet (37 m²) can be cooled per 12,000 BTU/h (3.5 kW or one ton of air conditioning) by a refrigerative air conditioner. However, other factors will affect the total heat load. Evaporative air coolers, sometimes called air conditioners, do not have a compressor or condenser. Instead liquid water is evaporated, releasing the vapour into the cooled area. Evaporating water absorbs a significant amount of heat, the latent heat of vaporisation, cooling the air—humans and other animals use the same mechanism to cool themselves by sweating. Disadvantages are that unless ambient humidity is low (dry climate) cooling is limited and the cooled air is very humid and can feel clammy. They have the advantage of needing no hoses to vent heat outside the cooled area, making them truly portable; and they are cheaper to install and use much less energy than refrigerative air conditioners. Heat pumps Heat pump is a term for a type of air conditioner in which the refrigeration cycle is able to be reversed, producing heat instead of cold in the indoor environment. They are also commonly referred to, and marketed as, a reverse cycle air conditioner. Using an air conditioner in this way to produce heat is significantly more efficient than electric resistance heating. Some home-owners elect to have a heat pump system installed, which is actually simply a central air conditioner with heat pump functionality (the refrigeration cycle is reversed in the winter). When the heat pump is enabled, the indoor evaporator coil switches roles and becomes the condensor coil, producing heat. The outdoor condensor unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator, and produces cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air). Heat pumps are more popular in milder winter climates where the temperature is frequently in the range of 40-55°F (4-13°C), because heat pumps become inefficient in more extreme cold. This is due to the problem of the outdoor unit's coil forming ice, which blocks air flow over the coil. To compensate for this, the heat pump system must temporarily switch back into the regular air conditioning mode to switch the outdoor evaporator coil back to being the condensor coil so that it can heat up and de-ice. A heat pump system therefore will have a form of electric resistance heating in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode in order to compensate for the temporary air conditioning, which would otherwise generate undesirable cold air in the winter. The icing problem becomes much more prevalent with lower outdoor temperatures, so heat pumps are commonly installed in tandem with a more conventional form of heating, such as a natural gas or oil furnace, which is used instead of the heat pump during harsher winter temperatures. In this case, the heat pump is used efficiently during the milder temperatures, and the system is switched to the conventional heat source when the outdoor temperature is lower. Some more expensive window air conditioning units have the heat pump function. However, a window unit that has a "heat" selection is not necessarily a heat pump because some units use electric resistance heat when heating is desired. A unit that has true heat pump functionality will be indicated in its literature by the term "heat pump". Professional bodies American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers) is an organization devoted to the advancement of indoor-environment-control technology in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) industry. ASHRAE was founded in 1894 to serve as a source of technical standards and guidelines. Since that time, it has grown into an international society that offers educational information, courses, seminars, career guidance, and publications. The organization also promotes a code of ethics for HVAC professionals and provides for liaison with the general public. Its headquarters are in Atlanta, GA. Australian Institute of Refrigeration Air Conditioning and Heating The Australian Institute of Refrigeration Air Conditioning and Heating (AIRAH) was founded in 1920 and currently has around 10,000 members. ''' ACCA (Air Conditioning Contractors of America) The ACCA is a large organization of American HVACR professionals. They have over four thousand members and have individual charters in each state. Arizona Air Conditioning Repair - Valley Services Air conditioning & Appliances ACCA Also see Ground-coupled heat exchanger References | Air_conditioning |@lemmatized air:152 condition:37 refers:1 cooling:13 dehumidification:1 indoor:8 thermal:2 comfort:16 broad:1 sense:1 term:7 refer:5 form:6 heating:9 ventilation:5 disinfection:2 modify:1 ashrae:4 terminology:1 hvac:3 r:15 inc:2 atlanta:2 conditioner:40 often:4 ac:1 con:1 appliance:2 system:27 mechanism:2 design:4 stabilise:1 temperature:14 humidity:14 within:1 area:8 use:34 cool:20 well:5 heat:41 depend:2 property:3 give:1 time:6 typically:1 refrigeration:8 cycle:5 sometimes:4 evaporation:3 commonly:4 building:21 motor:4 car:8 concept:1 conditioning:26 know:5 apply:2 ancient:3 rome:1 aqueduct:2 water:22 circulate:2 wall:2 certain:1 house:5 similar:3 technique:1 medieval:4 persia:2 involve:1 cistern:5 wind:6 tower:4 hot:7 season:2 modern:5 emerge:1 advance:1 chemistry:1 century:2 first:7 large:4 scale:1 electrical:2 invent:5 willis:3 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6,668 | Keynesian_economics | Keynesian economics (also called Keynesianism () and Keynesian Theory) is a macroeconomic theory based on the ideas of 20th-century British economist John Maynard Keynes. Keynesian economics argues that private sector decisions sometimes lead to inefficient macroeconomic outcomes and therefore advocates active policy responses by the public sector, including monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government to stabilize output over the business cycle. The theories forming the basis of Keynesian economics were first presented in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936. In Keynes's theory, some micro-level actions of individuals and firms can lead to aggregate macroeconomic outcomes in which the economy operates below its potential output and growth. Some classical economists had believed in Say's Law, that supply creates its own demand, so that a "general glut" would therefore be impossible. Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output. Keynes argued that government policies could be used to increase aggregate demand, thus increasing economic activity and reducing unemployment and deflation. Keynes argued that the solution to depression was to stimulate the economy ("inducement to invest") through some combination of two approaches: a reduction in interest rates and government investment in infrastructure. Investment by government injects income, which results in more spending in the general economy, which in turn stimulates more production and investment involving still more income and spending and so forth. The initial stimulation starts a cascade of events, whose total increase in economic activity is a multiple of the original investment. A central conclusion of Keynesian economics is that, in some situations, no strong automatic mechanism moves output and employment towards full employment levels. This conclusion conflicts with economic approaches that assume a general tendency towards an equilibrium. In the 'neoclassical synthesis', which combines Keynesian macro concepts with a micro foundation, the conditions of general equilibrium allow for price adjustment to achieve this goal. The New classical macroeconomics movement, which began in the late 1960s and early 1970s, criticized Keynesian theories, while New Keynesian economics have sought to base Keynes's idea on more rigorous theoretical foundations. More broadly, Keynes saw his as a general theory, in which utilization of resources could be high or low, whereas previous economics focused on the particular case of full utilization. Some interpretations of Keynes have emphasized his stress on the international coordination of Keynesian policies, the need for international economic institutions, and the ways in which economic forces could lead to or could promote peace. Donald Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace, Oxford University Press, 2006. Keynes and the Classics Keynes sought to distinguish his theories from "classical economics," by which he meant the economic theories of David Ricardo and his followers, including John Stuart Mill, Alfred Marshall, F.Y. Edgeworth, and A. Cecil Pigou. A central tenet of the classical view, known as Say's law, states that “supply creates its own demand.” Say's Law can be interpreted in two ways. First, the claim that the total value of output is equal to the sum of income earned in production is a result of a national income accounting identity, and is therefore indisputable. A second and stronger claim, however, that the "costs of output are always covered in the aggregate by the sale-proceeds resulting from demand" depends on how consumption and saving are linked to production and investment. In particular, Keynes argued that the second, strong form of Say's Law only holds if increases in individual savings exactly match an increase in aggregate investment. (cf. General Theory, Ch.1,2) Keynes sought to develop a theory that would explain determinants of saving, consumption, investment and production. In that theory, the interaction of aggregate demand and aggregate supply determines the level of output and employment in the economy. Because of what he considered the failure of the “Classical Theory” in the 1930s, Keynes firmly objects to its main theory--adjustments in prices would automatically make demand tend to the full employment level. Neo-classical theory supports that the two main costs that shift demand and supply are labor and money. Through the distribution of the monetary policy, demand and supply can be adjusted. If there were more labor than demand for it, wages would fall until hiring began again. If there was too much saving, and not enough consumption, then interest rates would fall until people either cut their savings rate or started borrowing. Wages and spending During the Great Depression, the classical theory defined economic collapse as simply a lost incentive to produce. Mass unemployment was caused only by high and rigid real wages. To Keynes, the determination of wages is more complicated. First, he argued that it is not real but nominal wages that are set in negotiations between employers and workers, as opposed to a barter relationship. First, nominal wage cuts would be difficult to put into effect because of laws and wage contracts. Even classical economists admitted that these exist; unlike Keynes, they advocated abolishing minimum wages, unions, and long-term contracts, increasing labor-market flexibility. However, to Keynes, people will resist nominal wage reductions, even without unions, until they see other wages falling and a general fall of prices. He also argued that to boost employment, real wages had to go down: nominal wages would have to fall more than prices. However, doing so would reduce consumer demand, so that the aggregate demand for goods would drop. This would in turn reduce business sales revenues and expected profits. Investment in new plants and equipment—perhaps already discouraged by previous excesses—would then become more risky, less likely. Instead of raising business expectations, wage cuts could make matters much worse. Further, if wages and prices were falling, people would start to expect them to fall. This could make the economy spiral downward as those who had money would simply wait as falling prices made it more valuable—rather than spending. As Irving Fisher argued in 1933, in his Debt-Deflation Theory of Great Depressions, deflation (falling prices) can make a depression deeper as falling prices and wages made pre-existing nominal debts more valuable in real terms. Excessive saving Right|Classics on Saving and Investment.To Keynes, excessive saving, i.e. saving beyond planned investment, was a serious problem, encouraging recession or even depression. Excessive saving results if investment falls, perhaps due to falling consumer demand, over-investment in earlier years, or pessimistic business expectations, and if saving does not immediately fall in step, the economy would decline. The classical economists argued that interest rates would fall due to the excess supply of "loanable funds". The first diagram, adapted from the only graph in The General Theory, shows this process. (For simplicity, other sources of the demand for or supply of funds are ignored here.) Assume that fixed investment in capital goods falls from "old I" to "new I" (step a). Second (step b), the resulting excess of saving causes interest-rate cuts, abolishing the excess supply: so again we have saving (S) equal to investment. The interest-rate (i) fall prevents that of production and employment. Keynes had a complex argument against this laissez-faire response. The graph below summarizes his argument, assuming again that fixed investment falls (step A). First, saving does not fall much as interest rates fall, since the income and substitution effects of falling rates go in conflicting directions. Second, since planned fixed investment in plant and equipment is mostly based on long-term expectations of future profitability, that spending does not rise much as interest rates fall. So S and I are drawn as steep (inelastic) in the graph. Given the inelasticity of both demand and supply, a large interest-rate fall is needed to close the saving/investment gap. As drawn, this requires a negative interest rate at equilibrium (where the new I line would intersect the old S line). However, this negative interest rate is not necessary to Keynes's argument. Keynes on Saving and Investment.Third, Keynes argued that saving and investment are not the main determinants of interest rates, especially in the short run. Instead, the supply of and the demand for the stock of money determine interest rates in the short run. (This is not drawn in the graph.) Neither changes quickly in response to excessive saving to allow fast interest-rate adjustment. Finally, because of fear of capital losses on assets besides money, Keynes suggested that there may be a "liquidity trap" setting a floor under which interest rates cannot fall. (In this trap, bond-holders, fearing rises in interest rates (because rates are so low), fear capital losses on their bonds and thus try to sell them to attain money (liquidity).) Even economists who reject this liquidity trap now realize that nominal interest rates cannot fall below zero (or slightly higher). In the diagram, the equilibrium suggested by the new I line and the old S line cannot be reached, so that excess saving persists. Some (such as Paul Krugman) see this latter kind of liquidity trap as prevailing in Japan in the 1990s. Even if this "trap" does not exist, there is a fourth element to Keynes's critique (perhaps the most important part). Saving involves not spending all of one's income. It thus means insufficient demand for business output, unless it is balanced by other sources of demand, such as fixed investment. Thus, excessive saving corresponds to an unwanted accumulation of inventories, or what classical economists called a general glut . This pile-up of unsold goods and materials encourages businesses to decrease both production and employment. This in turn lowers people's incomes—and saving, causing a leftward shift in the S line in the diagram (step B). For Keynes, the fall in income did most of the job by ending excessive saving and allowing the loanable funds market to attain equilibrium. Instead of interest-rate adjustment solving the problem, a recession does so. Thus in the diagram, the interest-rate change is small. Whereas the classical economists assumed that the level of output and income was constant and given at any one time (except for short-lived deviations), Keynes saw this as the key variable that adjusted to equate saving and investment. Finally, a recession undermines the business incentive to engage in fixed investment. With falling incomes and demand for products, the desired demand for factories and equipment (not to mention housing) will fall. This accelerator effect would shift the I line to the left again, a change not shown in the diagram above. This recreates the problem of excessive saving and encourages the recession to continue. In sum, to Keynes there is interaction between excess supplies in different markets, as unemployment in labor markets encourages excessive saving—and vice-versa. Rather than prices adjusting to attain equilibrium, the main story is one of quantity adjustment allowing recessions and possible attainment of underemployment equilibrium. Active fiscal policy As noted, the classicals wanted to balance the government budget. To Keynes, this would exacerbate the underlying problem: following either policy would raise saving (broadly defined) and thus lower the demand for both products and labor. For example, Keynesians see Herbert Hoover's June 1932 tax increase as making the Depression worse. Keynes's ideas influenced Franklin D. Roosevelt's view that insufficient buying-power caused the Depression. During his presidency, Roosevelt adopted some aspects of Keynesian economics, especially after 1937, when, in the depths of the Depression, the United States suffered from recession yet again following fiscal contraction. But to many the true success of Keynesian policy can be seen at the onset of World War II, which provided a kick to the world economy, removed uncertainty, and forced the rebuilding of destroyed capital. Keynesian ideas became almost official in social-democratic Europe after the war and in the U.S. in the 1960s. Keynes's theory suggested that active government policy could be effective in managing the economy. Rather than seeing unbalanced government budgets as wrong, Keynes advocated what has been called countercyclical fiscal policies, that is policies which acted against the tide of the business cycle: deficit spending when a nation's economy suffers from recession or when recovery is long-delayed and unemployment is persistently high—and the suppression of inflation in boom times by either increasing taxes or cutting back on government outlays. He argued that governments should solve problems in the short run rather than waiting for market forces to do it in the long run, because "in the long run, we are all dead." This contrasted with the classical and neoclassical economic analysis of fiscal policy. Fiscal stimulus (deficit spending) could actuate production. But to these schools, there was no reason to believe that this stimulation would outrun the side-effects that "crowd out" private investment: first, it would increase the demand for labor and raise wages, hurting profitability; Second, a government deficit increases the stock of government bonds, reducing their market price and encouraging high interest rates, making it more expensive for business to finance fixed investment. Thus, efforts to stimulate the economy would be self-defeating. The Keynesian response is that such fiscal policy is only appropriate when unemployment is persistently high, above what is now termed the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment, or "NAIRU". In that case, crowding out is minimal. Further, private investment can be "crowded in": fiscal stimulus raises the market for business output, raising cash flow and profitability, spurring business optimism. To Keynes, this accelerator effect meant that government and business could be complements rather than substitutes in this situation. Second, as the stimulus occurs, gross domestic product rises, raising the amount of saving, helping to finance the increase in fixed investment. Finally, government outlays need not always be wasteful: government investment in public goods that will not be provided by profit-seekers will encourage the private sector's growth. That is, government spending on such things as basic research, public health, education, and infrastructure could help the long-term growth of potential output. A Keynesian economist might point out that classical and neoclassical theory does not explain why firms acting as "special interests" to influence government policy are assumed to produce a negative outcome, while those same firms acting with the same motivations outside of the government are supposed to produce positive outcomes. Libertarians counter that because both parties consent, free trade increases net happiness, but government imposes its will by force, decreasing happiness. Therefore firms that manipulate the government do net harm, while firms that respond to the free market do net good. In Keynes' theory, there must be significant slack in the labor market before fiscal expansion is justified. Both conservative and some neoliberal economists question this assumption, unless labor unions or the government "meddle" in the free market, creating persistent supply-side or classical unemployment. Their solution is to increase labor-market flexibility, e.g., by cutting wages, busting unions, and deregulating business. Deficit spending is not Keynesianism. Keynesianism recommends counter-cyclical policies to smooth out fluctuations in the business cycle. An example of a counter-cyclical policy is raising taxes to cool the economy and to prevent inflation when there is abundant demand-side growth, and engaging in deficit spending on labor-intensive infrastructure projects to stimulate employment and stabilize wages during economic downturns. Classical economics, on the other hand, argues that one should cut taxes when there are budget surpluses, and cut spending—or, less likely, increase taxes—during economic downturns. Keynesian economists believe that adding to profits and incomes during boom cycles through tax cuts, and removing income and profits from the economy through cuts in spending and/or increased taxes during downturns, tends to exacerbate the negative effects of the business cycle. This effect is especially pronounced when the government controls a large fraction of the economy, and is therefore one reason fiscal conservatives advocate a much smaller government. "Multiplier effect" and interest rates Two aspects of Keynes' model had implications for policy: First, there is the "Keynesian multiplier", first developed by Richard F. Kahn in 1931. Exogenous increases in spending, such as an increase in government outlays, increases total spending by a multiple of that increase. A government could stimulate a great deal of new production with a modest outlay if: The people who receive this money then spend most on consumption goods and save the rest. This extra spending allows businesses to hire more people and pay them, which in turn allows a further increase consumer spending. This process continues. At each step, the increase in spending is smaller than in the previous step, so that the multiplier process tapers off and allows the attainment of an equilibrium. This story is modified and moderated if we move beyond a "closed economy" and bring in the role of taxation: the rise in imports and tax payments at each step reduces the amount of induced consumer spending and the size of the multiplier effect. Second, Keynes re-analyzed the effect of the interest rate on investment. In the classical model, the supply of funds (saving) determined the amount of fixed business investment. That is, since all savings was placed in banks, and all business investors in need of borrowed funds went to banks, the amount of savings determined the amount that was available to invest. To Keynes, the amount of investment was determined independently by long-term profit expectations and, to a lesser extent, the interest rate. The latter opens the possibility of regulating the economy through money supply changes, via monetary policy. Under conditions such as the Great Depression, Keynes argued that this approach would be relatively ineffective compared to fiscal policy. But during more "normal" times, monetary expansion can stimulate the economy, mostly by encouraging construction of new housing. Postwar Keynesianism After Keynes, Keynesian analysis was combined with neoclassical economics to produce what is generally termed the "neoclassical synthesis" which dominates mainstream macroeconomic thought. Though it was widely held that there was no strong automatic tendency to full employment, many believed that if government policy were used to ensure it, the economy would behave as classical or neoclassical theory predicted. In the post-WWII years, Keynes's policy ideas were widely accepted. For the first time, governments prepared good quality economic statistics on an ongoing basis and had a theory that told them what to do. In this era of new liberalism and social democracy, most western capitalist countries enjoyed low, stable unemployment and modest inflation. It was with John Hicks that Keynesian economics produced a clear model which policy-makers could use to attempt to understand and control economic activity. This model, the IS-LM model is nearly as influential as Keynes' original analysis in determining actual policy and economics education. It relates aggregate demand and employment to three exogenous quantities, i.e., the amount of money in circulation, the government budget, and the state of business expectations. This model was very popular with economists after World War II because it could be understood in terms of general equilibrium theory. This encouraged a much more static vision of macroeconomics than that described above. The second main part of a Keynesian policy-maker's theoretical apparatus was the Phillips curve. This curve, which was more of an empirical observation than a theory, indicated that increased employment, and decreased unemployment, implied increased inflation. Keynes had only predicted that falling unemployment would cause a higher price, not a higher inflation rate. Thus, the economist could use the IS-LM model to predict, for example, that an increase in the money supply would raise output and employment—and then use the Phillips curve to predict an increase in inflation. Through the 1950s, moderate degrees of government demand leading industrial development, and use of fiscal and monetary counter-cyclical policies continued, and reached a peak in the "go go" 1960s, where it seemed to many Keynesians that prosperity was now permanent. However, with the oil shock of 1973, and the economic problems of the 1970s, modern liberal economics began to fall out of favor. During this time, many economies experienced high and rising unemployment, coupled with high and rising inflation, contradicting the Phillips curve's prediction. This stagflation meant that the simultaneous application of expansionary (anti-recession) and contractionary (anti-inflation) policies appeared to be necessary, a clear impossibility. This dilemma led to the end of the Keynesian near-consensus of the 1960s, and the rise throughout the 1970s of ideas based upon more classical analysis, including monetarism, supply-side economics and new classical economics. At the same time Keynesians began during the period to reorganize their thinking (some becoming associated with New Keynesian economics); one strategy, utilized also as a critique of the notably high unemployment and potentially disappointing GNP growth rates associated with the latter two theories by the mid-1980s, was to emphasize low unemployment and maximal economic growth at the cost of somewhat higher inflation (its consequences kept in check by indexing and other methods, and its overall rate kept lower and steadier by such potential policies as Martin Weitzman's share economy) . Criticism Monetarist criticism One school began in the late 1940s with Milton Friedman. Instead of rejecting macro-measurements and macro-models of the economy, the monetarist school embraced the techniques of treating the entire economy as having a supply and demand equilibrium. However, because the Fischer Equation of Exchange, they regarded inflation as solely being due to the variations in the money supply, rather than as being a consequence of aggregate demand. They argued that the "crowding out" effects discussed above would hobble or deprive fiscal policy of its positive effect. Instead, the focus should be on monetary policy, which was largely ignored by early Keynesians. Monetarism had an ideological as well as a practical appeal: monetary policy does not, at least on the surface, imply as much government intervention in the economy as other measures. The monetarist critique pushed Keynesians toward a more balanced view of monetary policy, and inspired a wave of revisions to Keynesian theory. The Lucas critique Another influential school of thought was based on the Lucas critique of Keynesian economics. This called for greater consistency with microeconomic theory and rationality, and particularly emphasized the idea of rational expectations. Lucas and others argued that Keynesian economics required remarkably foolish and short-sighted behavior from people, which totally contradicted the economic understanding of their behavior at a micro level. New classical economics introduced a set of macroeconomic theories which were based on optimising microeconomic behavior, for instance real business cycles. The Austrian School Keynesian ideas were criticized by Austrian economist and philosopher Friedrich Hayek. Hayek's most famous work The Road to Serfdom, was written in 1944. Hayek taught at the London School of Economics from 1931 to 1950. Hayek criticized Keynesian economic policies for what he called their fundamentally collectivist approach, arguing that such theories, no matter their presumptively utilitarian intentions, require centralized planning, which Hayek argued leads to totalitarian abuses. Keynes seems to have noted this concern, since, in the foreword to the German version of the 'The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money', he declared that "the theory of aggregated production, which is the point of ['The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money'], nevertheless can be much easier adapted to the conditions of a totalitarian state [eines totalen Staates] than the theory of production and distribution of a given production put forth under conditions of free competition and a large degree of laissez-faire." Keynes, John Maynard. Foreword to the General Theory. Foreword to the German Edition/Vorwort Zur Deutschen Ausgabe Another criticism leveled by Hayek against Keynes was that the study of the economy by the relations between aggregates is fallacious, and that recessions are caused by micro-economic factors. Hayek claimed that what starts as temporary governmental fixes usually become permanent and expanding government programs, which stifle the private sector and civil society. Keynes himself described the critique as "deeply moving", which was quoted on the cover of the Road to Serfdom. Henry Hazlitt criticized, paragraph by paragraph, Keynes' General Theory in The Failure of the 'New Economics': An Analysis of the Keynesian Fallacies. Murray Rothbard accuses that Keynesianism has "its roots deep in medieval and mercantilist thought." Spotlight on Keynesian Economics, Murray Rothbard, 1947 (as published by the Ludwig von Mises Institute) Methodological Disagreement and Different Results that Emerge Beginning in the late 1950s New Classical Macroeconomists began to disagree with the methodology employed by Keynes and his successors. Keynesians emphasized the dependence of consumption on disposable income and, also, of investment on current profits and current cash flow. In addition Keynes posited a Phillips curve that tied nominal wage inflation to unemployment rate. To buttress these theories Keynesians typically traced the logical foundations of their model (using introspection) and buttressed their assumptions with statistical evidence. New Classical theorists demanded that Macroeconomic be grounded on the same foundations as Microeconomic theory, profit-maximizing firms and utility maximizing consumers. The result of this shift in methodology produced several important divergences from Keynesian Macro economics: Independence of Consumption and current Income (life-cycle permanent income hypothesis) Irrelevance of Current Profits to Investment (Modigliani-Miller theorem) Long run independence of inflation and unemployment (natural rate of unemployment) The inability of monetary policy to stabilize output (rational expectations) Irrelevance of Taxes and Budget Deficits to Consumption (Ricardian Equivalence) Keynesian responses to the critics The heart of the 'new Keynesian' view rests on microeconomic models that indicate that nominal wages and prices are "sticky," i.e., do not change easily or quickly with changes in supply and demand, so that quantity adjustment prevails. According to economist Paul Krugman, "while I regard the evidence for such stickiness as overwhelming, the assumption of at least temporarily rigid nominal prices is one of those things that works beautifully in practice but very badly in theory." There's Something About Macro, Paul Krugman This integration is further spurred by the work of other economists which questions rational decision-making in a perfect information environment as a necessity for micro-economic theory. Imperfect decision making such as that investigated by Joseph Stiglitz underlines the importance of management of risk in the economy. Over time, many macroeconomists have returned to the IS-LM model and the Phillips Curve as a first approximation of how an economy works. New versions of the Phillips Curve, such as the "Triangle Model", allow for stagflation, since the curve can shift due to supply shocks or changes in built-in inflation. In the 1990s, the original ideas of "full employment" had been modified by the NAIRU doctrine, sometimes called the "natural rate of unemployment." NAIRU advocates suggest restraint in combating unemployment, in case accelerating inflation should result. However, it is unclear exactly what the value of the NAIRU should be—or whether it even exists. For the Keynesian revival of 2008, see 2008-2009 Keynesian resurgence. See also Job guarantee Keynesian formula Microfoundations Military Keynesianism New Keynesian economics Post-Keynesian economics State Capitalism Underconsumption References Further reading Keynes, John Maynard: The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (Premium Edition) 2009 from Management Laboratory Press, ISBN: 9783941579286 Keynes, John Maynard: The Economic Consequences of the Peace (Premium Edition) 2009 from Management Laboratory Press, ISBN: 9783941579279 Especially up to p. 26. — This offers a compact summary of the Keynes equations and their interrelation. Donald Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace, Oxford University Press, 2006. — Includes a more concise structured version of Lindahl's summary (in Section 2.1 + Appendix), — a discussion of the 2008 financial-crash, — and comments on J.L.Stein's generalization:- External links Why America Must have a Fiscal Stimulus Lawrence Summers, Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center "We are all Keynesians now" historic piece; macroeconomics in mass publications Donald Markwell, Keynes and Australia, Reserve Bank of Australia, 2000 Alan Greenspan Speech Alan Greenspan blames Keynesian economics for debilitating the U.S. economy prior to the Presidency of Ronald Reagan. 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6,669 | Fra_Angelico | Fra Angelico (c. 1395 – February 18 1455), born Guido di Pietro, was an Early Italian Renaissance painter, referred to in Vasari's Lives of the Artists as having "a rare and perfect talent". Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists. first published 1568. Penguin Classics, 1965. Known in Italy as il Beato Angelico, he was known to his contemporaries as Fra Giovanni da Fiesole (Brother John from Fiesole). In Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists, written prior to 1555, he was already known as Fra Giovanni Angelico (Brother Giovanni the Angelic One). This sort of title-giving was common in Medieval and Renaissance times Cf Lorenzo il Magnifico and Richard the Lionheart Within his lifetime or shortly thereafter he was also called Il Beato (the Blessed), in reference to his skills in painting religious subjects. Andrea del Sarto, Raphael and Michelangelo were all called "Beato" by their contemporaries because their skills were seen as a special gift from God In 1982 Pope John Paul II conferred beatification, thereby making this title official. Fiesole is sometimes misinterpreted as being part of his formal name, but it was merely the name of the town where he took his vows, used by contemporaries to separate him from other Fra Giovannis. He is listed in the Roman Martyrology Roman Martyrology—a work which includes all Saints and Blesseds recognised by the Roman Catholic Church as Beatus Ioannes Faesulanus, cognomento Angelicus—"Blessed Giovanni of Fiesole, nicknamed Angelico". The 16th century biographer Vasari says of him: Biography The Virgin of the Annunciation Early life, 1395–1436 Fra Angelico was born Guido di Pietro at Rupecanina, in the Tuscan area of Mugello, near Fiesole towards the end of the 14th century and died in Rome in 1455. Nothing is known of his parents. He was baptized Guido or Guidolino. The earliest recorded document concerning Fra Angelico dates from October 17, 1417 when he joined a religious confraternity at the Carmine, still under the name of Guido di Pietro. This record also reveals that he was already a painter, a fact that is subsequently confirmed by two records of payment to Guido di Pietro in January and February 1418 for work done in the church of Santo Stefano del Ponte. Werner Cohn, Il Beato Angelico e Battista di Biagio Sanguigni. Revista d’Arte, V, (1955): 207–221. The first record of Angelico as a friar dates from 1423, when he is first referred to as Fra Giovanni, following the custom of those in Holy Orders of taking a new name. Stefano Orlandi, Beato Angelico; Monographia Storica della Vita e delle Opere con Un’Appendice di Nuovi Documenti Inediti. Florence: Leo S. Olschki Editore, 1964. He was a member of the Observant Branch of the Dominican Order at Fiesole. Fra, an abbreviation of frate (from the Latin frater), is a conventional title for a friar or brother. Fra Angelico initially received training as an illuminator, possibly working with his older brother Benedetto who was also a Dominican. His illumination tutor is unknown. San Marco in Florence holds several manuscripts that are thought to be entirely or partly by his hand. The painter Lorenzo Monaco may have contributed to his art training, and the influence of the Sienese school is discernible in his work. He had several important charges in the convents he lived in, but this did not limit his art, which very soon became famous. According to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist were an altarpiece and a painted screen for the Carthusian Monastery of Florence; none such exist there now. From 1408 to 1418 Fra Angelico was at the Dominican Convent of Cortona where he painted frescoes, now destroyed, in the Dominican Church and may have been assistant to or follower of Gherardo Starnina. Getty Education[] Between 1418 and 1436 he was at the convent of Fiesole where he also executed a number of frescoes for the church, and the Altarpiece, deteriorated but restored. A predella of the Altarpiece remains intact in the National Gallery, London which is a superb example of Fra Angelico's ability. It shows Christ in Glory, surrounded by more than 250 figures, including beatified Dominicans. The Maestà (Madonna enthroned) with Saints Cosmas and Damian, Saint Mark and Saint John, Saint Lawrence and three Dominicans, Saint Dominic, Saint Thomas Aquinas and Saint Peter Martyr; San Marco, Florence San Marco, Florence, 1436–1445 In 1436 Fra Angelico was one of a number of the monks from Fiesole who moved to the newly-built monastery of San Marco in Florence. This was an important move which put him in the centre of artistic activity of the region and brought about the patronage of one of the wealthiest and most powerful members of the city's Signoria, Cosimo de' Medici, who had a large cell (later occupied by Savonarola) reserved for himself at the monastery in order that he might retreat from the world. It was, according to Vasari, at Cosimo's urging that Fra Angelico set about the task of decorating the monastery, including the magnificent Chapter House fresco, the often-reproduced Annunciation at the top of the stairs to the cells, the Maesta with Saints and the many smaller devotional frescoes depicting aspects of the Life of Christ that adorn the walls of each cell. In 1439 he completed one of his most famous works, the Altarpiece for St. Marco's, Florence. The result was unusual for its times. Images of the enthroned Madonna and Child surrounded by saints were common, but they usually depicted a setting that was clearly heavenlike, in which saints and angels hovered about as divine presences rather than people. But in this instance, the saints stand squarely within the space, grouped in a natural way as if they were able to converse about the shared experience of witnessing the Virgin in glory. Paintings such as this, known as Sacred Conversations, were to become the major commissions of Giovanni Bellini, Perugino and Raphael. Frederick Hartt, A History of Italian Renaissance Art, (1970) Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0 500 231236 2 The Vatican, 1445–1455 The Crucified Christ In 1445 Pope Eugenius IV summoned him to Rome to paint the frescoes of the Chapel of the Holy Sacrament at St Peter's, later demolished by Pope Paul III. Vasari claims that at this time Fra Angelico was offered by Pope Nicholas V the Archbishopric of Florence, and that he refused it, recommending another Friar for the position. While the story seems possible and even likely, if Vasari's date is correct, then the pope must have been Eugenius and not Nicholas. In 1447 Fra Angelico was in Orvieto with his pupil, Benozzo Gozzoli, executing works for the Cathedral. Among his other pupils were Zanobi Strozzi. From 1447 to 1449 he was back at the Vatican, designing the frescoes for the Niccoline Chapel for Nicholas V. The scenes from the lives of the two martyred Deacons of the Early Christian Church, St. Stephen and St. Lawrence may have been executed wholly or in part by assistants. The small chapel, with its brightly frescoed walls and gold leaf decorations gives the impression of a jewel box. From 1449 until 1452, Fra Angelico was back at his old convent of Fiesole, where he was the Prior. Death and beatification In 1455 Fra Angelico died while staying at a Dominican Convent in Rome, perhaps in order to work on Pope Nicholas' Chapel. He was buried in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. The tomb has been given greater visibility since the beatification. See Apelles. Tomb of Fra Angelico, Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome Pope John Paul II beatified Fra Angelico on October 3, 1982 and in 1984 declared him patron of Catholic artists. Evaluation Background Fra Angelico was working at a time when the style of painting was in a state of change. This process of change had begun a hundred years previous with the works of Giotto and several of his contemporaries, notably Giusto de' Menabuoi, both of whom had created their major works in Padua, although Giotto was trained in Florence by the great Gothic artist, Cimabue, and painted a fresco cycle of St Francis in the Bardi Chapel in Santa Croce. Giotto had many enthusiastic followers, who imitated his style in fresco, some of them, notably the Lorenzetti, achieving great success. Patronage San Marco, Florence,The Day of Judgement, predella panel to surmount an altarpiece showing the precision, detail and colour required in a commissioned work The patrons of these artists were most often monastic establishments or wealthy families endowing a church. Because the paintings often had devotional purpose, the clients tended to be conservative. Frequently, it would seem, the wealthier the client, the more conservative the painting. There was a very good reason for this. The paintings that were commissioned made a statement about the patron. Thus the more gold leaf it displayed, the more it spoke to the patron's glory. The other valuable commodities in the paint-box were lapis lazuli and vermilion. Paint made from these colours did not lend itself to a tonal treatment. The azure blue made of powdered lapis lazuli went on flat, the depth and brilliance of colour being, like the gold leaf, a sign of the patron's ability to provide well. For these reasons, altarpieces are often much more conservatively painted than frescoes, which were often of almost life-sized figures and relied upon a stage-set quality rather than lavish display in order to achieve effect. Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy,(1974) Oxford University Press, ISBN 0 19 88 1329 5 Contemporaries Fra Angelico was the contemporary of Gentile da Fabriano. Gentile's altarpiece of the Adoration of the Magi, 1423, in the Uffizi is regarded as one of the greatest works of the style known as International Gothic. At the time it was painted, another young artist, known as Masaccio, was working on the frescoes for the Brancacci Chapel at the church of the Carmine. Masaccio had fully grasped the implications of the art of Giotto. Few painters in Florence saw his sturdy, life-like and emotional figures and were not affected by them. His work partner was an older painter, Masolino, of the same generation as Fra Angelico. Sadly Masaccio died at 27, leaving the work unfinished. Altarpieces The works of Fra Angelico reveal elements that are both conservatively Gothic and progressively Renaissance. In the altarpiece of the Coronation of the Virgin, painted for the Florentine church of Santa Maria Novella, are all the elements that a very expensive altarpiece of the 14th century was expected to provide- a precisely tooled gold background, lots of azure, lots of vermilion and an obvious display of arsenic green. The workmanship of the gilded haloes and gold-edged robes is exquisite and all very Gothic. What make this a Renaissance painting, as against Gentile da Fabriano's masterpiece, is the solidity, the three-dimensionality and naturalism of the figures and the realistic way in which their garments hang or drape around them. Even though it is clouds these figures stand upon, and not the earth, they do so with weight. The Transfiguration shows the directness, simplicity and restrained palette typical of these frescoes. Located in a monk's cell at the Convent San' Marco, its apparent purpose is to encourage private devotion. Frescoes The series of frescoes that Fra Angelico painted for the Dominican Brothers at San’ Marcos realise the advancements made by Masaccio and carry them further. Away from the constraints of wealthy clients and the limitations of panel painting, Fra Angelico was able to express his deep reverence for his God and his knowledge and love of humanity. The meditational frescoes in the cells of the convent have a quieting quality about them. They are humble works in simple colours. There is more mauvish-pink than there is red while the brilliant and expensive blue is almost totally lacking. In its place is dull green and the black and white of Dominican robes. There is nothing lavish, nothing to distract from the spiritual experiences of the humble people who are depicted within the frescoes. Each one has the effect of bringing an incident of the life of Christ into the presence of the viewer. They are like windows into a parallel world. These frescoes remain a powerful witness to the piety of the man who created them. Vasari relates that Cosimo de' Medici seeing these works, inspired Fra Angelico to create a large Crucifixion scene with many saints for the Chapter House. As with the other frescoes, the wealthy patronage did not influence the Friar's artistic expression with displays of wealth. Masaccio ventured into perspective with his creation of a realistically painted niche at Santa Maria Novella. Subsequently, Fra Angelico demonstrated an understanding of linear perspective particularly in his Annunciation paintings set inside the sort of arcades that Michelozzo and Brunelleschi created at San’ Marco's and the square in front of it. Lives of the Saints Saint Lawrence Receives the Treasures of the Church (1447), in the Vatican, incorporates the expensive pigments, gold leaf and elaborate design typical of Vatican commissions. When Fra Angelico and his assistants went to the Vatican to decorate the chapel of Pope Nicholas, then the artist was again confronted with the need to please the very wealthiest of clients. In consequence, walking into the small chapel is like stepping into a jewel box. The walls are decked with the brilliance of colour and gold that one sees in the most lavish creations of the Gothic painter Simone Martini at the Lower Church of St Francis of Assisi, a hundred years earlier. Yet Fra Angelico has succeeded in creating designs which continue to reveal his own preoccupation with humanity, with humility and with piety. The figures, in their lavish gilded robes, have the sweetness and gentleness for which his works are famous. According to Vasari: In their bearing and expression, the saints painted by Fra Angelico come nearer to the truth than the figures done by any other artist. It is probable that much of the actual painting was done by his assistants to his design. Both Benozzo Gozzoli and Gentile da Fabriano were highly accomplished painters. Benozzo took his art further towards the fully developed Renaissance style with his expressive and life-like portraits in his masterpiece of the Journey of the Magi, painted in the Medici's private chapel at their palazzo. Paolo Morachiello, Fra Angelico: The San Marco Frescoes. Thames and Hudson, 1990. ISBN 0-500-23729-8 Artistic legacy Through Fra Angelico's pupil Benozzo Gozzoli's careful portraiture and technical expertise in the art of fresco we see a link to Ghirlandaio, who in turn painted extensive schemes for the wealthy patrons of Florence, and through Ghirlandaio to his pupil Michelangelo and the High Renaissance. Apart from the lineal connection, superficially there may seem little to link the humble priest with his sweetly pretty Madonnas and timeless Crucifixions to the dynamic expressions of Michelangelo's larger-than-life creations. But both these artists received their most important commissions from the wealthiest and most powerful of all patrons, the Vatican. When Michelangelo took up the Sistine Chapel commission, he was working within a space that had already been extensively decorated by other artists. Around the walls the Life of Christ and Life of Moses were depicted by a range of artists including his teacher Ghirlandaio, Raphael's teacher Perugino and Botticelli. They were works of large scale and exactly the sort of lavish treatment to be expected in a Vatican commission, vying with each other in complexity of design, number of figures, elaboration of detail and skilful use of gold leaf. Above these works stood a row of painted Popes in brilliant brocades and gold tiaras. None of these splendours have any place in the work which Michelangelo created. Michelangelo, when asked by Pope Julius II to ornament the robes of the Apostles in the usual way, responded that they were very poor men. Within the cells of San’Marco, Fra Angelico had demonstrated that painterly skill and the artist's personal interpretation were sufficient to create memorable works of art, without the expensive trappings of blue and gold. In the use of the unadorned fresco technique, the clear bright pastel colours, the careful arrangement of a few significant figures and the skilful use of expression, motion and gesture, Michelangelo showed himself to be the artistic descendant of Fra Angelico. Frederick Hartt describes Fra Angelico as "prophetic of the mysticism" of painters such as Rembrandt, El Greco and Zurbarán. Fra Angelico and the succession to Michelangelo Works Virgin and Child with Saints, detail, Fiesole (1428–1430) Early works, 1408–1436 Cortona Annunciation Fiesole Altarpiece - Coronation of the Virgin, with predellas of Miracles of St Dominic; Louvre. Altarpiece - Virgin and Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and Peter Martyr; see detail, right. Predella - Christ in Majesty, National Gallery, London. Florence, Santa Trinita Deposition of Christ, said by Vasari to have been "painted by a saint or an angel". Now in the National Museum of San Marco, Florence. Florence, Santa Maria degli Angeli Last Judgement, Accademia. Florence, Santa Maria Novella Altarpiece - Coronation of the Virgin, Uffizi. San Marco, Florence, 1436–1445 One of several versions of The Annunciation is located in St Mark's Convent. Altarpiece for chancel - Virgin with Saints Cosmas and Damian, attended by Saints Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and Stephen. Cosmas and Damian were patrons of the Medici; the altarpiece was commissioned in 1438 by Cosimo de' Medici. It was removed and disassembled during the renovation of the convent church in the seventeenth century. Two of the nine predella panels remain at the convent; seven are in Washington, Munich, Dublin and Paris. Unexpectedly, in 2006 the last two missing panels, Dominican saints from the side panels, turned up in the estate of a modest collector in Oxfordshire, who had bought them in California in the 1960s. Altarpiece ? – Madonna and Child with twelve Angels (life sized); Uffizi. Altarpiece - The Annunciation Two versions of the Crucifixion with St Dominic; in the Cloister Very large Crucifixion with Virgin and 20 saints; in the Chapter House The Annunciation; at the top of the Dormitory stairs. This is probably the most reproduced of all Fra Angelico's paintings. Virgin enthroned with Four Saints; in the Dormitory passage In The Annunciation, the interior reproduces that of the cell in which it is located. Each cell is decorated with a fresco which matches in size and shape the single round-headed window beside it. The frescoes are apparently for contemplative purpose. They are have a pale, serene, unearthly beauty. Many of Fra Angelico's finest and most reproduced works are among them. There are, particularly in the inner row of cells, some of less inspiring quality and of more repetitive subject, perhaps completed by assistants. Many pictures include Dominican saints as witnesses, allowing the friar using the cell to place himself in the scene. The Adoration of the Magi The Transfiguration Noli me Tangere The three Marys at the tomb. The Road to Emmaus, with two Dominicans as the disciples There are many versions of the Crucifixion Late works, 1445–1455 Orvieto Cathedral Three segments of the ceiling in the Cappella Nuova, with the assistance of Benozzo Gozzoli. Christ in Glory The Virgin Mary The Apostles Niccoline Chapel The Chapel of Pope Nicholas V, at the Vatican, was probably painted with much assistance from Benozzo Gozzoli and Gentile da Fabriano. The entire surface of wall and ceiling is sumptuously painted. There is much gold leaf for borders and decoration, and a great use of brilliant blue made from lapis lazuli. The life of St Stephen The life of St Lawrence The Four Evangelists. Discovery of lost works Worldwide press coverage reported in November 2006 that two missing masterpieces by Fra Angelico had turned up, having hung in the spare room of the late Jean Preston, in her "modest terrace house" in Oxford, England. Her father had bought them for £100 each in 1965 then bequethed them to her when he died in 1974. Jean had been consulted by their then owner in her capacity as an expert medievalist. She recognised them as being high quality Florentine renaissance, but it never occurred to anyone, even all the dealers she approached on behalf of the owner, that they could possibly be by Fra Angelico. They were finally identified in 2005 by Michael Liversidge of Bristol University. There was almost no demand at all for medieval art during the 1960s and no dealers showed any interest, so her father bought them almost as an afterthought along with some manuscripts. Ironically the manuscripts turned out to be high quality Victorian forgeries by The Spanish Forger. The paintings are two of eight side panels of a large altarpiece painted in 1439 for Fra Angelico's monastery at San Marco, but split up by Napoleon's army 200 years ago. While the centre section is still at the monastery, the other six small panels are in German and US museums. These two panels were presumed lost forever. The Italian Government had hoped to purchase them but they were outbid at auction on 20 April 2007 by a private collector for £1.7M. See also List of painters List of Italian painters List of famous Italians Early Renaissance painting Poor Man's Bible Fray Angelico Chavez Franciscan Friar, historian and artist who was named after Fra Angelico due to his interest in painting. Western painting Frangelico - Italian liqueur named after Fra Angelico Footnotes References Rossetti, William Michael. Angelico, Fra. 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Hood, William. Fra Angelico at San Marco. Yale University Press, 1993. Morachiello, Paolo. Fra Angelico: The San Marco Frescoes. Thames and Hudson, 1990. ISBN 0-500-23729-8 Frederick Hartt, A History of Italian Renaissance Art, Thames & Hudson, 1970. ISBN 0 500 23136 2 Giorgio Vasari. Lives of the Artists. first published 1568. Penguin Classics, 1965. Donald Attwater. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. Penguin Reference Books, 1965. Luciano Berti. Florence, the city and its Art. Bercocci, 1979. Werner Cohn. Il Beato Angelico e Battista di Biagio Sanguigni. Revista d’Arte, V, (1955): 207–221. Stefano Orlandi. Beato Angelico; Monographia Storica della Vita e delle Opere con Un’Appendice di Nuovi Documenti Inediti. Florence: Leo S. Olschki Editore, 1964. Further reading Didi-Huberman, Georges. Fra Angelico: Dissemblance and Figuration. University of Chicago Press, 1995. ISBN 0-226-14813-0 Discussion of how Fra Angelico challenged Renaissance naturalism and developed a technique to portray "unfigurable" theological ideas. Gilbert, Creighton, How Fra Angelico and Signorelli Saw the End of the World, Penn State Press, 2002 ISBN 0-271-02140-3 Spike, John T. Angelico, New York, 1997. Supino, J. B., Fra Angelico, Alinari Brothers, Florence, undated, from Project Gutenberg External links Fra Angelico at Gallery of Art Fra Angelico - Painter of the Early Renaissance Fra Angelico in the "History of Art" Fondazione Beato Angelico Fra Angelico of Fiesole Fra Angelico Exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, (October 26, 2005–January 29, 2006). "Soul Eyes" Review of the Fra Angelico show at the Met, by Arthur C. Danto in The Nation, (January 19, 2006). 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6,670 | Steel-string_acoustic_guitar | Playing a steel-string guitar without a pick (fingerpicking). A steel-string acoustic guitar is a modern form of guitar descended from the classical guitar, but strung with steel strings for a brighter, louder sound. Strictly speaking, the terms steel-stringed guitar, classical guitar, and folk guitar all refer to acoustic (that is, non-electric) guitars, though some of these terms refer to different types of instruments (nylon-strung vs. steel-strung). The standard tuning for an acoustic guitar is E-A-D-G-B-E (low to high), although many players, particularly fingerpickers, use alternate tunings (scordatura), such as "open G" (D-G-D-G-B-D), "open D tuning" (D-A-D-F-A-D), or "drop D" (D-A-D-G-B-E). One variation on the standard acoustic guitar is the 12-string guitar, which sports an additional doubling string for each of the traditional six strings. This guitar was made famous by artists such as Lead Belly, Pete Seeger, and Leo Kottke. Construction There are many different variations on the construction of, and materials used in, steel-string guitars. The various combinations of the different woods and their quality, along with design and construction elements (for example, how the top is braced), are among the factors affecting the timbre or "tone" of the guitar. Many players and builders feel a well-made guitar's tone improves over time. Styles Acoustic guitars are commonly constructed in several different body shapes. In general, the guitar's soundbox can be thought of as being composed of two connected chambers; the "upper bout" and "lower bout", which meet at the "waist", or the narrowest part of the body face near the soundhole. The proportion and overall size of these two parts helps determine the overall tonal balance and "native sound" of a particular body style, the larger the body, the louder the volume. A "00", "Double-Oh" or "Grand Concert" body style is the major body style most directly derived from the classical guitar. It has the thinnest soundbox and the smallest overall size of the major styles, making it very comfortable to play but also one of the quietest. Their smaller size makes them suitable for younger or smaller-framed players. These guitars are commonly called "parlor steels" as they are well-suited to smaller rooms. Martin's 00-xxx series, and Taylor's GC series, are common examples. A "Grand Auditorium" guitar, sometimes called a "000" or "Triple-Oh", is very similar in design to the Grand Concert, but slightly wider and deeper. Many GA-style guitars also have a convex back panel to increase the volume of space in the soundbox without making the soundbox deeper at the edges, which would affect comfort and playability. The end result is a very balanced tone, comparable to the 00, but having greater volume and dynamic range, with slightly more low-end response, without sacrificing the ergonomics of the classical style, making these body styles very popular. Eric Clapton's signature Martin guitar, for example, is of this style. Taylor's GA and x14 series and Martin's 000-xxx series are well-known examples of the Grand Auditorium style. A "Dreadnought", arguably the most common body style, incorporates a deeper soundbox, but a smaller and less-pronounced upper bout (the area of the soundbox between the waist and neck) than most other styles, giving a somewhat wedge-shaped appearance, hence its name, relating to a class of warship. The dreadnought style was designed by Martin Guitars http://www.sweetwater.com/shop/guitars/acoustic/buying-guide.php Sweetwater Music - Acoustic Guitar Buying Guide to produce a deeper sound than "classic"-style guitars, with very present bass fundamentals. The body style's combination of small profile with deep sound has made it immensely popular, and it has since become widely copied by virtually every major steel-string luthier. Martin's "D" series such as the D-28 are classic examples of the dreadnought. A "Jumbo" body style is bigger again than a Grand Auditorium but similarly proportioned, and is generally designed to provide a deeper tone similar to a dreadnought (the body style was designed by Gibson to compete with the dreadnought) but with maximum resonant space for greater volume and sustain. This comes at the expense of being oversized, with a very deep sounding box, and thus somewhat more difficult to play. The foremost example of this style would be the Gibson J-200, but like the dreadnought, most guitar manufacturers have at least one jumbo model. Any of these body styles can optionally incorporate a "cutaway". A cutaway guitar has a redesigned upper bout that removes a section of the soundbox on the underside of the neck, hence, "cutaway". This allows for easier access to the frets that are located on top of the soundbox past the heel of the neck. The tradeoff is reduced soundbox volume, and often a change in bracing, which can change the resonant qualities and hence the tone of the instrument. All of the above guitars are relatively traditional in looks and construction, and are all commonly referred to as "flattop" guitars. Virtually all of these are commonly seen and heard in popular music genres including rock, blues, country, and folk. However, other styles of guitar have been introduced and enjoy moderate popularity, generally in more specific genres: The archtop guitar incorporates a top, either carved out of solid wood or heat-pressed using laminations, that is arched like instruments in the violin family, usually with f-holes rather than a round sound hole. These guitars are most commonly used by swing and jazz players and often incorporate electronics in the form of a pickup. However, many other kinds of acoustic guitars may incorporate these kinds of electronics as well. The "Selmer-Maccaferri guitar" is usually played by those who follow the style of Django Reinhardt. It is an unusual-looking instrument, distinguished by a fairly large body with squarish bouts, and either a "D"-shaped or longitudinal oval soundhole. The strings are gathered at the tail like an archtop guitar, but the top is flatter. It also has a wide fingerboard and slotted head like a nylon-string guitar. The loud volume and penetrating tone make it suitable for single-note soloing and it is frequently employed as a lead instrument in gypsy swing. Tonewoods Traditionally, steel-string guitars have been made of a combination of various "tonewoods", or woods that have pleasing resonant qualities when used in instrument-making. Foremost is Sitka spruce, the most common and sought-after wood for the making of guitar tops. The same wood is generally used for the back and sides of a particular guitar; Brazilian rosewood and American mahogany are traditional choices, however maple has been prized for the figuring that can be seen when it is cut in a certain way (such as "flame" and "quilt" patterns). A common non-traditional wood gaining popularity is sapele, which is tonally similar to mahogany but slightly lighter in color and possessing a deep grain structure that is visually appealing. Due to decreasing availability and rising prices of premium-quality traditional tonewoods, many manufacturers have begun experimenting with alternate species of woods or more commonly available variations on the standard species. For example, some makers have begun producing models with redcedar or mahogany tops, or with spruce variants other than Sitka. Cedar is also common in the back and sides, as is basswood. Entry-level models, especially those made in East Asia, often use nato wood, which is again tonally similar to mahogany but is cheap to acquire. Some have also begun using non-wood materials, such as plastic or graphite. Carbon-fiber and phenolic composite materials have become desirable for building necks, and at least one high-end luthier (Composite Acoustics) produces a line of all-carbon-fiber guitars, prized for their high stability in changing climates that would cause wood instrument panels to swell and shrink. Taylor steel-string guitar. Assembly The steel-string acoustic guitar evolved from the nylon- or gut-string classical guitar, and since steel strings have higher tension, heavier construction is required overall. One innovation is a metal bar called a truss rod, which is incorporated into the neck to strengthen it. Typically, a steel-string acoustic guitar is built with a larger soundbox than a standard classical guitar. A critical structural and tonal component of an acoustic guitar is the bracing, a systems of struts glued to the inside of the back and top. Steel-string guitars use different bracing systems from classical guitars, typically using X-bracing instead of fan bracing. (Another simpler system, called ladder bracing, where the braces are all placed across the width of the instrument, is used on all types of flat-top guitars on the back.) Innovations in bracing design have emerged, most notably the A-brace developed by British luthier Roger Bucknall of Fylde Guitars. Most luthiers and experienced players agree that a good solid top (as opposed to laminated or plywood) is the most important factor in the tone of the guitar. Solid backs and sides can also contribute to a pleasant sound, although laminated sides and backs are acceptable alternatives, commonly found in mid-level guitars (in the range of US$300–$1000). A unique construction method is that of Ovation Guitar Company, which uses a rounded one-piece composite plastic bowl for the back and sides of virtually all of their guitars (the top and neck are usually still wood, though newer models have introduced phenolic necks). The resulting instrument is relatively durable, and the materials costs and luthier's labor drastically reduced, however the tone of such a guitar is different from one with an all-wood soundbox. Electronics, such as pickup systems and electronic tuners may be installed in modern instruments. See Guitar for more details on the construction of acoustic guitars. Guitar Makers Guitars can be factory-built or made in smaller operations focusing on handcrafting and tailoring to individual customers' requirements. The latter are often referred to as luthiers. There are several prominent American makers of steel-string acoustic guitars. Martin, Guild, Taylor, and Gibson are known for both the quality and price of their instruments. A recent newcomer, started by former craftsmen at Taylor, is Breedlove; other less-recognized but popular North American luthier shops include Larrivee and Godin (both based in Canada). In Europe, several steel string acoustic guitar makers have gained a worldwide reputation, although their production output is small relative to US and Asian makers. Among the leading European brands are Avalon (Northern Ireland), Brook, Tanglewood (UK) and Lakewood (Germany). In East Asia, many prominent, quality brands have been introduced to the U.S. and are popular with players of many skill levels. Yamaha, which produces a large assortment of musical instruments, Ibanez, and Takamine, other popular Japanese companies which specializes in guitar-making. Alvarez Guitars, another quality brand, are made in China or Japan. In addition, many traditionally U.S.-centered brands have outsourced the production of their low-cost models to Asian firms; Fender/Squier, Gibson/Epiphone and Breedlove all own or contract with Asian factories to produce many of their entry-level and even intermediate-level instruments. In Australia top-end guitars are manifactured by Maton and Cole Clark. Amplification A steel-string guitar can be amplified with a a microphone, possibly clipped to the guitar body a detachable pickup, often straddling the soundhole and using the same magnetic principle as a traditional electric guitar. a transducer built into the body. In the last case, guitars are commonly called "acoustic-electric" or equivalently "electro-acoustic" guitars, as they can be played either "unplugged" as an acoustic, or plugged in as an electric. The most common type is a piezoelectric pickup, which is composed of a thin sandwich of quartz crystal. When compressed, the crystal produces a small electrical current, so when placed under the bridge saddle, the vibrations of the strings through the saddle, and of the body of the instrument, are converted to a weak electrical signal. This signal is often sent to a pre-amplifier, which increases the signal strength and normally incorporates an equalizer. The output of the preamplifier then goes to a separate amplifier system similar to that for an electric guitar. Specialised acoustic guitar amplifiers can be obtained which are designed to give undistorted and full-range reproduction. Steel-string guitar music and players Until the 1960s, the predominant forms of music played on the flattop, steel-string guitar remained relatively stable and included acoustic blues, country, bluegrass, folk, and several genres of rock. The concept of playing solo steel-string guitar in a concert setting was introduced by such performers as Davey Graham and John Fahey in the early 1960s, who used country blues fingerpicking techniques to compose original compositions with structures somewhat like European classical music. Fahey contemporary Robbie Basho added elements of Indian classical music and Leo Kottke used a Faheyesque approach to make the first solo steel string guitar "hit" record. Steel-string guitars are also important in the world of flatpicking, as utilized by such artists as Clarence White, Tony Rice, Bryan Sutton, Doc Watson, and David Grier. Luthiers have been experimenting with redesigning the acoustic guitar for these players. These flattop, steel-string guitars are constructed and voiced more for classical-like fingerpicking and less for chordal accompaniment (strumming). Some luthiers have increasingly focused their attention on the needs of fingerstylists and have developed unique guitars for this style of playing. Many other luthiers attempt to recreate the guitars of the "Golden Era" of C.F. Martin & Co. Bill Collings, Marty Lanham, Dana Bourgeois, Randy Lucas, Lynn Dudenbostel, and Wayne Henderson are but a few of the luthiers building guitars inspired by vintage Martins, the pre-World War II models in particular. As prices for vintage Martins continue to rise exponentially, upscale guitar enthusiasts have demanded faithful recreations and luthiers are working to fill that demand. See also Twelve-string guitar Gibson Dove Dingulator References | Steel-string_acoustic_guitar |@lemmatized play:8 steel:23 string:28 guitar:82 without:3 pick:1 fingerpicking:3 acoustic:21 modern:2 form:3 descend:1 classical:10 strung:3 brighter:1 loud:2 sound:6 strictly:1 speak:1 term:2 stringed:1 folk:3 refer:4 non:3 electric:5 guitars:2 though:2 different:6 type:3 instrument:14 nylon:3 v:1 standard:4 tuning:2 e:3 g:5 b:3 low:4 high:4 although:3 many:11 player:8 particularly:1 fingerpickers:1 use:15 alternate:2 scordatura:1 open:2 tune:1 f:3 drop:1 one:7 variation:3 sport:1 additional:1 doubling:1 traditional:6 six:1 make:13 famous:1 artist:2 lead:3 belly:1 pete:1 seeger:1 leo:2 kottke:2 construction:7 material:4 various:2 combination:3 wood:12 quality:7 along:1 design:7 element:2 example:7 top:11 brace:6 among:2 factor:2 affect:2 timbre:1 tone:8 builder:1 feel:1 well:4 improve:1 time:1 style:22 commonly:8 construct:2 several:4 body:16 shape:2 general:1 soundbox:11 think:1 compose:3 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6,671 | Monty_Python's_Life_of_Brian | Monty Python's Life of Brian, also known as Life of Brian, is a 1979 comedy film written, directed and largely performed by the Monty Python comedy team. It tells the story of Brian Cohen (played by Graham Chapman), a young Jewish man who is born in the same era and location as Jesus Christ and subsequently mistaken for the Messiah. The film's combination of comedy and religious themes was controversial, particularly on its initial release. Plot Brian Cohen is born in a stable a few doors from the one in which Jesus is born, a fact which initially confuses the three wise men who come to praise the future King of the Jews. They manage to put up with Brian's boorish mother Mandy until they realise their mistake. Brian grows up an idealistic young man who resents the continuing Roman occupation of Judea, even after learning his father was a Roman Centurion - Naughtius Maximus - who raped Brian's mother ("You mean; you were raped?", "Well, at first, yes"). While attending Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, he becomes infatuated with an attractive young female rebel, Judith. His desire for her and hatred for the Romans lead him to join the People's Front of Judea (PFJ), one of many factious and bickering separatist movements who spend more time fighting each other than the Romans (see Political satire below). The group's cynical leader Reg gives Brian his first assignment: He must scrawl some graffiti on the wall of the governor's palace. Just as he finishes doing this, he is confronted by a passing centurion who, in disgust at Brian's faulty Latin grammar ("Romanes eunt domus", or "the people called 'Romanes' they go the house"), forces him to write the grammatically correct message ("Romani ite domum" or "Romans, go home") 100 times. By dawn, the walls of the fortress are covered in text. When the Roman guards change shift at daybreak, the new guards try to arrest Brian, but he manages to slip away with the help of Judith. Brian then agrees to participate in a kidnapping plot by the resistance, which fails miserably (due to a clash with an "enemy" separatist faction intent on the same mission) and forces him to go on the run again. This time, he doesn't evade capture and is summoned before Pontius Pilate. He tries to get away with it by claiming his Roman heritage, as the son of Naughtius Maximus. The captain of the guards refuses to believe the authenticity of the name. Pilate does not understand his doubt, to which the captain remarks that it would be like someone being named "Sillius Soddus or Biggus Dickus." Fortunately for Brian, the guards collapse into a giggling fit after an irate Pilate reveals that one of his best friends is a high-ranking centurion genuinely named Biggus Dickus (with a wife, Incontinentia Buttocks) and he makes his escape. Following a series of misadventures (including a brief trip to outer space in an alien spaceship), the fugitive winds up in a lineup of wannabe mystics and prophets who harangue the passing crowd in a plaza. Forced to come up with something plausible in order to blend in and keep the guards off his back, he babbles pseudo-religious nonsense which quickly attracts a small but intrigued audience. Once the guards have left, Brian tries to put the episode behind him, but has unintentionally inspired a movement; he grows frantic when he finds that some people have started to follow him around (Man: "We have walked many miles to see you, oh great Messiah. What do you wish?" Brian: "BUGGER OFF!"), with even the slightest unusual occurrence being hailed as a "miracle." After slipping away from the mob (who are busy persecuting a "heretic" - actually a hermit that Brian unwittingly disturbed) and spending the night with Judith, he opens the curtains the following morning to discover that an enormous mass of people, proclaiming him the Messiah, has formed outside his mother's house. Appalled, Brian is helpless to change the people's minds, as his every word and action are immediately seized as a point of doctrine. The hapless Brian cannot even find solace back at the PFJ's headquarters, where people fling their afflicted bodies at him demanding miracle cures. Reg even claims that he has booked a session at the Mount for him. After sneaking out the back, he is finally captured and scheduled to be crucified. Meanwhile, a huge crowd of natives has assembled outside the palace, spurred on by the general feeling in the community that Brian's fellow "prophets" have been exacerbating. Pilate (together with the visiting Biggus Dickus) tries to quell the feeling of revolution by granting them the decision on who should be pardoned. Instead, Pilate is just fed various names that begin with the letter R, intended to highlight his speech impediment ("Vewy well. I shall welease Wodewick!") Biggus Dickus then attempts to take control of the situation by reading out the prisoner list, but the combination of his severe lisp and every prisoner having a name starting with S (e.g. Samson the Sadducee Strangler) causes the assembled hordes to collapse to the ground in laughter. Pilate eventually orders Brian's release, but (in a moment parodying the climax of the film Spartacus), various crucified people all claim to be "Brian of Nazareth" - one man stating "I'm Brian and so's my wife" - and the wrong man is released. Various other opportunities for a reprieve for Brian are denied as one by one his "allies" (including Judith) step forward to explain why they are leaving the "noble freedom fighter" hanging in the hot sun. Condemned to a long and painful death, Brian's spirits are lifted by his fellow sufferers, who break out into song with "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life". Cast and characters The following is a list of all the characters given actual names in the script, or with a spoken role. All names and character descriptions are taken from the published script. Each Python (especially Terry Gilliam) also played various bystanders and hangers-on. The Pythons themselves are listed first (in alphabetical order) followed by the rest of the cast in order of appearance. Graham Chapman - Brian, Biggus Dickus, 1st wise man John Cleese - Reg, the High priest, Centurion of the Yard, Deadly Dirk, Arthur, 3rd wise man Terry Gilliam - Another person further forward (at Mount - "I think he said, 'Blessed are the cheesemakers'!"), Blood and Thunder prophet, Geoffrey, Jailer Eric Idle - Mr Cheeky, Stan/Loretta (who has womb envy), Harry the Haggler, Culprit woman who casts first stone, Intensely dull youth, Otto, Jailer's assistant, Mr Frisbee III. Possibly inspired by Loretta Martin from the song "Get Back" by the Beatles from the album Let It Be. Terry Jones - Mandy, Colin, Simon the Holy Man, Saintly passer by Michael Palin - Mr Big Nose, Francis, Mrs A, Ex-leper, Ben, Pontius Pilate, Boring Prophet, Eddie, Nisus Wettus, 2nd wise man Chapman as Brian Cohen in Life of Brian Kenneth Colley - Jesus Christ Gwen Taylor - Mrs Big Nose, Woman with sick donkey, young girl Terence Baylor - Gregory, Dennis Carol Cleveland - Mrs Gregory, Elsie Charles McKeown - Man further forward (at Mount), Stig, Blind Man Sue Jones-Davies - Judith Iscariot John Young - Matthias Bernard McKenna - Stoner's Helper, Parvus Spike Milligan - Spike George Harrison - Mr Papadopoulos Several characters are never named during the film but do have names which are used in the tracklisting for the soundtrack album and elsewhere. There is no mention in the film of the fact that Eric Idle's ever-cheerful joker is called 'Mr. Cheeky', or that the terribly well-meaning Roman guard played by Michael Palin is named 'Nisus Wettus'. Spike Milligan had an unplanned cameo as a prophet ignored because his acolytes are chasing after Brian. By coincidence he was visiting his old World War II battlefields in Tunisia where the film was being made. The Pythons were alerted to this one morning and he was promptly included in the scene that just happened to be being filmed. He disappeared again in the afternoon before he could be included in any of the close-up or publicity shots for the film. Production Cameo by executive producer George Harrison (right) There are various stories about the origins of Life of Brian. Shortly after the release of Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975), Eric Idle flippantly suggested that the title of the Pythons' forthcoming feature would be Jesus Christ – Lust for Glory (a play on the UK title for the 1970 American film Patton). This was after he had become frustrated at repeatedly being asked what it would be called, despite the troupe not having given the matter of a second film any consideration. However, they shared a distrust of organised religion, and, after witnessing the critically acclaimed Holy Grail'''s massive financial turnover, confirming an appetite amongst the fans for more cinematic endeavours, they soon began to seriously consider a film lampooning the New Testament era in the same way Holy Grail had lampooned Arthurian legend. All they needed was an idea for a plot. Eric Idle and Terry Gilliam, while promoting Holy Grail in Amsterdam, had come up with a sketch in which Jesus' cross was falling apart because of the idiotic carpenters who built it and he angrily tells them how to do it correctly. However, after an early brain-storming stage, and despite being non-believers, they agreed that Jesus was "definitely a good guy" and found nothing to mock in his actual teachings: "He's not particularly funny, what he's saying isn't mockable, it's very decent stuff..." said Idle later . After settling on the name Brian for their new protagonist, one idea considered was that of "the 13th disciple". The focus eventually shifted to a separate individual born at a similar time and location, who would be mistaken for the Messiah, but had no desire to be followed as such. Writing began in December 1976, with a first draft completed by mid-1977. The final pre-production draft was ready in January 1978, following "a concentrated two week writing and water-skiing period in Barbados". The film would not have been made without former Beatle and Python fan George Harrison, who set up Handmade Films to help fund it at a cost of £3 million (a move later described by Eric Idle as the "world's most expensive cinema ticket"). The original backers, EMI Films, had been scared off at the last minute by the subject matter, particularly Bernard, Lord Delfont. As a result, the very last words in the film are: "I said to him, 'Bernie, they'll never make their money back on this one'", teasing Delfont for his lack of faith in the project. Terry Gilliam later said, "They pulled out on the Thursday. The crew was supposed to be leaving on the Saturday. Disastrous. It was because they read the script... finally." As a reward for his help, Harrison appears in a cameo role as Mr. Papadopoulos, "owner of the Mount", who briefly shakes hands with Brian in a crowd scene. His one word of dialogue (a cheery Scouse, but out-of-place-in-Judea, "Hello") had to be dubbed in later. Directing duties were handled solely by Terry Jones on this project, having amicably agreed with Gilliam (who co-directed Holy Grail with his namesake) that Jones' approach to film-making was better suited for Python's general performing style. Holy Grails production had often been stilted by their differences behind the camera. Gilliam again contributed two animated sequences (one being the opening credits) and took charge of set design. However, this didn't put an absolute end to their feuding. On the DVD commentary, Gilliam expresses great pride in one set in particular, the main hall of Pilate's fortress, which had been designed so that it accurately looked like an old Judean temple that the Romans had converted by dumping their structural artifacts (such as marble floors and columns) on top. He later reveals his consternation at Jones not paying enough attention to it in the cinematography. Gilliam also worked on the matte paintings, useful in particular for the very first shot of the three wise men against a starscape and in giving the illusion of the whole of the outside of the fortress being covered in graffiti. The film was shot on location in Monastir, Tunisia, which allowed the production to reuse sets from Franco Zeffirelli's Jesus of Nazareth (1977). Many locals were employed as extras on Life of Brian. Director Terry Jones noted, "They were all very knowing because they'd all worked for Franco Zeffirelli on Jesus of Nazareth, so I had these elderly Tunisians telling me, 'Well, Mr Zeffirelli wouldn't have done it like that, you know.'" Graham Chapman, still suffering from alcoholism, was so determined to play the lead role - at one point coveted by Cleese - that he dried out in time for filming. Channel 4 (1 January 2007). The Secret Life of Brian. Following shooting between 16 September and 12 November 1978, a two-hour-long rough cut of the film was put together for its first private showing in January 1979. Over the next few months Life of Brian was re-edited and re-screened a number of times for different preview audiences before the final cut was complete, losing a number of entire filmed sequences (see Lost scenes below). Religious satire and blasphemy accusations The film has been seen as a critique of excessive religiosity, depicting organised and popular religion as hypocritical and fanatical. The film's satire on unthinking religious devotion is epitomised by Brian's attempt to persuade an enormous crowd of his followers to think for themselves: Brian: Look, you've got it all wrong! You don't need to follow me, you don't need to follow anybody! You've got to think for yourselves! You're all individuals! The Crowd (in unison): Yes! We're all individuals! Brian: You're all different! The Crowd (in unison): Yes, we are all different! Man in Crowd: I'm not... The Crowd': Shhh! The film also satirises both the tendency to interpret banal incidents as "signs from God" and the factions and infighting that can emerge from this. For example, when Brian loses his shoe, some of his over-zealous followers declare it to be a sign but they can't agree on what it means, while one other instructs them to "Cast off the shoe. Follow the gourd!" (which is viewed by some as being significant owing to Brian's seemingly charitable refusal to accept a price for it - and not even haggle over what it is worth - the truth actually being that it was a cheap, unwanted gift). The (alleged) representation of Christ proved controversial. Protests against the film were organised based on its perceived blasphemy. On its initial release in the UK, the film was banned by several town councils – some of which had no cinemas within their boundaries, or had not even seen the film for themselves. A member of Harrogate council, one of those that banned the film, revealed during a television interview that the council had not seen the film, and had based their opinion on what they had been told by the Nationwide Festival of Light, of which they knew nothing. Some bans continued into the 21st century. In 2008, Torbay Council finally permitted the film to be shown after it won an online vote for the English Riviera International Comedy Film Festival, In 2009, it was announced that a thirty-year old ban of the film in the Welsh town of Aberystwyth was finally lifted, and the following showing was attended by Terry Jones and Michael Palin alongside mayor Sue Jones-Davies (who portrayed Judith Iscariot in the film). http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/mid/7969835.stm However, before the showing, an Aberystwyth University student discovered that the film actually never was banned in Aberystwyth, but was shown (or was scheduled to be shown) at a cinema in the town in 1981. In New York, screenings were picketed by both rabbis and nuns ("Nuns with banners!" observed Michael Palin) while the film was banned outright in some American states. It was also banned for eight years in the Republic of Ireland and for a year in Norway (it was marketed in Sweden as '"The film so funny that it was banned in Norway"). In the UK, Mary Whitehouse and other campaigners launched waves of leaflets and picketed at and around cinemas that showed the film, a move that was only felt to have ironically boosted the publicity. Leaflets arguing against the film's representation of the New Testament (for example, suggesting that the Wise Men would not have approached the wrong stable as they do in the opening of the film) were documented in Robert Hewison's book Monty Python: The Case Against. One of the most controversial scenes was the film's ending: Brian's crucifixion. Many Christian protesters said that it was mocking Jesus's suffering by turning it into a "Jolly Boys Outing" (such as when Mr Cheeky turns to Brian and says: "See, It's not so bad when you get up here"), capped by Brian's fellow sufferers suddenly bursting into song; director Terry Jones issued the following riposte to this criticism: "Any religion that makes a form of torture into an icon that they worship seems to me a pretty sick sort of religion quite honestly". Another argument was that crucifixion was a standard form of execution in ancient times and not just one especially reserved for Jesus (a point proven by the Bible itself, with the mentioned presence of the two thieves crucified next to him). The Pythons often prided themselves on the depths of the historical research they had taken before writing the script. They all believe that, as a consequence, the film portrays 1st century Judea more accurately than actual Biblical epics, with its focus centred more on the average person of the era. Shortly after the film was released, Cleese and Palin engaged in a what would become an infamous debate on the BBC2 discussion programme Friday Night, Saturday Morning, in which Malcolm Muggeridge and Mervyn Stockwood, the Bishop of Southwark, put the case against the film. Muggeridge and the Bishop had arrived 15 minutes late to see a screening of the picture prior to the debate, missing the establishing scenes which demonstrated that Brian and Jesus were two different characters, and hence contended that it was a send-up of Christ himself. Both Pythons later felt that there had been a strange role reversal in the manner of the debate, with two young upstart comedians attempting to make serious, well-researched points, while the establishment figures engaged in cheap jibes and point scoring. They also expressed disappointment in Muggeridge, whom all in Python had previously respected as a satirist. Cleese expressed that his reputation had "plummeted" in his eyes, while Palin commented that, "He was just being Muggeridge, preferring to have a very strong contrary opinion as opposed to none at all". Muggeridge's verdict on the film (or at least, what he'd seen of it) was that it was "Such a tenth-rate film that it couldn't possibly destroy anyone's genuine faith". The Pythons unanimously deny that they were ever out to destroy people's faiths. On the DVD audio commentary, they contend that the film is heretical because it lampoons the practices of modern organised religion, but that it does not blasphemously lampoon the God that Christians and Jews worship. When Jesus does appear in the film (first, as a baby in the stable, and then later on the Mount, speaking the Beatitudes), he is played straight (by actor Kenneth Colley) and portrayed with respect. The music and lighting make it clear that there is a genuine aura around him on both occasions. The comedy begins when members of the crowd mishear his statements of peace, love and tolerance ("I think he said, 'blessed are the cheese makers'"). Importantly, he is distinct from the character of Brian, which is also evident in the scene where an annoying and ungrateful ex-leper pesters Brian for money, while moaning that since Jesus cured him, he has lost his source of income in the begging trade (referring to Jesus as a "bloody do-gooder"). Not all the Pythons agree on the definition of the movie's tone. There was a brief exchange that occurred when the surviving members reunited in Aspen, Colorado, in 1998 for a show that was broadcast on HBO and has since become available on video. The appearance was billed as the "U.S. Comedy Arts Festival Tribute to Monty Python", although video releases have gone by varying titles, including "Monty Python Live at Aspen (1998)". The programme mostly consists of an interview, on stage, by U.S. comedian Robert Klein. In the section where Life of Brian is being discussed, Terry Jones says, "I think the film is heretical, but it’s not blasphemous". Eric Idle can be heard to concur, adding, "It’s a heresy". However, John Cleese, disagreeing, counters, "I don’t think it’s a heresy. It's making fun of the way that people misunderstand the teaching". Jones responds, "Of course it's a heresy, John! It's attacking the Church! And that has to be heretical". Cleese replies, "No, it's not attacking the Church, necessarily. It's about people who cannot agree with each other". The film continues to cause controversy; in February 2007 the Church of St Thomas the Martyr in Newcastle upon Tyne held a public screening in the church itself, with song-sheets, organ accompaniment, stewards in costume and false beards for female members of the audience (alluding to an early scene where a group of women disguise themselves as men so that they are able to take part in a stoning). Although the screening was a sell-out, some Christian groups, notably the conservative Christian Voice, were highly critical of the decision to allow the screening to go ahead. The Revd. Jonathan Adams, one of the church's clergy, defended his taste in comedy, saying that it did not mock Jesus, and that it raised important issues about the hypocrisy and stupidity that can affect religion. However Stephen Green, the head of Christian Voice, insisted that "You don't promote Christ to the community by taking the mick out of him". Again on the film's DVD commentary, Cleese also spoke up for religious people who have come forward and congratulated him and his colleagues on the film's highlighting of double standards among purported followers of their own faith. The "What have the Romans ever done for us?" scene is "the reverse" http://apikorostalmud.blogspot.com/2005_06_01_archive.html Rabbi Adam Chalom "Tragedy and Judgment - Shabbat 33" of a similar conversation recorded in the Babylonian Talmud. Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 33. "R. Simeon b. Johai [sic] said: "All these things they have instituted for their own sake. Their markets are gathering-places for harlots; they have built baths for the purpose of indulging themselves in their comforts; they have built bridges to collect tolls from those who cross them."" Full text available at http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/t01/t0110.htm The rabbis, like the Python characters, list all the wonders the Romans have brought to Judea; Shimon bar Yochai then dismissed each development as having been done for the Romans' benefit and the Jews' loss. Political satire Occasionally forgotten amongst the blasphemy accusations, the film also significantly pokes fun at left-wing revolutionary groups. The groups in the film are all opposing the Roman occupation of Judea, but fall into the familiar pattern of intense competition among factions that appears, to an outsider, to be over ideological distinctions so small as to be invisible, "ideological purity", as Cleese once referred to it. The 'People's Front of Judea' harangue their 'rivals' with cries of "splitters"; their rivals being The 'Judean People's Front', the 'Judean Popular People's Front' the 'Campaign for a Free Galilee,' and the 'Popular Front of Judea'. The infighting among revolutionary organizations is demonstrated most dramatically when the 'People's Front of Judea' attempts to kidnap Pontius Pilate's wife, but encounters agents of the 'Campaign for a Free Galilee,' and the two factions begin a violent brawl over which of them conceived of the plan first. When Brian exhorts them to cease their fighting in order to struggle "against the common enemy," the revolutionaries stop and cry in unison, "the Judean People's Front!" However, they soon resume their fighting and, with two Roman legionnaires watching bemusedly, continue until Brian is left the only survivor, at which point he is captured. The reference to the minuscule membership of the Popular Front of Judea, "He's over there," also mocks the often tiny size of real Marxist revolutionary factions. Other scenes have the freedom fighters wasting time in debate, with one of the debated items being that they should not waste their time debating so much. There is also a famous scene in which Reg gives a revolutionary speech asking, "What have the Romans ever done for us?" The question is rhetorical. Instead, the speaker is forced into making a series of concessions as members of the audience correctly point out the benefits conferred by the Roman Empire on subject peoples, at length, the speaker concludes by asking, "All right, but apart from the sanitation, the medicine, education, wine, public order, irrigation, roads, a freshwater system, and public health, what have the Romans ever done for us?". At this point a voice in the crowd suggests, "Brought peace?". To which the revolutionary leader can only respond, "Shut up!" This element (which is not dissimilar to the film's comments on religious sectarianism) furthers Cleese's claim from the Aspen stage interview that there is a more general social message in the film regarding belief systems and group thinking, beyond only heretical satire of religious faiths. According to the DVD commentary, this part of the story was inspired mainly by the multiplication of ineffectual left-wing parties in Britain during the 1970s. These revolutionary groups would splinter every few weeks, and be angrier at each other than they were at the government. Cleese and his therapist Robin Skynner examine the underlying psychological causes behind such 'splitting' in their book Families and How to Survive Them Lost scenes A number of scenes were cut from the movie after filming. Most of these were lost in 1998 when they were destroyed by the company that bought Handmade Films. However, a number of them (of varying quality) were shown the following year on the Paramount Comedy Channel in the UK; it has not been disclosed how these scenes were saved or where they came from, presenter Jonathan Ross merely claiming they had been found "in a black bin bag". The scenes shown included the shepherds gathering for Jesus's birth, which would have been at the very start of the movie; a segment showing the kidnap of Pilate's wife (a huge mountain of a woman played by John Cleese); a scene introducing hardline Zionist Otto, leader of the Judean People's Front (played by Eric Idle); and a scene in which Pilate's wife alerts Otto to Brian's capture. The shepherds' scene has badly distorted sound, and the kidnap scene has poor colour quality. All of these scenes can now be found on the Criterion Collection DVD. The most controversial cuts were the scenes involving Otto, initially a recurring character, who had a thin Adolf Hitler-esque moustache and spoke with a German accent, shouting accusations of "racial impurity" at people whose conceptions were similar to Brian's (Roman centurion rape of native Judean women), and other Nazi-based phrases. The logo of the Judean People's Front, designed by Terry Gilliam, was a Star of David with a small line added to each point so it resembled a swastika, most familiar in the West as the symbol of the anti-Semitic Nazi movement. The rest of this faction also all had the same thin moustaches, and wore a point on their helmets, similar to those on WW1 era German helmets. The official reason for the cutting was that Otto's dialogue slowed down the narrative. However, Gilliam, writing in The Pythons Autobiography by The Pythons, said he thought it should have stayed, saying "Listen, we've alienated the Christians, let's get the Jews now". Idle himself was said to have been uncomfortable with the character; "It's essentially a pretty savage attack on rabid Zionism, suggesting it's rather akin to Nazism, which is a bit strong to take, but certainly a point of view". Michael Palin's personal journal entries from the period when various edits of Brian were being test-screened consistently reference the Pythons' and filmmakers' concerns that the Otto scenes were slowing the story down and thus were top of the list to be chopped from the final cut of the film. Michael Palin, "Diaries: The Python Years, 1969-1979" The only scene with Otto that remains in the film is during the crucifixion sequence. Otto arrives with his "crack suicide squad", sending the Roman soldiers fleeing in terror. Instead of doing anything useful, they "attack" by committing mass suicide in front of the cross, ("Zat showed 'em, huh?" says the dying Otto, to which Brian despondently replies "You silly sods!") ending Brian's last hope of rescue. (They do however show some signs of life during the famous rendition of "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life" when they are seen waving their toes in unison in time to the music.) Terry Jones once mentioned that the only reason this excerpt wasn't cut too was due to continuity reasons, as their dead bodies were very prominently placed throughout the rest of the scene. He acknowledged that some of the humour of this sole remaining contribution was lost through the earlier edits, but felt they were necessary to the overall pacing. Otto's scenes, and those with Pilate's wife, were cut from the film after the script had gone to the publishers, and so they can be found in the published version of the script. Also present is a scene where, after Brian has led the Fifth Legion to the headquarters of the People's Front of Judea, Reg (John Cleese) says "You cunt!! You stupid, bird brained, flat headed..." The profanity was overdubbed to "you klutz" before the film was released. Cleese approved of this editing as he felt the reaction to the four-letter word would "get in the way of the comedy". Box office Life of Brian opened on 17 August 1979 in five North American theatres, and grossed an impressive $140,034 USD ($28,007 per screen) in its opening weekend. Its total gross was a strong $19,398,164 USD. It was the highest-grossing British film in North America that year. In addition, the film was the fourth highest-grossing film in Britain in 1979. On 30 April 2004, Life of Brian was re-released on five North American screens to "cash in" (as Terry Jones put it) on the phenomenal box office success of Mel Gibson's The Passion of the Christ. It grossed $26,376 USD ($5,275 per screen) in its opening weekend. It ran until October 2004, playing at 28 screens at its widest point, eventually grossing $646,124 USD during its re-release. By comparison, a re-release of Monty Python and the Holy Grail had earned $1.8 million USD three years earlier. A DVD of the film was also released that year. For the original British release, a spoof travelogue narrated by John Cleese Away From It All, was shown before the film itself. It consisted mostly of stock travelogue footage and featured arch comments from Cleese. For instance, a shot of Bulgarian girls in ceremonial dresses was accompanied by the comment "You'd never believe that these girls were plotting the downfall of Western Civilisation as we know it!", Communist Bulgaria being a member of the Warsaw Pact at the time. Not only was this a spoof of travelogues per se, it was a protest against the then-common practice in Britain of showing cheaply made banal short features before a main feature. Legacy The Life of Brian has regularly been cited as a serious contender for the title 'Greatest British comedy film of all time', and has been named as such in polls conducted by Total Film magazine in 2000, the British TV network Channel 4 in 2006 and The Guardian newspaper in 2007. Rotten Tomatoes lists it as one of the best reviewed comedies, with a 98% approval rating from 44 published reviews. As well as this, the BFI declared it to be the 28th best British film of all time, in their equivalent of the AFI's original 100 Years...100 Movies list. It was the seventh highest ranking comedy on this list (four of the better placed efforts were classic Ealing Films). Another Channel 4 poll in 2001 named it the 23rd greatest film of all time (the only comedy which came higher on this occasion was Billy Wilder's Some Like It Hot, which was ranked 5th). In addition to this, the line, "He's not the Messiah, he's a very naughty boy!", spoken by Brian's mother Mandy to the crowd assembled outside her house, has been voted by readers of BOL.com the funniest line in film history. This poll also featured two of the film's other famous lines ("What have the Romans ever done for us?" and "I'm Brian and so's my wife") in the top 10. Spin-offs Spin-offs include a script-book The Life of Brian of Nazareth, which is backed by MONTYPYTHONSCRAPBOOK... (The printing of this book also caused problems, since there are rarely used technical laws in the UK against "blasphemy" dictating what can and cannot be written about religion - the publisher refused to print both halves of the book, and original prints were by two companies). See Hewison. "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life" was later re-released with great success, after being sung by British football fans. Its popularity became truly evident in 1982 during the Falklands War when sailors aboard the destroyer HMS Sheffield, severely damaged in an Argentinean Exocet missile attack on 4 May, started singing it while awaiting rescue. Indeed, many people have come to see the song as a life-affirming ode to optimism. One of its more famous renditions was by the dignitaries of Manchester's bid to host the 2000 Olympic Games, just after they were awarded to Sydney. "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life" is also featured in Eric Idle's Spamalot, a Broadway musical based upon Monty Python and the Holy Grail, and was sung by the rest of the Monty Python gang at Graham Chapman's memorial service and at the Monty Python Live At Aspen special. An album of the songs sung in Monty Python's Life of Brian has been released on the Disky label. In October, 2008, a memoir by Kim "Howard" Johnson entitled Monty Python's Tunisian Holiday: My Life with Brian was released. Johnson became friendly with the Pythons during the filming of Life of Brian and his notes and memories of the behind-the-scenes filming and make-up. Monty Python's Tunisian Holiday by Kim "Howard" Johnson at ThomasDunneBooks.com. Accessed 31 August 2008 Oratorio With the success of Eric Idle's musical retelling of Monty Python and the Holy Grail, called Spamalot, Idle announced that he would be giving Life of Brian a similar treatment. The oratorio, called Not the Messiah, was commissioned to be part of the festival called Luminato in Toronto, Ontario, in June 2007, and was written/scored by Idle and John Du Prez, who also worked with Idle on Spamalot. Not the Messiah is a spoof of Handel's oratorio Messiah. It runs approximately 50 minutes, and was conducted at its World Premiere by Toronto Symphony Orchestra music director Peter Oundjian, who is Idle's cousin. Not the Messiah received its U.S. premiere at the Caramoor International Music Festival in Katonah, New York. Cousins Peter Oundjian (Caramoor's Artistic Advisor and Principal Conductor) and Eric Idle joined forces once again for a double performance of the oratorio in July 2007. Appearances in other media In a Not the Nine O'Clock News sketch, a bishop who has made a scandalous film called The Life of Christ is hauled over the coals by a representative of the "Church of Python", claiming that the film is an attack on "Our Lord, John Cleese" and on the members of Python, who, in the sketch, are the objects of Britain's true religious faith. This was a parody of the infamous Friday Night, Saturday Morning programme, broadcast a week previously. The director of the film (played by Rowan Atkinson) claims that the reaction to the film has surprised him, as he "didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition." A BBC history series What the Romans Did for Us, written and presented by Adam Hart-Davis and first broadcast in 2000, takes its title from John Cleese's rhetorical question "What have the Romans ever done for us?" in one of the film's scenes. Former British Prime Minister Tony Blair in his Prime Minister's Question Time of 3 May 2006 made a shorthand reference to the types of political groups, "Judean People's Front" or "People's Front of Judea", lampooned in Life of Brian. This was in response to a question from the MP David Clelland, asking "What has the Labour government ever done for us?" – itself a parody of John Cleese's "What have the Romans ever done for us?" On New Year's Day 2007, and again on New Year's Eve, UK television station Channel 4 dedicated an entire evening to the Monty Python phenomenon during which an hour-long documentary was broadcast called The Secret Life of Brian about the making of The Life of Brian and the controversy that was caused by its release. The Pythons featured in the documentary and reflected upon the events that surrounded the film. This was followed by a screening of the film itself. The documentary (in a slightly extended form) was one of the special features on the 2007 DVD re-release - the "Immaculate Edition", also the first Python release on Blu-Ray. The controversy surrounding the film was parodied in the Father Ted episode "The Passion of St Tibulus", in which Fathers Ted and Dougal are asked to campaign against the allegedly blasphemous titular film by Bishop Brennan. See also Freedom of speech versus blasphemy References Further reading Hewison, Robert. Monty Python: The Case Against''. New York: Grove, 1981. ISBN 0-413-48660-5. This book discusses at length the censorship and controversy surrounding the film. External links Monty Python's Life of Brian film script Keith Short - Film Sculptor Image of giant feet sculpted for this film Criterion Collection essay by George Perry Graffiti vandal strikes in Gloucester Filmcritic.com review of Monty Python's Life of Brian James Berardinelli's review on Monty Python's Life of Brian A 2007 documentary about the controversy surrounding the film. | Monty_Python's_Life_of_Brian |@lemmatized monty:19 python:40 life:29 brian:69 also:20 know:5 comedy:13 film:87 write:8 direct:3 largely:1 perform:1 team:1 tell:4 story:4 cohen:3 play:10 graham:4 chapman:5 young:6 jewish:1 man:12 bear:4 era:4 location:3 jesus:17 christ:8 subsequently:1 mistake:3 messiah:9 combination:2 religious:8 theme:1 controversial:4 particularly:3 initial:2 release:19 plot:4 stable:3 door:1 one:23 fact:2 initially:2 confuse:1 three:3 wise:6 men:4 come:7 praise:1 future:1 king:1 jew:4 manage:2 put:6 boorish:1 mother:4 mandy:3 realise:1 grow:2 idealistic:1 resent:1 continue:4 roman:23 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6,672 | Morpheme | In morpheme-based morphology, a morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. In spoken language, morphemes are composed of phonemes (the smallest linguistically distinctive units of sound), and in written language morphemes are composed of graphemes (the smallest units of written language). The concept morpheme differs from the concept word, as many morphemes cannot stand as words on their own. A morpheme is free if it can stand alone, or bound if it is used exclusively alongside a free morpheme. Its actual phonetic representation is the morph, with the different morphs representing the same morpheme being grouped as its allomorphs. English example: The word "unbreakable" has three morphemes: "un-", a bound morpheme; "break", a free morpheme; and "-able", a bound morpheme. "un-" is also a prefix, "-able" is a suffix. Both "un-" and "-able" are affixes. The morpheme plural-s has the morph "-s", , in cats (), but "-es", , in dishes (), and even the voiced "-s", , in dogs (). "-s". These are allomorphs. Types of morphemes Free morphemes like town, and dog can appear with other lexemes (as in town hall or dog house) or they can stand alone, i.e. "free". Bound morphemes like "un-" appear only together with other morphemes to form a lexeme. Bound morphemes in general tend to be prefixes and suffixes. Unproductive, non-affix morphemes that exist only in bound form are known as "cranberry" morphemes, from the "cran" in that very word. Derivational morphemes can be added to a word to create (derive) another word: the addition of "-ness" to "happy," for example, to give "happiness." They carry semantic information. Inflectional morphemes modify a word's tense, number, aspect, and so on, without deriving a new word or a word in a new grammatical category (as in the "dog" morpheme if written with the plural marker morpheme "-s" becomes "dogs"). They carry grammatical information. Allomorphs are variants of a morpheme, e.g. the plural marker in English is sometimes realized as , or . Other variants Null morpheme Root morpheme Word stem Morphological analysis In natural language processing for Japanese, Chinese and other languages, morphological analysis is a process of segmenting given sentence into a row of morphemes. It is closely related to Part-of-speech tagging, but word segmentation is required for these languages because word boundaries are not indicated by blank spaces. Famous Japanese morphological analysers include Juman, ChaSen and Mecab. See also International Phonetic Alphabet Hybrid word Alternation (linguistics) Lexeme Morphophonology Chereme Grapheme Phoneme Sememe Floating tone Theoretical linguistics Marker (linguistics) Morphological parsing References External links Glossary of Reading Terms Comprehensive and searchable morpheme reference Linguistics 001 — Lecture 7 — Morphology by Prof. Mark Lieberman Morphemes — A New Threat to Society: A humorous look at morphemes. Accurate, but purposely confuses morphemes with narcotics (i.e., "morphine"). Morpheme Study Aid | Morpheme |@lemmatized morpheme:33 base:1 morphology:2 small:3 linguistic:1 unit:3 semantic:2 meaning:1 spoken:1 language:6 compose:2 phoneme:2 linguistically:1 distinctive:1 sound:1 write:3 grapheme:2 concept:2 differs:1 word:13 many:1 cannot:1 stand:3 free:5 alone:2 bound:6 use:1 exclusively:1 alongside:1 actual:1 phonetic:2 representation:1 morph:2 different:1 morphs:1 represent:1 group:1 allomorph:3 english:2 example:2 unbreakable:1 three:1 un:4 break:1 able:3 also:2 prefix:2 suffix:2 affix:2 plural:3 cat:1 e:4 dish:1 even:1 voiced:1 dog:5 type:1 like:2 town:2 appear:2 lexeme:3 hall:1 house:1 together:1 form:2 general:1 tend:1 unproductive:1 non:1 exist:1 know:1 cranberry:1 cran:1 derivational:1 add:1 create:1 derive:2 another:1 addition:1 ness:1 happy:1 give:2 happiness:1 carry:2 information:2 inflectional:1 modify:1 tense:1 number:1 aspect:1 without:1 new:3 grammatical:2 category:1 marker:3 become:1 variant:2 g:1 sometimes:1 realize:1 null:1 root:1 stem:1 morphological:4 analysis:2 natural:1 processing:1 japanese:2 chinese:1 process:1 segment:1 sentence:1 row:1 closely:1 relate:1 part:1 speech:1 tagging:1 segmentation:1 require:1 boundary:1 indicate:1 blank:1 space:1 famous:1 analyser:1 include:1 juman:1 chasen:1 mecab:1 see:1 international:1 alphabet:1 hybrid:1 alternation:1 linguistics:4 morphophonology:1 chereme:1 sememe:1 float:1 tone:1 theoretical:1 parsing:1 reference:2 external:1 link:1 glossary:1 reading:1 term:1 comprehensive:1 searchable:1 lecture:1 prof:1 mark:1 lieberman:1 morphemes:1 threat:1 society:1 humorous:1 look:1 accurate:1 purposely:1 confuse:1 narcotic:1 morphine:1 study:1 aid:1 |@bigram bound_morpheme:4 prefix_suffix:1 inflectional_morpheme:1 closely_relate:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 grapheme_phoneme:1 external_link:1 |
6,673 | Nobel_Peace_Prize | Swedish economist and Nobel Prize Laureate Dag Hammarskjöld was an unusually active UN Secretary-General from 1953 to his death in 1961. The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish, Danish and ) is one of five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel. According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize should be awarded "to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses." Alfred Nobel's will stated that the prize should be awarded by a committee of five people elected by the Norwegian Parliament. The Peace Prize is presented annually in Oslo, in the presence of the king, on December 10 (the anniversary of Nobel's death), and is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. "In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway. Under the eyes of a watching world, the Nobel Laureate receives three things: a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the prize amount." The Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony is held at the Oslo City Hall, followed the next day by the Nobel Peace Prize Concert, which is broadcast to more than 450 million households in over 150 countries around the world. The concert has received worldwide fame and the participation of top celebrity hosts and performers. The selection of Nobel Peace Prize winners sometimes causes controversy, as it has become greatly politicized and not related to issues of peace and the list of winners includes people who formerly used violence and terrorism, but then later made exceptional concessions to non-violence in the attempt to achieve peace. Appointment process Nobel died in 1896 and did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category. The categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices as he was a trained chemical engineer. The reason behind the peace prize is less clear. Scholars who studied Nobel have said it was Nobel's way to compensate for developing destructive forces (Nobel's inventions included dynamite and ballistite). None of his explosives, except for ballistite, were used in any war during his lifetime, Altman, L. (2006). Alfred Nobel and the prize that almost didn't happen. New York Times. Retrieved October 14, 2006. although the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organisation, did carry out dynamite attacks in the 1880s BBC History - 1916 Easter Rising - Profiles - The Irish Republican Brotherhood BBC. and he was instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron company to an armaments company whilst he owned it. The Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. The Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Laureate for the Peace Prize. The Committee chairman, currently Thorbjørn Jagland, presents the Prize to the laureate at the award ceremony. At the time of Alfred Nobel's death Sweden and Norway were in a personal union in which the Swedish government was solely responsible for foreign policy, and the Norwegian Parliament was responsible only for Norwegian domestic policy. Alfred Nobel never explained Nobel Committee why he wanted a Norwegian rather than Swedish body to award the Peace Prize. As a consequence, many people have speculated about Nobel's intentions. For instance, Nobel may have wanted to prevent the manipulation of the selection process by foreign powers, and as Norway did not have any foreign policy, the Norwegian government could not be influenced. Nominations Nominations for the Prize may be made by a broad array of qualified individuals, including former recipients, members of national assemblies and congresses, university professors (in certain disciplines), international judges, and special advisors to the Prize Committee. In some years as many as 199 nominations have been received. The Committee keeps the nominations secret and asks that nominators do the same. Over time many individuals have become known as "Nobel Peace Prize Nominees", but this designation has no official standing Who may submit nominations - Nobels fredspris . Nominations from 1901 to 1955, however, have been released in a database. Nomination Database - The Nobel Peace Prize, 1901-1955 When the past nominations were released it was discovered that Adolf Hitler was nominated in 1939 by Erik Brandt, a member of the Swedish Parliament. Brandt retracted the nomination after a few days. Richardson, Gunnar, Förtroligt and hemligt : kunglig utrikespolitik och svensk neutralitet under andra världskriget. Stockholm : Carlsson, 2007 Other infamous nominees included Joseph Stalin and Benito Mussolini. However, since nomination requires only support from one qualified person (e.g., a history professor), these unusual nominations do not represent the opinions of the Nobel committee itself. Unlike the other Nobel Prizes, which recognize completed scientific or literary accomplishment, the Nobel Peace Prize may be awarded to persons or organizations that are in the process of resolving a conflict or creating peace. As some such processes have failed to create lasting peace, some Peace Prizes appear questionable in hindsight. For example, the awards given to Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Martin Luther King Jr., Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Yasser Arafat, Lê Ðức Thọ, and Henry Kissinger were particularly controversial and criticized; the Kissinger-Thọ award prompted two dissenting Committee members to resign. Controversies and Criticisms In 2005, the Nobel Peace Center opened. It serves to present the Laureates, their work for peace, and the ongoing problems of war and conflict around the world. Controversy The Nobel Peace Prize has sparked controversy throughout its history. The Norwegian Parliament, which appoints the Peace Prize Committee, has no say in the award issue. Critics argue that the same Parliament has pursued partisan military aims. A member of the Committee cannot at the same time be a member of the Parliament, and the Committee includes former members from all major parties, including those parties that oppose NATO membership. Unlike the scientific and literary Nobel Prizes, usually issued in retrospect, often two or three decades after the awarded achievement, the Peace Prize has been awarded for more recent or immediate achievements taking the form of summary judgment being issued in the same year as or the year immediately following the political act. Some commentators have suggested that to award a peace prize on the basis of unquantifiable contemporary opinion is unjust or possibly erroneous, especially as many of the judges cannot themselves be said to be impartial observers. In pro-democracy struggles, it may be said that the 'real' peace-makers may not be recognized for their long-term or subtle approaches. However, others have pointed to the uniqueness of the Peace Prize in that its high profile can often focus world attention on particular problems and possibly aid in the peace-efforts themselves. The 14th Dalai Lama and Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize laureates. On closer inspection, the peace-laureates often have a lifetime's history of working at and promoting humanitarian issues, as in the examples of German medic Albert Schweitzer (1952 laureate), Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., an African-American civil rights activist (1964 laureate) and Aung San Suu Kyi, a Buddhist nonviolent pro-democracy activist (1991 laureate). Still others are selected for tireless efforts, as in the examples of Jimmy Carter and Mohamed ElBaradei. Others, even today, are quite controversial, due to the recipient's political activity, as in the case of Henry Kissinger (1973 laureate), Mother Teresa, a Roman Catholic missionary nun (1979 laureate), the 14th Dalai Lama (1989), Menachem Begin and Anwar Sadat (1978 laureates), or Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat (1994 laureates). A widely discussed criticism of the peace-prize are the notable omissions, namely the failure to award individuals with widely recognized contributions to peace. The list includes Mahatma Gandhi, Corazon Aquino, Pope John XXIII, Pope John Paul II, Steve Biko, Raphael Lemkin, Abdul Sattar Edhi, César Chávez, Jose Figueres Ferrer, Irena Sendler, and Oscar Romero. In particular, the omission of the Indian leader Gandhi has been widely discussed, including public statements by the various members of Nobel Committee. Your Questions about the Nobel Peace Prize! It has been acknowledged by the committee that Gandhi was nominated in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947 and, finally, a few days before he was murdered in January 1948. The omission has been publicly regretted by later members of the Nobel Committee. In 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the ground that "there was no suitable living candidate" that year. Later, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi." Presentation Speech by Egil Aarvik, Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee In most cases, the omissions resulted in part from the provision in Alfred Nobel's will that only living people could receive the prize. Research by anthropologist David Stoll into Rigoberta Menchú, the 1992 recipient, revealed some fabrications in her biography, "Me llamo Rigoberta Menchú y así me nació la conciencia" (My Name is Rigoberta Menchú and this is how my Conscience was Born), translated into English as "I, Rigoberta Menchú". Menchú later admitted changing some details about her background. After the initial controversy, the Nobel Committee dismissed calls to revoke her Nobel prize because of the reported falsifications. Professor Geir Lundestad, the secretary of the Committee, said her prize "was not based exclusively or primarily on the autobiography". Rigoberta Menchú Tum - Biography According to the Nobel Committee, "Stoll approves of her Nobel prize and has no question about the picture of army atrocities which she presents. He says that her purpose in telling her story the way she did 'enabled her to focus international condemnation on an institution that deserved it, the Guatemalan army." List of Laureates Notes See also Atoms for Peace Award Gandhi Peace Prize Lenin Peace Prize Nobel Prize Norwegian Nobel Committee Magsaysay Award Sweden-Norway Martin Luther King, Jr. External links "All Nobel Laureates in Peace" – Index webpage on the official site of the Nobel Foundation. "The Nobel Peace Prize" – Official webpage of the Norwegian Nobel Institute for the Norwegian Nobel Committee. "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies" – Official hyperlinked webpage of the Nobel Foundation. "The Nobel Prize in Peace" – Official site of the Nobel Foundation. "The Nobel Prize Medals and the Medal for the Prize in Economics" – By Birgitta Lemmel; an article on the history of the design of the medals featured on the official site. "The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Peace, 1901-1955" – Database featured on the official site of the Nobel Foundation. 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6,674 | Osman_II | Sultan Osman II or Othman II (commonly known as Genç Osman meaning Osman the Young in Turkish) (Ottoman Turkish عثمان ثانى ‘Osmān-i sānī) (November 3, 1604 May 20, 1622) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1618 until his death on 20 May 1622. He married Aisha, born in 1607, without issue. Osman II was born at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul, the son of Sultan Ahmed I (1603–17) and his wife Valide Sultan Mahfiruze Hatice Sultan, originally named Maria, a Greek. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford Jay Shaw, Cambridge University Press, p.191 At a young age his mother paid a lot of attention to his education, as a result of this Osman II was a known poet and had mastered many languages, including Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin and Italian. He ascended the throne at the early age of 14 as the result of a coup d'état against his uncle Mustafa I (1617–18, 1622–23). Despite his youth, Osman II soon sought to assert himself as a ruler, and after securing the empire's eastern border by signing a peace treaty with Safavid Iran, he personally led the Ottoman invasion of Poland during the Moldavian Magnate Wars. Forced to sign a peace treaty with the Poles after the Battle of Chotin (Chocim) (which was, in fact, a siege of Chotin defended by the Polish hetman Jan Chodkiewicz) in September-October, 1621, Osman II returned home to Istanbul in shame, blaming the cowardice of the Janissaries and the insufficiency of his statesmen for his humiliation. Probably the first Sultan to identify and attempt to tackle the Janissaries as a praetorian institution doing more harm than good to the modern empire, Osman II closed their coffee shops (the gathering points for conspiracies against the throne) and started planning to create a new, loyal and ethnic Turkic army consisting of Anatolian, Mesopotamian and Egyptian Turks and Turkmens. The result was a palace uprising by the janissaries, who promptly imprisoned the young sultan. When an executioner was sent to strangle him at Yedikule, Istanbul, Osman II refused to give in and started fighting the man and was only subdued when he was hit on his back with the rear end of an axe by one of his imprisoners. After that he was strangled with a bowstring. Alternatively, Turkish traveller Evliya Celebi recorded that after a putting up a desperate struggle, Osman was killed by the Grand Vizier Davut Pasha (Daud Pasha) from 'compression of his testicles' which was 'a mode of execution reserved by custom to the Ottoman sultans'. Goodwin, Jason: Lords of the Horizons, chapter 15: The Cage, published 1998 Osman II was a very progressive Sultan, but the lack of a professional and willing cadre to aid him in his reforms caused his downfall. As a ruler he was perceptive and energetic. In contrast to most of his successors he compares favourably. His worst fault as a politician was probably that he tried too much too soon. Notes External links | Osman_II |@lemmatized sultan:9 osman:11 ii:9 othman:1 commonly:1 know:2 genç:1 mean:1 young:3 turkish:3 ottoman:5 عثمان:1 ثانى:1 osmān:1 sānī:1 november:1 may:2 empire:4 death:1 marry:1 aisha:1 bear:2 without:1 issue:1 topkapi:1 palace:2 istanbul:3 son:1 ahmed:1 wife:1 valide:1 mahfiruze:1 hatice:1 originally:1 name:1 maria:1 greek:2 history:1 modern:2 turkey:1 stanford:1 jay:1 shaw:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 p:1 age:2 mother:1 pay:1 lot:1 attention:1 education:1 result:3 poet:1 master:1 many:1 language:1 include:1 arabic:1 persian:1 latin:1 italian:1 ascend:1 throne:2 early:1 coup:1 état:1 uncle:1 mustafa:1 despite:1 youth:1 soon:2 seek:1 assert:1 ruler:2 secure:1 eastern:1 border:1 sign:2 peace:2 treaty:2 safavid:1 iran:1 personally:1 lead:1 invasion:1 poland:1 moldavian:1 magnate:1 war:1 force:1 pole:1 battle:1 chotin:2 chocim:1 fact:1 siege:1 defend:1 polish:1 hetman:1 jan:1 chodkiewicz:1 september:1 october:1 return:1 home:1 shame:1 blame:1 cowardice:1 janissary:3 insufficiency:1 statesman:1 humiliation:1 probably:2 first:1 identify:1 attempt:1 tackle:1 praetorian:1 institution:1 harm:1 good:1 close:1 coffee:1 shop:1 gathering:1 point:1 conspiracy:1 start:2 plan:1 create:1 new:1 loyal:1 ethnic:1 turkic:1 army:1 consisting:1 anatolian:1 mesopotamian:1 egyptian:1 turk:1 turkmen:1 uprising:1 promptly:1 imprison:1 executioner:1 send:1 strangle:2 yedikule:1 refuse:1 give:1 fight:1 man:1 subdue:1 hit:1 back:1 rear:1 end:1 axe:1 one:1 imprisoners:1 bowstring:1 alternatively:1 traveller:1 evliya:1 celebi:1 record:1 put:1 desperate:1 struggle:1 kill:1 grand:1 vizier:1 davut:1 pasha:2 daud:1 compression:1 testicle:1 mode:1 execution:1 reserve:1 custom:1 goodwin:1 jason:1 lord:1 horizon:1 chapter:1 cage:1 publish:1 progressive:1 lack:1 professional:1 willing:1 cadre:1 aid:1 reform:1 cause:1 downfall:1 perceptive:1 energetic:1 contrast:1 successor:1 compare:1 favourably:1 bad:1 fault:1 politician:1 try:1 much:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram ottoman_empire:2 topkapi_palace:1 palace_istanbul:1 sultan_ahmed:1 valide_sultan:1 ascend_throne:1 coup_état:1 coffee_shop:1 grand_vizier:1 external_link:1 |
6,675 | Bank_of_China_Tower_(Hong_Kong) | The Bank of China Tower (abbreviated BOC Tower) is one of the most recognisable skyscrapers in Central, Hong Kong. It houses the headquarters for the Bank of China (Hong Kong) Limited. The building is located at 1 Garden Road, in Central and Western District on Hong Kong Island. Designed by I. M. Pei, the building is high with two masts reaching high. It was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1989 to 1992, and it was the first building outside the United States to break the 305 m (1,000 ft) mark. It is now the third tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after Two International Finance Centre and Central Plaza. Plot history The 6,700m² site on which the building is constructed was formerly the location of Murray House. After its brick-by-brick relocation to Stanley, the site was sold by the Government for "only HK$1 billion" in August 1982 amidst growing concern over the future of Hong Kong in the run-up to the transfer of sovereignty. Once developed, gross floor area was expected to be 100,000 m². Philip Bowring & Mary Lee, Dear friends..., pg 114 Far Eastern Economic Review, 13-Aug-1982 The original project was intended for completion on the auspicious date of 8 August 1988. However, owing to project delays, groundbreaking took place in March 1989, almost two years late. It was topped out in 1989, and occupied in May 1990. The building was initially built by the Hong Kong Branch of the Bank of China; its Garden Road entrance continues to display the name "Bank of China", rather than BOCHK. The top four and the bottom 19 stories are used by the Bank, while the other floors are leased out. Ownership has since been transferred to BOCHK, although the Bank of China has leased back several floors for use by its own operations in Hong Kong. Favouritism controversy The Government had apparently given preferential treatment to Chinese companies, and was again criticised for the apparent preferential treatment to the BOCHK. The price paid was half the amount of the 6,250 m² Admiralty II plot, for which the MTR Corporation paid HK$1.82 billion in cash. The BOC would make initial payment of $60 million, with the rest payable over 13 years at 6% interest. The announcement of the sale was also poorly handled, and a dive in business confidence ensued. The Hang Seng Index fell 80 points, and the HK$ lost 1.5% of its value the next day. Design and feng shui Designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect I. M. Pei, the building is 305.0 metres (1,000.7 ft) high with two masts reaching 367.4 metres (1,205.4 ft) high. The 72 story building is located near Central MTR station. This was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1989 to 1992, the first building outside the United States to break the 305 m (1,000 ft) mark, and the first composite space frame high-rise building. That also means it was the tallest outside America from its completion year, 1990. It is now the third tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after Two International Finance Center and Central Plaza. A small observation deck on the 43rd floor of the building is open to the public; visits to the main observation deck on the 70th floor are by appointment only. The structural expressionism adopted in the design of this building resembles growing bamboo shoots, symbolising livelihood and prosperity. The whole structure is supported by the five steel columns at the corners of the building, with the triangular frameworks transferring the weight of the structure onto these five columns. It is covered with glass curtain walls. While its distinctive look makes it one of Hong Kong's most identifiable landmarks today, it was the source of some controversy at one time, as the bank is the only major building in Hong Kong to have bypassed the convention of consulting with feng shui masters on matters of design prior to construction. The building has been criticised by some practitioners of Feng Shui for its sharp edges and its negative symbolism by the numerous 'X' shapes in its original design, though Pei modified the design to some degree before construction following this feedback. The building's profile from some angles resembles that of a meat cleaver. In Feng Shui, this is described as a cleaver building and it is not difficult to observe that it is facing the HSBC Hong Kong headquarters building in this guise. Cultural references The BOC Tower's bold futuristic design has made it into popular culture. It is the only Hong Kong landmark included in the city-building/simulation computer games SimCity 3000 and SimCity 4. The digitally modified facade of the building is featured in the science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager as the Starfleet "Communications Research Center". The building features alongside the Emirates Towers in the racing game 'Burnout Paradise' Pictures See also Bank of China Building, the old headquarters of the Bank of China List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong List of skyscrapers List of towers List of tallest freestanding structures in the world List of the world's tallest structures References External links About BOC Tower on Bank of China (Hong Kong) website Great Buildings Online site on BOC Tower Skyscraperpage.com: Bank of China Tower Buildable paper model of the tower Elevator Layout Branch Details for Hong Kong Bank of China Tower Hong Kong Bank of China Tower | Bank_of_China_Tower_(Hong_Kong) |@lemmatized bank:13 china:11 tower:11 abbreviate:1 boc:5 one:3 recognisable:1 skyscraper:4 central:5 hong:18 kong:18 house:2 headquarters:3 limit:1 building:25 locate:2 garden:2 road:2 western:1 district:1 island:1 design:8 pei:3 high:5 two:5 mast:2 reach:2 tall:6 asia:2 first:3 outside:3 united:2 state:2 break:2 ft:4 mark:2 third:2 international:2 finance:2 centre:1 plaza:2 plot:2 history:1 site:3 construct:1 formerly:1 location:1 murray:1 brick:2 relocation:1 stanley:1 sell:1 government:2 hk:3 billion:2 august:2 amidst:1 grow:2 concern:1 future:1 run:1 transfer:3 sovereignty:1 developed:1 gross:1 floor:5 area:1 expect:1 philip:1 bowring:1 mary:1 lee:1 dear:1 friend:1 pg:1 far:1 eastern:1 economic:1 review:1 aug:1 original:2 project:2 intend:1 completion:2 auspicious:1 date:1 however:1 owe:1 delay:1 groundbreaking:1 take:1 place:1 march:1 almost:1 year:3 late:1 top:2 occupy:1 may:1 initially:1 build:1 branch:2 entrance:1 continue:1 display:1 name:1 rather:1 bochk:3 four:1 bottom:1 story:2 use:2 lease:2 ownership:1 since:1 although:1 back:1 several:1 operation:1 favouritism:1 controversy:2 apparently:1 give:1 preferential:2 treatment:2 chinese:1 company:1 criticise:2 apparent:1 price:1 pay:2 half:1 amount:1 admiralty:1 ii:1 mtr:2 corporation:1 cash:1 would:1 make:3 initial:1 payment:1 million:1 rest:1 payable:1 interest:1 announcement:1 sale:1 also:3 poorly:1 handle:1 dive:1 business:1 confidence:1 ensue:1 hang:1 seng:1 index:1 fell:1 point:1 lose:1 value:1 next:1 day:1 feng:4 shui:4 pritzker:1 prize:1 win:1 architect:1 metre:2 near:1 station:1 composite:1 space:1 frame:1 rise:1 mean:1 america:1 center:2 small:1 observation:2 deck:2 open:1 public:1 visit:1 main:1 appointment:1 structural:1 expressionism:1 adopt:1 resemble:2 bamboo:1 shoot:1 symbolise:1 livelihood:1 prosperity:1 whole:1 structure:5 support:1 five:2 steel:1 column:2 corner:1 triangular:1 framework:1 weight:1 onto:1 cover:1 glass:1 curtain:1 wall:1 distinctive:1 look:1 identifiable:1 landmark:2 today:1 source:1 time:1 major:1 bypass:1 convention:1 consult:1 master:1 matter:1 prior:1 construction:2 practitioner:1 sharp:1 edge:1 negative:1 symbolism:1 numerous:1 x:1 shape:1 though:1 modify:2 degree:1 follow:1 feedback:1 profile:1 angle:1 meat:1 cleaver:2 describe:1 difficult:1 observe:1 face:1 hsbc:1 guise:1 cultural:1 reference:2 bold:1 futuristic:1 popular:1 culture:1 include:1 city:1 simulation:1 computer:1 game:2 simcity:2 digitally:1 facade:1 feature:2 science:1 fiction:1 television:1 series:1 star:1 trek:1 voyager:1 starfleet:1 communication:1 research:1 alongside:1 emirate:1 racing:1 burnout:1 paradise:1 picture:1 see:1 old:1 list:5 freestanding:1 world:2 tallest:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 great:1 online:1 skyscraperpage:1 com:1 buildable:1 paper:1 model:1 elevator:1 layout:1 detail:1 |@bigram hong_kong:18 tall_skyscraper:2 hk_billion:2 preferential_treatment:2 feng_shui:4 pritzker_prize:1 architect_pei:1 metre_ft:2 mtr_station:1 simcity_simcity:1 science_fiction:1 star_trek:1 trek_voyager:1 tall_freestanding:1 freestanding_structure:1 external_link:1 |
6,676 | Emperor_Chūai | ; also known as Tarashinakatsuhiko no Sumeramikoto; was a Japanese monarch, the 14th emperor (tennō) of Japan to appear on the traditional list of emperors. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 15; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 100-101. Emperor Chūai is considered by most historians to be a legendary figure, and the name Chūai Tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Chūai is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor" because of the paucity of information about him, which does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. If Chūai did exist, there is no evidence to suggest that the title tennō was used during the time period to which his reign has been assigned. It is much more likely that he was a chieftain, or local clan leader, and the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern day Japan. According to the Kojiki and Nihonshoki, he was the father of Emperor Ōjin. Ōjin is generally accepted to have existed based on archaeological evidence, but his father was Yamato Takeru, whose story is generally accepted not to do so. He was a grandson of Emperor Keikō, a Yamato monarch. Chūai's wife was Jingū. According to these same legends, his wife was suddenly possessed by some unknown gods. The gods promised Emperor Chūai rich lands overseas. Chūai then looked to the sea, but he could see nothing and denounced his belief in the promises of the gods. The gods were enraged by this and declared that he would die and never receive the promised land. Instead they would go to his conceived but unborn son. The legend then states that Chūai died soon after and his widow, Jingū, conquered the promised land, which is conjectured to be part of modern day Korea. According to one version of the legend, Chūai's son was born three years after the death of Chūai, which lends further support to the notion that the stories surrounding him are based on myth rather than actual events. This legend also has many other flaws (it claims that Jingū was flown into the middle of the promised land and then conquered into Japan) which have largely discredited the story among historians. Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 217-223. Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Chūai |@lemmatized also:3 know:1 tarashinakatsuhiko:1 sumeramikoto:1 japanese:1 monarch:2 emperor:10 tennō:3 japan:8 appear:1 traditional:1 list:2 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:3 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 chūai:10 consider:1 historian:3 legendary:2 figure:1 name:1 assign:3 posthumously:1 late:1 generation:1 firm:1 date:1 life:1 reign:2 regard:1 paucity:1 information:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 person:1 ever:1 exist:3 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 evidence:2 suggest:1 title:1 use:1 time:2 period:1 much:1 likely:1 chieftain:1 local:1 clan:1 leader:1 polity:1 rule:1 would:3 encompass:1 small:1 portion:1 modern:2 day:2 accord:3 kojiki:1 nihonshoki:1 father:2 ōjin:2 generally:2 accept:2 base:2 archaeological:1 yamato:2 takeru:1 whose:1 story:3 grandson:1 keikō:1 wife:2 jingū:3 legend:4 suddenly:1 possess:1 unknown:1 god:5 promise:2 rich:1 land:4 overseas:1 look:1 sea:1 could:1 see:2 nothing:1 denounce:1 belief:1 enrage:1 declare:1 die:2 never:1 receive:1 promised:3 instead:1 go:1 conceive:1 unborn:1 son:2 state:1 soon:1 widow:1 conquer:2 conjecture:1 part:1 korea:1 one:1 version:1 bear:1 three:1 year:1 death:1 lend:1 support:1 notion:1 surround:1 myth:1 rather:1 actual:1 event:1 many:1 flaw:1 claim:1 fly:1 middle:1 largely:1 discredit:1 among:1 aston:2 william:2 nihongi:2 vol:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 chronicle:2 early:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 brown:1 delmer:1 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 c:1 gukanshō:2 future:1 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 imperial:2 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 sovereign:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 cult:1 |@bigram titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 emperor_paucity:1 paucity_information:1 kojiki_nihonshoki:1 archaeological_evidence:1 promised_land:3 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 brown_delmer:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
6,677 | Esperanto | is the most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language in the world. Its name derives from Doktoro Esperanto, the pseudonym under which L. L. Zamenhof published the first book detailing Esperanto, the Unua Libro, in 1887. The word esperanto means "one who hopes" in the language itself. Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy and flexible language that would serve as a universal second language to foster peace and international understanding. See the quotation from Zamenhof's writings. Esperanto has had continuous usage by a community estimated at between 100,000 and 2 million speakers for over a century, and approximately one thousand native speakers. However, no country has adopted the language officially. Today, Esperanto is employed in world travel, correspondence, cultural exchange, conventions, literature, language instruction, television, Internacia Televido and radio broadcasting. Radio in Esperanto: In 2007 Polskie Radio made its last radio broadcast, moving programming to the internet. However, other nations such as China and the Vatican continue radio broadcasts. At least one major search engine, Google, offers searching of Esperanto-related websites via an Esperanto portal. Google Esperanto portal The Esperanto Wikipedia contains over 113,000 articles, as of May 2009. There is evidence that learning Esperanto may provide a good foundation for learning languages in general. See Language acquisition above. Esperanto is also the language of instruction in one university, the Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj in San Marino. Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj (AIS) San-Marino History The first Esperanto book by L. L. Zamenhof Esperanto was developed in the late 1870s and early 1880s by Dr. Ludovic Lazarus Zamenhof, a Jewish ophthalmologist from Bialystok, at the time part of the Russian Empire. According to Zamenhof, he created this language to foster harmony between people from different countries. His feelings and the situation in Bialystok may be gleaned from an extract from his famous letter to Nikolai Borovko: The letter is quoted in Esperanto - The New Latin for the Church and for Ecumenism, by Ulrich Matthias. Translation from Esperanto by Mike Leon and Maire Mullarney After some ten years of development, which Zamenhof spent translating literature into Esperanto as well as writing original prose and verse, the first book of Esperanto grammar was published in Warsaw in July 1887. The number of speakers grew rapidly over the next few decades, at first primarily in the Russian empire and Eastern Europe, then in Western Europe, the Americas, China, and Japan. In the early years, speakers of Esperanto kept in contact primarily through correspondence and periodicals, but in 1905 the first world congress of Esperanto speakers was held in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. Since then world congresses have been held in different countries every year, except during the two World Wars. Since the Second World War, they have been attended by an average of over 2,000 and up to 6,000 people. Relation to 20th-century totalitarianism As a potential vehicle for international understanding, Esperanto attracted the suspicion of many totalitarian states. The situation was especially pronounced in Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan and in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. In Germany, there was additional motivation to persecute Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish. In his work, Mein Kampf, Hitler mentioned Esperanto as an example of a language that would be used by an International Jewish Conspiracy once they achieved world domination. Esperantists were executed during the Holocaust, with Zamenhof's family in particular singled out for execution. About ESW and the Holocaust Museum In the early years of the Soviet Union, Esperanto was given a measure of government support, and an officially recognized Soviet Esperanto Association came into being. Donald J. Harlow, The Esperanto Book, chapter 7 However, in 1937, Stalin reversed this policy. He denounced Esperanto as "the language of spies" and had Esperantists exiled or executed. The use of Esperanto was effectively banned until 1956. Official use Esperanto has never been an official language of any recognized country. However, there were plans at the beginning of the 20th century to establish Neutral Moresnet as the world's first Esperanto state. Qian Xuantong, a Chinese linguist, promoted the replacement of Chinese with Esperanto. The Languages of China by S. Robert Ramsey In addition, the self-proclaimed artificial island micronation of Rose Island used Esperanto as its official language in 1968. The U.S. Army has published military phrasebooks in Esperanto, The Maneuver Enemy website to be used in wargames by mock enemy forces. In the summer of 1924, the American Radio Relay League adopted Esperanto as its official international auxiliary language, and hoped that the language would be used by radio amateurs in international communications, but its actual use for radio communications was negligible. Esperanto is the working language of several non-profit international organizations such as the Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda; most others are specifically Esperanto organizations. The largest of these, the World Esperanto Association, has an official consultative relationship with the United Nations and UNESCO. Esperanto is also the first language of teaching and administration of one university, the International Academy of Sciences San Marino. Linguistic properties Classification As a constructed language, Esperanto is not genealogically related to any ethnic language. It has been described as "a language lexically predominantly Romanic, morphologically intensively agglutinative, and to a certain degree isolating in character". The phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and semantics are based on the western Indo-European languages. The phonemic inventory is essentially Slavic, as is much of the semantics, while the vocabulary derives primarily from the Romance languages, with a lesser contribution from the Germanic languages. Pragmatics and other aspects of the language not specified by Zamenhof's original documents were influenced by the native languages of early speakers, primarily Russian, Polish, German, and French. Typologically, Esperanto has prepositions and a free pragmatic word order that by default is subject-verb-object. Adjectives can be freely placed before or after the nouns they modify, though before the noun is more common. New words are formed through extensive prefixing and suffixing. Writing system Esperanto is written with a modified version of the Latin alphabet, including six letters with diacritics: ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ (with circumflex) and ŭ (with breve). The alphabet does not include the letters q, w, x, or y except in unassimilated foreign names. The 28-letter alphabet is: a b c ĉ d e f g ĝ h ĥ i j ĵ k l m n o p r s ŝ t u ŭ v z All letters are pronounced approximately as in the IPA, with the exception of c and the letters with diacritics: Letter c ĉ ĝ ĥ ĵ ŝ ŭ Pronunciation (in diphthongs) Writing diacritic letters The letters with diacritics (found in the "Latin-Extended A" section of the Unicode Standard) once caused problems with printing and computing. This was particularly true with the five letters with circumflexes, as they do not occur in any other language. The diacritics are normally only a problem now with computing situations such as internet chat groups and databases that are limited to ASCII characters. There are two principal workarounds to this problem, which substitute digraphs for the accented letters. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, created an "h-convention", which replaces ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ with ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, and u, respectively. A more recent "x-convention" has gained ground since the advent of computing. This system replaces each diacritic with an x after the letter, producing the six digraphs cx, gx, hx, jx, sx, and ux. This latter system is useful for automated alphabetic word sorting, as each letter with a diacritic is ordered correctly after the preceding letter: for example, cxa comes correctly after cu, just as ĉa would. This system is also useful for simple computerized conversion back into the standard orthography, as there is no ambiguity. There are computer keyboard layouts that support the Esperanto alphabet, and some systems use software that automatically substitutes x- or h-convention digraphs with the corresponding diacritic letters. One example of this is EK for Microsoft Windows. Phonology (For help with the phonetic symbols, see Help:IPA) Esperanto has 22 consonants, 5 vowels and 2 semivowels that combine with the vowels to form 6 diphthongs. (The consonant and semivowel are both written with the letter j.) Tone is not used to distinguish meanings of words. Stress is always on the penultimate vowel in fully Esperanto words unless a final vowel o is elided, a practice which occurs mostly in poetry. For example, familio "family" is , with the stress on the i, but when the word is used without the final o (famili’), the stress remains on the i: . Consonants The 22 consonants are: Bilabial Labio-dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal Plosive Affricate Fricative Trill Approximant The sound is usually rolled, but may be tapped . The is normally pronounced like an English v, but may be pronounced as (between English v and w) or , depending on the language background of the speaker. A semivowel normally occurs only in diphthongs after the vowels and , not as a consonant . Common, if debated, assimilation includes the pronunciation of nk as and kz as . A large number of consonant clusters can occur, up to three in initial position (as in stranga "strange") and four in medial position (as in instrui "teach"). Final clusters are uncommon except in foreign names, poetic elision of final o, and a very few basic words such as cent "hundred" and post "after". Vowels Esperanto has the five cardinal vowels found in such languages as Spanish, Swahili, and Modern Greek: Front Back Close Mid Open There are also two semivowels, and , which combine with the cardinal vowels to form six falling diphthongs: aj, ej, oj, uj, aŭ, and eŭ. Since there are only five vowels, a good deal of variation in pronunciation is tolerated. For instance, e commonly ranges from (French é) to (French è). These details often depend on the speaker's native language. A glottal stop may occur between adjacent vowels in some people's speech, especially when the two vowels are the same, as in heroo "hero" ( or ) and praavo "great-grandfather" ( or ). Grammar Esperanto words are derived by stringing together prefixes, roots, and suffixes. This process is regular, so that people can create new words as they speak and be understood. Compound words are formed with a modifier-first, head-final order, as in English (compare "birdsong" and "songbird"). The different parts of speech are marked by their own suffixes: all common nouns end in -o, all adjectives in -a, all derived adverbs in -e, and all verbs in one of six tense and mood suffixes, such as the present tense -as. Plural nouns end in -oj (pronounced like English "oy"), whereas direct objects end in -on. Plural direct objects end with the combination -ojn (pronounced to rhyme with "coin"); -o- indicates that the word is a noun, -j- indicates the plural, and -n indicates the accusative. Adjectives agree with their nouns; their endings are plural -aj (pronounced "eye"), accusative -an, and plural accusative -ajn (pronounced to rhyme with "fine"). Noun Subject Object Singular -o -on Plural -oj -ojn Adjective Subject Object Singular -a -an Plural -aj -ajn The suffix -n, besides indicating the direct object, is used to indicate movement and a few other things as well. The six verb inflections consist of three tenses and three moods. They are present tense -as, future tense -os-, past tense -is, infinitive mood -i, conditional mood -us and jussive mood -u (used for wishes and commands). Verbs are not marked for person or number. For instance, kanti means "to sing", mi kantas means "I sing", vi kantas means "you sing", and ili kantas means "they sing". Verbal Tense Suffix Present -as (kantas) Past -is (kantis) Future -os (kantos) Verbal Mood Suffix Infinitive -i (kanti) Jussive -u (kantu) Conditional -us (kantus) Word order is comparatively free. Adjectives may precede or follow nouns; subjects, verbs and objects may occur in any order. However, the article la "the", demonstratives such as tiu "that" and prepositions (such as ĉe "at") must come before their related nouns. Similarly, the negative ne "not" and conjunctions such as kaj "and" and ke "that" must precede the phrase or clause that they introduce. In copular (A = B) clauses, word order is just as important as it is in English: "people are animals" is distinguished from "animals are people". Vocabulary The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by Lingvo internacia, published by Zamenhof in 1887. This book listed 900 roots; these could be expanded into tens of thousands of words with prefixes, suffixes and compounding. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto dictionary, Universala Vortaro, which had a larger set of roots. The rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed; it was recommended, however, that speakers use most international forms and then derive related meanings from these. Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily (but not solely) from the Western European languages. Not all proposed borrowings become widespread, but many do, especially technical and scientific terms. Terms for everyday use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived from existing roots; komputilo "computer", for instance, is formed from the verb komputi "compute" and the suffix -ilo "tool". Words are also calqued; that is, words acquire new meanings based on usage in other languages. For example, the word muso "mouse" has acquired the meaning of a computer input device based on a parallel usage in English. Esperanto speakers often debate about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether meaning can be expressed by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words. Some compounds and formed words in Esperanto are not entirely straightforward; for example, eldoni, literally "give out", means "publish", paralleling the usage of certain Western European languages (such as German). In addition, the suffix -um- has no defined meaning; words using the suffix must be learned separately (such as dekstren "to the right" and dekstrumen "clockwise"). There are not many idiomatic or slang words in Esperanto, as these forms of speech tend to make international communication difficult—working against Esperanto's main goal. Useful phrases Below are listed some useful Esperanto words phrases along with IPA transcriptions: English Esperanto IPAHello Saluton Yes Jes No Ne Good morning Bonan matenon Good evening Bonan vesperon Goodbye Ĝis revido What is your name? Kiel vi nomiĝas? My name is John Mi nomiĝas Johano How are you? Kiel vi fartas? Do you speak Esperanto? Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton? I don't understand you Mi ne komprenas vin All right Bone Okay Ĝuste Thank you Dankon You're welcome Nedankinde Please Bonvolu Gesundheit! Sanon! Congratulations Gratulon I love you Mi amas vin One beer, please Unu bieron, mi petas What is that? Kio estas tio? That is a dog Tio estas hundo Good night Bonan nokton Peace! Pacon! Sample text The following short extract gives an idea of the character of Esperanto. Maire Mullarney Everyone's Own Language, p147, Nitobe Press, Channel Islands, 1999 (Pronunciation is covered above; the main thing for English speakers to remember is that the Esperanto letter j has the sound of the English letter y.) Esperanto: «En multaj lokoj de Ĉinio estis temploj de drako-reĝo. Dum trosekeco oni preĝis en la temploj, ke la drako-reĝo donu pluvon al la homa mondo. Tiam drako estis simbolo de la supernatura estaĵo. Kaj pli poste, ĝi fariĝis prapatro de la plej altaj regantoj kaj simbolis la absolutan aŭtoritaton de feŭda imperiestro. La imperiestro pretendis, ke li estas filo de la drako. Ĉiuj liaj vivbezonaĵoj portis la nomon drako kaj estis ornamitaj per diversaj drakofiguroj. Nun ĉie en Ĉinio videblas drako-ornamentaĵoj, kaj cirkulas legendoj pri drakoj.» English translation: In many places in China, there were temples of the dragon-king. During times of drought, people would pray in the temples that the dragon-king would give rain to the human world. At that time the dragon was a symbol of the supernatural. Later on, it became the ancestor of the highest rulers and symbolised the absolute authority of the feudal emperor. The emperor claimed to be the son of the dragon. All of his personal possessions carried the name "dragon" and were decorated with various dragon figures. Now dragon decorations can be seen everywhere in China and legends about dragons circulate. Education The majority of Esperanto speakers learn the language through self-directed study, online tutorials, and correspondence courses taught by volunteers. In more recent years, teaching websites like lernu! have become popular. Esperanto instruction is occasionally available at schools, such as a pilot project involving four primary schools under the supervision of the University of Manchester, and by one count at 69 universities. UEA.ORG: Esperanto en universitatoj However, outside of China and Hungary, these mostly involve informal arrangements rather than dedicated departments or state sponsorship. Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest had a department of Interlinguistics and Esperanto from 1966 to 2004, after which time instruction moved to vocational colleges; there are state examinations for Esperanto instructors. enhavo Elte Btk Various educators have estimated that Esperanto can be learned in anywhere from one quarter to one twentieth the amount of time required for other languages. Is Esperanto four times easier to learn? | Esperanto-USA Claude Piron, a psychologist formerly at the University of Geneva and Chinese-English-Russian-Spanish translator for the United Nations, argued that Esperanto is far more intuitive than many ethnic languages. "Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes [and] differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns. [...] The same neuropsychological law [—called by] Jean Piaget generalizing assimilation—applies to word formation as well as to grammar." Piron, Claude: "The hidden perverse effect of the current system of international communication", published lecture notes The Institute of Cybernetic Pedagogy at Paderborn (Germany) has compared the length of study time it takes Francophone high-school students to obtain comparable 'standard' levels in four languages: Esperanto, English, German, and Italian. The results were that 2000 hours studying German were equivalent to 1500 hours studying English, 1000 hours studying Italian, and 150 hours studying Esperanto. Flochon, Bruno, 2000, « L'espéranto », in Gauthier, Guy (ed.) Langues: une guerre à mort, Panoramiques. 4e trim. 48: 89-95. Cited in François Grin, L'enseignement des langues étrangères comme politique publique (French) Language acquisition Four primary schools in Britain, with some 230 pupils, are currently following a course in "propedeutic Esperanto"—that is, instruction in Esperanto to raise language awareness and accelerate subsequent learning of foreign languages—under the supervision of the University of Manchester. Springboard to Languages Studies have been conducted in New Zealand, Report: Article in Enciklopedio de Esperanto, volume I, p.436, on the pedagogic value of Esperanto. Massachusetts, Report: Christian Rudmick, The Wellesley College Danish-Esperanto experiment. New York, Report: Edward Thorndike, Language Learning. Bureau of Publications of Teachers College, 1933. . Helen S. Eaton, "The Educational Value of an Artificial Language." The Modern Language Journal, #12, pp. 87-94 (1927). Germany, Protocols of the annual November meetings in Paderborn "Laborkonferencoj: Interlingvistiko en Scienco kaj Klerigo" (Working conference: Interlinguistics in Science and Education), which can be obtained from the Institute of Pedagogic Cybernetics in Paderborn. Also in the works by Frank, Lobin, Geisler, and Meder. Italy Study International Language (known as Esperanto) Commission, Interministerial Decree April 29/October 5 1993, Italian ministry of public instruction. and Australia Study Monash University EKPAROLI project home page . The results of these studies were favorable and demonstrated that studying Esperanto before another foreign language expedites the acquisition of the other, natural, language. This appears to be because learning subsequent foreign languages is easier than learning one's first, while the use of a grammatically simple and culturally flexible auxiliary language like Esperanto lessens the first-language learning hurdle. In one study, Williams, N. (1965) 'A language teaching experiment', Canadian Modern Language Review 22.1: 26-28 a group of European secondary school students studied Esperanto for one year, then French for three years, and ended up with a significantly better command of French than a control group, who studied French for all four years. Similar results have been found for other combinations of native and second languages, as well as when the course of study was reduced to two years, of which six months is spent learning Esperanto. home Community Geography and demography A map showing possible lodgings and hosting locations by Pasporta Servo in 2005. Esperanto is by far the most widely spoken constructed language in the world. Speakers are most numerous in Europe and East Asia, especially in urban areas. Sikosek, Ziko M. Esperanto Sen Mitoj ("Esperanto without Myths"). Second edition. Antwerp: Flandra Esperanto-Ligo, 2003. Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and eastern countries of Europe; in China, Korea, Japan, and Iran within Asia; in Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico in the Americas; Ethnologue report for language code:epo and in Togo in Africa. Afrika Agado Number of speakers An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by the late Sidney S. Culbert, a retired psychology professor at the University of Washington and a longtime Esperantist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas in dozens of countries over a period of twenty years. Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto at Foreign Service Level 3, "professionally proficient" (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.). Culbert, Sidney S. Three letters about his method for estimating the number of Esperanto speakers, scanned and HTMLized by David Wolff Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of over 1 million speakers, published annually in the World Almanac and Book of Facts. Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a 1989 letter to David Wolff. Number of Esperantists (methods) Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results. In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number for Esperanto speakers is shown as 2 million. This latter figure appears in Ethnologue. Assuming that this figure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the world's population speaks the language. This falls short of Zamenhof's goal of a universal language, but it represents a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed language. Marcus Sikosek (now Ziko van Dijk) has challenged this figure of 1.6 million as exaggerated. He estimated that even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of Cologne. Van Dijk finds only 30 fluent speakers in that city, and similarly smaller than expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers. He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher). Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members. Finnish linguist Jouko Lindstedt, an expert on native-born Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme Lindstedt, Jouko. "Re: Kiom?" (posting). DENASK-L@helsinki.fi, 22 April 1996. to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community: 1,000 have Esperanto as their native language 10,000 speak it fluently 100,000 can use it actively 1,000,000 understand a large amount passively 10,000,000 have studied it to some extent at some time. In the absence of Dr. Culbert's detailed sampling data, or any other census data, it is impossible to state the number of speakers with certainty. Few observers, probably, would challenge the following statement from the website of the World Esperanto Association: Numbers of textbooks sold and membership of local societies put the number of people with some knowledge of the language in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions. A 2009 census conducted by Lu Wunsch-Rolshoven revealed that approximately 160,000 to 300,000 speak the language actively or fluently throughout the world, with about 80,000 to 150,000 of these being in the European Union. Population by knowledge of languages Native speakers Ethnologue reports estimates that there are 200 to 2000 native Esperanto speakers (denaskuloj), who have learned the language from birth from their Esperanto-speaking parents. This usually happens when Esperanto is the chief or only common language in an international family, but sometimes in a family of devoted Esperantists. The most famous native speaker of Esperanto is businessman George Soros. Teodoro Schwartz, his father, was an Esperantist. An Update on Esperanto, Universala Esperanto-Asocio (World Esperanto Association) Also notable is young Holocaust victim Petr Ginz, whose drawing of the planet Earth as viewed from the moon was carried aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia in 2003 (STS-107). Culture Monato, the most popular Esperanto news magazine. (The large print reads "15 years after the loss of the empire".) Esperanto speakers can access an international culture, including a large body of original as well as translated literature. There are over 25,000 Esperanto books, both originals and translations, as well as several regularly distributed Esperanto magazines. Esperanto speakers use the language for free accommodations with Esperantists in 92 countries using the Pasporta Servo or to develop pen pal friendships abroad through the Esperanto Pen Pal Service. Esperanto Koresponda Servo ("Esperanto Pen Pal Service"), accessed March 29, 2008. Every year, 1,500-3,000 Esperanto speakers meet for the World Congress of Esperanto (Universala Kongreso de Esperanto). Ziko van Dijk. Sed homoj kun homoj: Universalaj Kongresoj de Esperanto 1905–2005. Rotterdam: UEA, 2005. The European Esperanto Union (Eŭropa Esperanto-Unio) regroups the national Esperanto associations of the EU member states and holds congresses every two years. The most recent was in Maribor, Slovenia, in July-August 2007. It attracted 256 delegates from 28 countries, including two members of the European Parliament, Ms. Małgorzata Handzlik of Poland and Ms. Ljudmila Novak of Slovenia. Historically, much Esperanto music has been in various folk traditions, such as Kaj Tiel Plu, for example. Kaj Tiel Plu Esperanto folk music as downloadable MP3 file In recent decades, more rock and other modern genres have appeared, an example being the Swedish band Persone. Persone Esperanto rock music as downloadable MP3 file There are also shared traditions, such as Zamenhof Day, and shared behaviour patterns. Esperantists speak primarily in Esperanto at international Esperanto meetings. Detractors of Esperanto occasionally criticize it as "having no culture". Proponents, such as Prof. Humphrey Tonkin of the University of Hartford, observe that Esperanto is "culturally neutral by design, as it was intended to be a facilitator between cultures, not to be the carrier of any one national culture." The late Scottish Esperanto author William Auld has written extensively on the subject, arguing that Esperanto is "the expression of a common human culture, unencumbered by national frontiers. Thus it is considered a culture on its own." Auld, William. La Fenomeno Esperanto ("The Esperanto Phenomenon"). Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1988. Others point to Esperanto's potential for strengthening a common European identity, as it combines features of several European languages. Famous authors in Esperanto Some of the best-known authors of works in Esperanto are: William Auld Julio Baghy Kazimierz Bein (Kabe) Marjorie Boulton Jorge Camacho Fernando de DiegoKálmán Kalocsay Li Shijun (pseudonym: "Laŭlum") Miyamoto Masao Abel Montagut Nemere István Claude PironEdmond Privat Reto Rossetti Raymond Schwartz Spomenka Štimec Tivadar Soros Gaston Waringhien L. L. Zamenhof In popular culture Esperanto has been used in a number of films and novels. Typically, this is done either to add the exotic flavour of a foreign language without representing any particular ethnicity, or to avoid going to the trouble of inventing a new language. The Charlie Chaplin film The Great Dictator (1940) showed Jewish ghetto shops designated in Esperanto, each with the general Esperanto suffix -ejo (meaning "place for..."), in order to convey the atmosphere of some 'foreign' East European country without referencing any particular East European language. Two full-length feature films have been produced with dialogue entirely in Esperanto: Angoroj, in 1964, and Incubus, a 1965 B-movie horror film. Canadian actor, William Shatner learned Esperanto to a limited level so that he could star in Incubus. Other amateur productions have been made, such as a dramatisation of the novel Gerda Malaperis (Gerda Has Disappeared). A number of "mainstream" films in national languages have used Esperanto in some way, such as Gattaca (1997), in which Esperanto can be overheard on the public address system. In the 1994 film Street Fighter, Esperanto is the native language of the fictional country of Shadaloo, and in a barracks scene the soldiers of villain M. Bison sing a rousing Russian Army-style chorus, the "Bison Troopers Marching Song", in the language. Esperanto is also spoken and appears on signs in the film Blade: Trinity. In the British comedy Red Dwarf, Arnold Rimmer is seen attempting to learn Esperanto in a number of early episodes, including Kryten. In the first season, signs on the titular spacecraft are in both English and Esperanto. Esperanto is used as the universal language in the far future of Harry Harrison's Stainless Steel Rat and Deathworld stories. Science In 1921 the French Academy of Sciences recommended using Esperanto for international scientific communication. A few scientists and mathematicians, such as Maurice Fréchet (mathematics), John C. Wells (linguistics), Helmar Frank (pedagogy and cybernetics), and Nobel laureate Reinhard Selten (economics) have published part of their work in Esperanto. Frank and Selten were among the founders of the International Academy of Sciences in San Marino, sometimes called the "Esperanto University", where Esperanto is the primary language of teaching and administration. Goals of the movement Zamenhof's intention was to create an easy-to-learn language to foster international understanding. It was to serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages. This goal was widely shared among Esperanto speakers in the early decades of the movement. Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations. Those Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto adopted officially or on a large scale worldwide are commonly called finvenkistoj, from fina venko, meaning "final victory", or pracelistoj, from pracelo, meaning "original goal". "Esperanto" by Mark Feeney. The Boston Globe, 12 May 1999 Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called raŭmistoj, from Rauma, Finland, where a declaration on the near-term unlikelihood of the "fina venko" and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in 1980. "Kion Signifas Raŭmismo", by Giorgio Silfer. These categories are, however, not mutually exclusive. The Prague Manifesto (1996) presents the views of the mainstream of the Esperanto movement and of its main organisation, the World Esperanto Association (UEA). "Prague Manifesto" (English version). Universala Esperanto-Asocio, updated 2003-03-26. Symbols and flags The verda stelo The earliest flag, and the one most commonly used today, features a green five-pointed star against a white canton, upon a field of green. It was proposed to Zamenhof by Irishman Richard Geoghegan, author of the first Esperanto textbook for English speakers, in 1887. The flag was approved in 1905 by delegates to the first conference of Esperantists at Boulogne-sur-Mer. A version with an "E" superimposed over the green star is sometimes seen. Other variants include that for Christian Esperantists, with a white Christian cross superimposed upon the green star, and that for Leftists, with the color of the field changed from green to red. Esperanto flag, flagspot.net The jubilea simbolo. In 1987, a second flag design was chosen in a contest organized by the UEA celebrating the first centennial of the language. It featured a white background with two stylised curved "E"s facing each other. Dubbed the "jubilea simbolo" (jubilee symbol) Esperanto flag: The jubilee symbol , it attracted criticism from some Esperantists, who dubbed it the "melono" (melon) because of the design's elliptical shape. It is still in use, though to a lesser degree than the traditional symbol, known as the "verda stelo" (green star). Esperanto flag Politics Esperanto has been placed in many proposed political situations. The most popular of these is the Europe – Democracy – Esperanto, which aims to establish Esperanto as the official language of the European Union. Religion Esperanto has served an important role in several religions, such as Oomoto from Japan and the Baha'i Faith from Iran, and has been encouraged by others. Oomoto The Oomoto religion encourages the use of Esperanto among their followers and includes Zamenhof as one of its deified spirits. The Oomoto Esperanto portal Bahá'í Faith The Bahá'í Faith encourages the use of an auxiliary international language. While endorsing no specific language, some Bahá'ís see Esperanto as having great potential in this role. Lidja Zamenhof, the daughter of Esperanto founder L. L. Zamenhof, became a Bahá'í. Various volumes of the Bahá'í literatures and other Baha'i books have been translated into Esperanto. Spiritism Esperanto is also actively promoted, at least in Brazil, by followers of Spiritism. The Brazilian Spiritist Federation publishes Esperanto coursebooks, translations of Spiritism's basic books, and encourages Spiritists to become Esperantists. Bible translations The first translation of the Bible into Esperanto was a translation of the Tanach or Old Testament done by L. L. Zamenhof. The translation was reviewed and compared with other languages' translations by a group of British clergy and scholars before publishing it at the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1910. In 1926 this was published along with a New Testament translation, in an edition commonly called the "Londona Biblio". In the 1960s, the Internacia Asocio de Bibliistoj kaj Orientalistoj tried to organize a new, ecumenical Esperanto Bible version. Since then, the Dutch Lutheran pastor Gerrit Berveling has translated the Deuterocanonical or apocryphal books in addition to new translations of the Gospels, some of the New Testament epistles, and some books of the Tanakh or Old Testament. These have been published in various separate booklets, or serialized in Dia Regno, but the Deuterocanonical books have appeared in recent editions of the Londona Biblio. Christianity Two Roman Catholic popes, John Paul II and Benedict XVI, have regularly used Esperanto in their multilingual urbi et orbi blessings at Easter and Christmas each year since Easter 1994. Christian Esperanto organizations include two that were formed early in the history of Esperanto, the International Union of Catholic Esperantists and the International Christian Esperantists League. An issue of "The Friend" describes the activities of the Quaker Esperanto Society. There are instances of Christian apologists and teachers who use Esperanto as a medium. Nigerian Pastor Bayo Afolaranmi's "Spirita nutraĵo" (spiritual food) Yahoo mailing list, for example, has hosted weekly messages since 2003. Chick Publications, publisher of Protestant fundamentalist themed evangelistic tracts, has published a number of comic book style tracts by Jack T. Chick translated into Esperanto, including "This Was Your Life!" ("Jen Via Tuto Vivo!") Esperanto "This Was Your Life" Islam Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran called on Muslims to learn Esperanto and praised its use as a medium for better understanding among peoples of different religious backgrounds. After he suggested that Esperanto replace English as an international lingua franca, it began to be used in the seminaries of Qom. An Esperanto translation of the Qur'an was published by the state shortly thereafter. In 1981, Khomeini and the Iranian government began to oppose Esperanto after realising that followers of the Bahá'í Faith were interested in it. Criticism Esperanto was conceived as a language of international communication, more precisely as a universal second language. http://www.esperanto.org.nz/what_is_eo.html Since publication, there has been debate over whether it is possible for Esperanto to attain this position, and whether it would be an improvement for international communication if it did; Esperanto proponents have also been criticized for diverting public funds to encourage its study over more useful national languages. http://www.christopherculver.com/en/writings/esperanto.php Since Esperanto is a planned language, there have been many criticisms of minor points. There have been a number of attempts to reform the language, the most well-known of which is the language Ido which resulted in a schism in the community at the time, beginning in 1907. See "Why Ido?." The International Language of Ido. 18 Mar 2008. 4 Feb 2009 <http://idolinguo.org.uk/whyido.htm>. An example is Zamenhof's choice of the word edzo over something like spozo for "husband, spouse", "Why Ido?." The International Language of Ido. 18 Mar 2008. 4 Feb 2009 <http://idolinguo.org.uk/whyido.htm>. or his choice of the Classic Greek and Old Latin singular and plural endings -o, -oj, -a, -aj over their Medieval contractions -o, -i, -a, -e. (Both these changes were adopted by the Ido reform, though Ido dispensed with adjectival agreement altogether.) Some more common examples of general criticism include: Esperanto has not yet achieved the hopes of its founder to become a universal second language. Although many promoters of Esperanto stress the successes it has had, the fact remains that well over a century since its publication, the Esperanto speaking community remains comparatively small with respect to the world population. In the case of England, for instance, Esperanto is rarely taught in schools, because it is regarded by the government as not meeting the needs of the national curriculum. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7505820.stm Many critics see its aspirations for the role of a preponderant international auxiliary language as doomed because they believe it cannot compete with English in this regard. Why Esperanto Is Different - New English Review The vocabulary and grammar are based on major European languages, and are not universal. Often this criticism is specific to a few points such as adjectival agreement and the accusative case (generally such obvious details are all that reform projects suggest changing), but sometimes it is more general: Both the grammar and the 'international' vocabulary are difficult for many Asians, among others, and give an unfair advantage to speakers of European languages. One attempt to address this issue is Lojban, which draws from the six most populous languages Arabic, Mandarin Chinese, English, Hindi, Russian, and Spanish, and whose grammar is designed for computer parsing. Lojban The vocabulary, diacritic letters, "Why Ido?." and grammar are too dissimilar from the major Western European languages, and therefore Esperanto is not as easy as it could be for speakers of those languages to learn, even though it is much more easy to learn than any other European language. Claude Piron, Linguistic Communication - A Comparative Field Study, studies about problems in learning languages C.E. King, A.S. Bryntsev, F.D. Sohn, Report on the implications of additional languages in the United Nations system, Geneva: UN, Joint Inspection Unit, 1977, document A/32/237 Attempts to address this issue include the younger planned languages Ido and Interlingua. What is Esperanto? Esperanto phonology is unimaginatively provincial, being essentially Belorussian with regularized stress, leaving out only the nasal vowels, palatalized consonants, and /dz/. For example, Esperanto has phonemes such as (ĥ, ĵ, c, eŭ) which are rare as distinct phonemes outside Europe. New Statesman - Spreading the word Esperanto has no culture. Critiche all'esperanto ed alle altre lingue internazionali Although it has a large international literature, Esperanto does not encapsulate a specific culture. Esperanto as an international language - Esperanto has no culture Esperanto is culturally European. This is due to the European derivation of its vocabulary, and its semantics; both infuse the language with a European world view. Europe'S Babylon The vocabulary is too large. Rather than deriving new words from existing roots, large numbers of new roots are adopted into the language by people who think they are international, when in fact they're only European. This makes the language more difficult for non-Europeans than it needs to be. Is Esperanto's vocabulary bloated? A similar argument is made by many Esperanto speakers, not against the language itself but against the way it is (in their view) misused by many (mostly European) speakers; they argue that compounds or derivations should be used whenever possible, and new root words borrowed only when absolutely necessary. La Bona Lingvo, Claude Piron. Vienna: Pro Esperanto, 1989. La lingvo volas eleganti, ne elefanti. "The language wants to be elegant, not elephantine." "Ĉi-tiu Esperanto estus turka...", Renato Corsetti. 2007. Esperanto asymmetry in gender formation makes it sexist. Most kin terms and titles are masculine by default and only feminine when so specified. There have been many attempts to address this issue, of which one of the better known is iĉism Seksaj vortoj - Bertilo Wennergren - Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko (used by the Esperantist writer Jorge Camacho Camacho, Jorge. Sur la linio. Rakontoj kaj noveloj de Georgo Kamaĉo. Enkonduko de Fernando de Diego. - Berkeley : Eldonejo Bero, 1991. ), from which Riism derived. Esperanto as an international language - Sexism in Esperanto grammar Esperanto is, looks, or sounds artificial. This criticism is often due to the letters with circumflex diacritics, which some find odd or cumbersome. Others claim that an artificial language will necessarily be deficient, due to its very nature, Claude Piron cites and replies to several such criticisms in his Le Défi des Langues (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994). although the Hungarian Academy of Sciences has found that Esperanto fulfills all the requirements of a living language.<ref>Laŭ la komuna opinio de gvidaj fakuloj de la Instituo, Esperanto apartenas al la kategorio de vivaj lingvoj. Pli detale traktante la temon, konsiderante la historion kaj la nunan staton de Esperanto, a.) ĝi estas grandmezure normigita, b.) amplekse sociiĝinta, c.) ne-etna viva lingvo, kiu en sekundara lingva komunumo plenumas ĉiujn eblajn lingvajn funkciojn, kaj samtempe ĝi funkcias kiel pera lingvo. - Ĉi supre diritaj respegulas la sciencan starpunkton de nia Instituto. "Malgranda fina venko" - en Hungario</ref> Modifications Though Esperanto itself has changed little since the publication of the Fundamento de Esperanto (Foundation of Esperanto), a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with Zamenhof's proposals in 1894 and Ido in 1907. Several later constructed languages, such as Universal, were based on Esperanto. In modern times, attempts have been made to eliminate perceived sexism in the language. One example of this is Riism. However, as Esperanto has become a living language, changes are as difficult to implement as in ethnic languages. See also Akademio de Esperanto (Academy of Esperanto) Distributed Language Translation (Distribuita Lingvo-Tradukado) (DLT) Encyclopedia of Esperanto EoLA (an international festival of Esperanto arts and literature) Esperantic Studies Foundation Esperantido (reforms of Esperanto) Esperantist Esperanto and Ido compared Esperanto and Interlingua compared Esperanto and Novial compared Esperanto Antaŭen Esperanto as an international language Esperanto in popular culture Esperanto library Esperanto magazine Esperanto Wikipedia Esperantujo (the Esperanto community) Indigenous Dialogues (project to empower organisations of indigenous peoples) list of Esperanto organizations Lojban (see under Comparison with other auxiliary languages)Monato (a monthly world news magazine) Reformed Esperanto World Esperanto Association (in Esperanto, UEA: Universala Esperanto-Asocio) References and notes Further reading Emily van Someren. Republication of the thesis 'The EU Language Regime, Lingual and Translational Problems'. Ludovikologia dokumentaro I Tokyo: Ludovikito, 1991. Facsimile reprints of the Unua Libro in Russian, Polish, French, German, English and Swedish, with the earliest Esperanto dictionaries for those languages. Fundamento de Esperanto. HTML reprint of 1905 Fundamento, from the Academy of Esperanto. Auld, William. La Fenomeno Esperanto ("The Esperanto Phenomenon"). Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1988. Butler, Montagu C. Step by Step in Esperanto. ELNA 1965/1991. ISBN 0-939785-01-3. DeSoto, Clinton (1936). 200 Meters and Down. West Hartford, Connecticut, USA: American Radio Relay League, p. 92. Crystal, Professor David, article "Esperanto" in The New Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, 2002. ditto, How Language Works (pages 424-5), Penguin Books, 2006. ISBN 978-0-141-01552-1. Everson, Michael. . Evertype, 2001. Forster, Peter G. The Esperanto Movement. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1982. ISBN 90-279-3399-5. Gledhill, Christopher. The Grammar of Esperanto: A Corpus-Based Description. Second edition. Lincom Europa, 2000. ISBN 3-8958-6961-9. Harlow, Don. The Esperanto Book. Self-published on the web (1995-96). Wells, John. Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto ("Linguistic aspects of Esperanto"). Second edition. Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1989. Zamenhof, Ludovic Lazarus, Dr. Esperanto's International Language: Introduction & Complete Grammar The original 1887 Unua Libro'', English translation by Richard H. Geoghegan; HTML online version 2006. Print edition (2007) also available from ELNA or UEA.</li> External links Lernu.net - Multilingual Portal to Learn Esperanto UEA.org the World Esperanto Association Esperanto books at Project Gutenberg The Multi-Lingual Information Centre, information and numerous Esperanto-related links in over 60 languages. Articles, studies and discussion about problems of Esperanto and other international languages (articles in 25 languages) by Claude Piron. Esperanto QWERTY keyboard for Windows using spare keys Esperanto QWERTY keyboard for Mac and Windows using alt/opt keys Esperanto Dvorak keyboard for Windows using spare keys News in Esperanto (some podcasts included) Google Esperanto interface Universal Esperanto Portal Course for Esperanto Learners be-x-old:Эспэранта | Esperanto |@lemmatized widely:3 speak:10 construct:2 international:39 auxiliary:7 language:133 world:23 name:6 derive:8 doktoro:1 esperanto:277 pseudonym:2 l:15 zamenhof:25 publish:16 first:16 book:17 detail:4 unua:3 libro:3 word:29 mean:10 one:23 hop:2 goal:6 create:5 easy:6 flexible:2 would:9 serve:3 universal:9 second:10 foster:3 peace:2 understanding:4 see:13 quotation:1 writing:2 continuous:1 usage:4 community:6 estimate:10 million:8 speaker:43 century:4 approximately:3 thousand:3 native:10 however:9 country:11 adopt:6 officially:3 today:2 employ:1 travel:1 correspondence:3 cultural:1 exchange:1 convention:4 literature:6 instruction:6 television:1 internacia:5 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6,678 | Book_of_Daniel | The Book of Daniel (דניאל) is a book in both the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and the Christian Old Testament. Originally written in Hebrew and Aramaic, it is set during the Babylonian Captivity, a period when Jews were deported and exiled to Babylon following the Siege of Jerusalem of 597 BC. The book revolves around the figure of Daniel, an Israelite who becomes an adviser to Nebuchadnezzar, the ruler of Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. The book has two distinct parts: a series of six narratives (chapters one to six) and four apocalyptic visions (chapters seven to twelve). The narratives take the form of court stories which focus on tests of religious fidelity involving Daniel and his friends (chapters one, three and six), and Daniel's interpretation of royal dreams and visions (chapters two, four and five). In the second part of the book, Daniel recounts his reception of dreams, visions and angelic interpretations in the first person. The dating and authorship of Daniel has become a matter of debate among some Christians. The traditionalist view holds that the work was written by a prophet named Daniel who lived during the sixth century BC, whereas many Biblical scholars maintain that the book was written or redacted in the mid-second century BC and that most of the predictions of the book refer to events that had already occurred. A third viewpoint places the final editorial work in the fourth century BC. The Court Tales The first six chapters comprise a series of court tales involving Daniel and his three companions. The first account is in Hebrew; then Aramaic is used from ch. 2:4, beginning with the speech of the "Chaldeans", through chapter seven. Hebrew is then used from chapter eight through chapter twelve. Three additional sections are preserved only in the Septuagint, and are considered apocryphal by Protestant Christians and Jews, and deuterocanonical by Catholic and Orthodox Christians. After being taken captive to Babylon, members of the Israelite nobility are taken into the king's service. Among these, Daniel and his three friends (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) refuse to eat and drink at the king's table because the food may be ritually unclean. Notes to The New American Bible, p. 1021, Catholic Book Publishing Co., 1992. ISBN 9780899425108 At the end of a short trial period they appear healthier than those who have accepted the royal rations and are allowed to continue with their abstemious diet of vegetables and water. Finally, after a three year induction, they enter the king's service and in matters of wisdom, literature, and learning are judged "ten times better than all the magicians and enchanters in the kingdom". Daniel, moreover, has a unique talent for interpreting dreams and visions. Despite apparent defeat and the ransacking of the Jerusalem temple, Israel's God is surprisingly active in this chapter: "deliver[ing]" the King of Israel into Nebuchadnezzar's hands, causing the chief official to treat Daniel and his friends favorably, and giving the four exceptional knowledge and understanding. Many of the book's key themes are introduced in this chapter. Nebuchadnezzar dreams of an idol made of four metals and a mixture of iron and clay. The image is destroyed by a rock that then dominates the world. The idol's composition of metals is interpreted as a series of successive empires ending with a kingdom that will "endure forever". The account of the fiery furnace, in which Ananias (Hananiah/Shadrach), Azariah (Abednego), and Mishael (Meshach) refuse to bow to the emperor's golden statue and are thrown into a furnace. As seen by Nebuchadnezzar, a fourth figure appears in the furnace with the three and God is credited for preserving them from the flames. Nebuchadnezzar recounts a dream of a huge tree which is suddenly cut down at the command of a heavenly messenger. Daniel is summoned and interprets the dream as referring to Nebuchadnezzar, who for seven years will lose his power and mind and become like a wild animal. All of this comes to pass until, at the end of the seven years, Nebuchadnezzar acknowledges that "heaven rules" and his kingdom and sanity are restored. The recurring image of a tree representing a kingdom appears at least three times in the Bible. Belshazzar's Feast, where Belshazzar and his nobles blasphemously drink from sacred Jewish temple vessels, offering praise to inanimate gods, until a hand mysteriously appears to the king and writes upon the wall of the palace. The horrified king eventually summons Daniel who is able to read the writing and offer the following interpretation: Mene - God has numbered the days of your reign and brought it to an end. Tekel - You have been weighed on the scales and found wanting. Upharsin - Your kingdom is divided and given to the Medes and Persians. "That very night", we are informed, Belshazzar was slain and "Darius the Mede" took over the kingdom. Daniel is elevated to a preeminent position under Darius which elicits the jealousy of other officials. Knowing of Daniel's devotion to his God, these officials trick the king into issuing an edict forbidding worship of any other god or man for a 30 day period. Because Daniel continues to pray three times a day to God towards Jerusalem, he is accused and king Darius, forced by his own decree, throws Daniel into the lions' den. God shuts up the mouths of the lions and the next morning king Darius finds Daniel unharmed and casts his accusers and their families into the lions' pit where they are instantly devoured. Susanna and the elders (apocryphal to Jewish and Protestant canons) Bel and the Dragon (apocryphal to Jewish and Protestant canons) - Bel and the Dragon contains three interconnected court tales set in the reign of an unidentified "King of Babylon". In the first Daniel uncovers a trick by the Priests of Bel designed to promote a belief that the cult idol magically consumes food and drink offerings set before it each night. Daniel secretly scatters ashes on the floor of the god’s locked chamber before it is sealed by the king and, in the morning, the incriminating footprints of the priests result in their slaughter and the destruction of the idol. In a second, Daniel feeds cakes made of pitch, fat and hair to a sacred serpent revered as a god which causes it to explode. Finally, the anger of the Babylonians at the destruction of their gods is directed towards Daniel with the result that he is thrown into a den of lions. During this time he is fed by the prophet Habakkuk who has been miraculously transported to Babylon for that very purpose. Finally the king rescues Daniel and has him replaced by his accusers who, as in the similar story of chapter six, are killed instantly. Protestant and Jewish editions omit the sections that do not exist in the Masoretic text: in addition to the two chapters containing accounts of Daniel and Susanna and of Bel and the Dragon, a lengthy passage inserted into the middle of Daniel 3; this addition contains the prayer of Azariah while the three youths were in the fiery furnace, a brief account of the angel who met them in the furnace, and the hymn of praise they sang when they realized they were delivered. The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children are retained in the Septuagint and in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Roman Catholic canons; the "Song of the Three Holy Youths" is part of the Matins service in Orthodoxy, and of Lauds on Sundays and feast days in Catholicism. The narratives are set in the period of the Babylonian captivity, first at the court of Nebuchadnezzar and later at the court of his successors Belshazzar and a 'King Darius' of unclear identity (see 'Historical Accuracy' and 'Date' below). Daniel is praised in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897, as "the historian of the Captivity, the writer who alone furnishes any series of events for that dark and dismal period during which the harp of Israel hung on the trees that grew by the Euphrates. His narrative may be said in general to intervene between Kings and Chronicles on the one hand and Ezra on the other, or (more strictly) to fill out the sketch which the author of the Chronicles gives in a single verse in his last chapter: 'And them that had escaped from the sword carried he (i.e., Nebuchadnezzar) away to Babylon; where they were servants to him and his sons until the reign of the kingdom of Persia' (2 Chr. 36:20)." However, see the section on Dating and Content (below) for other views on the dating and historical accuracy of the court tales. Daniel appears as an interpreter of dreams and visions in these early court events. He is depicted later in the book as a prophet with his early experiences serving as the basis for his future ministry. Apocalyptic visions in Daniel The four visions of chapters seven to twelve are an early example of apocalyptic literature and, in contrast to the earlier chapters, are introduced in the first person. One feature of this section is Daniel's reliance on heavenly figures to interpret and explain his visions. The historical setting of the first chapters does not appear, except in the form of regnal dates. Chapter seven is written in Aramaic while chapters eight to twelve are in Hebrew. The "apocalyptic" sections of Daniel consist of three visions and one lengthened prophetic communication focusing on the destiny of Israel: The vision in the first year of Belshazzar the king of Babylon (7:1) concerning four great beasts (7:3) representing four future kings (7:17) or kingdoms (7:23), the fourth of which devours the whole earth, treading it down and crushing it (7:23); this fourth kingdom is represented by a beast with ten horns representing ten kings, followed by a further wicked king who subdues three of the ten (7:24), speaks against the Most High and the saints of the Most High, and intends to change the times and the law (7:25); after 'a time and times and half a time', this person is judged and his dominion is taken away (7:26); finally, the kingdom and the dominion and the greatness of the kingdoms under the whole heaven are given to the people of the saints of the Most High (7:27) The vision in the third year of Belshazzar concerning a ram and a male goat (8:1-27) which, we are informed, represent Media, Persia (the ram's two horns), and Greece (the goat). The goat with a mighty horn becomes very powerful until the horn breaks off to be replaced by four "lesser' horns. The vision focuses on a wicked king who arises to challenge the "army of the Lord" by removing the daily temple sacrifice and desecrating the sanctuary for a period of "twenty three hundred evening/mornings". The vision in first year of Darius the son of Ahasuerus (9:1) concerning seventy weeks, or seventy "sevens", apportioned for the history of the Israelites and of Jerusalem (9:24) This consists of a meditation on the prediction in Jeremiah that the desolation of Jerusalem would last seventy years, a lengthy prayer by Daniel in which he pleads for God to restore Jerusalem and its temple, and an angelic explanation which focuses on a longer time period - "seventy sevens" - and a future destruction of city and temple by a coming ruler. A lengthy vision (10:1 - 12:13) in the third year of Cyrus king of Persia, regarding conflicts between the "King of the North" and the "King of the South" (= Egypt, 11:8). Starting with references to Persia and Greece it, again, culminates in the description of an arrogant king who desecrates the temple, sets up a "desolating abomination", removes the daily sacrifice, and persecutes those who remain true to the "holy covenant". The prophetic and eschatological visions of Daniel, with those of Ezekiel and Isaiah, are the scriptural inspiration for much of the apocalyptic ideology and symbolism of the Qumran community's Dead Sea scrolls and the early literature of Christianity. "Daniel's clear association with the Maccabean Uprising and those against Rome are a possible factor in the eventual downgrading of it, to include a redefinition of the role of prophet, keeping in mind that at roughly this time the Hebrew canon was being evaluated and adopted. (Eisenman 1997, p 19f). In Daniel are the first references to a "kingdom of God", and the most overt reference to the resurrection of the dead in the Tanakh. Literary structure William H. Shea Ph.D. (Archeology) William H. Shea, "The Prophecy of Daniel 9:24-27", in Holbrook, Frank. ed., The Seventy Weeks, Leviticus, and the Nature of Prophecy, 1986, Daniel and Revelation Committee Series, Vol. 3, Review and Herald Publishing Association suggests that the book of Daniel was composed as a double chiasm. Chiastic or concentric structure is a common feature of ancient Hebrew poetry and literature. A qualification, however, is appropriate: while the chiastic structure of chapters 2 - 7, originally identified by A. Lenglet in 1972, is widely accepted by scholars, Shea's proposal for a similar structure in chapters 8 - 12 is not. Related themes have common label Related sections have a common label. For instance those labeled A, A', A" and A"' are placed in parallel because they all have a similar theme: prophecies about successive kingdoms. God's people suffer trials in the parts labeled B, B', B" and B"', although the suggested parallels in chapters 9 and 10 seem to have little in common with 3 and 6. The decision of kings to choose Daniel's God or not are the themes in C, C', C" and C"', provided we can agree with Shea that two individual verses in chapter 9 are the structural counterparts of chapters 4 and 5. The trial faced by the Messiah is portrayed in the focal point of the book ( D ) by Shea. (see also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks#Literary_structure ). Language emphasizes structure To emphasize the importance of the chiasmic structure, the first chiasm was written in Aramaic and the second in Hebrew. The literary structure explains why Aramaic continues to be used in chapter 7 rather than ending in chapter 6 at, seemingly, the end of the first half of the book. Structure has precedence over chronology The literary structure of the book takes precedence over chronology. The first 6 narrative chapters are fit into the structure rather than defining it. For instance, chapter 6 ( B' ), which ought to follow chapter 7 ( A' ) chronologically, is put in parallel with chapter 3 ( B ) because they both deal with the persecution of Daniel and his friends. And chapter 5 ( C' ) should follow chapters 7 and 8 ( A" ). Instead, it is put in parallel with chapter 4 ( C ). In both divine judgements are pronounced against arrogant Babylonian kings. Grouping Emphasizes Prophecies This chiasmic grouping of chapters having the same theme has important implications when it comes to the chapters containing prophecies ( A, A', A", A'" ). Not only are they parallel because they contain prophecies, but the prophecies themselves are parallel to each other. This parallelism between the prophecies has been recognized for millennia. This does not mean, however, that Christian commentators have identified the same kingdoms in each chapter. While chapters 2 and 7 have generally - though not exclusively See, for example, Maurice Casey, "Son of Man" (SPCK, 1979) who lists ten commentators of the 'Syrian Tradition' who identify the fourth beast of chapter 7 as Greece, the little horn as Antiochus, and - in the majority of instances - the "saints of the Most High" as Maccabean Jews. - been interpreted as extending to Roman times, chapter 8, for example, has traditionally been applied to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes D Ford in "Daniel" (Southern Publishing Association, 1978) speaks of 'the almost universal application of [the little horn symbol of chapter 8] to Antiochus Epiphanes'. He also quotes the pre-critical view of the Anglican Bishop Thomas Newton in his "Dissertation on the Prophecies..." originally published in the mid 1700s (JF Dove,1838, p247): 'This little horn [of Daniel 8] is by the generality of interpreters, both Jewish and Christian, ancient and modern, supposed to mean Antiochus Epiphanes.' Newton adds that 'most of the ancient fathers and modern divines and commentators' agree with Jerome in identifying Antiochus in chapter 8, while also allowing that "Antiochus Epiphanes was a type of Antichrist". . Historical accuracy Some modern historians of Babylonia or Achaemenid Persia do not adduce the narratives of Daniel as source materials, as they consider some statements in Daniel to be in conflict with other historical accounts. However, a major critic of Daniel, H. H. Rowley considered chapter 11 as "a first-class historical source for that period" H. H. Rowley, The Growth of the Old Testament, Harper: 1950, p. 158)). A scholar ranks the fifth chapter of Daniel just below the cuneiform literature, for accuracy as far as outstanding events are concerned, for non-Babylonian records on the close of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Nabonidus and Belshazzar, Yale: 1929, p. 199 The six objections given below represent, in order of significance, the major items which are as anachronisms in Daniel. Was there a "Darius the Mede"? Some historians criticize the notion of a separate Mede rule by pointing out that the Persians at that point in history had control over the Medes, and that the contemporary cuneiform documents, such as the Cyrus Cylinder and the Babylonian Chronicle, leave no room for any Mede occupation of Babylon before the Persians under Cyrus conquered it. It has been suggested Revealing Daniel that the author's apparent confusion on this issue could be due to his reliance on Jeremiah (see Dan. 9:2): and Jeremiah prophesied (in Jeremiah 51:11), at the height of the Median empire's power, that Babylon would fall to the Medes. An author writing centuries later, and under the impression that Jeremiah was a true prophet, might simply assume that a Mede must have taken Babylon. The personage whom Daniel describes as taking control of Babylon after Belshazzar is deposed is named as Darius the Mede, who rules over Babylon in chapters 6 and 9. Daniel reports that Darius was 'about 62 years old' when he was 'made king over Babylon.' Darius the Mede, while mentioned in the book of Daniel, the works of Flavius Josephus, and Jewish Midrash material, is not known from any primary historical sources. Neither the Babylonian nor the Persian histories record such a person. Herodotus, who wrote his history about 440 BC, records that Babylon fell to the Persian army, under the control of King Cyrus, who had conquered the Median Empire as early as 550 BC. As Darius the Mede is unknown to any other source, many historians view his presence in Daniel as simply a mistake of a much later author, who has perhaps inadvertently placed the Persian King Darius I at an earlier date than he actually reigned. John J. Collins, “Book of Daniel,” Anchor Bible Dictionary 2 (1992), p. 30. Three key pieces of information seem to support this. Firstly, Darius I, like Cyrus, also conquered Babylon and personally commanded the Persian army that took the city in 522 BC to put down a rebellion. Secondly, Daniel's reference to Darius organising the empire by appointing satraps and administrators fits Darius I perfectly: he is known to history as the Persian king par excellence who professionalised the empire's bureaucracy and organised it into satrapies and tax districts. Thirdly, Darius I was an important figure in Jewish history, remembered as a king associated with Cyrus who permitted the returned exiles to rebuild the temple (see Ezra chs 1-6). In Daniel 9:1, Darius is said to be the son of Ahasuerus, commonly acknowledged to be a variant spelling of Xerxes (Esther 1:1). Darius I was the father of a king called Xerxes. Responses to the problem of Darius the Mede Against the argument that no ruler of this name is recorded elsewhere, some writers have attempted to identify him with other figures of the period. Among writers maintaining an early date for the Book of Daniel, there are several interpretations of the identity of Darius the Mede. On the difficulty of ascertaining the correct view, H.H. Rowley states: "[T]he references to Darius the Mede in the book of Daniel have long been recognized as providing the most serious historical problems in the book." His view concludes that Darius is just another name for Cyrus the Great, who captured Babylon on October 15, 539 BC. Another view, promoted by John Whitcomb (though first proposed by E. Babelon in 1883) in his 1959 book, Darius the Mede says that Darius is another name for the historical figure of Gubaru (sometimes spelled as Ugbaru). The third view (also that of Syncellus) sees Darius as another name for Astyages, the last Mede king who was ultimately deposed by Cyrus. Josephus makes Darius the son of Astyages, and uncle of Cyrus. Several scholars in the past (including Calvin, Ussher and John Gill) as well as in more recent times (e.g. Keil and Delitzsch Vol. 6, p. 546-548 ) have thus attempted to identify 'Darius the Mede' with Cyaxares II, who is mentioned as having the same relationships by Xenophon Much of this Cyaxares II is related in Xenophon's Cyropaedia 1.4,7, iii.3, 20, viii.5, 19, causing many other scholars to suppose he is the Darius described by Josephus; however this king's omission by Herodotus and Ctesias has caused other scholars (eg. Blum, Fred P. Miller) to question his existence. "Darius the Mede" as Cyrus the Great: Unlike Gubaru or Astyages, Cyrus the Great of Persia was the king who took over the Babylonian Empire. Cyrus was also married to a Mede, and had a Median mother. Stephen R. Miller, Daniel (New American Commentary, 18; Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1994), p. 149. An analysis of variant early texts, particularly the Septuagint, reveals that the names "Darius" (דריוש DRYWS in Hebrew) and "Cyrus" (כורש KWRS) are reversed in 11:1, and may have been miscopied elsewhere. The appellation "Mede" (Heb. מדי MDY) may have been used as an ethnic term to apply to Persians as well, who were of the same race e.g., as stated in Hippolytus' Diamerismos, §204, among other places. . In addition, Dan. 6:28, "So Daniel prospered during the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian," could also be translated, "So Daniel prospered during the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian." Furthermore, kings commonly took dual titles and Nabonidus, Cyrus' cousin, referred to Cyrus as "the king of the Medes." Stephen R. Miller, Daniel (New American Commentary, 18; Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1994), p. 149. "Darius the Mede" as Gubaru/Ugbaru: Gubaru was the governor of Gutium, who actually led Cyrus's army that captured Babylon in the month of Tashritu in the 17th year (see Pierre Briant below) according to the Chronicle of Nabonidus. . Two weeks later Cyrus made his triumphal entry into Babylon and a week after that Gubaru died. It is possible that Cyrus would have rewarded Gubaru with a regional governorship for capturing the capital of the Babylonian Empire and virtually ending the war. Furthermore, under the first translation of Dan. 6:28, Darius ruled during the reign of Cyrus, and Dan. 5:31 states that Darius the Mede "received the kingdom" of the Chaldeans. Complicating this view is the question of whether or not Gubaru and Ugbaru are two different people, or simply variant spellings of the same name. Also, verse 1 of "Bel and the Dragon" (chapter 14 in Greek Daniel) references Astyages the Mede, who was indeed the last king before Cyrus; but nearly the same verse is added in the Greek LXX after the end of chapter 6, only reading "Darius" in place of "Astyages". ( LXX Dan. 14:1 and Dan 6:29) "Darius the Mede" as king of the Medes: Talmudic and midrashic sources describe Darius the Mede as the uncle and father-in-law of Cyrus the Great, to whom Cyrus owed fealty. After Darius's death, Cyrus took the throne. According to Yossipon, the Ahasuerus in the book of Esther was the son of Darius the Mede. The Midrash Tanchuma describes the fall of Babylon as described in Daniel and adds to the narrative Darius taking Vashti, the daughter of Belshazzar, as a wife for his son Ahasuerus. Belshazzar For many years Belshazzar (Akk. bêl-šar-usur), was an enigma for historians. The book of Daniel states that he was “king” (Ar. מֶלֶך) the night that Babylon fell (chap. 5) and says that his “father” (Ar. אַב) was Nebuchadnezzar (5:2, 11, 13, 18). Prior to 1854, archeologists and historians knew nothing of Belshazzar outside the book of Daniel. Indeed, while the deuterocanonical Book of Baruch (Baruch 1:11, 12) and the writings of Josephus (Antiquities 10.11.2-4 §231-247) do mention Belshazzar, the references to Belshazzar in these works are ultimately dependent on the book of Daniel (Collins, p. 32). Both Xenophon (Cyropaedia, 7.5.28-30 Xenophon, Cyropaedia ) and Herodotus (The Histories, 1.191) recount the fall of Babylon to Cyrus the Great, yet neither of these writers give the name of the king of Babylon. Additionally, both Berossus’ and Ptolemy’s king lists have Nabonidus (Akk. Nabû-nā'id) as the last king of Babylon with no mention of Belshazzar. From that time new evidence from Babylon has verified the existence of Belshazzar as well as his co-regency during the absence of his father, Nabonidus, in Temâ. For example, In the Nabonidus Cylinder, Nabonidus petitions the god Sin as follows: “And as for Belshazzar my firstborn son, my own child, let the fear of your great divinity be in his heart, and may he commit no sin; may he enjoy happiness in life". In addition, The Verse Account of Nabonidus (British Museum tablet 38299) states, “[Nabonidus] entrusted the army (?) to his oldest son, his first born, the troops in the country he ordered under his command. He let everything go, entrusted the kingship (Akk. šarrûtu) to him, and, himself, he started out for a long journey. The military forces of Akkad marching with him, he turned to Temâ deep in the west” (Col. II, lines 18 - 29. 18). In line with the statement that Nabonidus "entrusted the kingship" to Belshazzar in his absence, there is evidence that Belshazzar's name was used with his father's in oath formulas, that he was able to pass edicts, lease farmlands, and receive the "royal privilege" to eat the food offered to the gods. The available information concerning Belshazzar's regency goes silent after Nabonidus' fourteenth year. According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, Nabonidus was back from Temâ by his seventeenth year and celebrated the New Year’s Festival (Akk. Akitu). Whether or not Belshazzar continued his regency under his father's authority after his return cannot be demonstrated from the available documents. Some scholars have argued that the non-observance of the Akitu during Nabonidus' absence demonstrates that Belshazzar was not the "king" since it shows that he could not officiate over the festival. However, The Verse Account of Nabonidus says, "Nabonidus said: 'I shall build a temple for him (the Moon god Sin)...till I have achieved this, till I have obtained what is my desire, I shall omit all festivals, I shall order even the New Year's festival to cease!'" Thus, the halting of the Akitu may have been done by the king's command rather an inability on the part of Belshazzar. This stated, the fact that Belshazzar did not disobey his father's command is evidence that Nabonidus remained the official (and actual) king of Babylon. The Nabonidus Cylinder There is no evidence that Belshazzar ever officially held the title of "king" as he is never called such in the Nabonidus Cylinder. Furthermore, the Aramaic term מלך (mlk, king) applied in Daniel could be used to translate titles of various levels of high ranking officials. (This can be seen in the case of a 9th century BC Akkadian/Aramaic bilingual inscription found at Tel Fekheriyeh in 1979 which reads "king" for the Akkadian "governor".) A contract tablet dating to the third year of his regency (550 BC) includes the designation "son of the king." http://www.historyofthedaughters.com/34.pdf This, of course, is not proof that he possessed any status as the official king of Babylon. The bottom line is that Nabonidus was still alive when Cyrus conquered Babylon, and had not been replaced as the official king of Babylon by Belshazzar. No known extrabiblical text indicates a blood relation between Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. Historians have objected to this aspect of the record in Daniel. There were several rulers over Babylon between the death of Nebuchadnezzar and the rulership of Nabonidus and Belshazzar. Many scholars have attributed the lack of mention of these rulers as indicating the author mistakenly thought that the two rulerships were consecutive. The Jewish Encyclopedia, holding to a later date of the book (see 'Date'), supposed that "during the long period of oral tradition the unimportant kings of Babylon might easily have been forgotten, and the last king, who was vanquished by Cyrus, would have been taken as the successor of the well-known Nebuchadnezzar." Based on this reasoning, historians have considered the reference to Belshazzar's relationship to Nebuchadnezzar simply an error based on the above misconception. However, there is another explanation. Belshazzar is never called an independent king in the book of Daniel. Hasel, "The First and Third Years of Belshazzar (Dan 7:1; 8:1)," AUSS 15(1977): 168, note 91. In fact, in Daniel 5:7, 16, 29 Belshazzar implies that he is the second ruler in the kingdom, not the sole ruler; and yet, he has sufficient power to make someone the third ruler in the kingdom. Secondly, co-regencies were not that uncommon in the Ancient Near East. Wilson, R. D. Studies in the Book of Daniel. (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1917): pages 107-111; Shea, William H. "Nabonidus, Belshazzar, and the Book of Daniel: An Update," AUSS 20:2 (Summer 1982): 148-9. Third, Wilson, in the previous reference, showed that the very word "king" was used in a variety of ways other than that which we use today. The same also applies to the use of the word "son"--it doesn't necessarily mean a biological relationship and can carry the meaning "successor." For example, the 9th Century Assyrian Black Obelisk lists Jehu as the "son of Omri" even though Jehu was from a different lineage and did not take the crown directly after Omri. Stephen R. Miller, Daniel (New American Commentary, 18; Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1994), p. 149. Finally, Daniel is not writing an official state document for Babylon such as one would expect from the court scribes, although the lack of accurate specificity in the references also tends to be inconsistent with the claim of an early date for Daniel. Millard, Alan R. "Daniel 1-6 and History," Evangelical Quarterly 49:2 (Apr-June 1977): 71; Young, A Commentary on Daniel. (1949): 115ff. Madness of Nebuchadnezzar A third significant objection by historians is the account of the insanity suffered by Nebuchadnezzar found in the fourth chapter of Daniel. In the Dead Sea Scrolls a fragment known as The Prayer of Nabonidus (4QPrNab, sometimes given as 4QOrNab) discusses a disease suffered by Nabonidus, and there are obvious parallels between the two accounts (1). There are a number of superficial differences between The Prayer of Nabonidus and the account of Nebuchanezzar's madness: Nebuchadnezzar's "affliction" was of the mind whereas Nabonidus' was an "evil ulcer." In the case of Nabonidus the "exorcist pardoned my sin" whereas in the case of Nebuchadnezzar he "lifted up my eyes unto heaven and mine understanding returned unto me." (KJV)- i.e., when he recognized (accepted) the sovereignty of Daniel's god. Nabonidus' condition was cured by an unnamed Jewish exorcist whereas Nebuchadnezzar's recovery is not attributed to a human agent. Nebuchadnezzar's illness came while he was in Babylon; while that of Nabonidus was in Tema, although it does state in Daniel 4:33 that Nebuchadnezzar was "driven away from mankind." (NASB) Finally, some of the words and phrases of the prayer have to be inferred from the context because they are missing in the original fragment. [Archer, Gleason L. "Daniel," Expositor's. Vol. 7 (Zondervan, 1985): 15; he cites Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. (Tyndale, 1969): 1118-9] In fact, the Prayer of Nabonidus shows signs of dependence upon the whole book of Daniel. As a later text, it is better understood as an attempt to emulate the style of the book of Daniel rather than a source for it. A. Steinmann, ‘The Chicken and the Egg: A New Proposal for the Relationship between the “Prayer of Nabonidus” and the “Book of Daniel”’, Revue de Qumran 20:4 (December 2002) 557-570; T. E. Gaston, Historical Issues in the Book of Daniel, (2009), 47-52. It is possible that a reference to the insanity of Nebuchadnezzar is to be found in a cuneiform text: BM 34113. S. H. Horn, ‘New Light on Nebuchadnezzar’s Madness’, Ministry (April 1978) 38-40; T. E. Gaston, 58-61. Date of Nebuchadnezzar's first siege of Jerusalem The Book of Daniel begins by stating: In the third year of the reign of Jehoi'akim king of Judah came Nebuchadnez'zar king of Babylon unto Jerusalem, and besieged it. And the Lord gave Jehoi'akim king of Judah into his hand, with part of the vessels of the house of God: which he carried into the land of Shinar to the house of his god; and he brought the vessels into the treasure house of his god. (King James Version) This appears to be a description of the first siege of Jerusalem in 597 BC, which occurred in the twelfth year of Jehoiakim and into the reign of his son Jehoiachin. (see (), (), and ()). The third year of Jehoiakim (606 BC), saw Nebuchadnezzar not yet King of Babylon, and the Egyptians still dominant in the region. In Jeremiah 36:9, we find Jehoiakim in Jerusalem in his fifth year, two years after the time that Daniel claims he was carried away to Babylon. The Babylonian Chronicle records that Nebuchadnezzar first defeated the Egyptians under Pharaoh Necho in Battle of Carchemish. He then conquered the whole of Hatti-land, a region that includes the kingdom of Judah. This would coincide with the coming of Nebuchadnezzar recorded in Dan 1:1. The historian Berossus records that Nebuchadnezzar took Jewish captives back to Babylon after the Battle of Carchemish. T. E. Gaston, 19-34 Judah continued as Babylon's subordinate while Nebuchadnezzar attacked Egypt itself. In 601 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar returned home, and Jehoiakim changed his allegiance to Egypt, resulting in the second (and bigger) exile in 598 B.C. when Nebuchadnezzar sent an army to conquer Judah once and for all. Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah Dan. 1:6-7 records that Daniel was accompanied in the courts by three other Jews: Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah. The chief officials gave them new Babylonian names: Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, respectively. In Dan. 3:8-23, these same three persons refuse to perform an act of worship before an image of Nebuchadnezzar, which results in their subjection to the death penalty by burning. However, according to Dan. 3:24-30, God delivers them from the fiery furnace. Professor William Shea (1982) refers to a clay prism that was found in Babylon with five columns of text listing various officials of the government. Three of the officials are listed as "Mushallim-Marduk, [one of] the overseers (lit.:heads) of the slave-girls", "Ardi-Nabu, the sipiru-official of the crown prince", and "Hanunu - chief of the royal merchants," and Dan. 2:49 states, "Moreover, at Daniel's request the king appointed Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego administrators over the province of Babylon, while Daniel himself remained at the royal court." Some conservative Christian writers have therefore connected Hanunu with Hananiah, Mushallim-Marduk with Meshach, and Ardi-Nabu with Abednego; however, it is unclear why Hananiah would be referenced by his Hebrew name (Oppenheim (see citation) posits that "Hanunu" is "Phoenician" rather than Hebrew) and not his Babylonian one, Shadrach. There is no other evidence to connect these figures with the ones mentioned in the Book of Daniel. Four Persian Kings In Daniel 11:2-4, the angel Gabriel informs the prophet that there will be four Persian kings before the coming of Alexander the Great. And now will I shew thee the truth. Behold, there shall stand up yet three kings in Persia; and the fourth shall be far richer than they all: and by his strength through his riches he shall stir up all against the realm of Grecia. And a mighty king shall stand up, that shall rule with great dominion, and do according to his will. And when he shall stand up, his kingdom shall be broken, and shall be divided toward the four winds of heaven. Since the author of Daniel wrote during the reign of Cyrus (Daniel 10:1), this would then make him the first Persian king of Daniel 11:2. Cyrus defeated Babylon in 536 BC. Alexander took the kingdom from the last Persian king in 333 BC. This gives us 203 years for the Persian reign. Split among four kings, we get an average of about 51 years each, which is somewhat excessive. There were nine Persian kings from Cyrus to Alexander. They are: Cyrus (549 - 529 BC) Cambyses (529 - 522 BC) Darius I (521 - 485 BC) Xerxes (485 - 465 BC) Artaxerxes I (465 - 425 BC) Darius II (425 - 405 BC) Artaxerxes II (404 - 358 BC) Artaxerxes III (358 - 338 BC) Darius III (338 - 330 BC) The author of Daniel may have been misled by the fact that the Old Testament only mentions four of the nine Persian kings - Cyrus (Ezra 1:1), Darius I (Ezra 4:5), Xerxes I (Ahasuerus - Ezra 4:6) and Artaxerxes I (Ezra 4:7). Revealing Daniel However, Xerxes I, the fourth king from the time of history in the book of Daniel, did in fact invade Greece and instigated the Greco-Persian wars, in which he was ultimately defeated. See Greco-Persian Wars or Xerxes_I_of_Persia#Invasion_of_the_Greek_Mainland. If a different king is referred to in verse 3, it can still refer to Alexander the Great as initially thought. Since it is normal in prophetic sections of the Hebrew Bible to have no mention of large chronological gaps between historical events, the predictions regarding the fourth king of Persia warring in Greece and that of Alexander the Great are not necessarily to be understood as one immediately following the other. The successive sentences indicate a successive thematic relationship, i.e. the struggle between Persia and Greece, rather than a chronological one. Dating and content Traditionally, the Book of Daniel was believed to have been written by its namesake during and shortly after the Babylonian captivity in the sixth century BC. Although this view continues to be held by traditionalist Christians and conservative Jews, it has been rejected by most J.J.Collins "Daniel" (Fortress Press, 1993), pp122-123. See also: When Time Shall Be No More, Paul Boyer of the scholarly community since the end of the nineteenth century. While a number of conservative scholars accept a sixth century date, "for mainline scholarship... these issues were decided at least a century ago" See J.J.Collins "Daniel" (Fortress Press, 1993), pp122-123 Even leading evangelical scholars have recently adopted this position, while in the Roman Catholic community it has been the norm since World War II. See J.J.Collins "Daniel" (Fortress Press, 1993), pp122-123 Antiochus IV Epiphanes desecrated and looted the Jerusalem Temple around 167 BC, outlawed the Jewish religion, massacred observant Jews and precipitated a national crisis that is commemorated to this day in the Feast of Hanukkah (which recalls the rededication of the temple). The Book of Daniel (in its final form) is written, according to the mainstream view, in response to that crisis. Even when the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven began to be reapplied to Rome in pre-Christian and early Christian times the memory of Antiochus was still vivid. This is evidenced by the fact that leading Jewish and patristic commentators such as Josephus, Hippolytus, and Jerome continued to apply sections of Daniel (especially chapter 8) to the activities of Antiochus. Traditionalists, making a case for an earlier date for the Book of Daniel, make reference to Josephus, who states that upon Alexander the Great's approach, a small party met him outside of Jerusalem with a copy of the book of Daniel, telling him that his presence was ordained by scripture. However, most scholars agree that this story is not true. Alexander visits Jerusalem Harvard scholar Shaye J. D. Cohen denies the historicity of Alexander's visit to Jerusalem and suggests that the Alexander story is a combination of several sources. Shaye Cohen, "Alexander the Great and Jaddus the High Priest according to Josephus", 41-68; see also Adolf Büchler,"La relation de Josephe concernant Alexandre le Grand", 1-26 Additionally, some point to the Dead Sea scrolls found at Qumran dating from the 2nd century BC. These scrolls include several manuscript fragments and three substantial manuscripts of Daniel dating from the late 2nd-cent BC Approximately fifty years after Daniel was written according to Frank Moore Cross, "The Ancient Library of Qumran" (Doubleday, 1961) p43. to the first century AD. The premise is that there must have been much time between the original writing and the copying of the manuscripts found at Qumran, since it would have taken time for the book to have gained acceptance and be made available for copying. Christian Thinktank; http://www.christian-thinktank.com/qwhendan3a.html; Was Daniel Written After the Events he Foretold?; December 2000 However, the relatively large number of copies at Qumran can be explained as due to the current (at the time) popularity of this recently "published" book. Of considerable significance, is the fact that the Book of Daniel was never grouped with the Hebrew Nevi'im (the Prophets) but has always belonged to the Ketuvim (the writings). If the author had been accepted to be a sixth century Jew of the Exile his work would have pre-dated Ezra and Nehemiah and would certainly have been considered authoritative enough to group it with the other prophets. The Dating of the Book of Daniel, Bryan Rennie In addition, the canon of the Prophets (Nevi'im) was closed by about 200 BC with the composition of Malachi Tanakh and its Shape . The apocryphal book of Sirach, written about 180 BC, contains a long section (chapters 44-50) in praise of "famous men" from Jewish history that does not include Daniel. However I Maccabees, composed about 100 BC, repeats much of that list with the addition of Daniel and the three youths in the fiery furnace, leading to the conclusion that these stories were likely added to Hebrew literature sometime after 180 BC. Antiochus IV Epiphanes Critical scholars have asserted that the prophecies in the Book of Daniel reflect the persecutions of the Jews by Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BC), and his desecration of the altar in the temple at Jerusalem, and consequently they date its composition to that period. In particular, the vision in Chapter 11, which focuses on a series of wars between the "King of the North" and the "King of the South," is generally interpreted as a record of Levantine history from the time of Alexander the Great down to the era of Antiochus IV, with the "Kings of the North" being the Seleucid kings of Syria and the "Kings of the South" being the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt. Scottish theologian John Drane notes that other details of the stories in the early chapters of Daniel are also similar to the prevailing conditions in the era of Antiochus. "Belshazzar for example, falls from power because he defiled the sacred objects taken from the Temple in Jerusalem (Dan. 5:1-4), in much the same way as Antiochus repeatedly robbed the Temple in Jerusalem. The worship of the great statue set up by Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 3:1-18) and the story of the Bel found in the Greek text highlighted the same issues as Antiochus' action in setting up an image of Zeus in the Temple at Jerusalem. Indeed it may be implied that the images were actual statues of the kings themselves. Even the story of Nebuchadnezzar's madness (Dan. 4:19-33) may have been intended to be reminiscent of the commonly held belief that Antiochus was mad ("epimanes"). The people of a later age would also recognize those apostate Jews who collaborated with the unbelieving Seleucids in the duplicitous figures of the spies and informers who plotted against Daniel and ensured that he was shut up in the den of lions (Dan. 6:1-14). The issue of food, which features so largely in the opening story of Daniel (Dan. 1:3-16), was one of the whole crucial points in the whole argument about Hellenism. Much of the opposition that sparked the Maccabean revolt was concerned with the unwillingness of faithful Jews to eat pork and other unclean foods". Introducing the Old Testament By John William Drane, John Drane, pp. 221-222 Even the name Nebuchadnezzar contains a veiled reference to Antiochus Epiphanes to those acquainted with Hebrew numerology. In Hebrew, as in many other ancient languages, names and words often have numerical value (see Gematria). Nebuchadnezzar's name in cuneiform is Nabû-kudurri-uṣur which should be transliterated into Hebrew as נבוכדנאצר or Nebuwkadne'tstsar (as it is in Jer. 46:2, 39:11). It is unlikely to be a coincidence that when the numbers represented by "Nebuwkadne'tstsar" are added up, they come exactly the same figure (423) as the numbers of the name "Antiochus Epiphanes". Introduction to the Bible By John Haralson Hayes, pp 285-286 This conclusion regarding the date of composition was first drawn by the philosopher Porphyry of Tyros, a third century pagan and Neoplatonist, whose fifteen-volume work Against the Christians is only known to us through Jerome's reply. The identification of Antiochus Epiphanes in Daniel, however, is a much older Casey P.M, Porphyry and the origin of the Book of Daniel, Journal of Theological Studies, 1976, pp. 15-33 interpretation which seems to be reflected, for example, in 1 Maccabees 1:54 (c100 BC), where an idol set up upon the altar of burnt offering under Antiochus is referred to as an "abomination of desolation" (cf. Dan. 9:27, 11:31). This identification is made explicit in Josephus' exposition of Daniel chapter eight (Antiquities 10:11, c94 AD) where he almost certainly cites a common Jewish interpretative tradition by identifying the "little horn" as Antiochus. According to British historian Bryan Rennie, the conclusion that the Book of Daniel was written at the time of the profanation of the Temple by Antiochus IV would explain why the author is not very precise about sixth century events, why he is so precise about the time of Antiochus, and why he was never counted among the prophets. Scholars are virtually unanimous in regarding the Book of Daniel as a message of encouragement to those people suffering for their faith under the oppression of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Four Kingdoms Many biblical scholars have concluded that the four kingdoms beginning with Nebuchadnezzar, mentioned in the "statue vision" of chapter 2, are identical to the four "end-time" kingdoms of the vision in chapter 7, and usually consider them to represent (1) Babylonia, (2) Media, (3) Persia, and (4) Greece (i.e. Macedonia). There is a literary tradition through various cultures which saw history pass through four kingdoms. These four kingdoms were Assyria, Media, Persia and Macedonia. Sibylline Oracles 4, 49-101; Polybius, 38.22; Velleius Paterculus 1.6.6; Tacitus, Histories, 5.8.4, Diodorus 32.24 and Appian, Lybica 132. As Daniel was set after the time of the Assyrians, Babylon was more relevant to the literary structure. Some Christians (e.g. Young) believe that they should be identified as (1) the Neo-Babylonian empire, (2) the Medo-Persian empire (3) the Macedonian empire of Alexander and his successors, and (4) the Roman empire. Others (e.g. Stuart, Lagrange) have advocated the following schema: (1) the Neo-Babylonian, (2) the Medo-Persian, (3) the short-lived rule of Alexander, and (4) the rival Diadochi, viz. Egypt and Syria. "The Four Kingdoms Of Daniel" by John H. Walton, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 29.1 (1986): 25-36. ChapterParallel sequence of eventsDaniel 2Head(Babylon)Breast and armsBelly and thighsLegsFeet and toesKingdom of GodEndDaniel 71st Beast2nd Beast3rd Beast4th Beast10 hornsLittle hornKingdom of GodEndDaniel 8MediaPersiaGreece4 hornsLittle hornEndDaniel 11MediaPersiaGreecekings of the north and southContemptible PersonDeliverance of JewsEnd To a modern reader the relationship between the Medes and the Persians is not transparent in Daniel. In , we are told that Babylon would be broken in two and given to the Medes and Persians, apparently indicating that the two kingdoms existed separately at the same time, though historically when the kingdom of the Medes was in power, the Persians were vassals until they reversed the situation. Three times we read about "the law of the Medes and the Persians", (Dan. 6:8, 12, and 15). Though the Medes and the Persians were Iranian peoples and so shared a cultural heritage, one reading of "the law of the Medes and the Persians" suggests that the phrase indicates the two groups must have merged. Dan. 8:3 features a ram with two horns, with the Medes being represented by the first horn to arrive and the Persians by the longer second horn. These two horns are the kings of the Media and Persia, . Finally Daniel 10 talks solely about Persia. Cyrus is the king of Persia (). The prince (=angel) of the kingdom of Persia struggles with Michael (). Although Daniel shows no interest in the ancestry of Cyrus, it has been pointed out that Cyrus was married to a Mede and himself had Median blood. This some have thought would make the Medes and Persians merged kingdoms by marriage at the time of the conquest of Babylon. As noted previously, however, a late author's apparent reliance on Jeremiah may explain this (Dan. 9:2, Jer. 51:11). Persian inscriptions from the time of Darius I show Media as a subordinate kingdom which paid tribute to Persia. Language Scholars have speculated about the bilingual literary structure of Daniel - Chapters 2 through 7 in Aramaic, the rest in Hebrew. One of the most frequent speculations is that the entire book (excepting 9:4-20) was originally written in Aramaic, with portions translated into Hebrew, possibly to increase acceptance Hartman and Di Lella, (1990), 408. - many Aramaisms in the Hebrew text find proposed explanation by the hypothesis of an inexact initial translation into Hebrew. According to John Collins in his 1993 commentary, Daniel, Hermeneia Commentary, the Aramaic in Daniel is of a later form than that used in the Samaria correspondence, but slightly earlier than the form used in the Dead Sea Scrolls, meaning that the Aramaic chapters 2-6 may have been written earlier in the Hellenistic period than the rest of the book, with the vision in chapter 7 being the only Aramaic portion dating to the time of Antiochus. The Hebrew portion is, for all intents and purposes, identical to that found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, meaning chapters 1 and 8-12 were in existence before the late 2nd century BC. 2 {not a scholarly source} Contrary to the above, the Expositor's Bible Commentary (Zondervan, 1990) claims that the language of Daniel, in comparison with the Hebrew and Aramaic texts of the Hellenistic period, "prove quite conclusively to any scholar that the second-century date and Palestinian provenance of the Book of Daniel cannot be upheld any longer without violence being done to the science of linguistics." It adds that the serious mistakes of the Septuagint to render many Persian and Accadian terms, as the offices mentioned in Dan. 3:3, proves ignorance of words of the old past, already forgotten in the Hellenistic period, indicating that the Book of Daniel was written in the late 6th century BC. "There is no possibility that the text of Daniel could have been composed as late as the Maccabean uprising, and that there is every likelihood that the Aramaic comes from the same period, if not a century earlier, than the Aramaic of the Elephantine Papyri and of Ezra, which are admittedly fifth-century productions. It goes without saying that if the predictions concerning the period of Antiochus III and Antiochus IV (222-164 BC) are composed in language antedating the second-century and third-century B.C., then the whole effort to explain Daniel as a vaticinium ex eventu must be abandoned." E.C. Lucas is more cautious in his assessment of linguistic arguments as well. Evaluating Collin’s approach he considers "the wide geographical spread from which the material comes and the implicit assumption that linguistic developments would have occurred uniformly throughout this area" a weakness and concludes, "The character of the Hebrew and Aramaic could support a date in the fifth or fourth century for the extant written form of the book, but does not demand a second-century date." He agrees with Collins that there are "clear differences" between Qumran Hebrew and the Hebrew of Daniel. E.C. Lucas, Daniel (Apollos OT Commentary; Apollos, 2002) p. 307. Loan words Three Greek words used within the text have long been considered evidence for a late dating of Daniel. All three are terms for musical instruments, κιθαρις (cithara), ψαλτηριον (psaltery) and συμφωνια (symphonia). The existence of the Greek word symphonia was cited by Rowlings as having its earliest known use in second century BC, but it has subsequently been shown that Pythagoras born in the sixth century BC used the term to denote an instrument , while its adjectival use meaning "in unison" is found in the 'Hymni Homerica, ad Mercurium 51'; both instances date from the sixth century BC, the supposed setting of Daniel. It is known that "Greek mercenaries and slaves served in the Babylonian and Assyrian periods, some of whom were undoubtedly versed in Greek music and musical instruments." It has been speculated that this would explain the existence of the three Greek musical terms in Daniel's book. On the other hand, it has been claimed that the non-existence of other Greek words is a strong witness against the theory of the writing of the book in the Hellenistic period, since "it is inconceivable that Greek terms for government and administration would not have been adopted into Aramaic by the second century BC" Frank E. Gaebelein, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Vol. 7, Zondervan, 1985, p. 21. Even John Goldingay, a proponent of the late date, admits “the Greek words hardly necessitate a very late date.” John E. Goldingay, Daniel, (Word Biblical Commentary, 30; Dallas: Word Books, 1989), p. xxv. There are also nineteen Persian loan-words in the book, most of them having to do with governmental positions. Judea was under Persian administration for two centuries until the arrival of Alexander the Great. Use of the word 'Chaldeans' The book of Daniel uses the term "Chaldean" to refer both to an ethnic group, and to astrologers in general. According to Montgomery and Hammer, Daniel's use of the word 'Chaldean' to refer to astrologers in general is an anachronism, as during the Neo-Babylonian and early Persian periods (when Daniel is said to have lived), it referred only to an ethnicity. (Compare the later Chaldean Oracles). Textual Witness Several fragmented copies of the book of Daniel have been found amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls. The oldest of these has been paleographically dated to around 125 BC. (None of the Daniel fragments has yet been carbon dated). This copy is not the autograph (i.e. the original), nor was the original authored at Qumran. By the first century BC, the book of Daniel already had a rich textual history. There were at least three versions extant: i) the Hebrew/Aramiac version on which the MT and the DSS copies are based; ii) Th-Dan (the so-called Theodotion version); iii) OG-Dan (the so-called Septuagint version). OG-Dan itself was based upon another Hebrew/Aramaic version, which differs from the MT. In addition to these textual variants, there were also extant many para-Danielic stories, such as those found as Qumran and the apocryphal additions to the Greek versions. Unity of Daniel Whereas many scholars conclude a second century dating of the book in its final form, scholarship varies greatly regarding the unity of Daniel. Many scholars, finding portions of the book dealing with themes they do not believe fit with the time of Antiochus, conclude separate authors for different portions of the book. Included in this group are Barton, L. Berthold, Collins, and H. L. Ginsberg. Some historians who support that the book was a unified whole include J.A. Montgomery, S.R. Driver, R. H. Pfeiffer, and H.H. Rowley in the latter's aptly titled essay "The Unity of the Book of Daniel" (1952). Those who hold to a unified Daniel claim that their opponents fail to find any consensus in their various theories of where divisions exist. Montgomery is particularly harsh to his colleagues, stating that the proliferation of theories without agreement showed a "bankruptcy of criticism." They also charge that composite theories fail to account for the consistent thematic portrayal of Daniel's life throughout the book of Daniel. Christian uses of Daniel As mentioned above, the prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Children from the deuterocanonical parts of Daniel are widely used in Orthodox and Catholic prayer. The various episodes in the first half of the book are used by Christians as moral stories, and are often believed to foreshadow events in the gospels. The apocalyptic section is important to Christians for the image of the "Son of Man" (Dan. 7:13). According to the gospels, Jesus used this title as his preferred name for himself. The connection with Daniel's vision (as opposed to the usage in the Book of Ezekiel) is made explicit in the Gospels of Matthew and Mark (Matt. 26:64; Mark 14:62). Christians see this as a direct claim by Jesus that he is the Messiah. Traditional Christians have embraced the prophecies of Daniel, as they believe they were clearly advised by their Messiah, Jesus Christ of Nazareth, to be watchful for their fulfillment in the "End Times" of this world. In the Olivet discourse (, ) Jesus himself is quoted as applying Daniel's prophecy of a desolating sacrilege set up in the temple (Dan. 9:27, 11:31) to a future event — the AD 70 destruction of Jerusalem Craig Blomberg, Jesus and the Gospels, Apollos 1997, pp.322-326 N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, Fortress 1996, p. 348ff. . This would involve the levelling of the temple, flight from Judea, and would happen in Jesus' own generation (Mark 13: 2-4, 14, 30). Many Christians today re-apply this prediction to a final tribulation immediately preceding Judgement Day. Some consider the Prophecy of Seventy Weeks to be particularly compelling due to what they interpret to be prophetic accuracy. According to some modern-day scholars, Dan. 12:2 is the earliest clear reference in the Old Testament to the resurrection of the dead (Hartman and Di Lella, 1990, p. 419), with many of "your countrymen" awakening from death, some to eternal life and some to eternal disgrace. The notion of resurrection was to be elaborated in the New Testament and Christian doctrine. The importance of Daniel's visions Daniel's alleged presence in the royal court would have exposed him to the running of an empire. His knowledge, as in the case of other prophets, served as the basis for his revelations. Daniel's importance is that of introducing the age of the Gentiles, the framework for events from then to the last days. Due to its apocalyptic character and its place in both the Jewish and Christian canons, the book of Daniel has had great influence in Jewish and Christian history. Daniel was considered a prophet at Qumran (4Q174 [4QFlorilegium]) and later by Josephus (Antiquity of the Jews 10.11.7 §266) and the author (the "Pseudo-Philo") of Liber antiquitatum biblicarum (L.A.B. ["Book of Biblical antiquities"] 4.6, 8), and was grouped among the prophets in the Septuagint, the Jewish Greek Old Testament, and by Christians, who place the book among the prophets. However, Daniel was never grouped with the prophets, the Nevi'im, in the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh), but has always belonged to the section known as the Ketuvim (Hagiographa, or the "Writings"). The Jewish exegete Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, sometimes called simply RaMBaM and later called Maimonides, was so concerned that the "untutored populace would be led astray" if they attempted to calculate the timing of the Messiah that it was decreed that "Cursed be those who predict the end times." This curse can be both found in his letter Igeret Teiman and in his booklet The Statutes and Wars of the Messiah-King. Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel lamented that the times for the fulfillment of the prophecy of Daniel "were over long ago" (Sanhedrin 98b, 97a). Many Orthodox Jews believe that the prophecy refers to the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 AD. Secular scholars and some Evangelical scholars however, believe that the prophecy better fits the reign of Antiochus, and that it is an example of vaticinium ex eventu (prophecy after the fact). Medieval study of angels was also affected by this book, as it is the only Old Testament source for the names of any of the angels, Gabriel and Michael (Dan 9:21; 12:1). The only other angel given a name is Raphael, mentioned in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit. Traditional tomb sites of Daniel There are six different locations all claimed to be the site of the tomb: Babylon, Kirkuk and Muqdadiyah in Iraq, Susa and Malamir in Iran, and Samarkand in Uzbekistan. See also 1 Maccabees 2300 day prophecy Abomination (Bible) Additions to Daniel Antichrist Antiochus Epiphanes Apocalypse List of apocalyptic literature Armageddon Biblical archaeology (reference to Nabonidus cylinder) Book of Revelation Bible Prophecy Christian eschatology Danel - Ugaritic hero identified with Daniel in Ezekiel ()() Daniel Fast Old English poem Daniel Daniel's Vision of Chapter 7 Daniel's Vision of Chapter 8 Daniel Chapter 11 Day-year principle Dispensationalism - which posits a "parenthesis" between weeks 69 and 70 in the historic fulfillment. Eschatology End times Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse Gog and Magog Last Judgment Millenialism Millenarianism Nebuchadnezzar's statue vision in Daniel 2 Olivet discourse Premillenialism Prewrath Post Tribulation Progressive dispensationalism Prophecy of Seventy Weeks Siege of Jerusalem (70) Summary of Christian eschatological differences The Beast (Bible) The Rapture The Two Witnesses Theodotion Notes References Ernest C. Lucas, Daniel, 2002. ISBN 0-85111-780-5. John J. Collins, Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel, 1993. ISBN 0-8006-6040-4. T. E. Gaston, Historical Issues in the Book of Daniel, 2009. ISBN 978-0-9561540-0-2. E. J. Bickerman, Four Strange Books of the Bible, 1967. ISBN 0-8052-0774-0. Robert Eisenman, James the Brother of Jesus, 1997. ISBN 0-14-025773-X. Pierre Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander. Librairie Artheme Fayard (Paris), 1996. (Translation by Peter Daniels, 2002) p. 42. Louis F. Hartman and Alexander A. Di Lella, "Daniel," in Raymond E. Brown et al., ed., The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, 1990, pp. 406–20. W. Sibley Towner, "Daniel," in The Oxford Companion to the Bible, 1993, pp. 149–52. John F. Walvoord, Daniel: The Key to Prophetic Revelation, 1989. ISBN 0-8024-1753-1. D.J. Wiseman, T.C. Mitchell & R. Joyce, W.J. Martin & K.A. Kitchen, Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel. London: The Tyndale Press, 1965. Easton's Bible dictionary External links Jewish translations: Daniel (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Daniel at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) The Book of Daniel (Full text from St-Takla.org, also available in Arabic) Related Articles: Daniel at iTanakh Jewish Encyclopedia: Daniel Daniel: Wise Man and Visionary, by Elias Bickerman Daniel by Rob Bradshaw Detailed dictionary-style article. | Book_of_Daniel |@lemmatized book:81 daniel:189 דניאל:1 hebrew:29 bible:16 tanakh:4 christian:27 old:14 testament:9 originally:4 write:20 aramaic:18 set:10 babylonian:18 captivity:4 period:19 jew:12 deport:1 exile:4 babylon:45 follow:6 siege:4 jerusalem:20 bc:43 revolve:1 around:3 figure:9 israelite:3 become:4 adviser:1 nebuchadnezzar:38 ruler:9 two:18 distinct:1 part:7 series:6 six:7 narrative:7 chapter:61 one:14 four:21 apocalyptic:8 vision:24 seven:8 twelve:4 take:19 form:7 court:12 story:11 focus:5 test:1 religious:1 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6,679 | Ozymandias | OZYMANDIAS I met a traveller from an antique land Who said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stone Stand in the desert. Near them on the sand, Half sunk, a shatter'd visage lies, whose frown And wrinkled lip and sneer of cold command Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamp'd on these lifeless things, The hand that mock'd them and the heart that fed. And on the pedestal these words appear: "My name is Ozymandias, king of kings: Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!" Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare, The lone and level sands stretch far away. As anthologized in Palgrave, Francis, ed. The Golden Treasury, 1875, online at Bartleby. Palgrave gives the title as "Ozymandias of Egypt". "Ozymandias" ( ) is a sonnet by Percy Bysshe Shelley, published in 1818. It is frequently anthologized and is probably Shelley's most famous short poem. It was written in competition with his friend Horace Smith, who wrote another sonnet entitled "Ozymandias" (for which see below). In addition to the power of its themes and imagery, the poem is notable for its virtuosic diction. The rhyme scheme of the sonnet is unusual and creates a sinuous and interwoven effect. Analysis The central theme of "Ozymandias" is the inevitable decline of all men. The 'Younger Memnon' statue of Ramesses II in the British Museum thought to have inspired the poem Ozymandias was another name for Ramesses the Great, Pharaoh of the nineteenth dynasty of ancient Egypt. Luxor Temple: Head of Ramses the Great Ozymandias represents a transliteration into Greek of a part of Ramesses' throne name, User-maat-re Setep-en-re. The sonnet paraphrases the inscription on the base of the statue, given by Diodorus Siculus as "King of Kings am I, Osymandias. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works." Shelley's poem is often said to have been inspired by the arrival in London of a colossal statue of Ramesses II, acquired for the British Museum by the Italian adventurer Giovanni Belzoni in 1816. "Colossal bust of Ramesses II, the 'Younger Memnon', British Museum. Accessed 10-01-2008 Rodenbeck and Chaney, however, "" Travelers from an antique land - Accessed 18/07/07; Edward Chaney, 'Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Revolution', in: Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Faultlines, eds. M. Ascari and A. Corrado (Rodopi, Amsterdam and New York,2006), 39-74. point out that the poem was written and published before the statue arrived in Britain, and thus that Shelley could not have seen it. But its repute in Western Europe preceded its actual arrival in Britain (Napoleon had previously made an unsuccessful attempt to acquire it for France, for example), and thus it may have been its repute or news of its imminent arrival rather than seeing the statue itself which provided the inspiration. Among the earlier senses of the verb "to mock" is "to fashion an imitation of reality" (as in "a mock-up"); OED: mock, v. "4...†b. To simulate, make a false pretence of. Obs. [citations for 1593 and 1606; both from Shakespeare]" but by Shelley's day the current sense "to ridicule" (especially by mimicking) had come to the fore. The sonnet celebrates the anonymous sculptor and his artistic achievement, whilst Shelley imaginatively surveys the ruins of a bygone power to fashion a sinuous, compact sonnet spun from a traveller's tale of far distant desert ruins. The lone and level sands stretching to the horizon perhaps suggest a resultant barrenness from a misuse of power where "nothing beside remains". This sonnet is often incorrectly quoted or reproduced . The most common misquotation – "Look upon my works, ye Mighty, and despair!" – replaces the correct "on" with "upon", thus turning the regular decasyllabic (iambic pentameter) verse into an 11-syllable line. For an example of this misquotation, see where the misquotation appears twice: at pp. xvi and 254 Smith's poem In Egypt's sandy silence, all alone, Stands a gigantic Leg, which far off throws The only shadow that the Desert knows: "I am great OZYMANDIAS," saith the stone, "The King of Kings; this mighty City shows "The wonders of my hand." The City's gone, Nought but the Leg remaining to disclose The site of this forgotten Babylon. We wonder, and some Hunter may express Wonder like ours, when thro' the wilderness Where London stood, holding the Wolf in chace, He meets some fragments huge, and stops to guess What powerful but unrecorded race Once dwelt in that annihilated place. —Horace Smith. Ozymandias - Smith Percy Shelley apparently wrote this sonnet in competition with his friend Horace Smith, as Smith published a sonnet a month after Shelley's in the same magazine. It takes the same subject, tells the same story, and makes the same moral point. It was originally published under the same title as Shelley's verse; but in later collections Smith retitled it "On A Stupendous Leg of Granite, Discovered Standing by Itself in the Deserts of Egypt, with the Inscription Inserted Below". See also Egypt in the European imagination Watchmen (Ozymandias) Further reading Reiman, Donald H. and Sharon B. Powers. Shelley's Poetry and Prose. Norton, 1977. ISBN 0-393-09164-3. Shelley, Percy Bysshe and Theo Gayer-Anderson (illust.) Ozymandias. Hoopoe Books, 1999. ISBN 977-5325-82-X Rodenbeck, John. “Travelers from an Antique Land: Shelley's Inspiration for ‘Ozymandias,’” Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, no. 24 (“Archeology of Literature: Tracing the Old in the New”), 2004, pp. 121–148. Edward Chaney, 'Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Revolution', in: Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Faultlines, eds. M. Ascari and A. Corrado (Rodopi, Amsterdam and New York,2006), 39-74. Notes <div class="references-small"> External links Representative Poetry Online: Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), "Ozymandias" (text of poem with notes) World Treasures (National Library of Australia) (autograph fair copy of the text from one of Shelley's notebooks; shows slight variants against modern editions) Horace Smith's poem of the same name, and of the same themes "Ozymandias" and Stanley Marsh 3 A popular Machinima adaption of the poem by Machinima pioneers Strange Company, praised as an adaptation by film critic Roger Ebert "Ozymandias" an example of a modern setting of this poem. "Day By Day" (Use of a reference to the poem for humorous effect) "Transient Power, Infinite Ideas" - Billy Joe Mills at Urbanagora | Ozymandias |@lemmatized ozymandias:16 meet:2 traveller:2 antique:3 land:3 say:2 two:1 vast:1 trunkless:1 leg:4 stone:2 stand:3 desert:4 near:1 sand:3 half:1 sunk:1 shatter:1 visage:1 lie:2 whose:1 frown:1 wrinkle:1 lip:1 sneer:1 cold:1 command:1 tell:2 sculptor:2 well:1 passion:1 read:2 yet:1 survive:1 stamp:1 lifeless:1 thing:1 hand:2 mock:4 heart:1 fed:1 pedestal:1 word:1 appear:2 name:4 king:6 look:2 work:3 ye:2 mighty:3 despair:2 nothing:2 beside:2 remain:3 round:1 decay:1 colossal:3 wreck:1 boundless:1 bare:1 lone:2 level:2 stretch:2 far:4 away:1 anthologize:2 palgrave:2 francis:1 ed:3 golden:1 treasury:1 online:2 bartleby:1 give:2 title:2 egypt:7 sonnet:9 percy:4 bysshe:3 shelley:14 publish:4 frequently:1 probably:1 famous:1 short:1 poem:11 write:4 competition:2 friend:2 horace:4 smith:8 another:2 entitle:1 see:5 addition:1 power:5 theme:3 imagery:1 notable:1 virtuosic:1 diction:1 rhyme:1 scheme:1 unusual:1 create:1 sinuous:2 interwoven:1 effect:2 analysis:1 central:1 inevitable:1 decline:1 men:1 young:2 memnon:2 statue:5 ramesses:4 ii:3 british:3 museum:3 thought:1 inspire:2 ram:2 great:4 pharaoh:1 nineteenth:1 dynasty:1 ancient:1 luxor:1 temple:1 head:1 represent:1 transliteration:1 greek:1 part:1 throne:1 user:1 maat:1 setep:1 en:1 paraphrase:1 inscription:2 base:1 diodorus:1 siculus:1 osymandias:1 anyone:1 would:1 know:2 let:1 surpass:1 one:2 often:2 arrival:3 london:2 acquire:2 italian:1 adventurer:1 giovanni:1 belzoni:1 bust:1 access:2 rodenbeck:2 chaney:3 however:1 traveler:2 edward:2 england:2 america:2 cultural:2 memorial:2 religion:2 royalty:2 revolution:2 site:3 exchange:2 european:3 crossroad:2 faultlines:2 ascari:2 corrado:2 rodopi:2 amsterdam:2 new:3 york:2 point:2 arrive:1 britain:2 thus:3 could:1 repute:2 western:1 europe:1 precede:1 actual:1 napoleon:1 previously:1 make:3 unsuccessful:1 attempt:1 france:1 example:3 may:2 news:1 imminent:1 rather:1 provide:1 inspiration:2 among:1 early:1 sens:1 verb:1 fashion:2 imitation:1 reality:1 oed:1 v:1 b:2 simulate:1 false:1 pretence:1 ob:1 citation:1 shakespeare:1 day:3 current:1 sense:1 ridicule:1 especially:1 mimic:1 come:1 fore:1 celebrate:1 anonymous:1 artistic:1 achievement:1 whilst:1 imaginatively:1 survey:1 ruin:2 bygone:1 compact:1 spun:1 tale:1 distant:1 horizon:1 perhaps:1 suggest:1 resultant:1 barrenness:1 misuse:1 incorrectly:1 quote:1 reproduce:1 common:1 misquotation:3 upon:2 replace:1 correct:1 turn:1 regular:1 decasyllabic:1 iambic:1 pentameter:1 verse:2 syllable:1 line:1 twice:1 pp:2 xvi:1 sandy:1 silence:1 alone:1 gigantic:1 throw:1 shadow:1 saith:1 city:2 show:2 wonder:3 go:1 nought:1 disclose:1 forgotten:1 babylon:1 hunter:1 express:1 like:1 thro:1 wilderness:1 hold:1 wolf:1 chace:1 fragment:1 huge:1 stop:1 guess:1 powerful:1 unrecorded:1 race:1 dwell:1 annihilated:1 place:1 apparently:1 month:1 magazine:1 take:1 subject:1 story:1 moral:1 originally:1 late:1 collection:1 retitled:1 stupendous:1 granite:1 discover:1 standing:1 insert:1 also:1 imagination:1 watchman:1 reiman:1 donald:1 h:1 sharon:1 poetry:2 prose:1 norton:1 isbn:2 theo:1 gayer:1 anderson:1 illust:1 hoopoe:1 book:1 x:1 john:1 alif:1 journal:1 comparative:1 poetics:1 archeology:1 literature:1 trace:1 old:1 note:2 div:1 class:1 reference:2 small:1 external:1 link:1 representative:1 text:2 world:1 treasure:1 national:1 library:1 australia:1 autograph:1 fair:1 copy:1 notebook:1 slight:1 variant:1 modern:2 edition:1 stanley:1 marsh:1 popular:1 machinima:2 adaption:1 pioneer:1 strange:1 company:1 praise:1 adaptation:1 film:1 critic:1 roger:1 ebert:1 setting:1 use:1 humorous:1 transient:1 infinite:1 idea:1 billy:1 joe:1 mill:1 urbanagora:1 |@bigram percy_bysshe:3 bysshe_shelley:2 rhyme_scheme:1 ramesses_ii:3 diodorus_siculus:1 colossal_statue:1 colossal_bust:1 iambic_pentameter:1 percy_shelley:1 external_link:1 roger_ebert:1 |
6,680 | Horsepower | Horsepower (hp or HP or Hp) is the name of several non-SI units of power. It was originally defined to allow the output of steam engines to be measured and compared with the power output of draft horses. The horsepower was widely adopted to measure the output of piston engines, turbines, electric motors and other machinery. Different regions adopted different definitions of the unit. Most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. The definition of a horsepower unit is different in different applications; application outside of the context of a particular definition will be inaccurate. One mechanical horsepower of 550 foot-pounds per second is equivalent to 745.7 watts A metric horsepower of 75 kgf-m per second is equivalent to 735.499 watts A boiler horsepower is used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, or 9809.5 watts One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts A Pferdestärke is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. http://www.sizes.com/units/horsepower.htm Horsepower, retrieved 2009 feb 5 " Conversion Factors", page F-313 of Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 58th Edition, CRC Press Inc., Clevland, Ohio ISBN 0-8493-0458-X, 1977, Robert C. Weast (Ed.) An ALAM or SAE horsepower is not a unit of power but instead is a measure of internal combustion engine displacement, and an RAC horsepower or tax horsepower is a differently defined unit of displacement. Where units of horsepower are used for marketing consumer products, often measurement methods are designed by advertisers to maximize the size of the number produced for any product, even if this may not reflect realistic capacity of the product to do work when used in normal conditions. History of the term "horsepower" The development of the steam engine provided a reason to equate the output of horses with the engines that could replace them. In 1702, Thomas Savery wrote in The Miner's Friend: "So that an engine which will raise as much water as two horses, working together at one time in such a work, can do, and for which there must be constantly kept ten or twelve horses for doing the same. Then I say, such an engine may be made large enough to do the work required in employing eight, ten, fifteen, or twenty horses to be constantly maintained and kept for doing such a work..." The term "horsepower" was coined later by James Watt to help market his improved steam engine. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines. This royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour (or 2.4 times a minute). The wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π × 12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds (assuming that the measurements of mass were equivalent to measurements of force in pounds-force, which were not well-defined units at the time). So: This was rounded to an even 33,000 ft·lbf/min. (see the AMSE puzzler answer) Others recount that Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 pounds 100 feet (30 m) per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony and thus arrived at the 33,000 ft·lbf/min figure. Engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916-foot-pounds per minute. John Desaguliers increased that to 27,500-foot-pounds per minute. "Watt found by experiment in 1782 that a 'brewery horse' was able to produce 32,400-foot-pounds per minute". James Watt and Matthew Boulton standardized that figure at 33,000 the next year. Put into perspective, a healthy human can produce about 1.2 hp briefly (see Orders of magnitude (power)) and sustain about 0.1 hp indefinitely, and trained athletes can manage up to about 2.5 hp briefly http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/formulaone/lewishamilton/3476741/Lewis-Hamilton-and-Chris-Hoy-to-pit-man-against-machine-at-Wembley-Stadium-Formula-One.html and 0.3 hp for a period of several hours. Most observers familiar with horses and their capabilities estimate that Watt was either a bit optimistic or intended to under promise and over deliver; few horses can maintain that effort for long. Regardless, comparison to a horse proved to be an enduring marketing tool. Horsepower from a horse R. D. Stevenson and R. J. Wassersug published an article in Nature 364, 195-195 (15 July 1993) calculating the upper limit to an animal's power output. The peak power over a few seconds has been measured to be as high as 14.9 hp. However, for longer periods, an average horse produces less than one horsepower. Current definitions The following definitions have been widely used: Mechanical horsepowerhp(I)≡ 33,000 ft·lbf/min = 550 ft·lbf/s = 745.6999 W Metric horsepowerhp(M)≡ 75 kgf·m/s = 735.49875 W (exactly)Electrical horsepowerhp(E)≡746 WBoiler horsepowerhp(S)≡ 33,475 Btu/h =9809.5 WHydraulic horsepower=Flow Rate(US gal/min)*Pressure(psi)*7/12,000 = 550 ft·lbf/s = 745.6999 W In certain situations it is necessary to distinguish between the various definitions of horsepower and thus a suffix is added: hp(I) for mechanical (or imperial) horsepower, hp(M) for metric horsepower, hp(S) for boiler (or steam) horsepower and hp(E) for electrical horsepower. Hydraulic horsepower is equivalent to mechanical horsepower. The formula given above is for conversion to mechanical horsepower from the factors acting on a hydraulic system. Additionally, the term "horsepower" has been applied to calculated (estimated rather than measured) metrics: RAC horsepower is based solely on the dimensions of a piston engine (1 litre of engine displacement is equal to 10 RAC horsepower) Mechanical horsepower Assuming the third CGPM (1901, CR 70) definition of standard gravity, gn=9.80665 m/s², is used to define the pound-force as well as the kilogram force, and the international avoirdupois pound (1959), one mechanical horsepower is: {| |- |1 hp |≡ 33,000 ft·lbf/min |colspan=3|by definition |- | |= 550 ft·lbf/s |since |align=right|1 min |= 60 s |- | |= 550×0.3048×0.45359237 m·kgf/s |since |align=right|1 ft |= 0.3048 m and |- | |= 76.0402249068 kgf·m/s | |align=right|1 lb |= 0.45359237 kg |- | |= 76.0402249068×9.80665 kg·m²/s³ | |align=right|g |= 9.80665 m/s² |- | |= 745.69987158227022 W |since |align=right|1 W |≡ 1 J/s = 1 N·m/s = 1 (kg·m/s²)·(m/s) |} Or given that 1 hp = 550 ft·lbf/s, 1 ft = 0.3048 m, 1 lbf ≈ 4.448 N, 1 J = 1 N·m, 1 W = 1 J/s: 1 hp = 746 W Metric horsepower Metric horsepower began in Germany in the 19th century and became popular across Europe and Asia. The various units used to indicate this definition ("PS", "CV", "pk", and "ch") all translate to "horse power" in English, so it is common to see these values referred to as "horsepower" or "hp" in the press releases or media coverage of the German, French, Italian, and Japanese automobile companies. British manufacturers often intermix metric horsepower and mechanical horsepower depending on the origin of the engine in question. Metric horsepower, as a rule, is defined as 0.73549875 kW, or roughly 98.6% of mechanical horsepower. This was a minor issue in the days when measurement systems varied widely and engines produced less power, but has become a major sticking point today. Exotic cars from Europe like the McLaren F1 and Bugatti Veyron are often quoted using the wrong definition, and their power output is sometimes even converted twice because of confusion over whether the original "horsepower" number was metric or mechanical. PS This unit ( = horse strength) is no longer a statutory unit, but is still commonly used in Europe, South America and Japan, especially by the automotive and motorcycle industry. It was adopted throughout continental Europe with designations equivalent to the English "horsepower", but mathematically different from the British unit. It is defined by the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) Die gesetzlichen Einheiten in Deutschland (in German) on PTB.de in Braunschweig as exactly: 1 PS = 75 kilopond-meters per second (75 kp·m/s)×(9.80665 N/kp) = 735.49875 N·m/s ≈ 735.5 N·m/s ≈ 735.5 W ≈ 0.7355 kW ≈ 0.98632 hp (SAE) The PS was adopted by the and then by the automotive industry throughout most of Europe, under varying names. In 1992, the PS was rendered obsolete by EEC directives, when it was replaced by the kilowatt as the official power measuring unit. It is still in use for commercial and advertising purposes, as many customers are not familiar with the use of kilowatts for engines. In the Japanese versions of the Gran Turismo games, horsepower is used in PS, but in the American and PAL versions use HP respectively, although PS can be used in the PAL versions of the games Gran Turismo 3 and Gran Turismo 4 by changing the system in 4, and switching to German in 3. pk, hk, hv, LE, k/ks, KM The Dutch paardenkracht (pk), the Swedish hästkraft (hk), the Finnish hevosvoima (hv), the Norwegian and Danish hestekraft (hk), the Hungarian lóerő (LE), the Czech-Slovak koňská síla (k or ks), the Serbo-Croatian konjska snaga (k or ks) and the Polish koń mechaniczny (KM) all equal the German Pferdestärke (PS). CV and cv In Italian ("Cavalli"), Spanish ("Caballos"), and Portuguese ("Cavalos"), 'CV' is the equivalent to the German 'PS'. It is also used as the French term for the Pferdestärke, but in French, this should be written in lowercase letters as 'cv'. In addition, the capital form 'CV' is a French unit for tax horsepower, short for chevaux vapeur ("steam horses") or cheval-vapeur. CV is a non-linear rating of a motor vehicle for tax purposes. Measurements, Units of Measurement, Weights and Measures - numericana.com The CV rating, or fiscal power, is , where P is the maximum power in kilowatts and U is the amount of CO2 emitted in grams per kilometre. Caution: "CV" has been around for a long time in France. CO2 measurements have not. Modern quotes for CV might include a CO2 factor, but older ones will not. The fiscal power has found its way into naming of automobile models, such as the popular Citroën deux-chevaux. The cheval-vapeur (ch) unit should not be confused with the French cheval fiscal (CV). In the 19th century the French had their own unit, which they used instead of the CV or horsepower. It was called the poncelet and was abbreviated 'p'. ch This is a French unit for automobile power. The symbol ch is short for chevaux ("horses"). Some sources give it as 0.7355 kW, but it is generally used interchangeably with the German 'PS'. Boiler horsepower A boiler horsepower is used for boilers in various industrial applications, however it is considered an antiquated term and is not used in modern power plants. It is equal to a boiler thermal output of 33,475 Btu/h (9.8095 kW), which is the energy rate needed to evaporate 34.5 lb (15.65 kg) of water at 212 °F (100 °C) in one hour. The term was originally developed at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876, where the best steam engines of that period were tested. The average steam consumption of those engines (per output horsepower) was determined to be the evaporation of 30 pounds of water per hour, based on feedwater at 100 °F (38 °C), and saturated steam generated at 70 psig (480 kPa gauge pressure). This original definition is equivalent to a boiler heat output of 33,485 Btu/h. Years later in 1884, the ASME re-defined the boiler horsepower as the thermal output equal to the evaporation of 34.5 pounds per hour of water "from and at" 212 °F. This considerably simplified boiler testing, and provided more accurate comparisons of the boilers at that time. This revised definition is equivalent to a boiler heat output of 33,469 Btu/hr. Present industrial practice is to define "Boiler Horsepower" as a boiler thermal output equal to 33,475 Btu/h, which is very close to the original and revised definitions. The amount of power that can be obtained by a steam engine or steam turbine based on "boiler horsepower" varies so widely that use of the term is entirely obsolete for these purposes. The term makes no distinction as to the steam pressure or temperature which is produced (both of which can significantly influence engine/turbine output), it merely defines a thermal output of a boiler. Smaller steam engines often require several "boiler horsepower" to make one horsepower, and modern steam turbines can make power with as little as about 0.15 "boiler horsepower" thermal output per actual horsepower developed. Electrical horsepower The electrical horsepower is used by the electrical industry for electrical machines and is defined to be exactly 746 W. The nameplates on electrical motors show their power output, not their power input. Logically, fractional horsepower refers to electrical machines that rate less than 746 Watts. Relationship with torque For a given torque, the equivalent power may be calculated. The standard equation relating torque in foot-pounds, rotational speed in RPM and horsepower is: Where is power, is torque, and is rotations per minute. Outside the United States, most countries use the newton meter as the unit of torque. Most automobile specifications worldwide have torque listed in newton meters. The standard equation relating torque in newton meters, rotational speed in RPM and power in kilowatts is: These are based on Watt's definition of the mechanical horsepower. The constants 5252 and 9549 are rounded. 5252 comes from (33,000 ft·lbf/min)/(2π rad/rev), and 9549 comes from (60 s/min)(1000 W/kW)/(2π rad/rev). See torque. Drawbar horsepower See also Power at rail Drawbar horsepower (dbhp) is the power a railway locomotive has available to haul a train or an agricultural tractor to pull an implement. This is a measured figure rather than a calculated one. A special railway car called a dynamometer car coupled behind the locomotive keeps a continuous record of the drawbar pull exerted, and the speed. From these, the power generated can be calculated. To determine the maximum power available, a controllable load is required; is normally a second locomotive with its brakes applied, in addition to a static load. If the drawbar force () is measured in (lbf) and speed () is measured in miles per hour (mph), then the drawbar power () in horsepower (hp) is: Example: How much power is needed to pull a drawbar load of 2025 pounds-force at 5 miles per hour? The constant "375" is because 1 hp = 375 lbf·mph. If other units are used, the constant is different. When using a coherent system of units, such as (watts, newtons, and metres per second), no constant is needed, and the formula becomes . RAC horsepower (taxable horsepower) This measure was instituted by the Royal Automobile Club in Britain and was used to denote the power of early 20th century British cars. Many cars took their names from this figure (hence the Austin Seven and Riley Nine), while others had names such as "40/50 hp", which indicated the RAC figure followed by the true measured power. Taxable horsepower does not reflect developed horsepower; rather, it is a calculated figure based on the engine's bore size, number of cylinders, and a (now archaic) presumption of engine efficiency. As new engines were designed with ever-increasing efficiency, it was no longer a useful measure, but was kept in use by UK regulations which used the rating for tax purposes. where D is the diameter (or bore) of the cylinder in inches n is the number of cylinders This is equal to the displacement in cubic inches divided by 10π then divided again by the stroke in inches. Since taxable horsepower was computed based on bore and number of cylinders, not based on actual displacement, it gave rise to engines with 'undersquare' dimensions, i.e. relatively narrow bore, but long stroke; this tended to impose an artificially low limit on rotational speed (rpm), hampering the potential power output and efficiency of the engine. The situation persisted for several generations of four- and six-cylinder British engines: for example, Jaguar's 3.4-litre XK engine of the 1950s had six cylinders with a bore of and a stroke of http://www.classicjaguar.com/xkengine.html , where most American automakers had long since moved to oversquare (wide bore, short stroke) V-8s (see, for example, the early Chrysler Hemi). Measurement The power of an engine may be measured or estimated at several points in the transmission of the power from its generation to its application. A number of names are used for the power developed at various stages in this process, but none is a clear indicator of either the measurement system or definition used. In the case of an engine dynamometer, power is measured at the engine's flywheel (i.e., at the crankshaft output). With a chassis dynamometer or "rolling road", power output is measured at the driving wheels. This accounts for the significant power loss through the drive train. As an example, an early-production BL Mini engine produced about at the flywheel, of which only reached the driving wheels. In general: Nominal is derived from the size of the engine and the piston speed and is only accurate at a pressure of 7 lbf/in². Brown, DK Before the ironclad, pub Conway, 1990, p188. Indicated or gross horsepower (theoretical capability of the engine) minus frictional losses within the engine (bearing drag, rod and crankshaft windage losses, oil film drag, etc.), equals Brake / net / crankshaft horsepower (power delivered directly to and measured at the engine's crankshaft) minus frictional losses in the transmission (bearings, gears, oil drag, windage, etc.), equals Shaft horsepower (power delivered to and measured at the output shaft of the transmission, when present in the system) minus frictional losses in the universal joint/s, differential, wheel bearings, tire and chain, (if present), equals Effective, True (thp) or commonly referred to as wheel horsepower (whp) All the above assumes that no power inflation factors have been applied to any of the readings. Engine designers use expressions other than horsepower to denote objective targets or performance, such as BMEP (Brake Mean Effective pressure). This is a coefficient of theoretical brake horsepower and cylinder pressures during combustion. Nominal horsepower Nominal horsepower (nhp) is an early Nineteenth Century rule of thumb used to estimate the power of steam engines. nhp = 7 x area of piston x equivalent piston speed/33,000 For paddle ships the piston speed was estimated as 129.7 x (stroke)1/3.35 For the nominal horsepower to equal the actual power it would be necessary for the mean steam pressure in the cylinder during the stroke to be 7 psi and for the piston speed to be of the order of 180-248 ft/min. Indicated horsepower Indicated horsepower (ihp) is the theoretical power of a reciprocating engine if it is completely frictionless in converting the expanding gas energy (piston pressure x displacement)in the cylinders. It is calculated from the pressures developed in the cylinders, measured by a device called an engine indicator - hence indicated horsepower. As the piston advances throughout its stroke, the pressure against the piston generally decreases, and the indicator device usually generates a graph of pressure vs stroke within the working cylinder. From this graph the amount of work performed during the piston stroke may be calculated. It was the figure normally used for steam engines in the 19th century but is misleading because the mechanical efficiency of an engine means that the actual power output may only be 70% to 90% of the indicated horsepower. Brake horsepower Brake horsepower (abbreviated bhp) is the measure of an engine's horsepower without the loss in power caused by the gearbox, generator, differential, water pump, and other auxiliary components such as alternator, power steering pump, muffled exhaust system, etc. "Brake" refers to a device which was used to load an engine and hold it at a desired RPM. During testing, the output torque and rotational speed were measured to determine the "brake horsepower". Horsepower was originally measured and calculated by use of the indicator (a James Watt invention of the late 18th century), and later by means of a De Prony brake connected to the engine's output shaft. More recently, an engine dynamometer is used instead of a De Prony brake. The output delivered to the driving wheels is less than that obtainable at the engine's crankshaft. British horsepower The acronym bhp may also be used for British horsepower, which has the same definition as the American SAE gross brake horsepower: 33,000 lb·ft/minute. More information on American SAE horsepower measurements is below. SAE horsepower SAE gross horsepower Prior to the 1972 model year, American automakers rated and advertised their engines in brake horsepower (bhp), frequently referred to as SAE gross horsepower, because it was measured in accord with the protocols defined in SAE standards J245 and J1995. As with other brake horsepower test protocols, SAE gross hp was measured using a stock test engine, generally running with few belt-driven accessories and sometimes fitted with long tube (test headers) in lieu of the OEM exhaust manifolds. The atmospheric correction standards for barometric pressure, humidity and temperature for testing were relatively idealistic. SAE net horsepower In the United States the term "bhp" fell into disuse in 1971-72, as automakers began to quote power in terms of SAE net horsepower in accord with SAE standard J1349. Like SAE gross and other brake horsepower protocols, SAE Net hp is measured at the engine's crankshaft, and so does not account for transmission losses. However, the SAE net hp testing protocol calls for standard production-type belt-driven accessories, air cleaner, emission controls, exhaust system, and other power-consuming accessories. This produces ratings in closer alignment with the power produced by the engine as it is actually configured and sold. The change to net hp effectively deflated power ratings to assuage the auto insurance industry and environmental and safety lobbies. SAE certified horsepower In 2005, the SAE introduced a new test protocol for engine horsepower and torque. SAE J2723 Certified Power The new protocol eliminates some of the flexibility in power measurement, and requires an independent observer present when engines are measured. The test is voluntary, but engines completing it can be advertised as "SAE-certified". A few manufacturers such as Honda and Toyota switched to the new ratings immediately, with multi-directional results; the rated output of Cadillac's supercharged Northstar V8 jumped from to under the new tests, while the rating for Toyota's Camry 3.0 L 1MZ-FE V6 fell from to . Much of the drop can be attributed to Toyota now rating engines on 87 octane, compared to Lexus which uses 91 octane. This is why the same 3.3 L 3MZ-FE V6 engine in the Lexus ES330 and Camry SE V6 did not show equal declines. The ES330 and Camry SE V6 were previously rated at 225 hp but the ES330 dropped to 218 hp while the Camry declined to 210 hp. The first engine certified under the new program was the 7.0 L LS7 used in the 2006 Chevrolet Corvette Z06. Certified power rose slightly from to . DIN hp DIN horsepower is the power measurement protocol in the German standard 70020. It is sometimes abbreviated as "PS", which stands for Pferdestärke, which is the German word for horsepower. DIN hp is measured at the engine's output shaft, and is usually expressed in metric (Pferdestärke) rather than mechanical horsepower. ECE hp ECE R24 is the European standard for measuring engine output. ECE Regulation 24, Revision 2, Annex 10 It is quite similar to the DIN 70020 standard, but with different requirements for connecting an engine's fan during testing. ECE is seen as slightly more liberal than DIN, and ECE figures tend to be slightly higher than DIN. 9768-EC 9768-EC is a European Union standard, generally very similar to ISO-14396. ISO 14396 ISO 14396 is a new standard from the ISO for all engines not intended for on-road use. Shaft horsepower Shaft horsepower (shp) is the power delivered to the propeller shaft of a ship or an airplane powered by a piston engine or a turbine engine (the combination of turbine engine and propeller commonly called a turboprop). This may be measured, or estimated from the indicated horsepower given a standard figure for the losses in the transmission (typical figures are around 10%). This metric is uncommon in the automobile industry, because drivetrain losses can be significant. Effective (true, wheel) hp Effective horsepower (EHP), True horsepower (thp) or wheel horsepower (whp) is the power converted to useful work. In the case of a road vehicle this is the power actually turned into forward motion as measured on a chassis dynamometer. Power available at the road is generally 10% to 20% less than the engine's bhp rating due to "coastdown" losses, most of which are due to the vehicle's rubber tires rather than true transmission losses. Front-wheel drive cars (provided a transverse engine layout is used) suffer slightly lower coastdown losses due to the absence of the bevelled crown and pinion gears used to change the drive direction in the back axle of a RWD car . For railway locomotives the terms Drawbar Horsepower or Equivalent Drawbar Horsepower (EDHP) refer to the power available to haul a train. This is synonymous with the Effective horsepower. This figure takes into account the horsepower needed to move the locomotive, which is not available for hauling the train. The Rail Horsepower is the power at the wheels of a locomotive, directly comparable to the wheel horsepower of a road vehicle. See also Brake specific fuel consumption - how much propellant is needed to generate horsepower Horse power (machine) Horsepower-hour References External links Power and Torque Explained A clear explanation of the relationship between Power and Torque, and how they relate to engine performance. Road Dyno Measures Horsepower Road dynamometer results vs. a chassis dyno. How Stuff Works - Horsepower "Horsepower and Torque" An article showing how power, torque, and gearing affect a vehicle's performance. Online Horsepower Converter "Horsepower and power losses" Explains Horsepower and the power losses in the engine and powertrain. "What is Horsepower?" 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6,681 | Bézier_curve | Cubic Bézier curve In the mathematical field of numerical analysis, a Bézier curve is a parametric curve important in computer graphics and related fields. Generalizations of Bézier curves to higher dimensions are called Bézier surfaces, of which the Bézier triangle is a special case. Bézier curves were widely publicized in 1962 by the French engineer Pierre Bézier, who used them to design automobile bodies. The curves were first developed in 1959 by Paul de Casteljau using de Casteljau's algorithm, a numerically stable method to evaluate Bézier curves. In vector graphics, Bézier curves are an important tool used to model smooth curves that can be scaled indefinitely. "Paths," as they are commonly referred to in image manipulation programs such as Inkscape, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, and GIMP are combinations of Bézier curves patched together. Paths are not bound by the limits of rasterized images and are intuitive to modify. Bézier curves are also used in animation as a tool to control motion in applications such as Adobe Flash, Adobe After Effects, Microsoft Expression Blend, Blender, and Autodesk 3ds max. Applications Computer graphics Bézier path in Adobe Illustrator Example of two cubic Bézier curves patched together (solid blue line) compared to a 6th-degree Bézier curve (red dots). Bézier curves are widely used in computer graphics to model smooth curves. As the curve is completely contained in the convex hull of its control points, the points can be graphically displayed and used to manipulate the curve intuitively. Affine transformations such as translation, scaling and rotation can be applied on the curve by applying the respective transform on the control points of the curve. Quadratic and cubic Bézier curves are most common; higher degree curves are more expensive to evaluate. When more complex shapes are needed, low order Bézier curves are patched together. This is commonly referred to as a "path" in programs like Adobe Illustrator or Inkscape. These poly-Bézier curves can also be seen in the SVG file format. To guarantee smoothness, the control point at which two curves meet and one control point on either side must be collinear. The simplest method for scan converting (rasterizing) a Bézier curve is to evaluate it at many closely spaced points and scan convert the approximating sequence of line segments. However, this does not guarantee that the rasterized output looks sufficiently smooth, because the points may be spaced too far apart. Conversely it may generate too many points in areas where the curve is close to linear. A common adaptive method is recursive subdivision, in which a curve's control points are checked to see if the curve approximates a line segment to within a small tolerance. If not, the curve is subdivided parametrically into two segments, 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.5 and 0.5 ≤ t ≤ 1, and the same procedure is applied recursively to each half. There are also forward differencing methods, but great care must be taken to analyse error propagation. Analytical methods where a spline is intersected with each scan line involve finding roots of cubic polynomials (for cubic splines) and dealing with multiple roots, so they are not often used in practice. Animation In animation applications, such as Adobe Flash and Adobe Shockwave, or in applications like Game Maker, Bézier curves are used to outline, for example, movement. Users outline the wanted path in Bézier curves, and the application creates the needed frames for the object to move along the path. Examination of cases Linear Bézier curves Given points P0 and P1, a linear Bézier curve is simply a straight line between those two points. The curve is given by and is equivalent to linear interpolation. Quadratic Bézier curves A quadratic Bézier curve is the path traced by the function B(t), given points P0, P1, and P2, A quadratic Bézier curve is also a parabolic segment. TrueType fonts use Bézier splines composed of quadratic Bézier curves. Cubic Bézier curves Four points P0, P1, P2 and P3 in the plane or in three-dimensional space define a cubic Bézier curve. The curve starts at P0 going toward P1 and arrives at P3 coming from the direction of P2. Usually, it will not pass through P1 or P2; these points are only there to provide directional information. The distance between P0 and P1 determines "how long" the curve moves into direction P2 before turning towards P3. The parametric form of the curve is: Modern imaging systems like PostScript, Asymptote and Metafont use Bézier splines composed of cubic Bézier curves for drawing curved shapes. Generalization The Bézier curve of degree can be generalized as follows. Given points P0, P1,..., Pn, the Bézier curve is For example, for : This formula can be expressed recursively as follows: Let denote the Bézier curve determined by the points P0, P1,..., Pn. Then In words, the degree Bézier curve is a linear interpolation between two degree Bézier curves. Terminology Some terminology is associated with these parametric curves. We have where the polynomials are known as Bernstein basis polynomials of degree n, defining t0 = 1 and (1 - t)0 = 1. The points Pi are called control points for the Bézier curve. The polygon formed by connecting the Bézier points with lines, starting with P0 and finishing with Pn, is called the Bézier polygon (or control polygon). The convex hull of the Bézier polygon contains the Bézier curve. The curve begins at P0 and ends at Pn; this is the so-called endpoint interpolation property. The curve is a straight line if and only if all the control points are collinear. The start (end) of the curve is tangent to the first (last) section of the Bézier polygon. A curve can be split at any point into 2 subcurves, or into arbitrarily many subcurves, each of which is also a Bézier curve. Some curves that seem simple, such as the circle, cannot be described exactly by a Bézier or piecewise Bézier curve (though a four-piece cubic Bézier curve can approximate a circle, with a maximum radial error of less than one part in a thousand, when each inner control point is the distance horizontally or vertically from an outer control point on a unit circle). More generally, an n-piece cubic Bézier curve can approximate a circle, when each inner control point is the distance from an outer control point on a unit circle, where t is 360/n degrees, and n > 2. The curve at a fixed offset from a given Bézier curve, often called an offset curve (lying "parallel" to the original curve, like the offset between rails in a railroad track), cannot be exactly formed by a Bézier curve (except in some trivial cases). However, there are heuristic methods that usually give an adequate approximation for practical purposes. Every quadratic Bézier curve is also a cubic Bézier curve, and more generally, every degree n Bézier curve is also a degree m curve for any m > n. In detail, a degree n curve with control points P0, …, Pn is equivalent (including the parametrization) to the degree n + 1 curve with control points P'0, …, P'n + 1, where . Constructing Bézier curves Linear curves Animation of a linear Bézier curve, t in [0,1]Animation of a linear Bézier curve, t in [0,1] The t in the function for a linear Bézier curve can be thought of as describing how far B(t) is from P0 to P1. For example when t=0.25, B(t) is one quarter of the way from point P0 to P1. As t varies from 0 to 1, B(t) describes a curved line from P0 to P1. Quadratic curves For quadratic Bézier curves one can construct intermediate points Q0 and Q1 such that as t varies from 0 to 1: Point Q0 varies from P0 to P1 and describes a linear Bézier curve. Point Q1 varies from P1 to P2 and describes a linear Bézier curve. Point B(t) varies from Q0 to Q1 and describes a quadratic Bézier curve. Construction of a quadratic Bézier curveAnimation of a quadratic Bézier curve, t in [0,1]Construction of a quadratic Bézier curveAnimation of a quadratic Bézier curve, t in [0,1] Higher-order curves For higher-order curves one needs correspondingly more intermediate points. For cubic curves one can construct intermediate points Q0, Q1 & Q2 that describe linear Bézier curves, and points R0 & R1 that describe quadratic Bézier curves: Construction of a cubic Bézier curveAnimation of a cubic Bézier curve, t in [0,1]Construction of a cubic Bézier curveAnimation of a cubic Bézier curve, t in [0,1] For fourth-order curves one can construct intermediate points Q0, Q1, Q2 & Q3 that describe linear Bézier curves, points R0, R1 & R2 that describe quadratic Bézier curves, and points S0 & S1 that describe cubic Bézier curves: Construction of a quartic Bézier curveAnimation of a quartic Bézier curve, t in [0,1]Construction of a quartic Bézier curveAnimation of a quartic Bézier curve, t in [0,1] (See also a construction of a fifth-order Bezier curve.) Polynomial form Sometimes it is desirable to express the Bézier curve as a polynomial instead of a sum of less straightforward Bernstein polynomials. Application of the binomial theorem to the definition of the curve followed by some rearrangement will yield: where This could be practical if can be computed prior to many evaluations of ; however one should use caution as high order curves may lack numeric stability (de Casteljau's algorithm should be used if this occurs). Note that the product of no numbers is 1. Rational Bézier curves Sections of conic sections represented exactly by rational Bézier curves The rational Bézier curve adds adjustable weights to provide closer approximations to arbitrary shapes. The numerator is a weighted Bernstein-form Bézier curve and the denominator is a weighted sum of Bernstein polynomials. Rational Bézier curves can, among other uses, be used to represent segments of conic sections exactly. Given n + 1 control points Pi, the rational Bézier curve can be described by: or simply See also Vector graphics de Casteljau's algorithm Spline (mathematics) NURBS String art - Bézier curves are also formed by many common forms of string art, where strings are looped across a frame of nails. Hermite curve Notes References Paul Bourke: Bézier Surfaces (in 3D), http://local.wasp.uwa.edu.au/~pbourke/geometry/bezier/index.html Donald Knuth: Metafont: the Program, Addison-Wesley 1986, pp. 123-131. Excellent discussion of implementation details; available for free as part of the TeX distribution. Dr Thomas Sederberg, BYU Bézier curves, http://www.tsplines.com/resources/class_notes/Bezier_curves.pdf J.D. Foley et al.: Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice in C (2nd ed., Addison Wesley, 1992) External links Poly Bezier Curve Construction by jsDraw2D Graphics Library. The library is for JavaScript and is open source. The drawPolyBezier function in jsDraw2D implements the poly bezier drawing algorithm. Don Lancaster's Cubic Spline Library describes how to approximate a circle (or a circular arc, or a hyperbola) by a Bézier curve; using cubic splines for image interpolation, and an explanation of the math behind these curves. Module for Bezier Curves by John H. Mathews Quadratic Bezier Curve Construction - An interactive applet showing how to construct a quadratic Bezier curve geometrically. (Requires Java.) Cubic Bezier Curve Construction - An interactive applet showing how to construct a cubic Bezier curve geometrically. (Requires Java.) PolyBezier - The Microsoft Win32 GDI API function, which draws Bezier curves in Windows graphic applications, like MS Paint. Bezier Curves interactive demo using ActionScript and FlashPlayer Finding All Intersections of Two Bezier Curves. - Locating all the intersections between two Bezier curves is a difficult general problem, because of the variety of degenerate cases. By Richard J. Kinch. SketchPad - A small program written in C and Win32 that implements the functionality to create and edit Bezier curves. Demonstrates also the use of de Casteljau's algorithm to split a Bezier curve. Drawing Cubic Bezier Curves explained by using Flash Actionscript 3rd order Bezier Curves applet Living Math Bézier applet Living Math Bézier applets of different spline types, Java programming of splines in An Interactive Introduction to Splines From Bézier to Bernstein Feature Column from American Mathematical Society Bezier Curves demo using Flash Actionscript | Bézier_curve |@lemmatized cubic:22 bézier:92 curve:127 mathematical:2 field:2 numerical:1 analysis:1 parametric:3 important:2 computer:4 graphic:8 related:1 generalization:2 high:5 dimension:1 call:5 surface:2 triangle:1 special:1 case:4 widely:2 publicize:1 french:1 engineer:1 pierre:1 use:18 design:1 automobile:1 body:1 first:2 develop:1 paul:2 de:5 casteljau:5 algorithm:5 numerically:1 stable:1 method:6 evaluate:3 vector:2 tool:2 model:2 smooth:3 scale:2 indefinitely:1 paths:1 commonly:2 refer:2 image:4 manipulation:1 program:4 inkscape:2 adobe:8 illustrator:3 photoshop:1 gimp:1 combination:1 patch:3 together:3 path:6 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6,682 | Folk_music | Folk music can have a number of different meanings, but most commonly refers to Traditional music. The original meaning of the term "folk music" was synonymous with the term "Traditional music", also often including World Music and Roots music; the term "Traditional music" was given its more specific meaning to distinguish it from the other definitions that "Folk music" is now considered to encompass. Folk music can also describe a particular kind of popular music which is based on traditional music. In contemporary times, this kind of folk music is often performed by professional musicians. Related genres include folk rock, electric folk and progressive folk music. In American culture, folk music refers to the American folk music revival, music exemplified by such musicians as Woody Guthrie, Leadbelly, Pete Seeger, Ramblin' Jack Elliott, Bob Dylan, Phil Ochs, Tom Paxton, and Joan Baez, who popularized and encouraged the lyrical style in the 1950s and 1960s. This has its counterpart in the English Folk Revival of the 1960s, exemplified by artists and groups such as Martin Carthy, Donovan, Ralph McTell, Magna Carta, Fairport Convention and Steeleye Span. Definitions of Folk or Traditional music Charles Seeger (1980) describes three contemporary defining criteria of folk music: Quoted in Middleton 1990, p.127-8. A "schema comprising four musical types: 'primitive' or 'tribal'; 'elite' or 'art'; 'folk'; and 'popular'. Usually...folk music is associated with a lower class in societies which are culturally and socially stratified, that is, which have developed an elite, and possibly also a popular, musical culture." Cecil Sharp (1907)?, A.L. Lloyd (1972). "Cultural processes rather than abstract musical types...continuity and oral transmission...seen as characterizing one side of a cultural dichotomy, the other side of which is found not only in the lower layers of feudal, capitalist and some oriental societies but also in 'primitive' societies and in parts of 'popular cultures'." Redfield (1947) and Dundes (1965). Less prominent, "a rejection of rigid boundaries, preferring a conception, simply of varying practice within one field, that of 'music'." Folk songs are commonly seen as songs that express something about a way of life that exists now or existed in the past or about to disappear (or in some cases, to be preserved or somehow revived). However, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no certain definition of what folk music (or folklore, or the folk) is. Middleton 1990, p. 127 Gene Shay, co-founder and host of the Philadelphia Folk Festival, defined folk music in an April 2003 interview by saying: "In the strictest sense, it's music that is rarely written for profit. It's music that has endured and been passed down by oral tradition. [...] Also, what distinguishes folk music is that it is participatory—you don't have to be a great musician to be a folk singer. [...] And finally, it brings a sense of community. It's the people's music." Classical and folk There was a vogue for folk music during the start of the Romantic period. One of the first to use it was Josef Haydn (see Haydn and folk music). Beethoven made arrangements of Irish, Welsh and Scottish folk songs (over 150 settings) (see List of compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven). Later composers used the material more liberally. Liszt, Brahms, Bruch, Tchaikovsky and Dvorak wrote folk dances that are often indistinguishable from tunes that come from the authentic tradition. Percy Grainger particularly enjoyed Morris dance tunes, and made many keyboard settings of them. Ralph Vaughan Williams made choral arrangements of English folk songs. Holst composed pseudo-folk dance tunes, as did Malcolm Arnold. Benjamin Britten made voice-and-piano arrangements of folk songs, though the chromatic harmonisation probably makes them hard for a folk enthusiast to enjoy. Using early types of recording equipment Bartok and Grainger made field recordings of folk singers and musicians. Bartok also arranged Magyar dances for keyboard, though they tend to be remote from the originals. Folk revivals With all folk traditions, there is often a conscious effort to resuscitate them. Such efforts are often exerted by bridge figures such as Jean Ritchie. Folk revivals also involve collaboration between traditional folk musicians and other participants (often of urban background) who come to the tradition as adults. The folk revival of the 1950s in Britain and America had something of this character. In 1950 Alan Lomax came to Britain, where at a Working Men's Club in the remote County Durham mining village of Tow Law he met two other seminal figures: A.L.'Bert' Lloyd and Ewan MacColl, who were performing folk music for the locals there. Lloyd was a colourful figure who had travelled the world and worked at such varied occupations as sheep-shearer in Australia and shanty-man on a whaling ship. MacColl, born in Salford of Scottish parents, was a brilliant playwright and songwriter who had been strongly politicised by his earlier life. MacColl had also learned a large body of Scottish traditional songs from his mother. The meeting of MacColl and Lloyd with Lomax is credited with being the point at which the British roots revival began. The two colleagues went back to London where they formed the Ballads and Blues Club which eventually became renamed the Singers' Club and was possibly the first of what became known as folk clubs. It closed in 1991. As the 1950s progressed into the 1960s, the folk revival movement built up in both Britain and America. It is sometimes claimed that the earliest folk festival was the Mountain Dance and Folk Festival, 1928, in Asheville, Carolina, founded by Bascom Lamar Lunsford. Sidmouth Festival began in 1954, and Cambridge Folk Festival began in 1965. Brittany's Folk revival began in the 1950s with the "bagadoù" and the "kan-ha-diskan" before growing to world fame through Alan Stivell 's work since the mid-1960s. Eastern Europe During the Communist era national folk dancing was actively promoted by the state. Dance troupes from Russia and Poland toured Western Europe many times from about 1937 to 1990, and less frequently thereafter. The best known were the Red Army Choir and dancers. They recorded many albums. From Bulgaria, an all-female choir from Bulgarian State Radio sold albums around Europe. The most famous was "Le Mystere des Voix Bulgares" which even gained a certain chic after being promoted by British DJ John Peel. In Hungary, the group Muzsikás and the singer Márta Sebestyén became known throughout the world due to their numerous American tours and their participation in the Hollywood movie The English Patient and Sebestyén's work with the Deep Forest band. Another example is the Hungarian model, the táncház movement. This model involves strong cooperation between musicology experts and enthusiastic amateurs, resulting in a strong vocational foundation and a very high professional level. They also had the advantage that rich, living traditions of Hungarian folk music and folk culture still survived in rural areas, but also in Romania (especially Transylvania). The involvement of experts meant an effort to understand and revive folk traditions in their full complexity. Music, dance, and costumes remained together as they once had been in the rural communities: rather than merely reviving folk music, the movement revived broader folk traditions. Started in the 1970s, tanchaz soon became a massive movement creating an alternative leisure activity for youths apart from discos and music clubs—or one could say that it created a new kind of music club. The tanchaz movement spread to ethnic Hungarian communities around the world. Today, almost every major city in the U.S. and Australia has its own Hungarian folk music and folk dance group; there are also groups in Japan, Hong Kong, Argentina and Western Europe. Balkans Tanec, Republic of Macedonia The Balkan folk music is a type of folk music distinct from others in Europe. This is mainly because it was influenced by traditional music of the Balkan ethnic groups and mutual music influences of this ethnic groups in the period of Ottoman Empire. The music is sometimes characterised by complex rhythm. It comprises the music of: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Republic of Macedonia, Albania, Turkey and other countries including the historical states such as the Ottoman Empire, Yugoslavia or the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro and the geographical regions such as Thrace. An important part of the whole Balkan folk music is the music of the local Romani ethnic minority. The emergence of popular folk artists During the twentieth century, a crucial change in the history of folk music began. Folk material came to be adopted by artists who marketed themselves more widely alongside other popular artists; they performed traditional music and songs in amplified concerts, and disseminated their work by recordings and broadcasting. In other words, a new genre of popular music had arisen. This genre was linked by nostalgia and imitation to the original traditions of folk music as it was sung by ordinary people. However, as a popular genre it quickly evolved to be quite different from its original roots. The rise of folk music as a popular genre began with performers whose own lives were rooted in the authentic folk tradition. Thus, for example, Woody Guthrie began by singing songs he remembered his mother singing to him as a child. Later, in the 1930s and 1940s, Guthrie collected folk music and also composed his own songs, as did Pete Seeger, who was the son of a professional musicologist. Through dissemination on commercial recordings, this vein of music became popular in the United States during the 1930s (Jimmie Rodgers), the 1940s (Burl Ives), but more significantly, in the 1950s, through singers like the Weavers (Seeger's group), Harry Belafonte, The Kingston Trio, and The Limeliters, who tried to reproduce and honor the work that had been collected in preceding decades. The commercial popularity of such performers probably peaked in the U.S. with the Hootenanny television series http://www.tvtome.com/Hootenanny/ TVtome.com Retrieved on 05-03-07 and the associated magazine ABC-TV Hootenanny in 1963–1964, which was cancelled after the arrival of the Beatles, the "British invasion" and the rise of folk rock. The itinerant folksinger lifestyle was exemplified by Ramblin' Jack Elliott, a disciple of Woody Guthrie who in turn influenced Bob Dylan. Sometimes these performers would locate scholarly work in libraries and revive the songs in their recordings, for example, in Joan Baez's rendition of "Henry Martin", which adds a guitar accompaniment to a version collected and edited by Cecil Sharp. Publications like Sing Out! magazine helped spread both traditional and composed songs, as did folk-revival-oriented record companies. Although forever associated with folk/protest music of the 1960s, Bob Dylan never thought of himself solely as a folk musician. Folk music is easily identified with the ordinary working people who created it, and preserving treasured things against the claimed relentless encroachments of capitalism is likewise a goal of many politically progressive people. Thus, in the 1960s such singers as Baez, Dylan, Phil Ochs, and Tom Paxton, followed in Guthrie's footsteps and to begin writing "protest music" and topical songs, particularly against the Vietnam War, and likewise expressed in song their support for the American Civil Rights Movement. The influential Welsh-language singer-songwriter, Dafydd Iwan, may also be mentioned as a similar example operating in a different cultural context. Some critics, especially proponents of the ethnocentric Neofolk genre, claim that this type of American 'progressive' folk is not folk music at all, but 'anti-folk'. This is based on the idea that as liberal politics supposedly eschews the importance of ethnicity, it is incompatible with all folkish traditions. Proponents of this view often cite romantic nationalism as the only political tradition that 'fits' with folk music. Simultaneous to the American folk movement was the Canadian folk movement, exemplified by artists Gordon Lightfoot, Leonard Cohen, Bruce Cockburn, and Joni Mitchell, all four of whom would become the only singers to receive an Order of Canada, and all of whom would achieve varying degrees of lasting international success. In Ireland, The Clancy Brothers & Tommy Makem (although the members were all Irish-born, the group became famous while based in New York's Greenwich Village), The Dubliners, Clannad, Planxty, The Chieftains, The Pogues, The Irish Rovers, and a variety of other folk bands have done much over recent years to revitalise and re-popularise Irish traditional music. These bands were rooted, to a greater or lesser extent, in a living tradition of Irish music, and they benefited from collection efforts on the part of the likes of Seamus Ennis and Peter Kennedy, among others. In the United Kingdom, the folk revival didn’t create any popular stars (although Ewan MacColl's “The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face” would eventually prove to be a hit for other artists), but it helped raise the profile of the music, and folk clubs sprang up all over, a boon to young artists like Martin Carthy and Roy Bailey who emerged. It also inspired a generation of singer-songwriters, such as Bert Jansch, Ralph McTell (whose “Streets Of London” would become a hit), Donovan, Roy Harper and many others. Bob Dylan came to London to check out the growing folk scene of the early 1960s, Paul Simon spent several months there and Tom Paxton stayed even longer; Simon's version of “Scarborough Fair” owed a lot to Carthy's take on the song. Also in the UK, the late 1960's saw the advent of electric folk groups like Fairport Convention and Steeleye Span, which took old songs and mixed their tunes with rock. Both bands had hit singles and albums that sold well, bringing a new audience to traditional music. Magna Carta, another central proponent of this variant of English folk, was purportedly the first group to use electrical amplification in their shows, Chris Simpson, personal communication, July 2008 and they performed few traditional folk songs, focusing instead on original material. In this sense they may be classified as Neofolk. The revival of the fifties and sixties had mostly died out by 1975. There was another revival in the second half of the 1990s. Once more folk music made an impact on mainstream music. There was a younger generation of artists, in some cases children of revival-inspired artists; (Eliza Carthy, for example, is the daughter of Martin Carthy and Norma Waterson). This time, notably, the instrumentation was largely acoustic, rather than electric. The skill level of players and singers was as high as before. As the number of summer folk festivals increased, so more talented performers have come in, and folk music has found at least a toehold in the mainstream with artists like Kate Rusby and Spiers and Boden featured in the press. The blending of folk and popular genres The experience of the 20th century suggests that as soon as a folk tradition comes to be marketed as popular music, its musical content will quickly be modified to become more like popular music. Such modified folk music often incorporates electric guitars, drum kit, or forms of rhythmic syncopation that are characteristic of popular music but were absent in the original. One example of this sort is contemporary country music, which descends ultimately from a rural American folk tradition, but has evolved to become vastly different from its original model. Rap music evolved from an African-American inner-city folk tradition, but is likewise very different nowadays from its folk original. A third example is contemporary bluegrass, which is a professionalised development of American old time music, intermixed with blues and jazz. Sometimes, however, the exponents of amplified music were bands such as Fairport Convention, Pentangle, Alan Stivell, Mr. Fox and Steeleye Span who saw the electrification of traditional musical forms as a means to reach a far wider audience, and their efforts have been largely recognised for what they were by even some of the most die-hard of purists. But if this may be true for some, for others, it's a musical concept by itself to build new kinds of music (as is the case for Alan Stivell). Traditional folk music forms also merged with rock and roll to form the hybrid generally known as folk rock which evolved through performers such as The Byrds, Simon and Garfunkel and The Mamas and the Papas. Since the 1970s a genre of "contemporary folk", fueled by new singer-songwriters, has continued to make the coffee-house circuit and keep the tradition of acoustic non-classical music alive in the United States. Such artists include Chris Castle, Steve Goodman, and John Prine. While from London The Pogues and Ireland The Corrs brought traditional tunes back into the album charts. In the 1980s a group of artists like Phranc and The Knitters propagated a form of folk music also called country punk, cowpunk or folk punk, which eventually evolved into alt country. More recently the same spirit has been embraced and expanded on by performers such as Dave Alvin, Miranda Stone and Steve Earle. At the same time, a line of singers from Joan Baez to Tom Paxton have continued to use traditional forms for original material. The appropriation of folk has even continued into hard rock and heavy metal, with bands such as Korpiklaani, Skyclad, Waylander and Finntroll melding distinctive elements of folk styles from a wide variety of traditions, including in many cases traditional instruments such as fiddles, tin whistles, accordions and bagpipes as an element of their sound. Unlike other folk-related genres, folk metal shies away from monotheistic religion in favour of more ancient pagan inspired themes. Folk inspirations are a massive part of subgenres of black metal, with genres such as viking metal being defined on their folk stance, and many a band incorporating folk interludes into albums (eg, Bergtatt and Kveldssanger, the first two albums by once-black metal, now-experimental band Ulver). There is also a Metal band that uses medieval instruments along with guitars. A similar stylistic shift, without using the "folk music" name, has occurred with the phenomenon of Celtic music, which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of Irish traditional music, Scottish traditional music, and other traditional musics associated with lands in which Celtic languages are or were spoken (a significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship is still to be done - at this point, only a book in French written by Alan Stivell studies a bit the subject of Celtic Music-); so Breton music and Galician music are often included in the genre). Most filk music can also be considered folk music both stylistically and culturally (though the 'community' it arose from, science fiction fandom, is an unusual and thoroughly modern one). Hall of Fame acceptance speeches by Sally and Barry Childs-Helton Neofolk music is a modern form of music that began in the 1980s. Fusing traditional European folk music with post-industrial music forms, historical topics, philosophical commentary, traditional songs and paganism, the genre is largely European. Although it is not uncommon for neofolk artists to be entirely acoustic, playing with entirely traditional instruments. Another trend is "anti-folk", begun in New York City in the 1980s by Lach in response to the "confined" American folk music revival. It now has a home at the Antihootenany in the East Village, where artists like Beck, Regina Spektor, the Moldy Peaches and Nellie McKay got their starts, and artists continue to push the envelope of "folk." The Contemporary Christian Music scene has also been emerging with its own form of folk singers, including David M. Bailey, the Smalltown Poets and others. Folk music is still popular among some audiences today, with folk music clubs meeting to share traditional-style songs, and there are major folk music festivals in many countries, eg the Woodford Folk Festival, National Folk Festival and Port Fairy Folk Festival are amongst Australia's largest major annual events, attracting top international folk performers as well as many local artists. Indeed, even for those who consider themselves hip, the arrival of Americana and Naturalismo including the music of Bonnie "Prince" Billy, Devendra Banhart, Tin Pan Caravan, Moses Atwood and many others have shown that folk music can still be cutting edge. The Cambridge Folk Festival in Cambridge, England is noted for having a very wide definition of who can be invited as folk musicians. The "club tents" allow attendees to discover large numbers of unknown artists, who, for ten or 15 minutes each, present their work to the festival audience. Pastiche and parody Popular culture sometimes creates pastiches of folk music for its own ends. One famous example is the pseudo-ballad sung about brave Sir Robin in the film Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Enthusiasts for folk music might properly consider this song to be pastiche and not parody, because the tune is pleasant and far from inept, and the topic being lampooned is not balladry but the medieval heroic tradition. The arch-shaped melodic form of this song (first and last lines low in pitch, middle lines high) is characteristic of traditional English folk music. A more recent similarly incisive send-up of folk music, this time American in origin, is the film A Mighty Wind by Christopher Guest and Eugene Levy. In the magazine fRoots there was a long-running parody of the English Folk Dance and Song Society (EFDSS). They were called "Dance Earnestly and Forget About Song Society" (DEAFASS). DEAFASS supporters favored the accordion over the melodeon and the string bass over the electric bass. Another instance of pastiche is the notoriously well-known theme song for the television show Gilligan's Island (music by George Wyle, lyrics by Sherwood Schwartz). This tune is also folk-like in character, and in fact is written in a traditional folk mode (modes are a type of musical scale); the mode of "Gilligan's Island" is ambiguous between Dorian and Aeolian. The lyrics begin with the traditional folk device in which the singer invites his hearers to listen to the tale that follows. Moreover, two of the stanzas repeat the final short line, a common device in English folk stanzas. However, the raising of the key by a semitone with each new verse is an unmistakable trait of commercial music and never occurred in the original folk tradition. Folk music is easy to parody because it is, at present, a popular music genre that relies on a traditional music genre. As such, it is likely to lack the sophistication and glamour that attach to other forms of popular music. Folk music satire ranges from the worst excesses of Rambling Syd Rumpo and Bill Oddie to the deft and subtle artistry of Sid Kipper, Eric Idle, and Tom Lehrer. Even "serious" folk musicians are not averse to poking fun at the form from time to time, for example Martin Carthy's devastating rendition of "All the Hard Cheese of Old England" (written by Les Barker), to the tune of "All the Hard Times of Old England", Robb Johnson's "Lack of Jolly Ploughboy", and more recently "I'm Sending an E-mail to Santa" by the Yorkshire-based harmony group Artisan. Other musicians have been known to take the tune of a traditional folk song and add their own words, often humorous, or on a similar-sounding yet different subject; these include The Wurzels, The Incredible Dr. Busker and The Mrs Ackroyd Band. Filk music originated in the 1950s as science fiction and fantasy oriented parodies of popular folk songs. While it eventually developed into a different style of folk music entirely, it still retains its fair share of parodies. Folkies is the popular term for folk music enthusiasts. While the term itself is neutral and is used by some folk music enthusiasts in an informal and friendly manner, it has at times been used by the popular press at least since the late 1950s, as part of a light-hearted beatnik stereotype. Media Songcatcher movie Songcatcher - Trailer - Cast - Showtimes - The New York Times See also List of folk music traditions — country-specific music traditions List of folk musicians — musicians listed by country Folk clubs Folk festival Folk instrument — a description and list of folk instruments Folk metal Folk punk Folk rock Anti folk Power folk Electric folk Indie folk Techno-folk Industrial folk music Roud Folk Song Index Notes References Harker, David (1985). Fakesong: The Manufacture of British 'Folksong', 1700 to the Present Day (1989). A Marxist interpretation. Should be read in conjunction with C.J. Bearman's "Who Were the Folk? The Demography of Cecil Sharp's Somerset Folk Singers." The Historical Journal (2000), 43: 751-75. Cambridge University Press. Lamentations chez les nomades bakhtiari d'Iran, Paris, 2003. Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9. Mills, Isabelle (1974). The Heart of the Folk Song, Canadian Journal for Traditional Music. Pegg, Carole (2001). "Folk Music". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Seeger, Charles (1980). Cited in Middleton (2002) van der Merwe, Peter (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-316121-4. Further reading Scully, Michael F. The Never-Ending Revival: Rounder Records and the Folk Alliance (University of Illinois Press, 2008) Hogeland, William (March 14, 2004), Emulating the Real and Vital Guthrie, Not St. Woody, New York Times. Carson, Ciaran (1997). Last Night's Fun: In and Out of Time with Irish Music. North Point Press. Bayard, Samuel Preston. "Prolegomena to a Study of the Principal Melodic Families of British-American Folksong", Journal of American Folklore (1950), 1-44. Bevil, J. Marshall. Centonization and Concordance in the American Southern Uplands Folksong Melody: a Study of the Musical Generative and Transmittive Processes of an Oral Tradition (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, International, 1984). Bevil, J. Marshall, "Scale in Southern Appalachian Folksong: a Reexamination", College Music Symposium (1986), 77-91. Bevil, J. Marshall. "A Paradigm of Folktune Preservation and Change Within the Oral Tradition of a Southern Appalachian Community, 1916-1986." Read at the 1987 National Convention of the American Musicological Society, New Orleans. Cartwright, Garth Princes Amongst Men: Journeys with Gypsy Musicians (Serpent's Tail, 2005) Cowdery, James R. The Melodic Tradition of Ireland (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1990). Jackson, George Pullen. White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands: The Story of the Fasola Folk, Their Songs, Singings, and "Buckwheat Notes" (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1933). External links The World and Traditional Music section at the British Library Sound Archive The Traditional Music in England project, World and Traditional Music section at the British Library Sound Archive The Mudcat Cafe and Digital Tradition song database An article on folk music from the Encyclopedia of Music in Canada Welsh Folk-Song Society | Folk_music |@lemmatized folk:160 music:126 number:3 different:7 meaning:3 commonly:2 refers:2 traditional:34 original:10 term:5 synonymous:1 also:22 often:10 include:9 world:7 roots:1 give:1 specific:2 distinguish:2 definition:4 consider:4 encompass:1 describe:2 particular:1 kind:4 popular:25 base:5 contemporary:6 time:14 perform:4 professional:3 musician:13 related:2 genre:14 rock:7 electric:6 progressive:3 american:15 culture:5 revival:15 exemplify:4 woody:4 guthrie:6 leadbelly:1 pete:2 seeger:5 ramblin:2 jack:2 elliott:2 bob:4 dylan:5 phil:2 ochs:2 tom:5 paxton:4 joan:3 baez:4 popularize:1 encourage:1 lyrical:1 style:5 counterpart:1 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6,683 | Dalek | The Daleks () are a fictional extraterrestrial race of mutants from the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. Daleks are organisms from the planet Skaro, integrated within a tank-like mechanical casing. The resulting creatures are a powerful race bent on universal conquest and domination, utterly without pity, compassion or remorse (it is believed by many other characters that all of their emotions were removed except hate, leaving them with a desire to purge the Universe of all non-Dalek life. However, small fractions of others such as fear occasionally surface). They are collectively the greatest extraterrestrial enemies of the Time Lord known as the Doctor. Their most famous catchphrase is "Exterminate!", with each syllable individually screeched in a frantic electronic voice (). The Daleks were created by writer Terry Nation and designed by BBC designer Raymond Cusick. Briggs (1961), p. 422 — Designer Raymond Cusick said that he got the idea of their appearance 'whilst fiddling with a pepperpot' and had them produced in fibreglass, at a cost of under £250 each. Coincidentally, at this time, BBC canteen salt and pepper shakers were quite DALEK shaped. They were introduced in December 1963 in the second Doctor Who serial. They became an immediate hit with viewers, featuring in many subsequent serials and two 1960s motion pictures. They have become synonymous with Doctor Who, and their behaviour and catchphrases are part of British popular culture. "Hiding behind the sofa whenever the Daleks appear" has been cited as an essential element of British cultural identity, and in a 2008 survey, 9 out of 10 British children were able to identify a Dalek correctly. The word "Dalek" has entered the Oxford English Dictionary and other major dictionaries; the Collins Dictionary defines it rather broadly as "any of a set of fictional robot-like creations that are aggressive, mobile, and produce rasping staccato speech". It is also a trademark, having first been registered by the BBC in 1964 to protect its lucrative range of Dalek merchandise. The term is sometimes used metaphorically to describe people, usually figures of authority, who act like robots unable to break from their programming. John Birt, the Director-General of the BBC from 1992 to 2000, was publicly called a "croak-voiced Dalek" by playwright Dennis Potter in the MacTaggart Lecture at the 1993 Edinburgh Television Festival. The Daleks appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by Lord Snowdon. Physical characteristics A Dalek spotted in BBC Television Centre reception Externally, Daleks resemble human-sized salt and pepper shakers around five to six feet (152 to 183 cm) tall, with a single mechanical eyestalk mounted on a rotating dome, an exterminator arm containing an energy weapon (or "death ray"), which looks like an elongated egg beater or the framework of a paint roller, and in some episodes fired a gas and can also be fitted with a projectile weapon; and a telescoping robot manipulator arm (plunger). The death ray possesses incredible firepower for its size. It can kill almost any mortal life-form, level houses, and destroy entire spacecraft. Under certain circumstances, Daleks are shown equipped with additional weaponry. Daleks protecting the Emperor in "The Parting of the Ways" have an additional energy cannon in place of their manipulator arm. During the Dalek civil war, Davros created the Special Weapons Dalek, a heavily armored Dalek sporting a massive cannon capable of destroying two Daleks and vaporising a human completely. The Special Weapons Dalek is only deployed in rare situations, as (according to the novelization of Remembrance of the Daleks) it is a one-off mutation resulting from the radiation backfired by its weapon, which other Daleks regard as 'the Abomination'. In most cases, the manipulator resembles a sink plunger, but Daleks have been shown with arms that end in a tray, a mechanical claw, or other specialised equipment like flamethrowers and cutting torches (as shown in "The Parting of the Ways"). The arms have a strong magnetic field, a powerful suction vacuum and Daleks have used their plunger-like manipulator arms (the plunger was used because of cost issues for the first series) to interface with technology, crush a man's skull by suction, measure the intelligence of a subject, and extract the brainwaves from a man's head (also fatal). Dalek casings are made of a bonded polycarbide material dubbed "dalekanium" by a human (Dortmun) in The Dalek Invasion of Earth. In the alternate future of Day of the Daleks, Dalekanium is an unstable explosive that can penetrate Dalek casings. The two may be the same, or the term may simply be a neologism to describe a product of the Daleks. The Daleks also use this term for the material. The lower half of a Dalek's shell is covered with protrusions — "Dalek bumps" — which are spheres embedded in the casing. These are described as "sense globes" or sensors in The Doctor Who Technical Manual by Mark Harris (which is of uncertain canonicity). Harris (1983), p. 22 However, in the 2005 series episode "Dalek", they are also part of a self-destruct system. Normal 21st century bullets have no effect, and even a rocket does only minor damage. The casings are vulnerable to "bastic"-headed bullets, and when breached tend to explode. This is not to say that Daleks wear explosive armour, but it implies that a lot of destructive power is needed to destroy Daleks. The armour has a forcefield that evaporates most bullets and absorbs most types of energy weapons, though normally ineffective firepower can be concentrated on the eyestalk to blind the Daleks. The shields are resilient enough that Dalek Sec was confident in the ability of a single Dalek to kill five million Cybermen with no trouble. However, the shields can be penetrated by their own weaponry; the hybrid Dalek/Tommy guns wielded by human/Dalek hybrids in "Evolution of the Daleks" were able to penetrate the shielding, but only after a prolonged period of massed fire from several dozen weapons. In "The Stolen Earth", Daleks created from the cells of Davros appear not to have this forcefield. Bullets, stones and human hands can physically touch the armour casing, but have no effect. The Dalek's eyepiece is its most vulnerable spot, and impairing its vision often leads to a blind, panicked firing of its weapon while shouting, "My vision is impaired - I cannot see!" The later Daleks developed systems to protect their vision. In "The Stolen Earth", Wilfred Mott attempted to disable a Dalek with a paintball gun by blinding it with paint. The Dalek simply melted the paint off, announcing, "My vision is NOT impaired!", referencing the classic line. It appears that the Dalekanium panels which constitute the 'skirt' can also be detached without damaging the shell or affecting the Dalek's performance. Leading on from this, a Dalekanium panel was removed from a Dalek and split into three to form the basis for an energy conductor atop the Empire State Building to channel the energy of 'The Greatest Solar Flare for a Thousand Years'. Despite looking somewhat blackened and melted at the edges, the panel appeared unharmed. A Kaled mutant attacks a soldier (from Resurrection of the Daleks) The creature inside the mechanical casing is depicted as soft and repulsive in appearance and vicious even without its mechanical armour. The first-ever glimpse of a Dalek mutant, in The Daleks, was a claw peeking out from under a coat after it had been removed from its casing. The actual appearance of mutants has varied, but in most cases they are octopoid, multi-tentacled creatures. The Doctor described the Daleks as "little green blobs in bonded polycarbide armour" in Remembrance of the Daleks, in which a Dalek mutant was seen to have a bionically augmented claw. In Resurrection of the Daleks a Dalek creature, separated from its casing, attacks and severely injures a human soldier. The revived series has generally depicted mutants as having one eye and an exposed brain, however the mutants depicted in "The Parting of the Ways" also had a second, smaller eye. The same episode states that these mutants were built from human materials. In "Daleks in Manhattan", a mutant (Dalek Sec) demonstrates the ability to engulf a human with a large, sack-like membrane, although as he had been receiving various solutions it is unclear if he always had the membrane. As the creature inside is rarely seen on screen, a common misconception exists that Daleks are wholly mechanical robots. (The Daleks locked in a war with the Movellans were described by the Doctor as "one race of robots fighting another", perhaps using a looser definition of "robot" than usual.) The interdependence of biological and mechanical components makes the Daleks a type of cyborg. The Ninth Doctor, in "Dalek", described the Dalek as a genius: it could run through an electronic lock's billion combinations in seconds and download all of the information on the Internet into its memory, showing the union of the biological and mechanical components. The voice of a Dalek is electronic; the Dalek creature is apparently unable to make much more than squeaking sounds when out of its casing. Once the mutant is removed, the casing itself can be entered and operated by humanoids, as seen in The Daleks, The Space Museum and Planet of the Daleks. In The Daleks, Ian Chesterton disguises himself by hiding in a Dalek shell and speaks with the same electronic voice used by the Dalek itself, although he needs to be reminded to speak in a Dalek-like monotone. Daleks also have a radio communicator built into their shells, and emit an alarm to summon other nearby Daleks if the casing is opened from outside. On one occasion they were shown to be susceptible to extreme cold (Planet of the Daleks), . An Imperial Dalek flies up a flight of stairs (from Remembrance of the Daleks) For many years, it was thought that due to their gliding motion Daleks were unable to tackle stairs. A cartoon from Punch pictured a group of Daleks at the foot of a flight of stairs with the caption, "Well, this certainly buggers our plan to conquer the Universe". In a scene from the serial Destiny of the Daleks, the Doctor and companions escape from Dalek pursuers by climbing into a ceiling duct. The Fourth Doctor calls down, "If you're supposed to be the superior race of the universe, why don't you try climbing after us? Bye bye!" The Daleks generally make up for their lack of mobility with overwhelming firepower. A joke among Doctor Who fans goes, "Real Daleks don't climb stairs; they level the building." Dalek mobility has improved over time. In their first appearance, The Daleks, they were capable of movement only on the conductive metal floor of their city. In The Dalek Invasion of Earth a Dalek emerges from the waters of the River Thames, indicating that they not only had become freely mobile, but are amphibious to a degree. Planet of the Daleks showed that they could ascend a vertical shaft by means of an external antigravity mat placed on the floor. Remembrance of the Daleks showed that they can hover using a built-in limited antigravity capability — first implied in earlier serials such as The Chase (1965) and Revelation of the Daleks — but their awkward forms still limit their mobility in tight quarters. Despite this, journalists covering the series frequently refer to the Daleks' supposed inability to climb stairs; characters escaping up a flight of stairs in the Doctor Who (2005) series one episode "Dalek" made the same joke, and were shocked when the Dalek began to hover up the stairs. The various appearances of the Daleks in the new series have featured Daleks hovering and flying using an energy thruster, with "The Parting of the Ways" showing them flying through the vacuum of space. In later appearances, Daleks appear to have no trouble flying for extended periods, either in space or in a planet's atmosphere. Certain Daleks are capable of time-travel on their own. The Cult of Skaro Daleks are equipped with an "emergency temporal shift" which throws them into a random time period; however, this uses up a great deal of power, limiting its use. Following the Battle of Canary Wharf, the Cult used it to escape into 20th century New York City. Dalek Caan also engaged emergency temporal shift to escape from the Doctor, which catapulted him into the Time War, a time-locked event which he should not have been able to reach. Doing so destroyed Caan's protective casing and drove him insane, as he was witness to the whole of time. Costume details The non-humanoid shape of the Dalek did much to enhance the creatures' sense of menace. A lack of familiar reference points differentiated them from the traditional "bug-eyed monster" of science fiction, which Doctor Who creator Sydney Newman had wanted the show to avoid. Howe (1992), pp. 3, 26–27 The unsettling form of the Daleks, coupled with their alien voices, made many believe that the props were wholly mechanical and operated by remote control. Howe (2004), p. 31 The Daleks were actually controlled from inside by short operators Howe (1997), p. 82 who had to manipulate their eyestalks, domes and arms, as well as flashing the lights on their heads in sync with the actors supplying their voices. The Dalek cases were built in two pieces; an operator would step into the lower section, and then the top would be secured. The operators looked out between the circular louvres just beneath the dome that were lined with mesh to conceal their faces. In addition to being hot and cramped, the Dalek casings also muffled external sounds, making it difficult for the operators to hear the director's commands or studio dialogue. The top sections were also too heavy to lift from the inside, which meant that the operators could be trapped inside if the stagehands forgot to release them. John Scott Martin, a Dalek operator from the original series, said that Dalek operation was a challenge: "You had to have about six hands: one to do the eyestalk, one to do the lights, one for the gun, another for the smoke canister underneath, yet another for the sink plunger. If you were related to an octopus then it helped." Howe (1997), p. 85 The Dalek cases created for Doctor Who'''s 21st-century revival do not differ significantly from the original series' Daleks, except for an expanded base, a glowing eyepiece (though in early serials including The Daleks and The Dalek Invasion of Earth, the Daleks were shown with the black and white television equivalent), an all-over metallic brass finish, a housing for the eyestalk gear, and significantly larger ear-bulbs. The new prop made its on-screen debut in the 2005 episode "Dalek". As shown in a Doctor Who-themed episode of the children's programme Blue Peter, these current Dalek cases use a short operator inside the housing while the 'head' and eyestalk are operated via remote control. A third person, Nicholas Briggs, supplies the voice. Movement Early versions of the Daleks were rolled around on nylon castors or propelled by wheels connected to hand cranks by bicycle chains. Although castors were adequate for the Daleks' debut serial, which was shot entirely at the BBC's Lime Grove Studios, for The Dalek Invasion of Earth, Terry Nation wanted the Daleks to take to the streets of London for location filming. To enable the Daleks to travel smoothly on location, designer Spencer Chapman built the new Dalek shells around miniature tricycles with sturdier wheels; to hide the wheels, the base of the costume was deepened with enlarged fenders. Howe (1997), pp. 84–85 The bumpy flagstones of Central London caused the Daleks to rattle as they moved and it was not possible to remove this noise from the final soundtrack. A small radar dish was added to the rear of the prop's casing to explain why these Daleks, unlike the ones in their first serial, were not dependent on static electricity drawn from the floors of the Dalek city for their motive power. These dishes were not, however, seen in any subsequent serial. Later versions of the prop had more efficient wheels (from shopping carts, according to a Blue Peter episode) and were simply propelled by the seated operators' feet, but they remained so heavy that when going up ramps they often had to be pushed by stagehands out of camera shot. The difficulty of operating all the prop's parts at once contributed to the occasionally jerky movements of the Dalek. The latest model of the costume still has a human operator within, but the movement of the dome and eyestalk are now remotely controlled so that the operator can concentrate on the smooth movement of the Dalek and its arms. Russell (2006), p. 163 Voices The staccato delivery, harsh tone and rising inflection of the Dalek voice were initially developed by voice actors Peter Hawkins and David Graham, who would vary the pitch and speed of the lines according to the emotion needed. Their voices were further processed electronically by Brian Hodgson at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop. Although the exact sound-processing devices used have varied, the original 1963 effect used EQ to boost the mid-range of the actor's voice, then subjected it to ring modulation with a 30 Hz sine wave. The distinctive harsh grating vocal timbre this produced has remained the pattern for all Dalek voices since (with the exception of those in the 1985 serial Revelation of the Daleks, for which director Graeme Harper deliberately used less distortion ). Besides Hawkins and Graham, notable voice actors for the Daleks have included Roy Skelton, who first voiced the Daleks in the 1967 story The Evil of the Daleks and went on to provide voices for five additional Dalek serials Planet of the Daleks. Writer Terry Nation, Director David Maloney, Producer Barry Letts. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, London. 7 April–12 May 1973. and for the one-off anniversary special The Five Doctors. Michael Wisher, the actor who originated the role of Dalek creator Davros in Genesis of the Daleks, provided Dalek voices for that same story, as well as for Frontier in Space, Planet of the Daleks and Death to the Daleks. Other Dalek voice actors include Royce Mills (three stories), Brian Miller (two stories) and Oliver Gilbert and Peter Messaline (one story Day of the Daleks. Writer Louis Marks, Director Paul Bernard, Producer Barry Letts. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, London. 1 January–22 January 1972. ). John Leeson, who performed the voice of K-9 in several Doctor Who stories, and Davros actors Terry Molloy and David Gooderson also contributed supporting voices for various Dalek serials. Since 2005, the Dalek voice in the television series has been provided by Nicholas Briggs, speaking into a microphone connected to a voice modulator. Briggs previously had done Dalek and other alien voices for Big Finish Productions audio plays. In a 2006 BBC Radio interview, Briggs said that when the BBC asked him to do the voice for the new television series, they instructed him to bring his own analogue ring modulator that he had used in the audio plays. The BBC's sound department had changed to a digital platform and could not adequately create the distinctive Dalek sound with their modern equipment. Briggs went as far as to bring the voice modulator to the actor's readings of the scripts. He has used his modulator also for voicing the Cybermen in the 2006 series. Construction Manufacturing the props was expensive. In scenes where many Daleks had to appear, some of them would be represented by wooden replicas (Destiny of the Daleks Destiny of the Daleks. Writer Terry Nation, Director Ken Grieve, Producer Graham Williams. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, London. 1 September–22 September 1979. ) or, in the early black-and-white episodes, life-size photographic enlargements (The Dalek Invasion of Earth and The Power of the Daleks ). In stories involving armies of Daleks, the BBC effects team even turned to using commercially available toy Daleks, manufactured by Louis Marx & Co. A typical example of such use can be observed in Planet of the Daleks. Judicious editing techniques also gave the impression that there were more Dalek props than were actually available, and continue to be used to the present day, such as using split screen in "The Parting of the Ways". Four fully functioning props were commissioned for the first serial "The Daleks" in 1963, and were constructed from BBC plans by Shawcraft Models; these became known in fan circles as "Mk I Daleks". Shawcraft were also commissioned to construct approximately twenty Daleks for the two Dalek movies in 1965 and 1966 (see below). Some of these props from the movies filtered back to the BBC and were seen in the televised serials, notably in The Chase, which was aired before the first movie's debut. The remaining props not bought by the BBC were either donated to charity or given away as prizes in competitions. Howe (1992), pp. 132, 137 The BBC's own Dalek props were reused many times, with components of the original Shawcraft "Mk I Daleks" surviving right through to the Daleks' final appearance in the classic series. However, years of storage and repainting took their toll. By the time of the Sixth Doctor's Revelation of the Daleks, new props were being manufactured out of fibreglass, and were lighter and more affordable to construct than their predecessors. Howe (1997), p. 92 These Daleks were slightly bulkier in appearance around the mid-shoulder section, and also had a slightly redesigned base which was more vertical at the back. Minor changes were made to the design due to these new methods of construction, including alterations to the lower skirting as well as the mid-shoulder section incorporating the arm boxes, which were now one single unit, with the vertical bands encircling the casing also included in the fibreglass mould. These were repainted in grey for the Seventh Doctor serial Remembrance of the Daleks and designated as "Renegade Daleks"; another redesign, painted in white and gold, became the "Imperial Dalek" faction. Since Nation's death in 1997, his share of the rights now belong to his estate and are administered by his former agent, Tim Hancock. Early plans for what eventually became the 1996 Doctor Who television movie included radically redesigned Daleks whose cases unfolded like spiders' legs. Segal (2000), pp. 48–53 The concept for these "Spider Daleks" was abandoned, but picked up again in several Doctor Who spin-offs. When the new series was announced, many fans hoped the Daleks would return once more to the programme. After much negotiation between the BBC and the Nation estate (which at one point appeared to break down completely), an agreement was reached. According to media reports, the initial disagreement was due to the Nation estate demanding levels of creative control over the Daleks' appearances and scripts that were unacceptable to the BBC. Talks between Tim Hancock and the BBC progressed more productively than had been expected, and in August 2004 an agreement was reached for the Daleks' appearance in the 2005 series. Fictional history Dalek in-universe history has seen many retroactive changes, which have caused continuity problems. Peel (1998), p. 78 When the Daleks first appeared in The Daleks, they were presented as the descendants of the Dals, mutated after a brief nuclear war between the Dal and Thal races. The Daleks. Writer Terry Nation, Director Christopher Barry, Producer Verity Lambert. Doctor Who. BBC, London. 21 December 1963–1 February 1964. However, in 1975, Terry Nation revised the Daleks' origins in Genesis of the Daleks, where the Dals were now called Kaleds (of which Daleks is an anagram), and the Dalek design was attributed to one man, the crippled Kaled chief scientist and evil genius, Davros. Genesis of the Daleks. Writer Terry Nation, Director David Maloney, Producer Philip Hinchcliffe. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, London. 8 March–12 April 1975. Instead of a short nuclear exchange, the Kaled-Thal war was portrayed as a thousand-year-long war of attrition, fought with nuclear, biological and chemical weapons causing widespread mutations among the Kaled race. Davros experimented on living Kaled cells to find the ultimate mutated form of the Kaled species and placed the subjects in tank-like "travel machines" whose design was based on his own life-support chair. Genesis of the Daleks marked a new era for the depiction of the species, with most of their previous history either forgotten or barely referred to again. Future stories in the original Doctor Who series, which followed a rough story arc, Parkin (2006), p. 237 would also focus more on Davros, much to the dissatisfaction of some fans who felt that the Daleks should take centre stage, rather than merely becoming minions of their creator. Davros made his last televised appearance for 20 years in Remembrance of the Daleks, which depicted a civil war between two factions of Daleks: one, the "Imperial Daleks", were loyal to Davros, who had become their Emperor, and the other, the "Renegade Daleks", followed a black Supreme Dalek. This serial also marked the last on-screen appearance of the Daleks until 2005, save for charity specials like Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death and the use of Dalek voices in the 1996 television movie. A single Dalek appeared in "Dalek", written by Robert Shearman, which was broadcast on BBC One on 30 April 2005. This Dalek appeared to be the sole Dalek survivor of the Time War that destroyed both the Daleks and the Time Lords. The Dalek Emperor returned at the end of the 2005 series, having rebuilt the Dalek race with human subjects; it saw itself as a god, and the new Daleks were shown worshipping it. These Daleks and their fleet were reduced to subatomic particles in "The Parting of the Ways". Dalek Sec as a Human-Dalek hybrid, from "Daleks in Manhattan" The 2006 series finale "Army of Ghosts"/"Doomsday" saw another squad of Dalek survivors from the old Empire, known as the Cult of Skaro, led by a black-enameled Dalek named "Dalek Sec", that had survived the Time War by escaping into the Void between dimensions. They emerged, along with a Time Lord prison containing millions of Daleks, at Canary Wharf due to the actions of the Torchwood Institute and Cybermen from a parallel world, leading to a Cyberman-Dalek clash in London. Eventually, the Tenth Doctor caused both factions to be sucked back into the Void. However, the Cult members (Sec, Caan, Jast, and Thay; it is unusual for a Dalek to have a name) survived by "temporal shifting" away. The two-part story "Daleks in Manhattan"/"Evolution of the Daleks" revealed they had escaped to 1930 New York, setting up base in the Empire State Building. Experiments led by Sec are attempting to force a Dalek evolution by combining their DNA with that of humans, and he is the first of the new "Human Daleks". However the three remaining Daleks rebelled and destroyed him. The Cult also attempted to create a Human/Dalek hybrid (fully human in appearance but with Dalek minds). This attempt failed after the Doctor interfered, and the hybrids were exterminated by Caan after they killed Jast and Thay; Caan escaped via another temporal shift. Caan is, at that point, believed to be the last remaining Dalek in existence. The Daleks returned in the 2008 series' two-part finale, "The Stolen Earth"/"Journey's End", accompanied once again by their creator Davros (now played by Julian Bleach). It is revealed that Dalek Caan had forced himself back into the Time War, even though it was time-locked (the effort rendered him insane), where he rescued Davros; Davros then created a new army of Daleks from his own flesh. The new Dalek army was led by a Supreme Dalek, who kept Davros imprisoned in a "Vault"; Davros said that he and the Supreme Dalek had reached "an arrangement". Davros and the Daleks planned to destroy all creation with a 'reality bomb', which failed due to the interference of the Doctor and his companions, and due to Caan himself who had been manipulating the events unknown to either side. Though the Daleks were destroyed, the fate of Davros and Dalek Caan is unknown. Dalek culture Daleks have little to no individual personality, ostensibly no emotions other than hatred and anger, and a strict command structure, conditioned to obey superior orders. The Evil of the Daleks. Writer David Whitaker, Director Derek Martinus, Producer Innes Lloyd. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, London. 20 May–1 July 1967. Dalek speech is characterised by repeated phrases, and by orders given to themselves and to others. Dalek vocal inflection suggests perpetual anger, sometimes verging on hysteria. Over the course of the series, Daleks have usually been depicted speaking in English; however, in "Journey's End" a squad of Daleks operating in Germany is heard shouting orders in German. Also, the Dalek travel machine is capable of translating speech into any language and that, like the speech of most aliens featured in the series, Dalek language only sounds like English to the Doctor's companions because it is being translated by the TARDIS. "The Christmas Invasion." Writer Russell T Davies, Director James Hawes, Producer Phil Collinson. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, Cardiff. 25 December 2005. In terms of their behavior, Daleks are extremely aggressive, and seem driven by an instinct to attack. This instinct is so strong that Daleks have been depicted fighting the urge to kill or even attacking when unarmed. Death to the Daleks. Writer Terry Nation, Director Michael E. Briant, Producer Barry Letts. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, London. 23 February–16 March 1974. The Fifth Doctor characterises this impulse by saying, "However you respond [to Daleks] is seen as an act of provocation." The fundamental feature of Dalek culture and psychology is an unquestioned belief in the superiority of the Dalek race and their default directive is to destroy all non-Dalek life-forms. Other species are either to be exterminated immediately, or enslaved and then exterminated later once they are no longer necessary. Resurrection of the Daleks. Writer Eric Saward, Director Matthew Robinson, Producer John Nathan-Turner. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, London. 8 February–15 February 1984. When the "Human" Dalek Sec began to doubt the Dalek race's supremacy and purpose, the other Daleks in the Cult of Skaro no longer thought of him as a Dalek and turned against him. The Dalek obsession with their own superiority is illustrated by the schism between the Renegade and Imperial Daleks seen in Remembrance of the Daleks: the two factions consider the other to be a perversion despite the relatively minor differences between them. Remembrance of the Daleks. Writer Ben Aaronovitch, Director Andrew Morgan, Producer John Nathan-Turner. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, London. 5 October–26 October 1988. This intolerance of any "contamination" within themselves is also shown in "Dalek", The Evil of the Daleks and in the Big Finish Productions audio play The Mutant Phase. The Mutant Phase. Writer and Director Nicholas Briggs. Producers Gary Russell and Jason Haigh-Ellery. Big Finish Productions, 2000. This superiority complex is the basis of Dalek ruthlessness and lack of compassion. It is nearly impossible to negotiate or reason with a Dalek, a single-mindedness that makes them dangerous and not to be underestimated. Dalek society is depicted as one of extreme scientific and technological advancement; the Third Doctor states that "it was their inventive genius that made them one of the greatest powers in the universe." However, their reliance on logic and machinery is also a strategic weakness that they recognise; the Daleks use non-Dalek species as agents to compensate for these shortcomings. It should also be noted that Daleks are as likely to use violent means for problem solving as technological ones, and at times even reject more efficient technological options for their own purposes (e.g., using slave labour rather than machines for grueling work because of the suffering it causes the slaves). Daleks use a unit called the "rel" for time measurement - it appears to be approximately equal to one Earth second. Daleks have occasionally made alliances with other species, but have no compunction about betraying their allies when they are no longer useful to the Dalek cause. *"The Daleks' Master Plan." Writers Terry Nation and Dennis Spooner, Director Douglas Camfield, Producer John Wiles. Doctor Who. BBC, London. 13 November 1965–29 January 1966 Dalek reproduction has never been explicitly depicted or explained in the televised stories. In Genesis of the Daleks, Davros has created the Dalek race by accelerating pre-existing genetic mutations within the Kaled species, but it is not stated in this story if each Dalek is created from a single Kaled or if they are able to reproduce independently. Dalek 'embryos' and an 'embryo room' are seen in the story. In The Power of the Daleks, three stranded Daleks are able to reproduce themselves many times over, and a new mutant is seen being lifted from a tank and placed into a casing. When asked how Daleks can breed, the Second Doctor states that "nothing is beyond them, given the right materials". However, in "Daleks in Manhattan"/"Evolution of the Daleks" the Cult of Skaro, stranded in New York in 1930, are unable to create new Dalek mutants successfully because they lack technological resources. 'Embryo' technology is also mentioned in this story. In "The Parting of the Ways," the Dalek Emperor states that a new Dalek army has been created using "filleted," "pulped" and "sifted" human bodies, with "only one cell in a billion [being] fit to be nurtured". In Revelation of the Daleks, Davros has also reproduced Daleks using human tissue, although in that story he appears to have created the new mutants more crudely, using the severed heads of terminal medical patients in the Tranquil Repose facility. In "The Stolen Earth," Davros indicates he has created a new army of Daleks by "growing" them from the cells of his own body. These he characterises as "true Daleks," presumably because they were created from Kaled, rather than human, tissue. In "The Parting of the Ways", the Daleks that were resurrected through the manipulation and mutation of human genetic material by the Dalek Emperor were religious fanatics that worshipped their Emperor as their god. The Doctor theorised that these Daleks were also insane due to self-loathing, as they had been created from human genetic material. He also noted that, prior to this encounter, no Dalek had a conception of blasphemy, as they had no religion or tolerance for it. The secret order of Daleks, above and beyond the Emperor, known as "The Cult of Skaro" who were created by the Emperor to imagine new ways of surviving appeared in the "Doomsday" episode (it is unclear if the Emperor Dalek that ordered their creation is the same as appeared in "The Parting of the Ways" or another Emperor Dalek); they included Dalek Jast, Dalek Caan, Dalek Thay, and their leader, the black Dalek, Dalek Sec. The Tenth Doctor noted that these Daleks were unique in their culture, granted the right to bear names and imaginations that set them apart from the other Daleks. These Daleks even express sorrow for the loss of their planet, break their normal obsession with hierarchy and are willing to sacrifice their own sense of "purity" for their kind. Although the Daleks are well known for their disregard of due process, there have been two enemies that they have taken back to Skaro for a "trial", rather than immediately killed; the first was their creator, Davros, in Revelation of the Daleks, Revelation of the Daleks. Writer Eric Saward, Director Graeme Harper, Producer John Nathan-Turner. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC1, London. 23 March–30 March 1985. and the second was the renegade Time Lord known as the Master in the 1996 television movie. Doctor Who. Writer Matthew Jacobs, Director Geoffrey Sax, Executive Producer Philip Segal. 1996. DVD. BBC Video, 2001. Neither trial occurred on-screen, so it is not clear what was involved. The reasons for the Master's trial, and why the Doctor would be asked to retrieve the Master's remains, have never been explained on screen; the Doctor Who Annual 2006 implies that the trial may have been due to a treaty signed between the Time Lords and the Daleks. Davies, Russell T "Meet the Doctor." Doctor Who Annual 2006. Ed. Clayton Hickman. Tunbridge Wells: Panini, 2005. pp. 20–21. The framing device for the I, Davros audio plays, is a Dalek trial to determine if Davros should be the Daleks' leader once more. I, Davros: Innocence. Writer Gary Hopkins, Director Gary Russell. Producers Gary Russell and Jason Haigh-Ellery. Big Finish Productions, 2006. The spin-off novels contain several tongue-in-cheek mentions of Dalek poetry (and an anecdote about an opera based upon it, which was lost to posterity when the entire cast was exterminated on opening night). Two stanzas are given in the novel The Also People by Ben Aaronovitch. Aaronovitch (1995), p. 199 In an alternative timeline portrayed in Big Finish Productions audio adventure The Time of the Daleks, the Daleks show a fondness for the works of Shakespeare. The Time of the Daleks. Writer Justin Richards, Director Nicholas Briggs, Producers Gary Russell and Jason Haigh-Ellery. Big Finish Productions, 2002. A similar idea was taken up by comedian Frankie Boyle in the BBC comedy quiz programme Mock The Week in the 'Scenes we would like to see' section, the topic being 'Unlikely lines to hear in an episode of Doctor Who', where he does an almost word perfect performance of a Dalek reading an example of Dalek Poetry, roughly using the words "Daffodils, EXTERMINATE DAFFODILS." Because the Doctor has defeated the Daleks so often, he has become their arch-enemy and they have standing orders to capture or exterminate him on sight. They are occasionally able to identify him despite his regenerations. In the comic strips and novels the Daleks know the Doctor as the "Ka Faraq Gatri", the "Bringer of Darkness" or "Destroyer of Worlds" (this was first established in the novelisation of Remembrance of the Daleks by Ben Aaronovitch). Aaronovitch (1990), p. 26 The phrase "Destroyer of Worlds is also used by Davros in the episode Journey's End. In "The Parting of the Ways", the Doctor says that the Daleks call him "The Oncoming Storm" — this name was used by the Draconians (whose word for it is "Karshtakavaar") to refer to the Doctor in the Virgin New Adventures novel Love and War by Paul Cornell. Cornell (1992), p. 32 Both the Ninth Doctor and Rose Tyler suggest that the Doctor is one of the few beings the Daleks fear: in "Doomsday", for example, the Cult of Skaro sees the problem of five million Cybermen as a matter of pest control, yet visibly recoil at the mere mention of the Doctor. The modern Doctor has come to view the Daleks as completely evil and unworthy of trust or compassion. The Seventh Doctor even manipulated them into destroying their home world of Skaro (or at least allowed them to destroy it without hesitating or displaying remorse). This contrasts with some of the Doctor's earlier dealings with the Daleks: the Second Doctor attempted to instil a "human factor" in Daleks in The Evil of the Daleks and the Fourth Doctor hesitated when presented with the opportunity to destroy the Daleks at the point of their creation in Genesis of the Daleks. Since the events of the Last Great Time War, the Doctor's view of the Dalek race has evolved into one of combined hate, fear and anger, due to the destruction of Gallifrey and the Time Lord species. The Ninth Doctor made a venomous outburst in "Dalek", leading the lone mutant in that episode to observe that the Doctor "would make a good Dalek". On the other hand, when given the choice between extermination and destroying the Dalek race and Earth along with it, he surrendered, noting he'd rather be a "coward, any day." The Tenth Doctor, whilst initially suspicious and dismissing the Cult of Skaro's genetic dabblings as having achieved nothing, showed compassion to the Dalek/Human hybrid Dalek Sec's plan to create a more benign Dalek race on another planet, and was even willing to transport them there via the TARDIS.Furthermore, the Doctor offered to help Dalek Caan at the end of "Evolution of the Daleks", despite Caan having ordered the self-destruction of the new Dalek Human species. Licensed appearances Two Doctor Who movies starring Peter Cushing featured the Daleks as the main villains: Dr. Who and the Daleks, and Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD, based on the television serials The Daleks and The Dalek Invasion of Earth, respectively. However, the movies were not straight remakes. Cushing's Doctor is not an alien, but a human inventor literally named "Doctor Who," who invented his time/space machine (which he directly called "Tardis" instead of "the TARDIS"). The movies used brand new Dalek props, based closely on the original design but with a wider range of colours. Originally, the movie Daleks were supposed to shoot jets of flame, but this was thought to be too graphic for children, so their weapons emitted jets of deadly vapour instead. Nation also authorised the publication of the comic strip The Daleks in the comic TV Century 21 in 1965. Howe (1992), p. 143 The one-page strip (written by David Whitaker but credited to Nation) featured the Daleks as protagonists and "heroes", and continued for two years, from their creation of the mechanised Daleks by the humanoid Dalek scientist, Yarvelling, to their eventual discovery in the ruins of a crashed space-liner of the co-ordinates for Earth, which they proposed to invade. Although much of the material in these strips directly contradicted what was shown on television later, some concepts like the Daleks using humanoid duplicates and the design of the Dalek Emperor did show up later on in the programme. In 1994, the UK arm of Marvel Comics reprinted all the TV 21 strips in a collected edition titled The Dalek Chronicles. At the same time, a Doctor Who strip was also being published in TV Comic. Initially, the strip did not have the rights to use the Daleks, so the First Doctor battled the "Trods" instead, cone-shaped robotic creatures that ran on static electricity that were obviously based on the Daleks. By the time the Second Doctor appeared in the strip in 1967 the rights issues had been resolved, and the Daleks began making appearances starting in The Trodos Ambush (TVC #788-#791), where they massacred the Trods. The Daleks also made appearances in the Third Doctor-era Dr. Who comic strip that featured in the combined Countdown/TV Action comic during the early 1970s. Beginning in 1979, Marvel UK published Doctor Who Magazine, which included comic strip stories in its pages. The Doctor occasionally fought the Daleks in the main DWM strip, and a new nemesis was introduced in a recurring back-up strip: Abslom Daak, Dalek Killer. Daak was a convicted criminal in the 25th century who was given the choice between execution and being sent on a suicide mission against the Daleks. He chose the latter and, when the woman he loved was killed by the Daleks, made it his life's purpose to kill every one of the creatures he came across. The Daleks have also appeared in the Dalek Empire series of audio plays by Big Finish Productions. Four mini-series, totalling 18 CDs, have so far been produced; these saw the return of the original Dalek Emperor. The Daleks have also returned to bedevil the Doctor in Big Finish's Doctor Who line of audio plays and Bernice Summerfield in Death and the Daleks. Other appearances Non-Doctor Who television and film Dalek toys are seen in a department store in "Death at Bargain Prices", a 1965 episode of the fantasy/thriller series The Avengers, which like Doctor Who was created by Sydney Newman, although broadcast on the rival ITV network. In the episode of Mr. Bean, "Merry Christmas, Mr. Bean," Mr. Bean visits Harrods to do Christmas shopping. There, he creates a rather odd Nativity Scene using the figurines in the shop window, including a Dalek to "exterminate" a baby sheep figure, then later to "battle" a plastic T. Rex toy. In the comic television documentary The Red Dwarf A-Z, two Daleks are shown (under "E" for "Exterminate") arguing that all Earth television is human propaganda, and the works more commonly attributed to William Shakespeare and Ludwig van Beethoven were actually written by Daleks. After this, one of them remarks that the "change the bulb" joke from "Legion" was funny, and is promptly exterminated by the other for the crime of "not behaving like a true Dalek". A 2001 British Kit Kat advertisement featured a squad of Daleks who have joined a group of Hare Krishna devotees, rolling through a shopping centre and repeatedly chanting "Peace and love!" and "Give us a cuddle" in their distinctive voices. In the 2004 series of Coupling, written by Steven Moffat (who later wrote for Doctor Who), a Dalek appears in the second episode of season four. This was voiced by Nicholas Briggs, who later went on to provide Dalek voices for the series proper from 2005 onwards. Terry Nation's original Dalek rights deal with the BBC had been negotiated by his then agent Beryl Vertue, later Coupling writer Moffat's mother-in-law. In the 2003 film Looney Tunes: Back in Action, two Cushing movie-style Daleks made a cameo appearance in the "Area 52" segment amidst many famous "old-time" movie monsters. The appearance of the Dalek in this film was the sole condition principal cast member Steve Martin placed upon his involvement in the film. A Dalek also appeared (along with the Lost in Space robot) in a 2005 television advertisement for the ANZ bank in Australia; the Dalek was replaced by a giant toy robot in later ANZ Ads. In a 2004 episode of Top Gear, two black Daleks were featured on a segment where the Sixth Doctor (played by Colin Baker), a Cyberman, Darth Vader, Ming the Merciless and a Klingon each participated on a one-lap run on the Top Gear track in a Honda Civic hatchback. When it was time for one of the Daleks to drive the Civic, it analyzed the car's interior and went berserk upon seeing that only humanoid forms could drive it. As a result, both Daleks went on a rampage and exterminated the other villains on the track. Music The cover of the 1964 novelty single "I'm Gonna Spend My Christmas With A Dalek" by The Go-Go's. The first known musical reference to Daleks is the 1964 novelty single "I'm Gonna Spend My Christmas With A Dalek" by The Go-Go's, released during the 1960s' "Dalekmania" fad. Howe (1992), p. 148 As part of their light show in the 1960s, Pink Floyd used a light which they dubbed the "Dalek", due to its erratic behaviour and tendency to break down. In The Clash's song "Remote Control" (from their self-titled 1977 album), the last verse includes the lines, "Repression — gonna be a Dalek / Repression — I am a robot / Repression — I obey." The song "Weathercade" by The Creatures (Siouxsie Sioux and Budgie's spin-off band of Siouxsie and the Banshees) contains the lyric "The Dalek drones are drowning". Politics In a British Government Parliamentary Debate in the House of Commons on 12 February 1968, the then Minister of Technology Tony Benn mentioned the Daleks during a reply to a question from the Labour MP Hugh Jenkins concerning the Concorde aircraft project. In the context of the dangers of solar flares, he said, "Because we are exploring the frontiers of technology, some people think Concorde will be avoiding solar flares like Dr. Who avoiding Daleks. It is not like this at all." An earlier political reference occurred at the 1966 Conservative Party conference in Blackpool, where delegate Hugh Dykes publicly compared the Labour government's Defence Secretary Denis Healey to the creatures. "Mr. Healey is the Dalek of defence, pointing a metal finger at the armed forces and saying 'I will eliminate you'." Australian Labor Party luminary Robert Ray described his right wing Labor Unity faction successor, Victorian Senator Stephen Conroy, and his Socialist Left faction counterpart, Kim Carr, as factional Daleks during a 2006 Australian Fabian Society lunch in Sydney. Pornography Daleks have made their way into pornographic material. For example, a Dalek appeared with a naked Katy Manning (who played the Third Doctor's companion Jo Grant) in a photoshoot for Playboy after Manning left the series. Howe (1996), pp. 60–61, 66 Although Playboy did not use the images, they were eventually published in a men's magazine named Girl Illustrated. Daleks were also featured in an unauthorized pornographic feature, Abducted by the Daloids (although the disc itself uses "Daleks"). In the film, the "Daloids" (portrayed by several Dalek models) abduct three scantily-clad models and watch lesbian scenes. The BBC took action to prevent sale of the DVD when learning of it in November 2005. Another pornographic parody, entitled Dr. Loo and the Filthy Phaleks was released earlier in 2005. Magazine covers The Radio Times for 30 April–6 May 2005 covered both the return of the Daleks to Doctor Who and the forthcoming general election. In 2008, it was voted the best British magazine cover of all time. Daleks have appeared on magazine covers promoting Doctor Who since the "Dalekmania" fad of the 1960s. Radio Times has featured the Daleks on its cover several times, beginning with the November 21–27, 1964 issue (promoting The Dalek Invasion of Earth). Other magazines also used Daleks to attract readers' attention, including the aforementioned Girl Illustrated. In April 2005, Radio Times created a special cover to commemorate both the return of the Daleks to the screen in "Dalek" and the forthcoming general election. This cover recreated a scene from The Dalek Invasion of Earth in which the Daleks were seen crossing Westminster Bridge, with the Houses of Parliament in the background. The cover text read "VOTE DALEK!" In a 2008 contest sponsored by the Periodical Publishers Association, this cover was voted the best British magazine cover of all time. Parodies Daleks have been the subject of many parodies, including Spike Milligan's "Pakistani Dalek" sketch in his comedy series Q, and Victor Lewis-Smith's gay Daleks. One sketch on Dave Allen At Large portrayed a baptismal font behaving like a Dalek. Doctor Who itself has used the Daleks for parody: in 2002, BBC Worldwide published the Dalek Survival Guide, a parody of The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbooks. The Daleks made two brief appearances in a pantomime version of Aladdin at the Birmingham Hippodrome which starred Torchwood star John Barrowman in the lead role. Another parody occurred in The Goodies episode "U-Friend or UFO?". In it aliens are stealing trombonists from all over England. Graeme Garden's character has invented a copy of R2D2 (from the film Star Wars) which he has renamed EB-GB. In an attempt to communicate with the UFOs he asks, "EB-GB, how do you speak to aliens?" to which it replies, "Exterminate!". Merchandising The BBC approached Walter Tuckwell, a New Zealand-born entrepreneur who was handling product merchandising for other BBC shows, and asked him to do the same for the Daleks and Doctor Who. Howe (1994), p. 342 Tuckwell created a glossy sales brochure that sparked off a Dalek craze, dubbed "Dalekmania" by the press, which peaked around the time The Chase aired in June 1965. Toys The first Dalek toy from Louis Marx & Co., a battery-operated Dalek, appeared in 1964. More toys and merchandise appeared the following year, along with toys of the Mechanoids (robotic foes of the Daleks also introduced in The Chase). The Mechanoids were created with the expectation that they would become as popular as Daleks, but they were not as successful. Howe (1992), pp. 43, 151 Other unsuccessful BBC attempts to create a "replacement" for the Daleks, or at least duplicate their popularity included the Voord (The Keys of Marinus, 1964), the Krotons (The Krotons, 1968) and the Quarks (The Dominators, 1968). At the height of the Daleks' popularity, apart from toy replicas, there were also Dalek construction kits, Dalek board games and activity sets, Dalek slide projectors for children and even Dalek playsuits made from PVC. Howe (1992), pp. 137–152 There were collectible cards, stickers, toy guns, music singles, punching bags and many other items. Between 1963 and 1965, the BBC published three annuals with short stories and comic strips featuring the Daleks, written by Whitaker and Nation. The Dalek Annual was revived in 1976 and 1977, with stories and selected reprints from the TV 21 comic strip. Howe (1992), p. 157 In the 1970s, Palitoy released a Talking Dalek which could utter standard Dalek phrases such as "You will obey!" and "Exterminate!" Later, model kits of other Dalek-related characters like Davros, the Supreme Dalek and Gold Daleks were also released. In 2001 a new range of talking Daleks were produced, along with a talking Cyberman and a talking Davros. In 2005, new Dalek toys, including a remote-controlled, talking Dalek and a pair of battling Daleks, were also created based on the designs for the new series. These were unexpectedly popular and were sold out in many stores in the UK. A remote-controlled Dalek based on the white-and-gold Imperial Dalek design was also released. In 2007, an enlarged remote-controlled, talking Dalek standing at eighteen inches tall was released. This new Dalek, aside from the usual remote control functionality in previous models, is, among other activities, able to act as a room guard, follow vocal commands and play games. This is possible due to the speech recognition, ultrasonic motion detection, passive infrared and vibration sensitivity possessed by the toy. In 2008, a new voice changer helmet was made in the shape of a Dalek head. WETA Collectibles has created a foot high statue of Dalek. "GI's 2008 Holiday Buying Guide," Game Informer 188 (December 2008): 40. Computer games Dalek Attack (1992), from Admiral Software The Daleks have featured in computer games since the 1980s, beginning with an unlicensed modification of the Robots game called Daleks. However, the game uses Daleks only as generic monsters, with no Dalek-specific features. Similarly, the 1985 game Paradroid includes a robot ("Droid 883") which resembles a Dalek: the game's background info mentions that the source design was "modelled from archive data" and that its appearance frightens humans. One of the enemies in Alien 8 appears to be half-mouse, half-Dalek. Daleks have appeared in Sierra software's Buck Rodgers series of tongue-in-cheek adventure games in cameo roles. Licensed Doctor Who games featuring Daleks include 1984's The Key to Time, a text adventure game for the Sinclair ZX Spectrum. Daleks also appeared in minor roles or as thinly disguised versions in other, minor games throughout the 80s, but did not feature as central adversaries in a licensed game until 1992, when Admiral Software published Dalek Attack. The game allowed the player to play various Doctors or companions, running them through several environments to defeat the Daleks. In 1997 the BBC released a PC game entitled Destiny of the Doctors which also featured the Daleks, among other adversaries, who also seemed to be able to follow the player character up the stairs. In 1998 the BBC released a Doctor Who screensaver done in Macromedia Shockwave which had a built-in minigame, where the player controlled K-9 battling the Daleks through seven increasingly difficult levels. Unauthorized games featuring Daleks continued to appear through the 1990s and 2000s, including Dalek-based modifications of Dark Forces, Quake, and Half-Life, and even more recently, a mod of Halo: Combat Evolved; many of these can be found online, including an Adobe Flash game, Dalek:Dissolution Earth . In 1998 QWho, a modification for Quake, featured the Daleks as adversaries. This also formed the basis of TimeQuake, a total conversion written in 2000 which included other Doctor Who monsters such as Sontarans. Another unauthorised game is DalekTron, a Windows-only game based on Robotron: 2084 and written in the Smalltalk programming language to coincide with the 2005 series. They also appeared as a model for an enemy in 3D Game Maker. The player could put a Dalek-like model in their own computer games. One authorised online game is The Last Dalek, a Flash game created by New Media Collective for the BBC. It is based on the 2005 episode "Dalek" and can be played at the official BBC Doctor Who website. The Doctor Who website also features another game Daleks vs Cybermen (also known as Cyber Troop Control Interface) in which the player controls troops of Cybermen which must fight Daleks as well as Torchwood Institute members based on the 2006 episode "Doomsday". Other major appearances Stage plays The Curse of the Daleks: Wyndham's Theatre, London (premiere 21 December 1965) Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday: Adelphi Theatre, London (premiere 16 December 1974) Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday: Porirua Little Theatre, Titahi Bay, Porirua, New Zealand (premiere 24 November 1984) Doctor Who - The Ultimate Adventure: Wimbledon Theatre, London (premiere 23 March 1989) The Tomb of the Cybermen (voice only): Oxford Brookes SU, Oxford (premiere July 1998)The Trial of Davros: Tameside Hippodrome, Ashton-under-Lyne (premiere 16 July 2005) The Evil of the Daleks: Theatre Royal, Portsmouth (premiere 25 October 2006) The Dalek Masterplan: Theatre Royal, Portsmouth (premiere 24 October 2007) Aladdin: Hippodrome Theatre, Birmingham (premiere 19 December 2007) - Pantomime featuring Daleks alongside Doctor Who and Torchwood actor John Barrowman Concerts Doctor Who: A Celebration Doctor Who Prom Original novelsWar of the Daleks by John Peel (Eighth Doctor Adventures), published October 1997Legacy of the Daleks by John Peel (Eighth Doctor Adventures), published April 1998The Dalek Factor by Simon Clark (Telos Doctor Who novellas), published March 2004I am a Dalek by Gareth Roberts (Tenth Doctor Adventures, part of the Quick Reads Initiative), published May 2006Prisoner of the Daleks by Trevor Baxendale (Tenth Doctor Adventures''), published April 2009 See also Abslom Daak, Dalek Killer Dalek Empire Dalek variants Dalekmania A documentary about the Daleks References External links How the Daleks were built - BBC Wales interview with engineer Bill Roberts Charity Dalek - A Dalek used for raising funds for charity. Charity Dalek Orion - Inspired by the above Dalek and also raising funds for charity. 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6,684 | Dr._Strangelove | Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (commonly known as Dr. Strangelove) is an American/British black comedy film directed by Stanley Kubrick, starring Peter Sellers and George C. Scott, and featuring Sterling Hayden, Keenan Wynn and Slim Pickens. Loosely based on Peter George's Cold War thriller novel Red Alert (aka Two Hours to Doom), Dr. Strangelove satirizes the nuclear scare. The story concerns a mentally unstable US Air Force general who orders a first strike nuclear attack on the Soviet Union, and follows the President of the United States, his advisors, the Joint Chiefs of Staff and a Royal Air Force (RAF) officer as they try to recall the bombers to prevent a nuclear apocalypse, as well as the crew of one B-52 as they attempt to deliver their payload. In 1989, the United States Library of Congress deemed the film "culturally significant" and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry. Additionally, it was listed as #3 on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs. Plot Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper (Sterling Hayden) is a delusional commander of a United States Air Force base who initiates a plan to attack the Soviet Union with nuclear weapons, hoping to thwart a Communist conspiracy to "sap and impurify" the "precious bodily fluids" of the American people with fluoridated water, a theory that occurred to him during sexual intercourse, and which he believed to be the cause of his post-coital fatigue. Ripper orders the nuclear armed B-52s of the 843rd Bomb Wing past their failsafe points – where they normally hold awaiting possible orders to proceed – and into Soviet airspace. He also tells the personnel of Burpelson Air Force Base that the US and the USSR have entered into a "shooting war". Although a nuclear attack should require Presidential authority to be initiated, Ripper uses "Plan R", an emergency war plan enabling a senior officer to launch a retaliation strike against the Soviets if everyone in the normal chain of command, including the President, has been killed during a sneak attack. According to the movie's plot, Plan R was intended to discourage the Soviets from launching a decapitation strike against the President in Washington to disrupt U.S. command and control and stop an American nuclear counterattack. Group Captain Lionel Mandrake (Peter Sellers), an RAF exchange officer serving as General Ripper's executive officer, realizes that there has been no attack on the U.S. when he turns on a radio and hears pop music instead of Civil Defense alerts. When Mandrake reveals this to Ripper, and Ripper refuses to recall the wing, Mandrake announces that he will issue the recall on his own authority, but Ripper refuses to disclose the three-letter code necessary for recalling the bombers and locks the two of them in his office. In the "War Room" at The Pentagon, Air Force General Buck Turgidson (George C. Scott) briefs President Merkin Muffley (also played by Sellers). Turgidson tries to convince Muffley to take advantage of the situation to eliminate the Soviets as a threat by launching a full-scale attack. Turgidson believes that the United States is in a superior strategic position, and a first strike against the Soviet Union would destroy 90% of their missiles before they could retaliate, resulting in a victory for the U.S. with "acceptable" American casualties of "no more than 10 to 20 million killed, tops... depending on the breaks". He is rebuked when Muffley instead admits the Soviet Ambassador (Peter Bull) to the War Room, contacts Soviet Premier Dmitri Kissoff on the hotline, and insists on giving the Soviets all the information necessary to shoot down the American planes before they can carry out their strikes. Over the phone, a drunken Kissoff reveals to the Soviet Ambassador that their country has installed an active Doomsday device which will automatically destroy all life on Earth if a nuclear attack were to hit the Soviet Union. The Doomsday Device is operated by a network of computers and has been conceived as the ultimate deterrent: as a safeguard, it cannot be deactivated, or it will set itself off, because its hardware and programs have been configured in such a way that an attempt at its deactivation would be recognized as sabotage. The doomsday weapon is described as based on "cobalt-thorium-G" – this was inspired by the real idea of a cobalt bomb, conceived by nuclear pioneer Leo Szilard, founder of Council for a Livable World. The President now calls upon Dr. Strangelove (a.k.a. Merkwürdigeliebe), a former Nazi and strategy expert (Sellers in his third role). The wheelchair-bound Strangelove is a type of "mad scientist", whose eccentricities include a severe case of alien hand syndrome, so that his right hand, clad in an ominous black leather glove, occasionally attempts to strangle Strangelove or make the Nazi salute. Strangelove also slips in addressing the President, as either "Mein President" or even "Mein Führer". Strangelove explains the principles behind the Doomsday Device, which he says is "simple to understand... credible and convincing". He also points out that a Doomsday Device kept secret has no value as a deterrent; the Soviet Ambassador admits that his government had installed it a few days before they were going to announce it publicly to the world, because Kissoff "loves surprises". U.S. Army paratroopers sent by the President arrive at Burpelson to arrest General Ripper. Because Ripper has warned his men that the enemy might attack disguised as American soldiers, the base's security forces, and Ripper himself with a M1919 Browning machine gun kept in his golf bag, open fire on them. "Peace is Our Profession", which was the actual motto of the Strategic Air Command, appears on a billboard in this scene. The Army forces win the battle and gain access to the base, and Ripper, fearing torture to extract the recall code, commits suicide. Colonel "Bat" Guano (Keenan Wynn) shoots his way into Ripper's office, but suspects that Mandrake, whose uniform he does not recognize, is leading a mutiny of "deviated preverts" [sic] and proceeds to arrest him. Mandrake convinces Guano that he has to call the President to tell him the recall code, which he has deduced from Ripper's desk blotter doodles to be based on the initials for the phrases peace on earth and purity of essence. Since office phone connections had been knocked out by the fighting at the base, Mandrake is forced to use a pay phone to try to contact the President. Not having the correct change to place a long-distance call to the Pentagon, Mandrake persuades Guano to shoot a Coca-Cola vending machine to get the change out of it, and eventually is able to forward the likely code combinations to Strategic Air Command. The correct recall code, "OPE", is issued to the planes, and those that have not been shot down return to base – except for one. Its radio and fuel tanks were damaged by a Soviet anti-aircraft missile, with the result that the plane is neither able to receive the recall code nor to reach its primary or secondary target – where, at the urging of the U.S. President, the Soviets have concentrated all available defenses. On the crew's own initiative, the plane proceeds instead to a target of opportunity, finding it undefended. Major "King" Kong riding a nuclear bomb to oblivion. As they start their bomb run the damaged B-52's bomb bay doors will not open. Aircraft commander Major T. J. "King" Kong (Slim Pickens) goes down to the bomb bay to open them himself, straddling a nuclear bomb as he tries to fix sparking wires overhead. As the B-52 reaches its target the doors open, triggering the bomb to fall without further warning. Unable to grab a handhold Kong rides the bomb to the ground like a rodeo cowboy, whooping, hollering and waving his cowboy hat. The bomb explodes, triggering the Doomsday Machine. According to the Soviet ambassador, life on Earth's surface will be extinct in ten months. Dr. Strangelove recommends to the President that a group of several hundred thousand people be relocated into a deep mine shaft, where the nuclear fallout cannot reach them, so that the U.S. can be repopulated afterwards. Because of space limitations, Strangelove suggests a gender ratio of "ten females to each male", with the women selected for their sexual characteristics, and the men selected on the basis of their physical strength, intellectual capabilities, and importance in business and government (which would include all those present in the room). General Turgidson rants that the Soviets will likely create an even better bunker than the U.S., and argues that America "must not allow a mine shaft gap". Meanwhile, the Soviet Ambassador retreats to a corner of the War Room and starts taking pictures with a spy camera disguised as a pocket watch. In the concluding scenes, a visibly excited Dr. Strangelove stands up out of his wheelchair, shouting "Mein Führer, I can walk!". Abruptly, the film ends with a barrage of nuclear explosions caused by the Doomsday Machine, accompanied by Vera Lynn's famous World War II song "We'll Meet Again". Cast Main cast Peter Sellers as Group Captain Lionel Mandrake, a British exchange officer. President Merkin Muffley, the American Commander-in-Chief, who resembles Adlai Stevenson Dr. Strangelove, the wheelchair-bound ex-Nazi nuclear war expert: a pastiche of ex-Nazi scientists such as Wernher von Braun; nuclear strategists such as Herman Kahn; and particularly Edward Teller, "father" of the hydrogen bomb; Guenter Wendt; and perhaps even Manhattan Project principal John von Neumann. pp.424-426 Smith, P.D. Doomsday Men: The Real Dr. Strangelove and the Dream of the Superweapon 2007 Macmillan George C. Scott as General Buck Turgidson, loosely based on Air Force General Curtis LeMay. Sterling Hayden as General Jack D. Ripper, who is paranoid and an ultra-patriot. His name is a reference to Jack the Ripper. Ripper is more heavily based on the cigar-chomping Air Force General Curtis LeMay, brief Presidential candidate, strategic bombing expert, and former head of SAC. Slim Pickens as Major T.J. "King" Kong, the B-52 Stratofortress bomber's commander. His name is a reference to the character 'T.J.' in the popular children's TV show Tom Corbett, Space Cadet and obviously King Kong. James Earl Jones as Lieutenant Lothar Zogg, the B-52's bombardier Keenan Wynn as Colonel "Bat" Guano, the Army officer who finds Mandrake and the dead Ripper. Peter Bull as Soviet ambassador Alexei de Sadesky Shane Rimmer as the B-52 co-pilot, Capt. "Ace" Owens (another Tom Corbett, Space Cadet character's name) Tracy Reed as Miss Scott, General Turgidson's secretary and mistress, the film's only female character. Reed also appears as "Miss Foreign Affairs", the centerfold in the June 1962 issue The distinctive bikinied torso on the cover dates this as the real June 1962 issue, which features the pictorial "A Toast to Bikinis" (being a play on the testing-site atoll for nukes), shown as the pinups on the inside of the B-52's safe door. Grant B. Stillman, "Last Secrets of Strangelove Revealed", 2008. of Playboy magazine that Major Kong is shown reading in the cockpit. For the pose, Reed lay flat on her chest and had the January 1963 (Vol. 41, No. 2) issue of Foreign Affairs covering her buttocks. Despite this modest pose, her mother was furious. In the novel and advertising posters the Playboy model is referred to as "Miss Foreign Affairs". Brian Siano, "A Commentary on Dr. Strangelove", 1995 and "Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove", a documentary included with the 40th Anniversary Special Edition DVD of the film. Peter Sellers' multiple roles Peter Sellers plays three roles: Dr. Strangelove, President Merkin Muffley and Group Captain Lionel Mandrake.Columbia Pictures agreed to provide financing for the film only on the condition that Peter Sellers would play at least four major roles. This condition stemmed from the studio's impression that much of the success of Lolita (1962), Kubrick's previous film, was based on Sellers' performance; Sellers had in addition played three roles in 1959's The Mouse That Roared. Kubrick accepted the demand considering that "such crass and grotesque stipulations are the sine qua non of the motion-picture business". Lee Hill, "Interview with a Grand Guy": interview with Terry Southern Ultimately, Peter Sellers played three of the four roles initially written for him. At the start of production, it was expected that he would also play the role of Air Force Major T. J. "King" Kong, the B-52 Stratofortress aircraft commander, but from the beginning, Sellers was reluctant to do so. He felt his workload was too heavy, and he was concerned that he would not be able to reproduce the Texan accent required for the character of Kong. Kubrick pleaded with him, and asked screenwriter Terry Southern (who had been raised in Texas) to record a tape with Kong's lines spoken in the correct accent. Using Southern's tape, Sellers managed to get the accent right, and started shooting the scenes in the airplane. However, Sellers sprained an ankle and could not play the role, as technical constraints would have confined him to the cramped space of the cockpit set. In the fictionalized biopic The Life and Death of Peter Sellers, it is suggested that Sellers faked the injury as a way to force Kubrick to release him from the contractual obligation to play this fourth role. Sellers is said to have improvised much of his dialogue during filming, with Kubrick incorporating the ad-libs into the written screenplay as shooting progressed, so that the improvised lines became part of the canonical screenplay, a technique known as retroscripting. "Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove", a documentary included with the 40th Anniversary Special Edition DVD of the film Group Captain Lionel Mandrake According to film critic Alexander Walker, the author of biographies of both Sellers and Kubrick, the role of Lionel Mandrake was the easiest of the three for Sellers to play, as he was aided by his experience of mimicking his superiors while engaged in national service in the RAF during World War II. There is also a heavy element of Sellers' friend and occasional co-star Terry-Thomas and the prosthetic-limbed RAF ace Douglas Bader. President Merkin Muffley For his performance as President Merkin Muffley, Sellers flattened his natural English accent to sound like an American Midwesterner. Sellers drew inspiration for the role from Adlai Stevenson, a former Governor of Illinois, who had been the unsuccessful Democratic nominee in the 1952 and 1956 presidential elections, and was the U.N. ambassador during the Cuban Missile Crisis. In early takes, Sellers faked cold symptoms to emphasize the character's apparent weakness. This caused frequent laughter among the film crew, ruining several takes. Kubrick ultimately found this comic portrayal inappropriate, feeling that Muffley should be a serious character. In subsequent takes, Sellers played the role straight, though the president's cold is still evident in a couple of scenes. Dr. Strangelove The title character, Dr. Strangelove, who was not in the original book, Jeffrey Townsend, et al., 'Red Alert' in John Tibbetts & James Welsh (eds), The Encyclopedia of Novels into Films, New York, 1999, pp. 183-6 serves as President Muffley's scientific advisor in the War Room, presumably making use of prior expertise as a Nazi physicist: When General Turgidson expresses to Mr. Staines (Jack Creley) that "Strangelove" is a very bizarre name, Staines responds that Strangelove's original German surname was "Merkwürdigeliebe," without mentioning that "Merkwürdigeliebe" happens to translate to "Strangelove" in English. Twice in the film, Strangelove accidentally addresses the President as "Mein Führer". The character is an amalgamation of RAND Corporation strategist Herman Kahn, mathematician and Manhattan Project principal John von Neumann, German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, and Edward Teller, the "father of the hydrogen bomb". Paul Boyer, 'Dr. Strangelove' in Mark C. Carnes (ed.), Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies, New York, 1996. The character was also compared to the later US Secretary of State and controversial Nobel Peace Prize laureate Henry Kissinger, though Kissinger was not that well known in the early 60s; By the late 1960s Time (magazine) was routinely referring to Kissinger and Teller as 'Drs. Strangelove, East and West'. Jussi Hanhimaki, The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy, Oxford, 2004, p. 11. however, it was first thought unlikely that he served as a basis for Dr. Strangelove as, at the time the film was made, Kissinger was only a Harvard professor who wrote some books on nuclear war strategy, being relatively unknown to the public (although Kubrick knew of his books and articles). James Naremore, On Kubrick, London, 2007, p. 119, note 1 New discoveries have turned the searchlight back on Kissinger: Grant B. Stillman, Two of the MADdest scientists: where Strangelove Meets Dr. No; or, unexpected roots for Kubrick's cold war classic, Film History, vol. 20 issue 4 (2008) pp. 487-500 ISSN: 0892-2160. as it is his Foreign Affairs article (suggestively entitled) "Strains on the Alliance" on Reed Kissinger, Henry A. Strains on the Alliance, Foreign Affairs (The United States and Europe), vol. 41 no. 2, January 1963. and even in 1961 Kissinger was already a Kennedy White House adviser who appeared in a CBS TV debate program sitting next to the real Adlai Stevenson (a.k.a. Merkin Muffley). The Great Challenge (CBS, 4-5 pm), 19 February 1961, in Time Listings, Time (magazine), 17 February 1961, p. 100. cited by Stillman p. 489 fig. 1. Immediately above this listing is another debate program entitled "Is Fluoridation of Public Drinking Water Desirable?" (NBC, 9:30-10:30 pm). Strangelove's accent was influenced by that of Austrian-American photographer Weegee, who was hired by Kubrick as a special photographic effects consultant. Strangelove's appearance echoes the mad scientist archetype as seen in the character Rotwang in Fritz Lang's 1927 film Metropolis. Sellers' Strangelove takes from Rotwang the single black gloved hand, which in Rotwang's case is mechanical due to a lab accident, the wild hair, and most importantly, his inability to be completely controlled by political power. Frayling, Christopher. Mad, Bad, and Dangerous?: The Scientist and the Cinema. London: Reaktion, 2006. p.26 According to film critic Alexander Walker, Sellers improvised Dr. Strangelove's lapse into the Nazi salute, borrowing one of Kubrick's black leather gloves for the uncontrollable hand that makes the gesture. Kubrick wore the gloves on the film set to avoid being burned when handling hot lights, and Sellers, recognizing the potential connection to Lang's work, found them to be especially menacing. Slim Pickens as Major T. J. "King" Kong Slim Pickens, an established character actor and veteran of many Western films, was quickly chosen to replace Sellers as Major Kong after Sellers injured himself. Terry Southern's biographer Lee Hill reports that the part had originally been written with John Wayne in mind, and Wayne was in fact offered the role after Sellers was injured, but he immediately turned it down. Lee Hill - A Grand Guy: The Life and Art of Terry Southern (Bloomsbury, 2001), pp.118-119 Dan Blocker of the Bonanza western TV series was approached to play the part, but according to Terry Southern, Blocker's agent rejected the script as being "too pinko". Biography for Dan Blocker at Internet Movie Database Kubrick then recruited Pickens, whom he knew from his stint working on Marlon Brando's One Eyed Jacks. Fellow actor James Earl Jones recalls, "He was Major Kong on and off the set—he didn't change a thing—his temperament, his language, his behavior". Pickens was not told that the movie was a comedy and was only given the scenes he was in and not the entire script, to get him to play it "straight". Movie Night! Kubrick biographer John Baxter further explains in the documentary Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove:As it turns out, Slim Pickens had never left the United States. He had to hurry and get his first passport. He arrived on the set, and somebody said, "Gosh, he's arrived in costume!", not realizing that that's how he always dressed... with the cowboy hat and the fringed jacket and the cowboy boots—and that he wasn't putting on the character—that's the way he talked. Pickens, who had previously played only minor supporting and character roles, stated that his appearance as Maj. Kong greatly improved his career. He would later comment, "After Dr. Strangelove the roles, the dressing rooms, and the checks all started getting bigger". Slim Pickens biography George C. Scott as Gen. Buck Turgidson Director Kubrick tricked Scott into playing the role of Gen. Turgidson far more ridiculously than Scott was comfortable with doing. Kubrick talked Scott into doing "over the top" practice takes, which Kubrick told Scott would never be used, as a way to warm up for the "real" takes. Subsequently, Kubrick used these takes in the final film, causing Scott to swear never to work with Kubrick again. A Bombardier's Reflection During the filming, Stanley Kubrick and George C. Scott had differences of opinions regarding certain scenes. However, Kubrick got Scott to conform based largely upon his ability to routinely beat Scott at chess, which they played frequently on the set, and was no easy task as Scott was a keen chess player. "Kubrick on The Shining" from Michel Ciment, 'Kubrick', Holt, Rinehart, and Winston; 1st American ed edition (1983), ISBN 0-03-061687-5 Scott later said that while he and Kubrick may not have always seen eye-to-eye, he respected Kubrick immensely based on his skill at chess. The character is said to be loosely based on Air Force General Curtis LeMay. "Reflecting on Curtis E. Lemay" Production Novel and screenplay Kubrick on the set of Dr. Strangelove. Kubrick started with nothing but a vague idea to make a thriller about a nuclear accident, building on the widespread Cold War fear for survival. Brian Siano, "A Commentary on Dr. Strangelove", 1995 While doing in-depth research for the planned film, Kubrick gradually became aware of the subtle and unstable "balance of terror" existing between nuclear powers and its intrinsically paradoxical character. At Kubrick's request, Alistair Buchan (the head of the Institute for Strategic Studies), recommended the thriller novel Red Alert (1958) by Peter George. Alexander Walker, "Stanley Kubrick Directs", Harcourt Brace Co, 1972, ISBN 0-15-684892-9, cited in Brian Siano, "A Commentary on Dr. Strangelove", 1995 Kubrick was impressed with the book, which had also been praised by game theorist and future Nobel Prize in Economics winner Thomas Schelling in an article written for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists and reprinted in The Observer, Phone interview with Thomas Schelling by Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, published in her book The Worlds of Herman Kahn; The Intuitive Science of Thermonuclear War (Harvard University Press, 2005) "Dr. Strangelove" and immediately bought the film rights. Terry Southern,"Check-up with Dr. Strangelove", article written in 1963 for Esquire but unpublished at the time Kubrick, in collaboration with George, started work on writing a screenplay based on the book. While writing the screenplay, they benefited from some brief consultations with Schelling and, later, Herman Kahn. Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, "The Worlds of Herman Kahn; The Intuitive Science of Thermonuclear War", Harvard University Press, 2005. In following the tone of the book, Stanley Kubrick originally intended to film the story as a serious drama. However, as he later explained during interviews, the comedy inherent in the idea of mutual assured destruction became apparent as he was writing the first draft of the film's script. Kubrick stated:My idea of doing it as a nightmare comedy came in the early weeks of working on the screenplay. I found that in trying to put meat on the bones and to imagine the scenes fully, one had to keep leaving out of it things which were either absurd or paradoxical, in order to keep it from being funny; and these things seemed to be close to the heart of the scenes in question. Macmillan International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers, vol. 1, p. 126 After deciding to turn the film into a black comedy, Kubrick brought in Terry Southern as a co-writer. The choice was influenced by reading Southern's comic novel The Magic Christian (1959), which Kubrick had received as a gift from Peter Sellers Terry Southern, "Notes from The War Room", Grand Street, issue #49 (which, incidentally, became a Sellers film in 1969). Sellers is also sometimes considered an uncredited co-writer, as he changed many lines by way of improvisation. Sets and filming Dr. Strangelove was filmed at Shepperton Studios, in London, as Peter Sellers was in the middle of a divorce at the time, unable to leave England. The sets occupied three main sound stages: the Pentagon War Room, the B-52 Stratofortress bomber and the last one containing both the motel room and General Ripper's office and outside corridor. The studio's buildings were also used as the Air Force base exterior. The film's set design was done by Ken Adam, the production designer of several James Bond films (at the time he had already worked on Dr. No). The black and white cinematography was by Gilbert Taylor, and the film was edited by Anthony Harvey and Stanley Kubrick (uncredited). The original musical score for the film was composed by Laurie Johnson and the special effects were by Wally Veevers. For the War Room, Ken Adam first designed a two level set which Kubrick initially liked, only to decide later that it was not what he wanted. Adam next began work on the design that was used in the film, an expressionist set that was compared with The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and Fritz Lang's Metropolis. It was an enormous concrete room (130 feet long and wide, with a high ceiling) suggesting a bomb shelter, with a triangular shape (based on Kubrick's idea that this particular shape would prove the most resistant against an explosion). One side of the room was covered with gigantic strategic maps reflecting in a shiny black floor inspired by the dance scenes in old Fred Astaire films. In the middle of the room there was a large circular table lit from above by a circle of lamps, suggesting a poker table. Kubrick insisted that the table be covered with green baize (although this could not be seen in the black and white film) to reinforce the actors' impression that they are playing 'a game of poker for the fate of the world.' "A Kubrick Masterclass", interview with Sir Ken Adam by Sir Christopher Frayling, 2005; excerpts from the interview were published online at Berlinale talent capus and the Script Factory website Kubrick asked Adam to build the set ceiling in concrete to force the director of photography to use only the on-set lights from the circle of lamps. Moreover, each lamp in the circle of lights was carefully placed and tested until Kubrick was happy with the result. Interview with Ken Adam by Michel Ciment, published in Michel Ciment, "Kubrick", Holt, Rinehart, and Winston; 1st American ed edition (1983), ISBN 0-03-061687-5 Lacking cooperation from The Pentagon in the making of the film, the set designers reconstructed the cockpit to the best of their ability by comparing the cockpit of a B-29 Superfortress and a single photograph of the cockpit of a B-52, and relating this to the geometry of the B-52's fuselage. The B-52 was state-of-the-art in the 1960s, and its cockpit was off-limits to the film crew. When some United States Air Force personnel were invited to view the reconstructed B-52 cockpit, they said that "it was absolutely correct, even to the little black box which was the CRM." It was so accurate that Kubrick was concerned whether Ken Adam's production design team had done all of their research legally, fearing a possible investigation by the FBI. In several shots of the B-52 flying over the polar ice en route to Russia, the shadow of the actual camera plane, a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, is visible on the snow below. The B-52 was a model composited into the arctic footage which was sped up to create a sense of jet speed. The camera ship, a former USAAF B-17G-100-VE, serial 44-85643, registered F-BEEA, had been one of four Flying Fortresses purchased from salvage at Altus, Oklahoma in December 1947 by the French Institut Geographique National and converted for survey and photo-mapping duty. It was the last active B-17 of a total of fourteen once operated by the IGN, but it was destroyed in a take-off accident at RAF Binbrook in 1989 during filming of the movie Memphis Belle. Home movie footage included in Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove on the 2001 Special Edition DVD release of the film show clips of the Fortress with a cursive "Dr. Strangelove" painted over the rear entry hatch on the right side of the fuselage. The polar ice footage was later tinted and used in the "light show" segment of Kubrick's 2001. Fail-Safe and Seven Days in May Red Alert author Peter George collaborated on the screenplay with Kubrick and satirist Terry Southern. Red Alert was far more solemn in tone than its film version and the character of Dr. Strangelove never even existed on its pages. The main plot and technical elements, however, were quite similar. A novelization of the actual film, rather than a re-print of the original novel, was also published by George. This was based on an early draft, where the film was intended to be bookended by aliens arriving at a wrecked earth and trying to determine what had happened. During the filming of Dr. Strangelove, Stanley Kubrick learned that Fail-Safe, a film with a similar theme, was being produced. Although Fail-Safe was to be an ultra-realistic thriller, Kubrick feared that its overall plot resemblances would damage Strangeloves box office potential, especially if it were to be released first. Indeed, the novel Fail-Safe (on which the film of the same name is based) is so similar to Red Alert that Peter George sued on charges of plagiarism and settled out of court. What worried Kubrick the most about Fail-Safe was that it boasted an acclaimed director, Sidney Lumet, and first-rate dramatic actors, Henry Fonda as the American President and Walter Matthau as the advisor to the Pentagon, Professor Groeteschele. Kubrick decided that it would be in his film's best interests for a legal wrench to be thrown into the gears of the Fail-Safe production. Director Sidney Lumet recalls in the documentary, Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove:We started casting. Fonda was already set... which of course meant a big commitment in terms of money. I was set, Walter [Bernstein, the screenwriter] was set... And suddenly, this lawsuit arrived, filed by Stanley Kubrick and Columbia Pictures. Kubrick tried to halt production on Fail-Safe by arguing that its own 1960 source novel of the same name had been plagiarized from Peter George's Red Alert, to which Kubrick himself owned the creative rights. Also, he pointed out the unmistakable similarities in intentions between the characters Groeteschele and Strangelove. The plan ended up working exactly as Kubrick intended; Fail-Safe opened a full eight months behind Dr. Strangelove to critical acclaim, but mediocre box office results. Also released in 1964 was Paramount Pictures' Seven Days in May. The plot involves a coup attempt by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to prevent the President of the United States from signing a nuclear disarmament treaty with the Soviets, who, they believe, cannot be trusted. Original ending: the pie fight scene The cream pie fight removed from the final cut. The end of the film shows Dr. Strangelove exclaiming "Mein Führer, I can walk!" before cutting to footage of nuclear explosions, with Vera Lynn singing "We'll Meet Again". (This footage comes from actual nuclear tests, such as shot BAKER of Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll, the Trinity test, the bombing of Nagasaki, a test from Operation Sandstone, and one of the massive hydrogen bomb tests from Operation Redwing. In some shots old warships (such as the German heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen), which were used as targets, are plainly visible. In others the smoke trails of rockets used to create a calibration backdrop can be seen. It was originally intended that the film would end with everyone in the War Room involved in a pie fight, and this scene was filmed. Accounts vary as to why the pie fight was cut. In a 1969 interview, Kubrick said: "I decided it was farce and not consistent with the satiric tone of the rest of the film". "An Interview with Stanley Kubrick (1969)", published in Joseph Gelmis, The Film Director as Superstar, 1970, Doubleday and Company: Garden City, New York. Alexander Walker observed that "the cream pies were flying around so thickly that people lost definition, and you couldn't really say whom you were looking at". Nile Southern, son of screenwriter Terry Southern, suggests that the fight was intended to be less jovial. "Since they were laughing, it was unusable, because instead of having that totally black, which would have been amazing, like, this blizzard, which in a sense is metaphorical for all of the missiles that are coming, as well, you just have these guys having a good old time. So, as Kubrick later said, 'it was a disaster of Homeric proportions'". Peter Sellers, in a biographic documentary, was credited with suggesting the Vera Lynn music for the ending. The Kennedy assassination A first test screening of the film was scheduled for November 22, 1963, the day of the John F. Kennedy assassination. The film was just weeks from its scheduled premiere, but as a result of the assassination, the release was delayed until late January 1964, as it was felt that the public was in no mood for such a film any sooner. Additionally, one line by Slim Pickens – "a fella could have a pretty good weekend in Dallas with all that stuff" – was dubbed to change "Dallas" to "Vegas"; Dallas being the city where Kennedy was killed. The original reference to Dallas survives in some dubbed foreign versions of the film, such as the French release. The assassination also serves as another possible reason why the pie-fight scene was cut. In the scene, General Turgidson exclaims, "Gentlemen! Our gallant young president has been struck down in his prime!" after Muffley takes a pie in the face. Editor Anthony Harvey states that "[the scene] would have stayed, except that Columbia Pictures were horrified, and thought it would offend the president's family". "No Fighting in the War Room Or: Dr. Strangelove and the Nuclear Threat", a documentary included with the 40th Anniversary Special Edition DVD of the film Themes Sexuality From the opening scene of the B-52 "mating" in flight with the KC-135 Tanker (set to an instrumental version of Harry M. Woods' "Try a Little Tenderness") to General Ripper's sexual frustration being at the root of the eventual apocalypse, sexual references are apparent throughout the film. The character of Dr. Strangelove is laced with innuendo, even aside from his suggestive name. He is the character responsible for creating fantasies of a polygamous post-apocalyptic society with a ratio of "ten females to each male", suggesting Nazi efforts like the Lebensborn project. General Jack D. Ripper is named after Jack the Ripper, the infamous serial killer who murdered prostitutes in London in the late 1880s. General Ripper's primary concern about Communism is his assertion that water fluoridation is "a Communist conspiracy to sap and impurify all of our precious bodily fluids", of which he was made aware when his "loss of essence" during sexual intercourse greatly fatigued him. Ripper's paranoia about water fluoridation is based on a conspiracy theory by the John Birch Society, which was prominent in conservative politics in the early 1960s. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0057012/trivia He continues to explain that women "seek the life essence" and then states, "I do not avoid women but... I do deny them my essence". Here, "essence" is used as a synonym or euphemism for "semen". Ripper's sexual problems are further mirrored in the difficulties of the B-52's crew in finally dropping the bomb after all the effort of evading Russian attacks and bringing the plane to its target, and as the bombardier goes through the complex ritual "foreplay" of preparing and arming the bomb for use, all is rendered impotent at the crucial moment when the bomb doors fail to open. Many characters' names involve sexual wordplay. Group Captain Lionel Mandrake's last name refers to the Mandrake plant, which has mythical fertility properties. The Soviet Ambassador Alexei de Sadesky is named for the Marquis de Sade, and Premier Dmitri Kisov's last name is pronounced "Kissoff"; a pun on "kiss off". Major "King" Kong rides a phallic-looking H-bomb, Chris Sheridan, War and Sex, 1995 which explodes as he approaches the "target of opportunity", when they are unable to reach the primary target, Laputa (in Spanish: la puta means "the whore"), though the airborne island in Gulliver's Travels is also implied. President Merkin Muffley's first and last name each crudely imply that he is a "pussy" by nature, since a merkin is a female pubic wig used mainly by prostitutes in the 18th century, and muff (a furry handwarmer, and also slang for pubic hair) refers to the area where the wig is applied. The name of General Buck Turgid(s)on is derived from turgid, a biological term meaning full of fluid to the point of hardness, as in an erection, applied to "buck" as an explicit symbol of virility; in other words a military "hard-on". Colonel "Bat" Guano's name is a scatological (rather than sexual) play on words meaning bat feces which could echo the slang term bat-shit, meaning insanity. The only female character in the film is General Turgidson's secretary (Tracy Reed) who appears in a sleek bedroom with twin beds and a sun lamp, wearing a bikini swimsuit. When Turgidson walks in from the bathroom he also wears bathing trunks. Although she tells a caller they are working, there is a clear implication she and the general have a sexual relationship (in a later phone call, Turgidson tries to reassuringly say he will make her "Mrs Buck Turgidson"). Reed is also shown as the Playboy centerfold being looked at by Major Kong. In this photograph most of her bottom is hidden by the January 1963 issue of Foreign Affairs magazine, hence Tracy Reed was billed as "Miss Foreign Affairs." Satirising the Cold War Dr. Strangelove takes passing shots at numerous Cold War attitudes, such as the "missile gap", but it primarily focuses its satire on the theory of mutual assured destruction (MAD), in which each side is supposed to be deterred from a nuclear war by the prospect of a cataclysmic disaster for both sides, regardless of who "won". Herman Kahn in his 1960 On Thermonuclear War used the concept of a doomsday machine to mock mutual assured destruction; in effect, Kahn argued, both sides already had a sort of doomsday machine. Kahn, a leading critic of American strategy during the 1950s, urged Americans to plan for a limited nuclear war, and later became one of the architects of the MAD doctrine in the 1960s. The prevailing thinking that a nuclear war was inherently unwinnable and suicide was illogical to the physicist-turned-strategist. Kahn came off as cold and calculating; for instance, in his works, he estimated how many human lives the United States could lose and still rebuild economically. This attitude is reflected in Turgidson's remark to the president about the outcome of a pre-emptive nuclear war: "Mr. President, I'm not saying we wouldn't get our hair mussed. But I do say no more than ten to twenty million killed, tops, uh, depending on the breaks.". Turgidson also has a binder that is labelled "World Targets in Megadeaths". The portrayals of Ripper and Turgidson are usually compared to the fiery personality of Air Force general Curtis LeMay and his direct subordinates in the Strategic Air Command, who openly lobbied for war with the Soviet Union. Reception The film has also been selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. In 2000, readers of Total Film magazine voted it the 24th greatest comedy film of all time. It is one of the rare films to have received a 100% Fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes, and it is ranked 15th top movie of all time on TopTenReviews Movies. In addition to this, the movie is ranking #5 in the All-Time High Scores chart of Metacritic's Video/DVD section with an average score of 96. Metacritic: DVD/Video: All-Time High Scores It is also currently ranked the 26th greatest movie of all time on IMDb, and has an overall rating of 8.7 stars out of 10 Roger Ebert has Dr. Strangelove in his list of Great Movies, Roger Ebert, "Dr. Strangelove (1964)", 11 July 1999 saying it is 'arguably the best political satire of the century.' It is also rated as the fifth greatest film – the highest rated comedy – in Sight & Sound’s directors’ poll. The film was even a favorite of Strategic Air Command Nuclear Alert B-52 Stratofortress pilots before the stand down of the alert forces. Awards and honors The film was nominated for four Academy Awards and also seven BAFTA Awards, of which it won four. Academy Awards nominations: Best Actor in a Leading Role: Peter Sellers Best Adapted Screenplay: Stanley Kubrick, Peter George, Terry Southern Best Director: Stanley Kubrick Best Picture BAFTA Awards nominations: Best British Actor: Peter Sellers Best British Screenplay: Stanley Kubrick, Peter George, Terry Southern Best Foreign Actor: Sterling Hayden BAFTA Awards won: Best British Art Direction (Black and White): Ken Adam Best British Film Best Film From Any Source UN award. In addition, the film won the best written American comedy award from the Writers Guild of America and a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. Kubrick himself won two awards for best director, from the New York Film Critics Circle and the Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists, and was nominated for one by the Directors Guild of America.American Film Institute recognition''' 1998 - AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies - #26 2000 - AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs - #3 2005 - AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes: "Gentlemen, you can't fight in here, this is the war room." #64 2007 - AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) - #39 See also Stanley Kubrick Archive Greatest films Politics in fiction CRM 114 (device)By Dawn's Early Light - a 1990 film that also focuses on a hawks vs. doves struggle during a mistakenly ordered nuclear attack upon Russia. James Earl Jones, who has a small role in Dr. Strangelove, has a major role in this film. References Notes Bibliography Dolan Edward F. Jr. Hollywood Goes to War. London: Bison Books, 1985. ISBN 0-86124-229-7. Hardwick, Jack and Schnepf, Ed. "A Viewer's Guide to Aviation Movies". The Making of the Great Aviation Films, General Aviation Series, Volume 2, 1989. Oriss, Bruce. When Hollywood Ruled the Skies: The Aviation Film Classics of World War II. Hawthorne, California: Aero Associates Inc., 1984. ISBN 0-9613088-0-X. External links Videos from vTap. Checkup with Dr. Strangelove'' by Terry Southern http://www.filmmakermagazine.com/fall2004/line_items/strangelove.php Dr. Strangelove at DVD Journal Continuity transcript Commentary on Dr. Strangelove by Brian Siano Last Secrets of Strangelove Revealed by Grant B. Stillman Great Movies: Dr. Strangelove By Roger Ebert Study Guide by Dan Lindley. 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6,685 | Electronegativity | Electronegativity, symbol χ, is a chemical property that describes the ability of an atom (or, more rarely, a functional group) to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself in a covalent bond. "Electronegativity.", IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic weight and the distance that its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. First proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932 as a development of valence bond theory, it has been shown to correlate with a number of other chemical properties. Electronegativity cannot be directly measured and must be calculated from other atomic or molecular properties. Several methods of calculation have been proposed and, although there may be small differences in the numerical values of the electronegativity, all methods show the same periodic trends between elements. The most commonly used method of calculation is that originally proposed by Pauling. This gives a dimensionless quantity, commonly referred to as the Pauling scale, on a relative scale running from 0.7 to 4.0 (hydrogen = 2.2). When other methods of calculation are used, it is conventional (although not obligatory) to quote the results on a scale that covers the same range of numerical values: this is known as an electronegativity in Pauling units. Electronegativity, as it is usually calculated, is not strictly an atomic property, but rather a property of an atom in a molecule: Pauling, Linus (1960). Nature of the Chemical Bond (3rd Edn.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 88–107. the equivalent property of a free atom is its electron affinity. It is to be expected that the electronegativity of an element will vary with its chemical environment, Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1984). Chemistry of the Elements. Oxford: Pergamon. ISBN 0-08-022057-6. p. 30. but it is usually considered to be a transferable property, that is to say that similar values will be valid in a variety of situations. The opposite of electronegativity is electropositivity: a measure of an element's ability to donate electrons. Electronegativities of the elements → Atomic radius decreases → Ionization energy increases → Electronegativity increases → Group (vertical) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Period (horizontal) 1 H2.20 He 2 Li0.98 Be1.57 B2.04 C2.55 N3.04 O3.44 F3.98 Ne 3 Na0.93 Mg1.31 Al1.61 Si1.90 P2.19 S2.58 Cl3.16 Ar 4 K0.82 Ca1.00 Sc1.36 Ti1.54 V1.63 Cr1.66 Mn1.55 Fe1.83 Co1.88 Ni1.91 Cu1.90 Zn1.65 Ga1.81 Ge2.01 As2.18 Se2.55 Br2.96 Kr3.00 5 Rb0.82 Sr0.95 Y1.22 Zr1.33 Nb1.6 Mo2.16 Tc1.9 Ru2.2 Rh2.28 Pd2.20 Ag1.93 Cd1.69 In1.78 Sn1.96 Sb2.05 Te2.1 I2.66 Xe2.60 6 Cs0.79 Ba0.89 * Hf1.3 Ta1.5 W2.36 Re1.9 Os2.2 Ir2.20 Pt2.28 Au2.54 Hg2.00 Tl1.62 Pb2.33 Bi2.02 Po2.0 At2.2 Rn2.2 7 Fr0.7 Ra0.9 ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo Lanthanides * La1.1 Ce1.12 Pr1.13 Nd1.14 Pm1.13 Sm1.17 Eu1.2 Gd1.2 Tb1.1 Dy1.22 Ho1.23 Er1.24 Tm1.25 Yb1.1 Lu1.27 Actinides ** Ac1.1 Th1.3 Pa1.5 U1.38 Np1.36 Pu1.28 Am1.13 Cm1.28 Bk1.3 Cf1.3 Es1.3 Fm1.3 Md1.3 No1.3 Lr1.3 Periodic table of electronegativity using the Pauling scale See also Periodic table Methods of calculations Pauling electronegativity Pauling first proposed the concept of electronegativity in 1932 as an explanation of the fact that the covalent bond between two different atoms (A–B) is stronger than would be expected by taking the average of the strengths of the A–A and B–B bonds. According to valence bond theory, of which Pauling was a notable proponent, this "additional stabilization" of the heteronuclear bond is due to the contribution of ionic canonical forms to the bonding. The difference in electronegativity between atoms A and B is given by: where the dissociation energies, Ed, of the A–B, A–A and B–B bonds are expressed in electronvolts, the factor (eV)−½ being included to ensure a dimensionless result. Hence, the difference in Pauling electronegativity between hydrogen and bromine is 0.73 (dissociation energies: H–Br, 3.79 eV; H–H, 4.52 eV; Br–Br 2.00 eV) As only differences in electronegativity are defined, it is necessary to choose an arbitrary reference point in order to construct a scale. Hydrogen was chosen as the reference, as it forms covalent bonds with a large variety of elements: its electronegativity was fixed first at 2.1, later revised to 2.20. It is also necessary to decide which of the two elements is the more electronegative (equivalent to choosing one of the two possible signs for the square root). This is done by "chemical intuition": in the above example, hydrogen bromide dissolves in water to form H+ and Br− ions, so it may be assumed that bromine is more electronegative than hydrogen. To calculate Pauling electronegativity for an element, it is necessary to have data on the dissociation energies of at least two types of covalent bond formed by that element. Allred updated Pauling's original values in 1961 to take account of the greater availability of thermodynamic data, and it is these "revised Pauling" values of the electronegativity which are most usually used. Mulliken electronegativity The correlation between Mulliken electronegativities (x-axis, in kJ/mol) and Pauling electronegativities (y-axis). Mulliken proposed that the arithmetic mean of the first ionization energy and the electron affinity should be a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons. As this definition is not dependent on an arbitrary relative scale, it has also been termed absolute electronegativity, with the units of kilojoules per mole or electronvolts. However, it is more usual to use a linear transformation to transform these absolute values into values which resemble the more familiar Pauling values. For ionization energies and electron affinities in electronvolts, and for energies in kilojoules per mole, This second relation has been recalculated using the best values of the first ionization energies and electron affinities available in 2006. The Mulliken electronegativity can only be calculated for an element for which the electron affinity is known, fifty-seven elements as of 2006. Allred–Rochow electronegativity The correlation between Allred–Rochow electronegativities (x-axis, in Å−2) and Pauling electronegativities (y-axis). Allred and Rochow considered Allred, A. L.; Rochow, E. G. (1958). J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. 5:264. that electronegativity should be related to the charge experienced by an electron on the "surface" of an atom: the higher the charge per unit area of atomic surface, the greater the tendency of that atom to attract electrons. The effective nuclear charge, Z* experienced by valence electrons can be estimated using Slater's rules, while the surface area of an atom in a molecule can be taken to be proportional to the square of the covalent radius, rcov. When rcov is expressed in ångströms, Sanderson electronegativity The correlation between Sanderson electronegativities (x-axis, arbitrary units) and Pauling electronegativities (y-axis). Sanderson has also noted the relationship between electronegativity and atomic size, and has proposed a method of calculation based on the reciprocal of the atomic volume. Sanderson, R. T. (1983). "Electronegativity and bond energy." J. Am. Chem. Soc. 105:2259. With a knowledge of bond lengths, Sanderson electronegativities allow the estimation of bond energies in a wide range of compounds. Sanderson, R. T. (1983). Polar Covalence. New York: Academic Press. Also Sanderson electronegativities were used to calculate molecular geometry, s-electrons energy, NMR spin-spin constants and other parameters for organic compounds. N. S. Zefirov, M. A. Kirpichenok, F. F. Izmailov, and M. I.Trofimov, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1987, 296: 883 [Dokl.Chem., 1987 (Engl. Transl.)]. M.I.Trofimov, E.A.Smolenskii, Russian Chemical Bulletin, 2005, 54(9): 2235.(http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11172-006-0105-6). This work underlies the concept of electronegativity equalization, which suggests that electrons distribute themselves around a molecule to minimize the energy, or to equalize the electronegativity. This behavior is analogous to the equalization of chemical potential in macroscopic thermodynamics. Allen electronegativity The correlation between Allen electronegativities (x-axis, in kJ/mol) and Pauling electronegativities (y-axis). Perhaps the simplest definition of electronegativity is that of Allen, who has proposed that it is related to the average energy of the valence electrons in a free atom, Allen, L. C. (1989). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 111:9003. where εs,p are the one-electron energies of s- and p-electrons in the free atom and ns,p are the number of s- and p-electrons in the valence shell. It is usual to apply a scaling factor, 1.75×10−3 for energies expressed in kilojoules per mole or 0.169 for energies measured in electronvolts, to give values which are numerically similar to Pauling electronegativities. The one-electron energies can be determined directly from spectroscopic data, and so electronegativities calculated by this method are sometimes referred to as spectroscopic electronegativities. The necessary data are available for almost all elements, and this method allows the estimation of electronegativities for elements which cannot be treated by the other methods, e.g. francium, which has an Allen electronegativity of 0.67. The widely quoted Pauling electronegativity of 0.7 for francium is an extrapolated value of uncertain provenance. The Allen electronegativity of caesium is 0.66. However, it is not clear what should be considered to be valence electrons for the d- and f-block elements, which leads to an ambiguity for their electronegativities calculated by the Allen method. In this scale Neon has the highest electronegativity of all elements, followed by Fluorine, Helium and Oxygen. Group (vertical) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Period (horizontal) 1 H2.300 He4.160 2 Li0.912 Be1.576 B2.051 C2.544 N3.066 O3.610 F4.193 Ne4.789 3 Na0.869 Mg1.293 Al1.613 Si1.916 P2.253 S2.589 Cl2.869 Ar3.242 4 K0.734 Ca1.034 Sc1.19 Ti1.38 V1.53 Cr1.65 Mn1.75 Fe1.80 Co1.84 Ni1.88 Cu1.85 Zn1.59 Ga1.756 Ge1.994 As2.211 Se2.434 Br2.685 Kr2.966 5 Rb0.706 Sr0.963 Y1.12 Zr1.32 Nb1.41 Mo1.47 Tc1.51 Ru1.54 Rh1.56 Pd1.59 Ag1.87 Cd1.52 In1.656 Sn1.824 Sb1.984 Te2.158 I2.359 Xe2.582 6 Cs0.659 Ba0.881 Lu1.09 Hf1.16 Ta1.34 W1.47 Re1.60 Os1.65 Ir1.68 Pt1.72 Au1.92 Hg1.76 Tl1.789 Pb1.854 Bi2.01 Po2.19 At2.39 Rn2.60 7 Fr0.67 Ra0.89 ** Periodic table of electronegativity using the Allen scale List of various electronegativities of main group elements Recently a new scale of electronegativity which is based on the electrophilicities of chemical systems is proposed by Noorizadeh and Shakerzadeh. It is shown that this scale has a significant correlation with the Pauling and Allred-Rochow electronegativities. Noorizadeh, S.; Shakerzadeh, E.J. Phys. Chem. A.; 2008; 112(15); 3486-3491) Correlation of electronegativity with other properties The variation of the isomer shift (y-axis, in mm/s) of [SnX6]2− anions, as measured by 119Sn Mössbauer spectroscopy, against the sum of the Pauling electronegativities of the halide substituents (x-axis). The wide variety of methods of calculation of electronegativities, which all give results which correlate well with one another, is one indication of the number of chemical properties which might be affected by electronegativity. The most obvious application of electronegativities is in the discussion of bond polarity, for which the concept was introduced by Pauling. In general, the greater the difference in electronegativity between two atoms, the more polar the bond that will be formed between them, with the atom having the higher electronegativity being at the negative end of the dipole. Pauling proposed an equation to relate "ionic character" of a bond to the difference in electronegativity of the two atoms, although this has fallen somewhat into disuse. Several correlations have been shown between infrared stretching frequencies of certain bonds and the electronegativities of the atoms involved: See, e.g., Bellamy, L. J. (1958). The Infra-Red Spectra of Complex Molecules (2nd Edn.). New York: Wiley. p. 392. however, this is not surprising as such stretching frequencies depend in part on bond strength, which enters into the calculation of Pauling electronegativities. More convincing are the correlations between electronegativity and chemical shifts in NMR spectroscopy Spieseke, H.; Schneider, W. G. (1961). J. Chem. Phys. 35:722. or isomer shifts in Mössbauer spectroscopy Clasen, C. A.; Good, M. L. (1970). Inorg. Chem. 9:817. (see figure). Both these measurements depend on the s-electron density at the nucleus, and so are a good indication that the different measures of electronegativity really are describing "the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself". Trends in electronegativity Periodic trends The variation of Pauling electronegativity (y-axis) as one descends the main groups of the Periodic table from the second period to the sixth period. In general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period, and decreases on descending a group. Hence, fluorine is undoubtedly the most electronegative of the elements while caesium is the least electronegative, at least of those elements for which substantial data is available. There are some exceptions to this general rule. Gallium and germanium have higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon respectively because of the d-block contraction. Elements of the fourth period immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity (see Allred-Rochow electronegativity, Sanderson electronegativity above). The anomalously high electronegativity of lead, particularly when compared to thallium and bismuth, appears to be an artifact of data selection (and data availability)—methods of calculation other than the Pauling method show the normal periodic trends for these elements. Variation of electronegativity with oxidation number In inorganic chemistry it is common to consider a single value of the electronegativity to be valid for most "normal" situations. While this approach has the advantage of simplicity, it is clear that the electronegativity of an element is not an invariable atomic property and, in particular, increases with the oxidation state of the element. Allred used the Pauling method to calculate separate electronegativities for different oxidation states of the handful of elements (including tin and lead) for which sufficient data was available. However, for most elements, there are not enough different covalent compounds for which bond dissociation energies are known to make this approach feasible. This is particularly true of the transition elements, where quoted electronegativity values are usually, of necessity, averages over several different oxidation states and where trends in electronegativity are harder to see as a result. Acid Formula Chlorineoxidationstate pKa Hypochlorous acid HClO +1 +7.5 Chlorous acid HClO2 +3 +2.0 Chloric acid HClO3 +5 −1.0 Perchloric acid HClO4 +7 −10 The chemical effects of this increase in electronegativity can be seen both in the structures of oxides and halides and in the acidity of oxides and oxoacids. Hence CrO3 and Mn2O7 are acidic oxides with low melting points, while Cr2O3 is amphoteric and Mn2O3 is a completely basic oxide. The effect can also be clearly seen in the dissociation constants of the oxoacids of chlorine. The effect is much larger than could be explained by the negative charge being shared among a larger number of oxygen atoms, which would lead to a difference in pKa of log10(¼) = −0.6 between hypochlorous acid and perchloric acid. As the oxidation state of the central chlorine atom increases, more electron density is drawn from the oxygen atoms onto the chlorine, reducing the partial negative charge on the oxygen atoms and increasing the acidity. Group electronegativity In organic chemistry, electronegativity is associated more with different functional groups than with individual atoms. The terms group electronegativity and substituent electronegativity are used synonymously. However, it is common to distinguish between the inductive effect and the resonance effect, which might be described as σ- and π-electronegativities respectively. There are a number of linear free-energy relationships which have been used to quantify these effects, of which the Hammett equation is the best known. Kabachnik parameters are group electronegativities for use in organophosphorus chemistry. See also Electronegativities of the elements (data page) Chemical polarity Ionization potential References Bibliography Jolly, William L. (1991). Modern Inorganic Chemistry (2nd Edn.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-112651-1. pp. 71–76. Mullay, J. (1987). "Estimation of atomic and group electronegativities." Struct. Bond. 66:1–25. External links WebElements, lists values of electronegativities by a number of different methods of calculation Video explaining electronegativity | Electronegativity |@lemmatized electronegativity:92 symbol:1 χ:1 chemical:13 property:10 describe:3 ability:3 atom:22 rarely:1 functional:2 group:11 attract:4 electron:25 density:3 towards:1 covalent:6 bond:20 iupac:1 compendium:1 terminology:1 affect:2 atomic:11 weight:1 distance:1 valence:7 reside:1 charge:7 nucleus:2 first:6 propose:9 linus:2 pauling:28 development:1 theory:2 show:5 correlate:3 number:7 cannot:2 directly:2 measure:6 must:1 calculate:8 molecular:2 several:3 method:15 calculation:9 although:3 may:2 small:3 difference:7 numerical:2 value:14 periodic:7 trend:5 element:26 commonly:2 use:13 originally:1 give:4 dimensionless:2 quantity:1 refer:2 scale:10 relative:2 run:1 hydrogen:5 conventional:1 obligatory:1 quote:3 result:4 cover:1 range:2 know:3 unit:4 usually:4 strictly:1 rather:1 molecule:5 nature:1 edn:3 ithaca:1 ny:1 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6,686 | Kwanzaa | Kwanzaa is a week-long African American holiday honoring African heritage, marked by participants lighting a kinara (candle holder). It is observed from December 26 to January 1 each year, primarily in the United States. Kwanzaa consists of seven days of celebration, featuring activities such as candle-lighting and pouring of libations, and culminating in a feast and gift giving. It was created by Ron Karenga and was first celebrated from December 26, 1966, to January 1, 1967. History and etymology 2008 Kwanzaa Movie The Black Candle narrated by Maya Angelou Ron Karenga created Kwanzaa in 1966 as the first specifically African-American holiday. Karenga said his goal was to "...give Blacks an alternative to the existing holiday and give Blacks an opportunity to celebrate themselves and history, rather than simply imitate the practice of the dominant society." Kwanzaa: origin, concepts, practice p. 21 The name Kwanzaa derives from the Swahili phrase "matunda ya kwanza", meaning "first fruits". The choice of Swahili, an East African language, reflects its status as a symbol of Pan-Africanism, especially in the 1960s. Kwanzaa is a celebration that has its roots in the black nationalist movement of the 1960s, and was established as a means to help African Americans reconnect with their African cultural and historical heritage by uniting in meditation and study of "African traditions" and "common humanist principles." The first Kwanzaa stamp was issued by the United States Postal Service on October 22, 1997 Bringing Good Into the World at the Natural History Museum in Los Angeles, California. In 2004 a second Kwanzaa stamp, created by artist Daniel Minter was issued which has seven figures in colorful robes symbolizing the seven principles. Kwanzaa featured on this year's holiday U.S. postage stamp During the early years of Kwanzaa, Karenga said that it was meant to be an alternative to Christmas, that "Jesus was psychotic", and that Christianity was a white religion that blacks should shun. However, as Kwanzaa gained mainstream adherents, Karenga altered his position so as not to alienate practicing Christians, then stating in the 1997 Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community, and Culture, "Kwanzaa was not created to give people an alternative to their own religion or religious holiday." The story of Kwanzaa The origins of Kwanzaa are not secret and are openly acknowledged by those promoting the holiday. Many Christian African-Americans who celebrate Kwanzaa do so in addition to observing Christmas.. Principles of Kwanzaa Kwanzaa celebrates what its founder called "The Seven Principles of Kwanzaa," or Nguzo Saba (originally Nguzu Saba - "The Seven Principles of Blackness"), which Karenga said "is a communitarian African philosophy" consisting of what Karenga called "the best of African thought and practice in constant exchange with the world." These seven principles comprise Kawaida, a Swahili term for tradition and reason. Each of the seven days of Kwanzaa is dedicated to one of the following principles, as follows: Umoja (Unity) To strive for and to maintain unity in the family, community, nation and race. Kujichagulia (Self-Determination) To define ourselves, name ourselves, create for ourselves and speak for ourselves. Ujima (Collective Work and Responsibility) To build and maintain our community together and make our brothers' and sisters' problems our problems and to solve them together. Ujamaa (Cooperative Economics) To build and maintain our own stores, shops and other businesses and to profit from them together. Nia (Purpose) To make our collective vocation the building and developing of our community in order to restore our people to their traditional greatness. Kuumba (Creativity) To do always as much as we can, in the way we can, in order to leave our community more beautiful and beneficial than we inherited it. imani (Faith) To believe with all our heart in our people, our parents, our teachers, our leaders and the righteousness and victory of our struggle. Popularity In President George W. Bush's 2004 Presidential Kwanzaa Message, he said that, "During Kwanzaa, millions of African Americans and people of African descent gather to celebrate their heritage and ancestry. Kwanzaa celebrations provide an opportunity to focus on the importance of family, community, and history, and to reflect on the Nguzo Saba or seven principles of African culture. These principles emphasize unity, self-determination, collective work and responsibility, cooperative economics, purpose, creativity, and faith." In 2004 BIGresearch conducted a marketing survey in the United States for the National Retail Foundation, which found that 1.6% of those surveyed planned to celebrate Kwanzaa. If generalized to the US population as a whole, this would imply that around 4.7 million Americans planned to celebrate Kwanzaa in that year "2004 Holiday Spending by Region", 'Survey by BIGresearch, conducted for National Retail Foundation', 14 October 2004 . In a 2006 speech, Maulana Karenga asserted that 28 million people celebrate Kwanzaa. He has always maintained it is celebrated all over the world. Lee D. Baker puts the number at 12 million. Dispatches from the Ebony Tower By Manning Marable Page 224 Observance Families celebrating Kwanzaa decorate their households with objects of art, colorful African cloth, especially the wearing of kaftans by women, and fresh fruits that represent African idealism. It is customary to include children in Kwanzaa ceremonies and to give respect and gratitude to ancestors. Libations are shared, generally with a common chalice, "Kikombe cha Umoja" passed around to all celebrants. Non-African Americans also celebrate Kwanzaa. The holiday greeting is "joyous Kwanzaa." A Kwanzaa ceremony may include drumming and musical selections, libations, a reading of the "African Pledge" and the Principles of Blackness, reflection on the Pan-African colors, a discussion of the African principle of the day or a chapter in African history, a candle-lighting ritual, artistic performance, and, finally, a feast (Karamu). The greeting for each day of Kwanzaa is "Habari Gani," Kwanzaa Greeting which is Swahili for "What's the News?" A Model Kwanzaa Ceremony At first, observers of Kwanzaa eschewed the mixing of the holiday or its symbols, values and practice with other holidays. They felt that doing so would violate the principle of kujichagulia (self-determination) and thus violate the integrity of the holiday, which is partially intended as a reclamation of important African values. Today, many African-American families celebrate Kwanzaa along with Christmas and New Year's. Frequently, both Christmas trees and kinaras, the traditional candle holder symbolic of African-American roots, share space in kwanzaa celebrating households. To them, Kwanzaa is an opportunity to incorporate elements of their particular ethnic heritage into holiday observances and celebrations of Christmas. Cultural exhibitions include "The Spirit of Kwanzaa," an annual celebration held at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts featuring interpretive dance, African dance, song and poetry. The Spirit of Kwanzaa The Dance Institute of Washington Evolution in Kwanzaa's observance In 1977, in Kwanzaa: origin, concepts, practice, Karenga stated, that Kwanzaa "was chosen to give a Black alternative to the existing holiday and give Blacks an opportunity to celebrate themselves and history, rather than simply imitate the practice of the dominant society." Kwanzaa: origin, concepts, practice, p. 21, cited at In 1997, Karenga and the community evolved, stating that while Kwanzaa is an African-American holiday, it can be celebrated by people of any race: "other people can and do celebrate it, just like other people participate in Cinco de Mayo besides Mexicans; Chinese New Year besides Chinese; Native American pow wows besides Native Americans." Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community and Culture, p. 110, cited at Currently, according to the Official Kwanzaa Website authored by Karenga and maintained by Organization US, which Karenga chairs, "Kwanzaa was not created to give people an alternative to their own religion or religious holiday. And it is not an alternative to people's religion or faith but a common ground of African culture...Kwanzaa is not a reaction or substitute for anything. In fact, it offers a clear and self-conscious option, opportunity and chance to make a proactive choice, a self-affirming and positive choice as distinct from a reactive one." Karenga's most recent interpretation emphasizes that while every people has its own holiday traditions, all people can share in the celebration of our common humanity: "Any particular message that is good for a particular people, if it is human in its content and ethical in its grounding, speaks not just to that people, it speaks to the world." Criticism There has been criticism of Kwanzaa's authenticity and relevance, and of the motivations of its founder, Karenga. Kwanzaa has been criticized because it is not a traditional holiday of African people, and because of its recent provenance, having been created in 1966. In 1999, syndicated columnist, and later White House Press Secretary, Tony Snow wrote that "There is no part of Kwanzaa that is not fraudulent." http://www.jewishworldreview.com/tony/snow123199.asp Kwanzaa film The Black Candle, a documentary by M.K. Asante, Jr., narrated by Maya Angelou, is a 2008 film about Kwanzaa. The first feature film about the holiday, the film uses Kwanzaa as a vehicle to celebrate the African-American experience. See also Dashiki - A shirt or suit worn during Kwanzaa celebrations Kufi - A cap worn during Kwanzaa celebrations Kaftan (boubou) - A dress worn by women during Kwanzaa celebrations Further reading A program to raise the faith level in African-American children through Scripture, Kwanzaa principles and culture, Janette Elizabeth Chandler Kotey, DMin, Oral Roberts University,1999 The US Organization: African-American cultural nationalism in the era of Black Power, 1965 to the 1970s, Scot D. Brown, PhD, Cornell University, 1999 Rituals of race, ceremonies of culture: Kwanzaa and the making of a Black Power holiday in the United States,1966—2000, Keith Alexander Mayes, PhD, Princeton University, 2002 Interview: Kwanzaa creator Ron Karenga discusses the evolution of the holiday and its meaning in 2004 By: Tony Cox. Tavis Smiley (NPR), 12/26/2003 Tolerance in the News: Kwanzaa: A threat to Christmas? By Camille Jackson | Staff Writer, Tolerance.org, 12/22/2005 References External links The Black Candle - A Kwanzaa Film narrated by Maya Angelou iKwanzaa.com - Rich and engaging information about Kwanzaa KwanzaaPages.com - Kwanzaa Business & Community Directory Everything About Kwanzaa (The International Kwanzaa Exchange [TIKE]) "The Story of Kwaanza" (The Dartmouth Review, January 15, 2001) The History Channel: Kwanzaa everything you want to know about Kwanzaa | Kwanzaa |@lemmatized kwanzaa:70 week:1 long:1 african:30 american:15 holiday:20 honor:1 heritage:4 mark:1 participant:1 light:2 kinara:1 candle:7 holder:2 observe:2 december:2 january:3 year:6 primarily:1 united:4 state:7 consist:1 seven:8 day:4 celebration:11 feature:4 activity:1 lighting:1 pouring:1 libation:3 culminate:1 feast:2 gift:1 give:8 create:7 ron:3 karenga:15 first:6 celebrate:16 history:7 etymology:1 movie:1 black:11 narrate:3 maya:3 angelou:3 specifically:1 say:4 goal:1 alternative:6 exist:2 opportunity:5 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cornell:1 making:1 keith:1 alexander:1 mayes:1 princeton:1 interview:1 creator:1 discuss:1 cox:1 tavis:1 smiley:1 npr:1 tolerance:2 threat:1 camille:1 jackson:1 staff:1 writer:1 org:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 ikwanzaa:1 rich:1 engaging:1 information:1 kwanzaapages:1 directory:1 everything:2 international:1 tike:1 kwaanza:1 dartmouth:1 review:1 channel:1 want:1 know:1 |@bigram maya_angelou:3 pan_africanism:1 kwanzaa_celebration:7 los_angeles:1 postage_stamp:1 celebrate_kwanzaa:7 self_determination:3 w_bush:1 christmas_tree:1 holiday_observance:1 performing_art:1 cinco_de:1 pow_wow:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
6,687 | National_League_Championship_Series | NLCS 2008 Game 3 between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies played at Dodger Stadium In Major League Baseball, the National League Championship Series (NLCS) determines who wins the National League pennant and advances to Major League Baseball's championship, the World Series, facing the winner of the American League Championship Series. The reigning National League Champions are the Philadelphia Phillies. Prior to 1969, the National League champion (the "pennant winner") was determined by the best win-loss record at the end of the regular season. There were four ad hoc three-game playoff series due to ties under this formulation (in 1946, 1951, 1959 and 1962), as also happened once (1948) in the American League (the AL, however, used a single-game playoff). A structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best-of-five series to determine who would advanced to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven. The NLCS and ALCS, since the expansion to best-of-seven, are always played in a 2-3-2 format: Games 1, 2, 6 and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home field advantage, and Games 3, 4 and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not. Home field advantage is given to the team that has the better record, with the exception that the team that made the playoffs as the Wild Card team cannot get home field advantage. In 1981, a divisional series was held due to a split season caused by a players' strike. In 1994, the league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and a wild-card team advancing to a best-of-five playoff round, the National League Division Series (NLDS). The winners of that round advance to the best-of-seven NLCS. The NLDS was first played in 1995 due to the cancellation of the 1994 postseason during another players' strike. The Milwaukee Brewers are the only National League team to have not played in the NLCS. However, the Brewers as an American League team from 1969 through 1997, played in and won the 1982 American League Championship Series. A Most Valuable Player (MVP) award is given to the outstanding player in each series, though voters can consider performances made during the divisional series. The Warren Giles Trophy, named for the president of the NL from 1951 to 1969, is awarded to the NLCS winner. NLCS results (1969-present) Year Winner Loser Wins Losses Series MVP Notable Television Network 1969 New York Mets Atlanta Braves 3 0 NBC 1970 Cincinnati Reds Pittsburgh Pirates 3 0 NBC 1971 Pittsburgh Pirates San Francisco Giants 3 1 First League Championship Series that didn't result in a sweep. NBC 1972 Cincinnati Reds Pittsburgh Pirates 3 2 After Johnny Bench hit a Game 5-tying home run, Bob Moose threw a 9th-inning wild pitch to send the Reds to the World Series. NBC 1973 New York Mets Cincinnati Reds 3 2 This series is best remembered for a fight between Pete Rose and Bud Harrelson. NBC 1974 Los Angeles Dodgers Pittsburgh Pirates 3 1 NBC 1975 Cincinnati Reds Pittsburgh Pirates 3 0 NBC 1976 Cincinnati Reds Philadelphia Phillies 3 0 The Reds became the only NL team to sweep the postseason when they went on to defeat the Yankees in a four-game World Series. ABC 1977 Los Angeles Dodgers Philadelphia Phillies 3 1 Dusty Baker, Los Angeles After splitting the first two games, the Phils lead Game Three going into the ninth inning. But an error by Greg Luzinski in left field and a questionable call by umpire Bruce Froemming give the Dodgers the win and the momentum to take the series. NBC 1978 Los Angeles Dodgers Philadelphia Phillies 3 1 Steve Garvey, Los Angeles ABC 1979 Pittsburgh Pirates Cincinnati Reds 3 0 Willie Stargell, Pittsburgh After losing to the Reds three times in the NLCS, the Pirates finally get revenge. NBC 1980 Philadelphia Phillies Houston Astros 3 2 Manny Trillo, Philadelphia Phillies win their first pennant since 1950. Numerous surveys and articles rank this as one of the best postseason series of all time; the final four games went to extra innings. ABC 1981 Los Angeles Dodgers Montreal Expos 3 2 Burt Hooton, Los Angeles A key home run by Rick Monday, off Steve Rogers, eliminated the Expos in their only postseason appearance. NBC 1982 St. Louis Cardinals Atlanta Braves 3 0 Darrell Porter, St. Louis Due to a rainout Game 1 of the series had to be played twice. ABC 1983 Philadelphia Phillies Los Angeles Dodgers 3 1 Gary Matthews, Philadelphia Philadelphia prevailed despite having lost 11 of 12 regular-season meetings. NBC 1984 San Diego Padres Chicago Cubs 3 2 Steve Garvey, San Diego After Garvey hit a game-winning home run in Game 4, the Padres finished their 2-0 comeback in Game 5 after Leon Durham made a crucial error. ABC 1985 St. Louis Cardinals Los Angeles Dodgers 4 2 Ozzie Smith, St. Louis The first best-of-seven NLCS. Smith ended Game 5 with his first ever left-handed home run, and in Game 6 Tom Niedenfuer surrendered his second big homer in as many games when Jack Clark struck the deciding blow. NBC 1986 New York Mets Houston Astros 4 2 Mike Scott, Houston In the first NLCS between expansion teams, Scott pitched two complete games, but Lenny Dykstra and Gary Carter provided game-winning heroics for the Mets before an epic 16-inning classic in Game 6 closed out the series. ABC 1987 St. Louis Cardinals San Francisco Giants 4 3 Jeff Leonard, San Francisco Although Leonard hit home runs in each of the first 4 games of the series, it would not be enough as Cardinal pitchers John Tudor and Danny Cox hurled shutouts in Games 6 and 7. NBC 1988 Los Angeles Dodgers New York Mets 4 3 Orel Hershiser, Los Angeles The Dodgers scored a memorable 7-game upset victory over the heavily favored Mets. Hershiser, the series MVP, pitched an LCS-record 24⅔ innings, while Kirk Gibson hit 2 key home runs. ABC 1989 San Francisco Giants Chicago Cubs 4 1 Will Clark, San Francisco Will Clark set LCS records with a .650 AVG, 8 runs scored and 24 total bases as the Giants stormed to a 5-game series victory for their first NL pennant since 1962. NBC 1990 Cincinnati Reds Pittsburgh Pirates 4 2 Rob Dibble and Randy Myers, Cincinnati Led by "Nasty Boys" Dibble, Myers and Norm Charlton coming out of the bullpen, the Reds won their first pennant since 1976, defeating the Pirates in 6 games in a record fifth NLCS meeting between the two. Ironically, the two had been the only N.L. teams to miss the playoffs every year of the 1980s. CBS 1991 Atlanta Braves Pittsburgh Pirates 4 3 Steve Avery, Atlanta Steve Avery's record 16.1 scoreless innings pitched led the unheralded Braves to a 7-game series victory and their first pennant since 1958. CBS 1992 Atlanta Braves Pittsburgh Pirates 4 3 John Smoltz, Atlanta Down in the 9th inning, Francisco Cabrera singled home two runs to bring Atlanta their second pennant in a row. CBS 1993 Philadelphia Phillies Atlanta Braves 4 2 Curt Schilling, Philadelphia Kim Batiste, in his only postseason at-bat ever, hit the game-winning single in the 10th inning of Game 1 after making a 9th-inning throwing error that led to the tying run. CBS 1994 Not held due to labor dispute. 1995 Atlanta Braves Cincinnati Reds 4 0 Mike Devereaux, Atlanta The Braves wiped out the Reds in the first-ever four game sweep in NLCS history. ABC (Games 1-2), NBC (Games 3-4) 1996 Atlanta Braves St. Louis Cardinals 4 3 Javy López, Atlanta Atlanta came back from a 3-1 deficit by winning 2 of their next 3 games in blowout fashion. The combined score in those games was 32-1. FOX 1997 Florida Marlins† Atlanta Braves 4 2 Liván Hernández, Florida Filling in for an ill Kevin Brown, rookie Liván Hernández recorded 15 strikeouts in a crucial Game 5 victory that would tilt the series in Florida's favor and send them to their first World Series. NBC 1998 San Diego Padres Atlanta Braves 4 2 Sterling Hitchcock, San Diego Buoyed by strong pitching performances by series MVP Hitchcock, Kevin Brown and Andy Ashby, the Padres raced to a 3-0 series lead before wrapping up their first NL title since 1984. FOX 1999 Atlanta Braves New York Mets† 4 2 Eddie Pérez, Atlanta The Mets, in their first LCS appearance since 1988, won on a Robin Ventura hit in the 15th inning of a rainy Game 5. In Game 6, Kenny Rogers walked Andruw Jones with the bases loaded to give the Braves the pennant in extra innings. NBC 2000 New York Mets† St. Louis Cardinals 4 1 Mike Hampton, New York The Mets beat the Cardinals in 5 games thanks mostly to timely hitting and clutch pitching. Mike Hampton's 3-hit shutout in the clinching game gave the Mets their first pennant since 1986. FOX 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks Atlanta Braves 4 1 Craig Counsell, Arizona Arizona advanced to the World Series in only their 4th year of existence. FOX 2002 San Francisco Giants† St. Louis Cardinals 4 1 Benito Santiago, San Francisco Kenny Lofton's game-winning single wins San Francisco its first pennant since 1989. FOX 2003 Florida Marlins† Chicago Cubs 4 3 Iván Rodríguez, Florida In the Cubs' first LCS appearance since 1989, Steve Bartman earned infamy as Florida battled back from a 3-1 hole to extend the Billy Goat Curse. Rodriguez had an NLCS record 10 RBI. FOX 2004 St. Louis Cardinals Houston Astros† 4 3 Albert Pujols, St. Louis Pujols set NLCS records with 14 hits, 28 total bases and 4 home runs. Houston's Carlos Beltran matched the latter mark. The Cardinals' first pennant since 1987. FOX 2005 Houston Astros† St. Louis Cardinals 4 2 Roy Oswalt, Houston The Astros' first NL championship. Albert Pujols' 3 run home run in Game 5 with 2 outs in the 9th temporarily saved the Cardinals from elimination. FOX 2006 St. Louis Cardinals New York Mets 4 3 Jeff Suppan, St. Louis St. Louis won the series behind strong pitching and a home run from Yadier Molina in Game 7. Suppan pitched Game 3 & 7, and had an 0.60 ERA in the LDS & LCS. FOX 2007 Colorado Rockies† Arizona Diamondbacks4 0 Matt Holliday, Colorado This was the first NLCS between two NL West teams. The Rockies, in their first NLCS, became the first team ever to sweep both the division and championship series. TBS 2008 Philadelphia Phillies Los Angeles Dodgers4 1 Cole Hamels, Philadelphia The fourth time that the Phillies and Dodgers have met in the NLCS. FOX†Denotes wild-card team (since 1995). See also National League pennant winners 1876-1968 National League Division Series (NLDS) NL Wildcard (since 1994) References | National_League_Championship_Series |@lemmatized nlcs:17 game:42 los:13 angeles:13 dodger:12 philadelphia:14 phillies:11 play:9 stadium:3 major:2 league:18 baseball:2 national:9 championship:7 series:33 determines:1 win:14 pennant:12 advance:5 world:6 face:1 winner:8 american:5 reign:1 champion:2 prior:1 determine:2 best:9 loss:2 record:9 end:2 regular:2 season:3 four:4 ad:1 hoc:1 three:5 playoff:6 due:5 tie:2 formulation:1 also:2 happen:1 al:1 however:2 use:1 single:4 structured:1 begin:1 reorganize:1 two:8 division:7 east:1 west:2 within:1 five:2 would:3 format:2 change:1 seven:4 alcs:1 since:13 expansion:2 always:1 team:14 home:13 field:4 advantage:3 give:5 good:1 exception:1 make:4 wild:4 card:3 cannot:1 get:2 divisional:2 hold:2 split:2 cause:1 player:4 strike:3 restructure:1 round:2 nlds:3 first:23 cancellation:1 postseason:5 another:1 milwaukee:1 brewer:2 valuable:1 mvp:4 award:2 outstanding:1 though:1 voter:1 consider:1 performance:2 warren:1 giles:1 trophy:1 name:1 president:1 nl:7 result:2 present:1 year:3 loser:1 notable:1 television:1 network:1 new:8 york:8 mets:12 atlanta:18 brave:14 nbc:17 cincinnati:9 red:10 pittsburgh:10 pirate:11 san:12 francisco:9 giant:5 sweep:4 johnny:1 bench:1 hit:9 tying:1 run:13 bob:1 moose:1 throw:2 inning:11 pitch:4 send:2 reds:3 remember:1 fight:1 pete:1 rise:1 bud:1 harrelson:1 become:2 go:3 defeat:2 yankee:1 abc:8 dusty:1 baker:1 phils:1 lead:5 ninth:1 error:3 greg:1 luzinski:1 left:1 questionable:1 call:1 umpire:1 bruce:1 froemming:1 momentum:1 take:1 steve:6 garvey:3 willie:1 stargell:1 lose:2 time:3 finally:1 revenge:1 houston:7 astros:5 manny:1 trillo:1 numerous:1 survey:1 article:1 rank:1 one:1 final:1 extra:2 montreal:1 expos:1 burt:1 hooton:1 key:2 rick:1 monday:1 rogers:2 eliminate:1 expo:1 appearance:3 st:14 louis:14 cardinal:13 darrell:1 porter:1 rainout:1 twice:1 gary:2 matthew:1 prevail:1 despite:1 meeting:2 diego:4 padre:4 chicago:3 cub:3 finish:1 comeback:1 leon:1 durham:1 crucial:2 ozzie:1 smith:2 ever:4 leave:1 hand:1 tom:1 niedenfuer:1 surrender:1 second:2 big:1 homer:1 many:1 jack:1 clark:3 decide:1 blow:1 mike:4 scott:2 complete:1 lenny:1 dykstra:1 carter:1 provide:1 winning:1 heroic:1 epic:1 classic:1 close:1 jeff:2 leonard:2 although:1 enough:1 pitcher:1 john:2 tudor:1 danny:1 cox:1 hurl:1 shutout:2 orel:1 hershiser:2 score:3 memorable:1 upset:1 victory:4 heavily:1 favor:2 lcs:5 kirk:1 gibson:1 set:2 avg:1 total:2 base:3 storm:1 rob:1 dibble:2 randy:1 myers:2 nasty:1 boy:1 norm:1 charlton:1 come:2 bullpen:1 fifth:1 ironically:1 n:1 l:1 miss:1 every:1 cbs:4 avery:2 scoreless:1 unheralded:1 smoltz:1 cabrera:1 bring:1 row:1 curt:1 schilling:1 kim:1 batiste:1 bat:1 labor:1 dispute:1 devereaux:1 wipe:1 history:1 javy:1 lópez:1 back:2 deficit:1 next:1 blowout:1 fashion:1 combined:1 fox:10 florida:6 marlin:2 liván:2 hernández:2 filling:1 ill:1 kevin:2 brown:2 rookie:1 strikeout:1 tilt:1 sterling:1 hitchcock:2 buoy:1 strong:2 pitching:3 andy:1 ashby:1 race:1 wrap:1 title:1 eddie:1 pérez:1 robin:1 ventura:1 rainy:1 kenny:2 walk:1 andruw:1 jones:1 load:1 hampton:2 beat:1 thanks:1 mostly:1 timely:1 clutch:1 clinching:1 arizona:4 diamondback:1 craig:1 counsell:1 existence:1 benito:1 santiago:1 lofton:1 cubs:1 iván:1 rodríguez:1 bartman:1 earn:1 infamy:1 battle:1 hole:1 extend:1 billy:1 goat:1 curse:1 rodriguez:1 rbi:1 albert:2 pujols:3 carlos:1 beltran:1 match:1 latter:1 mark:1 roy:1 oswalt:1 temporarily:1 save:1 elimination:1 suppan:2 behind:1 yadier:1 molina:1 pitched:1 era:1 lds:1 colorado:2 rockies:2 matt:1 holliday:1 tbs:1 cole:1 hamels:1 fourth:1 meet:1 denotes:1 see:1 wildcard:1 reference:1 |@bigram los_angeles:13 angeles_dodger:9 philadelphia_phillies:10 league_baseball:2 pennant_winner:2 ad_hoc:1 milwaukee_brewer:1 mvp_award:1 winner_loser:1 atlanta_brave:12 pittsburgh_pirate:9 san_francisco:8 johnny_bench:1 tying_home:1 cincinnati_reds:3 bud_harrelson:1 dusty_baker:1 ninth_inning:1 steve_garvey:2 houston_astros:5 montreal_expos:1 rick_monday:1 steve_rogers:1 san_diego:4 diego_padre:2 chicago_cub:2 ozzie_smith:1 lenny_dykstra:1 gary_carter:1 orel_hershiser:1 nl_pennant:1 scoreless_inning:1 inning_pitch:1 john_smoltz:1 curt_schilling:1 florida_marlin:2 liván_hernández:2 robin_ventura:1 kenny_rogers:1 mike_hampton:2 arizona_diamondback:1 craig_counsell:1 kenny_lofton:1 albert_pujols:2 roy_oswalt:1 colorado_rockies:1 matt_holliday:1 |
6,688 | Green_Bay_Packers | The Green Bay Packers are a professional American football team based in Green Bay, Wisconsin. They are members of the North Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL) and are the third-oldest franchise in the NFL. The Packers are the last vestige of "small town teams" that were once common in the NFL during the 1920s and 1930s. Founded in 1919 by Earl "Curly" Lambeau (thus the name Lambeau Field in which the team plays) and George Whitney Calhoun, the Green Bay Packers can trace their lineage to other semi-professional teams in Green Bay dating back to 1896. In 1919 and 1920 the Packers competed as a semi-professional football team against clubs from around Wisconsin and the Midwest. They joined the American Professional Football Association (APFA) in 1921, the forerunner to what is known today as the National Football League (NFL). The Green Bay Packers have won twelve league championships (more than any other team in the NFL) including nine NFL Championships prior to the Super Bowl era and three Super Bowl victories in 1967 (Super Bowl I), 1968 (Super Bowl II) and 1997 (Super Bowl XXXI). The team has a fierce rivalry with the Chicago Bears, whom they have played in over 170 games. The Packers also share a historic rivalry with the Minnesota Vikings, who reside in the NFC North along with the Packers, and the Dallas Cowboys who have historically been known as the Packers largest playoff rivals after the Packers defeated them in the famous Ice Bowl. Super Bowls & Championships from Packers.com. Obtained February 5, 2007. The Packers are the only non-profit, community-owned major league professional sports team in the United States. Beginning with the 1992 season, the Packers had 13 non-losing seasons in a row (their worst record being 8–8 in 1999), two Super Bowl appearances, and one Super Bowl win (Super Bowl XXXI). The Packers' 13 consecutive non-losing seasons was an active NFL record until the team finally suffered a losing campaign in their 2005 season. They returned to have an 8–8 season in 2006 and a 13–3 regular season in 2007, both under new head coach Mike McCarthy. Franchise history Founding Curly LambeauThe Green Bay Packers were founded on August 14, 1919 by former high-school football rivals Earl "Curly" Lambeau and George Whitney Calhoun. Lambeau solicited funds for uniforms from his employer, the Indian Packing Company. He was given $500 for uniforms and equipment, on the condition that the team be named for its sponsor. Today "Green Bay Packers" is the oldest team-name still in use in the NFL. On August 20, 1920, the Packers became a franchise in the new national pro football league that had been formed the previous year. Financial troubles plagued the team and the franchise was lost the same year, although Lambeau found new backers the next year and regained the franchise. The financial backers, known as the "Hungry Five," formed the Green Bay Football Corporation. Championships The Packers claim 12 World Championships, the most in the NFL (the next closest team is the Chicago Bears, with nine). The first three were decided by league standing, the next six by the NFL Title Game, and the final three by Super Bowl victories. The Packers are also the only team to win three straight NFL titles, having accomplished this twice (1929–1931 and 1965–67). 1959–1967 The Packers of the 1960s under coach Vince Lombardi won five league championships over a seven-year span that culminated with victories in the first two Super Bowls. During the Lombardi era, the stars of the Packers' offense included quarterback Bart Starr, running-backs Jim Taylor, Carroll Dale and Paul Hornung (who also kicked extra-points and field-goals), and #64 right guard Jerry Kramer; the defense included Henry Jordan, Willie Wood, Ray Nitschke, Dave Robinson, and Herb Adderley. 1959 In their first game under Lombardi on September 27, 1959, the Packers shut out the Chicago Bears at Lambeau Field. The Packers got off to a 3–0 start, but lost the next five and won the last four games, to achieve their first winning season since 1947. 1960 The next year, the Packers, led by Paul Hornung's 176 points, won the NFL West title, and played in the NFL Championship against the Philadelphia Eagles at Philadelphia. In a see-saw game, the Packers trailed the Eagles by four points late in the game, when Chuck Bednarik tackled Jim Taylor just nine yards (8 m) short of the goal line as time ran out. They claimed that they did not "lose" that game; they were simply behind in the score when time ran out on them. The Packers would never again lose the NFL Championship game under Lombardi. 1961 The Pack in 1920The Packers returned to the NFL Championship game the following season and faced the New York Giants. The Packers scored 24 second-quarter points, as Paul Hornung, on special "loan" from the Army, scored an NFL Championship record 19 points (one touchdown, four extra-points and three field-goals), and the Packers beat the Giants (of also legendary-fame Y.A.Title and Frank Gifford), to win their first NFL Championship since 1944. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/16/sports/football/16giants.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&th&emc=th NYTimes article of January 15, 2008 1962 The Packers stormed back in the 1962 season, jumping out to a 10–0 start, on their way to a 13–1 season. This consistent level of success would lead to Lombardi's Packers becoming one of the most prominent teams of their era, and even to their being featured as the face of the NFL on the cover of Time on December 21, 1962, as part of the magazine's cover story on "The Sport of the '60s". Shortly after Time's article, the Packers faced the Giants in a much more brutal championship game than the previous year, but the Packers prevailed on the surprising foot of Jerry Kramer and the determined running of Jim Taylor. The Packers defeated the Giants, 16–7. 1965 The Packers returned to the championship game in 1965 following a two-year absence, when they defeated the Colts in a playoff for the Western Conference title. That game would be remembered for Don Chandler's controversial field goal in which the ball allegedly went wide right, but the official raised his arms to grant the three points. That disputed win earned the Packers a trip to the NFL Championship game, where Hornung and Taylor ran through the Cleveland Browns, helping the Packers defeat the Browns to earn their 3rd NFL Championship under Lombardi. 1966 The 1966 season saw the Packers being led by NFL MVP Bart Starr. The Packers went 12–2, and in the NFL Championship, with the Packers leading 34–27, the Dallas Cowboys had the ball on the Packers' line, threatening to tie the ballgame. But on fourth down, the Packers' Tom Brown intercepted a Don Meredith pass in the end zone to preserve the victory. The Packers went on to win Super Bowl I 35–10 over the Kansas City Chiefs. 1967 The 1967 season was the last one for Vince Lombardi as the Packers' head coach. That year's NFL Championship game, known universally as the Ice Bowl, is one of the most famous football games (college or professional) in the history of the sport. With 16 seconds left, Bart Starr's touchdown on a quarterback sneak brought the Packers their third straight NFL Championship - a feat no other team has matched since. The Packers then won Super Bowl II with a 33–14 victory over the Oakland Raiders. Lombardi became the General Manager of the Packers in 1968, and Phil Bengtson was named as Head Coach. Lombardi left Green Bay in 1969, and was named Head Coach of the Washington Redskins. After the death of Vince Lombardi in September 1970, the Super Bowl trophy was renamed the Vince Lombardi Trophy, in recognition of his, and his team's, accomplishments. The road that goes by Lambeau Field, which is also one of Green Bay's major thoroughfares, was named Lombardi Avenue in honor of the coach. 1968–1991 For about a quarter century after Lombardi's departure, the Packers had relatively little on-field success. In the 24 seasons from 1968 to 1991, the Packers had only five seasons with a winning record (above .500), one being the shortened 1982 strike season. They appeared in the playoffs twice during that period, with a record of 1–2. The period saw five different head coaches - Phil Bengtson, Dan Devine, Bart Starr, Forrest Gregg, and Lindy Infante - two of which were former Packer players in Lombardi's era (Starr and Gregg), and one of which was a former coach (Bengtson). Examples of poor draft choices shaping seasons are often mentioned in the context of this time period. Examples include the 1974 draft, in which coach Dan Devine sent five draft picks (two first-rounders, two second-rounders and a third) to the Los Angeles Rams for aging quarterback John Hadl who would spend only 1 1/2 seasons in Green Bay. Old School Packers from the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel website. Obtained February 5, 2007 Another came in 1989, when players such as Barry Sanders, Deion Sanders, and Derrick Thomas were available, and the Packers chose offensive lineman Tony Mandarich. Though rated highly by nearly every professional scout at the time, Mandarich's performance failed to meet expectations. ESPN has rated Mandarich as the third "biggest sports flop" in the last 25 years. The 25 Biggest Sports Flops (1979-2004) from ESPN25. Obtained February 5, 2007. 1992–2007: The Brett Favre Era The Packers' performance throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s led to a shakeup in which new General Manager Ron Wolf was hired to take over full control of the team's football operations during the 1991 season. In 1992, Wolf hired San Francisco 49ers offensive coordinator Mike Holmgren to be the Packers' new head coach. <center>Brett FavreSoon after hiring Holmgren, Wolf acquired quarterback Brett Favre from the Atlanta Falcons for a first-round pick. Favre got the Packers' their first win of the 1992 season, stepping in for injured quarterback Don Majkowski and leading the Packers to a comeback win over the Cincinnati Bengals. Favre started the following week with a win against the Pittsburgh Steelers , and never missed a start until leaving the team after the 2007 season. He has started 271 consecutive games (including playoffs), which is an NFL record for a quarterback. The Packers had a 9–7 record in 1992, and began to turn heads around the league when they signed perhaps the most prized free agent in NFL history in Reggie White on the defense. White believed that Wolf, Holmgren, and Favre had the team heading in the right direction with a "total commitment to winning." With White on board the Packers made it to the second round of the playoffs during both the 1993 and 1994 seasons. In 1995, the Packers won the NFC Central Division championship for the first time since 1972. After a home playoff 37–20 win against Atlanta, the Packers defeated the defending Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers 27–17 on the road to advance to the NFC Championship Game, where they lost to the Dallas Cowboys 38–27. In 1996, the Packers' turnaround was complete. The team posted a league-best 13–3 record in the regular season, dominating the competition and securing home field advantage throughout the playoffs. After relatively easy wins against the 49ers (35–14) and Carolina Panthers (30–13) in the playoffs, the Packers advanced to the Super Bowl for the first time in 29 years. In Super Bowl XXXI Green Bay defeated the New England Patriots 35–21 to win their 12th world championship, which is still an NFL record. A 2007 panel of football experts at ESPN ranked the 1996 Packers the 6th-greatest team to ever play in the Super Bowl. The following year the Packers won their second consecutive NFC championship, returning to the Super Bowl as an 11 1/2 point favorite, defeating the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 21–7 and San Francisco 49ers 23–10 in the playoffs. The Packers ended up losing to John Elway and the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXII, by the score of 31–24. In 1998, the Packers went 11–5 and were eliminated in the first-round of the playoffs by the San Francisco 49ers, the team Green Bay had beaten in the playoffs the previous three seasons. This game turned out to be the end of an era, as Mike Holmgren would leave the team days later to become Vice President, General Manager and Head Coach of the Seattle Seahawks. Much of Holmgren's coaching staff went with him. Reggie White also retired after the season (but later played one season for the Carolina Panthers in 2000), and the team struggled for an identity after the departure of so many of the individuals who were responsible for their Super Bowl run. In 2001, Ron Wolf also retired. Packers' President Bob Harlan credited Wolf, Holmgren, Favre, and White for ultimately changing the fortunes of the organization and turning the Green Bay Packers into a model NFL franchise. The Packers had never lost a home playoff game since the NFL instituted a postseason in 1933. They were 13–0—11 of the wins coming at Lambeau and two more in Milwaukee. That ended January 4, 2002, when the Atlanta Falcons defeated the Packers 27–7 in an NFC Wild Card game. Green Bay Packers released Mike Sherman after the 2005 season, due to the Packers finishing 4–12. They went on the hunt soon after, and picked up Mike McCarthy, the former offensive coordinator for the San Francisco 49ers. He was also the former quarterbacks coach for the Packers in 1999. 2007 After missing the playoffs in 2006, Brett Favre announced that he would return for the 2007 season; it would turn out to be one of his best. The Packers won 10 of their first 11 games and finished 13–3, earning a first round bye in the playoffs. The Packers' passing offense, led by Favre and one of the best wide receiver groups in the NFC, finished first in the NFC. Running back Ryan Grant, acquired for a sixth-round draft pick from the New York Giants, became the featured back in Green Bay and rushed for 956 yards and 8 touchdowns in the final 10 games of the regular season. In the divisional playoff round, in a heavy snowstorm, the Packers beat the Seattle Seahawks 42–20. Grant rushed for three touchdowns and over 200 yards, while Favre tossed three touchdown passes. On January 20, 2008, Green Bay appeared in their first NFC Championship Game in 10 years facing the New York Giants in Green Bay. The game was lost 23–20 on an overtime field goal by Lawrence Tynes. Mike McCarthy coached the NFC team during the 2008 Pro Bowl in Hawaii. Al Harris and Aaron Kampman were also picked to play for the NFC Pro Bowl team as starters. Donald Driver was named as a third-string wideout on the Pro Bowl roster. Brett Favre was named the first-string quarterback for the NFC, but he declined to play in the Pro Bowl and was replaced on the roster by Tampa Bay Buccaneers' quarterback Jeff Garcia. The Packers also had several first alternates, including Chad Clifton and Nick Barnett. In December 2007, Ted Thompson was signed to a 5-year contract with the Packers, while it was announced on February 5, 2008 that head coach Mike McCarthy has signed a 5-year contract with the Packers organization as well. 2008 On March 4, 2008, Brett Favre announced his retirement, but filed for reinstatement with the NFL on July 29, 2008 creating turmoil within the Packers organization and a media frenzy across the sports nation. Favre's petition was granted by Commissioner Roger Goodell, effective August 4, 2008. On August 6, 2008 it was announced that Brett Favre was traded to the New York Jets. After Favre had been traded, the Packers started their 2008 season with their 2005 first round draft pick quarterback Aaron Rodgers under center; he was the first quarterback other than Brett Favre to start for the Packers in 16 years. Rodgers played very well his first year starting for the Packers, and in comparison, posted nearly identical statistics as the freshly traded Brett Favre had his final year with the Packers. The team as a whole, however, could not finish their contests and lost 7 games by 4 or less points; resulting in a 6–10 record overall. The reason for the team's poor record was attributed mostly to the numerous injuries on defense that regularly kept six or seven starters off the field at various times throughout the year. After the season's finish, eight coaches were replaced by the management. Bob Sanders, the team's defensive coordinator, was replaced by Dom Capers. 2009 In March 2009, the organization assured fans that Brett Favre's jersey number would be retired, but not during the 2009 season. Public company The Don Hutson Center The Packers are now the only publicly owned company with a board of directors in American professional sports (although other teams are directly owned by publicly traded companies, such as the New York Rangers and New York Knicks (Cablevision), the Seattle Mariners (Nintendo of America), and the Toronto Blue Jays (Rogers Communications)). Typically, a team is owned by one person, partnership, or corporate entity; thus, a "team owner." It has been speculated that this is one of the reasons the Green Bay Packers have never been moved from the city of Green Bay, a city of only 102,313 people as of the 2000 census. By comparison, the typical NFL city is populated in the millions or higher hundred-thousands. The Packers, however, have long had a large following throughout Wisconsin and parts of the Midwest; in fact, for decades, the Packers played four (one pre-season, three regular-season) home games each year in Milwaukee, first at the State Fair Park fairgrounds, then at Milwaukee County Stadium. The Packers did not move their entire home schedule to Green Bay until 1995. County Stadium's replacement, Miller Park, then being planned, was always intended to be a baseball-only stadium instead of a multipurpose stadium. Based on the original "Articles of Incorporation for the (then) Green Bay Football Corporation" put into place in 1923, if the Packers franchise were to have been sold, after the payment of all expenses, any remaining money would go to the Sullivan Post of the American Legion in order to build "a proper soldier's memorial." This stipulation was enacted to ensure the club remained in Green Bay and that there could never be any financial enhancement for the shareholders. At the November 1997 annual meeting, shareholders voted to change the beneficiary from the Sullivan-Wallen Post to the Green Bay Packers Foundation, which makes donations to many charities and institutions throughout Wisconsin. In 1950, the Packers held a stock sale to again raise money to support the team. In 1956, area voters approved the construction of a new city owned stadium. As with its predecessor, the new field was named City Stadium, but after the death of founder Lambeau in 1965, on September 11, 1965, the stadium was renamed Lambeau Field. Another stock sale occurred late in 1997 and early in 1998. It added 105,989 new shareholders and raised over $24 million, money used for the Lambeau Field redevelopment project. Priced at $200 per share, fans bought 120,010 shares during the 17-week sale, which ended March 16, 1998. As of June 8, 2005, 112,015 people (representing 4,750,934 shares) can lay claim to a franchise ownership interest. Shares of stock include voting rights, but the redemption price is minimal, no dividends are ever paid, the stock cannot appreciate in value - though private sales often exceed the face value of the stock, and stock ownership brings no season ticket privileges. No shareholder may own over 200,000 shares, a safeguard to ensure that no individual can assume control of the club. To run the corporation, a board of directors is elected by the stockholders. The board of directors in turn elect a seven-member Executive Committee (officers) of the corporation, consisting of a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary and three members-at-large. The president is the only officer to draw compensation; the rest of the committee is sitting "gratis." The team's elected president represents the Packers in NFL owners meetings unless someone else is designated. During his time as coach, Vince Lombardi generally represented the team at league meetings in his role as general manager, except at owners-only meetings. Green Bay is the only team with this form of ownership structure in the NFL; such ownership is technically in direct violation of league rules, which stipulate a limit of 32 owners of one team and one of those owners having a minimum 30% stake. However, the Packers corporation was grandfathered when the NFL's current ownership policy was established, and are thus exempt. Board of Directors Green Bay Packers, Inc., is governed by a seven-member Executive Committee, elected from a board of directors. The committee directs corporate management, approves major capital expenditures, establishes broad policy and monitors management's performance in conducting the business and affairs of the corporation. Green Bay Packers Foundation The team created the Green Bay Packers Foundation in December 1986. The foundation assists in a wide variety of activities and programs that benefit education, civic affairs, health services, human services and youth-related programs. At the team's 1999 annual stockholders meeting, it was voted to make the foundation the recipient of any remaining assets if the team were to be sold or dissolved. In 1923, the Packers were incorporated in Wisconsin as a nonprofit corporation. Stipulations were that if the Packers were sold, all assets would be transferred to the Sullivan-Wallen Post of the American Legion in order to build a "proper soldiers memorial." No shareholder can own more than 200,000 shares in the company. This has put the Packers in a unique situation, as it would be impossible to move the team from Wisconsin. In turn, the franchise has remained in the tiny market of Green Bay. Fan base Annual postcard sent out by the organization to those currently on the waiting list for season tickets The Packers' fan base is famously dedicated: regardless of the team's performance, every Packers game at Lambeau Field has been sold out since 1960. Despite the Packers having by far the smallest local TV market, the Packers have developed one of the largest fan bases in the NFL. Each year they consistently rank as one of the top teams in terms of popularity. Harris Interactive Poll, Packers ranked #4 in 2006,#1 in 2005,#1 in 2004,#1 in 2002 in terms of popularity. The Packers have one of the longest waiting lists for season tickets in professional sports with about 74,000 people as of May 3, 2007. Wikipedia.com - NFL Season Ticket Waiting Lists In 2008 the list grew by more than 4,000 names. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Waitlist_Postcard.jpg That is more names on the waiting list than there are seats at Lambeau Field. The average wait time for season tickets is approximately 35 years, however if one were to be added to the list today the estimated wait would be well over 100 years. SI.com - Writers - Rick Reilly: Be the 74,659th In Line! - Tuesday October 9, 2007 8:12AM For this reason, it is not unusual for fans to designate a recipient of their season tickets in their wills or place newborn infants on the waiting list after receiving birth certificates. ROOTING THE HOME TEAM from The American Prospect magazine, no. 40, September-October 1998, pgs. 38-43. A cheesehead hat, commonly worn by Packer fans Packers fans are often referred to as cheeseheads. The term is often used to refer to people from the state of Wisconsin in general (because of its cheese production), but is also used to refer to Green Bay Packers fans in particular. The name originated in 1987 as an insult from Chicago White Sox fans at a Milwaukee Brewers game. In years since and particularly beginning in 1994, the name and the hats called "cheeseheads" have also been embraced by Packers fans. During training camp in the summer months (held outside the Don Hutson Center), young Packers fans can take their bikes and have their favorite player ride their bike to the practice field from the locker room. This is an old Packers tradition dating back to approximately 1957 (the first years of Lambeau Field's existence). Gary Knafelc, a Packers end at the time, said, "I think it was just that kids wanted us to ride their bikes. I can remember kids saying, 'Hey, ride my bike.'" The practice continues today. Each year the team holds an intra-squad scrimmage, called Family Night, at Lambeau Field. During 2004 and 2005 over 60,000 fans attended, selling out the stadium bowl. The Packers hosted the Buffalo Bills for the 2005 edition of Family night setting an attendance record with 62,492 fans attending. In August 2008, ESPN.com ranked the Packers as having the second-best fans in the NFL. The team initially finished tied with the Pittsburgh Steelers (who finished ahead of the Packers) as having the best fans, but the tie was broken by ESPN's own John Clayton, a Pittsburgh native. Nickname, logo, and uniforms Packers logo 1961-present. Packers Logo History obtained February 5, 2007 Green Bay Packers uniform: 1984-1988 Green Bay Packers & Cheerleaders Curly Lambeau, the team's founder, solicited funds for uniforms from his employer, the Indian Packing Company. He was given $500 for uniforms and equipment, on condition that the team be named for its sponsor (a similar event would occur the following year with the Decatur Staleys, who later became the Chicago Bears). An early newspaper article referred to the new Green Bay team as "the Indians" but by the time they played their first game they had adopted the name "Packers." In the early days, the Packers also were referred to as the "Bays" and the "Blues" (and even occasionally as "the Big Bay Blues"). These never were official nicknames, although Lambeau did consider replacing "Packers" with "Blues" in the 1920s. In 1920, the Indian Packing Company was purchased by the Acme Packing Company. Acme continued its support of Lambeau's team, and in its first season in the NFL the team wore jerseys with the words "ACME PACKERS" emblazoned on the chest. Lambeau, who attended the University of Notre Dame, chose the team's colors of navy blue and gold from the college. Again, like the Irish, in the 1930s, 1940s and early 1950s the Packers sometimes used green and gold before returning to the traditional blue and gold. In 1959, new head coach Vince Lombardi changed the colors to the hunter green and gold (navy blue was kept as a secondary color, seen primarily on sideline capes, but it was not actually used and quietly was dropped from the team colors list on all official materials shortly thereafter). This color scheme yields the common Packers nickname, "The Green and Gold". In 1994, the NFL's 75th anniversary, the team participated in the league-wide use of "throwback" jerseys. The team has not done so since, and has yet to wear throwback uniforms at home games, though the Packers have worn them for two Thanksgiving Day games against the Detroit Lions. In 2001, the Packers sported throwback uniforms worn in the 1930s, while in 2003 they wore throwback uniforms from the 1960s (which were only slightly different from the current uniforms). Packers Uniform History, 1921-2004 from Packers.com. Obtained February 5, 2007. Packers uniform database Obtained February 5, 2007. While several NFL teams choose to wear white jerseys at home early in the season due to white's ability to reflect the late summer sun's rays, the Packers have chosen to do so on only the opening two games of the 1989 season. Although alternate gold jerseys with green numbers are sold on a retail basis, the team has no plans to introduce such a jersey to be used in actual games. The oval "G" logo was created in 1961 by Packers equipment manager George "Dad" Braisher. The team actually used a number of different logos prior to 1961, but the "G" is the only logo that has ever appeared on the helmet. Packers Fan Clubs from Packers.com. Obtained February 5, 2007. Although the Packers have granted limited permission to other organizations to utilize a similar logo, notably the University of Georgia and Grambling State University, the Packers hold the trademark for it. Adopted in 1964, the Georgia "G"- though different in design and color- was similar to the Packer's "G". Then Georgia head coach Vince Dooley thought it best to clear the use of Georgia's new emblem with the Packers. However, since its inception in 1961, the Packer's "G" has been redesigned several times and now looks like Georgia's original 1964 "G." from Georgiadogs.com. Obtained November 24, 2007. Stadium Lambeau Field after its 2003 renovation The Packers have played home games in Lambeau Field since 1957, making it the longest continuously occupied National Football League stadium. Before 1957, the Packers played home games in City Stadium; the Packers moved to Lambeau Field because the NFL threatened to move the franchise to Milwaukee if a larger stadium was not built in Green Bay. When Lambeau Field was built, it became the first stadium built exclusively for an NFL team. Lambeau Field was originally named City Stadium like its predecessor, but its name was changed after the death of Curly Lambeau. When Lambeau Field opened in 1957, it had a seating capacity of 32,150. The stadium was expanded seven times before the end of the 1990s, and seating capacity reached 60,890. In 2003, Lambeau Field was extensively renovated to expand seating, modernize stadium facilities, and add an atrium area. These renovations raised Lambeau Field's seating capacity to 72,928. Despite the multiple expansions of Lambeau Field, all Packers games have been sold out since 1960, and over 78,000 names are on the waiting list for season tickets. LambeauField.com - Stadium History - Expansions The Packers played two to three home games each year in Milwaukee's County Stadium from 1953 to 1994. The Milwaukee games were played due to the large Packers fan base in Milwaukee. Since County Stadium was primarily a baseball stadium, the field could barely fit a football field, and the end zones extended onto the warning track. In 1994, the Packers left County Stadium due to a seating expansion in Lambeau Field. Statistics and records Season-by-season results This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Packers. For the full season-by-season franchise results, see Green Bay Packers seasons. Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play. Super Bowl Champions (1970–present)Conference ChampionsDivision ChampionsWild Card BerthRecord as of November 2, 2008 {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%; width:98%;" |- !rowspan="2" style="width:5%;"|Season !rowspan="2" style="width:5%;"|Team !rowspan="2" style="width:5%;"|League !rowspan="2" style="width:5%;"|Conference !rowspan="2"|Division !colspan="4"|Regular season !rowspan="2" style="width:27%;"|Post Season Results !rowspan="2" style="width:30%;"|Awards |- !Finish !Wins !Losses !Ties |- !align="center"| |align="center"|2004 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|NFC |align="center" style="background: #D0E7FF;"|North |align="center" style="background: #D0E7FF;"|1st |align="center"|10 |align="center"|6 |align="center"|0 |Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Vikings) (31–17) | |- !align="center"| |align="center"|2005 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|NFC |align="center"|North |align="center"|4th |align="center"|4 |align="center"|12 |align="center"|0 |valign="top"| | |- !align="center"| |align="center"|2006 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|NFC |align="center"|North |align="center"|2nd |align="center"|8 |align="center"|8 |align="center"|0 | | |- !align="center"|2007 |align="center"|2007 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|NFC |align="center" style="background: #D0E7FF;"|North |align="center" style="background: #D0E7FF;"|1st |align="center"|13 |align="center"|3 |align="center"|0 |Won Divisional Playoffs (Seahawks) (42–20)Lost NFC Conference Championship (Giants) (23–20, OT) |Brett Favre (Sportsman of the Year) |- !align="center"| |align="center"|2008 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|NFC |align="center"|North |align="center"|3rd |align="center"|6 |align="center"|10 |align="center"|0 | | |- !align="center" rowSpan="3" colSpan="6"|Total (1921–2007) !align="center"|639 !align="center"|503 !align="center"|36 !colSpan="2"|(1921–2007, includes only regular season) The NFL does not count any seasons played outside of their league in their official records. If the 1919 and 1920 season were counted, the Packers would have 19 more wins, 2 more losses, and 1 more tie in their total results. |- !align="center"|25 !align="center"|14 !align="center"|0 !colSpan="2"|(1921–2006, includes only playoffs) |- !align="center"|664 !align="center"|517 !align="center"|36 !colSpan="2"|(1921–2007, includes both regular season and playoffs; 12 NFL Championships) |- Players of note Roster Pro Football Hall of Famers The Packers have the third most members in the Pro Football Hall of Fame with twenty-six. They trail the Chicago Bears (31) and the New York Giants (27). Breakdown of Hall of Famers by Team from profootballhof.com. 26 Herb Adderly, CB, 1961–1969 3 Tony Canadeo, HB, 1941–1944; 1947–1952 87 Willie Davis, DE, 1960–1969 80 Len Ford, DE, 1958 75 Forrest Gregg, OT, 1956; 1958–1970 83 Ted Hendricks, LB, 1974 38 Arnie Herber, QB, 1930–1940 30 Clarke Hinkle, FB, 1932–1941 5 Paul Hornung, HB, 1956–1962; 1964–1966 36 Cal Hubbard, OT , 1929–1933; 1935 14 Don Hutson, E, 1935–1945 74 Henry Jordan, LB, 1959–1969 2 Walt Kiesling, LM, 1935–193620 Earl (Curly) Lambeau, Coach, 1919–1949 80 James Lofton, WR, 1978–1986 Vince Lombardi, Coach, 1959–1967 24 Johnny "Blood" McNally, HB, 1929–1933 2 Mike Michalske, OG, 1929–1935; 1937 66 Ray Nitschke, LB, 1958–1972 51 Jim Ringo, C, 1953–1963 15 Bart Starr, QB, 1956–1971 10 Jan Stenerud, K, 1980–1983 31 Jim Taylor, FB, 1958–1966 45 Emlen Tunnell, DB, 1959–1961 92 Reggie White, DE, 1993–1998 24 Willie Wood, S, 1960–1971 Retired numbers Retired numbers on display in the Lambeau Field's north end zone in October 2007 In nearly nine decades of Packers football, the Packers have formally retired 5 numbers. Retired Numbers from Packers.com. Obtained April 3, 2009. All five Packers are members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame and their numbers and names are displayed on the green facade of Lambeau Field's north endzone as well as in the Lambeau Field Atrium. + Retired Numbers No. Pos. Player Date retired 14 WR/DB Don Hutson December 2, 1951 vs New York Yanks @ City Stadium 3 HB/QB Tony Canadeo November 23, 1952 vs Dallas Texans @ City Stadium 15 QB Bart Starr November 11, 1973 vs St. Louis Cardinals @ Lambeau Field 66 LB Ray Nitschke December 4, 1983 vs Chicago Bears @ Lambeau Field 92 DE Reggie White September 18, 2005 vs Cleveland Browns @ Lambeau Field After Brett Favre stated his intent to retire in May 2008, the Packers announced that his #4 would be retired in a ceremony during the team's 2008 opening game against the Minnesota Vikings. Favre's No. 4 to become sixth number retired by Packers from NFL.com. Obtained April 3, 2009. The ceremony was cancelled following Favre's subsequent decision to return to the game, and he was traded to the New York Jets. In March 2009, the Packers indicated that the team still intends to retire Favre's number, but due to the circumstances surrounding his departure from the team, no timeline had been set. Favre's No. 4 to be retired, but Packers will wait for ceremony from CBSSports.com. Obtained April 3, 2009. Coaches of note Head coaches NameFromToRecordTitlesWLT Earl (Curly) Lambeau19191949231108216 Gene Ronzani1950November 27, 195314311 Hugh Devore*November 27, 19531953020 Ray (Scooter) McLean* Lisle Blackbourn1954195717310 Ray (Scooter) McLean195819581101 Vince Lombardi19591967983045 Phil Bengtson1968197020211 Dan Devine1971197425284 Bart Starr1975198353773 Forrest Gregg1984198725371 Lindy Infante1988199124400 Mike Holmgren19921998733601 Ray Rhodes19991999880 Mike Sherman2000200556390 Mike McCarthy2006current27210 Total6725213612 * = Interim Head Coaches Current staff Radio and television University of Wisconsin-Green Bay Packers Cheerleaders The Packers are unique in having their market area cover two media markets, both Green Bay and Milwaukee, and blackout policies for the team apply within both areas, though they rarely come into effect due to strong home attendance and popularity. The Packers' flagship radio station is Milwaukee-based WTMJ-AM (620), with the games airing in Green Bay on WTAQ (1360) and WIXX-FM (101.1). Wayne Larrivee is the play-by-play announcer and Larry McCarren is the color analyst. Larrivee joined the team after many years as the Chicago Bears' announcer. Jim Irwin and Max McGee were the longtime radio announcers before Larivee and McCarren. The preseason rights for games not nationally broadcast are held by WFRV (Channel 5) in Green Bay and WTMJ (Channel 4) in Milwaukee, with the coverage airing on other stations around the state; WFRV was previously owned by CBS Corporation until April 2007, when the station was purchased by Liberty Media. Preseason coverage has been produced by CBS, using the NFL on CBS graphics package with the CBS eyemark replaced by the Packers logo. The TV play-by-play announcer, Kevin Harlan (also on loan from CBS), is the son of former Packers president Bob Harlan. In the 2008 pre-season, all of the Packers preseason games on the statewide network were produced and aired in high definition, while two games on WTMJ instead aired over WVTV (Channel 18) due to Channel 4's obligations to 2008 Summer Olympics coverage in Milwaukee. ESPN Monday Night Football games, both pre-season and season, are broadcast over the air on ABC affiliates WBAY (Channel 2) in Green Bay and WISN (Channel 12) in Milwaukee, while the stations airing Packers games in the NFL Network Run to the Playoffs package have varied. The team's intra-squad Lambeau scrimmage at the beginning of the season, which is marketed as Packers Family Night, is broadcast by WITI (Channel 6) in Milwaukee, and produced by WLUK (Channel 11) in Green Bay, both FOX affiliates which broadcast the bulk of the team's regular season games. The scrimmage is also broadcast by the state's other Fox affiliates. Notes and references See also List of fan-owned sports teams External links Green Bay Packers official web site The Green Bay Press-Gazette Packer Plus (The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel) The Green Bay Packers Uniform Database | Green_Bay_Packers |@lemmatized green:49 bay:48 packer:169 professional:9 american:6 football:21 team:70 base:7 wisconsin:8 member:6 north:9 division:3 national:5 conference:5 nfc:18 league:15 nfl:52 third:6 old:4 franchise:11 last:5 vestige:1 small:2 town:1 common:2 found:3 earl:4 curly:7 lambeau:38 thus:3 name:19 field:36 play:20 george:3 whitney:2 calhoun:2 trace:1 lineage:1 semi:2 date:3 back:6 compete:1 club:4 around:3 midwest:2 join:2 association:1 apfa:1 forerunner:1 know:4 today:4 win:25 twelve:1 championship:24 include:10 nine:4 prior:2 super:22 bowl:29 era:6 three:12 victory:5 ii:2 xxxi:3 fierce:1 rivalry:2 chicago:8 bear:7 game:47 also:16 share:7 historic:1 minnesota:2 viking:3 reside:1 along:1 dallas:4 cowboy:2 historically:1 large:6 playoff:20 rival:2 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6,689 | Multitier_architecture | In software engineering, multi-tier architecture (often referred to as n-tier architecture) is a client-server architecture in which the presentation and the application processing and the data management are logically separate processes. For example, an application that uses middleware to service data requests between a user and a database employs multi-tier architecture. The most widespread use of "multi-tier architecture" refers to three-tier architecture. The concepts of layer and tier are often used interchangeably. However, one fairly common point of view is that there is indeed a difference, and that a layer is a logical structuring mechanism for the elements that make up the software solution, while a tier is a physical structuring mechanism for the system infrastructure. Deployment Patterns (Microsoft Enterprise Architecture, Patterns, and Practices) Three-tier architecture Visual overview of a Three-tiered application 'Three-tier' Eckerson, Wayne W. "Three Tier Client/Server Architecture: Achieving Scalability, Performance, and Efficiency in Client Server Applications." Open Information Systems 10, 1 (January 1995): 3(20) is a client-server architecture in which the user interface, functional process logic ("business rules"), computer data storage and data access are developed and maintained as independent modules, most often on separate platforms. The three-tier model is considered to be a software architecture and a software design pattern. Apart from the usual advantages of modular software with well defined interfaces, the three-tier architecture is intended to allow any of the three tiers to be upgraded or replaced independently as requirements or technology change. For example, a change of operating system in the presentation tier would only affect the user interface code. Typically, the user interface runs on a desktop PC or workstation and uses a standard graphical user interface, functional process logic may consist of one or more separate modules running on a workstation or application server, and an RDBMS on a database server or mainframe contains the computer data storage logic. The middle tier may be multi-tiered itself (in which case the overall architecture is called an "n-tier architecture"). The 3-Tier architecture has the following three tiers: Presentation Tier This is the topmost level of the application. The presentation tier displays information related to such services as browsing merchandise, purchasing, and shopping cart contents. It communicates with other tiers by outputting results to the browser/client tier and all other tiers in the network. Application Tier (Business Logic/Logic Tier) The logic tier is pulled out from the presentation tier and, as its own layer, it controls an application’s functionality by performing detailed processing. Data Tier This tier consists of Database Servers. Here information is stored and retrieved. This tier keeps data neutral and independent from application servers or business logic. Giving data its own tier also improves scalability and performance. Comparison with the MVC architecture At first glance, the three tiers may seem similar to the MVC (Model View Controller) concept; however, topologically they are different. A fundamental rule in a three-tier architecture is the client tier never communicates directly with the data tier; in a three-tier model all communication must pass through the middleware tier. Conceptually the three-tier architecture is linear. However, the MVC architecture is triangular: the View sends updates to the Controller, the Controller updates the Model, and the View gets updated directly from the Model. From a historical perspective the three-tier architecture concept emerged in the 1990s from observations of distributed systems (e.g., web applications) where the client, middleware and data tiers ran on physically separate platforms. Whereas MVC comes from the previous decade (by work at Xerox PARC in the late 1970's and early 1980's) and is based on observations of applications that ran on a single graphical workstation; MVC was applied to distributed applications much later in its history (see Model 2). Web Development usage In the Web development field, three-tier is often used to refer to Websites, commonly Electronic commerce websites, which are built using three tiers: A front end Web server serving static content. A middle dynamic content processing and generation level Application server, for example Java EE, ASP.net, PHP platform. A back end Database, comprising both data sets and the Database management system or RDBMS software that manages and provides access to the data. Other considerations Data transfer between tiers is part of the architecture. Protocols involved may include one or more of SNMP, CORBA, Java RMI, .NET Remoting, Windows Communication Foundation, Sockets, UDP, Web Services or other standard or proprietary protocols. Often Middleware is used to connect the separate tiers. Separate tiers often (but not necessarily) run on separate physical servers, and each tier may itself run on a Cluster. See also Business logic Client-server architecture Database-centric architecture Front-end and back-end Model-view-controller (MVC) Rich Internet application Web application Multilayered architecture External links Linux journal, Three Tier Architecture References | Multitier_architecture |@lemmatized software:6 engineering:1 multi:4 tier:47 architecture:25 often:6 refer:2 n:2 client:8 server:12 presentation:5 application:15 processing:3 data:13 management:2 logically:1 separate:7 process:3 example:3 use:7 middleware:4 service:3 request:1 user:5 database:6 employ:1 widespread:1 refers:1 three:17 concept:3 layer:3 interchangeably:1 however:3 one:3 fairly:1 common:1 point:1 view:5 indeed:1 difference:1 logical:1 structuring:2 mechanism:2 element:1 make:1 solution:1 physical:2 system:5 infrastructure:1 deployment:1 pattern:3 microsoft:1 enterprise:1 practice:1 visual:1 overview:1 tiered:2 eckerson:1 wayne:1 w:1 achieving:1 scalability:2 performance:2 efficiency:1 open:1 information:3 january:1 interface:5 functional:2 logic:8 business:4 rule:2 computer:2 storage:2 access:2 develop:1 maintain:1 independent:2 module:2 platform:3 model:7 consider:1 design:1 apart:1 usual:1 advantage:1 modular:1 well:1 define:1 intend:1 allow:1 upgraded:1 replace:1 independently:1 requirement:1 technology:1 change:2 operating:1 would:1 affect:1 code:1 typically:1 run:6 desktop:1 pc:1 workstation:3 standard:2 graphical:2 may:5 consist:2 rdbms:2 mainframe:1 contain:1 middle:2 case:1 overall:1 call:1 following:1 topmost:1 level:2 display:1 relate:1 browse:1 merchandise:1 purchasing:1 shop:1 cart:1 content:3 communicate:2 output:1 result:1 browser:1 network:1 pull:1 control:1 functionality:1 perform:1 detailed:1 store:1 retrieve:1 keep:1 neutral:1 give:1 also:2 improve:1 comparison:1 mvc:6 first:1 glance:1 seem:1 similar:1 controller:4 topologically:1 different:1 fundamental:1 never:1 directly:2 communication:2 must:1 pass:1 conceptually:1 linear:1 triangular:1 send:1 update:3 get:1 historical:1 perspective:1 emerge:1 observation:2 distributed:1 e:1 g:1 web:6 physically:1 whereas:1 come:1 previous:1 decade:1 work:1 xerox:1 parc:1 late:1 early:1 base:1 single:1 apply:1 distribute:1 much:1 later:1 history:1 see:2 development:2 usage:1 field:1 website:2 commonly:1 electronic:1 commerce:1 build:1 front:2 end:4 serve:1 static:1 dynamic:1 generation:1 java:2 ee:1 asp:1 net:2 php:1 back:2 comprise:1 set:1 manage:1 provide:1 consideration:1 transfer:1 part:1 protocol:2 involve:1 include:1 snmp:1 corba:1 rmi:1 remoting:1 windows:1 foundation:1 socket:1 udp:1 proprietary:1 connect:1 necessarily:1 cluster:1 centric:1 rich:1 internet:1 multilayered:1 external:1 link:1 linux:1 journal:1 reference:1 |@bigram client_server:5 user_interface:4 graphical_user:1 multi_tiered:1 tier_tier:2 xerox_parc:1 java_ee:1 database_centric:1 external_link:1 |
6,690 | John_Sealy_Hospital | The current John Sealy Hospital, constructed in 1978. John Sealy Hospital is a hospital that is a part of the University of Texas Medical Branch complex in Galveston, Texas, United States. Sealy opened on January 10 1890. It was founded by the widow and brother of one of the richest citizens of Texas, John Sealy after his death. Accompanied by the John Sealy Hospital Training School for Nurses, which was opened two months after the hospital, the foundation became the primary teaching facility of University of Texas Medical Branch opened in October 1891. In 1922, John Sealy's children, John and Jennie Sealy established the Sealy & Smith Foundation for the hospital. This enabled construction of several new facilities, including the Rebecca Sealy Nurses' home. A second John Sealy Hospital was built in 1954 to replace the 1890 building. Today it is known as the John Sealy Annex and houses administrative and support services. The current John Sealy Hospital was completed in 1978 at a cost of $32.5 million and was funded in full by the Sealy & Smith Foundation. The 12-story hospital includes single-patient rooms and specialized intensive care units. Other features include the Acute Care for Elders Unit, or ACE Unit. The Sealy & Smith Foundation has contributed nearly $500 million to UTMB since its inception. References | John_Sealy_Hospital |@lemmatized current:2 john:9 sealy:14 hospital:9 construct:1 part:1 university:2 texas:4 medical:2 branch:2 complex:1 galveston:1 united:1 state:1 open:3 january:1 found:1 widow:1 brother:1 one:1 rich:1 citizen:1 death:1 accompany:1 training:1 school:1 nurse:2 two:1 month:1 foundation:4 become:1 primary:1 teaching:1 facility:2 october:1 child:1 jennie:1 establish:1 smith:3 enabled:1 construction:1 several:1 new:1 include:3 rebecca:1 home:1 second:1 build:1 replace:1 building:1 today:1 know:1 annex:1 house:1 administrative:1 support:1 service:1 complete:1 cost:1 million:2 fund:1 full:1 story:1 single:1 patient:1 room:1 specialize:1 intensive:1 care:2 unit:3 feature:1 acute:1 elder:1 ace:1 contribute:1 nearly:1 utmb:1 since:1 inception:1 reference:1 |@bigram sealy_hospital:5 galveston_texas:1 |
6,691 | Hank_Greenberg | Henry Benjamin "Hank" Greenberg (January 1, 1911, New York City, New York–September 4, 1986), nicknamed "Hammerin' Hank," was an American professional baseball player in the 1930s and 1940s. A first baseman primarily for the Detroit Tigers, Greenberg was one of the premier power hitters of his generation. He hit 58 home runs in 1938, equalling Jimmie Foxx's mark, as the most in one season by any player between 1927--when Babe Ruth set a record of 60—and 1961--when Roger Maris surpassed it. He was a five-time All-Star, was twice named the American League's Most Valuable Player, and was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1956. Greenberg was the first Jewish superstar in American professional sports. Hank Greenberg He garnered national attention in 1934 when he refused to play baseball on Yom Kippur, the Jewish day of atonement, even though the Tigers were in the middle of a pennant race. Early life Greenberg was born on January 1, 1911 in New York City to an Orthodox Jewish family. Greenberg lacked coordination as a youngster, and flat feet prevented him from running fast. But he worked diligently to overcome his inadequacies. He attended James Monroe High School in the Bronx, where he was an outstanding all-around athlete. His preferred sport was baseball, and his preferred position was first base. He became a basketball standout in high school, helping Monroe win the city championship. In 1929, he was recruited by the New York Yankees, who already had a capable first baseman who was known for not sitting out games: Lou Gehrig. Greenberg turned them down and instead attended New York University for a year, after which he signed with the Detroit Tigers for $9,000. Minor League career Greenberg played minor league baseball for three years. Greenberg played 17 games in 1930 for Hartford, then played at Raleigh, North Carolina, where he hit .314 with 19 home runs. In 1931, he played at Evansville in the Illinois-Indiana-Iowa League (.318, 15 homers, 85 RBIs). In 1932, at Beaumont in the Texas League, he hit 39 homers with 131 RBIs, won the MVP award, and led Beaumont to the Texas League title. During the season, one of his teammates (Jo-Jo White) walked slowly around Greenberg, staring at him. Greenberg asked him what he was looking at. White said he was just looking, as he'd never seen a Jew before. "The way he said it," noted Greenberg, "he might as well have said, 'I've never seen a giraffe before.'" I let him keep looking for a while, and then I said, 'See anything interesting?'" Looking for horns and finding none, White said, "You're just like everyone else." Early Major League career In seven of the nine years in which he was active, Greenberg was one of the dominant players in the game. He has the eighth-highest slugging percentage lifetime of any ballplayer in major league history, at .605, ahead of such sluggers as Mark McGwire and Joe DiMaggio. In 1930 he was the youngest player in the majors when he first broke in, at 19. In 1933, he rejoined the Tigers and hit .301 while driving in 87 runs. At the same time, he was third in the league in strikeouts (78). In 1934, his second major-league season, he hit .339 and helped the Tigers reach their first World Series in 25 years. He led the league in doubles, with 63. He was 3rd in the AL in slugging percentage (.600) -- behind Jimmie Foxx and Lou Gehrig, but ahead of Babe Ruth, and in RBIs (139). Late in the 1934 season, he announced that he would not play on Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, or the Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur. Fans grumbled, "Rosh Hashanah comes every year but the Tigers haven't won the pennant since 1909." Greenberg did considerable soul-searching, and discussed the matter with his rabbi; finally he relented and agreed to play on Rosh Hashanah, but stuck with his decision not to play on Yom Kippur. Dramatically, Greenberg hit two home runs in a pennant-clinching 2-1 Tigers victory. The next day's Detroit Free Press ran the Hebrew lettering for "Happy New Year" across its front page. http://74.125.47.132/search?q=cache:xnCPhT6vVsYJ:www.anzasa.arts.usyd.edu.au/a.j.a.s/Articles/2_04/Dab.pdf+%22hank+greenberg%22+%2B+%22jimmy+dykes%22&cd=24&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us Columnist and poet Edgar A. Guest expressed the general opinion in a poem titled "Speaking of Greenberg," in which he used the Irish (and thus Catholic) names Murphy and Mulroney. The poem ends with the lines "We shall miss him on the infield and shall miss him at the bat / But he's true to his religion--and I honor him for that." The complete text of the poem is at the end of Greenberg's biography page at the website of the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. In 1935 Greenberg led the league in RBIs (170) and total bases (389), tied Foxx for the AL title in home runs (36), was 2nd in the league in doubles (46), triples (16), and slugging percentage (.628), and was 3rd in the league in runs scored (121). He also led the Tigers to their first World Series title. (However, he broke his wrist in the second game.) He was voted the American League's Most Valuable Player. He set a record (still standing) of 103 RBIs at the All-Star break - but was not selected to the AL All-Star Game roster. In 1937 Greenberg was voted to the All-Star Team. On September 19, 1937, he hit the first-ever homer into the center field bleachers at Yankee Stadium. He led the AL by driving in 183 runs (3rd all-time, behind Hack Wilson in 1930 and Lou Gehrig in 1931), while batting .337 with 200 hits. He was 2nd the league in home runs (40), doubles (49), total bases (397), slugging percentage (.668), and walks (102). Still, Greenberg came in only 3rd in the vote for MVP. A prodigious home run hitter, Greenberg narrowly missed breaking Babe Ruth's single-season home run record in 1938, when he was again voted to the All-Star Team and hit 58 home runs, leading the league for the second time. After having been passed over for the All-Star team in 1935 and being left on the bench for the 1937 game, Greenberg refused to participate in the 1938 contest. In 1938 he homered in four consecutive at-bats over two games. He matched what was then the single-season home run record by a right-handed batter (Jimmy Foxx, 1932); the mark would stand for 66 years until it was broken by Sammy Sosa and Mark McGwire. Greenberg also had a 59th home run washed away in a rainout. http://www.thebaseballpage.com/players/greenha01.php It has been long speculated that Greenberg was intentionally walked late in the season to prevent him from Breaking Ruth's record, but Greenburg dismissed this speculation, calling it "crazy stories." http://www.historicbaseball.com/players/g/greenberg_hank.html In 1938, Greenberg led the league in runs scored (144) and at-bats per home run (9.6), tied for the AL lead in walks (119), was second in RBI (146), slugging percentage (.683), and total bases (380), and third in OBP (.438). However, he came in third in the vote for MVP. In 1939 Greenberg was voted to the All-Star Team for the third year in a row. He was second in the American League in home runs (33) and strikeouts (95), and third in doubles (42) and slugging percentage (.622). After moving to the outfield in 1940, Greenberg was voted to the All-Star Team for the 4th year in a row. He led the league in home runs (41; for the third time in 6 years), RBIs (150), doubles (50), total bases (384), and slugging percentage (.670; 44 points ahead of Joe DiMaggio). He was second in the league behind Ted Williams in runs scored (129) and OBP (.433), all while batting .340 (5th best in the AL). He led the Tigers to a pennant, and won his 2nd American League MVP award, becoming the first player to win an MVP award at two different positions. World War II service The Detroit draft board initially classified Greenberg as 4F for "flat feet." Rumors that he had bribed the board, and concern that he would be likened to Jack Dempsey, who received negative publicity for failure to serve in World War I, led Greenberg to be reexamined, and he was found fit to serve. Although drafted in 1940, he was honorably discharged after the United States Congress released men aged 28 years and older from service, being released on December 5, 1941, two days before Japan bombed Pearl Harbor. Greenberg re-enlisted and volunteered for service in the United States Army Air Forces. He graduated from Officer Candidate School and was commissioned as a first lieutenant. He eventually served overseas in the China-Burma-India Theater, scouting locations for B-29 bases. Return to baseball Greenberg remained in uniform until the summer of 1945. In Greenberg's first game back after being discharged, he homered on July 1, 1945. That year, he set the major league record with 11 multi-homer games. Sammy Sosa tied Greenberg's mark in 1998. Without the benefit of spring training, he returned to the Tigers, was again voted to the All-Star Team, and helped lead them to a come-from-behind American League pennant, clinching it with a grand-slam home run on the final game of the season. In 1946 he returned to peak form, leading the league in home runs (44) and RBIs (127), both for the 4th time. He was 2nd in slugging percentage (.604) and total bases (316), behind Ted Williams. In 1947, Greenberg and the Tigers had a lengthy salary dispute. When Greenberg decided to retire rather than play for less, Detroit sold his contract to the Pittsburgh Pirates. To persuade him not to retire, Pittsburgh made Greenberg the first baseball player to earn over $80,000 in a season as pure salary (though the exact amount is a matter of some dispute). Team co-owner Bing Crosby recorded a song, "Goodbye, Mr. Ball, Goodbye" with Groucho Marx and Greenberg, to celebrate Greenberg's arrival. The Pirates also reduced the size of Forbes Field's cavernous left field, renaming the section "Greenberg Gardens," to accommodate Greenberg's pull-hitting style. Greenberg played first base for the Pirates for 1947, and was one of the few opposing players to publicly welcome Jackie Robinson to the majors. That year he also had a chance to mentor a young, future hall-of-famer, the 24-year-old Ralph Kiner. Said Greenberg, "Ralph had a natural home run swing. All he needed was somebody to teach him the value of hard work and self-discipline. Early in the morning, on off-days, every chance we got, we worked on hitting." Lawrence Ritter,The Glory of Their Times, p. 327 Kiner would go on to hit 51 home runs that year to lead the National League. Greenberg, in his final season, tied for the league lead in walks, with 104. He had a .408 on base percentage, and was also 8th in the league in home runs and 10th in slugging percentage. Greenberg became the first major league player to hit 25 or more home runs in a season in each league (Johnny Mize became the second, in 1950). Nevertheless, he retired as a player to take a front-office post with the Cleveland Indians. No player had ever retired after a final season in which they hit that many home runs. Since then, only Ted Williams (1960, 29), Dave Kingman (1986; 35), Mark McGwire (2001; 29), and Barry Bonds (2007; 28) have hit as many or more homers in their final season. Fielding As a fielder, the 193-cm (6'4") Greenberg was awkward and unsure of himself early in his career, but he mastered his first-base position through countless hours of practice. Over the course of his career, he had a higher than average fielding percentage and range at first base. When asked to move to left field in 1940 to make room for Rudy York, he worked tirelessly to master that position as well, and reduced his errors in the outfield from 15 in 1940 to 0 in 1945. Baseball style Greenberg felt that runs batted in were more important than home runs. He would tell his teammates, "just get on base," or "just get the runner to third," and he would do the rest. Abbreviated career Starring as a first baseman and outfielder with the Detroit Tigers (1930, 1933-46), and briefly with the Pittsburgh Pirates (1947), he played only 9 full seasons. He missed 3 full seasons and most of 2 others to military service during World War II, and missed most of another season with a broken wrist. It is often estimated that Greenberg, had he played in another era uninterrupted by war, would have amassed between 500 and 600 home runs and 1,800 to 2,000 RBI. As it is, his totals of 331 home runs and 1,276 RBI are amazing for a 1,394-game career. He also hit for average, batting .313. Coaching & ownership The following year, Greenberg retired from the field to become the Cleveland Indians' farm system director and two years later, their general manager and part-owner along with Bill Veeck. During his tenure, he assembled more African American players than any other team executive in the Majors. Greenberg's contributions in finding and developing talent contributed to that team's successes through the 1950s, though Bill James wrote that Greenberg should also be given partial credit for the Indians' late 1950s collapse due to questionable personnel decisions. James, Bill The New Bill Janes Historical Baseball Abstract New York: Free Press (2001) p. 435 ISBN 0-684-80697-5 When Veeck sold his interest, Greenberg remained as general manager and part-owner until 1957. He was the mastermind behind a move to Minneapolis for the Indians, but that was vetoed by the rest of ownership at the last minute. Greenberg was furious and sold his share soon afterwards. In 1961, the American League announced plans to put a team in Los Angeles. Greenberg immediately became the favorite to become the new team's first owner, and persuaded Veeck, who had sold off his majority interest in the White Sox due to poor health, to join him as his partner. However, when Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley got word of these developments, he threatened to scuttle the whole deal by invoking his exclusive rights to operate a major league team in Southern California. In truth, O'Malley wanted no part of having to compete against an expansion team owned by a master promoter such as Veeck, even if he was only a minority partner. Greenberg wouldn't budge, and pulled out of the running for what became the Los Angeles Angels (now the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim). He later became a successful investment banker, briefly returning to baseball as a minority partner with Veeck when he repurchased the White Sox in 1975. Personal life He married Caral Gimbel (of the New York department store family) on February 18, 1946, three days after signing a $60,000 contract with the Tigers. Their son Glenn runs a $4 billion dollar hedge fund called Chieftain Capital. Hedge Fund Toddlers WEDDINGS; Linda Vester, Glenn Greenberg - New York Times Their other son, Stephen, played 5 years in the Washington Senators/Texas Rangers organization. In 1995, Steve Greenberg co-founded Classic Sports Network with Brian Bedol, which was purchased by ESPN and became ESPN Classic. He was also the Chairman of CSTV, the first cable network devoted exclusively to college sports, which was purchased by CBS in 2006. In 2003, Steve went to work for boutique investment bank Allen & Company. Honors American League Most Valuable Player, 1935 and 1940. American League All-Star team, 1937-1940. First Jewish player elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame, in 1956. He garnered 85% of the votes. Joe Cronin was also elected that year. In 1983, the Tigers celebrated "Greenberg-Gehringer Day" at Tiger Stadium, honoring Greenberg with the retirement of his uniform number 5 and former teammate Charlie Gehringer with the retirement of his number 2. Both players were on hand for the ceremony. In 1999, despite injuries and wartime service that essentially limited him to half a career, he ranked Number 37 on The Sporting News''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was nominated as a finalist for the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. Member of the National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame (1996). Member of the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame (1979). Member of the Jewish American Hall of Fame (1991). Jewish-American Hall of Fame - Nominate Somebody Miscellaneous The antisemitism Greenberg faced ranged from players staring at him because they had never before seen a Jew, to coarse racial epithets hurled at him. Particularly abusive were the St. Louis Cardinals during the 1934 World Series. Examples of this were: "Hey Mo," referring to Moses, and "Throw a pork chop, he can't hit that," referring to laws of Kashrut. Greenberg sometimes retaliated against the ethnic attacks, once going into the Chicago White Sox clubhouse to challenge manager Jimmy Dykes, and at another time calling out the entire Yankee team. Jewish fans in Detroit—and around the American League for that matter—took to Greenberg almost at once, offering him everything from free meals to free cars, all of which he refused. In 23 World Series games, he hit .318, with five homers and 22 RBI. Greenberg was one of the few baseball people to testify on behalf of Curt Flood in 1970 when the outfielder challenged the reserve clause. Greenberg died of cancer in Beverly Hills, California and his remains were entombed at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City, California. In an article in 1976 in Esquire'' magazine, sportswriter Harry Stein published an "All Time All-Star Argument Starter," consisting of five ethnic baseball teams. Greenberg was the first baseman on Stein's Jewish team. In 2006, Greenberg was featured on a United States postage stamp. USPS - 2006 Commemorative Stamps The stamp is one of a block of four honoring Baseball Sluggers, the others being Mickey Mantle, Mel Ott, and Roy Campanella. See also 1935 Detroit Tigers season List of Major League Baseball Home Run Records List of Major League Baseball doubles records 50 home run club Top 500 home run hitters of all time List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 runs List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 RBI List of Major League Baseball RBI champions List of Major League Baseball home run champions List of Major League Baseball runs scored champions List of Major League Baseball doubles champions Major League Baseball titles leaders References External links The Life and Times of Hank Greenberg - documentary homepage Jewish Virtual Library bio Jewish Major League career leaders Baseball Almanac Accomplishments | Hank_Greenberg |@lemmatized henry:1 benjamin:1 hank:4 greenberg:67 january:2 new:12 york:9 city:4 september:2 nickname:1 hammerin:1 american:14 professional:2 baseball:25 player:22 first:21 baseman:4 primarily:1 detroit:8 tiger:16 one:7 premier:1 power:1 hitter:3 generation:1 hit:17 home:27 run:38 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6,692 | Figure_skating | 2007 European Champion ice dancers Isabelle Delobel and Olivier Schoenfelder perform a lift in exhibition. Figure skating is a sport in which individuals, pairs, or groups perform spins, jumps, footwork and other intricate and challenging moves on ice. Figure skaters compete at various levels from beginner up to the Olympic level (senior), and at local, national, and international competitions. The International Skating Union (ISU) regulates international figure skating judging and competitions. Figure skating is an official event in the Winter Olympic Games. In languages other than English, figure skating is usually referred to by a name that translates as "artistic skating". Major international competitions are sanctioned by the ISU. These include the Winter Olympic Games, the World Championships, the World Junior Figure Skating Championships, the European Figure Skating Championships, the Four Continents Figure Skating Championships, and the ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating. The sport is also associated with show-business. Major competitions generally include exhibitions at the end in which the top-placing skaters perform for the crowd by showing off their various skills. Many skaters, both during and after their competitive careers, also skate in ice skating exhibitions or shows which run during the competitive season and the off-season. Disciplines Olympic sports in figure skating comprise the following disciplines: Figure skating at Olympic.org, accessed September 4, 2006. Singles competition for men and women (who are referred to as "ladies" in ISU rulebooks), wherein skaters perform jumps, spins, step sequences, spirals, and other elements in their programs. Pair skating teams consist of a woman and a man. Pairs perform singles elements in unison as well as pair-specific elements such as throw jumps, in which the man 'throws' the woman into a jump; lifts, in which the woman is held above the man's head in one of various grips and positions; pair spins, in which both skaters spin together about a common axis; death spirals, and other elements. Ice dancing is again for couples consisting of a woman and a man skating together. Ice dance differs from pairs in focusing on intricate footwork performed in close dance holds, in time with the music. Ice dance lifts must not go above the shoulder. Other disciplines of figure skating include: Synchronized skating, for mixed-gender groups of 12 to 20 skaters. This discipline resembles a group form of ice dance with additional emphasis on precise formations of the group as a whole and complex transitions between formations. The basic formations include wheels, blocks, lines, circles, and intersections. The close formations and need for the team to stay in unison add to the difficulty of the footwork performed by the skaters in these elements. Compulsory figures, in which skaters use their blades to draw circles, figure 8s, and similar shapes in ice, and are judged on the accuracy and clarity of the figures and the cleanness and exact placement of the various turns on the circles. Figures were formerly included as a component of singles competitions but were eliminated from those events in 1990. Today figures are rarely taught or performed. The United States was the last country to retain a separate test and competitive structure for compulsory figures, but the last national-level figures championship was held in 1999. Synchronized skating Moves in the field (known in the United Kingdom as field moves), which have replaced compulsory figures as a discipline to teach the same turns and edge skills in the context of fluid free skating movements instead of being constrained to artificially precise circles. Fours, a discipline that is to pairs as pairs is to singles. A team of four skaters, consisting of two men and two women, perform singles and pairs elements in unison, as well as unique elements that involve all four skaters. Theatre on ice, also known as "ballet on ice" in Europe. This is a form of group skating that is less structured than synchronized skating and allows the use of props and theatrical costuming. Adagio skating, a form of pair skating most commonly seen in ice shows, where the skaters perform many spectacular acrobatic lifts but few or none of the singles elements which competitive pairs must perform. Special figures, the tracing of elaborate original designs on the ice, common in the early days of skating. Acrobatic skating, also known as "Acrobatics on ice" or "Extreme Skating", is a combination of circus arts, technical artistic gymnastics skills, and figure skating. Jumps Jumps are one of the most important elements of figure skating. Jumps involve the skater leaping into the air and rotating rapidly to land after completing one or more rotations. There are many types of jump, identified by the way the skater takes off and lands, as well as by the number of rotations that are completed. Jumps can be rotated in clockwise or counterclockwise direction. Most skaters are counterclockwise jumpers. For clarity, all jumps will be described for a skater jumping counter-clockwise. There are six jumps in figure skating that count as jump elements. All six are landed on one foot on the right back outside edge (with counterclockwise rotation, for single and multi-revolution jumps), but have different takeoffs, by which they may be distinguished. The two categories of jumps are toe jumps and edge jumps. Toe jumps Toe jumps are launched by tapping the toe pick of one skate into the ice, and include (in order of difficulty from easiest to hardest): Toe loops take off from the back outside edge of the right foot and are launched by the left toe pick (toe walleys are similar, but take off from the back inside edge of the right foot); Flips, which take off from the back inside edge of the left foot and are launched by the right toe pick; Lutzes, which take off from the back outside edge of the left foot and are launched by the right toe pick. When skaters accidentally take off from a back inside edge for the Lutz Jump, the error is called a Flutz. When skaters accidentally take off from a back outside edge for the Flip jump, the error is called a Lip. Edge jumps Edge jumps use no toe assist, and include: Salchows, which take off from a left back inside edge. Allowing the edge to come round, the opposite leg helps launch the jump into the air and land on one foot; Loops (also known as Rittberger jumps) take off from a right back outside edge and land on the same edge; Axels, which are the only rotating jump to take off from a forward edge (the left outside edge). Because they take off from a forward edge, they include one-half extra rotations and are usually considered the hardest jump of the six. Rotations and combinations The number of rotations performed in the air for each jump determines whether the jump is a single, double, triple, or quadruple (known commonly as a "quad"). Senior-level male single skaters perform mostly triple and quadruple jumps in competition. Triple jumps other than the Axel are commonly performed by female single skaters. Only one female skater has been credited with a quadruple jump in international competition. In addition to jumps performed singly, jumps may also be performed in combination or in sequence. For a set of jumps to be considered a combination, each jump must take off from the landing edge of the previous jump, with no steps, turns, or change of edge in between jumps. Because of this, the only two jumps that can be performed as the second or third jump in a combination are toe loops and loops, because they take off from the right back outside edge. In order to use other jumps on the back end of a combination, connecting jumps such as a half loop (which is actually a full rotation, but lands on a left back inside edge) can be used, enabling the skater to put a salchow or flip at the end of the combination. In contrast, jump sequences are sets of jumps, which may involve steps or changes of edge between the jumps. Other jumps There are also a number of other jumps that are usually performed only as single jumps and in elite skating are used as transitional movements or highlights in step sequences. These include the half loop, half flip, walley jump, split jump, waltz jump, inside Axel, and one-foot Axel. Spins Spins are a required element in most figure skating competitions, and they exist in all four Olympic disciplines. There are three basic spin positions in figure skating: the sit spin, the camel spin, and the upright spin. Many variations on these positions exist. During a spin, the skater rotates on the round part of the blade, called the ball of the foot, just behind the toe pick. Spins may be performed singly or in a sequence combining different types of spins. Spins may be performed on either foot. Like jumping, skaters mostly rotate in the counterclockwise direction, but there are some skaters who rotate in the clockwise direction. Some skaters are able to rotate in both directions. For skaters who rotate in a counterclockwise direction, a spin on the left foot is called a forward spin, while a spin on the right foot is called a back spin. Spins can be entered on the ice or through a jump. Spins that are entered through a jump are calling flying spins. Flying spins include the flying camel, flying sit spin, death drop, and butterfly spin. Flying spins may go from a forward spin to a back spin. A flying spin can also be performed as part of a spin sequence. In pair skating, spins may be performed side by side with both partners doing the same spin or combination spin at the same time. Additionally, in pairs and in ice dancing, there are pair and dance spins, during which both skaters rotate around the same axis while holding onto each other. Lifts A one arm overhead lift in pair skating Lifts are a required element in pair skating and ice dancing. Pairs lifts differ from dance lifts most notably in that dancers are not allowed to lift their partners above their shoulders. Dance lifts are differentiated by the skating involved. There are seven kinds of lifts approved for ISU competitions. They are separated into short lifts and long lifts. There are many positions the lifting and the lifted partner can take to improve the difficulty of the lift. Each position must be held for at least three seconds to count and is permitted only once a program. Unlike dance lifts, pair lifts are grouped by the holds involved. In ISU senior level competition, the man must rotate more than one times, but fewer than three a half. There are five different groups of pairs lifts, differentiated by the holds involved. Legal holds are Armpit holds, Waist holds, Hand to hip holds, and Hand to hand. There are two kinds of hand to hand lifts: press lifts and lasso lifts. The lasso lifts are considered the most difficult pair lifts. Twist lifts are a form of pair lifts, where the lifted partner is thrown into the air, twists, and is caught by the lifted partner. The lady may do a split before the twist, called a split twist. This is not mandatory, but it increases the level of the element. The lady must be caught by her waist in the air. She lands on the backward outside edge. The man also ends the lift on one foot. In both pairs and dance, lifts that go on longer than allowed receive deductions. Synchronized skating teams are also allowed to perform lifts in the free skating portion of the senior division only. Lifts can be pair lifts (such as in a dance lift) or a group lift with two or more skaters lifting another skater. In a pair lift, no more than one arm may be fully extended above the head at any time. Acrobatic lifts are not allowed. To gain additional points, teams will sometimes rotate and/or move lifts across the ice. Steps and turns Skaters performing parallel mirror spread eagles. He is on an inside edge and she is on an outside edge. Step sequences are a required element in all four Olympic disciplines. The pattern can be straight line, circular, or serpentine. The step sequence consists of a combination of turns, steps, hops and edge changes. Additionally, steps and turns can be used as transitions between elements. The various turns, which skaters can incorporate into step sequences, include: Three turns, so called because the blade turns into the curve of the edge or lobe to leave a tracing resembling the numeral "3". Bracket turns, in which the blade is turned counter to the curve of the lobe, making a tracing resembling a bracket ("}"). Rockers and counters, one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well as of direction. Mohawks, the two-foot equivalents of three turns and brackets. Choctaws, the two-foot equivalents of rockers and counters. Twizzles, traveling multi-rotation turns on one foot Other freeskating movements which can be incorporated into step sequences or used as connecting elements include lunges and spread eagles. An Ina Bauer is similar to a spread eagle performed with one knee bent and typically an arched back. Hydroblading refers to a deep edge performed with the body as low as possible to the ice in a near-horizontal position. Spirals A spiral is an element in which the skater moves across the ice on a specific edge with the free leg held above the hip. Spirals can be performed while skating forwards or backwards, and are distinguished by the edge of the blade used and the foot they are skated on. A spiral sequence is one or more spiral positions and edges done in sequence. There are many different spiral positions. The leg can be held to the front of the body, to the side, or behind. If the leg is held by the skater's hand, it is considered a supported spiral. If it is not held, it is considered an unsupported spiral. If the skate blade is held, it is considered a catch-foot position. The best known catch-foot position is the Biellmann position. Spiral sequences are required in ladies skating and pair skating. They count as one of the required step sequences in the free skate. Competition format and scoring Sasha Cohen waits for her marks in the Kiss and cry, the area beside the rink at competitions where skaters wait to receive their scores. The International Skating Union (ISU) is the governing body for international competitions in figure skating, including the World Championships and the figure skating events at the Winter Olympic Games. In singles and pairs figure skating competition, competitors must perform two routines, the "short program", in which the skater must complete a list of required elements consisting of jumps, spins and steps; and the "free skate" or "long program", in which the skaters have slightly more choice of elements. Ice dancing competitions usually consist of three phases: one or more "compulsory dances"; an "original dance" to a ballroom rhythm that is designated annually; and a "free dance" to music of the skaters' own choice. The 6.0 System Skating was formerly judged for "technical merit" (in the free skate), "required elements" (in the short program), and "presentation" (in both programs). The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0, the latter being the highest. These marks were used to determine a preference ranking, or "ordinal", separately for each judge; the judges' preferences were then combined to determine placements for each skater in each program. The placements for the two programs were then combined, with the free skate placement weighted more heavily than the short program. The highest placing individual (based on the sum of the weighted placements) was declared the winner. The 6.0 System at usfigureskating.org, accessed September 4, 2006. The ISU Judging System In 2004, in response to the judging controversy during the 2002 Winter Olympics, the ISU adopted the International Judging System (IJS) which became mandatory at all international competitions in 2006, including the 2006 Winter Olympics. The new system is often informally referred to as the Code of Points, however, the ISU has never used the term to describe their system in any of their official communications. Under the new system, points are awarded individually for each skating element, and the sum of these points is the total element score (TES). Competitive programs are constrained to have a set number of elements. Each element is judged first by a technical specialist who identifies the specific element and determines its base value. The technical specialist uses instant replay video to verify things that distinguish different elements; e.g., the exact foot position at take-off and landing of a jump. The decision of the technical specialist determines the base value of the element. A panel of twelve judges then each award a mark for the quality and execution of the element. This mark is called the grade of execution (GOE) that is an integer from -3 to +3. The GOE mark is then translated into another value by using the table of values in ISU rule 322. The GOE value from the twelve judges is then processed with a computerized random selection of nine judges, then discarding the high and low value, and finally averaging the remaining seven. This average value is then added (or subtracted) from the base value to get the total value for the element. ISU Judging System for Figure Skating and Ice Dancing 2004/5, accessed September 4, 2006. The program components score (PCS) awards points to holistic aspects of a program or other nuances that are not rewarded in the total element score. The components are: skating skills (SS), transitions (TR), performance/execution (PE), choreography (CH), interpretation (IN). The only exception is the compulsory dance, which has no choreography or transition marks because the steps are preset. A detailed description of each component is given in ISU rule 322.2. Judges award each component a raw mark from 0 to 10 in increments of 0.25, with a mark of 5 being defined as "average". For each separate component, the raw marks are then selected, trimmed, and averaged in a manner akin to determining a grade of execution. The trimmed mean scores are then translated into a factored mark by multiplying by a factor that depends on the discipline, competition segment, and level. Then the five (or four) factored marks are added to give the final PCS score. The total element score and the program components score are added to give the total score for a competition segment (TSS). A skater's final placement is determined by the total of their scores in all segments of a competition. No ordinal rankings are used to determine the final results. Other judging and competition There are also skating competitions organized for professional skaters by independent promoters. These competitions use judging rules set by whoever organizes the competition. There is no "professional league". Well known professional competitions in the past have included the World Professional Championships (held in Landover, Maryland), the Challenge Of Champions, the Canadian Professional Championships and the World Professional Championships (held in Jaca, Spain). The Ice Skating Institute (ISI), an international ice rink trade organization, runs its own competitive and test program aimed at recreational skaters. Originally headquartered in Minnesota, the organization now operates out of Dallas, Texas. ISI competitions are open to any member that have registered their tests. There are very few "qualifying" competitions, although some districts hold Gold Competitions for that season's first-place winners. ISI competitions are especially popular in Asian countries that do not have established ISU member federations. The Gay Games have also included skating competitions for same-gender pairs and dance couples under ISI sponsorship. Other figure skating competitions for adults also attract participants from diverse cultures and sexual orientations. Equipment Figure skates Figure skates Figure skates differ from hockey skates most visibly in having a set of large, jagged teeth called toe picks (also called "toe rakes") on the front of the blade. The toe picks are used primarily in jumping and should not be used for stroking or spins. Blades are mounted to the sole and heel of the boot with screws. Typically, high-level figure skaters are professionally fitted for their boots and blades at a reputable skate shop in their area. Ice dancers' blades are about an inch shorter in the rear than those used by skaters in other disciplines, to accommodate the intricate footwork and close partnering in dance. Hard plastic skate guards are used when the skater must walk in his or her skates when not on the ice. The guard protects the blade from dirt or material on the ground that may dull the blade. Soft blade covers called soakers are used to absorb condensation and protect the blades from rust when the skates are not being worn. Clothing Elizabeth Putnam & Sean Wirtz wearing complementary pairs costumes. For practice skating, figure skaters often wear leggings, tight fitting, flexible pants. In competition, women may wear skirts or pants, though skirts are far more popular. Women generally wear opaque flesh-coloured leggings or tights under dresses and skirts, which may extend to cover their skates. Men must wear pants and may not wear tights. Competition costumes for skaters of both sexes can be theatrical and heavily beaded or trimmed, and can cost thousands of dollars if designed by a top-level costumemaker. Although the use of flesh-colored fabric means the costumes are often less revealing than they may appear, there have been repeated attempts to ban clothing that gives the impression of "excessive nudity" or that is otherwise inappropriate for athletic competition. "The 1999 Official USFSA Rulebook.", SSR 19.00. USFSA, 1998. Many skaters also wear theatrical make up and hairstyles during competitions. Rink equipment Some rinks use harness systems to help skaters learn jumps in a controlled manner. The ice rink installs a heavy-duty cable that is securely attached to two walls of the rink. A set of pulleys ride on the cable. The skater wears a vest or belt that has a cable or rope attached to it. That cable/rope is threaded through the movable pulley on the cable above. The coach holds the other end of the cable and lifts the skater by pulling the cable/rope. The skater can then practice the jump, with the coach assisting with the completion. History Jackson Haines, considered to be the father of modern figure skating. While people have been ice skating for centuries, figure skating in its current form originated in the mid-19th century. A Treatise on Skating (1772) by Englishman Robert Jones, is the first known account of figure skating. Competitions were then held in the "English style" of skating, which was stiff and formal and bears little resemblance to modern figure skating. American skater Jackson Haines, considered the "father of modern figure skating", introduced a new style of skating in the mid-1860s. This style, which incorporated free and expressive techniques, became known as the "international style." Although popular in Europe, Haines' style of skating was not widely adopted in the United States until long after his death. U.S. Figure Skating History, accessed September 4, 2006. Early 1900s The International Skating Union was founded in 1892. The first European Championship was held in 1891, and the first World Championship was held in 1896 and won by Gilbert Fuchs. Only men competed in these events. In 1902, a woman, Madge Syers, entered the World competition for the first time, finishing second. The ISU quickly banned women from competing against men, but established a separate competition for "ladies" in 1906. Pair skating was introduced at the 1908 World Championships, where the title was won by Anna Hübler & Heinrich Burger. The first Olympic figure skating competitions also took place in 1908. On March 20, 1914 an international figure skating championship was held in New Haven, Connecticut which was the ancestor of both the United States and Canadian National Championships. However, international competitions in figure skating were interrupted by World War I. In the 1920s and 1930s, figure skating was dominated by Sonja Henie, who turned competitive success into a lucrative professional career as a movie star and touring skater. Henie also set the fashion for female skaters to wear short skirts and white boots. The top male skaters of this period included Gillis Grafström and Karl Schäfer. After World War II Skating competitions were again interrupted for several years by World War II. After the war, with many European rinks in ruins, skaters from the United States and Canada began to dominate international competitions and to introduce technical innovations to the sport. Dick Button, 1948 and 1952 Olympic Champion, was the first skater to perform the double axel and triple loop jumps, as well as the flying camel spin. The first World Championships in ice dancing were not held until 1952. In its first years, ice dance was dominated by British skaters. The first World title holders were Jean Westwood & Lawrence Demmy. The rise of the Soviet Union On February 15, 1961, the entire U.S. figure skating team and their coaches were killed in the crash of Sabena Flight 548 in Brussels, Belgium en route to the World Championships in Prague. This tragedy sent the U.S. skating program into a period of rebuilding. At the same time, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in the sport, especially in the disciplines of pair skating and ice dancing. At every Winter Olympics from 1964 until the present day, a Soviet or Russian pair has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports history. (In 2002, Russians Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze shared gold with Canadians Jamie Salé and David Pelletier, keeping the streak alive. Tatiana Totmianina and Maxim Marinin brought home Olympic gold for Russia in 2006.) The effect of television Compulsory figures formerly accounted for up to 60% of the score in singles figure skating, which meant that skaters who could build up a big lead in figures could win competitions even if they were mediocre free skaters. As television coverage of skating events became more important, so did free skating. Beginning in 1968, the ISU began to progressively reduce the weight of figures, and in 1973, the short program was introduced. With these changes, the emphasis in competitive figure skating shifted to increasing athleticism in the free skating. By the time figures were finally eliminated entirely from competition in 1990, Midori Ito had landed the first triple axel by a woman, and Kurt Browning the first quadruple jump by a man. Television also played a role in removing the restrictive amateur status rules that once governed the sport. In order to retain skaters who might otherwise have given up their eligibility to participate in lucrative professional events, in 1995 the ISU introduced prize money at its major competitions, funded by revenues from selling the TV rights to those events. Present day Figure skating is a very popular part of the Winter Olympic Games, in which the elegance of both the competitors and their movements attract many spectators. Not surprisingly, the best skaters show many of the same physical and psychological attributes as gymnasts. Like ice hockey, figure skating is most popular in regions where natural ice is present. Dominant countries of the last 50 years have been Russia and the former Soviet Union, the United States, Canada, Germany and Japan. The sport is currently experiencing a surge in popularity in Asia, particularly in Japan, China and South Korea, as well as in the Nordic countries such as Norway, Finland, and Sweden. Spectator popularity of figure skating Figure skating is one of the most popular spectator sports in America. From 1989 to 2003, the Associated Press released several stories and features on spectator sports research studies. In the 1993 National Sports Study II, considered by the AP as the largest study of spectator sport popularity in America, Ladies Figure Skating was the 2nd most popular spectator sport in America, just behind NFL Football out of over 100 sports surveyed. In fact, Pairs Figure Skating and Ice Dancing as well as Men's Figure Skating ranked ahead of such popular sports like NBA Basketball, NCAA College Football and Basketball and far ahead of popular sports like PGA Tour Golf, Mens and Women's Tennis and the ever-popular NASCAR racing. The complete Top 10 list released by the AP follows: 1. NFL Pro football, 2. Ladies' Figure Skating, 3. Ladies' Gymnastics, 4. Major League Baseball, 5. Pairs Figure Skating, 6. Men's Figure Skating, 7. Pairs Ice Dancing, 8. Men's Gymnastics, 9. NBA Pro Basketball, 10. NCAA/CFA College Football. http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/archives/1993/9309080111.asp As evidence of this popularity, the first night of the Ladies Figure Skating competition in the 1994 Winter Olympics achieved higher TV Nielsen Ratings than that year's Super Bowl and was the most watched sports television program of all-time, to that date. The 1993 study found that three figure skaters - Dorothy Hamill, Peggy Fleming, and Scott Hamilton http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/1996/mar/21/stars-on-ice-as-nice-as-the-kids-next-door/ - (far ahead of Michael Jordan) were among the eight most popular athletes in the United States, out of over 800 athletes surveyed. Inside Edge: A Revealing Journey into the Secret World of Figure Skating By Christine Brennan; Scribner In fact, Dorothy Hamill was statistically tied with Mary Lou Retton as the most popular athlete in America. Figure skating in popular culture In 1937, Sonja Henie appeared in the film Thin Ice. Figure skating has been the focus of several later Hollywood films, including The Cutting Edge and its sequels, The Cutting Edge: Going for the Gold, The Cutting Edge 3: Chasing the Dream, Ice Princess, Ice Castles, Go Figure, and Blades of Glory, among others. Olympic champion Brian Boitano was parodied in South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut in the song "What Would Brian Boitano Do?" See also International figure skating Figure skating at the Olympic Games List of figure skating terms List of Olympic medalists in figure skating List of national championships in figure skating World Figure Skating Championships World Junior Figure Skating Championships European Figure Skating Championships Four Continents Figure Skating Championships Elements of figure skating named after people Artistic roller skating Winter sport U.S. Figure Skating References Evaluation of Errors in Figures, 6th edition. USFSA, 1964. Figure Skating: Championship Techniques. John Misha Petkevich, 1989. ISBN 0-452-26209-7. Single Figure Skating. Josef Dĕdič, 1974. Benjamin T. Wright, Skating in America. Michael Boo, The Story of Figure Skating. ISBN 0-688-15821-8. Johnson, Susan A.: "And Then There Were None". Skating, March/April 1991. Smith, Beverley. Figure Skating: A Celebration. ISBN 0-7710-2819-9. Robert S. Ogilvie, Competitive Figure Skating:A Parent's Guide. ISBN 0-06-015375-X. Rossano, George. Mechanics of Lifts. ISU Regulations ISU Crystal Reports official skaters' bios. Washington Post: All You Need to Know About Figure Skating ISU Judging System Summary ISU Judging Systems How the ISU Judging System Works History of ice skates Figure skating firsts U.S. Figure Skating - Glossary of Terms External links International Skating Union Official Site World Skating Museum and Hall of Fame | Figure_skating |@lemmatized european:5 champion:4 ice:40 dancer:3 isabelle:1 delobel:1 olivier:1 schoenfelder:1 perform:29 lift:38 exhibition:3 figure:89 skating:50 sport:18 individual:2 pair:32 group:8 spin:36 jump:60 footwork:4 intricate:3 challenge:2 move:5 skaters:1 compete:3 various:5 level:9 beginner:1 olympic:15 senior:4 local:1 national:5 international:17 competition:46 union:7 isu:22 regulate:1 skate:86 judging:7 official:5 event:7 winter:9 game:6 languages:1 english:2 usually:4 refer:3 name:2 translate:3 artistic:3 major:4 sanction:1 include:18 world:18 championship:20 junior:2 four:8 continent:2 grand:1 prix:1 also:19 associate:1 show:5 business:1 generally:2 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6,693 | Mendelevium | Mendelevium ( or ) is a synthetic element with the symbol Md (formerly Mv) and the atomic number 101. A metallic radioactive transuranic element of the actinides, mendelevium is synthesized by bombarding einsteinium with alpha particles and was named after Dmitri Mendeleev, who was responsible for the Periodic Table. Characteristics Researchers have shown that mendelevium has a moderately stable dipositive (II) oxidation state in addition to the more characteristic (for actinide elements) tripositive (III) oxidation state, the latter being the more dominantly exhibited state in an aqueous solution (Chromatography being the process used). Sometimes, Mendelevium can even be shown to exhibit a monopositive (I) state. http://www.answers.com/topic/mendelevium 256Md has been used to find out some of the chemical properties of this element while in an aqueous solution. There are no other known uses of mendelevium and only trace amounts of the element have ever been produced. Other isotopes of Mendelevium, all radioactive have been discovered, with 258Md being the most stable with a two-month half-life (about 55 days). http://library.eb.co.uk/eb/article-9051976 Other isotopes range from 248 to 258 mass numbers and half-lives from a few seconds to about 55 days. The original 256Md had a half-life of 76 minutes. http://www.answers.com/topic/mendelevium It is assumed that Mendelevium's standard state is solid at 298K and its classification is metallic. http://www.webelements.com/mendelevium/ History Mendelevium (for Dmitri Mendeleev, surname commonly transliterated into Latin script as Mendeleev, Mendeleyev, Mendeléef, or even Mendelejeff, and first name sometimes transliterated as Dmitry or Dmitriy) was first synthesized by Albert Ghiorso (team leader), Glenn T. Seaborg, Bernard Harvey, Greg Choppin, and Stanley G. Thompson in early 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley. The team produced 256Md (half-life of 76 minutes) when they bombarded an 253Es target with alpha particles (helium nuclei) in the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory's 60-inch cyclotron (256Md was the first element to be synthesized one-atom-at-a-time). Element 101 was the ninth transuranic element synthesized. The first 17 atoms of this element were created and analyzed using the ion-exchange adsorption-elution method. During the process, Mendelevium behaved very much like Thulium, its naturally-occurring homologue. http://library.eb.co.uk/eb/article-9051976 Contrary to some descriptions, it was never known as "unnilunium". Isotopes 15 radioisotopes of mendelevium have been characterized, with the most stable being 258Md with a half-life of 51.5 days, 260Md with a half-life of 31.8 days, and 257Md with a half-life of 5.52 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 97 minutes, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 5 minutes. This element also has 1 meta state, 258mMd (t½ 57 minutes). The isotopes of mendelevium range in atomic weight from 245.091 u (245Md) to 260.104 u (260Md). References Los Alamos National Laboratory - Mendelevium Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1 It's Elemental - Mendelevium External links WebElements.com - Mendelevium Environmental Chemistry- Md info | Mendelevium |@lemmatized mendelevium:17 synthetic:1 element:11 symbol:1 md:2 formerly:1 mv:1 atomic:2 number:2 metallic:2 radioactive:3 transuranic:2 actinide:2 synthesize:4 bombard:2 einsteinium:1 alpha:2 particle:2 name:2 dmitri:2 mendeleev:3 responsible:1 periodic:1 table:1 characteristic:2 researcher:1 show:2 moderately:1 stable:3 dipositive:1 ii:1 oxidation:2 state:6 addition:1 tripositive:1 iii:1 latter:1 dominantly:1 exhibit:2 aqueous:2 solution:2 chromatography:1 process:2 use:3 sometimes:2 even:2 monopositive:1 http:5 www:3 answer:2 com:4 topic:2 find:1 chemical:1 property:1 known:1 us:1 trace:1 amount:1 ever:1 produce:2 isotope:4 discover:1 two:1 month:1 half:9 life:7 day:4 library:2 eb:4 co:2 uk:2 article:2 range:2 mass:1 live:2 second:1 original:1 minute:5 assume:1 standard:1 solid:1 classification:1 webelements:2 history:1 surname:1 commonly:1 transliterate:2 latin:1 script:1 mendeleyev:1 mendeléef:1 mendelejeff:1 first:4 dmitry:1 dmitriy:1 albert:2 ghiorso:1 team:2 leader:1 glenn:1 seaborg:1 bernard:1 harvey:1 greg:1 choppin:1 stanley:1 g:1 thompson:1 early:1 university:2 california:1 berkeley:2 target:1 helium:1 nucleus:1 radiation:1 laboratory:2 inch:1 cyclotron:1 one:1 atom:2 time:1 ninth:1 create:1 analyze:1 ion:1 exchange:1 adsorption:1 elution:1 method:1 behave:1 much:1 like:1 thulium:1 naturally:1 occur:1 homologue:1 contrary:1 description:1 never:1 know:1 unnilunium:1 isotopes:1 radioisotope:1 characterize:1 hour:1 remain:1 less:2 majority:1 also:1 meta:1 weight:1 u:2 reference:1 los:1 alamos:1 national:1 guide:1 revise:1 edition:1 stwertka:1 oxford:1 press:1 isbn:1 elemental:1 external:1 link:1 environmental:1 chemistry:1 info:1 |@bigram transuranic_element:2 dmitri_mendeleev:2 periodic_table:1 aqueous_solution:2 http_www:3 webelements_com:2 albert_ghiorso:1 glenn_seaborg:1 radioactive_isotope:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 albert_stwertka:1 stwertka_oxford:1 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 |
6,694 | Jonathan_Demme | Robert Jonathan Demme (born February 22, 1944) is an American filmmaker, producer and screenwriter. Personal life Demme was born in Baldwin, New York, the son of Dorothy Demme and a public relations executive father. Demme has three children: Ramona, Brooklyn, Josephine. He is a graduate of the University of Florida. He also was the uncle of director Ted Demme, who died in 2002. Career Demme broke into feature film working for exploitation film producer Roger Corman from 1971 to 1976, co-writing and producing Angels Hard as They Come and The Hot Box, then directing three films (Caged Heat, Crazy Mama, Fighting Mad) for Corman's studio New World Pictures. After Fighting Mad, Demme moved on to direct the comedy film Handle with Care for Paramount Pictures in 1977. The film was well-received by critics, but received little promotion, and performed poorly at the box office. Demme's 1980 film Melvin and Howard did not have a wide release, but received widespread critical acclaim, and led to the signing of Demme to direct the Goldie Hawn and Kurt Russell star vehicle Swing Shift. A big-budget production intended to be a major prestige picture for Warner Bros. as well as a commercial breakthrough for Demme, Swing Shift was compromised by creative differences, with Demme renouncing the film. The film was released in May 1984, and was generally panned by critics and neglected by moviegoers. After Swing Shift, Demme started making documentary films, making a notable series of concert films with Stop Making Sense and Swimming to Cambodia. In 1991, Demme won the Academy Award for The Silence of the Lambs—one of the few films to win all the major categories (best film, best director, best screenplay, best actor, and best actress). Demme directed an Oscar-winning turn from Tom Hanks in his next feature, Philadelphia. Since then, Demme's films have included remakes of two popular films: The Truth About Charlie, a remake of Charade that starred Mark Wahlberg in the Cary Grant role; and The Manchurian Candidate, with Denzel Washington and Meryl Streep. In 2007, Demme's film Man from Plains, a documentary about former U.S. President Jimmy Carter's book tour in promotion of his book Palestine: Peace not Apartheid, premiered at the Venice and Toronto Film Festivals. In 2008, Rachel Getting Married was released, which many critics compared to Demme's films of the late 1970s and 1980s. It was inlcuded in many 2008 "best of" lists, and received numerous awards and nominations, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress by lead Anne Hathaway. One of his common directorial motifs is to allow characters to look directly into the camera. Demme formed his production company, Clinica Estetico, with producers Edward Saxon and Peter Saraf. They were based out of New York for fifteen years. Filmography Caged Heat (1974) Crazy Mama (1975) Fighting Mad (1976) Handle with Care, also known as Citizen's Band (1977) Last Embrace (1979) Melvin and Howard (1980) Who Am I This Time? (1983) Swing Shift (1984) Stop Making Sense (Talking Heads concert film) (1984) The Perfect Kiss (New Order music video) (1985) Something Wild (1986) Swimming to Cambodia (1987) Haiti: Dreams of Democracy (1987) Married to the Mob (1988) The Silence of the Lambs (1991) Cousin Bobby (1991) Philadelphia (1993) Beloved (1998) Storefront Hitchcock (1998) The Truth About Charlie (2002) The Agronomist (2003) The Manchurian Candidate (2004) Neil Young: Heart of Gold (2006) Man from Plains (2007) New Home Movies From the Lower 9th Ward (2007) Rachel Getting Married (2008) Neil Young: Trunk Show (2009) Notes References External links Storefront Demme | Jonathan_Demme |@lemmatized robert:1 jonathan:1 demme:19 born:1 february:1 american:1 filmmaker:1 producer:3 screenwriter:1 personal:1 life:1 bear:1 baldwin:1 new:5 york:2 son:1 dorothy:1 public:1 relation:1 executive:1 father:1 three:2 child:1 ramona:1 brooklyn:1 josephine:1 graduate:1 university:1 florida:1 also:2 uncle:1 director:2 ted:1 die:1 career:1 break:1 feature:2 film:18 work:1 exploitation:1 roger:1 corman:2 co:1 writing:1 produce:1 angel:1 hard:1 come:1 hot:1 box:2 direct:4 cage:2 heat:2 crazy:2 mama:2 fight:3 mad:3 studio:1 world:1 picture:3 move:1 comedy:1 handle:2 care:2 paramount:1 well:2 receive:4 critic:3 little:1 promotion:2 perform:1 poorly:1 office:1 melvin:2 howard:2 wide:1 release:3 widespread:1 critical:1 acclaim:1 lead:2 signing:1 goldie:1 hawn:1 kurt:1 russell:1 star:2 vehicle:1 swing:4 shift:4 big:1 budget:1 production:2 intend:1 major:2 prestige:1 warner:1 bros:1 commercial:1 breakthrough:1 compromise:1 creative:1 difference:1 renounce:1 may:1 generally:1 pan:1 neglect:1 moviegoer:1 start:1 make:4 documentary:2 notable:1 series:1 concert:2 stop:2 sense:2 swimming:1 cambodia:2 win:3 academy:2 award:3 silence:2 lambs:1 one:2 category:1 best:7 screenplay:1 actor:1 actress:2 oscar:1 turn:1 tom:1 hank:1 next:1 philadelphia:2 since:1 include:2 remake:2 two:1 popular:1 truth:2 charlie:2 charade:1 mark:1 wahlberg:1 cary:1 grant:1 role:1 manchurian:2 candidate:2 denzel:1 washington:1 meryl:1 streep:1 man:2 plain:2 former:1 u:1 president:1 jimmy:1 carter:1 book:2 tour:1 palestine:1 peace:1 apartheid:1 premier:1 venice:1 toronto:1 festival:1 rachel:2 get:2 marry:3 many:2 compare:1 late:1 inlcuded:1 list:1 numerous:1 nomination:2 anne:1 hathaway:1 common:1 directorial:1 motif:1 allow:1 character:1 look:1 directly:1 camera:1 form:1 company:1 clinica:1 estetico:1 edward:1 saxon:1 peter:1 saraf:1 base:1 fifteen:1 year:1 filmography:1 know:1 citizen:1 band:1 last:1 embrace:1 time:1 talk:1 head:1 perfect:1 kiss:1 order:1 music:1 video:1 something:1 wild:1 swim:1 haiti:1 dream:1 democracy:1 mob:1 lamb:1 cousin:1 bobby:1 beloved:1 storefront:2 hitchcock:1 agronomist:1 neil:2 young:2 heart:1 gold:1 home:1 movie:1 low:1 ward:1 trunk:1 show:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram roger_corman:1 paramount_picture:1 critical_acclaim:1 goldie_hawn:1 warner_bros:1 tom_hank:1 mark_wahlberg:1 cary_grant:1 manchurian_candidate:2 denzel_washington:1 meryl_streep:1 jimmy_carter:1 award_nomination:2 silence_lamb:1 external_link:1 |
6,695 | Iran | Iran (; OED ), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , and formerly known internationally as Persia until 1935, is a country in Central Eurasia, http://cesww.fas.harvard.edu/ces_definition.html located on the northeastern shore of the Persian Gulf and the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. Both the names "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural context, however Iran is the name used officially in political context. Iransaga, "Persia or Iran, a brief history". Iranian.ws, Iranian & Persian Art. The name Iran is a cognate of Aryan, and means "Land of the Aryans". hinduwebsite.com, "The Concepts of Hinduism — Arya", retrieved 1 Oct 2007 imp.lss.wisc.edu, "Iranian Languages", Political, Social, Scientific, Literary & Artistic (Monthly) Oct 2000, No. 171, Dr. Suzan Kaviri, pp. 26–7, retrieved 1 Oct 2007 "Iran — The Ancient Name of Iran", N.S. Gill, retrieved 1 Oct 2007 The 18th largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km², Iran has a population of over seventy million. It is a country of special geostrategic significance due to its central location in Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea and condominium, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and on the west by Turkey and Iraq. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial, and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, parliament.uk, "Select Committee on Foreign Affairs, Eighth Report, Iran, retrieved 1 Oct 2007 IRAN @ 2000 and Beyond lecture series, opening address, W. Herbert Hunt, 18 May 2000, retrieved 1 Oct 2007 and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 7000 BC. Iranian History, Retrieved on February 2, 2009. Iranian Architecture & Monuments, Retrieved on February 2, 2009. Pottery Making in Iran, Retrieved on February 2, 2009. The first Iranian dynasty formed during the Elamite kingdom in 2800 BC. The Iranian Medes unified Iran into an empire in 625 BC. They were succeeded by three Iranian Empires, the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids, which governed Iran for more than 1000 years. Iranian post-Islamic dynasties and empires expanded the Persian language and culture throughout the Iranian plateau. Early Iranian dynasties which re-asserted Iranian independence included the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids and Buyids. The blossoming of Persian literature, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics and art became major elements of Muslim civilization and started with the Saffarids and Samanids. Iran was once again reunified as an independent state in 1501 by the Safavid dynasty Andrew J. Newman, Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, I. B. Tauris (March 30, 2006) —who promoted Twelver Shi'a Islam R.M. Savory, Safavids, Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd edition as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in the history of Islam."Persia's Constitutional Revolution" established the nation's first parliament in 1906, within a constitutional monarchy. Iran officially became an Islamic republic on 1 April 1979, following the Iranian Revolution. Iran Islamic Republic, Encyclopaedia Britannica retrieved 23 January 2008 Iran is a founding member of the UN, NAM, OIC and OPEC. The political system of Iran, based on the 1979 Constitution, comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The highest state authority is the Supreme Leader. Shia Islam is the official religion and Persian is the official language. retrieved 23 January 2008 Etymology The term Iran (ایران) in modern Persian derives from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānā, first attested in Zoroastrianism's Avesta tradition. Ariya- and Airiia- are also attested as an ethnic designator in Achaemenid inscriptions. The term Ērān, from Middle Persian Ērān (written as ʼyrʼn) is found on the inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of Ardashir I at Naqsh-e Rustam. In this inscription, the king's appellation in Middle Persian contains the term ērān (Pahlavi ʼryʼn), while in the Parthian language inscription that accompanies it, the term aryān describes Iran. In Ardashir's time, ērān retained this meaning, denoting the people rather than the state. Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ērān to refer to the Iranian peoples, the use of ērān to refer to the geographical empire is also attested in the early Sassanid period. An inscription relating to Shapur I, Ardashir's son and immediate successor, includes regions which were not inhabited primarily by Iranians in Ērān regions, such as Armenia and the Caucasus." retrieved 25 Feb 2008 In Kartir's inscriptions the high priest includes the same regions in his list of provinces of the antonymic Anērān. Both ērān and aryān come from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānām, (Land) of the (Iranian) Aryas. The word and concept of Airyanem Vaejah is present in the name of the country Iran (Lit. Land of the Aryans) inasmuch as Iran (Ērān) is the modern Persian form of the word Aryānā. The country has always been known to its own people as Iran, however to the outside world, the official name of Iran from the 6th century BC until 1935 was Persia or similar foreign language translations (La Perse, Persien, Perzie, etc.). In that year, Reza Shah asked the international community to call the country by the name "Iran". A few years later, some Persian scholars protested to the government that changing the name had separated the country from its past, so in 1949 Mohammad Reza Shah announced that both terms could officially be used interchangeably. Now both terms are common, but "Iran" is used mostly in the modern political context and "Persia" in a cultural and historical context. Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the official name of the country has been the "Islamic Republic of Iran." Geography and climate Iran is the eighteenth largest country in the world. World Statistics by Area retrieved 23 January 2008 Its area roughly equals that of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined, or slightly less than the state of Alaska. Welcome to Iran retrieved 25 Feb 2008 Iran-Location, size, and extent retrieved 23 January 2008 Its borders are with Azerbaijan (432 km/268 mi) and Armenia (35 km/22 mi) to the north-west; the Caspian Sea to the north; Turkmenistan (992 km/616 mi) to the north-east; Pakistan (909 km/565 mi) and Afghanistan (936 km/582 mi) to the east; Turkey (499 km/310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km/906 mi) to the west; and finally the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000 km² (approximately 636,300 sq mi). Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau with the exception of the coasts of the Caspian Sea and Khuzestan. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaux from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros and Alborz Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point, Mount Damavand at 5,610 m (18,405 ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu Kush. SurfWax: News, Reviews and Articles On Hindu Kush retrieved 25 Feb 2008 The Northern part of Iran is covered by dense rain forests called Shomal or the Jungles of Iran. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins such as the Dasht-e Kavir, Iran's largest desert, in the north-central portion of the country, and the Dasht-e Lut, in the east, as well as some salt lakes. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions. The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab (or the Arvand Rūd) river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Sea of Oman. Iran's climate ranges from arid or semiarid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and the northern forests. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (85 °F). Nature & Mountains of Iran retrieved 25 Feb 2008 Iran- Current Information retrieved 25 feb 2008 Annual precipitation is 680 mm (27 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (67 in) in the western part. To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (eight in) of rain, and have occasional deserts. Average summer temperatures exceed 38 °C (100 °F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (five to fourteen inches). Iran's wildlife is composed of several animal species including bears, gazelles, wild pigs, wolves, jackals, panthers, Eurasian lynx, and foxes. Domestic animals include, sheep, goats, cattle, horses, water buffalo, donkeys, and camels. The pheasant, partridge, stork, eagles and falcon are also native to Iran. Provinces and cities Iran is divided into thirty provinces (ostān), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (shahrestān), and subdivided into districts (bakhsh) and sub-districts (dehestān). Iran has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%. The United Nations predicts that by 2030 80% of the population will be urban. "Islamic Azad University", retrieved 28 Jan 2008 Most internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom. The listed populations are from the 2006/07 (1385 AP) census. Iranian National Portal of Statistics retrieved 27 Feb 2008 Tehran, with population of 7,705,036, is the largest city in Iran and is the Capital city. Tehran is home to around 11% of Iran's population. Tehran, like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. It is the hub of the country's communication and transport network. Mashhad, with a population of 2.8 million, is the second largest Iranian city and the centre of the province of Razavi Khorasan. Mashahd is one of the holiest Shi'a cities in the world as it is the site of the Imam Reza shrine. It is the centre of tourism in Iran and between 15 and 20 million pilgrims go to the Imam Reza's shrine every year. Religious Tourism Potentials Rich retrieved 28 Feb 2008 Mashhad, Iran retrieved 28 Feb 2008 Another major Iranian city is Isfahan (population 1,986,542), which is the capital of Isfahan Province. The Naghsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The city contains a wide variety of Islamic architectural sites ranging from the eleventh to the 19th century. The growth of suburb area around the city has turned Isfahan to the second most populous metropolitan area (3,430,353). http://www.sci.org.ir/content/userfiles/_census85/census85/natayej/township/Os10.xls retrieved 27 Feb 2008 The forth major city of Iran is Tabriz (population 1,597,312) capital of the East Azarbaijan province which is the second industrial city of Iran after Tehran. Tabriz has been the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s and one of its former capitals and residence of the crown prince under the Qajar dynasty. The city has proven extremely influential in the country’s recent history. The other major cities are Karaj (population 1,532,275), and Shiraz (population 1,227,331). Karaj is located in Tehran province and is situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of Alborz mountains; however, the city is increasingly becoming an extension of metropolitan Tehran. History Early history (3200 BC – 625 BC) Dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the fourth millennium BC, Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007 Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007 Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007, retrieved 1 Oct 2007 centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby Mesopotamia. http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/VOL/NN_SUM94/NN_Sum94.html retrieved 2006-04-29 Proto-Iranians first emerged following the separation of Indo-Iranians, and are traced to the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex. "The Palaeolithic Indo-Europeans" — Panshin.com (retrieved 4 June 2006) Aryan, (Proto-Iranian) tribes arrived in the Iranian plateau in the third and second millennium BC, probably in more than one wave of emigration, and settled as nomads. Further separation of Proto-Iranians into "Eastern" and "Western" groups occurred due to migration. By the first millennium BC, Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the western part, while Cimmerians, Sarmatians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. Other tribes began to settle on the eastern edge, as far as on the mountainous frontier of north-western Indian subcontinent and into the area which is now Balochistan. Others, such as the Scythian tribes spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang. Avestan is an eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the Zoroastrian Gathas in c. 1000 BC. Pre-Islamic statehood (625 BC – 651 AD) The Medes are credited with the unification of Iran as a nation and empire (625–559 BC), the largest of its day, until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenid Empire (559–330 BC), and further unification between peoples and cultures. After Cyrus' death, his son Cambyses continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. Following a power struggle after Cambyses' death, Darius I was declared king (ruled 522–486 BC). Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point. The borders of the Persian empire stretched from the Indus and Oxus Rivers in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, extending through Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Egypt. In 499 BC Athens lent support to a revolt in Miletus which resulted in the sacking of Sardis. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the Greco-Persian Wars which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. During the Greco-Persian wars Persia made some major advantages and razed Athens in 480 BC, But after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw. Fighting ended with the peace of Callias in 449 BC. The rules and ethics emanating from Zoroaster's teachings were strictly followed by the Achaemenids who introduced and adopted policies based on human rights, equality and banning of slavery. Zoroastrianism spread unimposed during the time of the Achaemenids and through contacts with the exiled Jewish people in Babylon freed by Cyrus, Zoroastrian concepts further propagated and influenced the Abrahamic religions. The Golden Age of Athens marked by Aristotle, Plato and Socrates also came about during the Achaemenid period while their contacts with Persia and the Near East abounded. The peace, tranquility, security and prosperity that were afforded to the people of the Near East and Southeastern Europe proved to be a rare historical occurrence, an unparalleled period where commerce prospered, and the standard of living for all people of the region improved. vohuman.org, "Historical perspective on Zoroastrianism", Reproduced from Âtaš-è Dorün — The Fire Within, Jamshid Soroush Soroushian Memorial Volume II, 1st Books Library, Bloomington, IN, 2003, retrieved 1 Oct 2007 In 334 BC, Alexander the Great invaded the Achaemenid Empire, defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. He left the annexed territory in 328–327. In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the partitioning of the former empire after Alexander's death. The Parthian Empire (238 BC–226 AD), led by the Arsacid Dynasty, was the third Iranian kingdom to dominate the Iranian plateau, after defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late 3rd century BC, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca. 150 BC and 224 AD. These were the third native dynasty of ancient Iran and lasted five centuries. After the conquests of Media, Assyria, Babylonia and Elam, the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were Greek, and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east, limiting Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). By using a heavily armed and armoured cataphract cavalry, and lightly armed but highly mobile mounted archers, the Parthians "held their own against Rome for almost 300 years". Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.142–143,Time-life Books Rome's acclaimed general Mark Antony led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians in 36 BC, in which he lost 32,000 men. By the time of Roman emperor Augustus, Rome and Parthia were settling some of their differences through diplomacy. By this time, Parthia had acquired an assortment of golden eagles, the cherished standards of Rome's legions, captured from Mark Antony, and Crassus, who suffered a defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC. Cotterell, Arthur. From Aristotle to Zoroaster: An a to Z Companion to the Classical World. 1998. p.272, Free Press The end of the Parthian Empire came in 224 AD, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by Ardashir I, one of the empire's vassals. Ardashir I then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, referring to it as Erânshahr or Iranshahr, , "Dominion of the Aryans", (i.e. of Iranians), with their capital at Ctesiphon. Garthwaite, Gene R., The Persians, p. 2, ISBN 1405156805, Wiley-Blackwell (2006) Unlike the diadochic Seleucids and the succeeding Arsacids, who used a vassalary system, the Sassanids—like the Achaemenids—had a system of governors (MP: shahrab) personally appointed by the Emperor and directed by the central government. The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by Ardashir I, Shapur I, and Shapur II. Lorentz, John H. Historical Dictionary of Iran.Asian Historical Dictionaries; No.16. 1995. ISBN 9780810829947, p.189 During their reign, Sassanid battles with the Roman Empire caused such pessimism in Rome that the historian Cassius Dio wrote: In 632 raiders from the Arab peninsula began attacking the Sassanid Empire. Iran was defeated in the Battle of al-Qâdisiyah, paving way for the Islamic conquest of Persia. During Parthian, and later Sassanid era, trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. Parthian remains display classical Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear expression of the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life. Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.134, Time-life Books The Parthians were innovators of many architecture designs such as that of Ctesiphon, which later influenced European Romanesque architecture. Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.138, Time-life Books "Even the architecture of the Christian church, with its hallowed chancel seems inspired by the designs of Mithraic temples". Abbas Milani. Lost Wisdom. 2004. Mage Publishers. p.13. ISBN 0934211906 Under the Sassanids, Iran expanded relations with China. Arts, music, and architecture greatly flourished, and centers such as the School of Nisibis and Academy of Gundishapur became world renowned centers of science and scholarship. Middle Ages (652–1501) Politic Change After the Islamic conquest of Persia, most of the urban lands of the Sassanid empire with the exception of Caspian provinces and Transoxiana came under Islamic rule Encyclopedia Iranica, "Iran in the Islamic Period (651-1980s)", E. Yarshater. . Many provinces in Iran defended themselves against the Arab invaders, although none in the end was able to repulse the invaders. However, when the Arabs had subdued the country, many of the cities rose in rebellions, killing Arab governors, although reinforcement by Arab armies succeeded in putting down the rebellions. However, the Iranians' conversion to Islam was a complex process, which is generally considered a gradual process and the notion of force has largely been discredited "Conversion: Of Iranians to Islam." by Elton L. Daniel in Encyclopedia Iranica , although occasional acts of violence did take place, with Zoroastrian scriptures being burned and Zoroastrian priests being executed. آثار الباقیه، ابوریحان بیرونی، انتشارات امیرکبیر، 1377، ص 7۵ Biruni states: By the 9th century, Islam became a dominant religion in Persia and the conversion of Iranians to Islam brought profound changes to their life and culture. However in some regions, like Fars province, Zoroastrianism was strong up to the 9th century, although Sufis like Abu Eshaq Kazeruni, the founder of Kazeruni Sufi order brought mass conversion of Zoroastrians to Islam in the 10th century. During the Abbasid caliphate decline, independent "Ṣaffārid Dynasty." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 Mar. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/516118/Saffarid-dynasty>. "Sāmānid Dynasty." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 Mar. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520234/Samanid-dynasty>. and semi-independent native Iranian dynasties arose in different parts of Persia including the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids, Afrighids,Ghurids, Sallarid, Justanids, Shaddadids and Buyids. Socially, the Arabs abolished the previous social class system of Sassanians while later, especially under the Ummayyads, another form of discrimination and exclusion against non-Arabs evolved "CLASS SYSTEM ", in Encyclopedia Iranica . In reaction to these, Abu Moslem, an Iranian Joel Carmichael, " The Shaping of the Arabs: A Study in Ethnic Identity ", Published by Macmillan, 1967. pg 235. Excerpt: "Abu Muslim, the Persian general and popular leader". Richard Nelson Frye, "Iran", Edition: 2, revised Published by G. Allen & Unwin, 1960. pg 47: "A Persian Muslim called Abu Muslim general, expelled the Umayyads from Damascus and helped the Abbasid caliphs to conquer Baghdad. The Abbasid caliphs frequently chose their "wazirs" (viziers) among Iranians, and Iranian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in 822, the governor of Khorasan, Tahir, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of Tahirids. And by the Samanid era, Iran's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified. Bosworth C. E., Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, p.90 Attempts of Arabization thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the Shuubiyah became catalysts for Iranians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders C.E. Bosworth, "Ajam" in Encyclopedia Iranica: But by the 3rd/9th century, the non-Arabs, and above all the Persians, were asserting their social and cultural equality (taswīa) with the Arabs, if not their superiority (tafżīl) over them (a process seen in the literary movement of the Šoʿūbīya). In any case, there was always in some minds a current of admiration for the ʿAǰam as heirs of an ancient, cultured tradition of life . Other notable major revolts, some by Iranian Muslims and others by practitioners of old Iranian religions against Arab rule were lead by Al-Muqanna, Sunpadh, Khurramites, Babak Khorramdin, Maziar, Mardavij, Ustadh Sis and Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari. The cultural revival of the post-Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of Iranian national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the 9th and 10th centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the Persian language, the official language of Iran to the present day. Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language. After an interval of silence Iran re-emerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam. In 1218, the eastern Khwarazmid provinces of Transoxiana and Khorasan suffered a devastating invasion by Genghis Khan. During this period more than half of Iran's population was killed, The memoirs of Edward Teller, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory "Science and Technology Review". July/August 1998 p20. Link: turning the streets of Persian cities such as Neishabur into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed". Mackey, S.. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69. Between 1220 and 1260, the total population of Iran had dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine. Battuta's Travels: Part Three — Persia and Iraq retrieved 23 January 2008 In a letter to King Louis IX of France, Holaku, one of the Genghis Khan's grandsons, alone took responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Iran and the Caliphate. Mackey, S.. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.70 He was followed by yet another conqueror, Tamerlane, who established his capital in Samarkand. Old World Contacts/Armies/Tamerlane retrieved 23 January 2008 The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as Neishabur from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the 20th century, eight centuries later. Mackey, S. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69. In 1387, Tamerlane avenged a revolt in Isfahan by massacring 70,000 people. Isfahan: Iran's Hidden Jewel. Smithsonian Magazine. But both Hulagu, Tamerlane, and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian. Bertold Spuler. The Muslim World. Vol. I The Age of the Caliphs. Leiden. E.J. Brill. 1960 ISBN 0-685-23328-6 p.29 The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 30% of the country's population. Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online Culture Iran was gradually Islamized after the collapse of the Sassanid empire, however it was not Arabized. Iranian culture re-emerged with a separate and distinctive character and made an immense contribution to the Islamic civilization Bernard Lewis, "Iran in History", excerpt:"Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna." Grunebaum, G. V. von. "The sources of Islamic civilization." Islamic Society and Civilization. Eds. P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis. Cambridge University Press, 1970. Cambridge Histories Online. Cambridge University Press. pg 501:"In some ways, the Persian components of Islamic civilization are more difficult to separate out than the Hellenic precisely because they are more fully integrated and have become effective on so many levels. In fact, the Muslim world itself, without necessarily putting this judgement in analytical terms, has long since come to accept Islamic civilization as 'Perso-Islamic synthesis'. . When Islam came through Iranian, there developed Iranian Islam or Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam and this new Islam is sometimes referred to by scholars as Islam-i Ajam (Persian Islam) Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Mehdi Amin Razavi,"The Islamic intellectual tradition in Persia", RoutledgeCurzon; annotated edition edition (July 4, 1996). pg 157: "The appearance of the school of Ishraq meant both the guarantee of the propogation of Islamic philosophy in a form that was clearer to the heart of Islam than the earlier schools of thoughts, and also the creation of a school that was particularly close to the ethos of Persian Islam and spread wherever Persian Islamic culture was dominant . It was this Persian Islam and Sufism which was brought to new areas and new peoples like Turks of Central Asia, Ottoman empire and Indian subcontinent. Among the major Iranians Muslims who cultivated Sufism and helped the spread of Islam through Sufism, one can mention Habib Ajami, Hallaj, Hasan Basri, Junayd Baghdadi, Bayazid Bistami, Maruf Karkhi, Abdul Qadir Jilani, Moinuddin Chishti, Jalaluddin Rumi, Najmuddin Kubra, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. Note should also be made of Abu Hanifa, the founder of the Hanafi school of thought which is followed by most of the Muslims today. Ibn Khaldun, the Arabic writer has remarked that sedentary culture which was necessity for the development of civilization was rooted in the Persian empire The Muqaddimah By Ibn Khaldūn translated by Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood,Published by Princeton University Press, 1969. . The contribution of Iranians to the common Muslim civilization is succinctly summarized by Ibn Khaldun: "The Golden age of Persia by Richard N. Frye, Professor of Iranian, Harvard university Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1975 Professor Richard (Emeritus) was a Professor of Iranian and Middle Eastern studies at Harvard University. pages 161-162. Quote: The remaks of Ibn Khaldun are not in dispute". The Muqaddimah By Ibn Khaldūn translated by Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood,Published by Princeton University Press, 1969. pages 429-430 The Muqaddimah By Ibn Khaldūn translated by Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood,Published by Princeton University Press, 1969. .: One of the main developments after the advent of Islam in Iran was the rise of the new Persian language, as an important Indo-European language. The New Persian language, was an evolution of Middle Persian which in turn was derived from Old Persian. New Persian absorbed a considerable amount of Arabic vocabulary Professor. Gilbert Lazard, : The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran in (Lazard, Gilbert 1975, “The Rise of the New Persian Language” in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595-632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lazard, Gilbert, "Pahlavi, Pârsi, dari: Les langues d'Iran d'apès Ibn al-Muqaffa" in R.N. Frye, "Iran and Islam. In Memoy of the late Vladimir Minorsky", Edinburgh University Press, 1971. during this era, although the Arabic vocabulary that was Persianized Ann K. S. Lambton, "Persian grammar ", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge University Press 1953. Excerpt: "The Arabic words incorporated into the Persian language have become Persianized". often took a different meaning than the Arabic origin. In terms of contribution to the Arabic language, Iranians like Sibawayhi M. G. Carter, "Sibawayhi", Published by I.B.Tauris, 2004. pg 9: "That Sibawayhi was by origin a Persian who came or was taken to Basra seems to be beyond challenge." pioneered writing books of Grammer of the Arabic language. Culturally, Iranians preserved their language, while they used the Arabic for scientific and philosophical discourses ; this enabled them to reach a world-wide audience for the first time. After the 10th century, Persian, written in the modified Perso-Arabic script alongside Arabic, was used for scientific, philosophical, historical, mathematic, musical and medical works as important Iranian writers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Avicenna, Gurgani, Naser Khusraw, Biruni, Abdul Qadir Maraghi made contributions to Persian scientific writing. During this era, Iranians continued the cultural and scientific enterprises set-up by the Sassanids on a much larger scale. The blossoming Persian literature, philosophy, medicine and art became major elements in the forming Muslim civilization. The Islamic Golden Age which is characterized by developments in science, owed, to a large extent, its importance to vital contributions made by Iranians Robert Palter, Solomon Gandz, "Toward Modern Science : Studies in ancient and medieval science.", Published by Noonday Press, 1961, pg 180: "The so called golden age of Islamic science owed its importance to largely to the Persian contribution. Ehsan Yarshater, "The Persian Presence in in the Islamic World" in Richard G. Hovannisian, Georges Sabagh, "The Persian Presence in the Islamic World", Published by Cambridge University Press, 1997. pg 6-7: "The Golden age of Islam, as the early Abbassid period has been labeled, was distinguished by intellectual advances, literary innovations, and cultural exuberance attributable, in no small measure, to the vital participation of Persian men of letters, philosophers, theologians, grammarians, mathematicians, musicians, astronomers, geographers, and physicians" Bernard Lewis, "Iran in History", excerpt: "Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution." . The Islamic Golden Age reached its peak in the 10-11th centuries, during which Persia was the main theatre of scientific activity. William Bayne Fisher, et al., The Cambridge History of Iran 4 Published by Cambridge University Press, 1975, ISBN 0521200938, p. 396. The Persian influence of this period relied heavily upon the achievements of the Sassanids, and the weight of this influence has lead the Muslim world to accept Islamic civilization as the Perso-Islamic civilization. The following references give comprehensive analysis and clarification of the terms "persian influence" and "perso-islamic" and the relation to Sassanids and the impact on Islamic cultures: Marilyn Robinson Waldman, Toward a Theory of Historical Narrative: A Case Study in Perso-Islamicate Historiography, Published by Ohio State University Press, 1980, ISBN 0814202977, p. 30 Richard M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760, Published by University of California Press, 1996, ISBN 0520205073, p. 28 Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.), The Persian Presence in the Islamic World, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0521591856. p.78. P. M. Holt, et al. The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2B, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1977, ISBN 0521291380. p. 501 . Even in development of Arabic scientific prose itself which differs in style from that of the Quran, Persian scholars like Ibn al-Muqaffa had a major role. Indeed, the class of clerks and civil administrators that was responsible for the cultivation of sciences in the early Islamic centuries consisted mostly of Persians. William Bayne Fisher, et al., The Cambridge History of Iran 4 Published by Cambridge University Press, 1975, ISBN 0521200938, p. 397. The contributions of Iranians to the Arabic language is however not limited to scientific prose, but also in Arabic poetry. The contributions by Iranians are characterised as "the lively and graceful fancy, elegance of diction, depth and tenderness of feeling and a rich store of ideas" Reynold Alleyne Nicholson. A Literary History of the Arabs, Published by Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0700703365, p. 290. . Iranian philosophy after the Islamic conquest, is characterized by different interactions with the Old Iranian philosophy, the Greek philosophy and with the development of Islamic philosophy. The Illumination School and the Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of this era in Persia. These movements continued well into the 11th century, during which the Nizamiyya university was founded and hundreds of Iranian scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European sciences during the Renaissance. Kühnel E., in Zeittschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesell, Vol. CVI (1956) . Early modern era (1501–1921) Iran's first encompassing Shi'a Islamic state was established under the Safavid Dynasty (1501–1722) by Shah Ismail I. The Safavid Dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of Shah Abbas The Great. "The Islamic World to 1600", The Applied History Research Group, The University of Calgary, 1998, retrieved 1 Oct 2007 The Safavid Dynasty frequently warred with the Ottoman Empire, Uzbek tribes and the Portuguese Empire. The Safavids moved their capital from Tabriz to Qazvin and then to Isfahan, where their patronage for the arts propelled Iran into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even a distinct style of architecture developed. In 1722 Afghan rebels defeated Shah Sultan Hossein and ended the Safavid Dynasty, but in 1735, Nader Shah successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the Afsharid Dynasty. He then staged an incursion into India in 1738, securing the Peacock throne, Koh-i-Noor, and Darya-ye Noor among other royal treasures. His rule did not last long, however, as he was assassinated in 1747. The Mashhad based Afshar Dynasty was succeeded by the Zand dynasty in 1750, founded by Karim Khan, who established his capital at Shiraz. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity. The Zand dynasty lasted three generations, until Aga Muhammad Khan executed Lotf Ali Khan, and founded his new capital in Tehran, marking the dawn of the Qajar Dynasty in 1794. The Qajar chancellor Amir Kabir established Iran's first modern college system, among other modernizing reforms. Iran suffered several wars with Imperial Russia during the Qajar era, resulting in Iran losing almost half of its territories to Imperial Russia and the British Empire, via the treaties of Gulistan, Turkmenchay and Akhal. The Great Persian Famine of 1870-1871 is believed to have caused the death of 2 million persons. The Great Persian Famine of 1870-1871 In spite of The Great Game Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighbouring states in the region. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to various protests, which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in Persia's constitutional revolution establishing the nation's first parliament in 1906, within a constitutional monarchy. Recent history (1921–present) In 1925, Reza Khan overthrew the weakening Qajar Dynasty and became Shah. Reza Shah initiated industrialization, railroad construction, and the establishment of a national education system. Reza Shah sought to balance Russian and British influence, but when World War II started, his nascent ties to Germany alarmed Britain and Russia. In 1941, Britain and the USSR invaded Iran to use Iranian railroad capacity during World War II. The Shah was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1951 Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh was elected prime minister. As prime minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran after he nationalized Iran's oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and, amidst Cold War fears, invited the United States to join in a plot to depose Mossadegh, and in 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized Operation Ajax. The operation was successful, and Mossadegh was arrested on 19 August 1953. After Operation Ajax, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's rule became increasingly autocratic. With American support, the Shah was able to rapidly modernize Iranian infrastructure, but he simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, SAVAK. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah's White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964 Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General Hassan Pakravan. Khomeini was sent first to Turkey, then to Iraq and finally to France. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah. The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution, Islamic Revolution of 1979, retrieved 23 January 2008 Islamic Revolution of Iran, encarta, retrieved 23 January 2008 Fereydoun Hoveyda, The Shah and the Ayatollah: Iranian Mythology and Islamic Revolution ISBN 0275978583, Praeger Publishers began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Shah. The Iranian Revolution retrieved 23 January 2008 After strikes and demonstrations paralysed the country and its economy, the Shah fled the country in January 1979 and Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran. The Pahlavi Dynasty collapsed ten days later, on 11 February, when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on 1 April 1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so. Encyclopædia Britannica23 January 2008 In December 1979, the country approved a theocratic constitution, whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country. The speed and success of the revolution surprised many throughout the world, Jahangir Amuzegar, The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution, (1991), p.4, 9–12 ISBN 0791407314 as it had not been precipitated by a military defeat, a financial crisis, or a peasant rebellion. Arjomand, Turban (1988), p. 191. Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, tens of thousands were killed and executed by the Islamic regime afterward, the revolution ultimately resulted in an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Cheryl Benard, Zalmay Khalilzad, "The Government of God" ISBN 0231053762, Columbia University Press (1984), p. 18. Iran's relationship with the United States deteriorated rapidly during the revolution. On 4 November 1979, a group of Iranian students seized US embassy personnel, labelling the embassy a "den of spies". PBS, American Experience, Jimmy Carter, "444 Days: America Reacts", retrieved 1 Oct 2007 They accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. While the student ringleaders had not asked for permission from Khomeini to seize the embassy, Khomeini nonetheless supported the embassy takeover after hearing of its success. Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam, Mark Bowden, p. 127 ISBN 0802143032, Grove Press While most of the female and African American hostages were released within the first months, the remaining fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days. Subsequently attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate or rescue were unsuccessful. In January 1981 the hostages were set free according to the Algiers declaration. Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution. Saddam sought to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan which not only has a substantial Arab population, but boasted rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the United Arab Emirates, the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. On 22 September 1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran–Iraq War. Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000; with more than 100,000 Iranians being victims of Iraq's chemical weapons. Centre for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. (مرکز مطالعات و تحقیقات جنگ) Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war. retrieved 23 January 2008 http://www.fas.org/cw/intro.htm 23 January 2008 NTI Chemical profile of Iran 23 January 2008 Following the Iran–Iraq War President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and his administration concentrated on a pragmatic pro-business policy of rebuilding and strengthening the economy without making any dramatic break with the ideology of the revolution. Rafsanjani served until 1997 when he was succeeded by the moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami. During his two terms as president, Khatami advocated freedom of expression, tolerance and civil society, constructive diplomatic relations with other states including and Asian governments, and an economic policy that supported free market and foreign investment. However, Khatami is widely regarded as having been unsuccessful in achieving his goal of making Iran more free and democratic. The Guardian, Tuesday 4 May 2004, Khatami blames clerics for failure In the 2005 presidential elections, Iran made yet another change in political direction, when conservative populist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected over Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. Government and politics The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution. The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for delineation and supervision of the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran. retrieved 13 May 2008 The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war or peace. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the Council of Guardians are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem. The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties. After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority. Iran The Presidency retrieved 25 January 2008 The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years and can only be re-elected for one term. Presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. Chibli Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law: Muhammad Baqer As-Sadr, Najaf and the Shi'i international, ISBN 0521531225, Cambridge University Press The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. http://countrystudies.us/iran/84.htm retrieved 2 February 2008 Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. The Structure of Power in Iran retrieved 28 Feb 2008 Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran's current president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, was elected in a run-off poll in the 2005 presidential elections. His term expires in 2009. Biography of popular peoples: Mahmood Ahmadinejad retrieved 28 Feb 2008 As of 2008, the Legislature of Iran (also known as the Majlis of Iran) is a unicameral body. http://www.electionguide.org/country.php?ID=103 retrieved 3 February 2008 Before the Iranian Revolution, the legislature was bicameral, but the upper house was removed under the new constitution. The Majlis of Iran comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians. Iran - The Council of Guardians retrieved 3 February 2008 The Council of Guardians comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary. http://www.photius.com/countries/iran/government/iran_government_the_council_of_guard~276.html retrieved 3 February 2008 http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution-6-2.html retrieved 3 February 2008 The Council interprets the constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates. The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/iran_power/html/expediency_council.stm retrieved 3 February 2008 The Supreme Leader appoints the head of Iran's Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. http://www.iranchamber.com/government/articles/structure_of_power.php, retrieved 3 Feb 2008 There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed. The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines candidates' eligibility. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions. Local City Councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying, planning, co-ordinating and implementing of social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies. Foreign relations and military Iran's foreign relations are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the United Nations, except for Israel, which Iran does not recognize, and the United States since the Iranian Revolution. Key Events in Iran Since 1921 retrieved 23 January 2008 Since 2005, Iran's Nuclear Program has become the subject of contention with the West because of suspicions regarding Iran's military intentions. This has led the UN Security Council to impose sanctions against Iran on select companies linked to this program, thus furthering its economic isolation on the international scene. The Islamic Republic of Iran has two types of armed forces: the regular forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army, Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, Islamic Republic of Iran Navy and the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totaling around 900,000 trained troops. IISS Military Balance 2006, Routledge for the IISS, London, 2006, p.187 Iran has not invaded any country over the past two centuries. Statement by Deputy Foreign Minister for Legal and International Affairs retrieved 28 June 2008 Iran has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service; GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize "up to one million men". This would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world. Niruyeh Moghavemat Basij Mobilisation Resistance Force retrieved 27 Feb 2008 In 2005, Iran's military spending represented 3.3% of the GDP or $91 per capita, the lowest figure of the Persian Gulf nations. Iran's defense spending 'a fraction of Persian Gulf neighbors' retrieved 27 Feb 2008 Iran's military doctrine is based on deterrence. IRNA: Iran's doctrine based on deterrenceretrieved 28 June 2008 Since the Iranian revolution, to overcome foreign embargo, Iran has developed its own military industry, produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, guided missiles, submarines, military vessels, radar systems, helicopters and fighter planes. Iran Launches Production of Stealth Sub retrieved 27 Feb 2008 PressTv: Advanced attack chopper joins Iran fleet Retrieved May 24, 2009 In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3 and Sajjil missiles, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran's most advanced ballistic missile, it is a liquid fuel missile with an undisclosed range which was developed and produced domestically. Economy Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. http://www.traveldocs.com/ir/economy.htm retrieved 23 January 2008 Its economic infrastructure has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by inflation and unemployment. In the early 21st century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture. In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees. IRNA: Crude price pegged at dlrs 39.6 a barrel under next year's budget Retrieved December 5, 2008 Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14% in the period 2000–2004. Iran has earned $70 billion in foreign exchange reserves mostly from crude oil exports (80% as of 2007). Forex Reserves Put at $70b Retrieved on 24 February 2008 In 2007, the GDP was estimated at $206 billion ($852 billion at PPP), or $3,160 per capita ($12,300 at PPP). Iran's official annual growth rate was at 6% (2008). Surrounded:seeing the world from Iran's point of view Military review July-August 2007 Houman A. Sadri p.21 Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi-developed. "New World Encyclopedia", retrieved 28 Jan 2008 Close to 1.8% of national employment is generated in the tourism sector which is slated to increase to 10% in the next five years. http://www.farsinet.com/travel2iran/ retrieved 23 January 2008 About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004; most came from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while a small share came from the countries of the European Union and North America. Iran currently ranks 89th in tourist income, but is rated among the 10 most touristic countries in the world. http://www.iran-daily.com/1384/2241/html/focus.htm retrieved 15 Feb 2008 Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, a poor public image in some parts of the world, and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered the growth of tourism. The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry. List of Iranian Nanotechnology companies retrieved 23 January 2008 The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large-scale state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone. http://www.payvand.com/news/07/jan/1295.html "Ahmadinejad's Achilles Heel: The Iranian Economy" retrieved 23 January 2008 The authorities so as the private sector have put in the past 15 years an emphasis on the local production of domestic-consumption oriented goods such as home appliances, cars, agricultural products, pharmaceutical, etc. Today, Iran possesses a good manufacturing industry, despite restrictions imposed by foreign countries. However, nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Currently, the government is trying to privatize these industries, and, despite successes, there are still several problems to be overcome, such as the lagging corruption in the public sector (and, therefore, nationalized industries) and lack of competitiveness. Globally, Iran has leading manufacture industry in the fields of car-manufacture and transportations, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, power and petrochemicals. retrieved 26 Feb 08 Energy Iran ranks second in the world in natural gas reserves and also second in oil reserves. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Iran/Background.html retrieved 23 January 2008 It is OPEC's 2nd largest oil exporter. In 2005, Iran spent $4 billion on fuel imports, because of contraband and inefficient domestic use. "U.S. targets Iran's vulnerable oil" retrieved 23 January 2008 Oil industry output averaged in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory wells were drilled in 2005. In 2004, a large share of Iran's natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant is to come online in 2009. Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants and by adding hydroelectric, and nuclear power generating capacity. Iran’s first nuclear power plant at Bushehr is set to go online by mid-2009. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf retrieved 23 January 2008 Iran aims for 2009 launch of nuclear plantRetrieved November 23, 2008 Handcrafts A sample of Tabriz rugs Rug Rug is the most important Non-oil export product of Iran. Tabriz is the number one center for production of the famous Iranian Rugs. Nowaday Tabrizian carpets are the most wanted in world markets, having many customers in western countries from Europe to California. Tabrizian rugs and carpets usually have ivory backgrounds with blue, rose, and indigo motifs. Rugs and carpets often have very symmetrical and balanced designs. They usually have a single medallion that is surrounded with vines and palmettos and are of excellent quality. Tabrizian modern rugs are in many different designs and colors. One of the main quality characteristics of Tabriz Rugs are the way of weaving, using special ties that guaranties the durability of the rug in comparison for example with Kashan Rugs. Demography Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the Persian culture. The majority of the population speaks the Persian language, which is also the official language of the country, as well as other Iranian languages or dialects. Turkic languages and dialects (most importantly Azeri) are spoken in different areas in Iran. Additionally, Arabic is spoken in the southwestern parts of the country. The main ethnic groups are Persians (51%), Azeris (24%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Arabs (3%), Baluchi (2%), Lurs (2%), Turkmens (2%), Laks, Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, Tats, Mandaeans, Gypsies, Brahuis, Hazara, Kazakhs and others (1%). Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the 20th century, reaching about 72 million by 2008. In recent years, however, Iran's birth rate has dropped significantly. Studies show that Iran's rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes above 90 million by 2050. More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 82%. Women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society. Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq. Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the UNHCR and Afghan officials for their repatriation. According to estimates, between two and three million Iranian citizens have emigrated to other countries, mostly since the Iranian Revolution in 1979. Migration Information Institute: Characteristics of the Iranian Diaspora Retrieved January 10, 2009 Religion in Iran is dominated by the Twelver Shi'a branch of Islam, which is the official state religion and to which about 89% of Iranians belong. About 9% of Iranians belong to the Sunni branch of Islam, mainly Kurds and Iran's Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Bahá'ís, Mandeans, Hindus, Yezidis, Yarsanis, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians. The latter three minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the Majlis (Parliament). However the Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest religious minority , is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution of Bahá'ís has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment. According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security that covers retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services. This is covered by public revenues and income derived from public contributions. The World Health Organization in the last report on health systems ranks Iran's performance on health level 58th, and its overall health system performance 93rd among the world's nations. Culture The Culture of Iran is a mix of ancient pre-Islamic culture and Islamic culture. Iranian culture probably originated in Central Asia and the Andronovo culture is strongly suggested as the predecessor of Iranian culture ca. 2000 BC. Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the Middle East and Central Asia, with Persian considered the language of intellectuals during much of the 2nd millennium, and the language of religion and the populace before that. The Sassanid era was an important and influential historical period in Iran as Iranian culture influenced China, India and Roman civilization considerably, J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Volume 1, p.109 ISBN 0486203980, Dover Publications and so influenced as far as Western Europe and Africa. Transoxiana 04: Sassanids in Africa retrieved 23 January 2008 This influence played a prominent role in the formation of both Asiatic and European medieval art. Iransaga: The art of Sassanids retrieved 23 January 2008 This influence carried forward to the Islamic world. Much of what later became known as Islamic learning, such as philology, literature, jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine, architecture and the sciences were based on some of the practises taken from the Sassanid Persians to the broader Muslim world. Iran - A country study retrieved 23 January 2008 History of Islamic Science 5 retrieved 23 January 2008 After Islamicization of Iran Islamic rituals have penetrated in the Iranian culture. The most noticeable one of them is commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali. Every year in Day of Ashura most of Iranians, including Armenians and Zoroastrians participate in mourning for the martyrs of battle of Karbala. Daily life in modern Iran is closely interwoven with Shia Islam and the country's art, literature, and architecture are an ever-present reminder of its deep national tradition and of a broader literary culture. گزارش عزاداری ، ارامنه و زرتشتیان ایران The Iranian New Year (Nowruz) is an ancient tradition celebrated on 21 March to mark the beginning of spring in Iran. It is also celebrated in Afghanistan, Republic of Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and previously also in Georgia and Armenia. It is also celebrated by the Iraqi and Anatolian Kurds. http://www.zoroastrian.org/articles/nowruz.htm retrieved 23 January 2008 Nowrouz was nominated as one of UNESCO's Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2004. The cuisine of Iran is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their regions. The main Persian cuisines are combinations of rice with meat, chicken or fish and some onion, vegetables, nuts, and herbs. Herbs are frequently used along with fruits such as plums, pomegranates, quince, prunes, apricots, and raisins. To achieve a balanced taste, characteristic flavourings such as saffron, dried limes, cinnamon, and parsley are mixed delicately and used in some special dishes. Onions and garlic are normally used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form. Iran is also famous for its caviar. Iranian food is not spicy. Iranian cinema has thrived in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years. One of the best-known directors is Abbas Kiarostami. The media of Iran is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. The Internet has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of bloggers. Freedom in Farsi blogs retrieved 23 January 2008 Language and literature Geographic distribution of the Modern Iranian languages: Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and Kurdish (turquoise), Lurish (red), Baloch (Yellow), as well as smaller communities of other Iranian languages Article 15 of the Iranian constitution states that the "Official language (of Iran)... is Persian...[and]... the use of regional and tribal languages in the press and mass media, as well as for teaching of their literature in schools, is allowed in addition to Persian." Persian serves as a lingua franca in Iran and most publications and broadcastings are in this language. Next to Persian there are many publications and broadcastings in other relatively large languages of Iran such as Azeri, Kurdish and even in relatively smaller ones such as Arabic and Armenian. Many languages have originated from Iran, but Persian is the most used language. Persian is a tongue belonging to the Aryan or Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The oldest records in Old Persian date back to the Achaemenid Empire and examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Egypt. In the late 8th century, the Persian language was highly Arabized and written in a modified Arabic script. This caused a movement supporting the revival of Persian. An important event of this revival was the writing of the Shahname by Ferdowsi (Persian: Epic of Kings), Iran's national epic, which is said to have been written entirely in native Persian. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part credited for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language. —Ferdowsi (935–1020) Persian beside Arabic has been a medium for literary and scientific contributions to the Islamic world especially in Anatolia, central Asia and Indian sub-continent. Poetry is a very important part of Persian culture. Poetry is used in many classical works, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. For example about half of Avicenna's medical writings are known to be versified. Persian literature has been considered by such thinkers as Goethe as one of the four main bodies of world literature Von David Levinson, Karen Christensen, Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002 pg 48 . The Persian language has produced a number of famous poets, however only a few poets as Rumi and Omar Khayyám have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of Hafez, Saadi, Nezami C. A. (Charles Ambrose) Storey and Franço de Blois (2004), “Persian Literature - A Biobibliographical Survey: Volume V Poetry of the Pre-Mongol Period.”, RoutledgeCurzon; 2nd revised edition (June 21, 2004). ISBN 0947593470. Pg 363: “Nizami Ganja’i, whose personal name was Ilyas, is the most celebrated native poet of the Persians after Firdausi. His nisbah designates him as a native of Ganja (Elizavetpol, Kirovabad) in Azerbaijan, then still a country with an Iranian population , Attar, Sanai, Naser Khusraw are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. The books of famous poets have been translated into western languages since 1634. An example of Persian poetic influence is the poem below which is widely popular: —Saadi (1184–1283) Art and Architecture Blue Mosque, architectural masterpiece in Tabriz Bazaar of Tabriz Greater Iran is home to one of the richest artistic traditions in world history and encompasses many disciplines, including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and stone masonry. Carpet-weaving is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Persian culture and art, and dates back to ancient Persia. Persians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry, and astronomy in architecture and also have extraordinary skills in making massive domes which can be seen frequently in the structure of bazaars and mosques. The main building types of classical Iranian architecture are the mosque and the palace. Iran, besides being home to a large number of art houses and galleries, also holds one of the largest and valuable jewel collections in the world. Iran ranks seventh among countries in the world with the most archeological architectural ruins and attractions from antiquity as recognized by UNESCO. Bustling bazaars and ancient sights, parched deserts and snowcapped mountains, awesome architecture and simple hospitality retrieved 23 January 2008 Fifteen of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites are creations of Iranian architecture and the mausoleum of Maussollos was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Edgar James Banks, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Published by G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1916, p. v, (the and tomb of king Maussollos is number 5 in the list) Bazaar The Bazaar of Tabriz is one of the oldest and largest bazaars in the Middle East and largest covered bazaar in the world, Located in the centre of the city of Tabriz. This spectacular structure consists of several sub-bazaars and like other bazaars in the Middle East, there are several mosques constructed behind the bazaar, the most notable of which is the Friday mosque of Tabriz. Science and Technology Ancient Iranians built Qanats and Yakhchal to provide and keep water. The first windmill appeared in Iran in the 9th century. Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of astronomy, natural science, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī is widely hailed as the father of algebra. Ethanol (alcohol) was first identified by Persian alchemists such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi. Throughout the Middle Ages, the natural philosophy and mathematics of the Ancient Greeks and Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. The Academy of Gundishapur was a renowned centre of learning in the city of Gundeshapur during late antiquity and was the most important medical centre of the ancient world during the sixth and seventh centuries. The Cambridge History of Iran Vol 4, p396. ISBN 0-521-20093-8 During this period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of scientific instruments, retaining its reputation for quality well into the 19th century. Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China. http://experts.about.com/q/Economics-2301/economic.htm retrieved 23 January 2008 Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly productive in several experimental fields as pharmacology, pharmaceutical chemistry, organic chemistry, and polymer chemistry. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon Solenoid, a detector for CERN's Large Hadron Collider. In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a UNESCO chair in biology. Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics retrieved 23 January 2008 in late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research centre in Tehran. http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=17674 The first successfully cloned animal in Iran retrieved 7 August 2008 The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran's current facilities includes several research reactors, a uranium mine, an almost complete commercial nuclear reactor, and uranium processing facilities that include a uranium enrichment plant. The Iranian Space Agency launched its first reconnaissance satellite named Sina-1 in 2006, and a space rocket in 2007, Rocket launch retrieved 23 January 2008 which aimed at improving science and research for university students. Iran Says 'Space Rocket' for Research. NewsMax.com, Feb 26, 2007. Iran placed its domestically-built satellite, Omid into the orbit on its 30th anniversary of Iranian Revolution, on February 2, 2009, Iran scientific savvy 'amazes world', Press TV, Retrieved on 11 Feb, 2009. through Safir rocket, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically-made launcher. West 'shocked by Iran spaceshot', Press TV, Retrieved on 11 Feb, 2009. Iranian scientists outside of Iran have also made some major contributions to science. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi Zadeh. cs.berkeley.edu retrieved 23 January 2008 Iranian cardiologist, Tofy Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart. Furthering research and treatment of diabetes, HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar. Iranian physics is especially strong in string theory, with many papers being published in Iran. retrieved 23 January 2008 Iranian-American string theorist Cumrun Vafa proposed the Vafa-Witten theorem together with Edward Witten. Sports With two thirds of Iran's population under the age of 25, sports constitutes a highly active portion of Iran's society, both traditional and modern. Iran hence was the birthplace of sports such as polo, news.bb.co.uk retrieved 23 January 2008 and Varzesh-e Pahlavani. Freestyle wrestling has been traditionally referred to as Iran's national sport, but today, the most popular sport in Iran is football (soccer), with the national team having reached the World Cup finals three times, and having won the Asian Cup on three occasions. Iran was the first country in the Middle East to host the Asian Games. It is home to several unique skiing resorts, bloomberg.com retrieved 23 January 2008 with the Tochal resort being the world's fifth-highest ski resort ( at its highest station) situated only fifteen minutes away from Tehran. Being a mountainous country, Iran offers enthusiasts abundant challenges for hiking, rock climbing, http://www.rockclimbing.com/routes/Asia/Iran/ retrieved 23 January 2008 and mountain climbing. http://www.mountainzone.ir/ retrieved 23 January 2008 Mountaineering in Iran retrieved 23 January 2008 Local Woman Feared Dead In Iran Mountain Hike retrieved 23 January 2008 Iranian women are also active in sports. See also List of Iran-related topics Outline of Iran References Further reading Benjamin Walker, Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran, Arya Press, Calcutta, 1950. External links Government The President of Iran Iran.ir General Iran at UCB Libraries GovPubs Other Amazing Iran Contemporary Iranian Architecture Photography gallery: People, roads and landscapes of Iran James Whitaker speaks about his life in Iran, a discussion about Iran What You Know About Iran is Wrong by Fareed Zakaria, Newsweek, May 23 2009 be-x-old:Іран | Iran |@lemmatized iran:245 oed:1 officially:7 islamic:67 republic:14 formerly:1 know:11 internationally:1 persia:25 country:54 central:13 eurasia:2 http:23 cesww:1 fa:2 harvard:3 edu:4 html:8 locate:3 northeastern:1 shore:2 persian:110 gulf:12 southern:2 caspian:8 sea:9 name:12 use:21 interchangeably:2 cultural:13 context:4 however:14 political:9 iransaga:2 brief:1 history:25 iranian:139 w:3 art:12 cognate:1 aryan:6 mean:2 land:4 hinduwebsite:1 com:16 concept:3 hinduism:1 arya:2 retrieve:86 oct:12 imp:1 l:2 wisc:1 language:43 social:5 scientific:11 literary:7 artistic:2 monthly:1 dr:2 suzan:1 kaviri:1 pp:2 ancient:16 n:7 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6,696 | Corona_Borealis | Corona Borealis (, genitive Coronae Borealis ) is a small constellation in the northern sky. Its name is Latin for "northern crown", a name inspired by its shape; its main stars form a semicircular arc. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 1st century astronomer Ptolemy and remains one of the 88 modern constellations. Notable features Stars Corona Borealis has no first magnitude stars. Its brightest star, α CrB (Alphecca, also known as Gemma) is of magnitude 2.2 (slightly variable) and is considered a member of the diffuse Ursa Major Moving Group. The constellation contains several interesting variable stars: two of the best known are R Coronae Borealis and T Coronae Borealis. Named Stars BayerNameOriginMeaningαAlphecca/AlphetaArabic"The broken" ring of starsβNusakanArabicThe two seriesTBlaze StarEnglishThe star that blazes now and then Deep sky objects Corona Borealis contains no bright deep sky objects. Abell 2065 is a highly concentrated galaxy cluster containing over 400 members, the brightest of which are of 16th magnitude. Mythology Corona Borealis was sometimes considered to represent a crown that was given by Dionysus to Ariadne, the daughter of Minos of Crete. At other points it was considered to belong, in a sense, to Boötes, the herdsman. The Cheyenne nation of Native Americans called it the "Camp Circle" as they arranged their camps in a semicircle. In Welsh mythology, the Northern Crown was called Caer Arianrhod, ‘the Castle of the Silver Circle,’ and was the heavenly abode of the Lady Arianrhod (Squire, 2000:154-155). See also Corona Australis References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. Squire, C. (2000). The mythology of the British Islands: an introduction to Celtic myth, legend, poetry and romance. London & Ware: UCL & Wordsworth Editions Ltd. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Corona Borealis Star Tales – Corona Borealis | Corona_Borealis |@lemmatized corona:10 borealis:9 genitive:1 small:1 constellation:5 northern:3 sky:3 name:3 latin:1 crown:3 inspire:1 shape:1 main:1 star:9 form:1 semicircular:1 arc:1 one:2 list:1 century:1 astronomer:1 ptolemy:1 remain:1 modern:1 notable:1 feature:1 first:1 magnitude:3 bright:3 α:1 crb:1 alphecca:1 also:2 know:2 gemma:1 slightly:1 variable:2 consider:3 member:2 diffuse:1 ursa:1 major:1 move:1 group:1 contain:3 several:1 interest:1 two:2 best:1 r:1 bayernameoriginmeaningαalphecca:1 alphetaarabic:1 broken:1 ring:1 starsβnusakanarabicthe:1 seriestblaze:1 starenglishthe:1 blaze:1 deep:3 object:2 abell:1 highly:1 concentrated:1 galaxy:1 cluster:1 mythology:3 sometimes:1 represent:1 give:1 dionysus:1 ariadne:1 daughter:1 minos:1 crete:1 point:1 belong:1 sense:1 boötes:1 herdsman:1 cheyenne:1 nation:1 native:1 american:1 call:2 camp:2 circle:2 arrange:1 semicircle:1 welsh:1 caer:1 arianrhod:2 castle:1 silver:1 heavenly:1 abode:1 lady:1 squire:2 see:1 australis:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 london:2 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 c:1 british:1 island:1 introduction:1 celtic:1 myth:1 legend:1 poetry:1 romance:1 ware:1 ucl:1 wordsworth:1 edition:1 ltd:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 tale:1 |@bigram corona_borealis:9 astronomer_ptolemy:1 ursa_major:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
6,697 | Latin_declension | Latin is an inflected language, and as such has nouns, pronouns, and adjectives that must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender. For simple declension paradigms, visit the Wiktionary appendices: First declension, Second declension, Third declension, Fourth declension, Fifth declension. Grammatical cases A complete Latin noun declension consists of seven grammatical cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative, and locative. They are abbreviated to the first three letters. The sequence NOM-VOC-ACC-GEN-DAT-ABL has been the usual order taught in Britain and many Commonwealth countries since the publication of Hall Kennedy's Latin Primer (1866). It reflects the tendencies of different cases to share similar endings (see Syncretic trends below). For a discussion of other sequences taught elsewhere, see Instruction in Latin#Order of cases. However, some schools teach it in the order NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-ABL-VOC, as first given. Comparisons to English usage The nominative case marks the subject of a statement and is used with a copula: "Mary is going to the store" or "Mary is my sister". The genitive case (also known as the possessive case) expresses possession, measurement, or source. In English, the genitive case is represented analytically by the preposition of or by the enclitic "–'s", which itself developed from the genitive case. This "–'s" closely resembles the Latin third declension's genitive suffix "–is". In Latin, as in English, the genitive singular may be identical to the nominative plural of a noun (apart from the apostrophe in English, which does not change pronunciation): eg, "equi" = "horse's/ horses", insulae = "island's/ islands", etc. The dative case marks the recipient of an action, the indirect object of a verb. In English, the prepositions to and for tend to denote this case analytically. However, note that in English, the dative may be marked by word order without a preposition; contrast "Give me the book" with "Give the book to me" ("Give to me the book" would be incorrect or at least very unusual). The accusative case marks the direct object of a verb. In English, except for a small number of words which display a distinct accusative case (e.g., who/whom, I/me, he/him), the accusative and nominative cases are identical in form; they are usually distinguished only by word order. The ablative case expresses separation, indirection, or the means by which an action is performed. In English, the prepositions by, with, from, in and on are most commonly used to indicate this case. The vocative case is used to address someone or something in direct speech. In English, this function is expressed by intonation or punctuation: "Mary, are you going to the store?" or "Mary!" ("Mary" is vocative). Historically, English-language noun paradigms translated this case with a prefaced interjection such as "O Mary!" The locative case expresses the place where or time when an action is performed. The Latin locative case is extremely marginal, applying only to the names of cities and small islands and to a few other isolated words. The Romans considered all islands to be "small" except for Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, and Cyprus. Much of the case's function had been absorbed into the ablative. For singular first and second declension, the locative is identical to the genitive singular form, and for the singular third declension, the locative is identical to the ablative singular form. For plural nouns of all declensions, the locative is also identical to the ablative form. The few fourth and fifth declension place-name words would also use the ablative form for locative case. However, there are a few rare nouns that use the locative instead of a preposition: Domus → Domī (at home), Rūs → Rūrī (in the country), Humus → Humī (on the ground), Militia → Militiae (in military service, in the field), Focus → Focī (at the hearth; at the center of the community). In archaic times, the locative singular of third declension nouns was actually interchangeable between ablative and dative forms, but in the Augustan Period, the use of the ablative form became fixed. Syncretic trends Syncretism, where one form in a paradigm shares the ending of another form in the paradigm, is common in Latin. The following are the most notable patterns of syncretism: The vocative is always identical to the nominative in the plural, and in the singular except in the second declension and a few Greek nouns. For example, the vocative of Aeneās is Aenea, although Aeneās is first declension. The dative is always the same as the ablative in the plural, and in the singular in the second declension, the third-declension full i-stems i.e. neuter i-stems, adjectives), and fourth-declension neuters. The genitive singular is the same as the nominative plural in first-, second-declension, and fourth declension nouns that are not neuter. The dative singular is the same as the genitive singular in first- and fifth-declension nouns. Plural neuter nominative/accusative always ends in -a (with a few exceptions: demonstrative hic and related istic and illic, relative/interrogative quī and friends; in all of them, the neuter plural takes the same form as feminine singular nominative). The accusative singular ends in short vowel plus -m, except for a few neuters with unusual base forms. The accusative plural (assuming not neuter) ends in a long vowel plus -s; so does the nominative plural of the third, fourth and fifth declensions (again assuming not neuter). The locative is identical to the ablative in the fourth and fifth declension. The locative, ablative, and dative are identical in the plural. History of cases Old Latin had only two patterns of endings. One pattern was shared by the first and second declensions, with a clear similarity to the first and second declensions of Ancient Greek. The other pattern was used by the third declension and was very different from Greek, even for direct cognates. When new words were absorbed into Latin, they were generally placed in the third declension. Nouns First declension (a) Nouns of this declension usually end in –a and are typically feminine, e.g. 'road' (via, viae fem.) and 'water' (aqua, aquae fem.). There is a small class of masculine exceptions generally referring to occupations, e.g. 'farmer' (agricola, agricolae masc.) and 'sailor' (nauta, nautae masc.). The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is a. The nominative singular form consists of the stem and the affix -a, and the genitive singular form is the stem plus -ae. aqua, -aewater f. ! colspan="4" | agricola, -aefarmer m. Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative aqua –a aquae –ae agricola –a agricolae –ae Genitive aquae The archaism aquai occurs frequently in Virgil, Cicero, Lucretius and others, to evoke the style of older writers. –ae aquārum –ārum agricolae –ae agricolārum –ārum Dative aquae –ae aquīs –īs agricolae –ae agricolīs –īs Accusative aquam –am aquās –ās agricolam –am agricolās –ās Vocative aqua –a aquae –ae agricola –a agricolae –ae Ablative aquā –ā aquīs –īs agricolā –ā agricolīs –īs First declension Greek nouns The first declension also holds three types of Greek loanwords, derived from Ancient Greek's Alpha Declension. They are declined irregularly in the singular, but are sometimes treated as if they were native Latin nouns, e.g. nominative athlēta instead of the original athlētēs. For full paradigm tables and more detailed information, see the Wiktionary appendix First declension. Second declension (o) The second declension is a large group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine nouns like equus, equī ("horse") and puer, puerī ("boy') and neuter nouns like castellum, castellī ("fort"). There are several small groups of feminine exceptions, including names of gemstones, trees, and some cities. In the nominative singular, most masculine nouns consist of the stem and the affix -us, although some end in -er, which is not necessarily attached to the complete stem. Neuter nouns generally have a nominative singular consisting of the stem and the ending -um. However, every second-declension noun has the affix -ī attached as a suffix to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is o. Second declension R nouns Some masculine nouns of the second declension end in an –er or an –ir in the nominative singular. For such nouns, the genitive singular must be learned to see if the E is dropped. For example, socer, –erī keeps its E. However, the noun magister, –trī ("teacher") drops its E in the genitive singular. Nouns with –ir in the nominative singular never drop the I. The declension of second declension R nouns is identical to that of the regular second declension, with the exception of the vocative singular, which is identical to the nominative rather than ending in an -e. Some scholars have hypothesised that neuter nouns originally did not have an official nominative case because (the Proto-Europeans believed), as inanimate objects, they did not act. Of course, even an inanimate object may be the subject of a verb (eg, "the war (bellum) began in 1939"), so Latin-speakers simply used the accusative, unchanged. For declension tables of second declension nouns, see the corresponding Wiktionary appendix. Second declension Greek nouns The second declension contains two types of masculine Greek nouns and one form of neuter Greek noun. These nouns are irregular only in the singular, as are their first declension counterparts. Greek nouns in the second declension are derived from Omicron Declension. Some Greek nouns may be declined as normal, Latin nouns. For example, theātron can appear as theātrum. Peculiarities Nouns ending with –vus, –quus and –vum may be declined in two ways. Their alternate inflections resemble Old Latin. {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | servos, –īslave m. ! colspan="2" | equos, –īhorse m. ! colspan="2" | aevom, –īeternity, age n. |- ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Singular |- ! Nominative | servos || –os || equos || –os || aevom || –om |- ! Genitive | servī || –ī || equī || –ī || aevī || –ī |- ! Dative | servō || –ō || equō || –ō || aevō || –ō |- ! Accusative | servom || –om || equom || –om || aevom || –om |- ! Vocative | serve || –e || eque || –e || aevom || –om |- ! Ablative | servō || –ō || equō || –ō || aevō || –ō |- |} This is an example of a noun of the second declension in Classical Latin. Note the differences in both the Nominative and Accusative cases. servus, –īslave m. ! colspan="4" | auxilium, –īaid, help n. Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative servus –us servī –ī auxilium –um auxilia –a Genitive servī –ī servōrum –ōrum auxiliī –ī auxiliōrum –ōrum Dative servō –ō servīs –īs auxiliō –ō auxiliīs –īs Accusative servum –um servōs –ōs auxilium –um auxilia –a Vocative serve –e servī –ī auxilium –um auxilia –a Ablative servō –ō servīs –īs auxiliō –ō auxiliīs –īs The plural of deus (god, deity) is also irregular. {| cellpadding="1" | Nom. || dī / di|- | Gen. || deōrum / deum|- | Dat. || dīs / diis / deis|- | Acc. || deōs|- | Voc. || dī|- | Abl. || dīs|} The Vocative Singular of Deus is also "Deus", instead of substituting an -e for the -us (i.e. "dee") as would normally be expected for a 2nd declension -us noun. Third declension (i) The third declension is the largest group of nouns. These nouns may end in –a,–e, –ī, –ō, –y, –c, –l, –n, –r, –s, –t, or –x . It consists of masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns of variable nominative cases and roots. The third declension includes flumen, fluminis neut. ("river"), flos, floris masc. ("flower"), and pax, pacis fem. ("peace"). Each noun has the affix -is as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. Masculine, feminine and neuter nouns each have their own special nominative singular endings. For instance, only masculine nouns end in an –or (amor). Only feminine nouns end in an –īx (phoenīx), and only neuter nouns end in an –us (onus). As in all declensions, some nouns defy these rules. prīnceps, principisleader, chief, prince m. ! colspan="4" | phoenīx, phoenīcisphoenix, fire-bird f. cōnāmen, conaminis effort, struggle n. |- ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural |- ! Nominative | prīnceps || (1) || prīncipēs || –ēs || phoenīx || (1) || phoenīcēs || –ēs || cōnāmen || (1) || cōnāmina || –a |- ! Genitive | prīncipis || –is || prīncipum || –um || phoenīcis || –is || —— || || cōnāminis || –is || —— || |- ! Dative | prīncipī || –ī || prīncipibus || –ibus || phoenīcī || –ī || —— || || cōnāminī || –ī || —— || |- ! Accusative | prīncipem || –em || prīncipēs || –ēs || phoenīca Being a Greek word, the accusative form is phoenica (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 15.393). || –em || —— || || cōnāmen || (1,2) || cōnāmina|| –a |- ! Vocative | prīnceps || (1) || prīncipēs || –ēs || phoenīx || (1) || —— || || cōnāmen || (1) || cōnāmina || –a |- ! Ablative | prīncipe || –e || prīncipibus || –ibus || phoenīce || –e || —— || || cōnāmine || –e || —— || |- |} 1 The nominative singular is not regularly the root with a suffix appended. It may be the root; it may be identical to the genitive singular; or it may take a distinct form. The same is true of other forms that are the same as the nominative singular: the vocative singular and the neuter accusative singular. 2 The nominative and accusative of neuter nouns are always identical. It should not be assumed that –en is always the appropriate ending, as it might appear above. Third declension i-stem nouns The third declension also has a set of nouns that are declined differently. They are called i-stems. I-stems are broken into two subcategories: pure and mixed. Pure I-stems are indicated by the parisyllabic rule or special neuter endings. Mixed I-stems are indicated by the double consonant rule. Masculine & Feminine Parisyllabic Rule: Some masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have the same number of syllables in the genitive as they do in the nominative. For example: amnis, –is. The nominative ends in -is. Double-Consonant Rule: The rest of the masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have two consonants before the –is in the genitive singular. For example: pars, partis Neuter Special Neuter Ending: Neuter third declension i-stems have no rule. However, all of them end in –al, –ar or –e. For example: animal, –ālisPure I-stems may exhibit peculiar endings in both singular and plural. Mixed I-stems employ normal (consonant) 3rd declension endings in the singular but I-Stem endings in the plural. Note the alternative I-stem endings indicated in parentheses. amnis, amnisstream, torrent m. (Pure) pars, partispart, piece f. (Mixed) animal, animālis animal, living being n. (Pure) Parisyllabic Rule Double Consonant Rule Special Neuter Ending Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative amnis (1) amnēs –ēs pars (1) partēs –ēs animal (1) animālia –ia Genitive amnis –is amnium –ium partis –is partium –ium animālis –is animālium –ium Dative amnī –ī amnibus –ibus partī –ī partibus –ibus animālī –ī animālibus –ibus Accusative amnem –em (-im) amnēs –ēs (-īs) partem / partim –em / -im partēs –ēs (-īs) animal (1) animālia –ia Vocative amnis (1) amnēs –ēs pars (1) partēs –ēs animal (1) animālia –ia Ablative amne / amni –e(-i) amnibus –ibus parte –e partibus –ibus animālī –ī animālibus –ibus 1 The nominative singular is not regularly the root with a suffix appended. It may be the root; it may be identical to the genitive singular; or it may take a distinct form. The same is true of other forms that are the same as the nominative singular: the vocative singular and the neuter accusative singular. The rules for determining I-stems from non-I-stems and "mixed" I-stems should be thought of more as "guidelines" than "rules": even among the Romans themselves, the categorization of a 3rd declension word as an I-stem or non-I-stem was quite fluid. The result is that many words that should be I-stems according to the parisyllabic and consonant stem rules actually are not, such as canis or iuvenis. By the parisyllabic rule, "canis" should be a masculine I-stem and thus differ from the non-I-stems by having an extra -i- in the plural Genitive form: "canium". In reality, the plural Genitive of "canis" is "canum", the form of a non-I-stem. This fluidity even in Roman times results in much more uncertainty in Medieval Latin, as scholars were trying to imitate what was fluid to begin with. Peculiarities In the third declension, there are four irregular nouns. Case vīs force, power f. sūs, suis swine, pig, hog c. bōs, bovis ox, bullock c. Iuppiter, Iovis Jupiter m. Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Nominative vīs vīrēs sūs suēs bōs bovēs Iuppiter Genitive —— vīrium suis suum bovis boum Iovis Dative —— vīribus suī subus bovī bōbus / bubus Iovī Accusative vim vīrēs suem suēs bovem bovēs Iovem Vocative vīs vīrēs sūs suēs bōs bovēs Iuppiter Ablative vī vīribus sue subus bove bōbus Iove Fourth declension (u) The fourth declension is a group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine words like 'wave' (fluctus, fluctūs masc.) and 'port' (portus, portūs masc.) with a few feminine exceptions, including 'hand' (manus, manūs fem.). The fourth declension also includes several neuter nouns like 'knee' (genu, genūs neut.). Each noun has the affix -ūs as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is u. portus, –ūs port, haven, harbor m. ! colspan="4" | cornū, –ūs horn, strength n. Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative portus –us portūs –ūs cornū –ū cornua –ua Genitive portūs –ūs portuum –uum cornūs –ūs cornuum –uum Dative portuī –uī portibus –ibus cornū –ū cornibus –ibus Accusative portum –um portūs –ūs cornū –ū cornua –ua Vocative portus –us portūs –ūs cornū –ū cornua –ua Ablative portū –ū portibus –ibus cornū –ū cornibus –ibus In the dative and ablative plural, –ibus is sometimes replaced with –ubus. This is so for only a few nouns, such as artus, "the limbs". The declension of domus is irregular: {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="4" | domus, –ūs house, home f. Singular Plural Nominative domus –us domūs –ūs Genitive domūs –ūs domōrum / domuum –ōrum / uum Dative domuī –uī domibus –ibus Accusative domum –um domōs / domūs –ōs / ūs Vocative domus –us —— Ablative domō –ō domibus –ibus Fifth declension (e) The fifth declension is a small group of nouns consisting of mostly feminine words like 'affair, matter, thing' (rēs, reī fem.) and 'day' (diēs, diēī usually feminine, except on notable days when it is masculine). Each noun has either the affix -ēī or –eī as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. effigiēs, –ēī effigy, ideal f. ! colspan="4" | spēs, –eī hope, anticipation f. Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative effigiēs –ēs effigiēs –ēs spēs –ēs spēs -ēs Genitive effigiēī –ēī effigiērum -ērum speī –eī spērum -ērum Dative effigiēī –ēī effigiēbus - ēbus speī –eī spēbus -ēbus Accusative effigiem –em effigiēs –ēs spem –em spēs -ēs Vocative effigiēs –ēs effigiēs -ēs spēs –ēs spēs -ēs Ablative effigiē –ē effigiēbus -ēbus spē –ē spēbus -ēbus Note that nouns ending in iēs have long ēī in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + ēs have short eī in these cases. Pronouns Relative and demonstrative pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the following differences: the nominatives are often irregular the dative singular ends in -ī: rather than -ae or -ō. the genitive singular ends in -īus rather than -ae or -ī. These differences identify the "pronominal" declension, and a few adjectives follow this pattern. Personal pronouns The first and second persons are irregular. They may be only masculine or feminine. {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="3" | ! colspan="2" | First Person ! colspan="2" | Second Person |- ! colspan="1" | ego, meī I m. and f.! colspan="1" | nōs, nostrum we m. and f.! colspan="1" | tū, tuī thou m. and f.! colspan="1" | vōs, vestrum ye m. and f.|- ! colspan="1" | Singular! colspan="1" | Plural! colspan="1" | Singular! colspan="1" | Plural|- ! Nominative| ego || nōs || tū || vōs |- ! Genitive| meī || nostrum1 || tuī || vestrum1 |- ! Dative| mihi || nōbīs || tibi || vōbīs |- ! Accusative| mē || nōs || tē || vōs |- ! Vocative| —— || —— || tū || vōs |- ! Ablative| mē || nōbīs || tē || vōbīs |- |} 1—may be nostrī or vestrī Usually, to show the ablative of accompaniment, cum would be added to the ablative form. However, with personal pronouns and the interrogative (not with 3rd person), cum is added on to the end of the ablative form. For example: mēcum, nōbīscum, tēcum, vōbīscum and quōcum (sometimes quīcum). is, eīhe, they m. ! colspan="2" | ea, eaeshe, they f. id, eait, they n. |- ! colspan="1" | Singular ! colspan="1" | Plural ! colspan="1" | Singular ! colspan="1" | Plural ! colspan="1" | Singular ! colspan="1" | Plural |- ! Nominative | is || eī, iī || ea || eae || id || ea |- ! Genitive | eius || eōrum || eius || eārum || eius || eōrum |- ! Dative | eī || eīs, iīs || eī || eīs, iīs || eī || eīs, iīs |- ! Accusative | eum || eōs || eam || eās || id || ea |- ! Vocative | - || - || - || - || - || - |- ! Ablative | eō || eīs, iīs || eā || eīs, iīs || eō || eīs, iīs |- |} The third person reflexive pronouns always refer back to the subject whether it be singular or plural. —, suīhimself, herselfitself, oneself, themselves Nominative — Genitive suī Dative sibi Accusative sē, sēsē Vocative - Ablative sē, sēsē Interrogative pronouns The interrogative pronouns are used strictly for asking questions. It is best not to confuse them with the relative pronoun and the interrogative adjective (which is declined like the relative pronoun). Interrogative pronouns rarely occur in the plural, though they may. The plural interrogative pronouns are the same as the plural relative pronouns. quiswho? m. and f. ! colspan="1" | quidwhat? n. only Singular Nominative quis quid Genitive cuius cuius Dative cui cui Accusative quem quid Vocative - - Ablative quō quō Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives hic, haec, hoc this, this one ! colspan="6" | ille, illa, illud that, that one Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative hic hī haec hae hoc haec ille illī illa illae illud illa Genitive huius hōrum huius hārum huius hōrum illīus illōrum illīus illārum illīus illōrum Dative huic hīs huic hīs huic hīs illī illīs illī illīs illī illīs Accusative hunc hōs hanc hās hoc haec illum illōs illam illās illud illa Vocative - - - - - - - - - - - - Ablative hōc hīs hāc hīs hōc hīs illō illīs illā illīs illō illīs Another demonstrative pronoun iste, ista, istud, which means 'that of yours', and the intensive pronoun ipse, ipsa, ipsum follow the declension of ille, illa, illud. Relative pronouns {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="3" | ! colspan="6" | quī, quae, quodwho, which, that Masculine Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative quī quī quae quae quod quae Genitive cūius quōrum cūius quārum cūius quōrum Dative cui quibus cui quibus cui quibus Accusative quem quōs quam quās quod quae Vocative - - - - - - Ablative quō quibus quā quibus quō quibus Adjectives First and second declension adjectives First and second declension are inflected in the masculine, the feminine and the neuter; the masculine form typically ends in –us (although some end in -er, see below), the feminine form ends in –a, and the neuter form ends in –um. Therefore, adjectives are given like altus, alta, altum. altus, –a, –um high, long, tall |- ! colspan="4" | Masculine ! colspan="4" | Feminine ! colspan="4" | Neuter |- ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural |- ! Nominative | altus || –us || altī || –ī || alta || –a || altae || –ae || altum || –um || alta || –a |- ! Accusative | altum || –um || altōs || –ōs || altam || –am || altās || –ās || altum || –um || alta || –a |- ! Genitive | altī || –ī || altōrum || –ōrum || altae || –ae || altārum || –ārum || altī || –ī || altōrum || –ōrum |- ! Dative | altō || –ō || altīs || –īs || altae || –ae || altīs || –īs || altō || –ō || altīs || –īs |- ! Vocative | alte || –e || altī || –ī || alta || –a || altae || –ae || altum || –um || alta || –a |- ! Ablative | altō || –ō || altīs || –īs || altā || –ā || altīs || –īs || altō || –ō || altīs || –īs |- |} First and second declension –r adjectives Some first and second declension adjectives' masculine form end in an –er. As with second declension nouns –r nouns, some adjectives retain the e throughout inflection, and some omit it. Sacer, sacra, sacrum omits its e while miser, misera, miserum keeps it. ''miser, –era, –erum'' sad, poor, unhappy |- ! colspan="4" | Masculine! colspan="4" | Feminine! colspan="4" | Neuter|- ! colspan="2" | Singular! colspan="2" | Plural! colspan="2" | Singular! colspan="2" | Plural! colspan="2" | Singular! colspan="2" | Plural|- ! Nominative| miser || –er || miserī || –ī || misera || –a || miserae || –ae || miserum || –um || misera || –a|- ! Genitive| miserī || –ī || miserōrum || –ōrum || miserae || –ae || miserārum || –ārum || miserī || –ī || miserōrum || –ōrum|- ! Dative| miserō || –ō || miserīs || –īs || miserae || –ae || miserīs || –īs || miserō || –ō || miserīs || –īs|- ! Accusative| miserum || –um || miserōs || –ōs || miseram || –am || miserās || –ās || miserum || –um || misera || –a|- ! Vocative| miser || –er || miserī || –ī || misera || –a || miserae || –ae || miserum || –um || misera || –a|- ! Ablative| miserō || –ō || miserīs || –īs || miserā || –ā || miserīs || –īs || miserō || –ō || miserīs || –īs''' sacer, –cra, –crum sacred, holy |- ! colspan="4" | Masculine! colspan="4" | Feminine! colspan="4" | Neuter|- ! colspan="2" | Singular! colspan="2" | Plural! colspan="2" | Singular! colspan="2" | Plural! colspan="2" | Singular! colspan="2" | Plural|- ! Nominative| sacer || –er || sacrī || –ī || sacra || –a || sacrae || –ae || sacrum || –um || sacra || –a|- ! Genitive| sacrī || –ī || sacrōrum || –ōrum || sacrae || –ae || sacrārum || –ārum || sacrī || –ī || sacrōrum || –ōrum|- ! Dative| sacrō || –ō || sacrīs || –īs || sacrae || –ae || sacrīs || –īs || sacrō || –ō || sacrīs || –īs|- ! Accusative| sacrum || –um || sacrōs || –ōs || sacram || –am || sacrās || –ās || sacrum || –um || sacra || –a|- ! Vocative| sacer || –er || sacrī || –ī || sacra || –a || sacrae || –ae || sacrum || –um || sacra || –a|- ! Ablative| sacrō || –ō || sacrīs || –īs || sacrā || –ā || sacrīs || –īs || sacrō || –ō || sacrīs || –īs'|- |} First and second –īus genitive adjectives Nine first and second declension adjectives are irregular in the genitive and the dative in all genders. They can be remembered by using the mnemonic acronym UNUS NAUTA. They are:ūllus, –a, –um; anynūllus, –a, –um; no, none (of any)uter, –tra, –trum; which (of two)sōlus, –a, –um; sole, aloneneuter, –tra, –trum; neither (of two)alius, –a, –ud; (gen. sing. alterīus to avoid aliīus); anotherūnus, –a, –um; onetōtus, –a, –um; wholealter, –era, –erum;'' the other (of two) {| class="wikitable" ūllus, –a, –umany |- ! colspan="4" | Masculine ! colspan="4" | Feminine ! colspan="4" | Neuter |- ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural |- ! Nominative | ūllus || –us || ūllī || –ī || ūlla || –a || ūllae || –ae || ūllum || –um || ūlla || –a |- ! Genitive | ūllīus || –īus || ūllōrum || –ōrum || ūllīus || –īus || ūllārum || –ārum || ūllīus || –īus || ūllōrum || –ōrum |- ! Dative | ūllī || –ī || ūllīs || –īs || ūllī || –ī || ūllīs || –īs || ūllī || –ī || ūllīs || –īs |- ! Accusative | ūllum || –um || ūllōs || –ōs || ūllam || –am || ūllās || –ās || ūllum || –um || ūlla || –a |- ! Vocative | ūlle || –e || ūllī || –ī || ūlla || –a || ūllae || –ae || ūllum || –um || ūlla || –a |- ! Ablative | ūllō || –ō || ūllīs || –īs || ūllā || –ā || ūllīs || –īs || ūllō || –ō || ūllīs || –īs |- |} Third declension adjectives Third declension adjectives are normally declined like third declension i-stem nouns, except for the fact they always have a –ī rather than a -e in the ablative singular (unlike i-stem nouns, in which only neuters have –ī). Some adjectives, however, like the one-ending vetus, veteris (old, aged), have an -e in the ablative singular (all genders), a -um in the genitive plural (all genders), and a -a in the nominative and accusative plural (neuter only). Third declension adjectives with one ending Third declension adjectives with one ending have single nominative ending for all genders. Like nouns, a genitive is given for the purpose of inflection. {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="3" | ! colspan="8" | atrōx, –ōcis terrible, mean, cruel Masculine & Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative atrōx –ōx atrōcēs –ēs atrōx –ōx atrōcia –ia Genitive atrōcis –is atrōcium –ium atrōcis –is atrōcium –ium Dative atrōcī –ī atrōcibus –ibus atrōcī –ī atrōcibus –ibus Accusative atrōcem –em atrōcēs –ēs1 atrōx –ōx atrōcia –ia Vocative atrōx –ōx atrōcēs –ēs atrōx –ōx atrōcia –ia Ablative atrōcī –ī² atrōcibus –ibus atrōcī –ī² atrōcibus –ibus <small>1—may end in –īs</small> ²—may end in –e Third declension adjectives with two endings Third declension adjectives that have two endings have one form for the masculine and feminine, and a separate form for the neuter. The ending for the masculine and feminine is –is, and the ending for the neuter is –e. Because the sexed form ends in an –is, we find the adjective genitive singular. {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="3" | ! colspan="8" | agilis, –enimble, swift Masculine & Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative agilis –is agilēs –ēs agile –e agilia –ia Genitive agilis –is agilium –ium agilis –is agilium –ium Dative agilī –ī agilibus –ibus agilī –ī agilibus –ibus Accusative agilem –em agilēs –ēs1 agile –e agilia –ia Vocative agilis –is agilēs –ēs agile –e agilia –ia Ablative agilī –ī agilibus –ibus agilī –ī agilibus –ibus 1—may end in –īs Third declension adjectives with three endings Third declension adjectives with three endings have three separate nominative forms for all three genders. Like third and second declension –r nouns, the masculine ends in an –er. The feminine ends in an –ris, and the neuter ends in an –re. With that information, we come upon the genitive singular needed for inflection, the feminine form. celer, –eris, –ereswift, rapid, brash |- ! colspan="4" | Masculine ! colspan="4" | Feminine ! colspan="4" | Neuter |- ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural ! colspan="2" | Singular ! colspan="2" | Plural |- ! Nominative | celer || –er || celerēs || –ēs || celeris || –is || celerēs || –ēs || celere || –e || celeria || –ia |- ! Genitive | celeris || –is || celerium || –ium || celeris || –is || celerium || –ium || celeris || –is || celerium || –ium |- ! Dative | celerī || –ī || celeribus || –ibus || celerī || –ī || celeribus || –ibus || celerī || –ī || celeribus || –ibus |- ! Accusative | celerem || –em || celerēs || –ēs1 || celerem || –em || celerēs || –ēs1 || celere || –e || celeria || –ia |- ! Vocative | celer || –er || celerēs || –ēs || celeris || –is || celerēs || –ēs || celere || –e || celeria || –ia |- ! Ablative | celerī || –ī || celeribus || –ibus || celerī || –ī || celeribus || –ibus || celerī || –ī || celeribus || –ibus |- |- ! rowspan="3" | ! colspan="12" | alacer, –cris, –crelively, jovial, animated Masculine Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative alacer –er alacrēs –ēs alacris –is alacrēs –ēs alacre –e alacria –ia Genitive alacris –is alacrium –ium alacris –is alacrium –ium alacris –is alacrium –ium Dative alacrī –ī alacribus –ibus alacrī –ī alacribus –ibus alacrī –ī alacribus –ibus Accusative alacrem –em alacrēs –ēs1 alacrem –em alacrēs –ēs1 alacre –e alacria –ia Vocative alacer –er alacrēs –ēs alacris –is alacrēs –ēs alacre –e alacria –ia Ablative alacrī –ī alacribus –ibus alacrī –ī alacribus –ibus alacrī –ī alacribus –ibus 1—may end in –īs' Comparison and superlative forms of adjectives As in English, adjectives have superlative and comparative forms. For regular first and second declension and third declension nouns with one or two endings, the comparison is formed by adding an –ior for the masculine and feminine, and an –ius for the neuter to the base. The genitive for both are formed by adding an –iōris. Therefore, they are declined like the third declension. However, they are not declined as i-stems are. Superlatives formed by adding an –issimus, –a, –um to the base. Now, we find that superlatives are declined like first and second declension adjectives. AdjectivePositiveComparativeSuperlativebenignus, –a, –um (kind, nice)benignior, –iusbenignissimus, –a, –umfrīgidus, –a, –um (cold, chilly)frīgidior, –iusfrīgidissimus, –a, –umcalidus, –a, –um (hot, fiery)calidior, –iuscalidissimus, –a, –umpugnāx, –ācis (pugnacious)pugnācior, –iuspugnācissimus, –a, –umfortis, –e (strong, robust)fortior, –iusfortissimus, –a, –umaequālis, –e (equal, even)aequālior, –iusaequālissimus, –a, –um Comparisons and superlatives of –er adjectives Adjectives (in the third and first and second declensions) that have masculine nominative singular forms ending in –er have different forms. If the feminine and neuter forms drop the E, use that for the comparative form. The superlative is formed by adding an –rimus onto the masculine form. AdjectivePositiveComparativeSuperlativepulcher, –chra, –chrum (pretty, beautiful)pulchrior, –iuspulcherrimus, –a, –umsacer, –cra, –crum (sacred, holy)sacrior, –iussacerrimus, –a, –umtener, –era, –erum (delicate, tender)tenerior, –iustenerrimus, –a, –umācer, –cris, –cre (sharp)ācrior, –iusācerrimus, –a, –umcelēber, –bris, –bre (celebrated, famous)celēbrior, –iuscelēberrimus, –a, –umceler, –eris, –ere (quick, fast)celerior, –iuscelerrimus, –a, –um Comparisons and superlatives of –lis adjectives Some third declension adjectives with two endings in –lis in the sexed nominative singular have irregular superlative forms. It should be noted that the following are the only adjectives that have this unique form. AdjectivePositiveComparativeSuperlativefacilis, –e (easy)facilior, –iusfacillimus, –a, –umdifficilis, –e (hard, difficult)difficilior, –iusdifficillimus, –a, –umsimilis, –e (similar, like)similior, –iussimillimus, –a, –umdissimilis, –e (unlike, dissimilar)dissimilior, –iusdissimillimus, –a, –umgracilis, –e (slender, slim)gracilior, –iusgracillimus, –a, –umhumilis, –e (low, humble)humilior, –iushumillimus, –a, –um Irregular comparisons and superlatives As in most languages, Latin has adjectives that have irregular comparisons and superlatives. AdjectivePositiveComparativeSuperlativebonus, –a, –um (good)melior, –iusoptimus, –a, –ummalus, –a, –um (bad, evil)peior, –iuspessimus, –a, –ummagnus, –a, –um (great, large)maior, –iusmaximus, –a, –umparvus, –a, –um (small, slight)minor, –usminimus, –a, –ummultus, –a, –um (much, many)plūs1plurimus, –a, –ummaturus, –a, –um (ripe, mature)maturior, –iusmaturrimus, –a, –um2nēquam3 (worthless)nēquior, –iusnēquissimus, –a, –umposterus, –a, –um (next, future)posterior, –iuspostremus, –a, –umsuperus, –a, –um (above, upper)superior, –iussupremus, –a, –umexterus, –a, –um (outer, outward)exterior, –iusextremus, –a, –umnovus, –a, –um (new, strange)recentior, –iusnovissimus, –a, –umsenex, senis (old, aged)senior, –ius——iuvenis, –is (young, youthful)iunior, –ius—— 1: noun used with genitive to express more of something 2: often replaced by the regular form 'maturissimus, –a, –um' 3: indeclinable Declension of īdem The adjective īdem, eadem, idem means 'same.' It is a variant of the third person pronouns that were declined earlier. Generally, they are formed by adding –dem'' to a declined third person pronouns. However, some forms have been changed to ease pronunciation. {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="3" | ! colspan="6" | īdem, eadem, idemthe same, same as |- ! colspan="2" | Masculine! colspan="2" | Feminine! colspan="2" | Neuter|- ! colspan="1" | Singular! colspan="1" | Plural! colspan="1" | Singular! colspan="1" | Plural! colspan="1" | Singular! colspan="1" | Plural|- ! Nominative| īdem || eīdem, iīdem || eadem || eaedem || idem || eadem |- ! Genitive| eiusdem || eōrundem || eiusdem || eārundem || eiusdem || eōrundem |- ! Dative| eīdem || eīsdem, iīsdem || eīdem || eīsdem, iīsdem || eīdem || eīsdem, iīsdem |- ! Accusative| eundem || eōsdem || eandem || eāsdem || idem || eadem |- ! Vocative| īdem || eīdem, iīdem || eadem || eaedem || idem || eadem |- ! Ablative'| eōdem || eīsdem, iīsdem || eādem || eīsdem, iīsdem || eōdem || eīsdem, iīsdem |- |} Declension of numerals See also: Roman numerals for symbology.There are several different kinds of numeral words in Latin: the two most common are Cardinal numerals, and Ordinal numerals. There are also several more rare numerals such as Distributive numerals and Adverbial numerals Cardinal numerals All numerals, except ūnum (one), duo (two), tria (three), mīlia (thousand, sing. mīlle) and ducentī (two-hundred) are indeclinable adjectives. Ūnus, ūna, ūnum is declined like a first and second declension adjective with an –īus in the genitive, and –ī in the dative. Duo is declined irregularly and tria is declined like a third declension adjective. duo, duae, duotwo Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Nominative duo duae duo Genitive duōrum / duum duārum duōrum Dative duōbus duābus duōbus Accusative duōs / duo duās duo Vocative duo duae duo Ablative duōbus duābus duōbus It should be noted that ambō, "both", is declined as duo is, though its o'' is long. trēs, tria Masculine & Feminine || Neuter|- !colspan="3" | Plural|- ! Nominative| trēs || tria |- ! Genitive| trium || trium |- ! Dative| tribus || tribus |- ! Accusative| trēs, trīs || tria |- ! Vocative| trēs || tria |- ! Ablative| tribus || tribus |- |} The word mīlle, is singular, an adjective and indeclinable. However, its irregular plural, mīlia, is a plural noun and is used in the same way plūs is. mīlia, mīlium(a) thousand n. Plural Nominative mīlia Genitive mīlium Dative mīlibus Accusative mīlia Vocative mīlia Ablative mīlibus Note that to write the phrase "four thousand horses" in Latin, the genitive is used: "quattuor milia equōrum", literally, "four thousands of horses". As stated before, the rest of the numbers are indeclinable adjectives. They are also indeclinable as substantives. 1 I ūnus, –a, –um 11 XI ūndecim 21 XXI ūnus et vigintī 101 CI centum et ūnus 2 II duo, –ae, –o 12 XII duodecim 22 XXII duō et vigintī 200 CC ducentī, –ae, –a 3 III trēs, –ia 13 XIII trēdecim 30 XXX trīgintā 300 CCC trecentī 4 IV quattuor 14 XIV quattuordecim 40 XL quadrāgintā 400 CD quadrigentī 5 V quīnque 15 XV quīndecim 50 L quīnquāgintā 500 D quīngentī 6 VI sex 16 XVI sēdecim 60 LX sexāgintā 600 DC sescentī 7 VII septem 17 XVII septendecim 70 LXX septuāgintā 700 DCC septingentī 8 VIII octō 18 XVIII duodēvigintī 80 LXXX octōgintā 800 DCCC octingentī 9 IX novem 19 XIX ūndēvigintī 90 XC nōnāgintā 900 CM nōngentī 10 X decem 20 XX vigintī 100 C centum 1000 M mīlle Ordinal numerals Ordinal numerals all decline like normal 1st and 2nd declension adjectives. Primus = first Secundus = second Tertius = third Vicensimus = twentieth Note: "Secundus" only means "second" in the sense of "following". The adjective Alter, -ra, -rum meaning "the other (of two)" was more frequently used in many instances that English would use "second". Ordinal numbers, not Cardinal numbers, are commonly used to represent dates, because they are in the format of "in the tenth year of Caesar", etc. which also carried over into the Anno Domini system and Christian dating, i.e. "anno post Christum nato centensimo" = AD 100. Distributive numerals A rare numeral construction denoting an equal number distributed among several objects, i.e. "how many each?" "two by two". They decline like normal 1st and 2nd declension adjectives, and are logically always plural. Bis, Bina = "twice two". A classical example would be "Uxores habent deni duo deniqui inter se communes" = "groups of ten or twelve men had wives in common" –Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar Adverbial numerals Adverbial numerals are (as the name states) indeclinable adverbs, but because all of the other numeral constructions are adjectives, they are listed here with them. Adverbial numerals give how many times a thing happened. Semel = once, Bis = twice, Ter = thrice (three times), Quater = four times, etc Adverbs and their comparisons and superlatives Adverbs are not declined. However, adverbs must be formed if one wants to make an adjective into an adverb. First and second declension adjectives' adverbs First and second declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an –ē onto their bases. AdjectiveAdverbclārus, –a, –um (clear, famous)clārē (clearly, famously)validus, –a, –um (strong, robust)validē (strongly, robustly)īnfīrmus, –a, –um (weak)īnfīrmē (weakly)solidus, –a, –um (complete, firm)solidē (completely, firmly)integer, –gra, –grum (whole, fresh)integrē (wholly, freshly)līber, –era, –erum (free)līberē (freely) Third declension adjectives' adverbs Typically, third declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an –iter onto their bases. However, most third declension adjectives with one ending simply add an –er to their bases. AdjectiveAdverbprūdēns, –entis (prudent)prūdenter (prudently)audāx, –ācis (bold)audācter (boldly)virilis, –e (courageous, spirited)viriliter (courageously, spiritedly)salūbris, -e (wholesome)salūbriter (wholesomely) Adverbs' comparative and superlative forms Adverbs' comparative forms are their neuter adjectives' comparative forms. Adverbs' superlative forms are made in the same way in which first and second declension adjectives' adverbs are made. First and second declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding an –ē onto their bases. PositiveComparativeSuperlativeclārē (clearly, famously)clāriusclārissimēsolidē (completely, firmly)solidius——līberē (freely)līberius——prudenter (prudently)prudentiusprudentissimēsalūbriter (wholesomely)salūberiussalūberissimē Irregular adverbs and their comparative and superlative forms As so with adjectives, there are irregular adverbs with peculiar comparative and superlative forms. PositiveComparativeSuperlativebene (well)meliusoptimēmale (ill, badly)peiuspessimēmāgnoperē (greatly)magismaximēmultum (much, a lot)plūsplūrimumparvum (little)minusminimēnēquiter (worthlessly)nēquiusnēquissimēsaepe (often)saepiussaepissimēmātūrē (seasonably, betimes)mātūriusmāturrimēprope (near)propiusproximēnūper (recently)——nūperrimēpotis (possible)potius (rather)potissimē (especially)——prius (before, previously)prīmum /primo (first)secus (otherwise)sētius / sequius (less)—— Peculiarities within declension Irregularity in number Some nouns are declined in the singular only. This is the case with: Materials such as aurum (gold) and aes (copper) Abstract nouns such as celeritās (speed) and scientia (knowledge) Proper names such as Iulius (Julius) and Clāra (Clara) There are nouns that are declined only in the plural as well (plurale tantum): Many festivals, such as Saturnalia Words like castra (camp) and arma (arms) A few geographical names are plural such as Thēbae (Thebes). Indeclinable nouns Indeclinable nouns are neuter nouns which occur only in the nominative and the accusative singular. There are only six such nouns: fās — fate, divine law īnstar — likeness māne — morning nefās — sin, abomination nihil / nil — nothing, none secus — sex, coitus Heterogeneous nouns Heterogeneous nouns are nouns which vary in respect to gender. A few nouns in the second declension occur in both the neuter and masculine. However, their meanings remain the same. Some nouns are one gender in the singular, but become another gender in the plural. They may also change in meaning. {| cellpadding="1" | Singular || Plural|- | balneum n. bath || balneae f. or balnea n. bath-house |- | epulum n. feast, banquet || epulae f. feasts, banquets |- | frēnum n. bridle, curb || frēnī m. bridle, curb |- | iocus m. joke, jest || ioca n. or ioci m. jokes, jests |- | locus m. place, location || loca n. places, locations; locī region |- | rāstrum n. hoe, rake || rāstrī m. hoes, rakes |} Plurals with alternative meanings The nouns below have a specific singular meaning, yet have a different plural meaning. {| cellpadding="1" | Singular || Plural'|- | aedēs, –is f. building, temple || aedēs, –ium rooms, house |- | auxilium, –ī n. help, aid || auxilia, –ōrum auxiliary troops |- | carcer, –eris m. prison, cell || carcerēs, –um starting-place of a chariot race |- | castrum, –ī n. fort, castle, fortress || castra, –ōrum milit. camp, encampment |- | cōpia, –ae f. plenty, much, abundance || cōpiae, –ārum troops |- | fīnis, –is m. end, boundary || fīnēs, –ium territory |- | fortūna, –ae f. luck, chance || fortūnae –ārum wealth |- | grātia, –ae f. charm, favor || grātiae, –ārum thanks |- | impedīmentum, –ī m. impediment, hindrance || impedīmenta, –ōrum baggage |- | littera, –ae f. letter (as in A, B, C, etc.) || litterae, –ārum epistle, scholarship, literature |- | mōs, mōris m. habit, inclination || mōrēs, –um m. morals, character |- | opera, –ae f. trouble, pains || operae, –ārum workmen |- | opis f. (gen.; nom. and dat. do not occur) the goddess Ops (pers.) help || opēs, –ium resources, wealth |- | pars, partis f. part, piece || partēs, –ium office, function |- | sāl, salis m. salt, sea water || salēs, –um'' wit, smarts Notes References New Latin Grammar, an eBook, originally written by Charles Edwin Bennett at the Project Gutenberg Latin grammar - interactive A Student's Latin Grammar, by Cambridge Latin Course's Robin m. Griffin, Third Edition See also Latin conjugation William Whitaker's Words Latin mnemonics Plural form of words ending in -us | Latin_declension |@lemmatized latin:25 inflected:1 language:3 noun:78 pronoun:17 adjectives:5 must:3 decline:22 order:6 serve:3 grammatical:4 function:4 set:2 form:67 word:17 pattern:6 call:2 declension:113 five:1 number:8 group:7 end:51 gender:9 simple:1 paradigm:4 visit:1 wiktionary:3 appendix:3 first:33 second:42 third:40 fourth:9 fifth:7 case:29 complete:3 consist:7 seven:1 nominative:61 genitive:61 dative:39 accusative:42 ablative:44 vocative:36 locative:11 abbreviate:1 three:8 letter:5 sequence:2 nom:4 voc:3 acc:3 gen:5 dat:4 abl:3 usual:1 taught:1 britain:1 many:7 commonwealth:1 country:2 since:1 publication:1 hall:1 kennedy:1 primer:1 reflect:1 tendency:1 different:5 share:3 similar:2 ending:14 see:8 syncretic:2 trend:2 discussion:1 teach:2 elsewhere:1 instruction:1 however:14 school:1 give:7 comparison:8 english:12 usage:1 mark:4 subject:3 statement:1 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iusfrīgidissimus:1 umcalidus:1 hot:1 fiery:1 calidior:1 iuscalidissimus:1 umpugnāx:1 ācis:2 pugnacious:1 pugnācior:1 iuspugnācissimus:1 umfortis:1 strong:2 robust:2 fortior:1 iusfortissimus:1 umaequālis:1 equal:2 aequālior:1 iusaequālissimus:1 rimu:1 onto:4 adjectivepositivecomparativesuperlativepulcher:1 chra:1 chrum:1 pretty:1 beautiful:1 pulchrior:1 iuspulcherrimus:1 umsacer:1 sacrior:1 iussacerrimus:1 umtener:1 delicate:1 tender:1 tenerior:1 iustenerrimus:1 umācer:1 cre:1 sharp:1 ācrior:1 iusācerrimus:1 umcelēber:1 bris:1 bre:1 celebrate:1 famous:2 celēbrior:1 iuscelēberrimus:1 umceler:1 ere:1 quick:1 fast:1 celerior:1 iuscelerrimus:1 li:2 unique:1 adjectivepositivecomparativesuperlativefacilis:1 easy:1 facilior:1 iusfacillimus:1 umdifficilis:1 hard:1 difficult:1 difficilior:1 iusdifficillimus:1 umsimilis:1 similior:1 iussimillimus:1 umdissimilis:1 dissimilar:1 dissimilior:1 iusdissimillimus:1 umgracilis:1 slender:1 slim:1 gracilior:1 iusgracillimus:1 umhumilis:1 low:1 humble:1 humilior:1 iushumillimus:1 adjectivepositivecomparativesuperlativebonus:1 good:1 melior:1 iusoptimus:1 ummalus:1 bad:1 evil:1 peior:1 iuspessimus:1 ummagnus:1 great:1 maior:1 iusmaximus:1 umparvus:1 slight:1 minor:1 usminimus:1 ummultus:1 ummaturus:1 ripe:1 mature:1 maturior:1 iusmaturrimus:1 worthless:1 nēquior:1 iusnēquissimus:1 umposterus:1 next:1 future:1 posterior:1 iuspostremus:1 umsuperus:1 upper:1 superior:1 iussupremus:1 umexterus:1 outer:1 outward:1 exterior:1 iusextremus:1 umnovus:1 strange:1 recentior:1 iusnovissimus:1 umsenex:1 senis:1 senior:1 young:1 youthful:1 iunior:1 maturissimus:1 indeclinable:8 īdem:5 eadem:7 idem:4 variant:1 earlier:1 dem:1 declined:1 ease:1 idemthe:1 eīdem:5 iīdem:2 eaedem:2 eiusdem:3 eōrundem:2 eārundem:1 eīsdem:6 iīsdem:6 eundem:1 eōsdem:1 eandem:1 eāsdem:1 eōdem:2 eādem:1 numeral:18 symbology:1 cardinal:3 ordinal:4 distributive:2 adverbial:4 ūnum:2 duo:12 tria:6 mīlia:6 thousand:4 mīlle:3 ducentī:2 hundred:1 ūnus:4 ūna:1 duae:3 duotwo:1 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6,698 | John_Wayne | John Wayne (May 26, 1907 – June 11, 1979) was an Academy Award- and Golden Globe Award-winning American film actor, director and producer. He epitomized rugged masculinity and has become an enduring American icon. He is famous for his distinctive voice, walk and height. He was also known for his conservative political views and his support in the 1950s for anti-communist positions. A Harris Poll released January 2009 placed Wayne third among America's favorite film stars, The Harris Poll: Denzel Washington: America’s Favorite Movie Star - Harris Interactive. the only deceased star on the list and the only one who has appeared on the poll every year since it first began in 1994. In 1999, the American Film Institute named Wayne 13th among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time. Early life Wayne was born Marion Robert Morrison in Winterset, Iowa. Madison County, Iowa, birth certificate. His middle name was soon changed from Robert to Michael when his parents decided to name their next son Robert. His family was Presbyterian. His father, Clyde Leonard Morrison (1884–1937), was of Irish, Scots-Irish and English descent, and the son of American Civil War veteran Marion Mitchell Morrison (1845–1915). His mother, the former Mary Alberta Brown (1885–1970), was from Lancaster County, Nebraska. Wayne's family moved to Palmdale, California, and then in 1911 to Glendale, California, where his father worked as a pharmacist. A local fireman at the station on his route to school in Glendale started calling him "Little Duke", because he never went anywhere without his huge Airedale Terrier dog, Duke. Roberts, Randy, and James S. Olson (1995). - John Wayne: American. New York: Free Press. p.37. - ISBN 0029238370. Munn, Michael (2003). - John Wayne: The Man Behind the Myth. London: Robson Books. p.7. - ISBN 0451212444. He preferred "Duke" to "Marion," and the name stuck for the rest of his life. As a teen, Wayne worked in an ice cream shop for a man who shod horses for Hollywood studios. He was also active as a member of the Order of DeMolay, a youth organization associated with the Freemasons. He attended Wilson Middle School in Glendale. He played football for the 1924 champion Glendale High School team. Wayne applied to the U.S. Naval Academy, but was not accepted. He instead attended the University of Southern California (USC), majoring in pre-law. He was a member of the Trojan Knights and Sigma Chi fraternities. Davis, Ronald L. Duke: The Life and Times of John Wayne. University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. p. 30 ISBN 0806133295. Wayne also played on the USC football team under legendary coach Howard Jones. An injury curtailed his athletic career; Wayne later noted he was too terrified of Jones' reaction to reveal the actual cause of his injury, which was bodysurfing at the “Wedge” at the tip of the Balboa Peninsula in Newport Beach. He lost his athletic scholarship and, without funds, had to leave the university. Biography - JWayne.com]. Wayne began working at the local film studios. Prolific silent western film star Tom Mix had gotten him a summer job in the prop department in exchange for football tickets. Wayne soon moved on to bit parts, establishing a longtime friendship with the director who provided most of those roles, John Ford. Early in this period, Wayne appeared with his USC teammates playing football in Brown of Harvard (1926), The Dropkick (1927), and Salute (1929) and Columbia's Maker of Men (filmed in 1930, released in 1931). Biography of John Wayne. - Think Quest: Library. Film career While working for Fox Film Corporation for $75 a week in bit roles, he was given on-screen credit only once, as "Duke Morrison" in Words and Music (1929). In 1930, director Raoul Walsh cast him in his first starring role in The Big Trail (1930). For his screen name, Walsh suggested "Anthony Wayne", after Revolutionary War general "Mad Anthony" Wayne. Fox Studios chief Winfield Sheehan rejected it as sounding "too Italian." Walsh then suggested "John Wayne." Sheehan agreed, and the name was set. Wayne himself was not even present for the discussion. Roberts & Olson, p. 84. His pay was raised to $105 a week. The Big Trail was to be the first big-budget outdoor spectacle of the sound era, made at a staggering cost of over $2 million, utilizing hundreds of extras and wide vistas of the American southwest, still largely unpopulated at the time. To take advantage of the breathtaking scenery, it was filmed in two versions, a standard 35mm version and another in "Grandeur", a new process utilizing innovative camera and lenses and a revolutionary 70mm widescreen process. Many in the audience who saw it in Grandeur stood and cheered. Unfortunately, only a handful of theaters were equipped to show the film in its widescreen process, and the effort was largely wasted. The film was considered a huge flop. After the failure of The Big Trail, Wayne was relegated to small roles in A-pictures, including Columbia's The Deceiver (1931), in which he played a corpse. He appeared in the serial The Three Musketeers (1933), an updated version of the Alexandre Dumas novel in which the protagonists were soldiers in the French Foreign Legion in then-contemporary North Africa. He appeared in many low-budget "Poverty Row" westerns, mostly at Monogram Pictures and serials for Mascot Pictures Corporation. By Wayne's own estimation, he appeared in about eighty of these horse operas between 1930 - 1939. Clooney, p. 196. Coincidentally, he also appeared in some of the Three Mesquiteers westerns, whose title was a play on the Dumas classic. He was mentored by stuntmen in riding and other western skills. He and famed stuntman Yakima Canutt developed and perfected stunts still used today. Canutt, Yakima, with Oliver Drake, Stuntman. University of Oklahoma Press, 1997, ISBN 0806129271. Wayne's breakthrough role came with director John Ford's classic Stagecoach (1939). Because of Wayne's non-star status and track record in low-budget westerns throughout the 1930s, Ford had difficulty getting financing for what was to be an A-budget film. After rejection by all the top studios, Ford struck a deal with independent producer William Wellman in which Claire Trevor — a much bigger star at the time — received top billing. Stagecoach was a huge critical and financial success, and Wayne became a star. He later appeared in more than twenty of John Ford's films, including She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949), The Quiet Man (1952), The Searchers (1956), The Wings of Eagles (1957), and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962). Wayne's first color film was Shepherd of the Hills (1941), in which he co-starred with his longtime friend Harry Carey. The following year he appeared in his only film directed by Cecil B. DeMille, the Technicolor epic Reap the Wild Wind (1942), in which he co-starred with Ray Milland and Paulette Goddard; it was one of the rare times he played a character with questionable values. In 1949, director Robert Rossen offered the starring role of All the King's Men to Wayne. Wayne refused, believing the script to be un-American in many ways. Roberts, Randy, and James S. Olson. John Wayne: American. New York: Free Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0029238370. Broderick Crawford, who eventually got the role, won the 1949 Oscar for best male actor, ironically beating out Wayne, who had been nominated for Sands of Iwo Jima. He lost the leading role in The Gunfighter (1950) to Gregory Peck due to his refusal to work for Columbia Pictures because its chief Harry Cohn had mistreated him years before when he was a young contract player. Cohn had bought the project for Wayne, but Wayne's grudge was too deep, and Cohn sold the script to Twentieth Century Fox, which cast Peck in the role Wayne badly wanted but refused to bend for. Roberts, Randy, and James S. Olson. John Wayne: American. New York: Free Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0029238370. One of Wayne's most popular roles was in The High and the Mighty (1954), directed by William Wellman and based on a novel by Ernest K. Gann. His portrayal of a heroic copilot won widespread acclaim. Wayne also portrayed aviators in Flying Tigers (1942), Flying Leathernecks (1951), Island in the Sky (1953), The Wings of Eagles (1957), and Jet Pilot (1957). John Wayne in The Searchers (1956) The Searchers (1956) continues to be widely regarded as perhaps Wayne's finest and most complex performance. In 2006 Premiere Magazine ran an industry poll in which Wayne's portrayal of Ethan Edwards was rated the 87th greatest performance in film history. He named his youngest son Ethan after the character. John Wayne won a Best Actor Oscar for True Grit (1969). Wayne was also nominated as the producer of Best Picture for The Alamo (1960), one of two films he directed. The other was The Green Berets (1968), the only major film made during the Vietnam War to support the war. During the filming of Green Berets, the Degar or Montagnard people of Vietnam's Central Highlands, fierce fighters against communism, bestowed on Wayne a brass bracelet that he wore in the film and all subsequent films. Roberts, Randy, and James S. Olson. John Wayne: American. New York: Free Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0029238370. His last film was The Shootist (1976), whose main character, J. B. Books, was dying of cancer - the illness to which Wayne himself succumbed 3 years later. According to the Internet Movie Database, Wayne played the lead in 142 of his film appearances. Batjac, the production company co-founded by Wayne, was named after the fictional shipping company Batjak in Wake of the Red Witch (1948), a film based on the novel by Garland Roark. (A spelling error by Wayne's secretary was allowed to stand, accounting for the variation.) Roberts, Randy, and James S. Olson. John Wayne: American. New York: Free Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0029238370. Batjac (and its predecessor, Wayne-Fellows Productions) was the arm through which Wayne produced many films for himself and other stars. Its best-known non-Wayne production was the highly acclaimed Seven Men From Now (1956) which started the classic collaboration between director Budd Boetticher and star Randolph Scott. In later years, Wayne was recognized as a sort of American natural resource, and his various critics, of his performances and his politics, viewed him with more respect. Abbie Hoffman, the radical of the 1960s, paid tribute to Wayne's singularity, saying "I like Wayne's wholeness, his style. As for his politics, well—I suppose even cavemen felt a little admiration for the dinosaurs that were trying to gobble them up." Time magazine, 8 August 1969. Reviewing The Cowboys (1972), Vincent Canby of the New York Times, who did not particularly care for the film, wrote: "Wayne is, of course, marvelously indestructible, and he has become an almost perfect father figure." Filmography 1964 illness Wayne had been a chain-smoker of cigarettes since young adulthood. In 1964, Wayne was diagnosed with lung cancer, and underwent successful surgery to remove his entire left lung CR Magazine: "The Duke's Final Showdown" by Sue Rochman. Fall 2008. and four ribs. Despite efforts by his business associates to prevent him from going public with his illness (for fear it would cost him work), Wayne announced he had cancer and called on the public to get preventive examinations. Five years later, Wayne was declared cancer-free. Despite the fact that Wayne's diminished lung capacity left him incapable of prolonged exertion and frequently in need of supplemental oxygen, within a few years of his operation he chewed tobacco and began smoking cigars. Politics from The Challenge of Ideas (1961) Wayne was a conservative Republican. He took part in creating the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals in 1943 and was elected president of that organization in 1947. He was an ardent anti-communist, and vocal supporter of the House Un-American Activities Committee. In 1951, he made Big Jim McLain (1952) to show his support for the anti-communist cause. He also claimed to have been instrumental in having Carl Foreman blacklisted from Hollywood after the release of the anti-McCarthyism western High Noon (1952) and later teamed up with Howard Hawks to make Rio Bravo (1959) as a right-wing response. A supporter of then Vice President Richard Nixon's bid for the White House, he famously expressed his vision of patriotism when John F. Kennedy won the election: "I didn't vote for him but he's my president, and I hope he does a good job." Wayne used his iconic status to support conservative causes, including rallying support for the Vietnam War by producing, co-directing, and starring in the critically panned The Green Berets (1968). In 1978 however, he enraged conservatives by supporting liberal causes such as the Panama Canal Treaty and the innocence of Patty Hearst. Warner, Edwin. - "That Troublesome Panama Canal Treaty". - TIME. - October 31, 1977. Lithwick, Dahlia. - "The Brainwashed Defense". - Slate. - January 28, 2002. Due to his enormous popularity, and his status as the most famous Republican star in Hollywood, wealthy Texas Republican Party backers asked Wayne to run for national office in 1968, as had his friend and fellow actor, Senator George Murphy. He declined, joking that he did not believe the public would seriously consider an actor in the White House. However, he did support his friend Ronald Reagan's runs for Governor of California in 1966 and 1970. He was also asked to be the running mate for Democratic Alabama Governor George Wallace in 1968. Wayne vehemently rejected the offer. Jim Beaver, "John Wayne". Films in Review, Volume 28, Number 5, May 1977, pp. 265–284. Wayne actively campaigned for Richard Nixon, Judis, John. - "Kevin Phillips, Ex-Populist: Elite Model". - The New Republic. - (c/o Carnegie Endowment for International Peace) - May 22, 2006. and addressed the Republican National Convention on its opening day in August 1968. Wayne also was a member of the conservative and anti-communist John Birch Society. Dowell, Pat. - "John Wayne, Man and Myth". - The Washington Post. - September 25, 1995. Soviet documents released in 2003 reveal that, despite being a fan of Wayne's movies, Joseph Stalin ordered Wayne's assassination due to his strong anti-communist politics. Stalin died before the killing could be accomplished. His successor, Nikita Khrushchev, reportedly told Wayne during a 1958 visit to the United States that he had personally rescinded the order. Montefiore, Sebag (2003). Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar. London: George Weidenfeld & Nicholson. ISBN 1842127268. "Why Stalin loved Tarzan and wanted John Wayne shot". - Daily Telegraph. - 6 April 2004. Military service controversy Visiting Brisbane, Australia, in December, 1943 America's entry into World War II resulted in a deluge of support for the war effort from all sectors of society, and Hollywood was no exception. Many established stars rushed to sign up for military service. Most notably, James Stewart who had already enlisted in the US Army Air Corps, surmounted great obstacles in order to do so. As the majority of male leads left Hollywood to serve overseas, John Wayne saw his just-blossoming stardom at risk. Despite enormous pressure from his inner circle of friends, he put off enlisting. Wayne was exempted from service due to his age (34 at the time of Pearl Harbor) and family status, classified as 3-A (family deferment). Wayne's secretary recalled making inquiries of military officials on behalf of his interest in enlisting, "but he never really followed up on them." Roberts & Olson, John Wayne: American, p. 211. He repeatedly wrote to John Ford, asking to be placed in Ford's military unit, but continually postponed it until "after he finished one more film." Roberts & Olson, John Wayne: American, p. 212. Republic Studios was emphatically resistant to losing Wayne, especially after the loss of Gene Autry to the Army. Gene Autry, who was also Wayne's age, gave an interview in 1942 that seemed, to later biographers, to chastise Wayne for his refusal to enlist and provide an example for younger actors in Hollywood: "I think the He-men in the movies belong in the Army, Marine, Navy or Air Corps. All of these He-men in the movies realize that right now is the time to get into the service. Every movie cowboy ought to devote time to the Army winning, or to helping win, until the war is over - the same as any other American citizen. The Army needs all the young men it can get, and if I can set a good example for the young men I'll be mighty proud." Source: Wills, Gary, John Wayne's America, pp. 221–223. Correspondence between Wayne and Herbert J. Yates (the head of Republic) indicates that Yates threatened Wayne with a lawsuit if he walked away from his contract, though the likelihood of a studio suing its biggest star for going to war was minute. Roberts & Olson, p. 220. Whether or not the threat was real, Wayne did not test it. Selective Service Records indicate he did not attempt to prevent his reclassification as 1-A (draft eligible), but apparently Republic Pictures intervened directly, requesting his further deferment. Roberts & Olson, p. 213. In May, 1944, Wayne was reclassified as 1-A (draft eligible), but the studio obtained another 2-A deferment (for "support of national health, safety, or interest"). He remained 2-A until the war's end. Thus, John Wayne did not illegally "dodge" the draft, but he never took direct positive action toward enlistment. Wayne was in the South Pacific theater of the war for three months in 1943–44, touring U.S. bases and hospitals as well as doing some "undercover" work for OSS commander William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan, who thought Wayne's celebrity might be good cover for an assessment of the causes for poor relations between General Douglas MacArthur and Donovan's OSS Pacific network. Wayne filed a report and Donovan gave him a plaque and commendation for serving with the OSS, but Wayne dismissed it as meaningless. Roberts & Olson, p. 253. The foregoing facts influenced the direction of Wayne's later life. By many accounts, Wayne's failure to serve in the military during World War II was the most painful experience of his life. Roberts & Olson, p. 212. There were some other stars who, for various reasons, did not enlist. But Wayne, by virtue of becoming a celluloid war hero in several patriotic war films, as well as an outspoken supporter of conservative political causes and the Vietnam War, became the focus of particular disdain from both himself and certain portions of the public, particularly in later years. While some hold Wayne in contempt for the paradox between his early actions and his later attitudes, his widow suggests that Wayne's rampant patriotism in later decades sprang not from hypocrisy but from guilt. Pilar Wayne wrote, "He would become a 'superpatriot' for the rest of his life trying to atone for staying home." Wayne, Pilar, John Wayne, pp. 43–47. Controversial statements to Playboy magazine In an interview with Playboy magazine in May 1971, Wayne made several controversial remarks about race and class in the United States. The interview became a hot topic and many stores had trouble keeping the issue in stock. Randy Roberts, James Stuart Olson "John Wayne:America", Richard Warren Lewis p. 580, 1997. He noted that, as someone living in the 20th century, he was not responsible for the way people who lived one hundred years before him had treated Native Americans, stating: I don't feel we did wrong in taking this great country away from them if that's what you're asking. Our so called stealing of this country was just a question of survival. There were great numbers of people who needed new land the Indians were selfishly trying to keep it for themselves.... I'm quite sure that the concept of a Government-run reservation... seems to be what the socialists are working for now — to have everyone cared for from cradle to grave.... But you can't whine and bellyache 'cause somebody else got a break and you didn't, like those Indians are. We'll all be on a reservation soon if the socialists keep subsidizing groups like them with our tax money. Playboy Magazine Volume 18, issue #5 "John Wayne:The Playboy Interview", Richard Warren Lewis p. 78, May 1971. http://www.playboy.com/articles/john-wayne-interview He then continued to discuss race relations, including his opinions regarding the current civil rights of African Americans: I believe in white supremacy until blacks are educated to a point of responsibility. I don't believe in giving authority and positions of leadership and judgment to irresponsible people.... The academic community has developed certain tests that determine whether the blacks are sufficiently equipped scholastically.... I don't feel guilty about the fact that five or ten generations ago these people were slaves. Now I'm not condoning slavery. It's just a fact of life, like the kid who gets infantile paralysis and can't play football like the rest of us. Playboy Magazine Volume 18, issue #5 "John Wayne:The Playboy Interview", Richard Warren Lewis p. 79, May 1971. When asked how blacks could address the inequities of the past, Wayne replied: By going to school. I don't know why people insist that blacks have been forbidden to go to school. They were allowed in public schools wherever I've been. I think any black man who can compete with a white can get a better break than a white man. I wish they'd tell me where in the world they have it better than right here in America. Randy Roberts, James Stuart Olson "John Wayne:America", Richard Warren Lewis p. 580, 1997. He also alluded to his distaste with the North Vietnamese Communist forces during the Vietnam War: Sure I wave the American flag. Do you know a better flag to wave? Sure I love my country with all her faults. I'm not ashamed of that, never have been, never will be. I was proud when President Nixon ordered the mining of Haiphong Harbor, which we should have done long ago, because I think we're helping a brave little country defend herself against Communist invasion. That's what I tried to show in The Green Berets and I took plenty of abuse from the critics. Playboy Magazine Volume 18, issue #5 "John Wayne:The Playboy Interview", Richard Warren Lewis p. 77, May 1971. Personal life Roadside sign on the way to John Wayne Island Wayne was married three times and divorced twice. His wives, all of them Hispanic women, were Josephine Alicia Saenz, Esperanza Baur, and Pilar Pallete. He had four children with Josephine and three with Pilar, including the producer Michael Wayne and actor Patrick Wayne. Wayne is also the great-uncle of boxing heavyweight Tommy Morrison. The Great White Hope climbs back between the ropes. Wayne's son Ethan was billed as John Ethan Wayne in a few films and played one of the leads in the 1990s update of the Adam-12 television series. His stormiest divorce was from Esperanza Bauer, a former Mexican actress. She convinced herself that Wayne and co-star Gail Russell were having an affair. The night the film Angel and the Badman (1947) wrapped, there was the usual party for cast and crew, and Wayne came home very late. Esperanza was in a drunken rage by the time he arrived, and she attempted to shoot him as he walked through the front door. Roberts, Randy, and James S. Olson. John Wayne: American. New York: Free Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0029238370. Wayne's hair began thinning in the 1940s and he started wearing a hairpiece by the end of that decade (though his receding hairline is quite evident in Rio Grande). He was occasionally seen in public without the hairpiece (notably, according to Life Magazine photos, at Gary Cooper's funeral). The only time he unintentionally appeared on film without it was for a split second in North to Alaska. On the first punch of the climactic fistfight, Wayne's hat flies off, revealing a brief flash of his unadorned scalp. Wayne also has several scenes in The Wings of Eagles where he is without his hairpiece. (During a widely noted appearance at Harvard University, Wayne was asked by a student, "Is your hair real?" Wayne responded in the affirmative, then added, "It's not mine, but it's real!") Wayne had several high-profile affairs, including one with Marlene Dietrich that lasted for three years. Olson & Roberts, John Wayne: American, pp. 195–197. In the years prior to his death, Wayne was romantically involved with his former secretary Pat Stacy (1941–1995). She wrote a biography of her life with him, DUKE: A Love Story (1983). During the early 1960s John Wayne traveled extensively to Panama. During this time, the actor reportedly purchased the island of Taborcillo off the main coast of Panama. It was sold by his estate at his death and changed hands many times before being opened as a tourist attraction. Wayne was Freemason, a Master Mason in Marion McDaniel Lodge #56 F&AM, in Tucson. He became a 32nd Degree Scottish Rite Mason and later joined the Al Malaikah Shrine Temple in Anaheim. He became a member of the York Rite. http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/wayne_j/wayne_j.html John Wayne`s height has been perennially described as at least 6`4" (193cm), but claims abound that he was shorter. Wills, Gary, John Wayne's America, pp. 90-91. However, Wayne's high school athletic records indicate he was 6'3" at age 17, and his University of Southern California athletic records state that by age 18, he had grown to 6'4". cited in Roberts, Randy, and James S. Olson. John Wayne: American. New York: Free Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0029238370, pp. 47, 54. Death Although he enrolled in a cancer vaccine study in an attempt to ward off the disease, Rochman, Sue "The Duke's Final Showdown",CR Magazine, Fall 2008. John Wayne died of stomach cancer on June 11, 1979, at the UCLA Medical Center, and was interred in the Pacific View Memorial Park cemetery in Corona del Mar. According to his son Patrick, he converted to Roman Catholicism shortly before his death. He requested his tombstone read "Feo, Fuerte y Formal", a Spanish epitaph Wayne described as meaning "ugly, strong and dignified". Candelaria, Nash. John Wayne, Person and Personal The love affairs of an American legend in Hopscotch: A Cultural Review - Volume 2, Number 4, 2001, pp. 2–13, Duke University Press. However, the grave, unmarked for twenty years, is now marked with a quotation from his controversial 1971 Playboy interview: "Tomorrow is the most important thing in life. Comes into us at midnight very clean. It's perfect when it arrives and it puts itself in our hands. It hopes we've learned something from yesterday." A relatively large number of the cast and crew of Wayne's 1956 film The Conqueror developed various forms of cancer. The film was shot in Southwestern Utah, east of and generally downwind from where the U.S. Government had tested nuclear weapons in Southeastern Nevada, and many contend that radioactive fallout from these tests contaminated the film location and poisoned the film crew working there. Despite the suggestion that Wayne’s 1964 lung cancer and his 1979 stomach cancer resulted from this nuclear contamination, he himself believed his lung cancer to have been a result of his six-pack-a-day cigarette habit. Bacon, James. - John Wayne: The Last Cowboy. - US Magazine. - (c/o JWayne.com). - June 27, 1978. The effect of nuclear fallout on The Conqueror'''s cast and crew, and particularly on Wayne, is the subject of James Morrow's science-fiction short story Martyrs of the Upshot Knothole. Morrow, James (2004). The Cat's Pajamas and Other Stories. Tachyon Publications. ISBN 1892391155. Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom John Wayne's enduring status as an iconic American was formally recognized by the United States Congress on May 26, 1979 when he was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. Hollywood figures and American leaders from across the political spectrum, including Elizabeth Taylor, Frank Sinatra, Mike Frankovich, Katharine Hepburn, General and Mrs. Omar Bradley, Gregory Peck, Robert Stack, James Arness, and Kirk Douglas, testified to Congress of the merit and deservedness of this award, most notably Robert Aldrich, then president of the Directors Guild of America, who stated, "It is important for you to know that I am a registered Democrat and, to my knowledge, share none of the political views espoused by Duke. However, whether he is ill disposed or healthy, John Wayne is far beyond the normal political sharp shooting in this community. Because of his courage, his dignity, his integrity, and because of his talents as an actor, his strength as a leader, his warmth as a human being throughout his illustrious career, he is entitled to a unique spot in our hearts and minds. In this industry, we often judge people, sometimes unfairly, by asking whether they have paid their dues. John Wayne has paid his dues over and over, and I'm proud to consider him a friend, and am very much in favor of my Government recognizing in some important fashion the contribution that Mr. Wayne has made." Maureen O'Hara, Wayne's close friend, initiated the petition for the medal and requested the words that would be placed onto the medal: "It is my great honor to be here. I beg you to strike a medal for Duke, to order the President to strike it. And I feel that the medal should say just one thing, 'John Wayne, American.'" Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs of the Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives, 96th Congress, First Session, on H.R. 3767, A Bill to Authorize the President of the United States to Present on Behalf of the Congress a Specially Struck Gold Medal to John Wayne, May 21, 1979, Serial 96-10. The medal crafted by the United States Mint has on one side John Wayne riding on horseback, and the other side has a portrait of Wayne with the words, "John Wayne, American." This Congressional Gold Medal was presented to the family of John Wayne in a ceremony held on March 6, 1980 at the United States Capitol. Copies were made and sold in large numbers to the public. On June 9, 1980, Wayne was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Jimmy Carter (at whose inaugural ball Wayne had appeared "as a member of the loyal opposition", as Wayne described it in his speech to the gathering). Thus Wayne received the two highest civilian decorations awarded by the United States government. American icon Statue of John Wayne at John Wayne Airport, California Wayne rose beyond the typical recognition for a famous actor to that of an enduring icon who symbolized and communicated American values and ideals. By the middle of his career, Wayne had developed a larger-than-life image, and as his career progressed, he selected roles that would not compromise his off-screen image. By the time of his last film The Shootist (1976), Wayne refused to allow his character to shoot a man in the back as was originally scripted Trivia - The Shootist (1976) - IMDb. , saying "I've made over 250 pictures and have never shot a guy in the back. Change it." Wayne's rise to being the quintessential movie war hero began to take shape four years after World War II when Sands of Iwo Jima (1949) was released. His footprints at Grauman's Chinese theater in Hollywood were laid in cement that contained sand from Iwo Jima. Endres, Stacey and Robert Cushman. Hollywood At Your Feet. Beverly Hills: Pomegranate Press, 1993 ISBN 0-938817-08-6. His status grew so large and legendary that when Japanese Emperor Hirohito visited the United States in 1975, he asked to meet John Wayne, the symbolic representation of his country's former enemy. Wayne was a popular visitor to the war zones in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. By the 1950s, perhaps in large part due to the military aspect of films such as the Sands of Iwo Jima, Flying Tigers, They Were Expendable, and the Ford cavalry trilogy, Wayne had become an icon to all the branches of the U.S. Military, even in light of his actual lack of military service. Many veterans have said their reason for serving was in some part related to watching Wayne's movies. His name is attached to various pieces of gear, such as the P-38 "John Wayne" can-opener, so named because "it can do anything," paper towels known as "John Wayne Toilet Paper" because "it's rough and it's tough and don't take shit off no one," and C-Ration crackers are called "John Wayne crackers" because presumably only someone as tough as Wayne could eat them. A rough and rocky mountain pass used by army tanks and jeeps at Fort Irwin in San Bernardino County, California, is aptly named "John Wayne Pass." Various public locations have been named in memory of John Wayne. They include John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California, where his nine-foot bronze statue graces the entrance; the John Wayne Marina John Wayne Marina. near Sequim, Washington; John Wayne Elementary School (P.S. 380) in Brooklyn, NY, which boasts a 38-foot mosaic mural commission by New York artist Knox Martin entitled "John Wayne and the American Frontier"; Exhibitions. - Knox Martin. and a 100-plus-mile trail named the "John Wayne Pioneer Trail" in Washington state's Iron Horse State Park. A larger than life-size bronze statue of Wayne atop a horse was erected at the corner of La Cienega Boulevard and Wilshire Boulevard in Beverly Hills, California at the former offices of the Great Western Savings & Loan Corporation, for whom Wayne had done a number of commercials. (The building now houses Larry Flynt Enterprises.) On December 5, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Wayne into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. Wayne inducted into California Hall of Fame, California Museum, Accessed 2007. Celebrations and landmarks Several celebrations took place on May 26, 2007, the centenary of John Wayne's birth. In his birthplace of Winterset, Iowa, the John Wayne Birthday Centennial Celebration was held on May 25-27, 2007. The celebration included chuck-wagon suppers, concerts by Michael Martin Murphey and Riders in the Sky, a Wild West Revue in the style of Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, symposia with John Wayne co-stars, cavalry and trick horse demonstrations as well as many of John Wayne's films. This event also included the ground-breaking for the John Wayne Museum and Learning Center at his birthplace house. In 2006, friends of Wayne's and his former Arizona business partner, Louis Johnson, inaugurated the "Louie and the Duke Classics" events benefiting the John Wayne Cancer Foundation John Wayne Cancer Foundation. and the American Cancer Society. Olson, Jim. - "Louie and the Duke Classics 2006". - Grande Living. - October 2006. - (Adobe Acrobat *.PDF document). News and Events: 2006 Archive - John Wayne Cancer Foundation. The weekend long event each fall in Casa Grande, Arizona includes a golf tournament, an auction of John Wayne memorabilia and a team roping competition". Missed roles John Wayne desperately wanted the role of "Jimmy Ringo" in the 1950 film The Gunfighter, directed by Henry King. But the role went to Gregory Peck instead. John Wayne's final film, The Shootist (1976), directed by Don Siegel was very similar to The Gunfighter. Roberts, Randy, and James S. Olson. John Wayne: American. New York: Free Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0029238370. An urban legend has it that John Wayne was offered the leading role of Matt Dillon in the longtime favorite television show Gunsmoke, but he turned it down, recommending instead James Arness for the role. The only part of this story that is true is that Wayne did indeed recommend Arness for the part. Wayne introduced Arness in a prologue to the first episode of Gunsmoke. Gunsmoke - Snopes.com - 6 August 2007. Wayne was approached by Mel Brooks to play the part of The Waco Kid in the film Blazing Saddles. After reading the script he said, "I can't be in this picture, it's too dirty ... but I'll be the first in line to see it." Interview: Mel Brooks. Blazing Saddles (DVD). Burbank, California: Warner Brothers Pictures/Warner Home Video, 2004. ISBN 0790757354. Famous movie quotes "I'm looking at a tin star with a ... DRUNK pinned on it." (El Dorado) "I won't be wronged, I won't be insulted, and I won't be laid a hand on. I don't do these things to other people, and I require the same from them." (The Shootist) Speaking to his young cavalry lieutenants: "Don't apologize—it's a sign of weakness." (She Wore a Yellow Ribbon) "Fill your hand, you son of a bitch!" (True Grit) "That'll be the day!" (The Searchers - Spoken several times; inspired Buddy Holly to write a song with that title.) "Pilgrim." (The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance - Reportedly he used the expression "Pilgrim", as in "tenderfoot" or "dude" or "amateur", 23 times in that film, and once also in McLintock!. It became a catchphrase for impressionists such as John Byner, and Rich Little) "I haven't lost my temper in 40 years; but, Pilgrim, you caused a lot of trouble this morning; might have got somebody killed; and somebody oughta belt you in the mouth. But I won't. I won't. The hell I won't!" (He belts him in the mouth). (To Leo Gordon in McLintock!) "Out here, due process is a bullet!" (To anti-war journalist David Janssen in The Green Berets) Famous quotes outside of the movies "I eat as much as I ever did, I drink more than I should, and my sex life is none of your goddamned business." (May 1971 Playboy interview) "If I had known this, I would've put that patch on thirty-five years ago." (1969 Academy Awards speech for Best Actor in True Grit.) See also List of film collaborations Hall of Great Western Performers National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum Further reading Baur, Andreas, and Bitterli, Konrad. "Brave Lonesome Cowboy. Der Mythos des Westerns in der Gegenwartskunst oder: John Wayne zum 100. Geburtstag". Verlag für moderne Kunst Nürnberg. Nuremberg 2007 ISBN 978-3-939738-15-2. Roberts, Randy, and James S. Olson. John Wayne: American. New York: Free Press, 1995 ISBN 978-0029238370. Campbell, James T. "Print the Legend: John Wayne and Postwar American Culture". Reviews in American History, Volume 28, Number 3, September 2000, pp. 465–477. Shepherd, Donald, and Robert Slatzer, with Dave Grayson. Duke: The Life and Times of John Wayne. New York: Doubleday, 1985 ISBN 0-385-17893-X. Carey, Harry Jr. A Company of Heroes: My Life as an Actor in the John Ford Stock Company. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 1994 ISBN 0-8108-2865-0. Clark, Donald & Christopher Anderson. John Wayne's The Alamo: The Making of the Epic Film. New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1995 ISBN 0-8065-1625-9. (pbk.) Eyman, Scott. Print the Legend: The Life and Times of John Ford. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999 ISBN 0-684-81161-8. McCarthy, Todd. Howard Hawks: The Grey Fox of Hollywood. New York: Grove Press, 1997 ISBN 0-8021-1598-5. Maurice Zolotow., Shooting Star: A Biography of John Wayne. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974 ISBN 0671829696. Jim Beaver, "John Wayne". Films in Review, Volume 28, Number 5, May 1977, pp. 265–284. McGivern, Carolyn. John Wayne: A Giant Shadow. Bracknell, England: Sammon, 2000 ISBN 0-9540031-0-1. Munn, Michael. John Wayne: The Man Behind the Myth. London: Robson Books, 2003 ISBN 0-451-21244-4. Davis, Ronald L. Duke: The Life and Times of John Wayne''. University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. ISBN 0806133295. Raab, Markus, Beautiful Hearts, Laughers at the World, Bowlers. Worldviews of the Late Western; in: Baur/Bitterli: Brave Lonesome Cowboy. Der Myhos des Westerns in der Gegenwartskunst oder: John Wayne zum 100. Geburtstag, Nuremberg 2007, ISBN 978-3-939738-15-2. References External links The Official John Wayne Website John Wayne Cancer Foundation Team Duke: A John Wayne Cancer Foundation Fundraising Program John Wayne Cancer Institute The Original John Wayne Message Board The Birthplace of John Wayne Official Website John Wayne walks into Stardom The Duke Wayne & Martin, The Sons of Katie Elder photo: "Too many cooks" (http://www.bartonmacleod.com My days with John Wayne be-x-old:Джон Ўэйн | John_Wayne |@lemmatized john:102 wayne:215 may:14 june:4 academy:3 award:7 golden:1 globe:1 win:12 american:36 film:45 actor:12 director:7 producer:4 epitomize:1 rugged:1 masculinity:1 become:11 enduring:1 icon:4 famous:5 distinctive:1 voice:1 walk:4 height:2 also:16 know:7 conservative:6 political:5 view:4 support:9 anti:7 communist:7 position:2 harris:3 poll:4 release:5 january:2 place:4 third:1 among:2 america:9 favorite:3 star:23 denzel:1 washington:4 movie:10 interactive:1 deceased:1 list:2 one:11 appear:10 every:2 year:15 since:2 first:9 begin:5 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6,699 | Tatmadaw | +Myanmar Armed ForcesMilitary manpowerTotal armed forces492,000 (Ranked 9th)Active troops492,000 (Ranked 9th)Total troops564,250 (Ranked 26th)Paramilitary72,000 (Ranked 26th)Conscription age18 years of ageAvailabilitymales age 15-49: 12,211,144 (2003 est.)Fit for military servicemales age 18-49: 6,502,013 (2005 est.)Military expendituresUSD figure7.07 billion US $ (FY2005 est.) Percent of GDP89% (2005 est.)Components Myanmar Army Myanmar Navy Myanmar Air Force Myanmar Police Force Myanmar Frontier ForcesHistory Military history of Myanmar Burma Independence Army Burma National ArmyRanks Army ranks and insignia of Myanmar Navy ranks and insignia of Myanmar Airforce ranks and insignia of Myanmar The military of Myanmar, officially known as Tatmadaw (; ) is the military organization of Myanmar, also known as Burma. The armed forces are administered by the Ministry of Defence and are composed of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. Auxiliary services include Myanmar Police Force, People Militia Units and Frontier Forces, locally known as Na Sa Kha. All service personnel are volunteers although the government is empowered to undertake conscription if considered necessary for Myanmar's defense. Tatmadaw has been engaged in a bitter battle with ethnic insurgents, political dissidents and narco-armies since the country gained its independence from Great Britain in 1948. Retaining much of the organizational structure established by the British, Myanmar Armed Forces continue to face challenges from aging weaponry and equipment and relying on foreign purchases of military equipment. However, the armed forces are an essential to Myanmar's strategic importance, power and capabilities in the region. Defense policy and doctrine Defence Policy of Myanmar Tatmadaw was formally declared in February, 1999. The declared policy outlined the doctrine of "total people's defence" for the Union of Myanmar. Threats to the national unity, territorial integrity and sovereign independence of the Union of Myanmar are the most important security objectives and considered as threats to the security of state. In the process of formulating Defence Policy and Military Doctrine from a strategic perspective, Tatmadaw has undergone three phases. History First phase (post-independence/civil war era) The first phase of the doctrine was developed in early 1950s to cope with external threats from more powerful enemies with a strategy of Strategic Denial under conventional warfare. The perception of threats to state security was more external than internal threats. The internal threat to state security was managed through the use of a mixture of force and political persuasion. Lieutenant Colonel Maung Maung drew up defence doctrine based on conventional warfare concepts, with large infantry divisions, armoured brigades, tanks and motorised war with mass mobilisation for the war effort being the important element of the doctrine. The objective was to contain the offensive of the invading forces at the border for at least three months, while waiting for the arrival of international forces, similar to the police action by international intervention forces under the directive of United Nations during the war on Korean peninsula. However, the conventional strategy under the concept of total war was undermined by the lack of appropriate command and control system, proper logistical support structure, sound economic bases and efficient civil defence organisations. At the beginning of 1950s, while Tatmadaw was able to reassert its control over most part of the country, Kuomintang (KMT) troops under General Li Mai, with support from United States, invaded Myanmar and used the country's frontier as a springboard for attack against People's Republic of China, which in turn became the external threat to state security and sovereignty of Myanmar. The first phase of the doctrine was tested for the first time in Operation "Naga Naing" in February 1953 against invading KMT forces. The doctrine did not take into account logistic and political support for KMT from United States and as a result it failed to deliver the objectives and ended in humiliating defeat for the Tatmadaw. The then Tatmadaw leadership argued that the excessive media coverage was partly to blame for the failure of Operation "Naga Naing". For example, Brigadier General Maung Maung pointed out that newspapers, such as the "Nation", carried reports detailing the training and troops positioning, even went as far to the name and social background of the commanders who are leading the operation thus losing the element of surprise. Colonel Saw Myint, who was second in command for the operation, also complained about the long lines of communications and the excessive pressure imposed upon the units for public relations activities in order to prove that the support of the people was behind the operation. DSHMRI Archives Second phase (KMT invasion/BSPP era) Despite failure, Tatmadaw continued to rely on this doctrine until the mid 1960s. The doctrine was under constant review and modifications throughout KMT invasion and gained success in anti-KMT operations in the mid and late 1950s. However, this strategy became increasingly irrelevant and unsuitable in the late 1950s as the insurgents and KMT changed their positional warfare strategy to hit-and-run guerrilla warfare. Aung San Thuriya Hla Thaung (Armanthit Sarpay, Yangon, 1999) In Defiance of the Storm (Myawaddy Press, Yangon, 1997 At the 1958 Tatmadaw's annual Commanding Officers (COs) conference, Colonel Kyi Win submitted a report outlining the requirement for new military doctrine and strategy. He stated that 'Tatmadaw did not have a clear strategy to cope with insurgents', even though most of Tatmadaw's commanders were guerrilla fighters during the anti-British and Japanese campaigns during the Second World War, they had very little knowledge of anti-guerrilla or counterinsurgency warfare. Based upon Colonel Kyi Win's report, Tatmadaw begin developing an appropriate military doctrine and strategy to meet the requirements of counterinsurgency warfare. This second phase of the doctrine was to suppress insurgency with people's war and the perception of threats to state security was more of internal threats. During this phase, external linkage of internal problems and direct external threats were minimised by the foreign policy based on isolation. It was common view of the commanders that unless insurgency was suppressed, foreign interference would be highly probable Strategic Cultures in Asia-Pacific Region (St. Martin's Press) , therefore counterinsurgency became the core of the new military doctrine and strategy. Beginning in 1961, the Directorate of Military Training took charge the research for national defence planning, military doctrine and strategy for both internal and external threats. This included reviews of international and domestic political situations, studies of the potential sources of conflicts, collection of information for strategic planning and defining the possible routes of foreign invasion.. In 1962, as part of new military doctrine planning, principles of anti-guerrilla warfare were outlined and counterinsurgency-training courses were delivered at the training schools. The new doctrine laid out three potential enemies and they are internal insurgents, historical enemies with roughly an equal strength (i.e. Thailand), and enemies with greater strength. It states that in suppressing insurgencies, Tatmadaw must be trained to conduct long-range penetration with a tactic of continuous search and destroy. Reconnaissance, Ambush and all weather day and night offensive and attack capabilities along with winning the hearts and minds of people are important parts of anti-guerrilla warfare. For countering an historical enemy with equal strength, Tatmadaw should fight a conventional warfare under total war strategy, without giving up an inch of its territory to the enemy. For powerful enemy and foreign invaders, Tatmadaw should engage in total people's war, with a special focus on guerrilla strategy. To prepare for the transition to the new doctrine, Brigadier General San Yu, the then Vice Chief of Staff (Army), sent a delegation led by Lieutenant Colonel Thura Tun Tin was sent to Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and East Germany in July 1964 to study organisation structure, armaments, training, territorial organisation and strategy of people's militias. A research team was also formed at General Staff Office within the War Office to study defence capabilities and militia formations of neighbouring countries. The new doctrine of total people's war, and the strategy of anti-guerrilla warfare for counterinsurgency and guerrilla warfare for foreign invasion, were designed to be appropriate for Myanmar. The doctrine flowed from the country's independent and active foreign policy, total people's defence policy, the nature of perceived threats, its geography and the regional environment, the size of its population in comparison with those of its neighbours, the relatively underdeveloped nature of its economy and its historical and political experiences. The doctrine was based upon 'three totalities': population, time and space (du-thone-du) and 'four strengths': manpower, material, time and morale (Panama-lay-yat). The doctrine did not develop concepts of strategic denial or counter-offensive capabilities. It relied almost totally on irregular low-intensity warfare, such as its guerrilla strategy to counter any form of foreign invasion. The overall counterinsurgency strategy included not only elimination of insurgents and their support bases with the 'four cut' strategy, but also the building and designation of 'white area' and 'black area' as well. In April 1968, Tatmadaw introduced special warfare training programmes at "Command Training Centres" at various regional commands. Anti-Guerrilla warfare tactics were taught at combat forces schools and other training establishments with special emphasis on ambush and counter-ambush, counterinsurgency weapons and tactics, individual battle initiative for tactical independence, commando tactics, and reconnaissance. Battalion size operations were also practised in the South West Regional Military Command area. The new military doctrine was formally endorsed and adopted at the first party congress of the BSPP in 1971. DSHMRI BSPP laid down directives for "complete annihilation of the insurgents as one of the tasks for national defence and state security" and called for "liquidation of insurgents through the strength of the working people as the immediate objective". This doctrine ensures the role of Tatmadaw at the heart of national policy making. Throughout BSPP era, the total people's war doctrine was solely applied in counterinsurgency operations, since Myanmar did not face any direct foreign invasion throughout the period. In 1985, the then Lieutenant General Saw Maung, Vice-Chief of Staff of Tatmadaw reminded his commanders during his speech at the Command and General Staff College: In Myanmar, out of nearly 35 million people, the combined armed forces (army, navy and air force) are about two hundred thousand. In terms of percentage, that is about 0.01 percent. It is simply impossible to defend a country the size of ours with only this handful of troops... therefore, what we have to do in the case of foreign invasion is to mobilise people in accordance with the "total people's war" doctrine. In order to defend our country from aggressors, the entire population must be involved in the war effort as the support of people dictate the outcome of the war. Third phase (SLORC/SPDC era) The third phase of doctrinal development of Myanmar Armed Forces came after the military take over and formation of State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) in September, 1988 as part of armed forces modernisation programme. The development was the reflection of sensitivity towards direct foreign invasion or invasion by proxy state during the turbulent years of the late 80s and early 90s, for example: unauthorised presence of US Aircraft Carrier Group in Myanmar's territorial waters during 1988 political uprising as evidence of an infringement of Myanmar's sovereignty. Also, Tatmadaw leadership was concerned that foreign powers might arm the insurgents on the Myanmar border to exploit the political situation and tensions in the country. This new threat perception, previously insignificant under the nation's isolationist foreign policy, led Tatmadaw leaders to review the defence capability and doctrine of the Tatmadaw. The third phase was to face the lower level external threats with a strategy of strategic denial under total people's defence concept. Current military leadership has successfully dealt with 17 major insurgent groups, whose 'return to legal fold' in the past decade has remarkably decreased the internal threats to state security, at least for the short and medium terms, even though threat perception of the possibility of external linkage to internal problems, perceived as being motivated by the continuing human rights violations, religious suppression and ethnic cleansing, remains high. Within the policy, the role of the Tatmadaw was defined as a `modern, strong and highly capable fighting force'. Since the day of independence, the Tatmadaw has been involved in restoring and maintaining internal security and suppressing insurgency. It was with this background that Tatmadaw's "multifaceted" defence policy was formulated and its military doctrine and strategy could be interpreted as defence-in-depth. It was influenced by a number of factors such as history, geography, culture, economy and sense of threats. Tatmadaw has developed an 'active defence' strategy based on guerrilla warfare with limited conventional military capabilities, designed to cope with low intensity conflicts from external and internal foes, which threatens the security of the state. This strategy, revealed in joint services exercises, is built on a system of total people's defence, where the armed forces provide the first line of defence and the training and leadership of the nation in the matter of national defence. It is designed to deter potential aggressors by the knowledge that defeat of Tatmadaw's regular forces in conventional warfare would be followed by persistent guerrilla warfare in the occupied areas by people militias and dispersed regular troops which would eventually wear down the invading forces, both physically and psychologically, and leave it vulnerable to a counter-offensive. If the conventional strategy of strategic denial fails, then the Tatmadaw and its auxiliary forces will follow Mao's strategic concepts of 'strategic defensive', 'strategic stalemate' and 'strategic offensive'. Over the past decade, through a series of modernisation programs, Tatmadaw has developed and invested in better Command, Control, Communication and Intelligence system; real-time intelligence; formidable air defence system; and early warning systems for its 'strategic denial' and 'total people's defence' doctrine. Organisational, command and control structure Before 1988 Andrew Selth: Transforming the Tatmadaw Overall command of Tatmadaw (armed forces) rested with the country's highest ranking military officer, a General, who acted concurrently as Defence Minister and Chief of Staff of Defence Services. He thus exercised supreme operational control over all three services, under the direction of the President, State Council and Council of Ministers. There was also a National Security Council which acted in advisory capacity. The Defence Minister cum Chief-of-Staff of Defence Services exercised day-to-day control of the armed forces and assisted by three Vice-Chiefs of Staff, one each for the army, navy and air force. These officers also acted as Deputy Ministers of Defence and commanders of their respective Services. They were all based at Ministry of Defence (Kakweyay Wungyi Htana) in Rangoon/Yangon. It served as a government ministry as well as joint military operations headquarters. The Joint Staff within the Ministry of Defence consisted of three major branches, one each for Army, Navy and Air Force, along with a number of independent departments. The Army Office had three major departments; the General (G) Staff to oversee operations, the Adjutant General's (A) Staff administration and the Quartermaster General's (Q) Staff to handle logistics. The General Staff consisted two Bureaus of Special Operations (BSO), which were created in April 1978 and June 1979 respectively. These BSO are similar to "Army Groups" in Western armies, high level staff units formed to manage different theatres of military operations. They were responsible for the overall direction and coordination of the Regional Military Commands (RMC) with BSO-1 covering Northern Command (NC), North Eastern Command (NEC), North Western Command (NWC), Western Command (WC) and Eastern Command (EC). BSO-2 responsible for South Eastern Command (SEC), South Western Command (SWC), Western Command (WC) and Central Command (CC) Maung Aung Myoe: Building the Tatmadaw, p.26 . The Army's elite mobile Light Infantry Divisions (LID) were managed separately under a Staff Colonel. Under G Staff, there were also a number of directorates which corresponded to the Army's functional corps, such as Intelligence, Signals, Training, Armour and Artillery. The A Staff was responsible for the Adjutant General, Directorate of Medical Services and the Provost Marshal's Office. The Q Staff included the Directorates of Supply and Transport, Ordnance Services, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, and Military Engineers. The Navy and Air Force Offices within the Ministry were headed by the Vice Chiefs of Staff for those Services. Each was supported by a staff officer at full Colonel level. All these officers were responsible for the overall management of the various naval and air bases around the country, and the broader administrative functions such as recruitment and training. Operational Command in the field was exercised through a framework of Regional Military Commands (RMC), the boundaries of which corresponded with the country's Seven States and Seven Divisions. See order of battle for further details The Regional Military Commanders, all senior army officers, usually of Brigadier General rank, were responsible for the conduct of military operations in their respective RMC areas. Depending on the size of RMC and its operational requirements, Regional Military Commanders have at their disposal 10 or more infantry battalions (Kha La Ya). 1988 to 2005 Tatmadaw Command Structure as of 2000 The Tatmadaw's organizational and command structure dramatically changed after the military coup in 1988. In 1990, the country's most senior army officer become a Senior General (equivalent to Field Marshal rank in Western armies) and held the positions of Chairman of State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), Prime Minister and Defence Minister, as well as being appointed Commander in Chief of the Defence Services. He thus exercised both political and operational control over the entire country and armed forces. From 1989, each Service has had its own Commander in Chief and Chief of Staff. The Army C-in-C is now elevated to full General (Bo gyoke Kyii) rank and also acted as Deputy C-in-C of the Defence Services. The C-in-C of the Air Force and Navy hold the equivalent of Lieutenant General rank, while all three Service Chiefs of Staff were raised to Major General level. Chiefs of BSO, the heads of Q and A Staffs and the Director of Defence Services Intelligence (DDSI) were also elevated to Lieutenant General rank. The reorganization of the armed forces after 1988 resulted in the upgrading by two ranks of most of the senior positions. The Office of Strategic Studies (OSS, or Sit Mahar Byu Har Lae Lar Yae Hta-na) was formed around 1994 and charged with formulating defence policies, and planning and doctrine of the Tatmadaw. The OSS was commanded by Lt. Gen. Khin Nyunt, who is also the Director Defence Service Intelligence (DDSI). Regional Military Commands and Light Infantry Divisions were also reorganized, and LIDs are now directly answerable to Commander in Chief of the Army. A number of new subordinate command headquarters were formed in response to the growth and reorganization of the Army. These include Regional Operation Commands (ROC, or Da Ka Sa), which are subordinate to RMCs, and Military Operations Commands (MOC, or Sa Ka Kha), which are equivalent to Western infantry divisions. The Chief of Staff (Army) retained control of the Directorates of Signals, Armour and Artillery, Defence Industries, Security Printing, People's Militias and Psychological Warfare, and Military Engineering. A Colonel General Staff position was also created in the G staff to manage a new Directorate of Public Relations and Border Troops, Directorate of Defence Services Computers (DDSC), the Defence Services Museum and Historical Research Institute. All RMC Commander positions were raised to the level of Major General and also serve as appointed Chairmen of the State- and Division-level Law and Order Restoration Committees. They were formally responsible for both military and civil administrative functions for their command areas. Also, three additional regional military commands were created. In early 1990, a new RMC was formed in Myanmar's north west, facing India. In 1996, the Eastern Command in Shan State was split into two RMCs, and South Eastern Command was divided to create a new RMC in country's far south coastal regions. see Order of Battle for further details In 1997, the SLORC was abolished and the military government created the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). The council includes all senior military officers and commanders of the RMCs. A new Ministry of Military Affairs was established and headed by a Lieutenant General. Current In 18 October 2004, the OSS and DDSI were abolished during the purge of General Khin Nyint and military intelligence units. OSS ordered 4 regiment to raid in DDSI HeadQuarter in Yangon.At the same time, all of the MIU in the whole country were raided and arrested by OSS corps.Nearly two thirds of MIU officers were arrested for long years. A new military intelligence unit called Military Affairs Security (MAS) was formed to take over the functions of the DDSI, but MAS units were much fewer than DDSI's and MAS was under control by local Division commander. In early 2006, a new RMC was created in the newly formed administrative capital, Naypyidaw. Organisational structure A.G = Adjutant General V.A.G = Vice Adjutant General DMS = Directorate of Medical Services DR = Directorate of Resettlement PMO = Provosts Marshal's Office MAS = Military Affair Security (Intelligence) DS = Directorate of Signal DDI = Directorate of Defence Industries DSP = Directorate of Security Printing DPMPW = Directorate of People Militias and Psychological Warfare DME = Directorate of Military Engineers DAA = Directorate of Armour and Artillery DSHMRI = Defence Services Historical Museum and Research Institute DPRBRT = Directorate of Public Relations and Border Troops DDSC = Directorate of Defence Services Computers BSO = Bureau of Special Operations RMC = Regional Military Command LID = Light Infantry Division ROC = Regional Operations Command MOC = Military Operations Command TOC = Tactical Operations Command Q.M.G = Quarter Master General V.Q.M.G = Vice Quarter Master General DEME = Directorate Electrical and Mechanical Engineers DST = Directorate of Supply and Transport DOS = Directorate of Ordinance Services Captain G.S = Captain General Staff Colonel G.S = Colonel General Staff J.A.G = Judge Advocate General I.G = Inspector General M.A.G = Military Appointment General DP = Directorate of Procurement CMA = Central Military Account Camp Comm = Camp Commandant Rank structure Myanmar army ranks and insignia Myanmar navy ranks and insignia Myanmar air force ranks and insignia Components Myanmar army (Tatmadaw Kyee) The Myanmar Army has always been by far the largest Service and has always received the lion's share of Myanmar's defence budget. Working Papers - Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, ANU Andrew Selth: Power Without Glory It has played the most prominent part in Myanmar's struggle against the 40 or more insurgent groups since 1948 and acquired a reputation as a tough and resourceful military force. In 1981, it was described as 'probably the best [army] in Southeast Asia, apart from Vietnam's' Far Eastern Economic Review, 20 May 1981 . The judgment was echoed in 1983, when another observer noted that "Myanmar's infantry is generally rated as one of the toughest, most combat seasoned in Southeast Asia" Far Eastern Economic Review, 7 July 1983 . Myanmar air force (Tatmadaw Lei) Personnel: 15,000 The Myanmar Air Force (Tatmdaw Lei) was formed on 24 December 1947. In 1948, the order of battle for Tatmadaw Lei included 40 Oxfords, 16 Tiger Moths, 4 Austers and 3 Spitfires with a few hundred personnel. Myanmar navy (Tatmadaw Yay) The Myanmar Navy is the naval branch of the armed forces of Myanmar with 19,000 men and women. The Myanmar Navy was formed in 1940 and, although very small, played an active part in Allied operations against the Japanese during the Second World War. The Myanmar Navy currently operates more than 122 vessels. Before 1988, the Myanmar Navy was small and its role in the many counterinsurgency operations was much less conspicuous than those of the army and air force. Yet the navy has always been, and remains, an important factor in Myanmar's security and it was dramatically expanded in recent years to a provide blue water capability and external threat defence role in Myanmar's territorial waters. Its personnel number 19,000 (including two naval infantry battalions) Myanmar police force (Myanmar Yae Tat Phwe) Myanmar Police Force, formally known as The People's Police Force (), was established in 1964 as independent department under the Ministry of Home Affairs. It was reorganised on 1 October 1995 and informally become part of Tatmadaw. Current Director General of Myanmar Police Force is Brigadier General Khin Yi with its headquarters at Yangon. Its command structure is based on established civil jurisdictions. Each of Myanmar's seven states and seven divisions has their own Police Forces with headquarters in the respective capital cities. http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/ministry/home/mpf/ Israel and Australia often provide specialists to enhance the training of Myanmar's police. Personnel: 72,000 (including 4,500 Combat/SWAT Police) Myanmar Frontier Forces (Na Sa Kha) The Frontier Forces (Na Sa Kha) are now found on all five of Myanmar's international borders. They consist primarily of Tatmadaw personnel (including intelligence officers) assisted by members of Myanmar Police Force, Immigration and Custom officials. Its total strength is unknown. Military intelligence Defence industries The Myanmar Defence Industries (DI) is the lifeline of Myanmar armed forces. Mainly the DI consists of 13 major factories throughout the country that produce approximately 70 major products for Army, Navy and Air Force. The main products include automatic rifles, machine guns, sub-machine guns, anti-aircraft guns, complete range of mortar and artillery ammunition, aircraft and anti aircraft ammunition, tank and anti-tank ammunition, bombs, grenades, anti-tank mines, anti-personnel mines such as the M14 http://www.karenhumanrightsgroup.org/photoreports/2008photos/gallery2008/section5.html http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HK04Ae01.html pyrotechnics, commercial explosives and commercial products, and rockets and so forth. DI have produced new assault rifles and light machine-guns for the infantry. The MA series of weapons were designed to replace the old German-designed but locally manufactured Heckler & Koch G3s and G4s that equipped Myanmar's army since the 1960s. DI is said to be the most modern defence industry manufacturer in the South East Asia region. They employ some of the latest state of the art technologies, including such equipment as CNC machines and flexible manufacturing systems for production of precision components. Chief of armed forces from 1945 to date Major General Aung San (Founder & Father of Tatmadaw) [1945 - July 19, 1947] Major General Let Yar Lt General Smith Dunn General Ne Win General San Yu General Thura Tin Oo(NLD) General Thura Kyaw Htin Sr General Saw Maung Sr General Than Shwe (1992 - to date) Factories The major factories of the DI are the following: Weapons Factory Bombs & Grenades Factory Tungsten Carbide Factory Machine Gun Factory Filling Factory Propellants Factory Heavy Artillery Ammo Factory Small Arms Ammo Factory Brass Mills Tungsten Alloy Factory Tank Ammo Factory Explosives Factory Medium Artillery Ammo Factory Heavy Industries Heavy Industries were established with Ukrainian assistance mainly to assemble the BTR-3U fleet of the Myanmar Army. Total of 1,000 BTR-3U wheeled APCs are to be assembled in Myanmar over the next 10 years from parts sent by Ukraine. The BTR-3U is fitted with a number of modern weapon systems including 30 mm gun, 7.62 mm coaxial machine gun, 30 mm automatic grenade launcher and anti-tank guided weapons. HI has also built APC/IFV such as MAV 1, MAV 2 and BAAC APCs. Little is known about MAV infantry fighting vehicles but it appeared that only 60% of the components are produced locally and some vital components such as fire control systems, turrets, engines and transmissions are imported from China NORINCO industries. Apart from BTR 3Us, MAVs and BAACs, HI is also producing a number of military trucks and jeeps for the Army, Navy and Air Force. Products Products of DI are as follow:- BTR3U (180 nos/yr) MAV-1 IFV (20 nos/yr) Heavy Truck (400 nos/yr) 4x4 6 tons truck (400 nos/yr) Humvee (prototypes)(first seen in the 61st Armed Forces Day Parade) 105 mm Howitzers (production started in 2006 with the help of Singaporean technicians) 120 mm mortar MA 6 (50 nos/yr) 14.5 mm AAA (50 nos/yr) 12.7 mm HMG (200 nos/yr) 0.5" HMG (150 nos/yr) MA series small arms (60000 nos/yr) RPG (1500 nos/yr) Grenade Launcher (7000 nos/yr) 81/60 mm mortars (1200 nos/yr) 155/130/122/105 mm ammunitions 120/81/60 mm mortar bombs small arms ammunitions (60 millions nos/yr) grenades/rockets 57/77/122 mm rockets and up to 500 kg dumb bombs for Air Force 25/37/40/57 mm ammunitions for navy References See also Myanmar Army Myanmar Navy Myanmar Air Force Myanmar Police Force Myanmar Frontier Forces Military Intelligence of Myanmar Aung San External links Burma Library Archives | Tatmadaw |@lemmatized myanmar:68 arm:10 forcesmilitary:1 manpowertotal:1 rank:18 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