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Flirting

"Would you take offense if I had the gall to plant a kiss on this beautiful shoulder?""You'll figure that out soon enough after the deed." Flirting is a common form of social interaction whereby one person obliquely indicates a romantic and/or sexual interest towards another. It can consist of conversation, body language, or brief physical contact. It may be one-sided or reciprocated (encouraged). Flirting may involve speaking and acting in a way that suggests greater intimacy than is generally considered appropriate to the relationship (or to the amount of time the two people have known each other), without actually saying or doing anything that breaches any serious social norms. This may be accomplished by communicating a sense of playfulness or irony. Double entendres, with one meaning more formally appropriate and another more suggestive, may be used. While some of the subconscious signs are universal across cultures, flirting etiquette varies significantly across cultures which can lead to misunderstandings. There are differences in how closely people should stand (proxemics), how long to hold eye contact, and so forth. "Spiegel Online: Scoring a German: Flirting with Fräuleins, Hunting for Herren"—Jun 05 2006 Purpose People flirt for a number of reasons. It is often used as a means of indicating interest and gauging the other person's interest in a relationship. Alternatively, it may simply be a prelude to casual sex. In other situations, it may be done simply for amusement, with no intention of developing any further relationship. This type of flirting sometimes faces disapproval from others, either because it can be misinterpreted as more serious, or it may be viewed as "cheating" if the person is already in a romantic relationship with someone else. Origin and history The origin of the word flirt is obscure. The Oxford English Dictionary (first edition) associates it with such onomatopoeic words as flit and flick, emphasizing a lack of seriousness; on the other hand, it has been attributed to the old French conter fleurette, which means "to (try to) seduce" by the dropping of flower petals, that is, "to speak sweet nothings". While old-fashioned, this expression is still used in French, often mockingly, but the English gallicism to flirt has made its way and has now become an anglicism. During World War II, anthropologist Margaret Mead was working in Britain for the British Ministry of Information and later for the U.S. Office of War Information, Mead's article, A Case History in Cross-National Communications, was originally published in delivering speeches and writing articles to help the American soldiers better understand the British civilians, e.g. and vice versa. e.g. She observed in the flirtations between the American soldiers and British women a pattern of misunderstandings regarding who is supposed to take which initiative. She wrote of the Americans, "The boy learns to make advances and rely upon the girl to repulse them whenever they are inappropriate to the state of feeling between the pair," as contrasted to the British, where "the girl is reared to depend upon a slight barrier of chilliness... which the boys learn to respect, and for the rest to rely upon the men to approach or advance, as warranted by the situation." This resulted, for example, in British women interpreting an American soldier's gregariousness as something more intimate or serious than he had intended. Communications theorist Paul Watzlawick used this situation, where "both American soldiers and British girls accused one another of being sexually brash", as an example of differences in "punctuation" in interpersonal communications. He wrote that courtship in both cultures used approximately 30 steps from "first eye contact to the ultimate consummation", but that the sequence of the steps was different. For example, kissing might be an early step in the American pattern but a relatively intimate act in the English pattern. Japanese courtesans had another form of flirting, emphasizing non-verbal relationships by hiding the lips and showing the eyes, as depicted in much Shunga art, the most popular print media at the time, until the late 1800s. Types Flirting may consist of stylized gestures, language, body language, postures, and physiologic signs which act as cues to another person. Among these, at least in Western society, are: Eye contact, batting eyelashes, staring, winking, etc. "Protean" signals, such as touching one's hair Giggling, or laughing encouragingly at any slight hint of intimacy in the other's behavior Casual touches; such as a woman gently touching a man's arm during conversation Smiling suggestively Sending notes, poems, or small gifts Flattery Online chat is a common modern tactic, as well as other one-on-one and direct messaging services Footsie, the "feet under the table" practice Teasing Staging of "chance" encounters Coyness, affectedly shy or modest, marked by cute, coquettish, or artful playfulness See also Anti-Flirt Club References External links SIRC Guide to Flirting Nonverbal Courtship Patterns In Women: Context and Consequences Psychology Today - Flirting Fascination –Reviews several studies on flirting

Flirting |@lemmatized would:1 take:2 offense:1 gall:1 plant:1 kiss:2 beautiful:1 shoulder:1 figure:1 soon:1 enough:1 deed:1 flirting:4 common:2 form:2 social:2 interaction:1 whereby:1 one:7 person:4 obliquely:1 indicate:2 romantic:2 sexual:1 interest:3 towards:1 another:5 consist:2 conversation:2 body:2 language:3 brief:1 physical:1 contact:4 may:8 side:1 reciprocate:1 encourage:1 flirt:10 involve:1 speaking:1 act:3 way:2 suggest:1 great:1 intimacy:2 generally:1 consider:1 appropriate:2 relationship:5 amount:1 time:2 two:1 people:3 know:1 without:1 actually:1 say:1 anything:1 breach:1 serious:3 norm:1 accomplish:1 communicate:1 sense:1 playfulness:2 irony:1 double:1 entendres:1 mean:3 formally:1 suggestive:1 use:5 subconscious:1 sign:2 universal:1 across:2 culture:3 etiquette:1 varies:1 significantly:1 lead:1 misunderstanding:2 difference:2 closely:1 stand:1 proxemics:1 long:1 hold:1 eye:4 forth:1 spiegel:1 online:2 score:1 german:1 fräuleins:1 hunt:1 herr:1 jun:1 purpose:1 number:1 reason:1 often:2 gauge:1 alternatively:1 simply:2 prelude:1 casual:2 sex:1 situation:3 amusement:1 intention:1 develop:1 type:2 sometimes:1 face:1 disapproval:1 others:1 either:1 misinterpret:1 view:1 cheat:1 already:1 someone:1 else:1 origin:2 history:2 word:2 obscure:1 oxford:1 english:3 dictionary:1 first:2 edition:1 associate:1 onomatopoeic:1 flit:1 flick:1 emphasize:2 lack:1 seriousness:1 hand:1 attribute:1 old:2 french:2 conter:1 fleurette:1 try:1 seduce:1 dropping:1 flower:1 petal:1 speak:1 sweet:1 nothing:1 fashion:1 expression:1 still:1 mockingly:1 gallicism:1 make:2 become:1 anglicism:1 world:1 war:2 ii:1 anthropologist:1 margaret:1 mead:2 work:1 britain:1 british:6 ministry:1 information:2 later:1 u:1 office:1 article:2 case:1 cross:1 national:1 communication:3 originally:1 publish:1 deliver:1 speech:1 write:3 help:1 american:6 soldier:4 well:2 understand:1 civilian:1 e:2 g:2 vice:1 versa:1 observe:1 flirtation:1 woman:4 pattern:4 regard:1 suppose:1 initiative:1 boy:2 learn:2 advance:2 rely:2 upon:3 girl:3 repulse:1 whenever:1 inappropriate:1 state:1 feel:1 pair:1 contrast:1 rear:1 depend:1 slight:2 barrier:1 chilliness:1 respect:1 rest:1 men:1 approach:1 warrant:1 result:1 example:3 interpret:1 gregariousness:1 something:1 intimate:2 intend:1 theorist:1 paul:1 watzlawick:1 accuse:1 sexually:1 brash:1 punctuation:1 interpersonal:1 courtship:2 approximately:1 step:3 ultimate:1 consummation:1 sequence:1 different:1 might:1 early:1 relatively:1 japanese:1 courtesan:1 non:1 verbal:1 hide:1 lip:1 show:1 depict:1 much:1 shunga:1 art:1 popular:1 print:1 medium:1 late:1 stylized:1 gesture:1 posture:1 physiologic:1 cue:1 among:1 least:1 western:1 society:1 bat:1 eyelash:1 star:1 wink:1 etc:1 protean:1 signal:1 touch:3 hair:1 giggling:1 laugh:1 encouragingly:1 hint:1 behavior:1 gently:1 man:1 arm:1 smile:1 suggestively:1 send:1 note:1 poem:1 small:1 gift:1 flattery:1 chat:1 modern:1 tactic:1 direct:1 messaging:1 service:1 footsie:1 foot:1 table:1 practice:1 tease:1 staging:1 chance:1 encounter:1 coyness:1 affectedly:1 shy:1 modest:1 mark:1 cute:1 coquettish:1 artful:1 see:1 also:1 anti:1 club:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 sirc:1 guide:1 nonverbal:1 context:1 consequence:1 psychology:1 today:1 fascination:1 review:1 several:1 study:1 |@bigram double_entendres:1 someone_else:1 margaret_mead:1 vice_versa:1 external_link:1

Apollo_10

Apollo 10 was the fourth manned mission in the Apollo program. The mission included the second crew to orbit the Moon and an all-up test of the lunar module (LM) in lunar orbit. The LM came to within 8.4 nautical miles (15.6 km) of the lunar surface during practice maneuvers. According to the 2001 Guinness World Records Apollo 10 set the record for the highest speed attained by a manned vehicle at 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph). The speed record was set during the return from the Moon on May 26, 1969. While not included in the official mission logo, due to the use of their names only as callsigns, the Peanuts characters Charlie Brown and Snoopy became semi-official mascots for the mission. http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/images/images/pao/AS10/10075138.jpg http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/images/images/pao/AS10/10075088.jpg Peanuts creator Charles Schulz also drew some special mission-related artwork for NASA. Crew Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each individual prior to and including this mission. Thomas P. Stafford (3) - Commander John W. Young (3) - Command Module Pilot Eugene A. Cernan (2) - Lunar Module Pilot Backup crew L. Gordon Cooper, Jr - Commander Donn F. Eisele - Command Module Pilot Edgar D. Mitchell - Lunar Module Pilot Support crew Charles M. Duke, Jr Joseph H. Engle James B. Irwin Jack R. Lousma Flight directors Glynn Lunney, Black team Gerry Griffin, Gold team Milton Windler, Maroon team Pete Frank, Orange team Crew notes By the normal rotation in place during Apollo, the backup crew would have been scheduled to fly on Apollo 13. However, Al Shepard was given the command slot instead. Cooper was enraged and resigned from NASA. Later, Shepard's crew was forced to switch places with Jim Lovell's tentative Apollo 14 crew. Chaikin, pp. 347-48 However, Deke Slayton recollected in his memoirs that Cooper and Eisele were never intended to rotate to another mission as both were out of favor with NASA management for various reasons (Cooper for his lax attitude towards training and Eisele for incidents aboard Apollo 7 and an extra-marital affair) and were assigned to the backup crew simply because of a lack of qualified manpower in the Astronaut Office at the time the assignment needed to be made. Cooper, Slayton noted, had a very small chance of receiving the Apollo 13 command if he did an outstanding job with the assignment, which he didn't. Eisele, despite his issues with management, was always intended for future assignment to the Apollo Applications Program (which was eventually cut down to only the Skylab component) and not a lunar mission. Donald K. Slayton, "Deke!" (New York: Forge, 1994), 236 Mission parameters Mass: CSM 28,834 kg; LM 13,941 kg Earth orbit Perigee: 184.5 km Apogee: 190 km Inclination: 32.5° Period: 88.1 min Lunar orbit Perilune: 111.1 km Apolune: 316.7 km Inclination: 1.2° Period: 2.15 hours LM - CSM docking Undocked: May 22, 1969 - 19:00:57 UTC Redocked: May 23, 1969 - 03:11:02 UTC LM closest approach to lunar surface May 22, 1969, 21:29:43 UTC On May 22, 1969 at 20:35:02 UTC, a 27.4 second LM descent propulsion system burn inserted the LM into a descent orbit of 112.8 km by 15.7 km so that the resulting lowest point in the orbit occurred about 15° from lunar landing site 2 (the Apollo 11 landing site). The lowest measured point in the trajectory was 15.6 km above the lunar surface at 21:29:43 UTC. Mission highlights This was the first manned space mission to contain an all-veteran crew. This dress rehearsal for a Moon landing brought Stafford and Cernan's lunar module Snoopy to 8.4 nautical miles (15.6 km) from the lunar surface. Except for that final stretch, the mission went exactly as a landing would have gone, both in space and on the ground, where Apollo's extensive tracking and control network was put through a dry run. Shortly after leaving low Earth orbit, the command/service module separated from the S-IVB stage, turned around, and docked its nose to the top of the lunar module still nestled in the S-IVB. The CSM/LM stack then separated from the S-IVB for the trip to the moon. Upon reaching lunar orbit, Young remained alone in command module Charlie Brown while Stafford and Cernan flew separately in the LM. The LM crew checked out their craft's radar and ascent engine, rode out a momentary gyration in the lunar lander's motion (due to a faulty switch setting), and surveyed the Apollo 11 landing site in the Sea of Tranquility. The lunar module on this flight was not equipped to land, however. Apollo 10 added another first by broadcasting live color TV from space. Hardware disposition The Apollo 10 LM ascent stage is in heliocentric orbit making it the sole intact lunar module ascent stage remaining out of the 10 true LMs sent into space. The Apollo 5, 9, 13 LM ascent stages burned up in Earth's atmosphere (as did the Lunar Test Article LTA-B flown as ballast aboard Apollo 8), the Apollo 11 and 16 LM ascent stages were left in lunar orbit and crashed onto the moon when their orbits decayed, and the Apollo 12, 14, 15 and 17 LM ascent stages were deliberately crashed onto the moon in order to obtain seismic readings from the seismometers placed on the lunar surface. The Apollo 10 LM descent stage is expected to have crashed onto the lunar surface, but the exact location is unknown. The Apollo 10 Command Module Charlie Brown is currently on loan to the Science Museum in London, where it is on display. Mission insignia The shield-shaped emblem for the flight shows a large, three-dimensional Roman numeral X sitting on the moon's surface, in Stafford's words, "to show that we had left our mark." Although it did not land on the moon, the prominence of the number represents the significant contributions the mission made to the Apollo program. A CSM circles the moon as an LM ascent stage flies up from its low pass over the lunar surface. The earth is visible in the background. A wide, light blue border carries the word APOLLO at the top and the crew names around the bottom. The patch is trimmed in gold. The insignia was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International. http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-052008a.html Images See also Splashdown (spacecraft landing) List of artificial objects on the Moon Notes References NASA NSSDC Master Catalog APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA) Apollo 10 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK Lattimer, Dick (1985). All We Did was Fly to the Moon. Whispering Eagle Press. ISBN 0-9611228-0-3. Chaikin, Andrew (2007). A Man on the Moon, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-311235-8. External links Apollo 10 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology Apollo Program Summary Report Mission Report: Apollo 10 Apollo 10 Moon Orbit Video More images from Apollo 10 Apollo/Saturn V Development Apollo 10 Launch ApolloTV.net Video

Apollo_10 |@lemmatized apollo:32 fourth:1 manned:2 mission:15 program:4 include:3 second:2 crew:12 orbit:12 moon:13 test:2 lunar:22 module:12 lm:17 come:1 within:1 nautical:2 mile:2 km:11 surface:8 practice:1 maneuver:1 accord:1 guinness:1 world:1 record:3 set:3 high:1 speed:2 attain:1 vehicle:1 h:2 mph:1 return:1 may:5 official:2 logo:1 due:2 use:1 name:1 callsigns:1 peanut:2 character:1 charlie:3 brown:3 snoopy:2 become:1 semi:1 mascot:1 http:3 science:3 ksc:2 nasa:8 gov:2 mirror:2 image:6 pao:2 jpg:2 creator:1 charles:2 schulz:1 also:2 draw:1 special:1 related:1 artwork:1 number:4 parenthesis:1 indicate:1 spaceflight:1 individual:1 prior:1 thomas:1 p:1 stafford:4 commander:2 john:1 w:2 young:2 command:7 pilot:4 eugene:1 cernan:3 backup:3 l:1 gordon:1 cooper:5 jr:2 donn:1 f:1 eisele:4 edgar:1 mitchell:1 support:1 duke:1 joseph:1 engle:1 james:1 b:2 irwin:1 jack:1 r:1 lousma:1 flight:3 director:1 glynn:1 lunney:1 black:1 team:4 gerry:1 griffin:1 gold:2 milton:1 windler:1 maroon:1 pete:1 frank:1 orange:1 note:3 normal:1 rotation:1 place:3 would:2 schedule:1 fly:5 however:3 al:1 shepard:2 give:1 slot:1 instead:1 enrage:1 resign:1 later:1 force:1 switch:2 jim:1 lovell:1 tentative:1 chaikin:2 pp:1 deke:2 slayton:3 recollect:1 memoir:1 never:1 intend:2 rotate:1 another:2 favor:1 management:2 various:1 reason:1 lax:1 attitude:1 towards:1 training:1 incident:1 aboard:2 extra:1 marital:1 affair:1 assign:1 simply:1 lack:1 qualified:1 manpower:1 astronaut:1 office:1 time:1 assignment:3 need:1 make:3 small:1 chance:1 receive:1 outstanding:1 job:1 despite:1 issue:1 always:1 future:1 application:1 eventually:1 cut:1 skylab:1 component:1 donald:1 k:1 new:1 york:1 forge:1 parameter:1 mass:1 csm:4 kg:2 earth:4 perigee:1 apogee:1 inclination:2 period:2 min:1 perilune:1 apolune:1 hour:1 dock:2 undocked:1 utc:5 redocked:1 close:1 approach:1 descent:3 propulsion:1 system:1 burn:2 insert:1 result:1 low:4 point:2 occur:1 land:5 site:3 landing:3 measured:1 trajectory:1 highlight:1 first:2 man:2 space:4 contain:1 veteran:1 dress:1 rehearsal:1 bring:1 except:1 final:1 stretch:1 go:2 exactly:1 ground:1 extensive:1 tracking:1 control:1 network:1 put:1 dry:1 run:1 shortly:1 leave:3 service:1 separate:2 ivb:3 stage:8 turn:1 around:2 nose:1 top:2 still:1 nestle:1 stack:1 trip:1 upon:1 reach:1 remain:2 alone:1 separately:1 check:1 craft:1 radar:1 ascent:7 engine:1 ride:1 momentary:1 gyration:1 lander:1 motion:1 faulty:1 survey:1 sea:1 tranquility:1 equip:1 add:1 broadcast:1 live:1 color:1 tv:1 hardware:1 disposition:1 heliocentric:1 sole:1 intact:1 true:1 send:1 atmosphere:1 article:1 lta:1 ballast:1 crash:3 onto:3 decay:1 deliberately:1 order:1 obtain:1 seismic:1 reading:1 seismometers:1 expect:1 exact:1 location:1 unknown:1 currently:1 loan:1 museum:1 london:1 display:1 insignia:2 shield:1 shape:1 emblem:1 show:2 large:1 three:1 dimensional:1 roman:1 numeral:1 x:1 sit:1 word:2 mark:1 although:1 prominence:1 represent:1 significant:1 contribution:1 circle:1 pas:1 visible:1 background:1 wide:1 light:1 blue:1 border:1 carry:1 names:1 bottom:1 patch:1 trim:1 design:1 allen:1 stevens:1 rockwell:1 international:1 www:1 collectspace:1 com:1 news:2 html:1 see:1 splashdown:1 spacecraft:2 list:1 artificial:1 object:1 reference:2 nssdc:1 master:1 catalog:1 statistical:1 richard:1 orloff:1 characteristic:1 sp:1 historical:1 data:1 book:2 lattimer:1 dick:1 whisper:1 eagle:1 press:1 isbn:2 andrew:1 penguin:1 external:1 link:1 entry:1 encyclopedia:1 astronautica:1 chronology:1 summary:1 report:2 video:2 saturn:1 v:1 development:1 launch:1 apollotv:1 net:1 |@bigram manned_mission:1 lunar_module:7 module_lm:1 nautical_mile:2 mile_km:2 ksc_nasa:2 nasa_gov:2 charles_schulz:1 module_pilot:4 eugene_cernan:1 backup_crew:3 glynn_lunney:1 gerry_griffin:1 windler_maroon:1 jim_lovell:1 deke_slayton:1 extra_marital:1 slayton_deke:1 orbit_perigee:1 perigee_km:1 lm_csm:1 dock_undocked:1 utc_lm:1 dress_rehearsal:1 ivb_stage:1 csm_lm:1 lunar_lander:1 lm_ascent:5 ascent_stage:6 http_www:1 nasa_nssdc:1 nssdc_master:1 w_orloff:1 orloff_nasa:1 lattimer_dick:1 whisper_eagle:1 chaikin_andrew:1 external_link:1 encyclopedia_astronautica:1 apollotv_net:1

Demographics_of_Lithuania

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Lithuania, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Prehistory The earliest evidence of inhabitants in present-day Lithuania dates back to 10,000 BC. Between 3,000–2,000 BC, the cord-ware culture people spread over a vast region of eastern Europe, between the Baltic Sea and the Vistula River in the West and the Moscow-Kursk line in the East. Merging with the indigenous population, they gave rise to the Balts, a distinct Indo-European ethnic group whose descendants are the present-day Lithuanian and Latvian nations and Prussians (who no longer existing). Historical demographics Grand Duchy of Lithuania See also: Demographics and Languages of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Demographics of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Map showing changes in the territory of Lithuania from the 13th century to the present day The name of Lithuania – Lithuanians – was first mentioned in 1009. Among its etymologies there are a derivation from the word Lietava, for a small river, a derivation from a word leičiai. The primary Lithuanian state, Duchy of Lithuania, emerged in the land of Lietuva, ethnic land of Lithuanians. At the birth of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ethnic Lithuanians made up about 70% of the population. Statistical numbers, probably accepted in historiography (the sources, their treatment, the procedure of counting is not discussed in this book) are given, according which in 1260 there were about 0.27 million Lithuanians of 0.4 million of a whole population; in percentage: 67,5 %. With the acquisition of new Ruthenian territories, this part decreased to 50% and later to 30%. By the time of the largest expansion towards Rus' lands, at the end of the 13th and during the 14th century, the territory of the GDL was about 800 thousand km2, and 10% of it was ethnically Lithuanian. Bjorn Wiemer, Dialect and language contacts on the territory of the Grand Duchy from the 15th century until 1939, Kurt Braunmüller, Gisella Ferraresi, Aspects of multilingualism in European language history, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2003, ISBN 9027219222, Google Print, p.109; 125 The ethnic Lithuanian population is estimated to have been 0.42 million of 1.4 million in 1375 (the territory was about 700 thousand km2), 0.55 million of 3.8 million in 1490 (territory: 850 thousand km2) Letukienė, N., Istorija. Politologija: kurso santrauka istorijos egzaminui, 2003, p. 182. There can be found also different numbers, for example: Kevin O'Connor, The history of the Baltic States, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0313323550, Google Print, p.17. Here author estimates that there were 9 millions of inhabitants in GDL, and 1 million of them were ethnic Lithuanians by 1387. In addition to the Ruthenians and Lithuanians other populous ethnic groups through GDL were Jews and Tatars. An estimate of the population in the territory of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania together gives a population at 7.5 million for 1493, breaking them down by ethnicity at 3.25 million Poles, 3.75 million Ruthenians and 0.5 million Lithuanians. Based on 1493 population map (p.92) from Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, Poland a Historical Atlas, Hippocrene Books, 1987, ISBN 0880293942 With the Union of Lublin Lithuanian Grand Duchy lost large part of lands to the Polish Crown (see demographics of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). An ethnic Lithuanian proportion being about 1/4 in GDL after the Union of Lublin was held till the partitions. There was much devastation and population loss throughout the GDL in the mid and late 17th century, Jarmo Kotilaine, Russia's foreign trade and economic expansion in the seventeenth century: windows on the world, BRILL, 2005, ISBN 900413896X, Google Print, p.45 including ethnic Lithuanian population in Vilnius surroundings. Besides devastation, Ruthenian population declined proportionally after the territorial losses to Russian Empire. In 1770 there were about 4.84 million inhabitants in GDL, the biggest part of whom where Ruthenians, about 1.39 million – Lithuanians. The voivodeships with the predominant ethnic Lithuanian population were Vilnius, Trakai and Samogitian voivodeships. In the southern angle of Trakai voivodeship, and south-eastern part of Vilnius voivodeship there were many Belarusians too, in some of the south-eastern areas they were the major linguistic group. The Ruthenian population made a majority in GDL from the times of its expansion in the mid 14th century and the adjective "Lithuanian", besides denoting ethnic Lithuanian, from early times denoted any inhabitant of GDL: a Slav, a Jew. The political center of the state was all three voivodeships with the predominant ethnic Lithuanian population: Vilnius, Trakai, Samogitian. In the southern angle of Trakai voivodeship, and south-eastern part of Vilnius voivodeship there were many Belarusians too, in some of the south-eastern areas they were major linguistic group. Ruthenian language, which type is today Belarusian and Ukrainian, then called Russian, was used as one of the chancellery languages by Lithuanian monarchs. There are less of documents written in this language remained than written in Latin and German from the time of Vytautas. Later it became the main language of documentation and writings. Changing a bit through time, it was used as a main chancellery language till the introducing of Polish as the chancellery language of the Lithuanian-Polish Commonwealth in 1697, but there are examples of documents written in it from the second half of the 18th century too. Lietuvos Didžiosios kunigaikštystės kanceliarinės slavų kalbos termino nusakymo problema Z. Zinkevičius Lithuanian language was used in a spoken form in Vilnius, Trakai and Samogitian voivodeships, by small numbers of persons also in other. For the royal family, it is stated that King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander I still could understand and speak Lithuanian, and last king of the Duchy, Zygmunt August, maintained both a Polish and Lithuanians speaking court. Daniel. Z Stone, A History of East Central Europe, p.4 Russian empire After partitions of Lithuania in the late 18th century it become a part of Russian empire. During this time, after the abolition of serfdom in 1861 Polish language experienced a noticeable rise in eastern Lithuania and western Belarus. Many Lithuanians, living more far to the east, not receiving Lithuanian printed books, smuggled into Lithuania by knygnešiai during the time of ban of press printed in Latin alphabet, switched to Polish, which also used Latin letters, but in reality was incomparably less vulnerable by the ban, because Polish was used by nobility, the politically important class, from the earlier times, used more than Lithuanian in the biggest towns of Lithuania, more supported by church. National revival With the Lithuanian National Revival, beginning to intensify by the end of the 19th century, the number of Lithuanian speakers and people identifying themselves as ethnic Lithuanians started to increase, but at the same time many Polish speaking Lithuanians, especially former szlachta, cut themselves adrift from Lithuanian nation. There were population losses due to several border changes, Soviet deportations, a massacre of Jewish population, German and Polish repatriations during and after World War II. After the World War II ethnic Lithuanian population remained stable: 79.3% in 1959 to 83.5% in 2002. Lithuania's citizenship law and the Constitution meet international and OSCE standards, guaranteeing universal human and civil rights. Ethnic composition Ethnic Lithuanians Lithuanians are neither Slavic nor Germanic, although the union with Poland, German and Russian colonization and settlement left cultural and religious influences. Ethnic minorities Number of Poles in Lithuania Among the Baltic states, Lithuania has the most homogeneous population. According to the census conducted in 2001, 83.45% of the population identified themselves as Lithuanians, 6.74% as Poles, 6.31% as Russians, 1.23% as Belarusians, and 2.27% as members of other ethnic groups. Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius Region, the area controlled by Poland in the interwar period. Especially large communities of Polish minority in Lithuania are in Vilnius district municipality (61.3% of the population) and Šalčininkai district municipality (79.5%). Such concentration would allow Election Action of Lithuania's Poles, an ethnic minority-based political party, to exert political influence but the 5% rule prevents it from entering parliament of Lithuania. The party is more active in local politics and controls several municipal councils but without success in securing the rights of Poles even to use of their proper family names. Russians, even though they are almost as numerous as Poles, are much more evenly scattered and lack a strong political party. The most prominent community lives in Visaginas (52%). Most of them are scientists who moved with their families from the Russian SFSR to work at the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant. Lithuania is noted for its success in limiting Russian immigration during the Soviet period (1945-1990), in comparison to Latvia and Estonia. A number of ethnic Russians (mostly military) left Lithuania after the declaration of independence in 1990. In the past, the ethnic composition of Lithuania has undergone dramatic changes. The most prominent change is the extermination of the Jewish population during the Holocaust. Before World War II about 7.5% of the population was Jewish; they were concentrated in cities and towns and had a significant influence on crafts and business. They were called Litvaks and had a strong culture. The population of Vilnius, sometimes nicknamed Northern Jerusalem, was about 30% Jewish. Almost all of these Jews were killed during the Nazi Germany occupation, or later emigrated to the United States and Israel. Now there are only about 4,000 Jews living in Lithuania. Citizenship The fact that Lithuania has joined the European Union has made Lithuanian citizenship all the more appealing. Lithuanian citizenship is theoretically easier (see court ruling notes below) to obtain than that of many other European countries - only one great-grandparent is necessary to become a Lithuanian citizen. Persons who held citizenship in the Republic of Lithuania prior to June 15, 1940, and their children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren (provided that these persons did not repatriate) are eligible for Lithuanian citizenship . Lithuanian citizens are, naturally, allowed to travel throughout the European Union without a visa. As far as work is concerned, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Finland, and Greece place no restrictions on Lithuanians working in their respective countries. The other original member nations of the European Union still place restrictions on work, but these are merely transitional agreements. Dual citizenship ruled unconstitutional The Lithuanian Constitutional Court has ruled in November 2006 that a number of provisions of the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on Citizenship are in conflict with the Lithuanian Constitution. In particular, the Constitutional Court has ruled that a number of current provisions of the Citizenship Law implicitly or explicitly allowing dual citizenship are in conflict with the Constitution; such provisions complemented to unconstitutional practice of making dual citizenship a common phenomenon rather than a rare exception. The provisions of the Citizenship Law announced unconstitutional are no longer valid and applicable to the extent stated by the Constitutional Court. The Lithuanian Parliament amended the Citizenship Law substantially as a result of the above-mentioned ruling of the Constitutional Court, allowing double Citizenship for children of at least one Lithuanian parent that are born abroad, yet preventing Lithuanians from keeping their Lithuanian citizenship after obtaining citizenship of another country. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Lithuania, Data of FAO, year 1992-2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 3.361 million (2008 est.) Age structure: 0–14 years: 15.5% (male 284,888; female 270,458) 15–64 years: 69.1% (male 1,210,557; female 1,265,542) 65 years and over: 15.5% (male 190,496; female 363,965) (2006 est.) Population growth rate: −0.30% (2006 est.) Birth rate: 8.75 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate: 10.98 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate: -0.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Map of population density in Lithuania Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.52 male(s)/female total population: 0.89 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate: 6.78 deaths/1,000 live births male: 8.12 deaths/1,000 live births female: 5.37 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 64.87 years male: 69.2 years female: 77.20 years (2007) Total fertility rate: 1.48 children born/woman (2008 est.) Religions: Roman Catholic (primarily), Eastern Orthodox, Protestant, Muslim, Judaism Most Lithuanians and ethnic Poles belong to the Roman Catholic Church; Eastern Orthodoxy is the largest non-Catholic denomination. Suicide rate: With 38.6 suicides per every 100,000 people Lithuania has the second highest suicide rate in the world as well as the highest male suicide rate (2005) Death rate in Lithuania graph as of 2005 Official report on death causes as of 2006 . Divorce rate: With 3.2 divorces per every 1000 people, Lithuania in 2004 had the highest divorce rate in Europe . Languages The Lithuanian language, which uses the modified Latin alphabet, is the country's official language. The Soviet era had imposed the official use of Russian, so most adult Lithuanians speak Russian as a second language, while the original Polish population generally speaks Polish and Russians who imgrated after the WW2 speak Russian as their first language. The younger generation usually speaks English as their second language. About 30,600 pupils started their 2003 school year in schools where the entire curriculum is conducted in Russian (down from 76,000 in 1991), and about 20,500 enrolled in Polish schools (up from 11,400 in 1991). There are also schools in the Belarusian language; these enrolled about 160 students in 2003. Literacy Lithuania is one of the most literate countries in the world. A portion of people 15-years-old and older who can read and write reached 99.8% in 2003 (est.) The proportion between males and females is the same. The primary, secondary, and high schools are free to all residents. Ten years of schooling is required. Tertiary education is almost free. Depending on grades, a student might receive a stipend or make a payment of 520 litas per semester. There are also small social stipends available for students with economic difficulties. In 2003 43,900 students were admitted to 21 universities in Lithuania (11,100 of the to master programs). About 70% of high school graduates continue to study in universities or professional schools. See also Lithuania Lithuanians in Brazil Ethnic history of the Vilnius region Russians in Lithuania Aging of Europe Notes External links statistics about education in Lithuania (PDF) Key results of Lithuanian census Suicide statistics as of 2005 (Lith.)

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André_de_Longjumeau

Andrew of Longjumeau (Original French name: André de Longjumeau) was a 13th century Dominican missionary and diplomat and one of the most active Occidental diplomats in the East in the 13th century. He led two embassies to the Mongols: the first carried letters from Pope Innocent IV and the second bore gifts and letters from Louis IX of France to Güyük Khan. Well acquainted with the Middle-East, he spoke Arabic and "Chaldean" (thought to be either Syriac or Persian). Roux, "Les explorateurs", p.96 Mission for the Holy Crown of Thorns Andrew went to Constantinople to obtain the Crown of Thorns bought by Louis IX to Baldwin II. It is preserved today in a 19th century reliquary, in Notre-Dame Cathedral, Paris. Andrew's first mission to the East was when he was asked by the French king Louis IX to go and fetch the Crown of Thorns which had been sold to him by the Latin king of Constantinople Baldwin II in 1238, who was anxious to obtain support for his tottering empire. Andrew was accompanied on this mission by brother Jacques. Papal Mission to the Mongols (1245-1247) Andrew of Longjumeau led one of four missions dispatched to the Mongols by Pope Innocent IV. He left Lyon in the spring of 1245 for the Levant Gregory G. Guzman, "Simon of Saint-Quentin and the Dominican Mission to the Mongol Baiju: A Reappraisal" Speculum, Vol. 46, No. 2. (April., 1971), p. 235. . He visited Muslim principalities in Syria and representatives of the Nestorian and Jacobite churches in Persia, finally delivering the papal correspondence to a Mongol general near Tabriz Igor de Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys to the Great Khans (Stanford University Press, 1971), p. 113. . In Tabriz, André de Longjumeau met with a monk from the Far East, named Simeon Rabban Ata, who had been put in charge by the Khan of protecting the Christians in the Middle-East. Richard, "Histoire des Croisades", p.376 Second Mission to the Mongols (1249-1251) At the Mongol camp near Kars Andrew had met a certain David, who in December 1248 appeared at the court of King Louis IX of France in Cyprus. Andrew, who was now with Saint Louis, interpreted David's message to the King, a real or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general Eljigidei, and a proposal of a joint attack upon the Islamic powers of Syria. In reply to this the French sovereign dispatched Andrew as his ambassador to Güyük Khan; with Longjumeau went his brother William (also a Dominican) and several others — John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert "Le Sommelier," Gerbert of Sens, Robert (a clerk), a certain William, and an unnamed clerk of Poissy. The party set out on 27 January 1249, with letters from King Louis and the papal legate, and rich presents, including a chapel-tent, lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures. From Cyprus they went to the port of Antioch in Syria, and thence traveled for a year to the Khan's court, going ten leagues (55.56 kilometers) per day. Their route led them through Persia, along the southern and eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, and certainly through Talas, north-east of Tashkent. On arrival at the supreme Mongol court — either that on the Imyl river (near Lake Alakol and the present Russo-Chinese frontier in the Altay), or more probably at or near Karakorum itself, south-west of Lake Baikal — Andrew found Güyük Khan dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by Batu Khan's agents. The regent-mother Oghul Qaimish (the "Camus" of William of Rubruck) seems to have received and dismissed him with presents and a letter for Louis IX, the latter a fine specimen of Mongol insolence. But it is certain that before the friar had quit "Tartary" Möngke, Güyük's successor, had been elected. Andrew's report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in 1251 at Caesarea in the Palestine, appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols' rise to greatness, and the struggles of their leader Genghis Khan with Prester John; it is still more evident in the position assigned to the Mongols' homeland, close to the prison of Gog and Magog. On the other hand, the envoy's account of Mongol customs is fairly accurate, and his statements about Mongol Christianity and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the 800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host), are based on fact. Mounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations which other historians record in detail. He found Christian prisoners from Germany in the heart of "Tartary" (at Talas), and was compelled to observe the ceremony of passing between two fires, as a bringer of gifts to a dead Khan, gifts which were of course treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This insulting behaviour, and the language of the letter with which Andrew reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, says Joinville, "se repenti fort" ("felt very sorry"). Death Andrew died some time after 1253, while he was active as a missionary in Palestine. The Franciscan missionary, William of Rubruck, in his work on Asian customs, declares that everything he had heard from Andrew on the subject was fully borne out by his own personal observations. We only know of Andrew through references in other writers: see especially William of Rubruck's in Recueil de voyages, iv. (Paris, 1839), pp. 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. Francisque Michel (1858, etc.), pp. 142, etc.; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, in same vol., pp. 254–235; William of Nangis in Recueil des historiens des Gaules, xx. 359–367; Rémusat, Mémoires sur les relations politiques des princes chrétiens… avec les… Mongols (1822, etc.), p. 52. See also Giovanni da Pian del Carpine Lawrence of Portugal Ascelin of Lombardia Simon of St Quentin Exploration of Asia Franco-Mongol alliance Notes References Roux, Jean-Paul, Les explorateurs au Moyen-Age, Fayard 1985, ISBN 2012793398 Richard, Jean, Histoire des Croisades, Fayard, ISBN 2213597871

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Mediation

Mediation, a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) or "appropriate dispute resolution", aims to assist two (or more) disputants in reaching an agreement. The parties themselves determine the conditions of any settlements reached— rather than accepting something imposed by a third party. The disputes may involve (as parties) states, organizations, communities, individuals or other representatives with a vested interest in the outcome. Mediation, in a broad sense, consists of a cognitive process of reconciling mutually interdependent, opposed terms as what one could loosely call "an interpretation" or "an understanding of". The German philosopher Hegel uses the term 'dialectical unity' to designate such thought-processes. This article discusses the legal communications usage of the term. Other Wikipedia articles, such as Critical Theory, treat other usages or "senses" of the term "mediation," as for example cultural and biological. Mediators use appropriate techniques and/or skills to open and/or improve dialogue between disputants, aiming to help the parties reach an agreement (with concrete effects) on the disputed matter. Normally, all parties must view the mediator as impartial. Disputants may use mediation in a variety of disputes, such as commercial, legal, diplomatic, workplace, community and family matters. A third-party representative may contract and mediate between (say) unions and corporations. When a workers’ union goes on strike, a dispute takes place, and the corporation hires a third party to intervene in attempt to settle a contract or agreement between the union and the corporation. History of mediation The activity of mediation in itself appeared in very ancient times. Historians presume early cases in Phoenician commerce (but suppose its use in Babylon, too). The practice developed in Ancient Greece (which knew the non-marital mediator as a proxenetas), then in Roman civilization, (Roman law (starting from Justinian's Digest of 530 - 533 CE) recognized mediation. The Romans called mediators by a variety of names, including internuncius, medium, intercessor, philantropus, interpolator, conciliator, interlocutor, interpres, and finally mediator. The Middle Ages regarded mediation differently, sometimes forbidding the practice or restricting its use to centralized authorities. Some cultures regarded the mediator as a sacred figure, worthy of particular respect; and the role partly overlapped with that of traditional wise men or tribal chief. Mediation and conciliation "Conciliation" sometimes serves as an umbrella-term that covers all mediation and facilitative and advisory dispute-resolution processes. Simkin, W. E., (1971); Mediation and the Dynamics of Collective Bargaining; Bureau of National Affairs Books, Washington DC, ISBN 0871791277 Neither process determines an outcome, and both share many similarities. For example, both processes involve a neutral third-party who has no enforcing powers. One significant difference between conciliation and mediation lies in the fact that conciliators possess expert knowledge of the domain in which they conciliate. The conciliator can make suggestions for settlement terms and can give advice on the subject-matter. Conciliators may also use their role to actively encourage the parties to come to a resolution. In certain types of dispute the conciliator has a duty to provide legal information. This helps any agreement reached to comply with any relevant statutory framework pertaining to the dispute. Therefore conciliation may include an advisory aspect. Mediation works purely facilitatively: the practitioner has no advisory role. Instead, a mediator seeks to help parties to develop a shared understanding of the conflict and to work toward building a practical and lasting resolution. The Institute of Arbitrators and Mediators, Australia, retrieved 2007-11-24 Several different styles of mediation exist: evaluative, facilitative, and transformative. Evaluative mediation has somewhat of an advisory role in that its practitioners evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each side's argument should they go to court; whereas facilitative mediators and transformative mediators do not do this. Furthermore, the definitions of mediation used by the different styles of mediation differ in that evaluative mediation has the main drive and goal of settlement, while transformative mediation, in contrast, looks at conflict as a crisis in communication and seeks to help resolve the conflict, thereby allowing people to feel empowered in themselves and better about each other. The agreement that arises from this type of mediation occurs as a natural outcome of the resolution of conflict. Both mediation and conciliation serve to identify the disputed issues and to generate options that help disputants reach a mutually-satisfactory resolution. They both offer relatively flexible processes; and any settlement reached should have the agreement of all parties. This contrasts with litigation, which normally settles the dispute in favour of the party with the strongest legal argument. In-between the two operates collaborative law, which uses a facilitative process where each party has counsel. Why choose mediation Several reasons exist for choosing mediation over other channels of dispute resolution (such as those involving attorneys and courts). Parties to a dispute may choose mediation as (often) a less expensive route to follow for dispute resolution. While a mediator may charge a fee comparable to that of an attorney, the mediation process generally takes much less time than moving a case through standard legal channels. While a case in the hands of a lawyer or filed in court may take months or even years to resolve, a case in mediation usually achieves a resolution in a matter of hours. Taking less time means expending less money on hourly fees and costs. Mediation offers a confidential process. While court hearings of cases happen in public, whatever happens in mediation remains strictly confidential. No one but the parties to the dispute and the mediator(s) know what has gone on in the mediation forum. In fact, confidentiality in mediation has such importance that in most cases the legal system cannot force a mediator to testify in court as to the content or progress of a mediation. Many mediators actually destroy their notes taken during a mediation once that mediation has finished. The only exceptions to such strict confidentiality usually involve child abuse or actual or threatened criminal acts. Mediation offers multiple and flexible possibilities for resolving a dispute and for the control the parties have over the resolution. In a case filed in court, the parties will obtain a resolution, but a resolution thrust upon the parties by the judge or jury. The result probably will leave neither party to the dispute totally happy. In mediation, on the other hand, the parties have control over the resolution, and the resolution can be unique to the dispute. Often, solutions developed by the parties are ones that a judge or jury could not provide. Thus, mediation is more likely to produce a result that is mutually agreeable, or win/win, for the parties. And because the result is attained by the parties working together and is mutually agreeable, the compliance with the mediated agreement is usually high. This also results in less costs, because the parties do not have to seek out the aid of an attorney to force compliance with the agreement. The mediated agreement is, however, fully enforceable in a court of law. The mediation process consist of a mutual endeavor. Unlike in negotiations (where parties are often entrenched in their positions), parties to a mediation usually seek out mediation because they are ready to work toward a resolution to their dispute. The mere fact that parties are willing to mediate in most circumstances means that they are ready to "move" their position. Since both parties are willing to work toward resolving the case, they are more likely to work with one another than against one another. The parties thus are amenable to understanding the other party's side and work on underlying issues to the dispute. This has the added benefit of often preserving the relationship the parties had before the dispute. Finally, but certainly not least, and as mentioned earlier in this article, the mediation takes place with the aid of a mediator who is a neutral third party. A good mediator is trained in conflict resolution and in working with difficult situations. The good mediator is likely to work as much with the emotional aspects and relationship aspects of a case as he or she is to work on the "topical" issues of the matter. The mediator, as a neutral, gives no legal advice, but guides the parties through the problem solving process. The mediator may or may not suggest alternative solutions to the dispute. Whether he or she offers advice or not, the trained mediator helps the parties think "outside of the box" for possible solutions to the dispute, thus enabling the parties to find the avenue to dispute resolution that suits them best. See, www.synergymedmw.com for more information on the mediation process. Mediation in the franchising sector Franchise-agreements represent ongoing commercial agreements between the contracting parties. The agreements usually have elements of an imbalance of bargaining power and of an imbalance of business experience between the franchisee and franchisor; and the parties also face many external commercial pressures. The franchising code of conduct functions as a mandatory code under the TPA. All franchise agreements must have a clause that requires dispute resolution. Mediation in this field works because it can identify alternatives for the parties and then the parties can work together to solve the dispute. This type of mediation has formal procedures: for example: whoever wishes to initiate the mediation must advise the respondent in writing, outlining the nature of the dispute ,and they will then have three weeks to agree to a method of resolving the dispute otherwise they may go to mediation. Boulle, L. (2005). Mediation: Principles Processes Practices. LexisNexis Butterworths. p 348 For further information on mediation in the franchise community, and links to further resources, see www.FranchiseMediation.org. Early neutral evaluation and mediation The technique of early neutral evaluation (ENE) provides early focus in complex commercial disputes, and — based on that focus — offers a basis for sensible case-management or a suggested resolution of the entire case in its very early stages. In early neutral evaluation, an evaluator acts as a neutral person to assess the strengths and weaknesses of each of the parties and to discuss the same with parties jointly or in caucuses, so that parties gain awareness (via independent evaluation) of the merits of their case. In the case of mediation, solutions normally emerge from the parties themselves and mediators endeavour to find the most acceptable solution by bridging gaps between the parties. Parties generally call on a senior counsel or on a panel with expertise and experience in the subject-matter under dispute in order to conduct ENE. One refers to such persons as "evaluators" or as "neutral persons". Mediator education and training Suitable education and training for mediators becomes a complex issue — largely due to the breadth of areas which may call on mediation as a means of dispute-resolution. Debate ensues on what constitutes adequate training on the principles of mediation as well as what personal attributes an individual needs in order to effectively carry out a mediator's role. The educational requirements for accreditation as a mediator differ between accrediting groups and from country to country. In some cases legislation mandates these requirements; while in others professional bodies impose standards and applicants must comply prior to becoming accredited by them. Many US universities offer graduate studies in mediation, culminating in the PhD or DMed degrees. In Australia, for example, professionals wanting to practise in the area of family law must have tertiary qualifications in law or in social science, undertake 5 days training in mediation and engage in at least 10 hours of supervised mediation. Furthermore, they must also undertake 12 hours of mediation-education or training every 12 months. Other institutions offer units in mediation across a number of disciplines such as law, social science, business and the humanities. In Australia not all fields of mediation-work require academic qualifications, as some deal more with practical skills rather than with theoretical knowledge: to this end membership-organizations provide training-courses to further the adoption and practice of mediation. Internationally a similar approach to the training of mediators is taken by the organization CEDR, which trains 300 mediators a year in China, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Nigeria, Pakistan, United Kingdom, Ukraine and elsewhere. No legislated national or international standards on the level of education which should apply to all mediation practitioner’s organizations exist. However, organizations such as the National Alternative Dispute Resolution Advisory Council (NADRAC) in Australia continue to advocate for a wide scope on such issues. Other systems apply in other jurisdictions such as Germany, which advocates a higher level of educational qualification for practitioners of mediation. Mediator codes of conduct The application of a code of conduct to the practice of mediation becomes problematic — due in part to the diverse number and type of practitioners in the field. A tendency exists for professional societies to develop their own codes of conduct, which apply to their own members. Examples of this in Australia include the mediation codes of conduct developed by the Law Societies of South Australia and Western Australia and those developed by organisations such as Institute of Arbitrators & Mediators Australia (IAMA) and LEADR for use by their members. Other organizations such as the American Center for Conflict Resolution Institute ([www.accri.org]) have developed both classroom and distance learning courses which subscribe to its mission of promoting peace through education. The CPR/Georgetown Ethics Commission (www.cpradr.org), the Mediation Forum of the Union International des Avocats, and the European Commission have also promulgated codes of conduct for mediators. Writers in the field of mediation normally espouse a code of conduct that mirrors the underlying principles of the mediation process. In this respect some of the most common aspects of a mediator codes of conduct include: a commitment to inform participants as to the process of mediation. the need to adopt a neutral stance towards all parties to the mediation, revealing any potential conflicts of interest. the requirement for a mediator to conduct the mediation in an impartial manner within the bounds of the legal framework under which the mediation is undertaken any information gained by the mediators should be treated as confidential. mediators should be mindful of the psychological and physical wellbeing of all the mediations participants. mediators should not offer legal advice, rather they should direct participants to appropriate sources for the provision of any advice they might need. mediators should seek to maintain their skills by engaging in ongoing training in the mediation process. mediators should practise only in those fields in which they have expertise gained by their own experience or training. Accreditation of ADR in Australia Australia has no national accreditation system for ADR. However, following the National Mediation Conference in May 2006, the National Mediation Accreditation Standards system has apparently started to move to its implementation phase. National Accreditation Standards for Mediation ADR practitioners recognize that mediators (as distinct from arbitrators or conciliators) need to be recognized as having professional accreditations the most. There are a range of organizations within Australia that do have extensive and comprehensive accreditations for mediators but people that use mediation are unsure as to what level of accreditation is required for the quality of service that they receive. Standards will tend to vary according to the specific mediation and the level of specificity that is desired. Due to the wide range of ADR processes that are conducted it would be very difficult to have a set of standards that could apply to all ADR processes, but standards should be developed for particular ADR processes Clients need the assurance that mediators have some form of ongoing assessment and training throughout their careers. Mediators must satisfy different criteria to be eligible for a variety of mediator panels. Also different mediator organizations have different ideals of what makes a good mediator which in turn reflects the training and accreditation of that particular organization. Selection processes for ADR practitioners are based on the needs of the service, but a problem is posed when organizations, such as the court want to refer a client to mediation and they usually have to rely on their in-house mediators or rely on word of mouth. There are inconsistent standards. A national accreditation system could very well enhance the quality and ethics of mediation and lead mediation to become more accountable. There is a need for a unified accreditation system for mediators across Australia to establish clarity and consistency. Reference links http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/WWW/disputeresolutionHome.nsf/Page/Publications_All_Publications_Framework_for_ADR_Standards http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/WWW/disputeresolutionHome.nsf/Page/Publications_All_Publications_Development_of_Standards Boulle, L. (2005). Mediation: Principles Processes Practices. LexisNexis Butterworths. p 348. Uses of mediation One core problem in the dispute-resolution process involves the determination of what the parties actually dispute. Through the process of mediation participants can agree to the scope of the dispute or issues requiring resolution. Examples of this use of mediation in the Australian jurisdiction include narrowing the scope of legal pleadings and its use in industrial and environmental disputes. Definition of the nature of a dispute can often clarify the process of determining what method will best suit its resolution. One of the primary uses of mediation involves parties using the mediation process to define the issues, develop options and achieve a mutually-agreed resolution. Australia has incorporated mediation extensively into the dispute-settlement process of family law and into the latest round of reforms concerning industrial relations under the WorkChoices amendments to the Workplace Relations Act. Where prospects exist of an ongoing disputation between parties brought on by irreconcilable differences (stemming from such things as a clash of religious or cultural beliefs), mediation can serve as a mechanism to foster communication and interaction. Mediation can function not only as a tool for dispute resolution but also as a means of dispute prevention. Mediation can be used to facilitate the process of contract negotiation by the identification of mutual interests and the promotion of effective communication between the two parties. Examples of this use of mediation can be seen in recent enterprise bargaining negotiations within Australia. Governments can also use mediation to inform and to seek input from stakeholders in formulation or fact-seeking aspects of policy-making. Mediation in wider aspect can also serve to prevent conflict or to develop mechanisms to address conflicts as they arise. Native-title mediation in Australia In response to the Mabo decision by the High Court of Australia, the Australian Government sought to alleviate the concerns of a wide section of the population and industry on the decisions implications on land tenure and use by enacting the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth). A cornerstone of the act is the use of mediation as a mechanism to determine future native title rights within Australia. Although not barring litigation, the Act seeks to promote mediation through a process incorporating the Federal Court and the National Native Title Tribunal (NNTT). This is seen as having a better long tern success by providing flexible and practical solutions to the needs of the various stakeholders. The extensive use of mediation in the resolution of native title matters does not stop the referral of matters to the courts for resolution, nor is mediation precluded from occurring whilst legal challenges are being pursued. A recent case where Native Title rights were found exist over a large portion of the City of Perth has seen the simultaneous use of mediation and formal legal appeals processes. A key feature of Native Title mediation involves the use of Indigenous Land Use Agreements (ILUAs). These binding agreements are negotiated between native title claimant groups and others such as pastoralists, miners and local governments and cover aspects of the use of the land and any future act such as the granting of mining leases. Some of the features of native title mediation which distinguish it from other forms include the likelihood of lengthy negotiation time frames, the number of parties (ranging on occasion into the hundreds) and that statutory and case law prescriptions constrain some aspects of the negotiations. Philosophy of mediation The uses of mediation in preventing conflicts Mediation is a very usual tool, adaptable to anticipate problems, grievances and difficulties between parties before the conflict may arise. This has potential applications in large and private sector organisations, particularly where they are subject to excessive change, competition and economic pressure. A key way mediation is used to prevent these conflicts is complaint handling and management. This is a conflict prevention mechanism designed to handle a complaint effectively at first contact and to minimise the possibility of it developing into a dispute. According to Charlton (2000, p.4) a person who undertakes this role is commonly known as a “dispute preventer”. While the corporate sector may provide one area in which to use the mediation process for preventing conflicts, dealing with everyday life’s disputes provides another. This is no more evident in neighbourhood conflict. One's behaviour affects one's neighbours, just as what they do affects you. The key way to prevent conflicts with neighbours is to behave as a good neighbour oneself. Spencer and Altobelli (2005, p. 17) believe simple consideration and conversation with neighbours helps achieve a peaceful coexistence. Making it is easier for you to live as privately or as sociably as you wish. Ideal suggestions for consideration in preventing conflicts between neighbours include: meeting one's neighbours keeping one's neighbours informed awareness of differences appreciation consideration of one's neighbours' points of view showing candidness communicating demonstrating respect One can also employ mediation to reduce or prevent violence in sports and in schools, using peers as mediators is a process known as “peer mediation”. This process (highlighted by Charlton Charlton, 2000, p.5) provides a popular way of handling conflicts and of preventing violence in primary schools, high schools and sporting activities. Schools adopting this process often recruit and train students interested in being peer mediators. In general, effective communication provides the ideal way to prevent and resolve any conflict; talking things over — along with listening — handles problems optimally and should ultimately avoid the dispute going to the courts. Responsibilities regarding confidentiality in mediation One of the hallmarks of mediation is that the process is strictly confidential. The mediator must inform the parties that communications between them during the intake discussions and the mediation process are to be private and confidential. In general, the information discussed can never be used as evidence in the event that the matter does not settle at mediation and proceeds to a court hearing. Spencer and Altobelli (2005, p. 261) point out it is considered common for parties entering into mediation to sign a mediation agreement document with the mediator. The parties therefore agree that it’s a condition of being present or participating in the mediation and the document if necessary may be deemed confidential by virtue of the common law. Confidentiality lies at the heart of mediation. It is imperative for parties to trust the process. Very few mediations will ever succeed unless the parties can communicate fully and openly without fear of compromising their case before the courts. Charlton and Dewdney (2004, p. 344.) highlight mediation confidentiality is seen as one of the key ingredients to encourage disputing parties to negotiate with each other in order to achieve a settlement of their dispute. Organisations have often seen confidentiality as a reason to use mediation ahead of litigation, particularly when disputes arise in sensitive areas of their operation, or to avoid their affairs becoming publicised among business competitors, acquaintances or friends. Steps put in place during mediation to help ensure this privacy include; The mediation meeting is conducted behind closed doors. Outsiders can only observe proceedings with both parties consent. No recording of the transcript is kept; and There is no external publicity on what transpired at the mediation. There is no doubt confidentiality contributes to the success and integrity of the mediation process. However it will be difficult for a mediator to guarantee full confidentiality protection between the parties. Legal implications of mediated agreements Parties who enter into mediation do not forfeit any legal rights or remedies. If the mediation process does not result in settlement, each side can continue to enforce their rights through appropriate court or tribunal procedures. However, if a settlement has been reached through mediation, legal rights and obligations are affected in differing degrees. In some situations, the parties may only wish to have a memorandum or a moral force agreement put in place; these are often found in community mediations. In other instances, a more comprehensive deed of agreement is drafted and this deed serves to bring a legally binding situation. Charlton and Dewdney (2004, p. 126.) point out that a mediated agreement may be registered with the court to make it legally binding and it is advisable to have a lawyer prepare the form or, at the very least, to obtain independent legal advice about the proposed terms of the agreement. Mediation has opened the door for parties in conflict to resolve their differences through non-traditional judicial forums. Over the few decades, mediation has brought to light the processes, or alternatives to litigation, that enable parties to resolve their differences without the high cost associated with litigation. An interesting remark made by Spencer and Altobelli (2005, p. 223): "Court systems are eager to introduce mandatory mediation as a means to meet their needs to reduce case loads and adversarial litigation, and participants who understand the empowerment of mediation to self-determine their own agreements are equally as eager to embrace mediation as an alternative to costly and potentially harmful litigation." Recently, mediation has come under the spotlight and the watchful eye of many state legal systems for its ability to resolve party disputes, reduce court case loads, and reduce overall legal costs. Yet while parties enter into mediation intending to preserve their legal rights and remedies, mediation may result in these rights being directly or indirectly affected. Parties that have resolved their conflict through this voluntary process and settled on an agreement should seek legal advice if they are unsure of the consequences. Transmediation involves the process of "responding to cultural texts in a range of sign systems — art, movement, sculpture, dance, music, and so on — as well as in words." Common aspects of mediation Mediation as a process involves a third party (often an impartial third party) assisting two or more persons, ("parties" or "stakeholders") to find mutually-agreeable solutions to difficult problems. People make use of mediation at many different levels and in multiple contexts: from minor disputes to global peace-talks. This makes it difficult to provide a general description without referring to practices in specific jurisdictions — where "mediation" may in fact have a formal definition and in some venues may require specific licenses. This article attempts only a broad introduction, referring to more specific processes (such as peace process, binding arbitration, or mindful mediation) directly in the text. While some people loosely use the term "mediation" to mean any instance in which a third party helps people find agreement, professional mediators generally believe it essential that mediators have thorough training, competency, and continuing education. The term "mediation" also sometimes occurs incorrectly referring to arbitration; a mediator does not impose a solution on the parties, whereas an arbitrator does. While mediation implies bringing disputing parties face-to-face with each other, the strategy of "shuttle diplomacy", where the mediator serves as a liaison between disputing parties, also sometimes occurs as an alternative. Some of the types of disputes or decision-making that often go to mediation include the following: Family: Prenuptial/Premarital agreements Financial or budget disagreements Separation Divorce Financial distribution and spousal support (alimony) Parenting plans (child custody and visitation) Eldercare issues Family businesses Adult sibling conflicts Disputes between parents and adult children Estate disputes Medical ethics and end-of-life issues Workplace: Wrongful termination Discrimination Harassment Grievances Labor management Public disputes: Environmental Land-use Disputes involving the following issues: Landlord/tenant Homeowners' associations Builders/contractors/realtors/homeowners Contracts of any kind Medical malpractice Personal injury Partnerships Non-profit organizations Faith communities Other: Youth (school conflicts; peer mediation); Violence-prevention Victim-Offender mediation Mediation commonly includes the following aspects or stages: a controversy, dispute or difference of positions between people, or a need for decision-making or problem-solving decision-making remaining with the parties rather than imposed by a third party the willingness of the parties to negotiate a "positive" solution to their problem, and to accept a discussion about respective interests and objectives the intent to achieve a "positive" result through the facilitative help of an independent, neutral third person In the United States, mediator codes-of-conduct emphasize "client-directed" solutions rather than those imposed by a mediator in any way. This has become a common, definitive feature of mediation in the US and in the UK. Mediation differs from most other adversarial resolution processes by virtue of its simplicity, informality, flexibility, and economy. The typical mediation has no formal compulsory elements, although some common elements usually occur: each of the parties allowed to explain and detail their story; the identification of issues (usually facilitated by the mediator); the clarification and detailed specification of respective interests and objectives; the conversion of respective subjective evaluations into more objective values; identification of options; discussion and analysis of the possible effects of various solutions; the adjustment and the refining of the proposed solutions; the memorialization of agreements into a written draft Due to the particular character of this activity, each mediator uses a method of his or her own (the law does not ordinarily govern a mediator's methods), that might eventually differ markedly from the above scheme. Also, many matters do not legally require a particular form for the final agreement, while others expressly require a precisely determined form. Most countries respect a mediator's confidentiality. Online mediation Online mediation, a sub-category of online dispute resolution, involves the application of online technology to the process of mediation. Online Mediation extends the reach of mediators to disputes between persons who are too geographically distant, or otherwise unable (for example, through disability), to attend; or where the value of the dispute does not justify the cost of a face-to-face mediation. Online mediation can also prove useful prior to face-to-face mediation — to commence the mediation process early where urgency exists, to narrow the issues, to commence brainstorming of solutions and to prepare the parties. Mediation in business and in commerce The eldest branch of mediation applies to business and commerce, and still this one is the widest field of application, with reference to the number of mediators in these activities and to the economical range of total exchanged values. The mediator in business or in commerce helps the parties to achieve the final goal of respectively buying/selling (a generic contraposition that includes all the possible varieties of the exchange of goods or rights) something at satisfactory conditions (typically in the aim of producing a bilateral contract), harmonically bringing the separate elements of the treaty to a respectively balanced equilibrium. The mediator, in ordinary practice, usually cares of finding a positive agreement between (or among) the parties looking at the main pact as well as at the accessory pacts too, thus finding a composition of all the related aspects that might combine. in the best possible way, all the desiderata of his clients. Academics sometimes include this activity among the auxiliary activities of commerce and business, but it has to be recalled that it differs from the generality of the others, because of its character of independence from the parties: in an ordinary activity of agency, or in the unilateral mandate this character is obviously missing, this kind of agent merely resulting as a longa manus of the party that gave him his (wider or narrower) power of representation. The mediator does not obey to any of the parties, and is a third party, looking at the contraposition from an external point of view. Subfields of commercial mediation include work in well-known specialized branches: in finance, in insurance, in ship-brokering, in real estate and in some other individual markets, mediators have specialized designations and usually obey special laws. Generally, mediators cannot practice commerce in the genre of goods in which they work as specialized mediators. Mediation and litigation Mediation offers a process by which two parties work towards an agreement with the aid of a neutral third party. Litigation, however, is a process in which the courts impose binding decisions on the disputing parties in a determinative process operating at the level of legal rights and obligations [Boulle 2005]. These two processes sound completely different, but both are a form of dispute resolution. Litigation is conventionally used and conventionally accepted, but Mediation is slowly becoming more recognized as a successful tool in dispute resolution. Slowly these processes are becoming inter-dependent, as the Courts in some cases are now referring parties to Mediation. In saying this, there are distinct differences between the two processes. Mediation claims to resolve many of the problems associated with litigation, such as the high costs involved, the formality of the court system and the complexity of the court process. Mediation does not create binding agreements unless the parties consent to it, and the Mediator has no say in the outcome. Even though our court system and mediation have increasing connections, they still reflect different value assumptions and structural approaches towards dispute resolution. Community mediation Disputes involving neighbors often have no formal dispute-resolution mechanism. Community-mediation centers generally focus on this type of neighborhood conflict, with trained volunteers from the local community usually serving as mediators. These organizations often serve populations that cannot afford to utilize the court systems or other private ADR-providers. Many community programs also provide mediation for disputes between landlords and tenants, members of homeowners associations, and businesses and consumers. Mediation helps the parties to repair relationships, in addition to addressing a particular substantive dispute. Agreements reached in community mediation are generally private, but in some states, such as California, the parties have the option of making their agreement enforceable in court. Many community programs offer their services for free or at most, charge a nominal fee. The roots of community mediation can be found in community concerns to find better ways to resolve conflicts, and efforts to improve and complement the legal system. Citizens, neighbors, religious leaders* and communities became empowered, realizing that they could resolve many complaints and disputes on their own in their own community through mediation. Experimental community mediation programs using volunteer mediators began in the early 1970s in several major cities. These proved to be so successful that hundreds of other programs were founded throughout the country in the following 2 decades. Community mediation programs now flourish throughout the United States. Competence of the mediator Numerous schools of thought exist on identifying the "competence" of a mediator. Where parties retain mediators to provide an evaluation of the relative strengths and weaknesses of the parties' positions, subject-matter expertise of the issues in dispute becomes a primary aspect in determining competence. Some would argue, however, that an individual who gives an opinion about the merits or value of a case does not practise "true" mediation, and that to do so fatally compromises the alleged mediator's neutrality. Where parties expect mediators to be process experts only (i.e., employed to use their skills to work through the mediation process without offering evaluations as to the parties' claims) competence is usually demonstrated by the ability to remain neutral and to move parties though various impasse-points in a dispute. International professional organizations continue to debate what competency means. In France, professional mediators have created an organization to develop a rational approach to conflict resolution. This approach is based on a scientific definition of a person and a conflict. It helps to develop a structured process of mediation interviews and meetings of the parties. Technology mediators are particularly advanced in terms of accompanying changes induced by the dynamics of conflict. Mediators have adopted a code of ethics which provides the protagonists guarantees professionalism. They know their technical including through a website, the wikimediation Wikimediation.org , funded by the European Commission. When to use mediation Not all disputes lend themselves well to mediation. One set of criteria for suitability, which is applied in the subsection below, is provided in Mediation - Principles Process Practice, Boulle L. 2005 Factors relating to the parties Factors relating to the parties provide the most important determinants when deciding whether or not a dispute lends itself to mediation, as of course, the parties are the essential key to mediation. Basically, if the parties are not ready and willing to mediate, mediation cannot take place. If a mediation does take place against the parties wishes, the process will not work because one of the principles of mediation is participation, and the parties will not constructively participate if they are forced. Another factor to consider when judging a disputes suitability for mediation is whether the parties have legal representation. If one party does and the other does not, then it is not fair to mediate. Unlike the court system, a legal representative will not be appointed to the non-represented party. Therefore both parties need to consent to either be represented by legal advisers or not. It is not essential that legal advisers are present in the mediation session. However in most cases it is strongly advised that the parties seek legal advice before signing the legally binding agreement. A final factor to consider is the legal capacity of the parties. A minor cannot enter a mediation session for obvious legal reasons, the same goes for a person with mental illness or disability that would effect their decision-making ability. Once these are considered and no difficulties found, the remaining points on the checklist need to be considered. Preparing for mediation People participating in mediation, often called “parties” or “disputants”, can take several steps to prepare for mediation, as can their lawyers, if involved. Just as parties need not agree to take part in mediation, they need not prepare for mediation — with one notable exception. In some court-connected programs, courts will require disputants to both participate in and prepare for mediation. Preparation involves making a statement or summary of the subject of the dispute and then bringing the summary to the mediation. If preparation for mediation is voluntary, why bother? Research Zutter, Deborah. Preliminary Mediation Practices. Bond University, Australia:Unpublished Thesis, 2004. uncovered the following potential benefits of preparing. Disputants who meet the mediator prior to the mediation meeting tend to have less anxiety, a higher percentage of their disputes settle at mediation, and they express increased satisfaction with the mediation process. The following preparation activities appear in no fixed order. Not all would apply for every mediation. Is mediation the right dispute resolution process at this time? This subdivides into two questions: is mediation the right dispute resolution process?; and are the parties ready to settle? For example, the dispute may involve a significant power-imbalance between the parties. In such a case, another dispute resolution process may make a better job of balancing power. Readiness has great importance. Perhaps a loss or injury has occurred too recently. Overwhelming emotions may render objective decision-making extremely difficult, if not impossible. Alternatively, an injury may not have had sufficient time to heal so that any continuing loss becomes difficult to quantify. Other examples abound. Although entering into a mediation to settle the entire dispute may seem inappropriate, this does not mean that mediation cannot help. Some disputants participate in brief mediations with the goal of finding an interim solution to the problem that manages what the parties need to investigate during the interval between the present and when the dispute is ready to be settled. Another preliminary mediation task involves identifying who should participate in the mediation. Laws give decision-making power to certain individuals. It seems obvious that these individuals are essential to the mediation. Others important participants could include lawyers, accountants, support-persons, interpreters, or spouses. Ask: who needs to be involved in order to reach settlements that will be accepted and implemented? Convening a mediation meeting requires as much care as convening any important meeting. What location will best foster settlement? Do any participants have special needs? What date and time will work best? Will participants have access to food and beverages? Should the room have a table and chairs, or couches? Does the room have natural light? Does it offer privacy? How much time might a mediation take? At times disputants have the ability to select the mediator: they should exercise due diligence. Anyone can act as a mediator, with no licensing required. Some mediator organizations require mediators to qualify. Mediators listed in court-connected rosters have to meet certain experiential and training requirements. Many mediators have a wide range of skills. Matching the mediator with the dispute and the needs of the disputant comprises a pre-mediation task. For example, the mediator will need to have skill in managing the many parties involved in a land-use dispute. Expertise in family law may prove important in divorce mediation, while knowledge of construction matters will add value in construction disputes. The task of selecting the right mediator can occur more readily when participants take time to analyze the dispute. Just what is the dispute about? Parties probably agree in some areas. By identifying agreements, parties clarify the issues in dispute. Typically, misunderstandings occur. These usually result from assumptions. What if these can get cleared up? Might some information be missing? and if all of the disputants shared all of the information, wou;d the matter quickly settle? Mediation involves communication and commitment to settle. Disputants can hone their communication-skills prior to mediation so that they express what they want more clearly and so that they hear what the other disputants say about what a settlement needs to include. Sometimes the dispute isn't about money. Rather, a sincere apology will resolve matters. When disputants communicate respectfully, they generate more opportunities for creative settlements. What objectives does each of the disputants have? Thinking about creative ways that each disputant can achieve their objectives before the mediation allows participants to check out the viability of possible outcomes. They come to the meeting well prepared to settle. What information do participants require in order to make good decisions? Do pictures, documents, corporate records, pay-stubs, rent-rolls, receipts, medical reports, bank-statements and so forth exist that parties need to gather, copy and bring to the mediation? With all of the information at hand at the mediation, one may avoid the need to adjourn the meeting to another, later date while parties gather the information. And one minimises the risk of overlooking a critical piece of information. Parties may need to make procedural choices. One important decision involves whether to keep the mediation. Other decisions address how to pay the mediator and whether to share all information relevant to the dispute. A contract signed before the mediation can address all procedural decisions. These contracts have various names, such as "Agreement to Mediate" or "Mediation Agreement". Mediators often provide an Agreement to Mediate. Disputants, and their lawyers, can (by agreement) insert appropriate provisions into the agreement. In some cases, court-connected mediation programs have pre-determined procedures. Mediators have a wide variety of practices in matters of contact with the disputants or their lawyers prior to the mediation meeting. Some mediators hold separate, in-person preliminary meetings with each disputant. These have many names, including "preliminary conferences". Disputants who meet with the mediator before the mediation learn about the process of mediation, their own role, and what the mediator will do. Having met the mediator before the mediation, disputants can put to rest any concerns about whether they can trust the mediator's neutrality and impartiality; and they can focus on how to resolve the dispute. The above outline sets out the most significant steps in preparation for mediation. Each unique dispute may require a unique combination of preliminary steps. References for Preparing for Mediation in Australia 1Zutter, Deborah. Preliminary Mediation Practices. Bond University, Australia:Unpublished Thesis, 2004. Mediation as a method of dispute resolution In the field of resolving legal controversies, mediation offers an informal method of dispute resolution, in which a neutral third party, the mediator, attempts to assist the parties in finding resolution to their problem through the mediation process. Although mediation has no legal standing per se, the parties can (usually with assistance from legal counsel) commit agreed points to writing and sign this document, thus producing a legally binding contract in some jurisdiction specified therein. Mediation differs from most other conflict resolution processes by virtue of its simplicity, and in the clarity of its rules. It is employed at all scales from petty civil disputes to global peace talks. It is thus difficult to characterize it independently of these scales or specific jurisdictions - where 'Mediation' may in fact be formally defined and may in fact require specific licenses. There are more specific processes (such as peace process or binding arbitration or mindful mediation) referred to directly in the text. Safety, fairness, closure These broader political methods usually focus on conciliation, preventing future problems, rather than on focused dispute-resolution of one matter. One can reasonably see mediation as the simplest of many such processes, where no great dispute exists about political context, where jurisdiction has been agreed, whatever process selected the mediator is not in doubt, and there is no great fear that safety, fairness and closure guarantees will be violated by future bad-faith actions. Assuming some warranty of safety, fairness, and closure, then the process can reasonably be called 'mediation proper', and be described thus: Post-mediation activities Ratification and review Some mediated agreements require ratification by an external body to which a negotiating party must account — such as a board, council or cabinet. In other situations it may be decided or understood that agreements will be reviewed by lawyers, accountants or other professional advisers after the mediation meeting. Ratification and review provide safeguards for mediating parties. They also provide an opportunity for persons not privy to the dynamics of a mediation and the efforts of the negotiating parties to undermine significant decisions they have made. In the United States, the implementation of agreements reached in mediation requires tailoring to the mediated subject. For example, successful family and divorce mediations must memorialize an agreement which complies with the statutes of the state in which the parties will implement their mediated agreement. In New York, for example, the New York Domestic Relations Law specifies both technical and substantive requirements with which pre-marital (or pre-nuptial) and post-marital (or post-nuptial) agreements must comply (NY Domestic Relations Law, Sec. 236, Part B). Official sanctions In some situations the sanctions of a court or other external authority must validate a mediation agreement. Thus if a grandparent or other non-parent is granted residence rights in a family dispute, a court counselor will be required to furnish a report to the court on merits of the proposed agreement. parties to a private mediation may also wish to obtain court sanction for their decisions. Under the Queensland regulatory scheme on court connected mediation, mediators are required to file with a registrar a certificate about the mediation in a form prescribed in the regulations. A party may subsequently apply to a relevant court an order giving effect to the agreement reached. Where court sanction is not obtained, mediated settlements have the same status as any other agreements. Referrals and reporting-obligations Mediators may at their discretion refer one or more parties to psychologists, accountants or social workers for post-mediation professional assistance. Where mediation is provided by a public agency, referrals are made to other authorities such as Centrelink. Mediator debriefing In some situations, a post-mediation debriefing and feedback session is conducted between co-mediators or between mediators and supervisors. It involves a reflective analysis and evaluation of the process. In many community mediation services debriefing is compulsory and mediators are paid for the debriefing session. Mediator roles and functions Mediator functions are classified into a few general categories, each of which necessitates a range of specific interventions and techniques in carrying out a general function. Creating favorable conditions for the parties' decision-making Mediators can contribute to the settlement of disputes by creating favorable conditions for dealing with them. This can occur through: Providing an appropriate physical environment- this is through selection of neutral venues, appropriate seating arrangements, visual aids and security. Providing a procedural framework- this is through conduct of the various stages of mediation process. As the chair of the proceedings, they can establish basic ground rules, provide order, sequence and continuity. The mediators opening statement provides an opportunity to establish a structural framework, including the mediation guidelines on which the process will be based. Improving the emotional environment- this is a more subtle function and varies among mediations and mediators. They can improve the emotional environment through restricting pressure, aggression and intimidation in the conference room by providing a sense of neutrality and by reducing anxiety among parties. Assisting the parties to communicate People in conflict tend not to communicate effectively and poor communication can cause disputes to occur or escalate. For mediators to encourage communication efficiently, they themselves must be good communicators and practice good speaking and listening skills, pay attention to non-verbal messages and other signals emanating from the context of the mediation. Facilitating the parties' negotiations Mediators can contribute expertise and experience in all models and styles of negotiation so that the parties are able to negotiate more constructively, efficiently and productively. This function is prominent after the problem-defining stages of mediation and involves mediators bringing direction and finesse to the negotiation efforts of the parties. Mediators can also act as catalysts for creative problem solving, for example by brainstorming or referring to settlement options generated in analogous mediation experiences. Functions of the parties The functions of the parties will vary according to their motivations and skills, the role of legal advisers, the model of mediation, the style of mediator and the culture in which the mediation takes place. Legal requirements may also affect their roles. In New South Wales the Law Society has published A guide to the rights and Responsibilities of participants. Preparation Whether parties enter mediation of their own volition or because legislation obligates them to do so, they prepare for mediation in much the same way they would for negotiations, save that the mediator may supervise and facilitate their preparation. Mediators may require parties to provide position statements, valuation reports and risk assessment analysis. The parties may also be required to consent to an agreement to mediate before preparatory activities commence. Disclosure of information Agreements to mediate, mediation rules, and court-based referral orders may have requirements for the disclosure of information by the parties and mediators may have express or implied powers to direct them to produce documents, reports and other material. In court referred mediations parties usually exchange with each other all material which would be available through discovery or disclosure rules were the matter to proceed to hearing. This would include witness statements, valuations and statement accounts. Party participation The objectives of mediation, and its emphasis on consensual outcomes, imply a direct input from the parties themselves. The mediation system will expect that parties attend and participate in the mediation meeting; and some mediation rules require a party, if a natural person, to attend in person. However, the process assesses party participation in overall terms, so a party failing to participate in the initial stages may make up for this later in the process. Choice of mediator The choice of mediation as a dispute resolution option links closely to the identity of a mediator who conducts it. This follows from the circumstances: different models of mediation exist, mediators have a lot of discretion in a flexible procedure, and the mediator's professional background and personal style have enormous potential impacts on the nature of the service provided. These factors make the selection of mediators of real practical significance. The term "choice of mediator" implies a process of deliberation and decision-making. No formal mechanism for objecting to the appointment of particular mediators exists, but in practice the parties could ask mediators to withdraw for reasons of conflict of interest. In community mediation programs the director generally assigns mediators without party involvement. In New South Wales, for example, when the parties cannot agree on the identity of a mediator the registrar contacts a nominating entity, such as the Bar Association which supplies the name of a qualified and experienced mediator. The following are useful ways of selecting a mediator: Personal Attributes - qualities and characteristics which are innate, as opposed to skills and techniques which can be learned and developed. In this concept a number of desirable attributes for mediators include interpersonal skills, patience, empathy, intelligence, optimism and flexibility. Mediation qualifications, experience and background - while some jurisdictions prescribe no generalized qualifications for mediators, in some specific contexts mediators require qualifications prescribed by legislation. In New South Wales, for example, the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) proscribes qualifications for mediators. Qualifications usually revolve around knowledge of the theory and practice of conflict, negotiation and mediation, mediations skills, and attitudes appropriate for mediation. There are three factors of relevance: experience in practice of mediation, experience in the substantive area of dispute, and personal life experience. the mediator's training the mediator's professional background the mediator's certification and its value the mediation model offered, and whether it suits the case any conflict of interest the mediator may have the mediator's willingness to allow, and possibly encourage, mediation participants to seek creative solutions the mediator's fee Values of mediation Mediation contains three aspects: feature, values and objectives. The three aspects, although different, can and do at times overlap in their meaning and use. There are a number of values of mediation including Non Adversarialism, Responsiveness and Self Determination and Party Autonomy. Each Person, Mediator and Process has values that can be attributed to them. These values are as diverse as Human Nature itself and as such provides for no uniformity amongst the values and on how those values are enforced by each party. The Non-adversarialism value of mediation is not based on the attitudes of the parties involved, but is based on the actual process of mediation and how it is carried out. To clarify the context of the meaning it is said that Litigation is adversarial as its process must come to a logical conclusion based on a decision made by a presiding judge. Mediation does not always end with a decision. Responsiveness, another value of mediation, responds to the interests of the parties without the restrictions of the law. It allows the parties to come to their own decisions on what is best for them at the time. Responsiveness shows how the mediation process is informal, flexible and collaborative and is person centered. Self-determination and party autonomy gives rise to parties gaining the ability to make their own choices on what they will agree on. It gives the parties the ability to negotiate with each other to satisfy their interests, generate some options which could lead to an outcome satisfactory to both parties. This autonomy or independent structure provided by the mediation process removes the need for the presence of professional bodies and turns the responsibility back on to the parties to deal with the issue and hopefully to a satisfactory conclusion. Mediation with arbitration Mediation has sometimes been utilized to good effect when coupled with arbitration, particularly binding arbitration, in a process called 'mediation/arbitration'. In this process, if parties are unable to reach resolution through mediation, the mediator becomes an arbitrator, shifting the mediation process into an arbitral one, seeking additional evidence as needed (particularly from witnesses, if any, since witnesses are normally not called upon by a mediator), and finally rendering an arbitral decision. This process is more appropriate in civil matters where rules of evidence or jurisdiction are not in dispute. It resembles, in some respects, criminal plea-bargaining and Confucian judicial procedure, wherein the judge also plays the role of prosecutor - rendering what, in Western European court procedures, would be considered an arbitral (even 'arbitrary') decision. Mediation/arbitration hybrids can pose significant ethical and process problems for mediators. Many of the options and successes of mediation relate to the mediator's unique role as someone who wields coercive power over neither the parties nor the outcome. If parties in a mediation are aware the mediator might later need to act in the role of judge, the process could be dramatically distorted. Thankfully, mediation-arbitration often involves using different individuals in the role of mediator and (if needed later) arbitrator, but this is not always the case. Mediator liability Mediators should take necessary precautions to protect themselves, as they are putting themselves in a vulnerable position in terms of liability. Mediators need to be qualified and properly trained before they can mediate a legally binding mediation. In mediation, there are a number of situations in which liability could arise. For example, a mediator could be liable for misleading parties about the process and/or process of alternative dispute resolution. If a mediator inappropriately recommends mediation as a dispute resolution method, those involved can hold the mediator liable. A breach of confidentiality on the mediators behalf could result in liability. These situations can all lead to court proceedings, although this is quite uncommon. Only one case has been recorded in Australia so far. Three areas exist in which liability can arise for the mediator: Liability in Contract Liability in Tort Liability for Breach of Fiduciary Obligations. Liability in Contract arises if the Mediator breaches contract between themselves and one or both of the parties. This can be in written or verbal contract. There are two forms of breach - failure to perform and anticipatory breach. The latter is harder to prove because the breach has not yet happened. If the breach is proven in can result in damages awarded. The damages awarded are generally compensatory in nature, very rarely pecuniary. Limitations on liability include causation (Proving liability requires a showing of actual causation). Liability in Tort arises if a mediator influences a party in any way (compromising the integrity of the decision), defames a party, breaches confidentiality, or most commonly, is liable in negligence. To be awarded damages, the party must show suffering of actual damage, and must show that the mediator's actions (and not the party's actions) are the actual cause of the damage. Liability for Breach of Fiduciary Obligations can occur if parties misconceive their relationship with the Mediator for something other than completely neutral. The mediator has the role of remaining neutral at all times, but the parties could misinterpret the relationship to be a fiduciary one. Mediators' liability in Tapoohi v Lewenberg (Australia) Tapoohi v Lewenberg provides the only case in Australia that has set a precedent for mediators' liability. The case involved two sisters who settled a deceased estate via mediation. Only one sister attended the mediation in person: the other participated via telephone with her lawyers present. A deal was struck up and an agreement was executed by the parties. At the time it was orally expressed that before the final settlement was to occur there was requirement for taxation advise to be sought as such a large transfer of property would encompass some capital gains tax to be paid. Tapoohi had to pay Lewenberg $1.4 million dollars in exchange for some transfers of land. One year later, when the capital gains tax was recognized by Tapoohi she filed proceedings against her sister, lawyers and the mediator based on the fact that the agreement was subject to further advise being sought in relation to taxation. The mediator's agreement stage took place verbally without any formal agreement: only a letter stating his appointment. Tapoohi, a lawyer herself, alleged that the mediator breached his contractual duty, bearing in mind the lack of any formal agreement; and further alleged several breaches on his tortuous duty of care. Although the court dismissed the summary judgment, the case shows that the mediators owe a duty of care to all parties and that parties can hold them liable should they breach that duty of care. Habersberger J held that it "not beyond argument" that the mediator could be in breach of contractual and tortious duties. Such claims were required to be made out at a hearing but a trial court. This case emphasizes the need for formal mediation-agreements including clauses that would limit mediators' liability. Mediation in the United States Note the differences between the legal definition of civil mediation in the United States of America and mediation in other countries. Compared with the situation elsewhere, mediation appears more "professionalized" in the United States, where State laws regarding the use of lawyers as opposed to mediators may differ widely. One can best understand these differences in a more global context of variances between countries. Within the United States, the laws governing mediation vary greatly on a state-by-state basis. Some states have fairly sophisticated laws concerning mediation, including clear expectations for certification, ethical standards, and protections preserving the confidential nature of mediation by ensuring that mediators need not testify in a case they've worked on. However, even in states that have such developed laws around mediation, that law only relates to mediators working within the court system. Community and commercial mediators practising outside the court system may very well not have these same sorts of legal protections. Professional mediators often consider the option of liability insurance — traditionally marketed through professional dispute-resolution organizations. Without-prejudice privilege The without-prejudice privilege in common law terms denotes that when in honest attempts to reach some type of settlement any offers or admissions cannot be used in a court of law when the subject matter is the same. This further applies to negotiations that are made as part of the mediation process. There are however some exceptions to the without privilege rule. The without prejudice privilege emerges clearly from the description of the case AWA Ltd v Daniels (t/as Deloitte Haskins and Sells). AWA Ltd commenced proceedings in the Supreme Court of NSW against Daniels for failing to audit their accounts properly. Mediation was ordered and failed. But during the mediation AWA Ltd disclosed that they had a document that gave its directors full indemnity with respect to any legal proceedings. AWA Ltd was under the impression that they gave this information without prejudice and therefore it could not be used in a court of law. When mediation failed litigation resumed. During the litigation Daniels asked for a copy of the indemnity deed. AWA Ltd claimed privilege, but the presiding Rolfe J, stated that privilege was not applicable as the document was admissible. Further to this Rolfe, J added that Daniels was “only seeking to prove a fact which was referred to in the mediation”. The without-prejudice privilege does not apply if it has been excluded by either party or if the rights to the privilege has been waived in proceedings and it must be remembered that although a mediation is private and confidential, the disclosure of privileged information in the presence of a mediator does not represent a waiver of the privilege. Mediation in politics and in diplomacy Diplomats typically engage in mediation as one of their most important activities. Some people consider that it should be a relevant quality of democratic politicians, given that usually in both these fields the explicitation of the respective mansions (on a formal basis, at least) require the achievement of agreements between separate entities of which the diplomat or the politician are third parties by definition; Hobbes and Bodin found that the organs of a state have a mediating power and function. These activities are usually performed in order to get, on the subjective point of view of this mediator, a recompense that might be in the form of a direct economical advantage, a political advantage, an increased international prestige or influence. One of many non-violent methods of dispute resolution In politics and in diplomacy, mediation obviously offers a non-violent method of dispute resolution (some indeed argue that other methods would be many), although it is usually assumed or included in definitions of other methods. Some theorists, notably Rushworth Kidder, have claimed that mediation is the foundation of a new (some say 'postmodern') ethics - and that it sidesteps traditional ethical issues with pre-defined limits of morality. Others claim that mediation is a form of harms reduction or de-escalation, especially in its large-scale application in peace process and similar negotiation, or the bottom-up way it is performed in the peace movement where it is often called mindful mediation. In this form, it would be derived from methods of Quakers in particular. Mediation and industrial relations According to Boulle (2005, p. 286), conciliation and ADR began in industrial relations in Australia long before the arrival of the modern ADR movement. One of the first statutes passed by the Commonwealth parliament was the Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904 (Cth). This allowed the Federal Government to pass laws on conciliation and arbitration for the prevention and settlement of industrial disputes extending beyond the limits of any one state. In Australian industrial relations, conciliation has been the most prominently used form of ADR, and is generally far removed from modern mediation. Significant changes in state policy concerning Australian industrial relations took place over the decade 1996 to 2007. The Howard government, with the introduction of the Workplace Relations Act 1996 (Cth), sought to shift the industrial system away from a collectivist approach, where unions and the AIRC had strong roles, to a more decentralized system of individual bargaining between employers and employees (Bamber et al., 2000, p.43). The WRA Act 1996 (Cth) diminished the traditional role of the AIRC by placing the responsibility of resolving disputes at the enterprise level (Boulle, 2005, p. 287). This allowed mediation to be used to resolve industrial relations disputes instead of the traditionally used conciliation. The new ‘Work Choices’ Amendment came into effect in March 2006, and included a compulsory model dispute-resolution process that doesn’t involve the AIRC. Mediation and other ADR processes have been encouraged by the government as a better option than the services provided by the AIRC. The government has realized the benefits of mediation to include the following (Van Gramberg, 2006, p.11): Mediation is cost saving Avoids polarization of parties Is educative Probes wider issues than the formal court system Provides greater access to justice Gives disputants more control over the dispute process The workplace and mediation Mediation emerged on the industrial relations landscape in the late 1980s due to a number of economic and political factors, which then induced managerial initiatives. According to Van Gramberg (2006, p. 173) these changes have come from the implementation of human resource management policies and practices, which focuses on the individual worker, and rejects all other third parties such as unions, and the Australian Industrial relations Commission (AIRC). HRM together with the political and economic changes undertaken by the Howard government has created an environment where private ADR can be fostered in the workplace (Bamber et al., 2000, p. 45). The decline of unionism and the encouragement of individualization in the workplace have encouraged the growth of private mediations. This is demonstrated in the industries with the lowest union rates such as in the private business sector having the greatest growth of mediation (Van Gramberg, 2006, p. 174). The Howard government's Work Choices Act, which came into effect on March 2006, made further legislative changes to deregulate the industrial relations system. A key element of the new changes was to weaken the powers of the AIRC in conciliation and arbitration by installing and encouraging private mediation in competition with the services provided by the AIRC. Workplace conflicts can cover a great variety of disputes. For example disputes between staff members, allegations of harassment, contractual disputes relating to the terms and conditions of employment and workers-compensation claims (Boulle, 2005, p. 298). At large, workplace disputes are between people who have an ongoing working relationship within a closed system, which indicate that mediation would be appropriate as a means of a dispute resolution process. However in organisations there are many complex relationships, involving hierarchy, job security and competitiveness that make mediation a difficult task (Boulle, 2005, p. 298). Conflict-management Society perceives conflict as something that gets in the way of progress, as a negative symptom of a relationship that one should cure as quickly as possible (Boulle, 2005, p. 87). However within the mediation profession conflict is seen as a fact of life and when properly managed it can have many benefits for the parties and constituents (Bagshaw, 1999, p. 206, Boulle, 2005, p. 87). The benefits of conflict include the opportunity to renew relationships and make positive changes for the future. Mediation should be a productive process, where conflict can be managed and expressed safely (Bradford, 2006, p. 148). It is the mediator’s responsibility to let the parties express their emotions entailed in conflict safely. Allowing the parties to express these emotions may seem unhelpful in resolving the dispute, but if managed constructively these emotions may help towards a better relationship between the parties in the future. Measuring the effectiveness of conflict management The ADR field has felt a need to define the effectiveness of dispute-resolution in a broad manner, including more than whether there was a settlement (Boulle, 2005, p. 88). Mediation as a field of dispute resolution recognized there was more to measuring effectiveness, than a settlement. Mediation recognised in its own field that party satisfaction of the process and mediator competence could be measured. According to Boulle (2005, p.88) surveys of those who have participated in mediation reveal strong levels of satisfaction of the process. Benefits of mediation may include: discovering parties' interests and priorities healthy venting of emotions in a protected environment an agreement to talk about a set agenda identifying roles of the constituents, such as relatives and professional advisors knowledge of a constructive dispute resolution for use in a future dispute Confidentiality and mediation Confidentiality emerges as a powerful and attractive feature of mediation (Van Gramberg, 2006, p. 38). The private and confidential aspect of mediation is in contrast with the courts and tribunals which are open to the public, and kept on record. Privacy is a big motivator for people to choose mediation over the courts or tribunals. Although mediation is promoted with confidentiality being one of the defining features of the process, it is not in reality as private and confidential as often claimed (Boulle, 2005, p. 539). In some circumstances the parties agree that the mediation should not be private and confidential in parts or in whole. Concerning the law there are limits to privacy and confidentiality, for example if their mediation entails abuse allegations, the mediator must disclose this information to the authorities. Also the more parties in a mediation the less likely it will be to maintain all the information as confidential. For example some parties may be required to give an account of the mediation to outside constituents or authorities (Boulle, 2005, p. 539). Two competing principles affect the confidentiality of mediations. One principle involves upholding confidentiality as means to encourage people to settle out of the courts and avoid litigation, while the second principle states that all related facts in the mediation should be available to the courts. A number of reasons exist for keeping mediation private and confidential; these include: it makes the mediation appealing it provides a safe environment to disclose information and emotions confidentiality makes mediation more effective by making parties talk realistically confidentiality upholds mediators' reputations, as it reinforces impartiality confidentiality makes agreement more final, as there is little room to seek review Global relevance The rise of international trade law, continental trading blocs, the World Trade Organization (and its opposing anti-globalization movement), and use of the Internet, among other factors, seem to suggest that legal complexity has started to reach an intolerable and undesirable point. There may be no obvious way to determine which jurisdiction has precedence over which other, and there may be substantial resistance to settling a matter in any one place. Accordingly, mediation may come into more widespread use, replacing formal legal and judicial processes sanctified by nation-states. Some people, like members of the anti-globalization movement, believe such formal processes have quite thoroughly failed to provide real safety and closure guarantees that are pre-requisite to uniform rule of law. Following an increasing awareness of the process, and a wider notion of its main aspects and eventual effects, some commentators in recent times have frequently proposed mediation for the resolution of international disputes, with attention to belligerent situations too. However, as mediation ordinarily needs participation by the interested parties and it would be very difficult to impose it, in case one of the parts refuses this process it cannot be a solution. Fairness As noted, mediation can only take place in an atmosphere where there is some agreement on safety, fairness and closure, usually provided by nation-states and their legal systems. But increasingly, disputes transcend international borders and include many parties who may be in unequal-power relationships. In such circumstances, with many parties afraid to be identified or to make formal complaints, terminology or rules of standing or evidence slanted against some groups, and without power to enforce even "legally binding" contracts, some conclude that the process of mediation would not reasonably be said to be "fair". Accordingly, even when a party offers to mediate and a mediator attempts to make the process fair, mediation itself might not operate as a fair process. In such cases, parties may pursue other means of dispute resolution. From a more technical point of view, however, one must recall that the parties must require mediation, and very seldom can it be imposed by "non-parties" upon the parties. Therefore, in presence of entities that cannot be clearly identified, and that practically don't claim for their recognition as "parties", the professional experience of a mediator could only apply to a proposal of definition, that besides would always miss the constitutional elements of a mediation. Moreover, in such circumstances, the counter-party of these eventual entities would very likely deny any prestige of 'party' to the opponent, this not consenting any kind of treaty (in a correct mediation). More generally, given that mediation ordinarily produces agreements containing elements to enforce the pacts with facts that can grant its effectiveness, note that other mechanisms apart from legal systems may ensure protection of the pacts: modern mediation frequently tends to define economic compensations and warranties too, generally considered quicker and more effective. The concrete 'power' of an agreement is classically found in the equilibre of the pact, in the sincere conciliation of respective interests and in the inclusion of measures that would make the rupture of the pact very little convenient for the unfaithful party. Pacts that don't have such sufficient warranties are only academically effects of a mediation, but would never respect the deontology of the mediator. Phoenix Coyotes On May 19, 2009 a bankruptcy judge ordered the NHL and Phoenix Coyotes owner Jerry Moyes to mediation in an attempt to resolve their fight over who is in control of a franchise that both sides agree is insolvent. Judge Redfield Baum made the ruling after hearing arguments from attorneys on both sides in U.S. bankruptcy court Tuesday over the NHL's contention that Moyes had no authority to file Chapter 11 bankruptcy earlier this month. The league and Moyes are to report their progress at a status hearing May 27. Meanwhile, Baum said to relocate the team anywhere must be decided before the franchise is sold. Bibliography Boulle, L (2005) Mediation: Principles Processes Practice, Australia, LexisNexis Butterworths. Cremin, H. 2007. Peer Mediation: Citizenship and Social Inclusion in Action. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Charlton, R. 2000. Dispute Resolution Guidebook. Star Printery Pty Ltd, Erskineville NSW.(2nd edition) Ligare Pty Ltd, Riverwood NSW. Charlton, R. & Dewdney, M. 2004. The Mediator’s Handbook. Skills and Strategies for Practitioners. Fathi Ben Mrad : Sociologie des pratiques de médiation : Entre principes et compétences,Paris, France, édition L'Harmattan, 2002. - ISBN 2-7475-2968-1 Flemisch, Christiane A.: "Streitbeilegung im internationalen Geschäft. Einführung in die Mediation als Methode der Streitbeilegung", in Außenwirtschaftliche Praxis (AW-Prax), 2006, Heft 2. Flemisch, Christiane A.: Wirtschaftsmediation im Zeitalter der Globalisierung – Besonderheiten bei interkulturellen Wirtschaftsmediationen, in IDR, 2006 Heft 1. Folberg, J. & Taylor, A. (1984) Mediation: A comprehensive guide to resolving conflicts without litigation, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Publishers. Lascoux Jean Louis, 2001, 2007. Pratique de la mediation. esf editeur. Paris, 4°ed. 2007 Lascoux Jean Louis, 2008. Et tu deviendras médiateur et peut-être philosophe. Ed. Médiateurs. Bordeaux, 2008 McConnell, J. A. (2001): Mindful mediation: A handbook for buddhist peacemakers. Dehiwala, Buddhist Cultural Centre. Sourdin, T. (2002) Alternative Dispute Resolution, Pyrmont NSW, Lawbook Co. Spencer, D. & Altobelli, T. 2005. Dispute Resolution in Australia. Cases, Commentary and Materials. Ligare Pty Ltd, Riverwood NSW. Tavel Agnès et Jean-Louis Lascoux. Code de la Médiation annoté et comenté pour orienter la Médiation, Médiateurs Editeurs, Bordeaux France, 2008-2009 Winslade, J. & Monk, G. 2000. Narrative Mediation: A New Approach to Conflict Resolution. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. See also Alternative dispute resolution Arbitration Collaborative divorce Collaborative law Conciliation Conflict resolution Conflict resolution research Conflict Style Inventory Conflict Management Style Dialogue Dispute resolution Family therapy Intercultural competence Life coaching Mediation function National Arbitration Forum Negotiation Nonviolent communication Ombudsman Online dispute resolution Party-directed mediation Restorative justice Notes External links Party-directed mediation - Mediation of deep-seated interpersonal conflict ACRNet.org - Association for Conflict Resolution's Frequently Asked Questions about Conflict Resolution. NAFCM- The National Association for Community Mediation (USA)

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restorative_justice:1 external_link:1

Fluid

A fluid is defined as a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress. All gases are fluids, but not all liquids are fluids. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids. In common usage, "fluid" is often used as a synonym for "liquid", with no implication that gas could also be present. For example, "brake fluid" is hydraulic oil and will not perform its required function if there is gas in it. This colloquial usage of the term is also common in medicine ("take plenty of fluids"), and in nutrition. Liquids form a free surface (that is, a surface not created by the container) while gases do not. The distinction between solids and fluid is not entirely obvious. The distinction is made by evaluating the viscosity of the substance. Silly Putty can be considered to behave like a solid or a fluid, depending on the time period over which it is observed. It is best described as a viscoelastic fluid. Physics Fluids display such properties as: not resisting deformation, or resisting it only lightly (viscosity), and the ability to flow (also described as the ability to take on the shape of the container). These properties are typically a function of their inability to support a shear stress in static equilibrium. Solids can be subjected to shear stresses, and to normal stresses—both compressive and tensile. In contrast, ideal fluids can only be subjected to normal, compressive stress which is called pressure. Real fluids display viscosity and so are capable of being subjected to low levels of shear stress. Modelling In a solid, shear stress is a function of strain, but in a fluid, shear stress is a function of rate of strain. A consequence of this behavior is Pascal's law which describes the role of pressure in characterizing a fluid's state. Depending on the relationship between shear stress, and the rate of strain and its derivatives, fluids can be characterized as: Newtonian fluids : where stress is directly proportional to rate of strain, and Non-Newtonian fluids : where stress is proportional to rate of strain, its higher powers and derivatives. The behavior of fluids can be described by the Navier–Stokes equations—a set of partial differential equations which are based on: continuity (conservation of mass), conservation of linear momentum, conservation of angular momentum, conservation of energy. The study of fluids is fluid mechanics, which is subdivided into fluid dynamics and fluid statics depending on whether the fluid is in motion. See also Matter

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Doom_(video_game)

Doom (occasionally typeset as DOOM ) is a landmark 1993 first-person shooter computer game by id Software. It is widely recognized for pioneering immersive 3D graphics, networked multiplayer gaming on the PC platform, and support for custom expansions (WADs). Its graphic and interactive violence has also made Doom the subject of much controversy reaching outside the gaming world. With a third of the game (9 levels) distributed as shareware, Doom was played by an estimated 10 million people within two years of its release, popularizing the mode of gameplay and spawning a gaming subculture; as a sign of its effect on the industry, games from the mid-1990s boom of first-person shooters are often known simply as "Doom clones". According to GameSpy, Doom was voted by industry insiders to be the greatest game of all time in 2004. The Doom franchise was continued with Doom II: Hell on Earth (1994) and numerous expansion packs, including The Ultimate Doom (1995), Master Levels for Doom II (1995), and Final Doom (1996). Originally released for PC/DOS, these games have later been ported to many other platforms, including nine different game consoles, Rockbox firmware, and even PDAs and the Flash Player virtual machine. The series lost mainstream appeal as the technology of the Doom game engine was surpassed in the mid-1990s, although fans have continued making WADs, speedruns, and modifications to the source code released in 1997. The franchise again received popular attention in 2004 with the release of Doom 3, a retelling of the original game using new technology, and an associated 2005 Doom motion picture. Game features Plot Doom has a science fiction/horror theme and simple plot. A background story is given in the game's manual, and the rest of the story is advanced with short messages displayed between each section of the game (called episode), the action as the player character progresses through the levels, and some visual cues. The player takes the role of a nameless space marine, "one of Earth's toughest, hardened in combat and trained for action", who has been punitively posted to Mars after assaulting his commanding officer, who ordered his unit to fire upon civilians. The Martian marine base acts as security for the Union Aerospace Corporation (UAC), a multi-planetary conglomerate, which is performing secret experiments with teleportation by creating gateways between the two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos. The manual makes it clear that Phobos is considered by space marines to be the dullest assignment imaginable: "with no action for fifty million miles, your day consisted of suckin' dust and watchin' restricted flicks in the rec room." This all changes when the UAC experiments go horribly awry. Computer systems on Phobos malfunction, Deimos disappears entirely, and "something fragging evil" starts pouring out of the gateway, killing or possessing all UAC personnel. Responding to a frantic distress call from the overrun scientists, the Martian marine unit is quickly sent to Phobos to investigate, where the player character is left to guard the hangar with only a pistol while the rest of the group proceeds inside. Over the course of the next few hours, the marine hears assorted garbled radio messages, gunfire, and screams...then silence: "Seems your buddies are dead". As the last man standing, the player character's mission is to fight through the entire onslaught of demonic enemies by himself in order to keep them from attacking Earth. In order for the game to be completed, the marine must fight through Phobos, Deimos, and then Hell, each presented as an episode containing nine distinct levels. Knee-Deep in the Dead, the first episode and the only one in the shareware version, is set in the high-tech military bases, power plants, computer centers and geological anomalies on Phobos. It ends with the player character fighting a pair of Barons of Hell and afterward entering the teleporter leading to Deimos, ending with him getting overwhelmed by monsters, if not killed. In the second episode, the Shores of Hell, the character journeys through the installations on Deimos, areas of which are interwoven with beastly architecture, warped and distorted by the hellish invasion. After defeating the titanic Cyberdemon lord, he discovers the truth about the vanished moon: it is floating above Hell itself. After climbing down to the surface, the third episode, called Inferno, begins. After the huge Spiderdemon that masterminded the invasion is destroyed in the final mission, a hidden doorway back to Earth opens for the hero, who has "proven too tough for Hell to contain". In the game's final cutscene, the camera pans over a verdant field complete with flowers and bunny rabbits, only to reveal a burning city and a bunny's head impaled on a stake: the demons have invaded Earth, obviously paving the way for Doom II. The Ultimate Doom, the retail store version of the game, adds a fourth episode, Thy Flesh Consumed, occurring after the three original episodes of Doom and before Doom II. This episode was developed by independent master level designers with id's approval, and was designed for expert Doom players seeking a major challenge. It is considerably more difficult than the original three episodes. The episode's plot is deliberately absurd, and takes place immediately after Doom and just before Doom II. The bunny seen impaled on the stake was the marine's pet "Daisy", and you must take revenge for its death. Gameplay Being a first-person shooter, Doom is experienced through the eyes of the main character. This character is not named throughout the game. One of the game's designers, John Romero, has pointed out that this is so the player feels more involved in the game: "There was never a name for the DOOM marine because it's supposed to be YOU." The objective of each level is simply to locate the exit room that leads to the next area, usually marked with an exit sign or a special kind of door, while surviving all hazards on the way. Among the obstacles are demonic monsters, pits of toxic or radioactive slime, ceilings that lower and crush the player character, and locked doors for which a keycard, skull-shaped key device, or remote switch needs to be located. The levels are sometimes labyrinthine and feature plenty of hidden secret areas that hold power-ups as a reward for players who explore. To ease navigation through the levels, a full screen automap is available. Doom is notable for the weapons arsenal available to the marine, which became prototypical for first-person shooters. The player character starts armed only with a pistol, and brass-knuckled fists in case the ammunition runs out, but larger weapons can be picked up: these are a chainsaw, a shotgun, a chaingun, a rocket launcher, a plasma rifle, and finally the immensely powerful BFG 9000. There is a wide array of power-ups, such as a backpack that increases the player character's ammunition-carrying capacity, armor, first aid kits to restore health, the berserk pack (a dark first aid box that puts the character into berserk mode, allowing them to deal out rocket launcher-level damage with their fists and potentially splattering former humans and imps, as well as setting the user's health to 100% if it was lower), and supernatural blue orbs (named soul spheres in the manuals) that boost the player character's health percentage by 100%, up to a maximum of 200%. The enemy monsters in Doom make up the central gameplay element. The player character faces them in large numbers, on the higher of the game's five difficulty levels often encountering a dozen or more in the same room. There are 10 types of monsters (Doom II doubles this figure), including possessed humans as well as specifically hellish monsters of varying strength, including the weak but ubiquitous imps, the floating cacodemons, and the bosses which survive multiple strikes even from the player character's strongest weapons. The monsters have very simple behavior, consisting of either walking toward their opponent, or attacking by throwing fireballs, biting, and scratching. They may also sometimes fight each other after hurting one another accidentally. Many versions of Doom (and its sequels) include secret levels which are accessed by the player discovering alternate exits, often hidden behind secret doors or in areas which are difficult to reach. In some versions of Doom II both of these secret levels incorporate level design and characters from Doom'''s precursor, Wolfenstein 3D, which was also developed by id. Aside from the single player game mode, Doom features two multiplayer modes playable over a network: "cooperative", in which two to four players team up, and "deathmatch", in which two to four players play against each other. Development The development of Doom started in 1992, when John D. Carmack developed a new 3D game engine, the Doom engine, while the rest of the id Software team finished the Wolfenstein 3D prequel, Spear of Destiny. When the game design phase began in late 1992, the main thematic influences were the science fiction action film Aliens and the horror film Evil Dead II. The title of the game was picked by Carmack: Designer Tom Hall wrote an elaborate design document called the Doom Bible, according to which the game would feature a detailed storyline, multiple player characters, and a number of interactive features. However, many of his ideas were discarded during development in favor of simpler design primarily advocated by Carmack, resulting in Hall in the end being forced to resign due to not contributing effectively in the direction the rest of the team was going. Most of the level design that ended up in the final game is that of John Romero and Sandy Petersen. The graphics, by Adrian Carmack, Kevin Cloud and Gregor Punchatz, were created in various ways: although much was drawn or painted, several of the monsters were built from sculptures in clay or latex, and some of the weapons are toy guns from Toys "R" Us. A heavy metal-ambient soundtrack was supplied by Bobby Prince. Engine technologyDooms primary distinguishing feature at the time of its release was its realistic 3D graphics, then unparalleled by other real-time-rendered games running on consumer-level hardware. The advance from id Software's previous game Wolfenstein 3D was enabled by several new features in the Doom engine: Height differences – all rooms in Wolfenstein 3D have the same height; Non-perpendicular walls – all walls in Wolfenstein 3D run along a rectangular grid; Swaying of the weapon, giving the impression of fluidity while walking or running – in Wolfenstein 3D the arms stay fixed in front in the screen, no matter what the character does; Full texture mapping of all surfaces – in Wolfenstein 3D, floors and ceilings are not texture-mapped; Varying light levels – all areas in Wolfenstein 3D are fully lit at the same brightness. While contributing to the game's visual authenticity by allowing effects such as highlights and shadows, this perhaps most importantly added to the game's atmosphere and gameplay; the use of darkness as a means of frightening or confusing the player was an unseen element in games released prior to Doom. In contrast to the static levels of Wolfenstein 3D, those in Doom are highly interactive: Platforms can lower and rise, floors can rise sequentially to form staircases, and bridges can rise and descend. The lifelike feeling of the environment was enhanced further by the stereo sound system, which made it possible to roughly tell the direction and distance of a sound's origin. The player is kept on guard by the grunts and growls of monsters, and receives occasional clues to finding secret areas in the form of sounds of hidden doors opening remotely. Monsters can also become aware of the player's presence by hearing distant gunshots. Carmack had to make use of several tricks for these features to run smoothly on home computers of 1993. Most significantly, Doom levels are not truly three-dimensional; they are internally represented on a plane, with height differences added separately (a similar trick is still used by many games to create huge outdoor environments). This gives the appearance of a two point perspective projection, and leads to several limitations: It is, for example, not possible for a Doom level to have one room over another. This two-dimensional representation does, however, have the benefit that rendering can be done very quickly, using a binary space partitioning method. Another benefit was the clarity of the automap, because it could be displayed with 2D vectors without the risk of overlapping. Another important feature of the Doom engine is a modular approach that allows the game content to be replaced by loading custom WAD files. Wolfenstein 3D was not designed to be expandable, but fans had nevertheless figured out how to create their own levels for it, and Doom was designed to take the phenomenon further. The ability to create custom scenarios contributed significantly to the game's popularity (see the section on WADs below). Release and later history Initial popularity The development of Doom was surrounded by much anticipation. The large number of posts in Internet newsgroups about Doom led to the SPISPOPD SPISPOPD = Smashing Pumpkins Into Small Piles Of Putrid Debris Details here. joke, to which a nod was given in the game in the form of a cheat code. In addition to news, rumors and screenshots, unauthorized leaked alpha versions also circulated online. (Many years later these alpha versions were sanctioned by id Software because of historical interest; they reveal how the game progressed from its early design stages. Links, screenshots and downloads about Doom alpha versions ) The first public version of Doom was uploaded to Software Creations BBS and an FTP server at the University of Wisconsin-Madison on December 10, 1993.Doom was released as shareware, with people encouraged to distribute it further. They did so: in 1995, Doom was estimated to have been installed on more than 10 million computers. Although most users did not purchase the registered version, over one million copies have been sold, and the popularity helped the sales of later games in the Doom series that were not released as shareware. In 1995, The Ultimate Doom (version 1.9, including episode IV) was released, making this the first time that Doom was sold commercially in stores. In a press release dated January 1, 1993, id Software had written that they expected Doom to be "the number one cause of decreased productivity in businesses around the world". This prediction came true at least in part: Doom became a major problem at workplaces, both occupying the time of employees and clogging computer networks with traffic caused by deathmatches. Intel, Lotus Development and Carnegie Mellon University are among many organizations reported to form policies specifically disallowing Doom-playing during work hours. At the Microsoft campus, Doom was by one account equal to a "religious phenomenon". In late 1995, Doom was estimated to be installed on more computers worldwide than Microsoft's new operating system Windows 95, despite million-dollar advertising campaigns for the latter. The game's popularity prompted Bill Gates to briefly consider buying id Software, and led Microsoft to develop a Windows 95 port of Doom to promote the operating system as a gaming platform. One such presentation to promote Windows 95 had Bill Gates digitally superimposed into the game. The Microsoft 1995 release Excel 95 included a Doom-esque secret level as an Easter egg containing portraits of the programmers among other things. It is speculated that Microsoft engineers took advantage of their experience working on the Doom Windows 95 port to place the code in the spreadsheet program. Easter Egg archive - Excel 95 Doom was also widely praised in the gaming press. In 1994, it was awarded Game of the Year by both PC Gamer and Computer Gaming World. It also received the Award for Technical Excellence from PC Magazine, and the Best Action Adventure Game award by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences. In addition to the thrilling nature of the single-player game, the deathmatch mode was an important factor in the game's popularity. Doom was not the first first-person shooter with a deathmatch mode—MIDI Maze on the Atari ST had one in 1987, using the MIDI ports built into the ST to network up to four machines together. However, Doom was the first game to allow deathmatching over ethernet, and the combination of violence and gore with fighting friends made deathmatching in Doom particularly attractive. Two-player multiplayer was also possible over a phone line by using a modem, or by linking two PCs with a null-modem cable. Due to its widespread distribution, Doom hence became the game that introduced deathmatching to a large audience (and was also the first game to use the term "deathmatch"). WADs The ability to create custom levels and otherwise modify the game, in the form of custom WAD files, turned out to be a particularly popular aspect of Doom. Gaining the first large mod-making community, Doom affected the culture surrounding first-person shooters, and also the industry. Several to-be professional game designers started their careers making Doom WADs as a hobby, among them Tim Willits, who later became the lead designer at id Software. The first level editors appeared in early 1994, and additional tools have been created that allow most aspects of the game to be edited. Although the majority of WADs contain one or several custom levels mostly in the style of the original game, others implement new monsters and other resources, and heavily alter the gameplay; several popular movies, television series, other video games and other brands from popular culture have been turned into Doom WADs by fans (without authorization), including Aliens, Star Wars, The X-Files, The Simpsons, South Park, Sailor Moon, Dragon Ball Z, Red Faction, Pokémon and Batman. Some works, like the Theme Doom Patch, combined enemies from several films, such as Aliens, Predator and The Terminator. Some add-on files were also made which changed the sounds made by the various characters and weapons. Notable ones were samples from Beavis and Butthead and the famous faked orgasm scene from When Harry Met Sally.... Around 1994 and 1995, WADs were primarily distributed online over bulletin board systems or sold in collections on compact discs in computer shops, sometimes bundled with editing guide books. FTP servers became the primary method in later years. A few WADs have been released commercially, including the Master Levels for Doom II, which was released in 1995 along with Maximum Doom, a CD containing 1,830 WADs that had been downloaded from the Internet. Several thousands of WADs have been created in total: the idgames FTP archive contains over 13,000 files, and this does not represent the complete output of Doom fans. Third party programs were also written to handle the loading of various WADs, since the game is a DOS game and all commands had to be entered on the command line to run. A typical launcher would allow the player to select which files to load from a menu, making it much easier to start. Clones and related products The popularity of Doom led to the development of a sequel, Doom II: Hell on Earth (1994), as well as expansion packs and alternate versions based on the same game engine, including The Ultimate Doom (1995), Final Doom (1996), and Doom 64 (1997). Doom became a "killer app" that all capable consoles and operating systems were expected to have, and versions of Doom have subsequently been released for the following systems: DOS, Microsoft Windows, Amiga, QNX, Irix, NEXTSTEP, Linux, Apple Macintosh, Super NES, Sega 32X, Sony PlayStation, Game Boy Advance, RISC OS, Atari Jaguar, Sega Saturn, Nintendo 64, Tapwave Zodiac, 3DO, Xbox as a feature of Doom 3: Limited Edition, and Xbox 360 on Xbox Live Arcade. The total number of copies of Doom games sold is unknown, but may be well over 4 million; Doom II alone has earned over $100 million in total sales. The game engine was licensed to several other companies as well, who released their own games based on it, including Heretic, Hexen, Strife and HacX. There is also a Doom-based game released by a breakfast cereal maker as a product tie-in called Chex Quest, and the United States Marine Corps released Marine Doom, designed to "teach teamwork, coordination and decision-making". Dozens of new first-person shooter titles appeared following Doom's release, and they were often referred to as "Doom clones" rather than "first-person shooters". Some of these were certainly "clones" — hastily assembled and quickly forgotten — others explored new grounds of the genre and were highly acclaimed. Many of the games closely imitated features in Doom such as the selection of weapons and cheat codes. Doom's principal rivals were Apogee's Rise of the Triad and Looking Glass Studios' System Shock (which, unlike Doom, featured true 3D gameplay). The popularity of Star Wars-themed WADs is rumored to have been the factor that prompted LucasArts to create their first-person shooter Dark Forces. When, three years later, 3D Realms released Duke Nukem 3D, a tongue-in-cheek science fiction shooter based on Ken Silverman's technologically similar Build engine, id Software had nearly finished Quake, its next-generation game, which mirrored Dooms success for the remainder of the 1990s and significantly reduced interest in its predecessor. The franchise remained in that state until 2000, when Doom 3 was announced. A retelling of the original Doom using entirely new graphics technology, Doom 3 was hyped to provide as large a leap in realism and interactivity as the original Doom, and helped renew interest in the Doom franchise when it was released.Doom has appeared in several forms in addition to games, including a comic book, four novels by Dafydd Ab Hugh and Brad Linaweaver (loosely based on events and locations in the games), and a film starring Karl Urban and The Rock released in 2005. The game's development and impact on popular culture is also the subject of the book Masters of Doom by David Kushner. ControversyDoom was and remains notorious for its high levels of violence, gore, and satanic imagery, which have generated much controversy from a broad range of groups. Yahoo! Games has it listed as one of the top ten controversial games of all time. It has been criticized numerous times by religious organizations for its diabolic undertones and was dubbed a "mass murder simulator" by critic and Killology Research Group founder David Grossman. Doom prompted fears that the then-emerging virtual reality technology could be used to simulate extremely realistic killing, and in 1994 led to unsuccessful attempts by Washington state senator Phil Talmadge to introduce compulsory licensing of VR use. The game again sparked controversy throughout a period of school shootings in the United States when it was found that Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, who committed the Columbine High School massacre in 1999, were avid players of the game. While planning for the massacre, Harris said that the killing would be "like fucking Doom" and that his shotgun was "straight out of the game". A rumor spread afterwards that Harris had designed Doom levels that looked like the halls of the high school, populated with representations of Harris's classmates and teachers, and that Harris practiced for his role in the shootings by playing these levels over and over. Although Harris did design Doom levels, they were not simulations of Columbine High School. While Doom and other violent video games have been blamed for nation-wide school shootings, recent research featured by Greater Good Science Center Playing the Blame Game article from Greater Good magazine shows that the two are not closely related. Harvard medical school researchers Cheryl Olson and Lawrence Kutner found that violent video games did not correlate to school shootings. The U.S. Secret Service and Department of Education analyzed 37 incidents of school violence and sought to develop a profile of school shooters, they discovered that the most common traits among shooters were that they were male and had histories of depression and attempted suicide. While many of the killers- like the vast majority of young males- did play video games, this study did not find a relationship between game play and school shootings. In fact, only one eighth of the shooters showed any special interest in violent video games, far less than the number of shooters who seemed attracted to books and movies with violent content. Continued legacyDoom is widely regarded as one of the most important titles in gaming history. It was voted the "#1 game of all time" in a poll among over 100 game developers and journalists conducted by GameSpy in July 2001, and PC Gamer proclaimed Doom the most influential game of all time in its ten-year anniversary issue in April 2004, and named it the second best game of all time a year later (number one was Half-Life). Although the popularity of the Doom games dropped with the release of Duke Nukem 3D (1996) and Quake (1996), the game had still retained a strong fan base that continues to this day by playing competitively and creating WADs (the idgames FTP archive receives a few to a dozen new WADs each week ), and Doom-related news is still tracked at multiple websites such as Doomworld. Interest in Doom was renewed in 1997, when the source code for the Doom engine was released (it was also placed under the GNU General Public License in 1999). Fans then began porting the game to various operating systems, even to previously unsupported platforms such as the Dreamcast, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS, TI calculators, the iPod, the Wii and most recently the T-Mobile G1. As for the PC, there has been additions of new features such as OpenGL rendering and scripting, which allows WADs to alter the gameplay more radically. There are well over 50 different Doom source ports, some of which remain under active development. Devoted players have spent years creating speedruns for Doom, competing for the quickest completion times and sharing knowledge about routes through the levels and how to exploit bugs in the Doom engine for shortcuts. Achievements include the completion of both Doom and Doom II on the Ultra-Violence difficulty setting in less than 30 minutes each. In addition, a few players have also managed to complete Doom II in a single run on the Nightmare! difficulty setting, on which monsters are more aggressive, launch faster projectiles (or, in the case of the Pinky Demon, simply move faster), and respawn roughly 30 seconds after they have been killed (level designer John Romero characterized the idea of such a run as "[just having to be] impossible" ). Movies of most of these runs are available from the COMPET-N website. Online co-op and deathmatch play still continues on servers listed through services such as Odamex, Skulltag ZDaemon. and Doom Connector. References External links Official website Ultimate Doom at id Software Unofficial portal websites with Doom-related news and content Doomworld – Doomworld NewDoom Planet Doom on GameSpy Information resources 1993: DOOM – John Romero's Doom page Compet-n – the main Doom speedrunning website The Page of Doom – articles about the history of the Doom'' games Classic Doom - FAQs, Info, Maps, collection of useful resources

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Currency

Currency is money accepted for exchange of goods in an economy. The prevalence of one money over another arises, usually, when a government designates through decrees that the government shall accept only particular notes and coins in payment for taxes. Typically, money of currency consists of stamped coins and minted paper bills. Control and production In most cases, each private central bank has monopoly control over the supply and production of its own currency. To facilitate trade between these currency zones, there are exchange rates, which are the prices at which currencies (and the goods and services of individual currency zones) can be exchanged against each other. Currencies can be classified as either floating currencies or fixed currencies based on their exchange rate regime. In cases where a country does have control of its own currency, that control is exercised either by a central bank or by a Ministry of Finance. In either case, the institution that has control of monetary policy is referred to as the monetary authority. Monetary authorities have varying degrees of autonomy from the governments that create them. In the United States, the Federal Reserve System operates without direct oversight by the legislative or executive branches. It is important to note that a monetary authority is created and supported by its sponsoring government, so independence can be reduced or revoked by the legislative or executive authority that creates it. However, in practical terms, the revocation of authority is not likely. In almost all Western countries, the monetary authority is largely independent from the government. Currencies around the world. Several countries can use the same name for their own distinct currencies (e.g., dollar in Canada and the United States). By contrast, several countries can also use the same currency (e.g., the euro), or one country can declare the currency of another country to be legal tender. For example, Panama and El Salvador have declared U.S. currency to be legal tender, and from 1791–1857, Spanish silver coins were legal tender in the United States. At various times countries have either re-stamped foreign coins, or used currency board issuing one note of currency for each note of a foreign government held, as Ecuador currently does. Each currency typically has a main currency unit (the U.S. dollar, for example, or the euro) and a fractional currency, often valued at of the main currency: 100 cents = 1 dollar, 100 centimes = 1 franc, 100 pence = 1 pound, although units of or are also common. Some currencies do not have any smaller units at all, such as the Icelandic króna. Mauritania and Madagascar are the only remaining countries that do not use the decimal system; instead, the Mauritanian ouguiya is divided into 5 khoums, while the Malagasy ariary is divided into 5 iraimbilanja. In these countries, words like dollar or pound "were simply names for given weights of gold." Due to inflation khoums and iraimbilanja have in practice fallen into disuse. (See non-decimal currencies for other historic currencies with non-decimal divisions.) History Early currency The origin of currency is the creation of a circulating medium of exchange based on a unit of account which quickly becomes a store of value. Currency evolved from two basic innovations: the use of counters to assure that shipments arrived with the same goods that were shipped, and later with the use of silver ingots to represent stored value in the form of grain. Both of these developments had occurred by 2000 BC. Originally money was a form of receipting grain stored in temple granaries in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. This first stage of currency, where metals were used to represent stored value, and symbols to represent commodities, formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. However, the collapse of the Near Eastern trading system pointed to a flaw: in an era where there was no place that was safe to store value, the value of a circulating medium could only be as sound as the forces that defended that store. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military. By the late Bronze Age, however, a series of international treaties had established safe passage for merchants around the Eastern Mediterranean, spreading from Minoan Crete and Mycenae in the northwest to Elam and Bahrein in the southeast. Although it is not known what functioned as a currency to facilitate these exchanges, it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought this trading system to an end. It was only with the recovery of Phoenician trade in the ninth and tenth centuries BC that saw a return to prosperity, and the appearance of real coinage, possibly first in Anatolia with Croesus of Lydia and subsequently with the Greeks and Persians. In Africa many forms of value store have been used including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, ochre and other earth oxides, and so on. The manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to buy and sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many places various forms of barter still apply. Coinage These factors led to the shift of the store of value being the metal itself: at first silver, then both silver and gold. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins. This was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they also created a new unit of account, which helped lead to banking. Archimedes' principle was that the next link in currency occurred: coins could now be easily tested for their fine weight of metal, and thus the value of a coin could be determined, even if it had been shaved, debased or otherwise tampered with (see Numismatics). In most major economies using coinage, copper, silver and gold formed three tiers of coins. Gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities. Silver coins were used for large, but common, transactions, and as a unit of account for taxes, dues, contracts and fealty, while copper coins represented the coinage of common transaction. This system had been used in ancient India since the time of the Mahajanapadas. In Europe, this system worked through the medieval period because there was virtually no new gold, silver or copper introduced through mining or conquest. Thus the overall ratios of the three coinages remained roughly equivalent. Era of hard and credit money In premodern China, the need for credit and for circulating a medium that was less of a burden than exchanging thousands of copper coins led to the introduction of paper money, commonly known today as banknotes. This economic phenomenon was a slow and gradual process that took place from the late Tang Dynasty (618–907) into the Song Dynasty (960–1279). It began as a means for merchants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of deposit issued as promissory notes from shops of wholesalers, notes that were valid for temporary use in a small regional territory. In the 10th century, the Song Dynasty government began circulating these notes amongst the traders in their monopolized salt industry. The Song government granted several shops the sole right to issue banknotes, and in the early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state-issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still regionally-valid and temporary; it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform government issue of paper money was made into an acceptable nationwide currency. The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Bi Sheng's movable type printing by the 11th century was the impetus for the massive production of paper money in premodern China. At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world, a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th–12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar). Innovations introduced by Muslim economists, traders and merchants include the earliest uses of credit, Jairus Banaji (2007), "Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism", Journal Historical Materialism 15 (1), p. 47–74, Brill Publishers. cheques, promissory notes, Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0231123574. savings accounts, transactional accounts, loaning, trusts, exchange rates, the transfer of credit and debt, Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79–96 [93]. and banking institutions for loans and deposits. Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79–96 [81–84]. In Europe paper money was first introduced in Sweden in 1661. Sweden was rich in copper, thus, because of copper's low value, extraordinarily big coins (often weighing several kilograms) had to be made. Because the coin was so big, it was probably more convenient to carry a note stating your possession of such a coin than to carry the coin itself. The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced transport of gold and silver, and thus lowered the risks; it made loaning gold or silver at interest easier, since the specie (gold or silver) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; and it allowed for a division of currency into credit and specie backed forms. It enabled the sale of stock in joint stock companies, and the redemption of those shares in paper. However, these advantages held within them disadvantages. First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more of it than they had specie to back it with. Second, because it created money that did not exist, it increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by David Hume in the 18th century. The result is that paper money would often lead to an inflationary bubble, which could collapse if people began demanding hard money, causing the demand for paper notes to fall to zero. The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a standing army. For these reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and America. It was also addictive, since the speculative profits of trade and capital creation were quite large. Major nations established mints to print money and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold and silver stock. Legal tender era With the creation of central banks, currency underwent several significant changes. During both the coinage and credit money eras the number of entities which had the ability to coin or print money was quite large. One could, literally, have "a license to print money"; many nobles had the right of coinage. Royal colonial companies, such as the Massachusetts Bay Company or the British East India Company could issue notes of credit—money backed by the promise to pay later, or exchangeable for payments owed to the company itself. This led to continual instability of the value of money. The exposure of coins to debasement and shaving, however, presented the same problem in another form: with each pair of hands a coin passed through, its value grew less. The solution which evolved beginning in the late 18th century and through the 19th century was the creation of a central monetary authority which had a virtual monopoly on issuing currency, and whose notes had to be accepted for "all debts public and private". The creation of a truly national currency, backed by the government's store of precious metals, and enforced by their military and governmental control over an area was, in its time, extremely controversial. Advocates of the old system of Free Banking repealed central banking laws, or slowed down the adoption of restrictions on local currency. (See Gold standard for a fuller discussion of the creation of a standard gold based currency). At this time both silver and gold were considered legal tender, and accepted by governments for taxes. However, the instability in the ratio between the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increase both in supply of these metals, particularly silver, and of trade. This is called bimetallism and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States Greenback, to pay for military expenditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed. By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium. Private banks and governments across the world followed Gresham's Law: keeping gold and silver paid, but paying out in notes. This did not happen all around the world at the same time, but occurred sporadically, generally in times of war or financial crisis, beginning in the early part of the 20th century and continuing across the world until the late 20th century, when the regime of floating fiat currencies came into force. One of the last countries to break away from the gold standard was the United States in 1971. Prior to this final, President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the confiscation of all private holdings of gold, and permitted the private banks to confiscate gold deposits pursuant to Presidential Executive Order number 6102, which effectively confiscated all privately held gold in the United States on April 5, 1933. No country anywhere in the world today has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system. Banknote era A banknote (more commonly known as a bill in the United States and Canada) is a type of currency, and commonly used as legal tender in many jurisdictions. With coins, banknotes make up the cash form of all money. Modern currencies To find out which currency is used in a particular country, check list of circulating currencies. Currently, the International Organization for Standardization has introduced a three-letter system of codes (ISO 4217) to define currency (as opposed to simple names or currency signs), in order to remove the confusion that there are dozens of currencies called the dollar and many called the franc. Even the pound is used in nearly a dozen different countries, all, of course, with wildly differing values. In general, the three-letter code uses the ISO 3166-1 country code for the first two letters and the first letter of the name of the currency (D for dollar, for instance) as the third letter. United States currency, for instance is globally referred to as USD. The International Monetary Fund uses a variant system when referring to national currencies. For exchange rates, see exchange rate and tables of historical exchange rates. Local currencies In economics, a local currency is a currency not backed by a national government, and intended to trade only in a small area. Advocates such as Jane Jacobs argue that this enables an economically depressed region to pull itself up, by giving the people living there a medium of exchange that they can use to exchange services and locally-produced goods (In a broader sense, this is the original purpose of all money.) Opponents of this concept argue that local currency creates a barrier which can interfere with economies of scale and comparative advantage, and that in some cases they can serve as a means of tax evasion. Local currencies can also come into being when there is economic turmoil involving the national currency. An example of this is the Argentinian economic crisis of 2002 in which IOUs issued by local governments quickly took on some of the characteristics of local currencies. Proposed currencies Amero: American currency union (hypothetical) Asian Currency Unit: proposed for the ASEAN +3 Bancor: an international currency proposed by John Maynard Keynes in the negotiations that established the Bretton Woods system (never implemented) Currency for Caribbean area CARICOM Single Market (CSM) ratified. This article mentions a single currency but does not speculate on a name —CARICOM states except the Bahamas. East African shilling: East African Community (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda) Eco: West African Monetary Zone (Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, possibly Liberia) Khaleeji (currency): Gulf Cooperation Council (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates) Metica: Mozambique (never implemented) Perun: Montenegro (never implemented) See also Exchange rate Foreign exchange Foreign exchange reserves History of money Optimum currency area World currency Accounting units Currency pair Currency sign European Currency Unit Fictional currency Franc Poincaré Krugerrand Local currencies Petrocurrency Special Drawing Rights Lists List of circulating currencies List of currencies List of fictional currencies List of historical currencies List of historical exchange rates List of international trade topics List of motifs on banknotes References be-x-old:Валюта (фінансы)

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Fare

A fare is the fee paid by a traveler allowing him or her to make use of a public transport system: rail, bus, taxi, etc. In the case of air transport, the term airfare is often used. Uses The fare paid is a contribution to the operational costs of the transport system involved, either partial (as is frequently the case with publicly supported systems) or total. Many bus and rail systems in the United States recover only around one-third of their operational costs from fares (the farebox recovery ratio). The rules regarding how and when fares are to be paid and for how long they remain valid are many and varied. Rail and bus systems usually require the payment of fares on or before boarding. In the case of taxis and other vehicles for hire, payment is normally made at the end of the ride. Some systems allow transfers: that is to say that a single payment permits travel within a particular geographical zone or time period. Such an arrangement is helpful for people who need to transfer from one route to another in order to reach their destination. Sometimes transfers are valid in one direction only, requiring a new fare to be paid for the return trip. In the United Kingdom certain Train Operating Companies, such as South West Trains and Southern, have Revenue Protection Inspectors who can issue penalty fares to passengers who travel without a valid ticket. This is currently a minimum of £20 or twice the single fare for the journey made. In Toronto, the local transit agency charges $500 for people evading a fare, over 181 times the cost of a regular fare. Farebox A device used to collect fares and tickets on street cars, trains and buses upon entry, replacing the need for a separate conductor. Nearly all major metropolitan transit agencies in the United States and Canada use a farebox to collect or validate fare payment. The first farebox was invented by Tom Loftin Johnson in 1880 Sheridan, Micheal J. - Johnson Farebox Company History and was used on streetcars built by the St. Louis Streetcar Co. Early models would catch coins and then sort them once the fare was accepted or "rung up". Later models after World War II had a counting function that would allow the fares to be added together so that a total per shift could be maintained by the transit revenue department. Fareboxes did not change again until around 1984, when fares in many larger cities reached $1.00 and the first dollar bill accepting farebox was put into service. In 2006, new fareboxes had the capability of accepting cash, credit, or smartcard transactions, and issuing day passes and transfers for riders. GFI Genfare is currently is one of the largest manufacturers of fareboxes in the world. References See also Ticket systems on public transport Ticket Zero-fare Free travel pass Toll road Toll bridge

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Big_Brother_(Nineteen_Eighty-Four)

Big Brother is a fictional character in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, the enigmatic dictator of Oceania, a totalitarian state taken to its utmost logical consequence - where the ruling elite ('the Party') wield total power for its own sake over the inhabitants. In the society that Orwell describes, everyone is under complete surveillance by the authorities, mainly by telescreens. The people are constantly reminded of this by the phrase "Big Brother is watching you", which is the core "truth" of the propaganda system in this state. Big Brother's physical characteristics are intended to resemble Joseph Stalin, although in the film his moustache more closely resembles Adolf Hitler's. Purported origins of Big Brother In the essay section of his novel 1985, Anthony Burgess states that Orwell got the idea for Big Brother from advertising hoardings current during World War II, for educational correspondence courses from a company called Bennett's. The original posters showed Bennett himself; a kindly looking old man offering guidance and support to would-be students with the phrase "Let me be your father" attached. After Bennett's death however, his son took over the company and the posters were replaced with pictures of the son (who looked imposing and stern in contrast to his father's kindly demeanor) with the text "Let me be your big brother." Appearance in the novel Existence Big Brother's face looms from giant telescreens in Victory Square (the location is Alexandra Palace in Muswell Hill, north London) in Michael Radford's 1984 film adaptation of George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four. In the novel, it is unclear if Big Brother is a man or an image crafted by the Party. In Party propaganda, however, Big Brother is presented as a real person; one of the founders of the Party along with Goldstein. At one point in the year 1984, the protagonist of Orwell's novel tries "to remember in what year he had first heard mention of Big Brother. He thought it must have been at some time in the sixties, but it was impossible to be certain. In the Party histories, of course, Big Brother figured as the leader and guardian of the Revolution since its very earliest days. His exploits had been gradually pushed backwards in time until already they extended into the fabulous world of the forties and the thirties, when the capitalists in their strange cylindrical hats still rode through the streets of London in great gleaming motor-cars or horse carriages with glass sides. There was no knowing how much of this legend was true and how much invented." In the year 1984, Big Brother (as seen on posters and on the telescreen) appears as a man of about 45. Goldstein's book comments: "We may be reasonably sure that he will never die, and there is already considerable uncertainty as to when he was born." Love of Big Brother A spontaneous ritual of devotion to Big Brother ("BB") is illustrated at the end of the "Two Minutes Hate": Though Oceania's Ministry of Truth, Ministry of Plenty, and Ministry of Peace each have names with meanings inverse to their purpose, the Ministry of Love is perhaps the most straightforward, in that rehabilitated thought criminals leave the Ministry as loyal subjects who love Big Brother (albeit only after having undergone a rigorous campaign of torture). Response to Big Brother today Since the publication of Nineteen Eighty-Four, the phrase "Big Brother" has entered general usage, to describe any overly-inquisitive or overly-controlling authority figure or attempts by government to increase surveillance. The magazine Book ranked Big Brother #59 on its 100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900 list. In October 2006, the book The 101 Most Influential People Who Never Lived listed Big Brother as #2. 101 Most Influential People Who Never Lived Wizard Magazine rated him the 75th greatest villain of all time. Wizard #177 The worldwide reality television show, Big Brother, is based on the concept of people always being watched and being under constant surveillance from this novel. In 2000, after the U.S. version of the CBS program "Big Brother" premiered, the Estate of George Orwell sued CBS and its production company named "Orwell Productions, Inc." in federal court in Chicago for copyright and trademark infringement. The case was Estate of Orwell v. CBS, 00-c-5034 (ND Ill). On the eve of trial, the case settled worldwide to the parties' "mutual satisfaction". The amount that CBS paid to the Orwell Estate was not disclosed. CBS had made no effort whatsoever to get permission from the Estate. The novel 1984 will remain under copyright protection until 2044. Inspirations Big Brother served for an inspiration of an advertisement by Apple for their new computer, the Macintosh. In this 1984 television commercial, IBM is portrayed as Big Brother, whilst the Mac is represented as the heroine, smashing the "Big Brother" with a hammer. Finally, it says "Why 1984 won't be like 1984". The Estate of George Orwell, through its licensee, sent a "cease-and-desist" letter to Apple's ad agency after the ad first appeared, stating that the ad violated copyright and trademark laws. Apple had never sought permission from the Estate, but had only planned on showing it once, during the Super Bowl. The advertisement was never telecast again, not due to Apple's fear of the Orwell estate, but rather because they had originally planned it this way. References See also Cult of personality Mass surveillance Narcotizing Dysfunction Panopticon Totalitarianism 1984 (television commercial) Internet censorship in Australia

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Aoraki_%2F_Mount_Cook

Aoraki/Mount Cook is the highest mountain in New Zealand, reaching a height of . It lies in the Southern Alps, the mountain range which runs the length of the South Island. A popular tourist destination, it is also a favourite challenge for mountain climbers. Aoraki/Mt Cook consists of three summits lying slightly south and east of the main divide, the Low Peak, Middle Peak and High Peak, with the Tasman Glacier to the east and the Hooker Glacier to the west. Location The mountain is in the Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, which was gazetted in 1953 and along with Westland National Park is one of the United Nations World Heritage Parks. The park contains more than 140 peaks standing over and 72 named glaciers, which cover 40 percent of the park's . The settlement of Mount Cook Village (also known as The Hermitage) is a tourist centre and base camp for the mountain. It is 7 km from the end of the Tasman Glacier and 12 km south of Aoraki/Mount Cook's summit. Naming and European discovery Aoraki/Mount Cook seen from the south, taken from a glider flying at Aoraki means "Cloud Piercer" in the Ngāi Tahu dialect of the Māori language. Historically, the Māori name has been spelt Aorangi in the "canonical" Māori form. The first European known to see Aoraki/Mount Cook was Abel Tasman, on December 13, 1642 during his first Pacific voyage. The English name of Mount Cook was given by Captain John Lort Stokes to honour Captain James Cook who first surveyed and circumnavigated the islands of New Zealand in 1770. Captain Cook did not sight the mountain during his exploration. Following the settlement between Ngāi Tahu and the Crown in 1998, the name of the mountain was officially changed from Mount Cook to Aoraki/Mount Cook to incorporate its historic Māori name, Aoraki. As part of the settlement, a number of South Island placenames were amended to incorporate their original Māori name. Signifying the importance of Aoraki/Mount Cook, it is the only one of these names where the Māori name precedes the English. Under the settlement the Crown agreed to return title to Aoraki/Mount Cook to Ngāi Tahu, who then formally gifted it back to the nation. Geology Aoraki/Mount Cook from LandSat The Southern Alps on the South Island are formed by tectonic uplifting and pressure as the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates collide along the island's western coast. The uplifting continues, raising Aoraki/Mount Cook an average of 7 mm (just over a quarter of an inch) each year. However, erosive forces are also powerful shapers of the mountains. The severe weather is due to the mountain's jutting into powerful westerly winds of the Roaring Forties which run around approximately 45°S latitude, south of both Africa and Australia. The Southern Alps are the first obstacle the winds encounter after South America as they blow easterly across the Southern Ocean. The height of Aoraki/Mount Cook was established in 1881 by G.J. Roberts (from the West side) and in 1889 by T.N.Brodrick (from the Canterbury side). Their measurements agreed closely at 12,349 ft. The height was reduced by when approximately 10 million cubic metres of rock and ice fell off the northern peak on 14 December 1991. Climbing Aoraki/Mount Cook is a challenging ascent, with frequent storms and very steep snow and ice climbing to reach the peak. It is a triple peak, with the north peak (High Peak) being the highest. The standard tourist view of Aoraki/Mount Cook from The Hermitage Hotel, Mount Cook Village First attempt The first recorded European attempt on the summit was made by the Irishman Rev. William S. Green and the Swiss hotelier Emil Boss and the Swiss mountain guide Ulrich Kaufmann on 2 March 1882, but it was subsequently established that they were 50 m short of the true summit. First ascents On 25 December 1894 New Zealanders Tom Fyfe, James (Jack) Clarke and George Graham successfully reached the summit via the Hooker Valley and the north ridge. Haynes, J. (1994) Piercing the Clouds. Tom Fyffe: First to climb Mt Cook. Hazard Press, New Zealand, ISBN 0-908790-64-3. Swiss guide Matthias Zurbriggen made the second ascent on 14 March 1895 from the Tasman Glacier side, via the ridge that now bears his name. This is credited as the first solo ascent, although Zurbriggen was accompanied part of the way up the ridge by J Adamson. After Zurbriggen's ascent it was another ten years before the mountain was climbed again. In February 1905 James Clarke with four others completed the third ascent following Zurbriggen's route. So Clarke therefore became the first person to do a repeat ascent. The first woman to ascend the mountain was Freda du Faur, an Australian, on 3 December 1910. Local guide George Bannister, a descendant of Te Koeti Turanga of Ngāi Tahu, was the first Maori to successfully scale the peak in 1912. Mountaineering - Guided climbing - Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand A traverse of the three peaks was first accomplished in 1913 by Freda du Faur and guides Peter and Alex Graham. Ed Hillary made his first ascent in January 1947. In February 1948 with three others he made the first ascent of the South Ridge to the Low Peak. Forests and glaciers The average annual rainfall in the surrounding lowlands is around . This very high rainfall leads to temperate rain forests in the coastal lowlands and a reliable source of snow in the mountains to keep the glaciers flowing. These include the Tasman and Murchison Glaciers to the east and the smaller Hooker and Mueller Glaciers to the south. Area history Aoraki/Mt Cook at Dusk viewed from the Tekapo Canal 1642 - Aoraki sighted by Abel Tasman - Māori knew it for centuries before this 1770 - Captain Cook named the Southern Alps 1851 - Captain Stokes of the survey ship HMS Acheron gave the name Mt Cook to Aoraki 1884 - First Hermitage built under the direction of Frank Huddleson 1894 - First ascent of Aoraki/Mount Cook, on Christmas Day, by Jack Clarke, Tom Fyfe and George Graham 1910 - Freda du Faur became the first woman to climb Aoraki/Mount Cook 1911 - The vital swing bridge is built in the Hooker Valley 1913 - First ascents of the footstool and Mt Sefton made by Freda du Faur's climbing party 1913 - Hermitage first ravaged by floods in January, then destroyed beyond repair by floods two months later 1914 - First fatal accident, when three men caught in avalanche on Linda Glacier 1914 - Second Hermitage opened, on different site 1957 - Second Hermitage razed to the ground 1959 - First school opens, Aoraki Mt Cook School 1981 - Passenger flights begin by Mount Cook Airline, now part of Air New Zealand Link 1982 - Mark Inglis trapped in schrund 1991 - Avalanche of 10 million cubic metres of snow and rock causes 10 metres to be lost off the top of Aoraki/Mount Cook 1998 - The Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act officially recognises the original name, renaming the mountain Aoraki/Mt Cook See also List of mountains of New Zealand by height References External links Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park homepage WikiTravel - Mt Cook National Park

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Fruit

Fruit basket painted by Balthasar van der Ast Fruit and vegetable output in 2004 The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context, and the term is not synonymous in food preparation and biology. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants disseminate seeds, and the presence of seeds indicates that a structure is most likely a fruit, though not all seeds come from fruits. No single terminology really fits the enormous variety that is found among plant fruits. The term 'false fruit' (pseudocarp, accessory fruit) is sometimes applied to a fruit like the fig (a multiple-accessory fruit; see below) or to a plant structure that resembles a fruit but is not derived from a flower or flowers. Some gymnosperms, such as yew, have fleshy arils that resemble fruits and some junipers have berry-like, fleshy cones. The term "fruit" has also been inaccurately applied to the seed-containing female cones of many conifers. Botanic fruit and culinary fruit Venn diagram representing the relationship between (culinary) vegetables and (botanical) fruits. Some vegetables, such as tomatoes, fall into both categories. Many true fruits, in a botanical sense, are treated as vegetables in cooking and food preparation because they are not sweet. These culinary vegetables include cucurbits (e.g., squash, pumpkin, and cucumber), tomatoes, peas, beans, corn, eggplant, and sweet pepper; some spices, such as allspice and chilies, are botanical fruits. Occasionally, though rarely, a culinary "fruit" is not a true fruit in the botanical sense. For example, rhubarb is often referred to as a fruit, because it is used to make sweet desserts such as pies, though only the petiole of the rhubarb plant is edible. In the culinary sense, a fruit is usually any sweet tasting plant product associated with seed(s), a vegetable is any savoury or less sweet plant product, and a nut any hard, oily, and shelled plant product. For a Supreme Court of the United States ruling on the matter, see Nix v. Hedden. Although a nut is a type of fruit, it is also a popular term for edible seeds, such as walnuts and pistachios. Technically, a cereal grain is a fruit termed a caryopsis. However, the fruit wall is very thin and fused to the seed coat so almost all of the edible grain is actually a seed. Therefore, cereal grains, such as corn, wheat and rice are better considered edible seeds, although some references list them as fruits. Edible gymnosperm seeds are often misleadingly given fruit names, e.g. pine nuts, ginkgo nuts, and juniper berries. Fruit development The development sequence of a typical drupe, the nectarine (Prunus persica) over a 7½ month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer (see image page for further information) A fruit is a ripened ovary. Inside the ovary is one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the mega gamete or egg cell. http://www.palaeos.com/Plants/Lists/Glossary/GlossaryL.html#M The ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with pollination, which involves the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma of flowers. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule and sperm are transferred from the pollen to the ovule, within the ovule the sperm unites with the egg, forming a diploid zygote. Fertilization in flowering plants involves both plasmogamy, the fusing of the sperm and egg protoplasm and karyogamy, the union of the sperm and egg nucleus. When the sperm enters the nucleus of the ovule and joins with the megagamete and the endosperm mother cell, the fertilization process is completed. As the developing seeds mature, the ovary begins to ripen. The ovules develop into seeds and the ovary wall, the pericarp, may become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or form a hard outer covering (as in nuts). In some cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the flower fall off. Fruit development continues until the seeds have matured. In some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The wall of the fruit, developed from the ovary wall of the flower, is called the pericarp. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp (outer layer, also called epicarp), mesocarp (middle layer), and endocarp (inner layer). In some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower (such as the floral tube, including the petals, sepals, and stamens), fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. The plant hormone ethylene causes ripening. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit. Since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. Fruits are so diverse that it is difficult to devise a classification scheme that includes all known fruits. Many common terms for seeds and fruit are incorrectly applied, a fact that complicates understanding of the terminology. Seeds are ripened ovules; fruits are the ripened ovaries or carpels that contain the seeds. To these two basic definitions can be added the clarification that in botanical terminology, a nut is not a type of fruit and not another term for seed, on the contrary to common terminology. There are three basic types of fruits: Simple fruit Aggregate fruit Multiple fruit Simple fruit Epigynous berries are simple fleshy fruit. From top right: cranberries, lingonberries, blueberries red huckleberries Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy, and result from the ripening of a simple or compound ovary with only one pistil. Dry fruits may be either dehiscent (opening to discharge seeds), or indehiscent (not opening to discharge seeds). Types of dry, simple fruits, with examples of each, are: achene – (dandelion seeds, strawberry seeds) capsule – (Brazil nut) caryopsis – (wheat) fibrous drupe – (coconut, walnut) follicle – (milkweed, magnolia) legume – (pea, bean, peanut) loment nut – (hazelnut, beech, oak acorn) samara – (elm, ash, maple key) schizocarp – (carrot seed) silique – (radish seed) silicle – (shepherd's purse) utricle – (beet) Lilium unripe capsule fruit Fruits in which part or all of the pericarp (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are simple fleshy fruits. Types of fleshy, simple fruits (with examples) are: berry – (redcurrant, gooseberry, tomato, avocado) stone fruit or drupe (plum, cherry, peach, apricot, olive) false berry – Epigynous accessory fruits (banana, cranberry, strawberry (edible part).) pome – accessory fruits (apple, pear, rosehip, saskatoon berry) Aggregate fruit Dewberry flowers. Note the multiple pistils, each of which will produce a drupelet. Each flower will become a blackberry-like aggregate fruit. An aggregate fruit, or etaerio, develops from a flower with numerous simple pistils. An example is the raspberry, whose simple fruits are termed drupelets because each is like a small drupe attached to the receptacle. In some bramble fruits (such as blackberry) the receptacle is elongated and part of the ripe fruit, making the blackberry an aggregate-accessory fruit. The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, only one in which the seeds are contained in achenes. In all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower with numerous pistils. Some kinds of aggregate fruits are called berries, yet in the botanical sense they are not. Multiple fruit A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass. Examples are the pineapple, edible fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit. In some plants, such as this noni, flowers are produced regularly along the stem and it is possible to see together examples of flowering, fruit development, and fruit ripening. In the photograph on the right, stages of flowering and fruit development in the noni or Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia) can be observed on a single branch. First an inflorescence of white flowers called a head is produced. After fertilization, each flower develops into a drupe, and as the drupes expand, they become connate (merge) into a multiple fleshy fruit called a syncarpet. There are also many dry multiple fruits, e.g. Tuliptree, multiple of samaras. Sweet gum, multiple of capsules. Sycamore and teasel, multiple of achenes. Magnolia, multiple of follicles. Fruit chart To summarize common types of fruit (examples follow in the table below): Berry – simple fruit and seeds created from a single ovary Pepo – Berries where the skin is hardened, like cucurbits Hesperidium – Berries with a rind, like most citrus fruit Epigynous berries(false berries) – Epigynous fruit made from a part of the plant other than a single ovary Compound fruit, which includes: Aggregate fruit – multiple fruits with seeds from different ovaries of a single flower Multiple fruit – fruits of separate flowers, packed closely together Other accessory fruit – where the edible part is not generated by the ovary + Types of fruit True berry Pepo Hesperidium False berry (Epigynous) Aggregate fruit Multiple fruit Other accessory fruit Blackcurrant, Redcurrant, Gooseberry, Tomato, Eggplant, Guava, Lucuma, Chili pepper, Pomegranate, Kiwifruit, Grape, Pumpkin, Gourd, Cucumber, Melon Orange, Lemon, Lime, Grapefruit Banana, Cranberry, Blueberry Blackberry, Raspberry, Boysenberry, Hedge apple Pineapple, Fig, Mulberry Apple, Apricot, Peach, Cherry, Green bean, Sunflower seed, Strawberry, plum, Seedless fruits |An arrangement of fruits commonly thought of as vegetables, including tomatoes and various squash Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits. Some cultivars of citrus fruits (especially navel oranges), satsumas, mandarin oranges table grapes, grapefruit, and watermelons are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy, where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit set may or may not require pollination. Most seedless citrus fruits require a pollination stimulus; bananas and pineapples do not. Seedlessness in table grapes results from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as stenospermocarpy which requires normal pollination and fertilization. Seed dissemination Variations in fruit structures largely depend on the mode of dispersal of the seeds they contain. This dispersal can be achieved by animals, wind, water, or explosive dehiscence. Some fruits have coats covered with spikes or hooked burrs, either to prevent themselves from being eaten by animals or to stick to the hairs, feathers or legs of animals, using them as dispersal agents. Examples include cocklebur and unicorn plant. The sweet flesh of many fruits is "deliberately" appealing to animals, so that the seeds held within are eaten and "unwittingly" carried away and deposited at a distance from the parent. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of nuts are appealing to rodents (such as squirrels) who hoard them in the soil in order to avoid starving during the winter, thus giving those seeds that remain uneaten the chance to germinate and grow into a new plant away from their parent. Other fruits are elongated and flattened out naturally and so become thin, like wings or helicopter blades, e.g. maple, tuliptree and elm. This is an evolutionary mechanism to increase dispersal distance away from the parent via wind. Other wind-dispersed fruit have tiny parachutes, e.g. dandelion and salsify. Coconut fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean to spread seeds. Some other fruits that can disperse via water are nipa palm and screw pine. Some fruits fling seeds substantial distances (up to 100 m in sandbox tree) via explosive dehiscence or other mechanisms, e.g. impatiens and squirting cucumber. Uses Nectarines are one of many fruits that can be easily stewed. ממוזער|Fruit bowl containing pomegranate,pears, apples, bananas, an orange and a Guava Many hundreds of fruits, including fleshy fruits like apple, peach, pear, kiwifruit, watermelon and mango are commercially valuable as human food, eaten both fresh and as s, marmalade and other preserves. Fruits are also in manufactured foods like cookies, muffins, yoghurt, ice cream, cakes, and many more. Many fruits are used to make beverages, such as fruit juices (orange juice, apple juice, grape juice, etc) or alcoholic beverages, such as wine or brandy. Apples are often used to make vinegar.Fruits are also used for gift giving, Fruit Basket and Fruit Bouquet are some common forms of fruit gifts. Many vegetables are botanical fruits, including tomato, bell pepper, eggplant, okra, squash, pumpkin, green bean, cucumber and zucchini. Olive fruit is pressed for olive oil. Spices like vanilla, paprika, allspice and black pepper are derived from berries. Nutritional value Fruits are generally high in fiber, water and vitamin C. Fruits also contain various phytochemicals that do not yet have an RDA/RDI listing under most nutritional factsheets, and which research indicates are required for proper long-term cellular health and disease prevention. Regular consumption of fruit is associated with reduced risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease, stroke, Alzheimer disease, cataracts, and some of the functional declines associated with aging. Nonfood uses Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet, different cultures have developed many different uses for various fruits that they do not depend on as being edible. Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements, such as unicorn plant, lotus, wheat, annual honesty and milkweed. Ornamental trees and shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits, including holly, pyracantha, viburnum, skimmia, beautyberry and cotoneaster. Fruits of opium poppy are the source of opium which contains the drugs morphine and codeine, as well as the biologically inactive chemical theabaine from which the drug oxycodone is synthysized. Osage orange fruits are used to repel cockroaches. Bayberry fruits provide a wax often used to make candles. Many fruits provide natural dyes, e.g. walnut, sumac, cherry and mulberry. Dried gourds are used as decorations, water jugs, bird houses, musical instruments, cups and dishes. Pumpkins are carved into Jack-o'-lanterns for Halloween. The spiny fruit of burdock or cocklebur were the inspiration for the invention of Velcro. Coir is a fibre from the fruit of coconut that is used for doormats, brushes, mattresses, floortiles, sacking, insulation and as a growing medium for container plants. The shell of the coconut fruit is used to make souvenir heads, cups, bowls, musical instruments and bird houses. Fruit is often also used as a subject of still life paintings. Production Top Ten fresh fruit Producers — 2005 Country Production (Int $1000) Footnote Production (MT) Footnote 1,052,766 C 6,600,000 F 438,652 C 2,750,000 F 271,167 C 1,790,000 F 255,216 C 1,600,000 F 223,314 C 1,400,000 F 223,314 C 1,400,000 F 183,436 C 1,150,000 F 129,203 C 810,000 F 82,945 C 520,000 F 78,160 C 490,000 FNo symbol = official figure,F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial figure, C = Calculated figure; Production in Int $1000 have been calculated based on 1999-2001 international prices Source: Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department: The Statistical Division Top Ten tropical fresh fruit Producers — 2005 Country Production (Int $1000) Footnote Production (MT) Footnote 389,164 C 3,400,000 F 377,718 C 3,300,000 F 335,368 C 2,930,000 F 177,413 C 2,164,000 F 131,629 C 1,150,000 F 83,556 C 730,000 F 60,893 C 532,000 F 55,513 C 485,000 F 31,934 C 279,000 F 28,615 C 250,000 FNo symbol = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial figure, C = Calculated figure; Production in Int $1000 have been calculated based on 1999-2001 international prices Source: and Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department: The Statistical Division See also List of culinary fruits Fruit trees Tutti frutti Fruitarianism References External links Images of fruit development from flowers at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu Fruit and seed dispersal images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu Fruit Facts from California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 on Fruit Photo ID of Fruits by Capt. Pawanexh Kohli be-x-old:Садавіна

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Emperor_Kinmei

Emperor Kimmei (欽明天皇 Kinmei-tennō) (509-571 CE) was the 29th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Spelling note: A modified Hepburn romanization system for Japanese words is used throughout Western publications in a range of languages including English. Unlike the standard system, the "n" is maintained even when followed by "homorganic consonants" (e.g., shinbun, not shimbun). In the same way that Wikipedia has not yet adopted a consensus policy to address spelling variations in English (e.g., humour, not humor), variant spellings based on place of articulation are unresolved, perhaps unresolvable -- as in Emperor Kimmei vs. Emperor Kinmei, which are each construed as technically correct. His reign is said to have spanned the years from 539 through 571. This reign is the first for which contemporary historiography are able to assign verifiable dates. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 34-36; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 261-262; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki. pp. 123-124. His contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven." Alternatively, Kimmei might have been referred to as (ヤマト大王/大君) or the "Great King of Yamato." Genealogy Emperor Kimmei's father was Emperor Keitai and his mother was Emperor Ninken's daughter, . Brown, p. 262. In his lifetime, he was known by the name . Kimmei had six Empresses and 25 Imperial children (16 sons and 9 daughters). According to Nihongi, he had six wives; but Kojiki only gives five wives, identifying the third consort to the sixth one. The first three were his nieces, daughters of his half brother Senka; two others were sisters, daughters of the Omi Soga no Iname Princess Ishi-Hime (or Iwa-hime), daughter of Emperor Senka by his Empress Tachibana no Nakatsu; Empress 540 ; Grand Empress 572; 3 imperial children : Imperial Prince Yata no Tamakatsu no Oe (eldest son) Imperial Prince Nunakura Futotama-Shiki (Emperor Bidatsu); born 538 (second son) Imperial Princess Kasanui (also named Princess Satake) Princess Kura Wayaka-Hime, daughter of Emperor Senka by his Empress Tachibana no Nakatsu; second consort; 1 imperial Prince : Imperial Prince Iso no Kami, born 539/540 Princess Hikage, daughter of Emperor Senka probably by a concubine; third consort; 1 imperial Prince: Imperial Prince Kura (Prince Soga no Kura) Soga no Kitashi Hime, daughter of Soga no Iname ; fourth consort; died before 612; 13 imperial children : Imperial Prince Oe or Ikebe (Emperor YOMEI); born 540 (fourth son) Imperial Princess Ihane-hime or Ihakumo, Ise Virgin; had to resign her charge being convicted of intrigue with her half brother Imperial Prince Mubaragi Imperial Prince Atori Imperial Princess Nukatabe (Empress SUIKO), born 553, died 626 Imperial Prince Maroko Imperial Princess Ohoyake Imperial Prince Iso no Kami Be (Imigako) Imperial Prince Yamashiro Imperial Princess Ohotomo or Ohomata; born about 560; married to her nephew Prince Oshisako no Hikohito no Oe, son of Emperor Bidatsu Imperial Prince Sakurawi Imperial Princess Katano Imperial Prince Tachibana Moto no Wakugo Imperial Princess Toneri, born about 565; died 603; married to her nephew Prince Tame Toyora, son of Emperor Yomei Soga no Oane hime, daughter of Soga no Iname ; fifth consort ; 5 imperial children: Imperial Prince Mubaragi Imperial Prince Katsuraki Imperial Princess Hasetsukabe no Anahobe no Hashihito, born about 560; died 621; married (A) to her half brother Emperor Yomei; married (B) to her nephew and stepson Prince Tame Toyora, son of Emperor Yomei Imperial Prince Amatsukabe Anahobe (Prince Sume-Irodo), killed 7 VI 587 Imperial Prince Hatsusebe (Emperor SUSHUN) Nukako no Iratsume, daughter of Kasuga no Hifuri no Omi ;sixth consort; 2 imperial children: Imperial Princess Kasuga no Yamada no Iratsume Imperial Prince Tachibana no Maro Events of Kimmei's life Because of several chronological discrepancies in the account of Emperor Kimmei in the Nihon Shoki, some believe that his was actually a rival court to that of Emperors Ankan and Senka. Nevertheless, according to the traditional account, it was not until the death of Emperor Kimmei's older brother Emperor Senka that he gained the throne. According to this account, Emperor Senka died in 539 at the age of 73; Varley, p. 121. and succession to the throne was received by the third son of Emperor Keitai, who was the next youngest brother of Emperor Senka. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kimmei is said to have acceded to the throne . Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and the senso and sokui for all emperors/empresses prior to Emperor Go-Murakami other than Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba and Fushimi took place within the same year.] Emperor Kimmei established his court at Shikishima no Kanazashi Palace (磯城嶋金刺宮) in Yamato. The emperor's chief counselors were: Ōomi (Great Imperial chieftan): Soga no Iname no Sukune, also known as Soga no Iname. Ōmuraji (Great Deity chieftan): Monotobe Okoshi no Muraji, also known as Mononobe no Okoshi. Ōmuraji (Great Deity chieftan): Ōtomo Kanamura Maro, also known as Nakatomi no Kanamura. [see above] Although the imperial court was not moved to the Asuka region of Japan until 592, Emperor Kimmei's rule is considered by some to be the beginning of the Asuka period of Yamato Japan, particularly by those who associate the Asuka period primarily with the introduction of Buddhism to Japan from Korea. According to the Nihon Shoki, Emperor Kimmei received a bronze statue of Buddha as a gift from the king of Paekche King Song Myong(聖明王, Seimei Ō) along with a significant envoy of artisans, monks, and other artifacts in 552. (However, according to the Jōgū Shōtoku Hōō Teisetsu, Buddhism was introduced in 538.) This episode is widely regarded as the official introduction of Buddhism to the country. With the introduction of a new religion to the court, a deep rift developed between the Mononobe clan, who supported the worship of Japan's traditional deities, and the Soga clan, who supported the adoption of Buddhism. According to one famous episode, shortly after the Soga's began worshipping the new Buddha statue, a plague broke out, which the Mononobe's promptly attributed to a curse by Japan's traditional deities as punishment for worshipping the foreign god. Mononobe no Okoshi and his men promptly threw the statue into a river in Naniwa and burned the temple that the Soga's had built to hold it. According to the Nihon Shoki, Emperor Kimmei ruled until his death in 571 and was buried in the Hinokuma no Sakai Burial Mound (桧隈坂合陵) but a stronger theory holds that he was actually buried in the Misemaruyama Tumulus (見瀬丸山古墳) located in Kashihara City (橿原市). Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult

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Andre_Agassi

Andre Kirk Agassi (born April 29, 1970) is a former World No. 1 professional American tennis player who won eight Grand Slam singles tournaments and an Olympic gold medal in singles. He is one of five men (Rod Laver, Jimmy Connors, Mats Wilander, and Rafael Nadal) to have won a Grand Slam singles title on each of the three main tennis surfaces (hard court, clay and grass). In addition to his Grand Slam and Olympic singles titles, he won the Tennis Masters Cup and was part of a winning Davis Cup team. He won 17 ATP Masters Series tournaments, more than any other player. TENNIS Magazine named him the 12th greatest player, male or female, for the period 1965 through 2005. Because of sciatica caused by two bulging discs in his back, a spondylolisthesis (vertebral displacement) and a bone spur that interferes with the nerve, Agassi retired from professional tennis on September 3, 2006, after losing in the third round of the US Open. Agassi is married to the former World no.1 women's tennis player Steffi Graf and has two children. He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation, which has raised over $60 million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada. In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K-12 public charter school for at-risk children. Early life Agassi was born in Las Vegas, Nevada to Emmanuel "Mike" Agassi and Elizabeth "Betty" Agassi (née Dudley). His father is an Assyrian http://books.google.com/books?id=5R1y1nvcWccC&pg=PA278&lpg=PA278&dq=andre+aghassi+assyrian+-wikipedia.org&source=bl&ots=MiSYlmHbHG&sig=wMd8xu9J8iOQyv_RuVwJvaJWiyc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=48&ct=result http://www.persianmirror.com/culture/famous/bios/andreagassi.cfm http://www.zindamagazine.com/html/archives/1995/zn082895.html http://www.peopleandprofiles.com/ProfilesDet-28/Andre+Agassi.html?profile_id=127 from Iran, and represented Iran in boxing at the 1948 and 1952 Olympic Games before emigrating to the United States. Mike Agassi was renowned for being very domineering over Andre. He was known to take a hammer to matches and bang on the fences in disgust when Andre lost a point. He sometimes screamed at officials and was asked to leave more than once. At the age of thirteen, Andre was sent to teaching guru Nick Bollettieri's Tennis Academy in Florida. He was meant to stay for only eight weeks because that was all his father could afford. However, after ten minutes of watching Agassi rally, Bollettieri called Mike and said, "Take your check back. He's here for free". He turned professional at the age of 16. His first tournament was in La Quinta, California. He won his first match against John Austin 6–4, 6–2 but then lost his second match to Mats Wilander 6–1, 6–1. By the end of the year, Agassi was ranked World No. 91. Playing style Agassi employed a baseline style of play, but unlike most such players, he typically made contact with the ball inside the baseline — exceptionally difficult even for professionals as this requires great reaction time. This was possible because of his short backswing and his extraordinary hand-eye coordination. These same attributes helped him aggressively return serves. John McEnroe, Jim Courier, and others have called Agassi the best service returner ever to play tennis. Many, including Brad Gilbert, call him the best ball striker in the history of tennis. Agassi was known for his ability to hit sharply angled winners from the baseline. Early on in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. In 1995, he added a backhand drop shot to his repertoire, which was one of the most effective drop shots on tour (partly due to the fact that Agassi's groundstrokes forced most opponents to play far behind the baseline). On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for the winner. This requires exceptional timing and reflexes, which Agassi was famous for; he once entered a batting cage and hit 90 mph fastballs with a bat while running toward the machine. After Agassi's rededication to tennis in 1998, he focused more on physical conditioning than in the past and became one of the fittest players on the tour. He had remarkable endurance and rarely appeared tired on court. Because of his conditioning and groundstrokes, one of Agassi's central strategies was to wear down his opponents. Agassi tried to minimize time between points, so that his opponents had as little recovery time as possible. Agassi continually put pressure on opponents by returning the ball early and at deep angles, and attempted to dictate play from the center of the baseline and make his opponent scramble. When in control of a point, Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a slightly more conservative shot, both to minimize his errors and to make his opponent run more. His penchant for running players around point after point has earned him the nickname "The Punisher". In the last year of his career, various injuries, most notably in his back, robbed Agassi of consistent speed and court coverage. As a result, players who were able to consistently hit at sharp angles with pace, particularly those who could do this on the run, gave him trouble. To make up for this weakness, Agassi began playing more aggressive shots, to keep his opponent on the defensive and deny them opportunities to run Agassi around the court. This both limited his options from the baseline and increased his errors. Agassi's serve was never the strength of his game, but it improved steadily over the course of his career, and went from being a liability to being average. He often used his hard slice serve in the deuce service box to seek to send his opponent off the court, followed by a shot to the opponent's opposite corner. He relied on a heavy kick serve for his second serve. Tennis career 1986–1993: Image is everything Agassi turned professional in 1986 and won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the Sul American Open in Itaparica. He ended the year ranked World No. 25. He won six further tournaments in 1988, and, by December of that year, he had surpassed US$2 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments – the fastest anyone in history had reached that level. His year-end ranking was World No. 3, behind second-ranked Ivan Lendl and top-ranked Mats Wilander. Both the ATP and Tennis magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988. As a young up-and-coming player, Agassi embraced a rebel image. He grew his hair to rocker length, sported an earring, and wore colorful shirts that pushed tennis' still-strict sartorial boundaries. He boasted of a cheeseburger diet and endorsed the Canon "Rebel" camera. "Image is everything" was the ad's line, and it became Agassi's as well. In addition to not playing the Australian Open (which would later become his best Grand Slam event) for the first eight years of his career, Agassi chose not to play at Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly white" dress code to which players at the event are required to conform. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semifinals of both the French Open and the US Open in 1988, and the US Open again in 1989. He began the 1990s, however, with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he lost in four sets to Andrés Gómez. His second Grand Slam final was against Pete Sampras at the US Open. The last time Agassi had played Sampras, he won 6–1, 6–1. After that match, he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it. Looking at the draw, Agassi was happy that he did not have to face Lendl or McEnroe in the final, and he planned to make Sampras hit more balls than he could handle. Despite being the favorite in the match, he lost to Sampras 6–4, 6–3, 6–2. The rivalry between these two American players became the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest of the decade. Also in 1990, Agassi helped the United States win its first Davis Cup in 8 years and won his only ATP Tour World Championship. In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final, where he faced fellow Bollettieri Academy alumnus Jim Courier. Courier emerged the victor in a five set final. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear. He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He went on to reach the quarterfinals on that occasion. To the surprise of many, Agassi's Grand Slam breakthrough came at Wimbledon, not at the French Open or the US Open where he had enjoyed so much success. In 1992, he defeated Goran Ivanišević in a five set final. Along the way, Agassi dispatched two former Wimbledon champions in Boris Becker and John McEnroe. No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon until Lleyton Hewitt ten years later, on slower, higher bouncing grass better suited for baseline play. Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year in 1992. Agassi once again was a key player on the United States' Davis Cup winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years. 1993 saw Agassi win the only doubles title of his career, at the Cincinnati Masters, partnered with Petr Korda. Agassi missed much of the early part of that year with injuries and struggled at the major events with a first-round exit at the US Open and a wrist surgery late in the year. 1994–1997: Memorable rivalries and injury Agassi started slowly in 1994, losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon. Nevertheless, Agassi emerged during the hard court season, winning the Canadian Open. His comeback culminated at the 1994 US Open with a 5-set fourth-round victory against compatriot Michael Chang and then becoming the first man to capture the US Open as an unseeded player, beating Michael Stich in the final. In 1995, Agassi shaved his balding head, breaking with his old "image is everything" style. He attended the 1995 Australian Open for the first time and won, beating Sampras in a four set final. Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995, all on hardcourt, with Agassi winning three. Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 (Cincinnati, Key Biscayne, and the Canadian Open) and seven titles total. He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hardcourt circuit, which ended when he lost the US Open final to Sampras. Agassi reached the World No. 1 ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 72 matches and lost only 10. Agassi was also once again a key player on the United States' Davis Cup winning team - the third and final Davis Cup title of Agassi's career. 1996 was a less successful year for Agassi, as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early round losses at the hands of compatriots Chris Woodruff and Doug Flach at the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively. The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the Olympic Games in Atlanta, beating Sergi Bruguera of Spain in the final 6–2, 6–3, 6–1. Agassi also successfully defended his singles titles in Cincinnati and Key Biscayne. 1997 was the low point of Agassi's career. His wrist injury resurfaced, and he played only 24 matches during the year. He won no top-level titles and his ranking sank to World No. 141 on November 10, 1997. He ultimately finished the year ranked World No. 122. Agassi was also subject to intense publicity surrounding his high-profile marriage to actress Brooke Shields. 1998–2003: Rejuvenation and return Agassi serving In 1998, Agassi rededicated himself to tennis. He began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments (a circuit for professional players ranked outside the world's top 50). Perhaps most remarkably, the one-time rebel emerged as a gracious and thoughtful athlete, admired by younger players. After winning matches, he bowed and blew two-handed kisses to spectators on each side of the court, a gesture seen as a rather humble acknowledgement of their support for him and for tennis. He played some classic matches in this period, most notably against his rival Pete Sampras and popular Australian Patrick Rafter. In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from World No. 122 at the start of the year to World No. 6 at the end of it, making it the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a single calendar year. Andre Agassi player profile He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne, losing to Marcelo Ríos, who became World No. 1 as a result of winning that tournament. Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat Andrei Medvedev in a five-set French Open final, thereby becoming only the fifth male player (joining Rod Laver, Fred Perry, Roy Emerson, and Don Budge) to have won all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. He was, however, the only male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces (clay, grass, and hard courts), a tribute to his adaptability, as the other four men won their Grand Slam titles on clay and grass courts. Agassi also became the first male player to win the Career Golden Slam, consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal. Agassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras in straight sets. He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by winning the US Open, beating Todd Martin in five sets (rallying from a 2 sets to 1 deficit) in the final. Agassi ended 1999 as the World No. 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings (1993–1998). This was the only time Agassi ended the year at number one. Agassi began the next year by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating Sampras in a five-set semifinal and Yevgeny Kafelnikov in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since Rod Laver achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. Roger Federer has since duplicated this feat, appearing in ten consecutive Grand Slam finals from 2005–2007. At the time, Agassi was also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events, missing only the Wimbledon title. Pete Sampras held the 1993 Wimbledon, 1993 US Open, and 1994 Australian Open titles simultaneously. Jimmy Connors won all three of those events in 1974, although at the time all three were on grass courts. Mats Wilander won all but Wimbledon in 1988 during his similar rise to be the year-end World No. 1. Federer has since duplicated this feat, holding all Grand Slam titles except the French Open at the end of 2004 as well as throughout 2006 and 2007. Rafael Nadal won the 2008 French Open, 2008 Wimbledon, and 2009 Australian Open. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semifinals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by many to be one of the best ever played at Wimbledon. At the inaugural Tennis Masters Cup in Lisbon, Agassi reached the final after defeating Marat Safin 6–3, 6–3 in the semifinals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest World No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to Gustavo Kuerten in the final, allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end World No. 1. Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over Arnaud Clément. Enroute, he beat a cramping Rafter (7–5, 2–6, 6–7, 6–2, 6–3) in front of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open. At Wimbledon, they met again in the semifinals, where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter, 8–6 in the fifth set. In the quarterfinals at the US Open, Agassi lost a 3 hour, 33 minute epic match Believe the hype with Sampras 6–7(7), 7–6(7), 7–6(2), 7–6(5), Unbreakable with no breaks of serve during the 48-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked World No. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 10 in three different decades (1980s - finishing World No. 3 in 1988 and No. 7 in 1989; 1990s - finishing World No. 4 in 1990, No. 10 in 1991, No. 9 in 1992, No. 2 in 1994 and 1995, No. 8 in 1996, No. 6 in 1998 and No. 1 in 1999; 2000s - finishing World No. 6 in 2000, No. 3 in 2001, No. 2 in 2002, No. 4 in 2003, No. 8 in 2004 and No. 7 in 2005). He also was the oldest player (age 31) to finish in the top three since 32-year old Connors finished at World No. 2 in 1984. 2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi, as injury forced him to skip the Australian Open, where he was a two-time defending champion. The last duel between Agassi and Sampras came in the final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match proved to be the last of Sampras's career. Agassi's US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, Rome, and Madrid, helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end World No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months. In 2003, Agassi won the eighth (and final) Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat Rainer Schüttler in straight sets in the final. In March, he won his sixth career and third consecutive Key Biscayne title, in the process surpassing wife Steffi Graf who was a 5-time winner of the event. The final was his 18th straight win in that tournament, which broke the previous record of 17 set by Sampras from 1993–1995. (Agassi's winning streak continued to 20 after winning his first two matches at the 2004 edition of that tournament before bowing to Agustín Calleri.) With the victory, Agassi became the youngest (19 years old) and oldest (32) winner of the Key Biscayne tournament. On April 28, 2003, he recaptured the World No. 1 ranking after a quarterfinal victory over Xavier Malisse at the Queen's Club Championships to become the oldest top ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. He held the World No. 1 ranking for two weeks when Lleyton Hewitt took it back on May 12, 2003. Agassi then recaptured the World No. 1 ranking once again on June 16, 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003. During his career, Agassi held the World No. 1 ranking for a total of 101 weeks. Weeks at Number One Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from many events. He did manage to reach the US Open semifinals, where he lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero and surrendered his World No. 1 ranking to Ferrero. At the year-ending Tennis Masters Cup, Agassi lost in the final to Federer and finished the year ranked World No. 4. At age 33, he was the oldest player to rank in the top five since Connors, at age 35, was World No. 4 in 1987. 2004–2006: Elder statesman of the game In 2004, the 34-year-old Agassi won the Masters series event in Cincinnati to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles, having already won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament -- all except the tournaments in Monte Carlo and Hamburg. He became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati tournament history (the tournament began in 1899), surpassed only by Ken Rosewall who won the title in 1970 at age 35. He finished the year ranked World No. 8, the oldest player to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was World No. 7 in 1988. Agassi also became only the sixth male player during the open era to reach 800 career wins with his first round victory over Alex Bogomolov in Los Angeles. Agassi's 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open. Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments but had to withdraw from several events due to injury. He lost to Jarkko Nieminen in the first round of the French Open. He won his fourth title in Los Angeles and reached the final of the Rogers Cup before falling to World No. 2 Rafael Nadal. Still, Agassi's 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the US Open final. After beating Răzvan Sabău and Ivo Karlovic in straight sets and Tomáš Berdych in four sets, Agassi won three consecutive five-set matches to advance to the final. The most notable of these matches was his quarterfinal victory over James Blake, where he rallied from two sets down to win 3–6, 3–6, 6–3, 6–3, 7–6(6). His other five-set victims were Xavier Malisse in the fourth round and Robby Ginepri in the semifinals. In the final, Agassi faced Federer, who was seeking his second consecutive US Open title and his fifth Grand Slam title in two years. Federer defeated Agassi in four sets, although Agassi gave him a scare when Agassi was up a break in the third set after splitting the first two sets. Before the 2005 Tennis Masters Cup in Shanghai, Agassi rolled his ankle in a racquetball accident and tore several ligaments. He was unable to walk for weeks. He nevertheless committed to the tournament, in which he was seeded third, and played Nikolay Davydenko in his first round robin match. Agassi's movement was noticeably hindered, particularly on his backhand return of serve, and he lost in straight sets. He then withdrew from the tournament, to the criticism of the tournament director who had already dealt with several other withdrawals. Agassi finished 2005 ranked World No. 7, his 16th time in the year-end top 10 rankings, which tied Connors for the most times ranked in the top 10 at year's end. In 2005, Agassi left Nike after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with adidas. ESPN - Agassi signs Adidas deal after long-term deal with Nike - Tennis Agassi had a poor start to 2006. He was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play. Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of the ankle injury, and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events, eventually skipping the entire clay court season, including the French Open. This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time. Agassi returned for the grass court season, playing a tune-up and then Wimbledon. He was defeated in the third round by World No. 2 (and eventual runner-up) Rafael Nadal 7–6(5), 6–2, 6–4. Against conventions, Agassi, the losing player, was interviewed on court after the match. At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hardcourt season, with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles to Fernando González of Chile 6–4, 3–6, 7–5. As a result, he was unseeded at the US Open. Agassi had a short but dramatic run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain, Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a tough four-set win against Andrei Pavel, Agassi faced eighth-seeded Marcos Baghdatis in the second round, who had earlier advanced to the 2006 Australian Open final and Wimbledon semifinals. Agassi, nevertheless, won 6–4, 6–4, 3–6, 5–7, 7–5 as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match, Agassi was in obvious pain on court and fell to 112th ranked big-serving Benjamin Becker of Germany in four sets. Agassi received an eight minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a memorable retirement speech. Agassi earned more than US$30 million in prize-money during his career, third only to Sampras and Federer. In addition, Agassi earned over US$25 million a year through endorsements, the most by any tennis player, during his career and fourth in all sports at the time. After retirement Since retiring after the 2006 US Open, Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On September 5, 2007, Agassi was a surprise guest commentator for the Andy Roddick/Roger Federer US Open quarterfinal. He will play World Team Tennis for the Philadelphia Freedoms in the summer of 2009 Andre Agassi Will Play WTT SI.com, March 1, 2009 and will play the Outback Champions Series event in Surprise, Arizona in October 2009. Tour spokesman to AP: Agassi to play Champions Series event in Arizona in October He's also was training with junior tennis player George Jones (Junior Tennis) Personal and family life Agassi dated famed American singer Barbra Streisand in the early 1990s before marrying actress Brooke Shields on April 19, 1997. That February, they had filed suit against The National Enquirer claiming it printed "false and fabricated" statements about the couple. The case was dismissed. He later filed for divorce from Shields, which was granted on April 9, 1999. At the 1999 French Open, Agassi and Steffi Graf were the surprise champions, since he had not won a Grand Slam title since 1995 and she since 1996. At the winners' ball, they danced the traditional champions dance. After that evening, they began dating. Graf retired after they both reached the Wimbledon final in July. They were married on October 22, 2001. Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf Wed Their son, Jaden Gil, was born four days later, October 26. Their daughter, Jaz Elle, was born on October 3, 2003. The couple lives in the Las Vegas area and own several vacation homes. Agassi's older sister, Rita, was married to the late former tennis legend Pancho Gonzales. In 1995, when Gonzales died in Las Vegas, Agassi paid for the funeral. Long-time trainer Gil Reyes has been called one of Agassi's closest friends; some have described him as being a "father figure" for Andre Agassi. Father Knew Best Peter Bodo Blog: Papa Gil Agassi is also a staunch Democrat Hollywood, sports celebs not on same donation page and has donated more than $100,000 to Democratic candidates. Andre Agassi's Federal Campaign Contribution Report Philanthropy Agassi has participated in many charity organizations and founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994, which assists the youth of Las Vegas. He was awarded the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He is regularly cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been surmised that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation, which includes Lance Armstrong. Sportsman/Person of the Year Agassi's charity often takes the form of assisting children with their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program (the Agassi Stars) and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics. In 2001, Agassi opened up the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy Andre Agassi College Prepatory Academy in Las Vegas, a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. Ironically, Agassi never finished his own formal education due to his decision to turn pro. Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children called Child Haven. In 1997, Andre donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided "$720,000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This facility opened in December 2001 and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases. It houses approximately 20 beds and gives children with special needs the special attention needed to make them feel comfortable in their new surroundings." In 2007, Agassi, Muhammad Ali, Lance Armstrong, Warrick Dunn, Jeff Gordon, Mia Hamm, Tony Hawk, Andrea Jaeger, Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Mario Lemieux, Alonzo Mourning and Cal Ripken, Jr. founded Athletes for Hope, a charitable organization, which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and inspires millions of non-athletes to volunteer and support the community. Athletes for Hope Quotations About Pete Sampras' retirement: "You grow up with a guy, you compete against him for so long, he's such a big part of your career, something that's pretty special, so you do have that sense of personal regret that he's not around any more. You miss having that around." Agassi: The heart of tennis During the 2005 US Open: "I've been motivated by overcoming challenge and overcoming the hurdles and obstacles that face me. There still is plenty out there to get motivated by." Andre Agassi quotes And after defeating James Blake in a quarterfinal, Agassi said, "First of all, let me say, 1:15 in the morning, for 20,000 people to still be here, I wasn't the winner, tennis was. That's awesome. I don't know if I've ever felt so good here before." Tennis: Agassi sends a reminder to the younger set When Mats Wilander was asked in 2005 to name the top five tennis players of all time, he placed Agassi, Pete Sampras, Roger Federer and Björn Borg in the top four (in no order) and tied John McEnroe, Ivan Lendl and Jimmy Connors for fifth place. Concerning Agassi, Wilander said, "He has some limitations, like he can't serve and volley, yet he has won all four Slams. He has a very high energy level, quite like Borg. He is on fifth gear from the very first point. There is some abnormality in his eyes, otherwise he wouldn't have had such a phenomenal return. He sees the ball like no one else and just guides it wherever he wants to. He's just played a Grand Slam final at 35, that tells me he wasted the first five years of his career, otherwise, he couldn't have lasted this long. No one has done more to tennis than Agassi and Borg." Federer perhaps most complete player: Mats Wilander - Former world No. 1 picks his top five of last three decades On September 3, 2006, after playing his final match and losing in the third round of the US Open to Benjamin Becker, Agassi gave these departing remarks to his fans: "Thanks. The scoreboard said I lost today, but what the scoreboard doesn't say is what it is I have found. And over the last 21 years, I have found loyalty. You have pulled for me on the court and also in life. I've found inspiration. You have willed me to succeed sometimes even in my lowest moments. And I've found generosity. You have given me your shoulders to stand on to reach for my dreams, dreams I could have never reached without you. Over the last 21 years, I have found you. And I will take you and the memory of you with me for the rest of my life. Thank you." Tennis: In tears and kisses, the Agassi era ends Career statistics See also List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions Tennis male players statistics Sampras-Agassi rivalry References Further reading Video Wimbledon 2000 Semi-Final - Agassi vs. Rafter (2003) Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 213 minutes, ASIN: B000A343QY. Charlie Rose with Andre Agassi (May 7, 2001) Charlie Rose, Inc., DVD Release Date: August 15, 2006, Run Time: 57 minutes, ASIN: B000HBL6VO. Wimbledon Record Breakers (2005) Starring: Andre Agassi, Boris Becker; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 52 minutes, ASIN: B000A3XYYQ. Video games Andre Agassi Tennis for the SNES, Sega Genesis, Game Gear, Master System, and Mobile phone Agassi Tennis Generation for PS2 and GBA Smash Court Pro Tournament for PS2 External links TheTennisChannel.com player profile IOC profile agassiopen.com foxsports.com article The Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation be-x-old:Андрэ Агасі

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List_of_infectious_diseases

Human infectious diseases grouped by causative agent and alphabetically arranged. Viral infectious diseases AIDS – AIDS Related Complex – Chickenpox (Varicella) – Common cold – Cytomegalovirus Infection – Colorado tick fever – Dengue fever – Ebola hemorrhagic fever – Hand, foot and mouth disease – Hepatitis – Herpes simplex – Herpes zoster – HPV – Influenza (Flu) – Lassa fever – Measles – Marburg hemorrhagic fever – Infectious mononucleosis – Mumps – Norovirus – Poliomyelitis – Progressive multifocal leukencephalopathy – Rabies – Rubella – SARS – Smallpox (Variola) – Viral encephalitis – Viral gastroenteritis – Viral meningitis – Viral pneumonia – West Nile disease – Yellow fever Parasitic infectious diseases African trypanosomiasis – Amebiasis – Ascariasis – Babesiosis – Chagas Disease – Clonorchiasis – Cryptosporidiosis – Cysticercosis – Diphyllobothriasis – Dracunculiasis – Echinococcosis – Enterobiasis – Fascioliasis – Fasciolopsiasis – Filariasis – Free-living amebic infection – Giardiasis – Gnathostomiasis – Hymenolepiasis – Isosporiasis – Kala-azar – Leishmaniasis – Malaria – Metagonimiasis – Myiasis – Onchocerciasis – Pediculosis – Pinworm Infection – Scabies – Schistosomiasis – Taeniasis – Toxocariasis – Toxoplasmosis – Trichinellosis – Trichinosis – Trichuriasis – Trichomoniasis – Trypanosomiasis Fungal infectious diseases Aspergillosis – Blastomycosis – Candidiasis – Coccidioidomycosis – Cryptococcosis – Histoplasmosis – Tinea pedis (Athlete's Foot) – Tinea cruris Prion infectious diseases Alpers' disease – Fatal Familial Insomnia – Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome – Kuru – Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease;q fever, Mycoses Aspergillosis Aspergillosis, Allergic Bronchopulmonary Neuroaspergillosis Blastomycosis Candidiasis Candidiasis, Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis, Cutaneous Candidiasis, Oral Candidiasis, Vulvovaginal Central Nervous System Fungal Infections Meningitis, Fungal + Coccidioidomycosis Cryptococcosis Meningitis, Cryptococcal Dermatomycoses Blastomycosis Candidiasis, Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis, Cutaneous Chromoblastomycosis Maduromycosis Paracoccidioidomycosis Sporotrichosis Tinea + Tinea Versicolor Eye Infections, Fungal Uveitis, Suppurative + Fungemia Geotrichosis Histoplasmosis Lung Diseases, Fungal Aspergillosis, Allergic Bronchopulmonary Pneumonia, Pneumocystis Microsporidiosis Encephalitozoonosis Paracoccidioidomycosis Piedra Pneumocystis Infections Pneumonia, Pneumocystis Rhinosporidiosis Zygomycosis Mucormycosis Bacterial infectious diseases Lyme Disease-Celulitis-Osteomylitis-Syphilis-Meningitis Protozoan infectious diseases References Control of Communicable Diseases Manual edited by James B. Chin, APHA, 2000 ect See also

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Aegean_Sea

The Aegean Sea (, Aigaio Pelagos, Turkish: Ege Denizi ) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey respectively. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean sea. The sea was traditionally known as Archipelago (in Greek, Αρχιπέλαγος), the general sense of which has since changed to refer to the Aegean Islands and, generally, to any island group because the Aegean Sea is remarkable for its large number of islands. Etymology In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. It was said to have been named after the Greek town of Aegae, or after Aegea, a queen of the Amazons who died in the sea, or Aigaion, the "sea goat", another name of Briareus, one of the archaic Hecatonchires, or, especially among the Athenians, Aegeus, the father of Theseus, who drowned himself in the sea when he thought his son had died. A possible etymology is a derivation from the Greek word – aiges = "waves" (Hesychius of Alexandria; metaphorical use of (aix) "goat"), hence "wavy sea", cf. also (aigialos) "coast". In the Bulgarian language the sea is also known as White sea (Бяло море), as opposed to Black Sea ( Черно море). This usage derives from the Turkish Ak Deniz (White Sea) and Kara Deniz (Black Sea), which in turn reflects the early Turkish use of the epithets White and Black for South and North. History The current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC. Before that time, at the peak of the last ice age (c. 16,000 BC) sea levels everywhere were 130 metres lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the present-day islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared c. 7000 BC, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3000 years after that. Tjeerd H. van Andel and Judith C. Shackleton, Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic Coastlines of Greece and the Aegean, Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 9, No. 4 (Winter, 1982), pp. 445-454 The subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term Aegean civilization. In ancient times the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations the Minoans of Crete and the Mycenean Civilization of the Peloponnese. Tracey Cullen, Aegean Prehistory: A Review (American Journal of Archaeology. Supplement, 1); Oliver Dickinson, The Aegean Bronze Age (Cambridge World Archaeology). Historic map of Aegean Sea by Piri Reis Later arose the city-states of Athens and Sparta among many others that constituted the Athenian Empire and Hellenic Civilization. Plato described the Greeks living round the Aegean "like frogs around a pond". The familiar phrase giving rise to the title Prehistorians Round the Pond: Reflections on Aegean Prehistory as a Discipline, by John F. Cherry, Despina Margomenou, and Lauren E. Talalay. The Aegean Sea was later invaded by the Persians and the Romans, and inhabited by the Byzantine Empire, the Venetians, the Seljuk Turks, and the Ottoman Empire. The Aegean was the site of the original democracies, and its seaways were the means of contact among several diverse civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean. Economical and Political Setting Many of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays, but navigation through the sea was easier in ancient times than traveling across the rough terrain of the mainland of Greece (and to some extent the coastal areas of Anatolia). Many of the islands are volcanic, and marble and iron are mined on other islands. The larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains. In the Aegean Sea there are two islands belonging to Turkey: Bozcaada (in Greek, Τένεδος) and Gökçeada (in Greek, Ίμβρος), while the rest belonging to Greece. The Aegean Sea has about 1,415 islands and islets, of which 1,395 belong to Greece. Physiographic Setting The Aegean Sea covers about 214,000 km² in area, and measures about 610 kilometres longitudinally and 300 kilometres latitudinally. The sea's maximum depth is 3,543 metres (11,624 ft), east of Crete. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south (generally from west to east): Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos and Rhodes. The Greek Aegean Islands can be simply divided into seven groups: Northeastern Aegean Islands, Euboea, Northern Sporades, Cyclades, Saronic Islands (or Argo-Saronic Islands), Dodecanese (or Southern Sporades), Crete. The word archipelago was originally applied specifically to the Aegean Sea and its islands. Many of the Aegean Islands, or chains of islands, are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across Euboea to Samos, and a third extends across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes, dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean. The bays and gulfs of the Aegean beginning and the South and moving clockwise include on Crete, the Mirabelli, Almyros, Souda and Chania bays or gulfs, on the mainland the Myrtoan Sea to the west, the Saronic Gulf northwestward, the Petalies Gulf which connects with the South Euboic Sea, the Pagasetic Gulf which connects with the North Euboic Sea, the Thermian Gulf northwestward, the Chalkidiki Peninsula including the Cassandra and the Singitic Gulfs, northward the Strymonian Gulf and the Gulf of Kavala and the rest are in Turkey; Saros Gulf, Edremit Gulf, Dikili Gulf, Çandarlı Gulf, İzmir Gulf, Kuşadası Gulf, Gulf of Gökova, Güllük Gulf. Hydrographic and Hydrochemical Setting Aegean surface water circulates in a counter-clockwise gyre, with hypersaline Mediterranean water moving northward along the west coast of Turkey, before being displaced by less dense Black Sea outflow. The dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of 23-30m, then flows through the Dardanelles Strait and into the Marmara at velocities of 5-15 cm/s. The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, then flows southwards along the east coast of Greece Aksu, A. E., D. Yasar, et al. (1995). "LATE GLACIAL-HOLOCENE PALEOCLIMATIC AND PALEOCEANOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE AEGEAN SEA - MICROPALEONTOLOGICAL AND STABLE ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE." Marine Micropaleontology 25(1): 1-28. . The physical oceanography of the Aegean Sea is controlled mainly by the regional climate, the fresh water discharge from major rivers draining southeastern Europe, and the seasonal variations in the Black Sea surface water outflow through the Dardanelles Strait. Analysis Yagar, D., 1994. Late glacial-Holocene evolution of the Aegean Sea. Ph.D. Thesis, Inst. Mar. Sci. Technol., Dokuz Eyltil Univ., 329 pp. (Unpubl.) of the Aegean during 1991 and 1992 revealed 3 distinct water masses: Aegean Sea Surface Water - 40-50 m thick veneer, with summer temperatures of 21-26°C and winter temperatures ranging from 10°C in the north to 16°C in the south. Aegean Sea Intermediate Water - Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from 40-50 m to 200-300 m with temperatures ranging from 11-18°C. Aegean Sea Bottom Water - occurring at depths below 200-300 m with a very uniform temperature (13-14°C) and salinity (39.1-39.2%). See also Aegean civilization Aegean dispute Aegean Islands Aegean languages List of traditional Greek place names Notes

Aegean_Sea |@lemmatized aegean:43 sea:46 aigaio:1 pelagos:1 turkish:3 ege:1 denizi:1 elongated:1 embayment:1 mediterranean:5 locate:1 southern:3 balkan:1 anatolian:1 peninsula:2 e:3 mainland:5 greece:7 turkey:5 respectively:1 north:4 connect:4 marmara:2 black:8 dardanelles:3 bosporus:1 island:20 within:2 bound:1 periphery:1 include:4 crete:7 rhodes:3 region:1 consist:1 nine:1 province:1 southwestern:1 part:1 bordering:1 traditionally:1 know:2 archipelago:2 greek:8 αρχιπέλαγος:1 general:2 sense:1 since:1 change:1 refer:1 generally:2 group:2 remarkable:1 large:3 number:1 etymology:2 ancient:4 time:4 various:1 explanation:1 name:4 say:1 town:1 aegae:1 aegea:1 queen:1 amazon:1 die:2 aigaion:1 goat:2 another:3 briareus:1 one:2 archaic:1 hecatonchires:1 especially:1 among:3 athenian:2 aegeus:1 father:1 theseus:1 drown:1 think:1 son:1 possible:1 derivation:1 word:2 aiges:1 wave:1 hesychius:1 alexandria:1 metaphorical:1 use:2 aix:1 hence:1 wavy:1 cf:1 also:3 aigialos:1 coast:3 bulgarian:1 language:2 white:3 бяло:1 море:2 oppose:1 черно:1 usage:1 derive:1 ak:1 deniz:2 kara:1 turn:1 reflect:1 early:1 epithet:1 south:5 history:1 current:1 coastline:2 date:1 back:1 bc:3 peak:1 last:1 ice:2 age:4 c:8 level:2 everywhere:1 metre:2 low:1 well:1 water:12 coastal:3 plain:2 instead:1 much:1 northern:3 first:1 occupy:1 present:2 day:1 islands:1 milo:1 important:1 obsidian:1 production:1 probably:1 still:1 arrangement:1 appear:1 post:1 continue:1 rise:3 year:1 tjeerd:1 h:1 van:1 andel:1 judith:1 shackleton:1 late:3 paleolithic:1 mesolithic:1 journal:2 field:1 archaeology:3 vol:1 winter:2 pp:2 subsequent:1 bronze:2 civilization:7 give:2 term:1 birthplace:1 two:2 minoan:1 mycenean:1 peloponnese:2 tracey:1 cullen:1 prehistory:2 review:1 american:1 supplement:1 oliver:1 dickinson:1 cambridge:1 world:1 historic:1 map:1 piri:1 real:1 later:2 arise:1 city:1 state:1 athens:1 sparta:1 many:4 others:1 constitute:1 empire:3 hellenic:1 plato:1 describe:1 living:1 round:2 like:1 frog:1 around:1 pond:2 familiar:1 phrase:1 title:1 prehistorians:1 reflection:1 discipline:1 john:1 f:1 cherry:1 despina:1 margomenou:1 lauren:1 talalay:1 invade:1 persian:1 roman:1 inhabit:1 byzantine:1 venetian:1 seljuk:1 turk:1 ottoman:1 site:1 original:1 democracy:1 seaway:1 mean:1 contact:1 several:1 diverse:1 eastern:1 economical:1 political:1 set:3 safe:1 harbour:1 bay:3 navigation:1 easier:1 travel:1 across:4 rough:1 terrain:1 extent:1 area:2 anatolia:1 volcanic:1 marble:1 iron:1 mine:1 fertile:1 valley:1 belong:2 bozcaada:1 τένεδος:1 gökçeada:1 ίμβρος:1 rest:2 belonging:1 islet:1 physiographic:1 cover:1 measure:1 kilometre:2 longitudinally:1 latitudinally:1 maximum:1 depth:3 ft:1 east:3 find:1 follow:1 delimit:1 west:3 kythera:1 antikythera:1 kasos:1 karpathos:1 simply:1 divide:2 seven:1 northeastern:1 euboea:2 sporades:2 cyclades:1 saronic:3 argo:1 dodecanese:1 originally:1 apply:1 specifically:1 chain:2 actually:1 extension:1 mountain:1 extend:2 chios:1 samos:1 third:1 extends:2 gulf:17 beginning:1 move:3 clockwise:2 mirabelli:1 almyros:1 souda:1 chania:1 myrtoan:1 northwestward:2 petalies:1 euboic:2 pagasetic:1 thermian:1 chalkidiki:1 cassandra:1 singitic:1 northward:2 strymonian:1 kavala:1 saros:1 edremit:1 dikili:1 çandarlı:1 zmir:1 kuşadası:1 gökova:1 güllük:1 hydrographic:1 hydrochemical:1 surface:3 circulates:1 counter:1 gyre:1 hypersaline:1 along:3 displace:1 less:1 dense:2 outflow:3 sink:1 inflow:1 flow:2 strait:2 velocity:1 cm:1 westward:1 southward:1 aksu:1 yasar:1 et:1 al:1 glacial:2 holocene:2 paleoclimatic:1 paleoceanographic:1 evolution:2 micropaleontological:1 stable:1 isotopic:1 evidence:1 marine:1 micropaleontology:1 physical:1 oceanography:1 control:1 mainly:1 regional:1 climate:1 fresh:1 discharge:1 major:1 river:1 drain:1 southeastern:1 europe:1 seasonal:1 variation:1 analysis:1 yagar:1 ph:1 thesis:1 inst:1 mar:1 sci:1 technol:1 dokuz:1 eyltil:1 univ:1 unpubl:1 reveal:1 distinct:1 mass:1 thick:1 veneer:1 summer:1 temperature:4 range:2 intermediate:2 bottom:1 occurring:1 uniform:1 salinity:1 see:1 dispute:1 list:1 traditional:1 place:1 note:1 |@bigram aegean_sea:18 coastal_plain:1 van_andel:1 paleolithic_mesolithic:1 minoan_crete:1 piri_real:1 athens_sparta:1 seljuk_turk:1 ottoman_empire:1 rough_terrain:1 metre_ft:1 saronic_gulf:1 counter_clockwise:1 et_al:1 seasonal_variation:1 ph_thesis:1 sci_technol:1

Apache_Software_Foundation

The Apache Software Foundation (ASF) is a non-profit corporation (classified as 501(c)(3) in the United States) to support Apache software projects, including the Apache HTTP Server. The ASF was formed from the Apache Group and incorporated in Delaware, USA, in June 1999, . The Apache Software Foundation is a decentralized community of developers. The software they produce is distributed under the terms of the Apache License and is therefore free software / open source software. The Apache projects are characterized by a collaborative, consensus-based development process and an open and pragmatic software license. Each project is managed by a self-selected team of technical experts who are active contributors to the project. The ASF is a meritocracy, implying that membership to the foundation is granted only to volunteers who have actively contributed to Apache projects. Among the ASF's objectives are to provide legal protection See the Volunteer Protection Act article. to volunteers working on Apache projects, and to prevent the Apache brand name from being used by other organizations without permission. The ASF also holds several ApacheCon conferences each year, highlighting Apache projects, related technology, and encouraging Apache developers to gather together. History The history of the Apache Software Foundation is linked to the Apache HTTP Server, the work on which started in 1994. A group of eight developers started working on enhancing the NCSA HTTPd daemon, which came to be known as the Apache Group. On March 25, 1999, the Apache Software Foundation was formed. The first official meeting of the Apache Software Foundation was held on April 13, 1999 and by general consent that the initial membership list of the The Apache Software Foundation, would be: Brian Behlendorf, Ken Coar, Mark Cox, Lars Eilebrecht, Ralf S. Engelschall, Roy T. Fielding, Dean Gaudet, Ben Hyde, Jim Jagielski, Alexei Kosut, Martin Kraemer, Ben Laurie, Doug MacEachern, Aram Mirzadeh, Sameer Parekh, Cliff Skolnick, Marc Slemko, William (Bill) Stoddard, Paul Sutton, Randy Terbush and Dirk-Willem van Gulik. . After a series of additional meetings to elect board members and resolve other legal matters regarding incorporation, the effective incorporation date of the Apache Software Foundation was set to June 1, 1999. Projects Formally recognized Apache projects include: HTTP Server: Web server ActiveMQ: Java Message Service 1.1 (JMS) message broker Ant: Java-based build tool APR: Apache Portable Runtime, a portability library written in C Axis: Apache Axis is an open source, XML based Web service framework Beehive: A Java visual object model Camel: A declarative routing and mediation rules engine which implements the Enterprise Integration Patterns using a Java based domain specific language. Cayenne: A Java ORM framework Cocoon: XML publishing framework Commons: Reusable Java libraries and utilities too small to merit their own project CXF: web services framework DB: database solutions Derby: A pure Java Relational database management system Apache Torque: An an object to relational database mapper for Java. Directory: A directory server supporting LDAP and other protocols Excalibur: Inversion of Control container named Fortress and related components Forrest: documentation framework based upon Cocoon FtpServer: FTP server Apache Geronimo: a Java EE server CouchDB: Document-oriented database Gump: integration, dependencies, and versioning management Harmony: implementation of the Java programming language. Hadoop: Java software framework that supports data intensive distributed applications. Apache Zookeeper: Co-ordination service for distributed applications HiveMind: Services and configuration microkernel iBATIS: Persistence framework which enables mapping sql queries to POJOs. Incubator: for aspiring ASF projects Jackrabbit: implementation of the Java Content Repository API Jakarta: server side Java (including its own set of sub-projects) James: Java email and news server Labs: A place for innovation where committees of the foundation can experiment with new ideas Lenya: content management system Logging: A cross-language logging services for purposes of application debugging and auditing Lucene: text search engine library written entirely in Java Maven: Java project management and comprehension tool Mina: Multipurpose Infrastructure for Network Application mod perl: module that integrates the Perl interpreter into Apache server mod python: module that integrates the Python interpreter into Apache server Muse: An implementation of the WS-ResourceFramework (WSRF), WS-BaseNotification (WSN), and WS-DistributedManagement (WSDM) specifications. MyFaces: JavaServer Faces implementation OFBiz: Open for Business: enterprise automation software OpenJPA: Java Object Persistence Portals: web portal related software Santuario: XML Security in Java and C++ ServiceMix: enterprise service bus that supports JBI and OSGi Shale: Web application framework based on JavaServer Faces SpamAssassin: email filter used to identify spam. Struts: Java web applications framework Tapestry: A free/open-source framework for creating dynamic, robust, highly scalable web applications in Java Tcl: dynamic websites using Tool Command Language Tomcat: a web container for serving servlets and JSP Tuscany: a SCA implementation, also providing other SOA implementations. Velocity: A Java Template Creation Engine Web services: Web service related systems Wicket: Component-based Java web framework Xalan: XSLT processors in Java and C++ Xerces: A validating XML parser XML: XML solutions for the web XMLBeans: XML-Java binding tool XML Graphics: conversion of XML formats to graphical output Batik : A pure Java library for SVG content manipulation FOP : A Java print formatter driven by XSL formatting objects (XSL-FO). Supported output formats include PDF, PS, PCL, AFP, XML (area tree representation), Print, AWT and PNG, and to a lesser extent, RTF and TXT. Board of directors The current board of directors includes: Justin Erenkrantz (President) J Aaron Farr (Treasurer) Jim Jagielski (Chairman) Geir Magnusson Jr William Rowe Jr Sam Ruby (EVP/Secretary) Henning Schmiedehausen Greg Stein Bertrand Delacretaz See also Free Software Foundation Open Software Foundation Notes External links http://www.apache.org http://wiki.apache.org/general http://wiki.apache.org/apachecon/FrontPage

Apache_Software_Foundation |@lemmatized apache:30 software:17 foundation:11 asf:6 non:1 profit:1 corporation:1 classify:1 c:4 united:1 state:1 support:5 project:13 include:5 http:6 server:11 form:2 group:3 incorporate:1 delaware:1 usa:1 june:2 decentralized:1 community:1 developer:3 produce:1 distribute:2 term:1 license:2 therefore:1 free:3 open:6 source:3 characterize:1 collaborative:1 consensus:1 base:7 development:1 process:1 pragmatic:1 manage:1 self:1 select:1 team:1 technical:1 expert:1 active:1 contributor:1 meritocracy:1 imply:1 membership:2 grant:1 volunteer:3 actively:1 contribute:1 among:1 objective:1 provide:2 legal:2 protection:2 see:2 act:1 article:1 work:3 prevent:1 brand:1 name:2 use:4 organization:1 without:1 permission:1 also:3 hold:2 several:1 apachecon:2 conference:1 year:1 highlight:1 related:2 technology:1 encourage:1 gather:1 together:1 history:2 link:2 start:2 eight:1 enhance:1 ncsa:1 httpd:1 daemon:1 come:1 know:1 march:1 first:1 official:1 meeting:2 april:1 general:2 consent:1 initial:1 list:1 would:1 brian:1 behlendorf:1 ken:1 coar:1 mark:1 cox:1 lars:1 eilebrecht:1 ralf:1 engelschall:1 roy:1 fielding:1 dean:1 gaudet:1 ben:2 hyde:1 jim:2 jagielski:2 alexei:1 kosut:1 martin:1 kraemer:1 laurie:1 doug:1 maceachern:1 aram:1 mirzadeh:1 sameer:1 parekh:1 cliff:1 skolnick:1 marc:1 slemko:1 william:2 bill:1 stoddard:1 paul:1 sutton:1 randy:1 terbush:1 dirk:1 willem:1 van:1 gulik:1 series:1 additional:1 elect:1 board:3 member:1 resolve:1 matter:1 regard:1 incorporation:2 effective:1 date:1 set:2 formally:1 recognize:1 web:12 activemq:1 java:26 message:2 service:9 jms:1 broker:1 ant:1 build:1 tool:4 apr:1 portable:1 runtime:1 portability:1 library:4 write:2 axis:2 xml:10 framework:11 beehive:1 visual:1 object:4 model:1 camel:1 declarative:1 routing:1 mediation:1 rule:1 engine:3 implement:1 enterprise:3 integration:2 pattern:1 domain:1 specific:1 language:4 cayenne:1 orm:1 cocoon:2 publishing:1 common:1 reusable:1 utility:1 small:1 merit:1 cxf:1 db:1 database:4 solution:2 derby:1 pure:2 relational:2 management:4 system:3 torque:1 mapper:1 directory:2 ldap:1 protocol:1 excalibur:1 inversion:1 control:1 container:2 fortress:1 component:2 forrest:1 documentation:1 upon:1 ftpserver:1 ftp:1 geronimo:1 ee:1 couchdb:1 document:1 orient:1 gump:1 dependency:1 versioning:1 harmony:1 implementation:6 programming:1 hadoop:1 data:1 intensive:1 application:7 zookeeper:1 co:1 ordination:1 distributed:1 hivemind:1 configuration:1 microkernel:1 ibatis:1 persistence:2 enable:1 map:1 sql:1 query:1 pojos:1 incubator:1 aspire:1 jackrabbit:1 content:3 repository:1 api:1 jakarta:1 side:1 sub:1 james:1 email:2 news:1 lab:1 place:1 innovation:1 committee:1 experiment:1 new:1 idea:1 lenya:1 logging:2 cross:1 purpose:1 debugging:1 audit:1 lucene:1 text:1 search:1 entirely:1 maven:1 comprehension:1 mina:1 multipurpose:1 infrastructure:1 network:1 mod:2 perl:2 module:2 integrate:2 interpreter:2 python:2 muse:1 w:3 resourceframework:1 wsrf:1 basenotification:1 wsn:1 distributedmanagement:1 wsdm:1 specification:1 myfaces:1 javaserver:2 face:2 ofbiz:1 business:1 automation:1 openjpa:1 portal:2 relate:2 santuario:1 security:1 servicemix:1 bus:1 jbi:1 osgi:1 shale:1 spamassassin:1 filter:1 identify:1 spam:1 strut:1 tapestry:1 create:1 dynamic:2 robust:1 highly:1 scalable:1 tcl:1 website:1 command:1 tomcat:1 serve:1 servlets:1 jsp:1 tuscany:1 sca:1 soa:1 velocity:1 template:1 creation:1 wicket:1 xalan:1 xslt:1 processor:1 xerces:1 validate:1 parser:1 xmlbeans:1 bind:1 graphic:1 conversion:1 format:3 graphical:1 output:2 batik:1 svg:1 manipulation:1 fop:1 print:2 formatter:1 drive:1 xsl:2 fo:1 pdf:1 p:1 pcl:1 afp:1 area:1 tree:1 representation:1 awt:1 png:1 less:1 extent:1 rtf:1 txt:1 director:2 current:1 justin:1 erenkrantz:1 president:1 j:1 aaron:1 farr:1 treasurer:1 chairman:1 geir:1 magnusson:1 jr:2 rowe:1 sam:1 ruby:1 evp:1 secretary:1 henning:1 schmiedehausen:1 greg:1 stein:1 bertrand:1 delacretaz:1 note:1 external:1 www:1 org:3 wiki:2 frontpage:1 |@bigram apache_license:1 van_gulik:1 relational_database:2 ftp_server:1 java_ee:1 perl_module:1 xml_parser:1 external_link:1 http_www:1

Fiqh

Fiqh (, ) is Islamic jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Quran and Sunnah—that complements Shariah with evolving rulings/interpretations of Islamic jurists. Fiqh deals with the observance of rituals, morals and social legislation. There are four prominent Sunni schools of fiqh (Madh'hab) and two schools for the Shi'a. A person trained in fiqh is known as a Faqih (plural Fuqaha). Glasse, Cyril, The New Encyclopedia of Islam, Altamira, 2001, p.141 Etymology The word fiqh is an Arabic term meaning "deep understanding" or "full comprehension". Technically it refers to the science of Islamic law extracted from detailed Islamic sources (which are studied in the principles of Islamic jurisprudence). The process of gaining knowledge of Islam through jurisprudence, and the body of legal advisements so derived, is known as fiqh. The historian Ibn Khaldun describes fiqh as "knowledge of the rules of God which concern the actions of persons who own themselves bound to obey the law respecting what is required (wajib), forbidden (haraam), recommended (mandūb), disapproved (makruh) or merely permitted (mubah)". Levy (1957). Page 150. This definition is consistent amongst the jurists. Introduction There are cases where the Qur'an gives a clearly defined and concrete answer on how to deal with different issues. This includes how to perform the ritual purification before the obligatory daily prayers . On other issues, the Qur'an alone is not enough to make things clear. For example, the Qur'an states one needs to engage in daily prayers and fast during the month of Ramadan, however, it does not define how to perform these duties. The details about these issues can be found in the traditions of Muhammad . This is true for most detailed issues, thus the Qur'an and Sunnah are the basis for the Islamic Divine Law . With regard to some topics, the Qur'an and Sunnah are simply silent. In those cases, the Muslim jurists try to arrive at conclusions using other tools. Sunni jurists use analogy and historical consensus of the community . The conclusions arrived at with the aid of these additional tools constitute a wider array of laws than the Sharia constitutes of, and is called fiqh. Thus, in contrast to the sharia, fiqh is not regarded as sacred, and the schools of thought have differing views on its details, without viewing other conclusions as sacrilegious. This division of interpretation in more detailed issues has resulted in different schools of thought . This wider concept of Islamic jurisprudence is the source of a range of laws in different topics that govern the lives of the Muslims in all facets of everyday life. Islamic Law Islamic law (fiqh) covers two main areas, rules in relation to actions and rules in relation to circumstances surrounding actions. Rules in relation to actions (amaliyya—عملية) comprise: Obligation (fardh) Recommendation (Mostahab) Permissibility (mubah) Disrecommendation (makrooh) Prohibition (haram) Rules in relation to circumstances (wadia) comprise: Condition (shart) Cause (sabab) Preventor (mani) Permit/Enforce (rukhsah, azeemah) Valid/Corrupt/Invalid (sahih, faasid, batil) In time/Debt/Repeat (adaa, al-qadaa, i'ada) Muslim Jurist: Ulama A Muslim Jurist is called an alim (pl. ulama), from the Arabic ilm (knowledge). They are also called the faqeeh (pl. fuqahaa) from the Arabic fiqh. Fields of jurisprudence Islamic economical jurisprudence فقه المعاملات Islamic political jurisprudence فقه السياسة Islamic marital jurisprudence Islamic criminal jurisprudence فقه العقوبات Islamic etiquettical jurisprudence الآداب Islamic theological jurisprudence Islamic hygienical jurisprudence Islamic military jurisprudence فقه الجهاد Methodologies of jurisprudence usul al-fiqh (أصول الفقه) The Modus operandi of the Muslim jurist is known as usul al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence). There are different approaches to the methodology used in fiqh to derive sharia from the Islamic sources. The main methodologies are: The four classical Sunni schools are, in chronological order: the Hanafi school, the Maliki school, the Shafi'i school and the Hanbali school. They represent the generally accepted Sunni authority for Islamic jurisprudence. The four most famous schools mentioned go back to the schools as Sufian Bin Oyayna. Other schools are the Zaidi, Jafari, Zahiri, Sufian Al'thawree, Sufian bin O'yayna, Layth bin Sa'ad, Tabari and Qurtubi. Jafari fiqh, or the Shi'a fiqh Qur'an alone fiqh The four schools of Sunni Islam The four schools (or Madh'hab) of Sunni Islam are each named by students of the classical jurist who taught them. The Sunni schools (and where they are commonly found) are Hanafi (Turkey,Pakistan, the Balkans, Central Asia, Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, China and Egypt) Maliki (North Africa, the Muslim areas of West Africa, and several of the Arab states of the Persian Gulf) Shafi'i (Arabia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives, Egypt, Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Yemen and southern parts of India) Hanbali (Arabia). These four schools share most of their rulings, but differ on the particular hadiths they accept as authentic and the weight they give to analogy or reason (qiyas) in deciding difficulties. The Hanafi school was the earliest established under the jurist Imam Abu Hanifa, who was born and taught in Iraq. Imam Abu Hanifa (80A.H.–150A.H.), whose real name was Nu'man ibn Thabit, was born in the city of Kufa (modern day Iraq) in the year 80 A.H (689 A.D). Born into a family of tradesmen, the Imam's family were of Persian origin. Under Imam Abu Hanifa, the witr prayer was considered to be compulsory and the Hanafis also differed with other sects in relation to methods of taking ablution, prayers and payment of tithe or zakat. Imam Abu Hanifa also differed with the other three schools in many areas including the type of punishments meted out for various crimes in Islam. On the whole, the Hanafi school of jurisprudence could be said to have the most differences with other three schools. Students of Imam Malik established the Maliki school of which a majority now can be found in North Africa and some Persian gulf states . Imam Malik, whose real name was Abu Abdullah, Malik bin Anas, was born in Medina in the year 715 AD. His ancestral home was in Yemen, but his grandfather settled in Medina after embracing Islam. He received his education in Medina, which was the most important seat of Islamic learning, and where the immediate descendants of the Muhammad's followers lived. Imam Malik was attracted to the study of law, and devoted himself to the study of fiqh. His principal book, the Kitab al-Muwatta, is one of the earliest surviving books on hadith and fiqh. Differences under the Maliki school included the fact that those following the Maliki school could state their purpose (or niat) once only for compulsory fasting which is valid for the whole month of Ramadhan whilst for the Shafi'ie school (see below), one would have to state his purpose every day of the month of Ramadhan for his fast to be valid the next day. Ja'fari jurisprudence The Jaferi or Ja'fari school (Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Lebanon, Bahrain, Pakistan, India and parts of Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia) is associated with Shia Islam. The fatwas, or time and space bound rulings of early jurists, are taken rather more seriously in this school, due to the more hierarchical structure of Shia Islam, which is ruled by the Imams. But they are also more flexible, in that every jurist has considerable power to alter a decision according to his opinion. The Jafari school uses 'aql "intellect" instead of qiyas in the Sunni schools, when establishing Islamic laws. Each school reflects a unique al-urf or culture, that the classical jurists themselves lived in, when rulings were made. Some suggest that the discipline of isnad which developed to validate hadith made it relatively easy to record and validate also the rulings of jurists, making them far easier to imitate (taqlid) than to challenge in new contexts. The effect is, the schools have been more or less frozen for centuries, and reflect a culture that simply no longer exists. Early shariah had a much more flexible character, and many modern Muslim scholars believe that it should be renewed, and that the classical jurists should lose special status. This would require formulating a new fiqh suitable for the modern world, e.g. as proposed by advocates of the Islamization of knowledge, and would deal with the modern context. This modernization is opposed by most conservative ulema. Early history The formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory. Weiss (2002), pp.3, 161. Progress in theory happened with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i (767–820), who codified the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah. The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, Sunnah, ijma, and qiyas) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language. Weiss (2002), p.162. A number of important legal institutions were developed by Muslim jurists during the classical period of Islam, known as the Islamic Golden Age. One such institution was the Hawala, an early informal value transfer system, which is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws such as the aval in French law and the avallo in Italian law. The "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) used in European civil law may have also originated from Islamic law. The earliest known lawsuits were described in the Ethics of the Physician by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha, Syria, who describes it as part of an early medical peer review process, where the notes of a practicing Islamic physician were reviewed by peers and he/she could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient if the reviews were negative. Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", Trends in Biotechnology 20 (8), p. 357-358 [357]. The Waqf in Islamic law, which developed during the 7th–9th centuries, bears a notable resemblance to the trusts in the English trust law. For example, every Waqf was required to have a waqif (founder), mutawillis (trustee), qadi (judge) and beneficiaries. The trust law developed in England at the time of the Crusades, during the 12th and 13th centuries, was introduced by Crusaders who may have been influenced by the Waqf institutions they came across in the Middle East. The Islamic Lafif was a body of twelve members drawn from the neighbourhood and sworn to tell the truth, who were bound to give a unanimous verdict, about matters "which they had personally seen or heard, binding on the judge, to settle the truth concerning facts in a case, between ordinary people, and obtained as of right by the plaintiff." The only characteristic of the English jury which the Islamic Lafif lacked was the "judicial writ directing the jury to be summoned and directing the bailiff to hear its recognition." According to Professor John Makdisi, "no other institution in any legal institution studied to date shares all of these characteristics with the English jury." It is thus likely that the concept of the Lafif may have been introduced to England by the Normans, who conquered both England and the Emirate of Sicily, and then evolved into the modern English jury. Several other fundamental common law institutions may have been adapted from similar legal institutions in Islamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England by the Normans after the Norman conquest of England and the Emirate of Sicily, and by Crusaders during the Crusades. In particular, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the Islamic Lafif." Other English legal institutions such as "the scholastic method, the license to teach," the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England and Madrasas in Islam" and the "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) may have also originated from Islamic law. The methodology of legal precedence and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems. These influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for "the common law as an integrated whole". See also Abdallah al-Harari Bahar-e-Shariat Mizan—a comprehensive treatise on the contents of Islam written by Javed Ahmed Ghamidi Palestinian law Ma'ruf Sources of Islamic law List of Islamic terms in Arabic Urf References Doi, Abd ar-Rahman I., and Clarke, Abdassamad (2008). Shari'ah: Islamic Law. Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd., ISBN 978-1842000853 (paperback), ISBN 978-1842000878 (hardback) Notes

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Collectivism

Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral, political, or social outlook, that stresses human interdependence and the importance of a collective, rather than the importance of separate individuals. Collectivists focus on community and society, and seek to give priority to group goals over individual goals. Chakrabarty, S (2009) The Influence of National Culture and Institutional Voids on Family Ownership of Large Firms: A Country Level Empirical Study Journal of International Management, 15(1) The philosophical underpinnings of collectivism are for some related to holism or organicism - the view that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts/pieces. Specifically, a society as a whole can be seen as having more meaning or value than the separate individuals that make up that society. Collectivism is widely seen as being opposed to individualism. Notably these views are sometimes combined in systems. Politics Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Social Contract is considered an example of collectivist political philosophy, which maintains that human society is organized along the lines of an implicit contract between members of society, and that the terms of this contract (e.g. the powers of government, the rights and responsibilities of individual citizens, etc.) are rightfully decided by the "general will" - that is, the will of the people. The people are represented by the government; essentially the government decides what is right for the people. This idea inspired the early socialist and communist philosophers such as Karl Marx. Hayek, Friedrich A. The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism. University Of Chicago Press, 1991, Chapter Four: The Revolt of Instinct and Reason According to Moyra Grant, in political philosophy "collectivism" refers to any philosophy or system that sees any kind of group (such as a class, nation, race, society, state, etc) as more important than the individual. Grant, Moyra. Key Ideas in Politics. Nelson Thomas 2003. p. 21 According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "collectivism has found varying degrees of expression in the 20th century in such movements as socialism, communism, and fascism. The least collectivist of these is social democracy, which seeks to reduce the inequities of unrestrained capitalism by government regulation, redistribution of income, and varying degrees of planning and public ownership. In socialist systems collectivist economics are carried to their furthest extreme, with a minimum of private ownership and a maximum of planned economy." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Jan. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024764> However, political collectivism is not necessarily associated with support for states, governments, or other hierarchical institutions. There is also a variant of anarchism which calls itself collectivism (see collectivist anarchism). Collectivist anarchists, particularly Mikhail Bakunin, were among the earliest critics of authoritarian communism. They agree with communists that the means of production should be expropriated from private owners and converted to collective property, Anarchism. Bottomore, T. B. The Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1992. p. 22 but they advocate the ownership of this collective property by a loose group of decentralized communes rather than a government. Nevertheless, unlike anarcho-communists, they supported a wage system and markets in non-capital goods. Thus, Bakunin's "Collectivist Anarchism," not withstanding the title, is seen as a blend of individualism and collectivism. Morris, Brian. Bakukunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 115 Anarcho-communism is a more comprehensive form of non-state collectivism which advocates not only the collectivization of the means of production but of the products of labor as well. At the Florence Conference of the Italian Federation of the International in 1876, held in a forest outside Florence due to police activity, they declared the principles of anarcho-communism, beginning with: "The Italian Federation considers the collective property of the products of labour as the necessary complement to the collectivist programme, the aid of all for the satisfaction of the needs of each being the only rule of production and consumption which corresponds to the principle of solidarity." According to anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin, "And as long as dwelling-houses, fields, and factories belong to isolated owners, men will have to pay them, in one way or another, for being allowed to work in the fields or factories, or for living in the houses. The owners will accept to be paid by the workers in gold, in paper-money, or in cheques exchangeable for all sorts of commodities. But how can we defend labour-notes, this new form of wagedom, when we admit that houses, fields, and factories will no longer be private property, and that they will belong to the commune or the nation?" Kropotkin, Peter. Chapter 13 The Collectivist Wages System from The Conquest of Bread, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York and London, 1906. Economics Generally speaking, collectivism in the field of economics holds that some things should be owned by the group and used for the benefit of all rather than being owned by individuals. Central to this view is the concept of the commons, as opposed to private property. Some collectivists apply this principle only to the means of production, while others argue that all valued commodities, like environmental or consumer goods, should be regarded as public goods and placed under public ownership. Collectivism in economics may or may not involve a state as a manager and steward of collective property. For instance, anarcho-communists, who argue for the immediate abolition of the state, wish to place all goods under communal access without a state or manager. They argue that since, according to them, the value of labor cannot truly be measured, individuals should be free to produce and consume to their own self-determined needs. In 1876, at the Florence Conference of the Italian Federation of the International, where the principles of anarcho-communism were first laid out, it was stated: The Italian Federation considers the collective property of the products of labour as the necessary complement to the collectivist programme, the aid of all for the satisfaction of the needs of each being the only rule of production and consumption which corresponds to the principle of solidarity. Anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin believed that a lack of collectivization of goods would be a dis-service to individuals Shatz, Marshall. Introduction to Kropotkin: The Conquest of Bread and Other Writings, Cambridge University Press 1995, p. xvi "Anarchist communism called for the socialization not only of production but of the distribution of goods: the community would supply the subsistence requirements of each individual member free of charge, and the criterion, 'to each according to his labor' would be superseded by the criterion 'to each according to his needs.'" . Typology Collectivism can be typified as "horizontal collectivism", wherein equality is emphasized and people engage in sharing and cooperation, or "vertical collectivism", wherein hierarchy is emphasized and people submit to authorities to the point of self-sacrifice. Horizontal collectivism is based on the assumption that each individual is more or less equal, while vertical collectivism assumes that individuals are fundamentally different from each other. Social anarchist Alexander Berkman, who was a horizontal collectivist, argued that equality does not imply a lack of unique individuality, but an equal amount of freedom and equal opportunity to develop one's own skills and talents, Indeed, horizontal collectivists argue that the idea of individuals sacrificing themselves for the "group" or "greater good" is nonsensical, arguing that groups are made up of individuals (including oneself) and are not a cohesive, monolithic entity separate from the self. But most social anarchists do not see themselves as collectivists or individualists, viewing both as illusory ideologies based on fiction A.2 What does anarchism stand for? . Horizontal collectivists tend to favour democratic decision-making, while vertical collectivists believe in a strict chain of command. Horizontal collectivism stresses common goals, interdependence and sociability. Vertical collectivism stresses the integrity of the in-group (e.g. the family or the nation), expects individuals to sacrifice themselves for the in-group if necessary, and promotes competition between different in-groups. Harry Triandis and Michele Gelfand argue that horizontal collectivist societies are those based on communal living, such as Israeli kibbutzim, while vertical collectivist societies are for example Stalinist and fascist countries or traditional communities with strong patriarchal leaders; vertical collectivism also correlates with Right-wing Authoritarianism. Collectivist societies There are many examples of societies around the world which have characterized themselves or have been characterized by outsiders as "collectivist". On the one hand, there are the socialist governments, which have often nationalized most economic sectors, agriculture in particular, with the exception of Cuba. If these states practice agricultural collectivism, they are often called Communist states. On the other hand, there are Israeli kibbutzim (voluntary communes where people live and farm together without private ownership), and communities such as the Freetown Christiania in Denmark (a small anarchist political experiment centered around an abandoned military installation in Copenhagen; Christiania has laws abolishing private property). Many political movements such as fascism, all other forms of totalitarianism, and certain forms of nationalism and patriotism can be considered collectivist as well, as they emphasize the role of the nation or the state over individuals. Democracy, with its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of the people, has been characterized by some as a form of (political) collectivism. Criticism and support for collectivism There are two main objections to collectivism, which come from the ideas of liberal individualism. One is that collectivism stifles individuality and diversity by insisting upon a common social identity, such as nationalism, racialism, feminism, or some other group focus. The other is that collectivism is linked to statism and the diminution of freedom when political authority is used to advance collectivist goals. Heywood, Andrew. Key Concepts in Politics. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 122 Criticism of collectivism comes from individualists, such as classical liberals, libertarians, individualist anarchists, and Objectivists. Perhaps the most notable modern criticism of collectivism is the one put forward by Friedrich Hayek in his book The Road to Serfdom, published in 1944 and translated into approximately 20 languages. Ayn Rand, founder of Objectivism, was a particularly vocal opponent who believed the philosophy of collectivism led to totalitarianism. She argued that "collectivism means the subjugation of the individual to a group," and that "throughout history, no tyrant ever rose to power except on the claim of representing the common good." She further claimed that "horrors which no man would dare consider for his own selfish sake are perpetrated with a clear conscience by altruists who justify themselves by the common good." Rand, Ayn. The Only Path to Tommorow, Readers Digest, January 1944, pp. 88-90 (The "altruists" Rand refers to are not those who practice simple benevolence or charity, but rather those who believe in August Comte's ethical doctrine of altruism which holds that there is "a moral and political obligation of the individual to sacrifice his own interests for the sake of a greater social good."). Smith, George H. Ayn Rand on Altruism, Egoism, and Rights Anti-collectivists often argue that all authoritarian and totalitarian societies are collectivist in nature. George Orwell, an advocate of democratic socialism Orwell, George Why I Write , believed that collectivism resulted in the empowerment of a minority of individuals and oppression: It cannot be said too often - at any rate, it is not being said nearly often enough - that collectivism is not inherently democratic, but, on the contrary, gives to a tyrannical minority such powers as the Spanish Inquisitors never dreamt of. George Orwell, review of The Road to Serfdom (1944) Marxists criticize this use of the term "collectivism," on the grounds that all societies are based on class interests and therefore all societies could be considered "collectivist." Even the liberal ideal of the free individual is seen from a Marxist perspective as a smokescreen for the collective interests of the capitalist class. Social anarchists argue that "individualism" is a front for the interests of the upper class. As anarchist Emma Goldman wrote: 'rugged individualism'... is only a masked attempt to repress and defeat the individual and his individuality. So-called Individualism is the social and economic laissez-faire: the exploitation of the masses by the [ruling] classes by means of legal trickery, spiritual debasement and systematic indoctrination of the servile spirit ... That corrupt and perverse 'individualism' is the straitjacket of individuality. ... [It] has inevitably resulted in the greatest modern slavery, the crassest class distinctions driving millions to the breadline. 'Rugged individualism' has meant all the 'individualism' for the masters, while the people are regimented into a slave caste to serve a handful of self-seeking 'supermen.' ... Their 'rugged individualism' is simply one of the many pretenses the ruling class makes to mask unbridled business and political extortion. Red Emma Speaks, p. 112 and 443 Ludwig von Mises wrote: On the other hand the application of the basic ideas of collectivism cannot result in anything but social disintegration and the perpetuation of armed conflict. It is true that every variety of collectivism promises eternal peace starting with the day of its own decisive victory and the final overthrow and extermination of all other ideologies and their supporters. ... As soon as a faction has succeeded in winning the support of the majority of citizens and thereby attained control of the government machine, it is free to deny to the minority all those democratic rights by means of which it itself has previously carried on its own struggle for supremacy. The Fallacy of Collectivism Notes See also Collective identity Communalism Communitarianism Communism Primitive communism Collective responsibility (doctrine) Collective guilt Socialism Tribalism External links

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Neopets

Neopets (originally NeoPets) is a virtual pet website launched by Adam Powell and Donna Williams on 15 November 1999. Six months after the web site was launched, Adam Powell and Donna Williams successfully sold a majority share to a consortium of investors led by Doug Dohring. On 20 June 2005, Viacom bought Neopets, Inc. for $160 million (USD). Neopets is based around the virtual pets that inhabit the virtual world of Neopia. Visitors can create an account and take care of up to four virtual pets, buying them food, toys, clothes, and other accessories using a virtual currency called Neopoints. Neopoints can be earned through playing games, investing in the game's stock market, trading, and winning contests such as customization and art. Users can explore the world of Neopia with their Neopets and interact with each other through the Neoboards, NeoMail, Guilds, and Key Quest. Neopets also operates a pay-to-play version known as Neopets Premium, which offers additional features and benefits for a monthly fee of $7.99 (USD). Neopets, Inc. produces and sells a wide variety of Neopets merchandise, such as plushies, stickers, notebooks, three video games and a trading card game. History Neopets was conceived by Adam Powell while studying at the University of Nottingham in 1997. Powell left and started UK-based advertising company Shout! Advertising in 1996, which grew to be the third largest click-through program on the Internet by 1999. He also co-founded Netmagic, an online banner advertising design and sales firm and Powlex Ltd., a web site design firm. Donna Williams was a marketing manager for Shout! Advertising from September 1997 to July 1999 responsible for internet advertising, sales and services, graphic and web design. He and Williams started creating the site in September 1999 and launched it two months later on 15 November 1999. Powell was responsible for the programming and database, and Williams the web design and art. The site grew by word of mouth and by Christmas of 1999, they received 600,000 page views daily and sought investment to cover the high cost of running the site. The same month, Doug Dohring was introduced to the creators of the site and, along with other investors, bought a majority share in January of the following year. Neopets, Inc. was created in February 2000 and began business in April. The website made profit from the first paying customers for an advertising method trademarked as "immersive advertising", touted as "an evolutionary step forward in the traditional marketing practice of product placement" in television and film. Media conglomerate Viacom bought Neopets, Inc. on 20 June 2005 for $160 million and planned to focus more on banner ads instead of immersive advertising. On the first day of the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the Altador Cup started as an annual international online gaming event and had 10.4 million participants the first year. The entire Neopets site was redesigned on 27 April 2007, referred to as Neopets 2.0 in the Neopets FAQ. On 17 July 2007, the NC Mall was launched in a partnership with Korean gaming company Nexon Corporation. The next day, Viacom announced on their website that by the end of 2008, Neopets would be changing their company name, not the site name itself, to NeoStudios, "which will focus on developing new virtual world gaming experiences online, while continuing to grow and evolve the existing ones." As of June 17th, 2008, NeoStudios was renamed, Nickelodeon Kids & Family Virtual Worlds Group and Kyra Reppen was officially announced as both Senior Vice President (SVP) and General Manager (GM) of the Virtual Worlds Group by Steve Youngwood, Nickelodeon Kids and Family Group's Executive Vice President of Digital Media. As head of the Nickelodeon Kids and Family Virtual Worlds Group, Reppen oversees strategy, creative development and management of new and existing virtual worlds and casual massive multiplayer online games (MMOGs) for the company, including Neopets. Other initiatives spearheaded by Nickelodeon Kids & Family Virtual Worlds Group include partnering with the Nick.com on Nickelodeon's online playground for kids, Nicktropolis(http://www.nicktropolis.com) and creating new virtual world destinations. The group focuses on the building the company's current properties with projects like World of Neopia (working title), Petpet Park and of the expansion of Nicktropolis with a premium layer. It will also develop original properties like the recently announced Monkey World. After the changes in ownership, the site still retained its British English spellings. To date, since August 2003, the site has been translated into ten other written languages: Japanese, Traditional and Simplified Chinese, Spanish, German, Italian, Korean, Portuguese, Dutch and French. However, Neopets announced on 1 January 2009 that the Italian, Japanese, and Korean areas of the site would no longer be updated. Gameplay Neopets is set in the themed lands of the fictional world of Neopia, which has its own calendar and timezone running concurrent with the real-world Pacific Time. It also has its own economy and stock market based around the Neopoint. Players earn Neopoints through various means including playing games and selling items. Once earned, they can be invested or used to buy various goods and services. A customisable Neohome Users are free to choose their own path in the world of Neopia, from collecting things to battling against other users. Visitors can create a free account. A user then creates a Neopet from a choice of 54 different species, and chooses its unique name, physical characteristics, and personality . Neopets can also own one Petpet, which in turn can own one Petpet. Users are permitted to own four Neopets per account. Users may create up to five accounts (per email address) but can only use one to earn Neopoints; that account is referred to as a "main" and the rest as "sides". A newly created pet comes with randomly rolled stats used for battling in the Battledome. You may choose statistics to what you prefer. Players are expected to feed and care for their Neopets when they grow hungry or ill, although they will not die if they are neglected. New users start out with a newbie pack of various items that introduce basic features of the site, such as food for feeding a pet. They can buy more items for their Neopets by earning Neopoints, the site's currency, through various activities including playing games and selling items. Some items will change the appearance, species, stats, or gender of a Neopet. Users can interact with their Neopets by reading books to them, caring for them, and playing with them. This will make their mood better. They can train their Neopets to be fighters in the Battledome against other player's Neopets or non-player characters. Wearable items, such as certain clothing, can be used to customize a Neopet. Players can build a customisable Neohome for their Neopets, furnish them, and buy extensions that reflect the socio-economic quality of the house. Users can trade neopets on the neopound boards, if you have a neopet you do not want anymore you can try to trade it for a pet you like more. The worth of a pet is determined by their name, species and color. If a pet is painted it will be worth more, how much depends on how many neopoints it would take to make a similar pet yourself. Pets that are well named or very well named (a name that contains no underscores, numbers, has the first letter capitalized, and is easy to pronounce is considered well named) are worth much more that badly named ones. If a pet is limited edition, meaning a pet that you can only get on certain days of the year, or a restricted pet, (Like a Krawk or a Draik, you need a very rare item to create them) are worth more than a few you can create every day regardless of color and name. Players can collect certain virtual items and display them in a gallery or album. In addition to items, players can also collect trophies, avatars, and site themes, although there is no function to display the latter two. Users found breaking the rules set in the Terms and Conditions may be sent a warning, have their account suspended, be temporarily blocked, or have their account permanently deactivated ("frozen"). If the owner of a "frozen" account finds the reason for deactivation invalid, they may email the Neopets support team and possibly regain access of their account, although such cases are rare. Site content The content of the site is updated almost on a daily basis with the addition of new games and items and weekly content. In addition to the site content updated by Neopets, players also contribute user-generated content to the site. Player contributions come in the form of prescreened submissions and readily editable content that is automatically filtered, such as the site's weekly electronic newspaper The Neopian Times and their own user lookup, respectively. Games There are many active games from which users can earn Neopoints and awards. Before 22 November 2006 the games were divided into three categories: Puzzle, Action, and Luck/Chance. After that date the Games Room was reconfigured and now games are divided into many more categories. Various games and activities include Flash and Shockwave games, PHP games, 3D Life Player games, contests and spotlights, and quests to retrieve items. Neopoints can be earned from playing games, most of which have a set maximum of earnings or playtime. Players may also earn trophies for their trophy cabinet from games if they score high enough for the Hi-Score Tables, which are reset on the first day of each month. Challenges may be made against other players or random players in a "World Challenge" for a prize piece for certain Flash games. A monthly competition also exists for multiplayer PHP games with four week-long elimination rounds. Neopets offers several different contests and spotlights, where winners are chosen by judges on the Neopets staff or voted on by members of the Neopets community. Contests include several formats, such as writing a story, making a short animated film or drawing a picture of their Neopet. Spotlights showcase what users have done with customizable content. Winners also receive a trophy and a reward, which varies with the contest or spotlight. In Australia, a cross-promotion with McDonald's where McDonald's promoted Neopets plushies in their Happy Meals and Neopets featured McDonald's-related content led to a controversy with Neopets' luck/chance games in October 2004. A story on the Australian tabloid television show Today Tonight featured a nine-year-old boy who claimed that the site requires one to gamble in order to receive enough Neopoints to feed one's Neopet or else it would be sent to the Pound. While this is factually incorrect (gambling is not required, nor are pets ever sent to an orphanage if they are not fed), it is true that the website has a number of games of chance that are directly based on real-life games such as blackjack and lottery scratchcards. In 2004, Neopets prohibited users under the age of 13 from playing most games that involve gambling because of the boy mentioned above. Exclusive content Certain features on Neopets require a user to pay some amount of real money and include Neopets Premium, Neopets Mobile, and some features of the NC Mall. Neopets Premium and Mobile both allow access to areas of the site otherwise restricted. Purchase of NeoCash allows use of the NC Mall to purchase items to customize a user's Neopet or Neohome, but users can sample clothing and furniture before purchase and can win free NeoCash on some occasions, including a daily NeoCash giveaway based on random chance called the Qasalan Expellibox, a free 50 NC giveaway from the Advent Calendar on 19 December 2008, and a free 50 NC from finding all the Halloween goodie bags hidden around the site in Halloween of 2008. Neopets Premium is an extended version of the site, for which members pay for monthly or yearly subscriptions. With Premium membership, external ads are removed and certain benefits are added, like extra Neopoints, Premium only forums, own Premium emails and access to beta versions of games. Neopets Mobile is a simpler version of the site using a web-to-wireless application developed by In-Fusio. Initially released to Cingular/AT&T, it allows access from a mobile phone where users get exclusive access to Lutari Island and other exclusive content. The NC Mall allows players to buy items used mainly for customizing their Neopets or Neohomes using Neocash. Players must purchase Neocash with real money through PayPal. Customers in the United States can also buy Neocash cards at Target stores, the Target website, and at selected Wal-mart stores. The Mall was created through a partnership with Nexon, which also handles the sale of NX Cash used in the analogous "Cash Shop" of MapleStory. It was initially released for beta on 28 June 2007 and then fully released to players in the United States on 17 July. Two months later, it expanded to English users in other countries. Most Neocash purchased items remain with the buyer permanently, but could not be transferred or sold to other players until recently, when the gift box was introduced. A few items have expiration times, after which they disappear from the buyer's accounts. In February 2008, Neopets announced Key Quest, a feature that will engage users by having them buy Neopets merchandise at Target and other stores, using a virtual code to redeem tokens for their user accounts. However, people with no merchandise can play as well. Community Screenshot of Neoboards homepage. This screenshot was taken on July 3, 2007. Neopets has a community in which users can chat with and contact each other. Users may request other users to be "Neofriends" or block other users from contacting them. Players are represented by small icons known as avatars that are provided by the website, as players cannot upload their own. To comply with COPPA, players under 13 years of age cannot access any of the site's communication features without sending in parental consent. The main features include: NeoMail, a personal in-game communication system like regular email. Players can write messages to other players and restrict who can contact them through NeoMail. However, players cannot send messages to another player who is under the age of 13 unless that player has parental permission. Neoboards, public discussion boards for on-topic discussions. Users can enter their own "neoHTML", a restricted form of BBCode, to customize their own posts and signatures, which are also used in guilds. Guilds, groups of users with similar interests and their own message board. Public guilds can be found through guild listings and anyone can join whenever they want, whereas private guilds are unlisted and invitation-only. Players are only allowed to be a member of one guild or none at all at any given time. Discussions through these features are restricted and may not involve topics such as dating and romance or controversial topics like politics and religion. Continuous moderation is performed by paid Neopets staff members, and users can help moderate the site by reporting messages they believe are inappropriate or offensive. Messages are also automatically filtered to prevent users from posting messages with profanity or lewd content, although filters cannot catch everything. Immersive advertising Immersive advertising is a trademarked term for the way Neopets displayed advertisements to generate profit after Doug Dohring bought the site. Instead of running pop-up and banner ads, immersive ads integrate advertisements into the site's content in interactive forms, including games and items. Players can earn Neopoints from them by doing things such as playing advergames and taking part in online marketing surveys. Prior to the arrival of the NC Mall, it contributed to 60% of the revenue from the site with paying Fortune 1000 companies including Disney, General Mills, and McDonald's. It was a contentious issue with the site with regard to the ethics of marketing to children. Half a million of the 25 million users were under the age of eight in 2005 and children under eight have difficulty recognizing ads. It draws criticism from parents, psychologists, and consumer advocates who argue that children may not know that they are trying to be sold something, as it blurs the line between site content and advertisement. A psychology professor at Georgetown University stated, "It's self marketing, selling to kids that don't know they are seeing anything". Dohring responded to such criticism: "Over 60 percent of our audience is 13 and over, so it is not like we are dealing with four- to six-year-olds that may not quite understand the difference between content and advertising. And of the 40 percent of our users who are 12 or under, the ages start at around seven or eight years old and go up from there. The preschoolers are not really our audience, because you have to be a pretty fluid reader to navigate the site." Others criticised the functionality of the site. Susan Linn, another psychologist and author of Consuming Kids: The Hostile Takeover of Childhood said, "The whole purpose of this site at this point is to keep kids in front of products". Kalle Lasn, editor-in-chief and co-founder of Adbusters magazine, said the site was "encouraging kids to spend hours in front of the screen and at the same time recruiting them into consumer culture", which was "the most insidious mind-fuck ever". Neopets executives have stated in 2004 and 2006 that paid content comprised less than 1% of the site's total content. Children are not required to play or use sponsor games and items. Consumer advocates also argue that immersive ads should be clearly labelled as advertisements. Dohring has said, "We're not trying to be subliminal or deceive the user. We label all the immersive ad campaigns as paid advertisements." Reception Neopets has been compared to the antecedent virtual pet fad Tamagotchi and the Pokémon franchise. It has been described as an online cross of Pokémon and Tamagotchi. The website maintains high "stickiness" rankings, which is a measure of the amount of time a user spends on the site. Neopets has been praised for having educational content, such as word games and an HTML guide. Its popularity spawned real world plushies, a magazine, book series, cereal, and merchandise in other media as well. A press release from Neopets in 2001 stated that Neopets.com led in site "stickiness" in May and June, with the average user spending 117 minutes a week. Neopets also led in the average number of hours spent per user per month in December 2003 with an average of 4 hours and 47 minutes. A 2004 article stated that Nielsen//NetRatings reported that people were spending around three hours a month on Neopets, more than any other site in its Nielsen category. By May 2005, a Neopets-affiliated video game producer cited about 35 million unique users, 11 million unique IP addresses per month, and 4 billion web page views per month. This producer also described 20% of the users as 18 or older, with the median of the remaining 80% at about 14. Gamespot interview, see "Neopets: The Darkest Faerie Developer Interview 1" video Neopets was consistently ranked among the top ten "stickiest" sites by both Nielsen//NetRatings and comScore Media Metrix in 2005 and 2006. According to Nielsen//NetRatings, in 2007, Neopets lost about 15% of its audience over the previous year. In February 2008, comScore ranked it as the stickiest kids entertainment site with the average user spending 2 hours and 45 minutes. Most of the users are female, higher than in other massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) but equivalent to social-networking-driven communities. Cuteness is one of the main factors. Open-endedness is another. Lucy Bradshaw, a vice president of Electronic Arts, said, "Games that have a tendency to satisfy on more than one dimension have a tendency to have a broader appeal and attract girls". Merchandise Viacom produces a range of merchandise, including plushies, stickers, books, cereals, Neocash cards for the Nc Mall and video games. The merchandise retails at mainstream outlets such as Wal-Mart, Target, and Limited Too. There are also exclusively online retailers involved, such as Zazzle. Each merchandise has a prize code which can be redeemed at the site for an in-game reward. Neopets had planned to "bring the online and offline worlds together in ways that have never been done before". An investment banker at Allen & Company in New York said Neopets was the only online media he had seen "that might have the ability to capture market share in the offline world". Neopets signed a licensing deal with Viacom Consumer Products in 2001 to get the right developers and publishers for their offline content. A deal with Thinkway Toys produced the first merchandise brought to an international market. Offline products expanded in 2005 with film and video game deals. In February 2008, offline products were further expanded when it was announced that Jakks Pacific and Enterplay would produce a new line of merchandise, including new plushies and trading cards, to tie into Key Quest. Wizards of the Coast released the Neopets Trading Card Game in September 2003 based on the online characters and setting. In 2004, the cards were promoted in three of General Mills "Big G" cereals and ten Simon Property Group malls. The TCG received two different nominations for "Toy of the Year" and two other recognitions. Neopets: The Official Magazine, published by Beckett Media, was a bi-monthly magazine released in September 2003. The magazine was sold through a subscription service and in stores, with back issues available for order on the magazine web site. The magazine's features included Neopet games, stories, guides to the Flash games on the Neopets site, news on upcoming site events and merchandise, and drawings for readers. It also regularly offered games tied to the site that allowed the reader to receive a prize on the Neopets site. After 26 issues, Beckett sent a notice to subscribers announcing that the January 2008 issue would be the final issue of the magazine and that Beckett would replace the issues remaining in the subscription with their new magazine Beckett Plushie Pals, which would still include some Neopets news, but also news related to various other companies, including Ganz Webkinz, Disney's Club Penguin, TY Beanie Babies, and Kookeys. Neopets signed a deal with Warner Bros. Pictures in March 2005 to produce films. The unreleased first film was announced to be written by Rob Lieber and produced by Dylan Sellers and John A. Davis in February 2006 by Variety. In November 2005, Sony Computer Entertainment America Inc. released Neopets: The Darkest Faerie, for the PlayStation 2. A second game, Neopets: Petpet Adventures: The Wand of Wishing, was released 14 March 14 2006 for the PlayStation Portable. A very popular form of merchandise for Neopets was their set of toys in 2005 at McDonald's, which brought many people in to Neopets. A second release of Neopet toys occurred at McDonald's because of the success of the last promotion. These toys have been released in countries such as Australia, USA, Singapore, and the U.K. In September 2008, Neopets toys came to Burger King in the United States and Canada. There were complaints in the U.S. when some Burger Kings were not supplied with the proper Kids Meal bags (with virtual prize codes). Neopets Puzzle Adventure, a video game developed by Infinite Interactive and published by Capcom, was made available for Windows PC, the Nintendo DS and Wii on November 25, 2008. The game is similar to the video game Puzzle Quest: Challenge of the Warlords. Neocash Cards are sold in many stores around the US, most prominently at chain stores such as Target or Wal* Mart, and come at different prices (e.g. $10 and $25). They are used at the NC Mall (released in July 2007) which is a large shop full of clothes, Neohome items and other assorted items for your Neopet; many of these items are animated and very popular. The price of the card is directly related to the amount of Neocash received; a $10 card would provide 1000 Neocash. Accounts over 48 months old are granted access to the Elite Boutique, which sells exclusive items that younger accounts cannot view or purchase. References External links Official Neopets Website Neopets Jr. Beckett Official Neopets Magazine

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Karl_Ferdinand_Braun

Karl Ferdinand Braun (6 June 1850 – 20 April 1918) was a German inventor, physicist and Nobel laureate in physics (1909). Braun contributed significantly to the development of the radio and TV technology. Biography Braun was born in Fulda, Germany, and educated at the University of Marburg and received a Ph.D. from the University of Berlin in 1872. In 1874 he discovered that a point-contact semiconductor rectifies alternating current. He became director of the Physical Institute and professor of physics at the University of Strasbourg in 1895. In 1897 he built the first cathode-ray tube oscilloscope. CRT technology is only now, over a century later, gradually being replaced by flat screen technologies (such as LCD, LED and Plasma) on television sets and computer monitors. The CRT is still called the "Braun tube" (Braunsche Röhre) in German-speaking countries (and in Japan: Buraun-kan). |Braun in his laboratory During the development of radio, he also worked on wireless telegraphy. Around 1898, he invented a crystal diode rectifier or Cat's whisker diode. Guglielmo Marconi used Braun's patents (among others). Braun's British patent on tuning was used by Marconi in many of his tuning patents. Marconi would later admit to Braun himself that he had "borrowed" portions of Braun's work. In 1909 Braun shared the Nobel Prize for physics with Marconi for "contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy." Braun went to the United States at the beginning of World War I (before the U.S. had entered the war) to help defend the German wireless station at Sayville, New York, against attacks by the British-controlled Marconi Corporation. Braun died in his house in Brooklyn, New York, before the war ended in 1918. Patents See also History of radio Invention of radio Edouard Branly References K.F. Braun: "On the current conduction in metal sulphides (title translated from German into English)", Ann. Phys. Chem., 153 (1874), 556. (In German) An English translation can be found in "Semiconductor Devices: Pioneering Papers", edited by S.M. Sze, World Scientific, Singapore, 1991, pp. 377-380. Keller, Peter A.: The cathode-ray tube: technology, history, and applications. New York: Palisades Press, 1991. ISBN 0-9631559-0-3. Keller, Peter A.: "The 100th Anniversary of the Cathode-Ray Tube," </I>Information Display</I>, Vol. 13, No. 10, 1997, pp. 28-32. External links "Ferdinand Braun – Biography". Nobel Lectures. Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967. Naughton, Russell, "Karl Ferdinand Braun, Dr : 1850 - 1918". "Karl Ferdinand Braun ". Biographies of Famous Electrochemists and Physicists Contributed to Understanding of Electricity. Rybak, James P., "Forgotten" Pioneers of Wireless; Part 5 - Karl Ferdinand Braun". "Karl Ferdinand Braun, 1850-1918". (German) (English translation) The Ferdinand-Braun-Institut fuer Hoechstfrequenztechnik Berlin, Germany Alfred Thomas Story A Story of Wireless Telegraphy. D. Appleton and company 1904

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Depeche_Mode

Depeche Mode () are an English electronic band formed in 1980, in Basildon, Essex, England. The group's original line-up was Dave Gahan (lead vocals), Martin Gore (keyboards, guitar, vocals, chief songwriter after 1981), Andrew Fletcher (keyboards) and Vince Clarke (keyboards, chief songwriter 1980–81). Vince Clarke left the band after the release of their 1981 debut album, and was replaced by Alan Wilder (lead keyboards, production 1982–1995) with Gore taking over songwriting. Since Wilder's departure, Gahan, Gore, and Fletcher have continued as a trio. Depeche Mode are one of the longest-lived, most successful and influential bands to have emerged from the early 80s. They have had forty-five songs in the UK Singles Chart, as well as #1 albums in UK, US and throughout countries in Europe. According to EMI, Depeche Mode have sold over 75 million albums worldwide EMI "Depeche Mode signs worldwide exclusive deal with EMI Music - to include the US for the first time", press release, 7 October 2008 , as part of total worldwide record sales (including singles) in excess of 100 million. http://www.emi.com/page/emi/AboutEMINews2009/0,,12641~1568634,00.html http://www.reuters.com/article/entertainmentNews/idUSTRE52K1W320090321 History Formation (1977-1980) Depeche Mode's origins can be traced back to 1977, when Vince Clarke and Andrew Fletcher formed a band called No Romance in China, with Clarke on vocals/guitar and Fletcher on bass. Band's first incarnation as "No Romance" In 1979, Clarke played guitar in an "Ultravox rip-off band", The Plan, with friends Robert Marlow and Paul Langwith. The Erasure Information Service, "Interview with Robert Marlow", - Retrieved on 10 December 2007. In 1978–79, Gore played in an acoustic duo, Norman and The Worms, with school friend Philip Burdett on vocals and Gore on guitar. philburdett.com, Phil Burdett Biography In 1979, Marlow, Gore, Clarke and friend Paul Redmond formed a band called The French Look, Marlow on vocals/keyboards, Gore on guitar and Redmond on keyboards. In March 1980, Clarke, Gore and Fletcher formed a band called Composition of Sound, with Clarke on vocals/guitar, Gore on keyboards and Fletcher on bass. In June 1980, The French Look and Composition of Sound played together at Nicholas School Youth Club, Basildon, Essex. Soon after the formation of Composition of Sound, Clarke and Fletcher switched to synthesizers, working odd jobs, including carpentry, to buy them, or borrowing them from friends. Dave Gahan joined the band in 1980 after Clarke heard him perform at a local scout-hut jam session, crooning to a rendition of David Bowie's "Heroes", and Depeche Mode was born. When explaining the choice for the new name (taken from a French fashion magazine, Dépêche mode) Martin Gore has said, "It means hurried fashion or fashion dispatch. I like the sound of that." Max Bell, "Martin Gore - The Decadent Boy", No1 Magazine, 11 May 1985 - Retrieved on 29 October 2007. ;the correct translation is 'fashion dispatch' http://www.wordreference.com/fren/depeche .The band made their recording debut on the Some Bizzare Album, with the song "Photographic", later re-recorded for their debut album, Speak & Spell. Speak & Spell (1981) While playing a live gig at the Bridge House in Canning Town, Tickell, P., "A Year In The Life of Depeche Mode", The Face, January 1982 the band was approached by Daniel Miller (an electronic musician and founder of Mute Records), who was interested in them recording a single for his burgeoning label. Page, B., "This Year's Mode(L), Sounds Magazine, 31 January 1981 The result of this verbal contract was their first single "Dreaming of Me", recorded in December 1980 and released in February 1981, reaching number 57 in the UK charts. Encouraged by this, the band recorded its second single "New Life", climbing to number 11 in the UK charts. Three months later, the band released "Just Can't Get Enough" - its first single to enter the UK Top 10, peaking at number eight. This record was in many ways a breakthrough for the band, and its success paved the way for its debut album - Speak & Spell, released in November 1981, and eventually reaching number ten on the UK album charts. Critical reviews were mixed - Melody Maker described it as a "great album... one they had to make to conquer fresh audiences and please the fans who just can’t get enough", Colbert, P., "Talking Hook Lines", Melody Maker, 31 October 1981 while Rolling Stone was more critical, calling the album "PG-rated fluff". Fricke, D., "Speak & Spell", Rolling Stone, May 1982 - Retrieved 6 February 2007 Clarke's departure, Wilder joins (1981/1982) During the touring and promotion for Speak & Spell, Clarke began privately to voice his discomfort at the direction the band was taking. He later expressed his agitation that "there was never enough time to do anything". Ellen, M., "A Clean Break", Smash Hits, February 1982 In November 1981, Clarke publicly announced that he was leaving Depeche Mode. Miller, p. 109 Soon afterwards, he joined with blues singer Alison Moyet to form Yazoo (Yaz in the U.S.) and later, the duo Erasure with Andy Bell. After initial talk of Clarke continuing to write material for the group ultimately amounted to nothing (Clarke offered the remaining members of Depeche Mode the track "Only You", but they declined; it subsequently went to UK #2 for Clarke's new band, Yazoo), Miller, p. 107 Gore, who had written "Tora! Tora! Tora!" and "Big Muff" for Speak & Spell, was forced to become the band's new songwriter. Miller, p. 110 In late 1981, the band placed an anonymous ad in Melody Maker looking for another musician. Alan Wilder, a 22-year old keyboardist from West London, responded and after two auditions, he was hired in early 1982 initially on a trial basis as a touring member. Miller, p. 121 A Broken Frame (1982) In January 1982, the band released "See You", their first single without Clarke, which against all expectations, managed to beat all three Clarke-penned singles in the UK charts, reaching number six. Miller, p. 113 In January 1982, the band embarked on their first world tour, the "See You" tour. In the ensuing months of that year, two more singles were released ("The Meaning of Love", and "Leave in Silence"). Depeche Mode began work on their second album in July 1982. Daniel Miller informed Wilder that he was not needed for the recording of the album, as the band wanted to prove that they could succeed without Vince Clarke. Miller, p. 134 Their second album A Broken Frame was released that September. In October 1982, the band embarked on their second tour that year, the "Broken Frame Tour". Construction Time Again (1983) A non-album single "Get the Balance Right!" was released in January 1983, and was Wilder's first musical contribution to the band. For their third LP Construction Time Again, Depeche Mode worked with producer Gareth Jones, at John Foxx's Garden Studios and at Hansa Studios in West Berlin. The album saw a dramatic shift in the group's sound, due in part to Wilder's introduction of the Synclavier and Emulator samplers, in addition to their previously-used analogue synths. "The Singles 81-85", Shunt - Retrieved on 6 February 2007 By sampling the noises of everyday objects, the band created an eclectic, industrial-influenced sound, with similarities to groups such as the Art of Noise and Einstürzende Neubauten, the latter having been published under the same label. , Inga Humpe - Mit Depeche Mode in einer 2raumwohnung (German), Retrieved on 15 November 2007 Similarly, Gore's lyricism was rapidly evolving, focusing increasingly on political and social issues. A good example of the new sound was on the first single from the album "Everything Counts", a commentary on the perceived greed of multinational corporations, Moore, X., "Red Rockers Over the Emerald Isle", NME, 17 September 1983 which got to number six in the UK, also reaching the Top 30 in Ireland, South Africa, Switzerland, Sweden and West Germany. Wilder also contributed on the songwriting front, notably on The Landscape Is Changing. Some Great Reward (1984) In their early years, Depeche Mode had only really attained success in the UK, Europe, and Australia - however, this changed in March 1984, when they released the single "People Are People". The song climbed to #2 in Ireland and #4 on the UK and Swiss charts - and gave them their first #1 (in Germany). However, it belatedly reached #13 on the U.S. charts in mid-1985. The song has since become an anthem for the LGBT community and is regularly played at gay establishments and gay pride festivals. Masters of 'The Universe' - David Atlanta Magazine Sire, the band's North American record label, released a compilation of the same name. In September 1984, Some Great Reward was released. Melody Maker claimed that the album made one "sit up and take notice of what is happening here, right under your nose." McIlheney, B., "Greatness and Perfection", Melody Maker, 29 September 1984 Some Great Reward saw the band experimenting with even darker subject matter, exploring sexual politics ("Master and Servant"), adulterous relationships ("Lie to Me"), and arbitrary divine justice ("Blasphemous Rumours"). Also included was the first Martin Gore ballad ("Somebody") - a concept that would be repeated on all following albums, and later became the first single sung by Gore. The album was also their first to enter the U.S. album charts, and made the Top 10 in several European countries. In 1985, Mute Records released a compilation, The Singles 81>85 (Catching Up with Depeche Mode in the U.S.), which included the new hit singles : "Shake the Disease" and "It's Called a Heart". During this period, in some circles, the band became associated with the gothic subculture, which had begun in Britain in the late 70s, and was now slowly gaining popularity in the United States. There, the band's music had first gained prominence on college radio and modern rock stations such as KROQ in Los Angeles, and WLIR on Long Island, New York, and hence, they appealed primarily to a decidedly cultish, alternative audience who were disenfranchised with the predominance of "soft rock and 'disco hell'" loc. cit., Alan Wilder's history on the radio. This view of the band was in sharp contrast to that in Europe and the UK, despite the increasingly dark and serious tone in their songs. Adinolfi, F., "Dep Jam", Record Mirror, 22 August 1987 In Germany and other European countries, Depeche Mode were considered teen idols, and were regularly featured in euro teen magazines, providing their detractors with more ammunition to use against them. Black Celebration (1986) Arguably Depeche Mode's largest transformation came in 1986, with the release of their fifteenth single "Stripped", and its accompanying album Black Celebration. Jettisoning much of the "industrial-pop" sound that had characterised their previous two LPs (although they retained their often imaginative sampling), the band introduced an ominous, highly atmospheric and textured sound, accompanied by some darker, bleaker, lyrics, as written by Gore. Also included on the album was a revised version of the song "Fly on the Windscreen", which had originally appeared as the b-side to "It's Called a Heart". The band recognised the song's promise, and decided to improve it and include it on the album, renamed as "Fly on the Windscreen - Final". loc. cit., "The Singles 81-85" The music video for "A Question of Time" was the first to be directed by Anton Corbijn, "The Singles 86-98", Shunt - Retrieved 7 February 2007 beginning a working relationship that continues to the present day. Anton has directed 19 more of the band's videos (the latest being 2006's "Suffer Well") and live performances, and has been responsible for some of the band's album and single covers. "But Not Tonight", the B-side to "Stripped" was released in October as the third single for the US. It did not chart. Music For the Masses (1987) 1987's Music for the Masses saw further alterations in the band's sound and working methods. For the first time a producer not related to Mute —David Bascombe— was called to assist with the recording sessions (although, according to Alan Wilder, his role ended up being more that of an engineer), op. cit., "The Singles 86-98" and the band, for the most part, sided its sampling of industrial sounds in which their music used to rely, in favour of more synth experimentation. ibid. While the chart performance of the singles "Strangelove", "Never Let Me Down Again" and "Behind the Wheel" proved to be disappointing in Great Britain, they performed well in countries such as Canada, Brazil, West Germany, South Africa, Sweden and Switzerland, often reaching the top 10. Record Mirror described it as "the most accomplished and sexy Mode album to date" Levy, E., "Music for the Masses", Record Mirror, 3 October 1987 and it made a breakthrough in the American market, something which the band had failed to achieve with their previous albums. 101 (1988) On the heels of Music for the Masses, the group played a follow-up world tour in 1987–88. The tour culminated on 18 June 1988 in a concert at the Pasadena Rose Bowl with paid attendance of 60,453 Jonathan Kessler quoted in the 101 film. His exact words are: "$1,360,192.50. Paid attendance was 60,453 people, tonight at the Rose Bowl, Pasadena, 18 June 1988. We're getting a load of money. A lot of money; a load of money - tons of money!" Link is to online version of Stripped: The True Story of Depeche Mode, by Jonathan Miller Mute records web-page for the re-released 101 film on DVD, retrieved 29 November 2007. (the highest in eight years for the venue). The tour meant an unprecedented breakthrough and massive success in the United States and was documented in 101 - a concert film by D.A. Pennebaker and its accompanying soundtrack album. Violator (1990) In mid-1989, the band began recording in Milan with producer Flood and engineer François Kevorkian. The initial result of this session was the single "Personal Jesus". Prior to its release, a marketing campaign was launched with advertisements placed in the personal columns of UK regional newspapers with the words "Your own personal Jesus." Later, the ads included a phone number one could dial to hear the song. The resulting furore helped propel the single to number 13 on the UK charts, becoming one of their biggest sellers to date; in the U.S., it was their first gold single and their first Top 40 hit since "People Are People", eventually becoming the biggest-selling 12-inch single in Warner Bros. Records' history up to that point. Personal Jesus (#3), Allmusic In January 1990, "Enjoy the Silence", became one of Depeche Mode's most successful singles to date, reaching number six in the UK; a few months later in the U.S., it became Depeche Mode's biggest hit, reaching number eight, and earning the band a second gold single. It won 'Best British single' at the 1991 Brit Awards. To promote their new album Violator, they held an in-store autograph signing at the Wherehouse Entertainment store location in West Los Angeles, which attracted approximately 20,000 fans, some of which were injured by being pressed against the store's glass by the crowd, and nearly caused a riot. Sanner, S., "Depeche has faith in new 'Songs'", Variety, 22 March 1993 As an apology to the fans who were injured, the band released a limited edition cassette tape to the fans living in Los Angeles and was distributed through radio station KROQ, the sponsor of the Wherehouse event. Violator went on to reach Top 10 in the UK and U.S. It has also been certified triple platinum in America, selling over 3.5 million units there. The subsequent World Violation Tour was another notable success, with 40,000 tickets sold within eight hours for the New York Giants Stadium (in East Rutherford, New Jersey) show, and 48,000 tickets for the Los Angeles Dodger Stadium show sold within an hour of going on sale. Two more singles from the album, "Policy of Truth" and "World in My Eyes" were UK and U.S. hits. Songs of Faith and Devotion (1993) In 1993 Songs of Faith and Devotion saw them experimenting with more organic arrangements, based as much on heavily distorted electric guitars, keyboards and live drums (played by Alan Wilder, whose debut as a studio drummer was the track "Clean" on Violator). op. cit., "The Singles 86-98 Live strings, uillean pipes and female gospel vocals were other new additions to the band's sound. The album debuted at number one in both the UK and the U.S., on the heels of the bluesy, grunge-influenced single "I Feel You". The 14-month Devotional world tour followed. It was documented by a concert video of the same name, and a second live album, Songs of Faith and Devotion Live. The live album was essentially a track-by-track reproduction of the eponymous album, designed to help boost sales figures of the studio album, and it proved to be a critical and commercial failure. Dave Gahan's heroin addiction was starting to affect his behaviour, causing him to become more erratic and introverted. Martin Gore experienced a series of seizures, and Andy Fletcher declined to participate in the second "exotic" leg of the tour, due to "mental instability". During that period, he was replaced on-stage by Daryl Bamonte, who had worked with the band as a personal assistant for many years. op. cit., "The Singles 86-98" Wilder's departure (1995) In June 1995, Alan Wilder announced that he was leaving Depeche Mode, explaining, {{cquote|Since joining in 1982, I have continually striven to give total energy, enthusiasm and commitment to the furthering of the group's success and in spite of a consistent imbalance in the distribution of the workload, willingly offered this. Unfortunately, within the group, this level of input never received the respect and acknowledgement that it warrants.<ref>Alan's Leaving, Jaakko's Depeche Mode page - Retrieved 10 February 2007</ref>}} He continued to work on his personal project Recoil, releasing a fourth album (Unsound Methods) in 1997. Following Wilder's departure, many were skeptical of whether Depeche Mode would ever record again. Gahan's mental state and drug habit became a major source of concern, with a near-fatal overdose at a hotel in Los Angeles. Ultra (1997) Despite Gahan's increasingly severe personal issues, Gore tried repeatedly during 1995 and 1996 to get the band recording again. However, Gahan would rarely turn up to scheduled sessions, and when he did, it would take weeks to get any vocals recorded. Gore was forced to contemplate breaking the band up, and releasing the songs he had written as a solo album. Martin L. Gore interview, Pavement, 16 April 1997 In mid-1996, Gahan entered a drug rehabilitation program to battle his heroin addiction. Cameron, K., "Dead Man Talking", NME, 18 January 1997 With Gahan out of rehab in 1996, Depeche Mode held recording sessions with producer Tim Simenon; the next year, the album Ultra, and its two preceding singles, "Barrel of a Gun" and "It's No Good", were released. The album debuted at #1 in the UK and #5 in the US. "Home" and "Useless" were also released from the album, becoming a double A-side for the US. A second singles compilation The Singles (86-98) was released in 1998, preceded by the new single "Only When I Lose Myself", which had been recorded during the "Ultra" sessions. The band set off on a four month tour. Exciter (2001) In 2001, Depeche Mode released Exciter, which was produced by Mark Bell (of the pioneering techno group LFO). Bell introduced a minimalist, digital sound to much of the album, influenced by IDM and glitch. The album failed to achieve the same levels of sales as the band's previous three releases, and was the first studio album by Depeche Mode to chart higher in the U.S. than the UK, although it reached the Top 10 in both countries. "Dream On", "I Feel Loved", "Freelove" and "Goodnight Lovers" were released as singles in 2001 and 2002. The critical response to the album was mixed. Whilst it received reasonably positive reviews from some magazines (NME, Rolling Stone and L.A. Weekly), others (including Q, PopMatters, and Pitchfork Media) derided it as sounding underproduced, dull and lacklustre. "Depeche Mode: Exciter (2001): Reviews", Metacritic - Retrieved on 10 February 2007 , and on tours following the Exciter tour (Touring the Angel and Tour of the Universe), the band have only chosen to play either one (Goodnight Lovers) or no songs whatsoever from the Exciter album. In 2004, Mute released the DVD version of Devotional, filmed during their 1993 world tour, as well as a new remix compilation album Remixes 81 - 04 that compiled new and unreleased promo mixes of the band's singles from 1981 to 2004, including a reinterpreted version of "Enjoy the Silence" by Mike Shinoda entitled "Enjoy the Silence 04", which was released as a single, and reached #7 on the UK charts. Playing the Angel (2005) On 17 October 2005, the band released their 11th studio album Playing the Angel. Produced by Ben Hillier, this Top 10 hit (peaking at #1 in 17 countries) featured the hit single "Precious", peaking at #4 in the UK charts. The album was backed by the band's first in-store signing since 1990, on the day of release in New York City. This is the first Depeche Mode album to feature lyrics written by Gahan and, consequently, the first album since 1984's Some Great Reward featuring songs not written by Gore. With a prototypical version having been leaked onto the Internet some months earlier, Depeche Mode single leaked online the official video for "Precious" was released on 12 September on the Depeche Mode website, www.depechemode.com. The second single from the album, "A Pain That I'm Used To," was released on 12 December, and the third single from the album was "Suffer Well," the first ever post-Clarke Depeche Mode single not to be written by Gore (lyrics by Gahan, music by Philpott/Eigner). The last single from the album was "John the Revelator", an uptempo electronic track with a running religious theme, accompanied by Lilian, a lush track that was a hit in many clubs all over the world. Touring the Angel concert in Bremen (Germany) in June 2006 To promote Playing the Angel, the band launched the worldwide Touring the Angel in November 2005, taking them to North America and Europe. The tour continued through the first half of 2006. Depeche Mode also headlined both the 2006 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, in California, and the O2 Wireless Festival, which took place on the last weekend of June 2006 in London's Hyde Park. Some of the gigs were their first ever shows in certain countries like Romania and Bulgaria. In March 2006, the website announced two dates in Mexico (a country they had not visited for twelve years). More than 55,000 tickets for a stadium in Mexico City were sold immediately, causing the band to schedule another date for the same venue. Recordings of 43 of the shows were officially released on CDs. These limited edition Depeche Mode live albums published under the scheme title Recording the Angel were much sought after by collectors. On 3 April 2006, remastered editions of Speak & Spell, Music for the Masses, and Violator were released, featuring remastered audio in two-channel stereo and 5.1 multichannel on Super Audio CD and DVD, extra tracks and B-sides. In addition, each album comes with its own documentary charting the history of the band and the production of each album. The second instalment of remastered albums were A Broken Frame, Some Great Reward and Songs of Faith and Devotion, all of which were released on 2 October 2006. Construction Time Again and Black Celebration were released on 26 March 2007. Both Ultra and Exciter were released on 1 October 2007. On 25 September 2006 Depeche Mode released their live DVD-CD set Touring the Angel: Live in Milan, directed by Blue Leach and recorded at Milan's Fila Forum on 18 February, and 19 February 2006. The DVD has a full concert on disc 1, bonus live songs "A Question of Lust" and "Damaged People" along with a 20-minute documentary featuring Anton Corbijn, official tour announcement from Germany in the summer of 2005, and the Playing the Angel electronic press kit on disc 2, and disc 3 is a CD with live versions of tracks from Playing the Angel. In addition, a "best-of" compilation was released in November 2006, entitled The Best Of, Volume 1 featuring a new single "Martyr", an outtake from the Playing the Angel sessions. On 2 November, Depeche Mode received the MTV Europe Music Award in the Best Group category. During that same period Fletcher confirmed that the band was on a long break after the massive "Touring the Angel". In December 2006, Depeche Mode were nominated for a Grammy Award, for Best Dance Recording, for "Suffer Well." This was their third Grammy Award nomination. The first being a Best Long Form Music Video award in 1995 for Devotional and the second being for Best Dance Recording for "I Feel Loved". In mid-December 2006, iTunes released The Complete Depeche Mode as its fourth ever digital box-set (following The Complete U2 in 2004, The Complete Stevie Wonder in 2005, and Bob Dylan: The Collection earlier in 2006). Sounds of the Universe (2009) In August 2007, during promotion for Dave Gahan's second solo album, Hourglass, it was announced that Depeche Mode were heading back in studio in early 2008 to work on their upcoming twelfth studio album. New Depeche Mode album in the pipeline for 2008 In March 2008, rumours surfaced that Ben Hillier would be the producer of the forthcoming album. Depeche Mode return to studio with U2 producer Ben Hillier while Gahan wants to stop old suicide rumours In May 2008, the band returned to the studio to work on some songs that Martin Gore had been working on at his home studio in Santa Barbara, California. In August 2008, it was announced that Depeche Mode were splitting from their long-term U.S. label, Warner Music, and will be signed to EMI Music worldwide. At a press conference on 6 October 2008 at the Olympiastadion in Berlin BBC - Depeche Mode tour the band announced plans for its Tour of the Universe, the group’s first-ever stadium tour in which they will perform in 28 cities across 21 countries throughout Europe NME - Depeche Mode announce 2009 European tour , which commenced on May 6, 2009 with it's warm-up show at Rockhal, Luxembourg. Last 5,000 tickets for the concert of “Depeche Mode”, by A. Novakovic, Published April 27, 2009 and officially starts on May 10, 2009 at Ramat Gan Stadium, Israel. Depeche Mode prepares for Tour of the Universe, by Kerri Mason, Reuters News, Published March 21, 2009. Dates in North America and a return to South America for the first time since the Exotic Tour of 1994 are to follow but have not yet been announced. Billboard - Depeche Mode Readies New CD, Tour At the press conference, clips from two new songs, "Wrong" and "Peace" were previewed. "Wrong" is a Dave Gahan-sung track with a lot of electronics, "Peace" a Gore/Gahan duet. http://www.dailymotion.com/YourUselessAdvice/video/x6zlq1_depeche-mode-wrong-peace_music Posted on YouTube are videos shot by Andy Fletcher of the construction of a new song from the album. Depeche Mode present birth first song in 4 video postings On 15 January 2009, the official Depeche Mode website announced that the new album would be called Sounds of the Universe. DEPECHE MODE ANNOUNCES THE RELEASE OF SOUNDS OF THE UNIVERSE APRIL 21, 2009 . The album was released internationally on 20 April 2009 and in the U.S. on 21 April 2009. Depeche Mode leave Warner "Wrong" is the first single from the album, released digitally on 21 February 2009, and physically on 6 April (7 April in the U.S.). The video is directed by Patrick Daughters. The full album was leaked over the Internet on 26 March 2009, when it was sold ahead of time through iTunes Pass. Andy Fletcher says the idea for their iTunes Pass was a combination of the band's and iTunes'. "I think the digital and record companies are starting to get their act together. They were very lazy in the first 10 years when downloads came in. Now they’re collaborating more and coming up with interesting ideas for fans to buy products." The Who's News Blog, April 21, 2009 On May 14 2009, Depeche Mode announced they had been forced to cancel six shows on their Tour of the Universe due to further complications from singer Dave Gahan's severe bout of gastroenteritis. "Peace" will be the second single from "Sounds of the Universe", due to be released on 15 June 2009. On May 28 2009, Depeche Mode announced that Dave Gahan recovered from gastroenteritis after doctors found a tumor in his bladder during tests and removed it. Also, doctors ordered him to rest until June 8th, when they will resume touring starting in Leizpig, Germany. Legacy and influence Depeche Mode influenced many of today's popular recording artists, in part due to their recording techniques and innovative use of sampling. For example, Pet Shop Boys cited Violator (and "Enjoy the Silence" in particular) as one of the main sources of inspiration during recording of their critically acclaimed album Behaviour. Neil Tennant says, “We were listening to Violator by Depeche Mode, which was a very good album and we were deeply jealous of it.” Bandmate Chris Lowe agrees, “They had raised the stakes.” "10 years of Being boring" - Retrieved on 9 September 2007. "Interviews - Behaviour - The end of the world", Absolutely Pet Shop Boys - Retrieved on 9 September 2007. Techno pioneers Derrick May, Kevin Saunderson and Juan Atkins regularly cited Depeche Mode as an influence on the development of techno music during the Detroit Techno explosion in the mid 1980s. McCready, J., "Modus operandum", The Face, February 1989 Appreciation of Depeche Mode within today's electronic music scene is shown by the numerous Depeche Mode remixes by contemporary DJs such as Ricardo Villalobos' remix of "The Sinner in Me" or Kruder & Dorfmeister's remix of "Useless". According to Matt Smith, the former music director of the modern-rock radio station KROQ, "The Killers, The Bravery, Franz Ferdinand — that whole wave of music owes a tremendous amount to Depeche Mode." "Depeche Mode", Washington Post (Sept 11, 2005) - Retrieved on 9 September 2007. In an accompanying interview for his piece in The New Yorker evaluating the impact of British acts on the US market, Sasha Frere-Jones claims that "probably the last serious English influence was Depeche Mode, who seem more and more significant as time passes." "", New Yorker (June 5, 2006) - Retrieved on 10 December 2008. Radiohead frontman, Thom Yorke cites Depeche Mode as an influence with Mode's early 90's album, Violator. Ken Jordan, member of the LA electronic duo The Crystal Method has said that Depeche Mode is one of The Crystal Method's main influences in music. Chester Bennington, vocalist of Linkin Park, was inspired by the band. "Chester Bennington", mtv.com - Retrieved on 9 September 2007. "LINKIN PARK Singer Says Solo Album Will Have 'Driving Beats And Walls Of Guitars' - Aug. 19, 2005", BLABBERMOUTH.NET - Retrieved on 9 September 2007. Another Linkin Park member Mike Shinoda has said, "Depeche Mode is one of the most influential groups of our time. Their music is an inspiration to me..." "Depeche Mode "Remixes 81-04"", [mute] - Retrieved on 9 September 2007. The band's influence is spread throughout different genres of music. Raymond Herrera, the drummer of the heavy metal band Fear Factory, says, "A lot of different music influenced the way I play now. Like the band Depeche Mode. If I could sound like Depeche Mode, but be fast like Slayer, I think I might be onto something". Anthony Roldan, "An exclusive interview with Fear Factory's Raymond Herrera", PROG4YOU - Retrieved on 12 September 2007. According to Darren Smith, the guitarist of the post-hardcore band Funeral for a Friend, "dark, moodier stuff" in his band's music was "Depeche Mode-influenced." Tony Pascarella, "Darren Smith of Funeral For A Friend", The Trades - Retrieved on 12 September 2007. Depeche Mode's influence on heavy metal bands is clear through the numerous covers of their songs. Examples include Lacuna Coil's cover of "Enjoy the Silence", Arsis' cover of "The Things You Said", Rammstein's "Stripped", Marilyn Manson's "Personal Jesus", A Perfect Circle's "People are People", Sonata Arctica's "World in My Eyes" and In Flames' "Everything Counts". Other artists to have covered the band's songs include Tori Amos and H.I.M. ("Enjoy the Silence"), Johnny Cash ("Personal Jesus") Dope ("People Are People") and more recently The Saturdays ("Just Can't Get Enough"). In August 2008, Coldplay released a "cover version" of the video for "Enjoy the Silence" as an alternate video for their single "Viva la Vida". On their website where the video is shown, they are quoted as saying, "This is our attempt at a video cover version, made out of love for Depeche Mode and the genius of Anton Corbijn." The video shows Chris Martin dressed as a king like Dave Gahan, walking through The Hague, Anton Corbijn's place of birth. In May 2009, a Depeche Mode tribute compilation Alfa Matrix re:covered was released holding 32 covers by bands such as Front 242, Komor Kommando and Ayria www.depeche-mode-tribute.com . Live supporting musicians Peter Gordeno – keyboards, occasional electric bass and electric guitar (1998—Present) Christian Eigner – occasional songwriting, drums (1997—Present) Jordan Bailey – backing vocals (1998–2001) Hildia Campbell – backing vocals (1993–1994) Samantha Smith – backing vocals (1993–1994) Daryl Bamonte – keyboards (1994) Dave Clayton – keyboards (1997) Janet Ramus – backing vocals (1998) Georgia Lewis – backing vocals (2001) Between 1998 and 2010, both Gordeno and Eigner were/going to be present on four consecutive tours; with Eigner on drums (and contributing to some of the songwriting on Playing the Angel and Sounds of the Universe with Gahan and Andrew Philpott) and Gordeno on keyboards. DiscographySpeak & Spell (1981)A Broken Frame (1982)Construction Time Again (1983)Some Great Reward (1984)Black Celebration (1986)Music for the Masses (1987)Violator (1990)Songs of Faith and Devotion (1993)Ultra (1997)Exciter (2001)Playing the Angel (2005)Sounds of the Universe (2009) See also Depeche Mode tours List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart References Miller, Jonathan. Stripped: The True Story of Depeche Mode. Omnibus Press, 2004. ISBN 1-84449-415-2 Footnotes Further reading Corbijn, Anton. Depeche Mode: Strangers. Prentice Hall, 1990. ISBN 0-7119-2493-7 Malins, Steve. Depeche Mode : A Biography. Cooper Square Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8154-1142-1 Thompson, Dave. Depeche Mode : Some Great Reward. Pan Macmillan, 1995. ISBN 0-283-06243-6 Zill, Didi. Depeche Mode. Photographs 1982-87''. Schwarzkopf & Schwarzkopf, 2004. ISBN 3-89602-491-4 External links be-x-old:Depeche Mode

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Baseball

Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each. The goal is to score runs by hitting a thrown ball with a bat and touching a series of four bases arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot square, or diamond. Players on one team (the batting team) take turns hitting against the pitcher of the other team (the fielding team), which tries to stop them from scoring runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways. A player on the batting team can stop at any of the bases and later advance via a teammate's hit or other means. The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the fielding team records three outs. One turn at bat for each team constitutes an inning; nine innings make up a professional game. The team with the most runs at the end of the game wins. Evolving from older bat-and-ball games, an early form of baseball was being played in England by the mid-eighteenth century. This game and the related rounders were brought by British and Irish immigrants to North America, where the modern version of baseball developed. By the late nineteenth century, baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States. Baseball on the professional, amateur, and youth levels is now popular in North America, parts of Central and South America and the Caribbean, and parts of East Asia. The game is sometimes referred to as hardball, in contrast to the derivative game of softball. In North America, professional Major League Baseball (MLB) teams are divided into the National League (NL) and American League (AL). Each league has three divisions: East, West, and Central. Every year, the champion of Major League Baseball is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series. Four teams make the playoffs from each league: the three regular season division winners, plus one wild card team. Baseball is the leading team sport in both Japan and Cuba, and the top level of play is similarly split between two leagues: Japan's Central League and Pacific League; Cuba's West League and East League. In the National and Central leagues, the pitcher is required to bat, per the traditional rules. In the American, Pacific, and both Cuban leagues, there is a tenth player, a designated hitter, who bats for the pitcher. Each top-level team has a farm system of one or more minor league teams. These teams allow younger players to develop as they gain on-field experience against opponents with similar levels of skill. History Origins of baseball The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision. A French manuscript from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a game, possibly la soule, with similarities to baseball; Block (2005), pp. 106–108. other old French games such as théque, la balle au bâton, and la balle empoisonée also appear to be related. Block (2005), pp. 71–72, 75, 89, 147–149, 150, 160, et seq. Consensus once held that today's baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular in Great Britain and Ireland. Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game (2005), by David Block, suggests that the game originated in England; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other, and that the game's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and "tut-ball". Block (2005), pp. 86, 87, 111–113, 118–121, 135–138, 144, 160; Rader (2008), p. 7. It has long been believed that cricket also descended from such games, though evidence uncovered in early 2009 suggests that the sport may have been imported to England from Flanders. The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of "base-ball" and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration, and with posts instead of ground-level bases. Block (2005), pp. 139, 140, 151, 164, 178, 179, et seq.; See Wikisource edition of A Little Pretty Pocket-Book. English lawyer William Bray recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford, Surrey; Bray's diary was verified as authentic in September 2008. This early form of the game was apparently brought to North America by English immigrants; rounders was also brought to the continent by both British and Irish immigrants. The first known American reference to baseball appears in a 1791 Pittsfield, Massachusetts, town bylaw prohibiting the playing of the game near the town's new meeting house. Block (2005), pp. 58, 160, 300, 307, 310; By 1796, a version of the game was well-known enough to earn a mention in a German scholar's book on popular pastimes. As described by Johann Gutsmuths, "englische Base-ball" involved a contest between two teams, in which "the batter has three attempts to hit the ball while at the home plate"; only one out was required to retire a side. Block (2005), pp. 67–75, 181; Gutsmuths quoted: p. 86. By the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America. These games were often referred to locally as "town ball", though other names such as "round-ball" and "base-ball" were also used. Block (2005), pp. 4–5, 11–15, 25, 33, 59–61, et. seq. Among the earliest examples to receive a detailed description—albeit five decades after the fact, in a letter from an attendee to Sporting Life magazine—took place in Beachville, Ontario, Canada, in 1838. There were many similarities to modern baseball, and some crucial differences: five bases (or byes); first bye just from the home bye; batter out if a hit ball was caught after the first bounce. Sullivan (1997), pp. 9–11. The once widely accepted story that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839 has been conclusively debunked by sports historians. Block (2005), pp. xiv–xix, 15–18, 32–38, 42–47, et seq.; Rader (2008), pp. 7, 93–94. In 1845, Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York City's Knickerbockers club, led the codification of the so-called Knickerbocker Rules. Sullivan (1997), p. 292. The practice, common to bat-and-ball games of the day, of "soaking" or "plugging"—effecting a putout by hitting a runner with a thrown ball—was barred. The rules thus facilitated the use of a smaller, harder ball than had been common. Several other rules also brought the Knickerbockers' game close to the modern one, though a ball caught on the first bounce was, again, an out and only underhand pitching was allowed. Block (2005), p. 84; Koppett (2004), p. 2; Rader (2008), p. 8; Sullivan (1997), p. 10. While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845, the contest now recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in Hoboken, New Jersey: the "New York Nine" defeated the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings. Sullivan (1997), pp. 32, 80, 95. With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century. Tygiel (2000), pp. 8–14; Rader (2008), pp. 71–72. History of baseball in the United States The game turns professional In the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area. Rader (2008), pp. 9, 10. By 1856, local journals were referring to baseball as the "national pastime" or "national game". Tygiel (2000), p. 6. A year later, sixteen area clubs formed the sport's first governing body, the National Association of Base Ball Players. In 1863, the organization disallowed putouts made by catching a fair ball on the first bounce. Four years later, it barred participation by African Americans. Rader (2008), p. 27; Sullivan (1997), pp. 68, 69. The game's commercial potential was developing: in 1869 the first fully professional baseball club, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, was formed and went undefeated against a schedule of semipro and amateur teams. Sullivan (1997), pp. 43, 73. The first professional league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, lasted from 1871 to 1875; scholars dispute its status as a major league. Sullivan (1997), p. 83–87. The more formally structured National League was founded in 1876. As the oldest surviving major league, the National League is sometimes referred to as the "senior circuit". Sullivan (1997), pp. 83, 130, 243. Several other major leagues formed and failed. In 1884, African American Moses Walker (and, briefly, his brother Welday) played in one of these, the American Association. Zoss (2004), p. 136. An injury ended Walker's major league career, and by the early 1890s, a gentlemen's agreement in the form of the baseball color line effectively barred black players from the white-owned professional leagues, major and minor. Zoss (2004), p. 102. Professional Negro leagues formed, but quickly folded; several independent African American teams succeeded as barnstormers. Sullivan (1997), p. 115. Also in 1884, overhand pitching was legalized. Rader (2008), p. 71. In 1887, softball, under the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor, was invented as a winter version of the parent game. Heaphy, Leslie, "Women Playing Hardball", in Baseball and Philosophy: Thinking Outside the Batter's Box, ed. Eric Bronson (Open Court, 2004), pp. 246–256: p. 247. Virtually all of the modern baseball rules were in place by 1893; the last major change—counting foul balls as strikes—was instituted in 1901. The National League's first successful counterpart, the American League, which evolved from the minor Western League, was established that year. Sullivan (1997), pp. 243–246. The two leagues, each with eight teams, were rivals that fought for the best players, often disregarding each other's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes. Sullivan (1997), p. 13. The New York Giants baseball team, 1913. Fred Merkle, sixth in line, committed a baserunning gaffe in a crucial 1908 game that became famous as Merkle's Boner. A modicum of peace was eventually established, leading to the National Agreement of 1903. The pact formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the country's minor professional leagues. Rader (2008), p. 110; Zimbalist (2006), p. 22. See The World Series, pitting the two major league champions against each other, was inaugurated that fall, albeit without express major league sanction: The Boston Americans of the American League defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League. Sullivan (1997), pp. 13–16. The next year, the series was not held, as the National League champion New York Giants, under manager John McGraw, refused to recognize the major league status of the American League and its champion. Sullivan (1997), pp. 141–150; Sullivan (1998), pp. 8–10. In 1905, the Giants were National League champions again and team management relented, leading to the establishment of the World Series as the major leagues' annual championship event. Koppett (2004), p. 99. As professional baseball became increasingly profitable, players frequently raised grievances against owners over issues of control and equitable income distribution. During the major leagues' early decades, players on various teams occasionally attempted strikes, which routinely failed when their jobs were sufficiently threatened. In general, the strict rules of baseball contracts and the reserve clause, which bound players to their teams even when their contracts had ended, tended to keep the players in check. Burk (2001), pp. 56, 100, 102, 103, 113, 143, 147, 170, et seq.; Powers (2003), pp. 17–21, 27, 83, 121, 122, 160–164, 177; Rader (2008), pp. 60–71. Motivated by dislike for particularly stingy owner Charles Comiskey and gamblers' payoffs, real and promised, members of the Chicago White Sox conspired to throw the 1919 World Series. The Black Sox Scandal led to the formation of a new National Commission of baseball that drew the two major leagues closer together. Powers (2003), pp. 39, 47, 48. The first major league baseball commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, was elected in 1920. That year also saw the founding of the Negro National League; the first significant Negro league, it would operate until 1931. For part of the 1920s, it was joined by the Eastern Colored League. Burgos (2007), pp. 117, 118. Rise of Ruth and racial integration Compared with the present, professional baseball in the early twentieth century was lower scoring and pitchers, the likes of Walter Johnson and Christy Mathewson, were more dominant. The inside game, which demanded that players "scratch for runs", was played much more aggressively than it is today; the brilliant, and often violent, Ty Cobb epitomized this style. Sullivan (1997), p. 214. The so-called dead-ball era ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters. Strict new regulations governing the ball's size, shape and composition, coupled with superior materials available after World War I, resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit. The construction of additional seating to accommodate the rising popularity of the game often had the effect of bringing the outfield fences closer in, making home runs more common. Zoss (2004), p. 90. The rise of the legendary player Babe Ruth, the first great power hitter of the new era, helped permanently alter the nature of the game. The club with which Ruth set most of his slugging records, the New York Yankees, built a reputation as the majors' premiere team. Zoss (2004), p. 192. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and developed the first modern "farm system". Burk (2001), pp. 34–37. A new Negro National League was organized in 1933; four years later, it was joined by the Negro American League. The first elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936. In 1939, Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsylvania. By the late 1940s, it was the organizing body for children's baseball leagues across the United States. With America's entry into World War II, many professional players had left to serve in the armed forces. A large number of minor league teams disbanded as a result and the major league game seemed under threat as well. Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of a new professional league with women players to help keep the game in the public eye; the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League existed from 1943 to 1954. The inaugural College World Series was held in 1947, and the Babe Ruth League youth program was founded. This program soon became another important organizing body for children's baseball. The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-controlled professional ball occurred the previous year: Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League's Brooklyn Dodgers—where Branch Rickey had become general manager—and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal. Burgos (2007), p. 158. In 1947, Robinson broke the major leagues' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers. Larry Doby debuted with the American League's Cleveland Indians the same year. Burgos (2007), pp. 180, 191. Latin American players, largely overlooked before, also started entering the majors in greater numbers. In 1951, two Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and Cuban-born (and black) Minnie Miñoso, became the first Hispanic All-Stars. Powers (2003), p. 111. Facing competition as varied as television and football, baseball attendance at all levels declined; while the majors rebounded by the mid-1950s, the minor leagues were gutted and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams dissolved. Rader (2008), p. 3; Bjarkman (2005), p. xxxvii. Simmons, Rob, "The Demand for Spectator Sports", in Handbook on the Economics of Sport, ed. Wladimir Andreff and Stefan Szymanski (Edward Elgar, 2006), pp. 77–89. Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the sixteen major league teams had a black player on the roster. That year, the Major League Baseball Players Association was founded. It was the first professional baseball union to survive more than briefly, but it remained largely ineffective for years. Powers (2003), p. 170. No major league team had been located west of St. Louis, Missouri until 1958, when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively. Burgos (2007), p. 215. The majors' final all-white bastion, the Boston Red Sox, added a black player in 1959. With the integration of the majors drying up the available pool of players, the last Negro league folded the following year. Heaphy (2003), pp. 121, 218–224. In 1961, the American League reached the West Coast with the Los Angeles Angels expansion team, and the major league season was extended from 154 games to 162. This coincidentally helped Roger Maris break Babe Ruth's long-standing single-season home run record, one of the most celebrated marks in baseball. Koppett (2004), pp. 307, 308; Sullivan (2002), pp. 163, 164. Along with the Angels, three other new franchises were launched during 1961–62; with this, the first major league expansion in sixty years, each league now had ten teams. Attendance records and the age of steroids The players' union became bolder under the leadership of former United Steelworkers chief economist and negotiator Marvin Miller, who was elected executive director in 1966. Powers (2003), pp. 170, 172–175. On the playing field, major league pitchers were becoming increasingly dominant again. After the 1968 season, in an effort to restore balance, the strike zone was reduced and the height of the pitcher's mound was lowered. The following year, both the National and American leagues added two more expansion teams; the leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, and a post-season playoff system leading to the World Series was instituted. Also in 1969, Curt Flood of the St. Louis Cardinals made the first serious legal challenge to the reserve clause. The major leagues' first general players' strike took place in 1972. Powers (2003), pp. 156–168, 175, 176. In another effort to add more offense to the game, the American League adopted the designated hitter rule the following year. Sullivan (2002), p. 239. In 1975, the union's power—and players' salaries—began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down, leading to the free agency system. Powers (2003), pp. 178, 180, 245. In 1977, two more expansion teams joined the American League. Significant work stoppages occurred again in 1981 and 1994, the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in ninety years. Powers (2003), pp. 184–187, 191, 192, 280–282. Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid-1970s and in 1994, before the stoppage, the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game attendance. Koppett (2004), pp. 376, 511. The addition of two more expansion teams after the 1993 season had facilitated another restructuring of the major leagues, this time into three divisions each. Offensive production—the number of home runs in particular—had surged that year, and again in the abbreviated 1994 season. Rader (2008), pp. 249, 250. After play resumed in 1995, this trend continued and non-division-winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post-season. Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set. Koppett (2004), p. 481. The next year, Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both surpassed Maris's decades-old single season home run record and two more expansion franchises were added. In 2000, the National and American leagues were dissolved as legal entities. While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter distinction), the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and umpire supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of Major League Baseball (MLB). Koppett (2004), p. 489. In 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season. There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion), but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs before 2004. Rader (2008), pp. 254, 271; Zimbalist (2007), pp. 195, 196. In 2007, Bonds became MLB's all-time home run leader, surpassing Hank Aaron, as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all-time highs. Even though McGwire, Sosa, and Bonds—as well as many other players, including storied pitcher Roger Clemens—have been implicated in the steroid abuse scandal, their feats and those of other sluggers had become the major leagues' defining attraction. Powers (2003), pp. 292–293; Rader (2008), pp. 254, 271, 275–277. In contrast to the professional game's resurgence in popularity after the 1994 interruption, Little League enrollment was in decline: after peaking in 1996, it dropped 1 percent a year over the following decade. Baseball around the world Baseball, widely known as America's pastime, is well-established in several other countries as well. The history of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked with that of the sport in the United States. As early as 1877, a professional league, the International Association, featured teams from both countries. Bjarkman (2004), p. 73; Burk (2001), p. 58. While baseball is widely played in Canada, and many minor league teams have been based in the country, the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969, when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team. In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League. The Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993, the first and still the only club from outside the United States to do so. After the 2004 season, Major League Baseball relocated the Expos to Washington, D.C., where the team is now known as the Nationals. The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a rich baseball tradition and whose national team has been one of the world's strongest since international play began in the late 1930s. (All organized baseball in the country has officially been amateur since the Cuban Revolution.) The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912. Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv. Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in 1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mexico (1937), and Puerto Rico (1938). Bjarkman (2004), pp. 356, 123, 137, xxiv, 11, 233; Gmelch (2006), p. 296. The Japanese major leagues—the Central League and Pacific League—have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States. McNeil (2000), p. 113. Japan has a professional minor league system as well, though it is much smaller than the American version—each team has only one farm club in contrast to MLB teams' four or five. After World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin American nations, most prominently Venezuela (1946) and the Dominican Republic (1955). Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv, xxv; Burgos (2007), p. 46. Since the early 1970s, the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues: the Dominican Winter League, Mexican Pacific League, Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. In Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990), and China (2003) all have professional leagues. Bjarkman (2004), pp. 362, 368; Gmelch (2006), pp. 100, 75, 59. Many European countries have professional leagues as well, the most successful, other than the Dutch league, being the Italian league founded in 1948. Bjarkman (2004), pp. xv. Compared to those in Asia and Latin America, the various European leagues and the one in Australia historically have had no more than niche appeal. In 2004, Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games. The Israel Baseball League, launched in 2007, folded after one season. The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries, as well as national squads. Other competitions between national teams, such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament, have been administered by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF) since its formation in 1938. As of 2009, the IBAF has 117 member countries. Women's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in many of the countries where it is a leading men's sport. Since 2004, the IBAF has sanctioned the Women's Baseball World Cup, featuring national teams. After being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games, baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting. It remained part of the 2008 Games and will be put to a vote again for each succeeding Summer Olympics. The elimination of baseball, along with softball, from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two different sports, but none received the majority vote required for inclusion. While the sport's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor, more important has been Major League Baseball's reluctance to have a break during the Games so that its players can participate, something that the National Hockey League now does during the Winter Olympic Games. Such a break is more difficult for MLB to accommodate because it would force the playoffs deeper into cold weather. Major League Baseball initiated the World Baseball Classic, scheduled to precede the major league season, partly as a replacement, high-profile international tournament. The inaugural Classic, held in March 2006, was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants. Rules and gameplay A game is played between two teams, each composed of nine players, that take turns playing offense (batting or hitting) and defense (fielding or pitching). A pair of turns, one at bat and one in the field, by each team constitutes an inning; there are nine innings in a game. One team—customarily the visiting team—bats in the top, or first half, of every inning; the other team—customarily the home team—bats in the bottom, or second half, of every inning. The goal of a game is to score more points (runs) than the other team. The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by circling, or completing a tour of, the four bases set at the corners of the square-shaped baseball diamond. A player bats at home plate and must proceed counterclockwise to first base, second base, third base, and back home in order to score a run. The team in the field attempts both to prevent runs from scoring and to record outs, which remove opposing players from offensive action until their turn in their team's batting order comes up again. When three outs are recorded, the teams switch roles for the next half-inning. If the score of the game is tied after nine innings, extra innings are played to resolve the contest. Children's games are often scheduled for fewer than nine innings. Thurston (2000), p. 15; Diagram of a baseball field (the term diamond may be used to refer to the square area defined by the four bases or to the entire playing field). The dimensions given are for professional and professional-style games; children often play on smaller fields. The game is played on a field whose primary boundaries, the foul lines, extend forward from home plate at 45-degree angles. The 90-degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory; the 270-degree area outside them is foul territory. The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the infield; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield. In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher's mound, with a rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its center. The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence, which may be of any material and height (many amateur games are played on fields without a fence). Fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball's field of play, though significant events can take place in foul territory, as well. There are three basic tools of baseball: the ball, the bat, and the glove or mitt: The baseball is about the size of an adult's fist, around 9 inches (23 centimeters) in circumference. It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide, with red stitching. Porterfield (2007), p. 23; The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a single, solid piece of wood; other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games. It is a hard round stick, about 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob. Bats used by adults are typically around 34 inches (86 centimeters) long, and not longer than 42 inches (106 centimeters). The glove or mitt is a fielding tool, made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers. As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions. Protective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters. Thurston (2000), pp. 21, 30, 31; At the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players on the fielding team arrange themselves around the field. One of them, the pitcher, stands on the pitcher's mound; the pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber, pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate. Another player, the catcher, squats on the far side of home plate, facing the pitcher. The rest of the team faces home plate, typically arranged as four infielders—who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines between first, second, and third base—and three outfielders. In the standard arrangement, there is a first baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base, a second baseman to the right of second base, a shortstop to the left of second base, and a third baseman to the right of third base. The basic outfield positions are left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. A neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher. Porterfield (2007), pp. 16–18, 25, 34, 35; Gameplay starts with a batter standing at home plate, holding a bat. The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch (the ball) toward home plate, and attempts to hit the ball with the bat. The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit—as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect—and returns them to the pitcher. A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base, at which point the player is referred to as a runner (or, until the play is over, a batter-runner). A batter-runner who reaches first base without being put out (see below) is said to be safe and is now on base. A batter-runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond—however far the player believes can be reached safely. A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a hit. A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a single. If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit, it is a double; third base, a triple. If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield (and outfield fence, if there is one), it is a home run: the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases, each scoring a run. This is the most desirable result for the batter. A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit—instead, the responsible fielder is charged with an error. Any runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land, or contact the ground, in fair territory, before or after the ball lands; a runner on first base must attempt to advance if a ball lands in play. If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield, it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they were at when the play began. If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands, the batter has flied out and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they tag up or touch the base they were at when the play began, as or after the ball is caught. Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate—a successful effort is a stolen base. A pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball. A batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out. A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk, a free advance to first base. (A batter may also freely advance to first base if any part of the batter's body or uniform is struck by a pitch before the batter either swings at it or it contacts the ground.) Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone, a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter's shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee. A strike is called when one of the following happens: The batter lets a well-pitched ball (one within the strike zone) go through to the catcher. The batter swings at any ball (even one outside the strike zone) and misses. The batter hits a foul ball—one that either initially lands in foul territory or initially lands within the diamond but moves into foul territory before passing first or third base. If there are already two strikes on the batter, a foul ball is not counted as a third strike; thus, a foul ball cannot result in the immediate strikeout of the batter. (There is an exception to this exception: a two-strike foul bunt is recorded as a third strike.) A ball is called when the pitcher throws a pitch that is outside the strike zone, provided the batter has not swung at it. A shortstop tries to tag out a runner who is sliding headfirst, attempting to reach second base. While the team at bat is attempting to score runs, the team in the field is attempting to record outs. Among the various ways a member of the batting team may be put out, five are most common: The strikeout: as described above, recorded against a batter who makes three strikes before putting the ball into play or being awarded a free advance to first base. The flyout: as described above, recorded against a batter who hits a ball in the air that is caught by a fielder, whether in fair territory or foul territory, before it lands, whether or not the batter has run. The ground out: recorded against a batter (in this case, batter-runner) who hits a ball that lands in fair territory which, before the batter-runner can reach first base, is retrieved by a fielder who touches first base while holding the ball or relays it to another fielder who touches first base while holding the ball. The force out: recorded against a runner who is required to attempt to advance—either because the runner is on first base and a batted ball lands in fair territory, or because the runner immediately behind on the basepath is thus required to attempt to advance—but fails to reach the next base before a fielder touches the base while holding the ball. The ground out is technically a special case of the force out. The tag out: recorded against a runner who is touched by a fielder with the ball or a glove holding the ball, while the runner is not touching a base. It is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play—a double play; even three—a triple play—is possible, though this is very rare. Players put out or retired must leave the field, returning to their team's dugout or bench. A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team. Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat—every half-inning begins with the bases empty of runners. An individual player's turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base (or hits a home run), makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the team's third out, even if it is recorded against a teammate. On rare occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the batter's hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a teammate—for instance, a runner getting caught stealing (tagged out attempting to steal a base). A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team's next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased. A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn. Once a player has completed a plate appearance, that player may not bat again until the eight other members of his team have all taken their turn at bat. The batting order is set before the game begins, and may not be altered except for substitutions. Once a player has been removed for a substitute, that player may not reenter the game. Children's games often have more liberal substitution rules. Thurston (2000), p. 100; If the designated hitter (DH) rule is in effect, each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat (and run). The DH takes the place of another player—almost invariably the pitcher—in the batting order, but does not field. Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players. Porterfield (2007), p. 19; Thurston (2000), p. 153; Personnel Player rosters Roster, or squad, sizes differ between different leagues and different levels of organized play. Major League Baseball teams maintain twenty-five-player active rosters. A typical twenty-five-man roster in a league without the DH rule, such as MLB's National League, features: See, e.g., eight position players—catcher, four infielders, three outfielders—who play on a regular basis five starting pitchers who constitute the team's pitching rotation or starting rotation six relief pitchers, including one specialist closer, who constitute the team's bullpen (named for the off-field area where pitchers warm up) one backup, or substitute, catcher two backup infielders two backup outfielders one specialist pinch hitter, or a second backup catcher, or a seventh reliever Other personnel The manager, or head coach of a team, oversees the team's major strategic decisions, such as establishing the starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, before each game, and making substitutions during games—in particular, bringing in relief pitchers. Managers are typically assisted by two or more coaches; they may have specialized responsibilities, such as working with players on hitting, fielding, pitching, or strength and conditioning. At most levels of organized play, two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat: the first base coach and third base coach, occupying designated coaches' boxes just outside the foul lines, assist in the direction of baserunners when the ball is in play, and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners during pauses in play. Walfoort, Cleon, "Most 'Signs' Given by Coaches Are Merely Camouflage", Baseball Digest, December 1960–January 1961, pp. 47–49. In contrast to many other team sports, baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team's uniforms; coaches must be in uniform in order to be allowed on the playing field during a game. "The Fans Speak Out" [Baseball Digest staff], Baseball Digest, August 1999, pp. 9–10; Any baseball game involves one or more umpires, who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call balls and strikes. Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases, thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs. In Major League Baseball, four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines. Zoss (2004), p. 293; Strategy and tactics Many of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact: in general, right-handed batters tend to be more successful against left-handed pitchers and, to an even greater degree, left-handed batters tend to be more successful against right-handed pitchers. A manager with several left-handed batters in the regular lineup who knows the team will be facing a left-handed starting pitcher may respond by starting one or more of the right-handed backups on the team's roster. During the late innings of a game, as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in, the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions: the manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same-handed pitcher-batter matchups, the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite-handed matchups. With a team that has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove a starting position player—especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again—for a more skillful fielder. See, e.g., Davis, Hank, Small-town Heroes: Images of Minor League Baseball (Univ. of Iowa Press, 1997), p. 186. Pitching and fielding tactics The tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection. Among the wide variety of pitches that may be thrown, the four basic types are the fastball, the changeup (or off-speed pitch), and two breaking balls—the curveball and the slider. Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing. Conventionally, before each pitch, the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw, as well as its general vertical and/or horizontal location. Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 192. If there is disagreement on the selection, the pitcher may shake off the sign and the catcher will call for a different pitch. With a runner on base and taking a lead, the pitcher may attempt a pickoff, a quick throw to a fielder covering the base to keep the runner's lead in check or, optimally, effect a tag out. If an attempted stolen base is anticipated, the catcher may call for a pitchout, a ball thrown deliberately off the plate, allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base. Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 126–132. Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field, the fielding team may employ a shift, with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions. With a runner on third base, the infielders may play in, moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball, though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn-in infield. Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 45. Batting and baserunning tactics Several basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base, including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base. The hit and run is sometimes employed with a skillful contact hitter: the runner takes off with the pitch drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base, creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through. Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 5, 46–47. The sacrifice bunt calls for the batter to focus on making contact with the ball so that it rolls a short distance into the infield, allowing the runner to advance into scoring position even at the expense of the batter being thrown out at first—a batter who succeeds is credited with a sacrifice. (A batter, particularly one who is a fast runner, may also attempt to bunt for a hit.) A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base, aimed at bringing that runner home, is known as a squeeze play. Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 42–43, 47–48. With a runner on third and fewer than two outs, a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that, even if it is caught, will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score—a successful batter in this case gets credit for a sacrifice fly. The manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ahead in the count (i.e., has more balls than strikes) to take, or not swing at, the next pitch. Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 186. Distinctive elements Baseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it is has a following, games such as American and Canadian football, basketball, ice hockey, and soccer. All of these sports use a clock; in all of them, gameplay is less individual and more collective; and in none of them is the variation between playing fields nearly as substantial or important. The comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball's distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sport. No clock to kill In clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time. At almost any turn in any baseball game, the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy. Mount, Nicholas James, "Team Sports", in Encyclopedia of Time, ed. Samuel L. Macey (Taylor & Francis, 1994), pp. 588–590: p. 590. In contrast, again, the clock comes into play even in the case of multi-day Test and first-class cricket: the possibility of a draw often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind to bat defensively, giving up any faint chance at a win to avoid a loss. Eastaway, Rob, What Is a Googly?: The Mysteries of Cricket Explained‎ (Anova, 2005), p. 134. Baseball offers no such reward for conservative batting. While nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball, the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years. At the turn of the twentieth century, games typically took an hour and a half to play. In the 1920s, they averaged just less than two hours, which eventually ballooned to 2:38 in 1960. By 1997, the average American League game lasted 2:57 (National League games were about 10 minutes shorter—pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters). In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of merely 2:45. The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play with pitchers taking more time between each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box more frequently. Other leagues have experienced similar issues; in 2008, Nippon Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade's average of 3:18. Individual focus For a team sport, baseball places individual players under unusual scrutiny and pressure. In 1915, a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch, of which there are often more than two hundred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one contest: "the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits". Clarke and Dawson (1915), p. 48. Contrasting the game with both football and basketball, scholar Michael Mandelbaum argues that "baseball is the one closest in evolutionary descent to the older individual sports". Mandelbaum (2005), p. 55. Pitcher, batter, and fielder all act essentially independent of each other. While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics, the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing. The statistical precision of baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it. As described by Mandelbaum, It is impossible to isolate and objectively assess the contribution each [football] team member makes to the outcome of the play.... [E]very basketball player is interacting with all of his teammates all the time. In baseball, by contrast, every player is more or less on his own.... Baseball is therefore a realm of complete transparency and total responsibility. A baseball player lives in a glass house, and in a stark moral universe.... Everything that every player does is accounted for and everything accounted for is either good or bad, right or wrong. Mandelbaum (2005), pp. 55–57. Cricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard: while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour or much more. There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play. Morton, Richard, "Baseball in England", Badminton Magazine, August 1896, pp. 157–158: "The scoring is one of the most interesting features in this new importation from America [baseball]. Every detail of play is recorded, and a man's mistakes are tabulated as well as his successes.... A line in a cricket score may read, 'Lockwood, caught Stoddart, bowled J. T. Hearne; 30.'... [T]here is so much that is left out! There is no mention of the fact that O'Brien missed Lockwood before he had scored, and that somebody else failed to take a chance when his score was ten. These are items that go to make cricket history; but there is no record of them in the analysis.... The man who catches a ball is thought worthy of mention, but the man who muffs one does not suffer by publicity." Uniqueness of each baseball park Unlike those of most sports, baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape. While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated, the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams following the rules of Major League and Minor League Baseball is that fields built or remodeled since June 1, 1958, must have a minimum distance of from home plate to the fences in left and right field and to center. Major league teams often skirt even this rule. For example, at Minute Maid Park, which became the home of the Houston Astros in 2000, the Crawford Boxes in left field are only from home plate. There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield. The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left-field wall at Boston's Fenway Park, in use since 1912: the Green Monster is from home plate down the line and tall. Powers (2003), p. 85. Similarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory. Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands, but a flyout in a park with more expansive foul ground. Powers (2003), p. 219. A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders, while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions, as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner; these variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside-the-park home run. Puhalla, Krans, and Goatley (2003), p. 198; The surface of the field is also unregulated. While the diagram in the Rules and gameplay section above shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement (and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields), teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare. Some fields—including several in MLB—use an artificial surface, such as AstroTurf. Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning. Similarly, the presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs) can greatly affect how fly balls are played. While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering, the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized; the area out-of-bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect gameplay the way foul territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are largely insignificant. Puhalla, Krans, and Goatley (2003), p. 207. These physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark. Other local factors, such as altitude and climate, can also significantly affect gameplay. A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher's park or a hitter's park, if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements. The most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field, home of the Colorado Rockies. Its high altitude— above sea level—is responsible for giving it the strongest hitter's park effect in the major leagues. Keri (2007), pp. 295–301. Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs, is known for its fickle disposition: a hitter's park when the strong winds off Lake Michigan are blowing out, it becomes more of a pitcher's park when they are blowing in. The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out, but the nature of team rosters and players' statistical records. For example, hitting a fly ball into right field might result in a easy catch on the warning track at one park, and a home run at another. A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field, such as the New York Yankees, will tend to stock its roster with left-handed pull hitters, who can best exploit it. On the individual level, a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter's park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time—even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park. See also Powers (2003), p. 85. Statistics Organized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports. Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. In the late nineteenth century, a former cricket player, English-born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, New York, was responsible for the "development of the box score, tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the batting average, and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball." Tygiel (2000), p. 16. The statistical record is so central to the game's "historical essence" that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball. In the 1920s, American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics, initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a "tectonic shift in sports, as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines." Schwarz (2004), p. 50. The Official Baseball Rules administered by Major League Baseball require the official scorer to categorize each baseball play unambiguously. The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency. The score report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records. General managers, managers, and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions. Certain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans. The basic batting statistics include: At bats: plate appearances, excluding walks and hit by pitches—where the batter's ability is not fully tested—and sacrifices and sacrifice flies—where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners Hits: times reached base because of a batted, fair ball without fielding error or fielder's choice Runs: times circling the bases and reaching home safely Runs batted in (RBIs): number of runners who scored due to a batter's action (including the batter, in the case of a home run), except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error Batting average: hits divided by at bats—the traditional measure of batting ability The basic baserunning statistics include: Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner's own efforts, generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base The basic pitching statistics include: Wins: games where pitcher was pitching while his team took a lead that it never relinquished, going on to win Losses: games where pitcher was pitching while the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished, going on to win Saves: games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher's team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings Innings pitched: outs recorded while pitching divided by three Strikeouts: times pitching three strikes to a batter Winning percentage: wins divided by decisions (wins plus losses) Earned run average (ERA): runs allowed, excluding those resulting from fielding errors, per nine innings pitched The basic fielding statistics include: Putouts: times the fielder catches a fly ball, tags or forces out a runner, or otherwise directly effects an out Assists: times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball Errors: times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort, and the batting team benefits as a result Total chances: putouts plus assists plus errors Fielding average: successful chances (putouts plus assists) divided by total chances Among the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as situational statistics. For example, statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against. If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter, the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed. See, e.g., Albert, Jim, and Jay Bennett, "Situational Effects", ch. 4 in Curve Ball: Baseball, Statistics, and the Role of Chance in the Game, 2d ed. (Springer, 2003), pp. 71–110. Sabermetrics Sabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools. The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves. The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR). Gray, Scott, The Mind of Bill James: How a Complete Outsider Changed Baseball (Doubleday, 2006), p. ix. The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting average: Guzzo (2007), pp. 20–21, 67; Schwarz (2004), p. 233; Lewis (2003), p. 127. On-base percentage measures a batter's ability to get on base. It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter's successes in getting on base (hits plus walks plus hit by pitches) and dividing that by the batter's total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies), except for sacrifice bunts. Slugging percentage measures a batter's ability to hit for power. It is calculated by taking the batter's total bases (one per each single, two per double, three per triple, and four per home run) and dividing that by the batter's at bats. Some of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use: On-base plus slugging (OPS) measures a batter's overall ability. It is calculated by adding the batter's on-base percentage and slugging percentage. Guzzo (2007), pp. 22, 67, 140; Schwarz (2004), p. 233. Walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) measures a pitcher's ability at preventing hitters from reaching base. It is calculated exactly as its name suggests. Guzzo (2007), pp. 140–141. Popularity and cultural impact Writing in 1919, philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as America's national religion. Cohen, Morris Raphael, "Baseball as a National Religion" (1919), in Cohen, The Faith of a Liberal (Transaction, 1993 [1946]), pp. 334–336: p. 334. In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark, baseball has long been "a unique paragon of American culture"—a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal. Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes "how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba, [and] how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan." Bjarkman (2004), p. xix. Since the early 1980s, the Dominican Republic, in particular the city of San Pedro de Macorís, has been the major leagues' primary source of foreign talent. Bjarkman (2004), pp. 159–165. Both the local winter league and major league ball are closely followed in Puerto Rico; major league Hall-of-Famer Roberto Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes in the island's history. Bjarkman (2004), p. 487. In the Western Hemisphere, baseball is also one of the leading sports in Canada, Colombia, Mexico, the Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, and Venezuela. In Asia, it is among the most popular sports in South Korea and Taiwan. The major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience. Riess (1991), pp. 69–71. A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional baseball had become among the most blue-collar-oriented of leading American spectator sports. Riess (1991), pp. 247–248. In recent years, baseball's position compared to football in the United States has moved in contradictory directions. In 2008, Major League Baseball set a revenue record of $6.5 billion, matching the NFL's revenue for the first time in decades. On the other hand, the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 16%, compared to pro football at 31%; in 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%. Because there are so many more major league baseball games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance. In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year. Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella also set a record in 2007, with 42.8 million; this figure does not include attendance at games of the several independent minor leagues. In Japan, where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport, combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific leagues, was estimated at $1 billion in 2007. Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20 million. While in the preceding two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB figures were stagnant. There are concerns that MLB's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country. In Cuba, where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport, González Echevarría (2001), pp. 76, 133, 278–279, 352. the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top-level domestic leagues. Revenue figures are not released for the country's amateur system; similarly, according to one official pronouncement, the sport's governing authority "has never taken into account attendance...because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes". González Echevarría (2001), p. 366. As of 2007, Little League Baseball oversees more than 7,000 children's baseball leagues with more than 2.2 million participants—2.1 million in the United States and 123,000 in other countries. Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants. According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball. A varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States. In 2008, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 35,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams. The number of Americans participating in baseball has declined since the late 1980s, falling well behind the number of soccer participants. By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there. Bjarkman (2004), p. xxiv; Gmelch (2006), pp. 23, 53. The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring, and the even more important National High School Baseball Championship in the summer—are broadcast around the country. The tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55,000-capacity stadium where they are played. In Cuba, baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education, which begins at age six. Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training—the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team. Baseball in popular culture Baseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the United States and elsewhere. Dozens of English-language idioms have been derived from baseball; in particular, the game is the source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms. The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Series: famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play-by-play from New York City's Polo Grounds on WJZ–Newark, New Jersey, which was connected by wire to WGY–Schenectady, New York, and WBZ–Springfield, Massachusetts. Rudel (2008), pp. 145–146. The baseball cap has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan, but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom. Baseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment. One of the first major examples, Ernest Thayer's poem "Casey at the Bat", appeared in 1888. A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a "clutch situation", the poem became the source of vaudeville and other staged performances, audio recordings, film adaptations, and an opera, as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media. There have been many baseball movies, including the Academy Award–winning The Pride of the Yankees (1942) and the Oscar nominees The Natural (1984) and Field of Dreams (1989). The American Film Institute's selection of the ten best sports movies includes The Pride of the Yankees at number 3 and Bull Durham (1988) at number 5. Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage—the Adler–Ross musical Damn Yankees—and record—George J. Gaskin's "Slide, Kelly, Slide", Simon and Garfunkel's "Mrs. Robinson", and John Fogerty's Centerfield. Zoss (2004), pp. 373–374. The baseball-founded comedic sketch "Who's on First", introduced by Abbot and Costello in 1938, quickly became famous. Six decades later, Time named it the best comedy routine of the twentieth century. The game's rich literary tradition includes the short fiction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud's The Natural (the source for the movie), Robert Coover's The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop., and W. P. Kinsella's Shoeless Joe (the source for Field of Dreams). Baseball's literary canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon; the columns of Grantland Rice, Red Smith, Dick Young, and Peter Gammons; and the essays of Roger Angell. Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter's The Glory of Their Times, Roger Kahn's The Boys of Summer, and Michael Lewis's Moneyball. The 1970 publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton's tell-all chronicle Ball Four is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports. Baseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms. Baseball cards were introduced in the late nineteenth century as trade cards; a typical example would feature an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other. In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionary companies. The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card, with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data. Baseball cards—many of which are now prized collectibles—are the source of the much broader trading card industry, involving similar products for different sports and non-sports-related fields. Zoss (2004), pp. 16–25. Modern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel Okrent and several friends. Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active Major League Baseball players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players' latest real-world statistics. Rotisserie-style play quickly became a phenomenon. Now known more generically as fantasy baseball, it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports. Zoss (2004), pp. 27–31. The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports–related websites; by 2008, 29.9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports, spending $800 million on the hobby. The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics—first among fans, only later among baseball professionals. Lewis (2003), pp. 86–88. See also Baseball awards Baseball clothing and equipment Baseball terminology List of organized baseball leagues List of exceptional single-game events Related sports Brännboll (Scandinavian bat-and-ball game) British baseball Lapta (Russian bat-and-ball game) Oina (Romanian bat-and-ball game) Pesäpallo ("Finnish baseball") Stickball Stoop ball Wiffleball Notes Sources Further reading Bradbury, J.C. The Baseball Economist: The Real Game Exposed (Dutton, 2007). ISBN 0525949933 Dickson, Paul. The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, 3d ed. (W. W. Norton, 2009). ISBN 0393066819 Elliott, Bob. The Northern Game: Baseball the Canadian Way (Sport Classic, 2005). ISBN 1894963407 Euchner, Charles. The Last Nine Innings: Inside the Real Game Fans Never See (Sourcebooks, 2007). ISBN 1402205791 Fitts, Robert K. Remembering Japanese Baseball: An Oral History of the Game (Southern Illinois University Press, 2005). ISBN 0809326299 Gillette, Gary, and Pete Palmer (eds.). The ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia, 5th ed. (Sterling, 2008). ISBN 1402760515 James, Bill. The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, rev. ed. (Simon and Schuster, 2003). ISBN 0743227220 James, Bill. The Bill James Handbook 2009 (ACTA, 2008). ISBN 0879463678 Peterson, Robert. Only the Ball was White: A History of Legendary Black Players and All-Black Professional Teams (Oxford University Press, 1992 [1970]). ISBN 0195076370 Reaves, Joseph A. Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia (Bison, 2004). ISBN 0803239432 Ritter, Lawrence S. The Glory of Their Times: The Story of the Early Days of Baseball Told by the Men Who Played It, enlarged ed. (Harper, 1992). ISBN 0688112730 Tango, Tom, Mitchel G. Lichtman, and Andrew E. Dolphin, The Book: Playing the Percentages in Baseball (Potomac, 2007). ISBN 1597971294 Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. Baseball: An Illustrated History (Alfred A. Knopf, 1996). ISBN 0679404597 Online External links Leagues and organizations Major League Baseball International Baseball Federation Minor League Baseball British Baseball Federation Statistics and game records Baseball Almanac Baseball Reference Retrosheet News and other resources BaseballLibrary.com Baseball Prospectus Pro Baseball Newspaper Articles Archive Society for American Baseball Research Baseball PBS documentary directed by Ken Burns Mister Baseball European baseball news

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ML_(programming_language)

ML is a general-purpose functional programming language developed by Robin Milner and others in the late 1970s at the University of Edinburgh, whose syntax is inspired by ISWIM. Historically, ML stands for metalanguage: it was conceived to develop proof tactics in the LCF theorem prover (whose language, pplambda, a combination of the first-order predicate calculus and the simply typed polymorphic lambda-calculus, had ML as its metalanguage). It is known for its use of the Hindley-Milner type inference algorithm, which can automatically infer the types of most expressions without requiring explicit type annotations. Overview ML is often referred to as an impure functional language, because it does not encapsulate side-effects, unlike purely functional programming languages such as Haskell. Features of ML include a call-by-value evaluation strategy, first class functions, automatic memory management through garbage collection, parametric polymorphism, static typing, type inference, algebraic data types, pattern matching, and exception handling. Unlike Haskell, ML uses eager evaluation, which means that all subexpressions are always evaluated. However, lazy evaluation can be achieved through the use of closures. Thus one can create and use infinite streams as in Haskell, however, their expression is comparatively indirect. Today there are several languages in the ML family; the two major dialects are Standard ML (SML) and Caml, but others exist, including F# - an open research project that targets the Microsoft .NET platform. Ideas from ML have influenced numerous other languages, like Haskell, Cyclone, and Nemerle. ML's strengths are mostly applied in language design and manipulation (compilers, analyzers, theorem provers), but it is a general-purpose language also used in bioinformatics, financial systems, and applications including a genealogical database, a peer-to-peer client/server program, etc. ML uses static scoping rules. Examples of ML Anatomy of an ML function The "Hello World" of functional languages is the factorial function. Expressed as pure ML: fun fac (0 : int) : int = 1 | fac (n : int) : int = n * fac (n-1) This describes the factorial as a recursive function, with a single terminating base case. It is similar to the descriptions of factorials found in mathematics textbooks. Much of ML code is similar to mathematics in facility and syntax. Part of the definition shown is optional, and describes the types of this function. The notation E : t can be read as expression E has type t. For instance, the argument n is assigned type integer (int), and the result of applying fac to n (fac (n)) also has type integer. The function fac as a whole then has type function from integer to integer (int -> int). Thanks to type inference, the type annotations can be omitted and will be derived by the compiler. Rewritten without the type annotations, the example looks like: fun fac 0 = 1 | fac n = n * fac (n-1) The function also relies on pattern matching, an important part of ML programming. Note that parameters of a function are not necessarily in parentheses but separated by spaces. When the function's argument is 0 (zero) it will return the integer 1 (one). For all other cases the second line is tried. This is the recursion, and executes the function again until the base case is reached. Reverse Function: fun reverse ls = let fun reverseInner nil acc = acc | reverseInner (hd::tail) acc = reverseInner tail (hd::acc) in reverseInner ls nil end See also LCF theorem prover ISWIM F# Haskell Cyclone Nemerle Dialects Caml, a dialect of ML, which became... Objective Caml, the famous dialect of Caml with support for object-oriented programming Moscow ML - a popular implementation of Standard ML descended from Caml light Standard ML, a dialect of ML with a formal semantics Alice (programming language) F# Rpal LML (Lazy ML) Books The Definition of Standard ML, Robin Milner, Mads Tofte, Robert Harper, MIT Press 1990 The Definition of Standard ML (Revised), Robin Milner, Mads Tofte, Robert Harper, David MacQueen, MIT Press 1997. ISBN 0-262-63181-4 Commentary on Standard ML, Robin Milner, Mads Tofte, MIT Press 1997. ISBN 0-262-63137-7 Robert Harper: "Programming in Standard ML", Carnegie Mellon University, 2005. References External links Standard ML of New Jersey, another popular implementation F#, an ML implementation using the Microsoft .NET framework MLton, a whole-program optimizing Standard ML compiler Mythryl, "SML with a Posix face" sML, Successor ML

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Barbara_Olson

Barbara Olson (December 27, 1955–September 11, 2001) was a conservative American television commentator and lawyer who worked for Fox News Channel, CNN and several other outlets. She was a passenger on American Airlines Flight 77 en route to a taping of the television show Politically Incorrect when it was flown into the Pentagon in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Early life Olson was born Barbara Kay Bracher in Houston, Texas. (Her older sister, Toni Bracher-Lawrence, has been a member of the Houston City Council since 2004.) She graduated from Waltrip High School "Waltrip Trivia Page," Waltrip High School and earned a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Saint Thomas in Houston. Olson became a professional dancer, performing with the San Francisco Ballet and the Harkness Ballet in New York City. She switched careers and went to Hollywood to work as an assistant producer for television and movies. Career As a newcomer, she achieved a surprising measure of success, working for HBO and Stacey Keach Productions. She earned a Juris Doctor degree from Yeshiva University's Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law. In the early 1990s, she worked as an associate at the Washington, D.C.-based law firm of Wilmer Cutler & Pickering where she did civil litigation for several years before becoming an assistant U.S. attorney. In 1994, she left to work for the United States House of Representatives, becoming chief investigative counsel for the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee. In that position, she led the Travelgate and Filegate investigations into the Clinton administration. She co-founded the Independent Women's Forum with Rosalie Silberman. "Remembering IWF Founder Barbara Olson", Rosalie Silberman, Independent Women's Forum, December 1, 2001 She was later a partner in the Washington, D.C. office of the Alabama law firm Balch & Bingham. She married Theodore Olson in 1996. He went on to successfully represent presidential candidate George W. Bush in the Supreme Court case of Bush v. Gore, which effectively determined the final result of the contested 2000 Presidential election. He subsequently served as U.S. Solicitor General in the Bush administration. She was a frequent critic of the Bill Clinton administration and wrote a book about then First Lady Hillary Clinton, Hell to Pay: The Unfolding Story of Hillary Rodham Clinton (1999). Olson was working on her second book, The Final Days: The Last, Desperate Abuses of Power by the Clinton White House (published October 2001) at the time of her death. She was a resident of Great Falls, Virginia. Death Olson was a passenger on American Airlines Flight 77 on her way to a taping of Politically Incorrect in Los Angeles, when it was flown into the Pentagon in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Politically Incorrect host Bill Maher left a panel seat vacant for a week following her death. During the duration of the flight, she called husband Theodore Olson who informed her of the crashes in New York. Memorial lectures The Federalist Society has established the Barbara K. Olson Memorial Lectures, "an annual lecture on limited government and the spirit of freedom", Barbara K. Olson Memorial Lecture, Federalist Society website held every November. The first lecture was a eulogy for her by her husband. First Barbara K. Olson Memorial Lecture, Theodore Olson, November 16, 2001 Subsequent speakers have included Supreme Court Associate Justice Antonin Scalia, Vice President Dick Cheney, Barbara K. Olson Memorial Lecture — Past Lecturers, Federalist Society website and Chief Justice John G. Roberts. Books Hell to Pay: The Unfolding Story of Hillary Rodham Clinton (November 1999; ISBN 0895262746) The Final Days: The Last, Desperate Abuses of Power by the Clinton White House (October 2001; ISBN 0895261677) Notes Debunking 9/11 Debunkers - David Ray Griffin External links Barbara Olson at findagrave.com Wife of Solicitor General alerted him of hijacking from plane Barbara Olson Mourned at Arlington Service Barbara Olson: A Sparkling Celebrity 'Full of Energy' Newsday.com-Victims Search Barbara Olson, RIP Memorial essay by Alfred S. Regnery, president of Regnery Publishing

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Abbahu

Abbahu () was a Jewish Talmudist, known as an amora, who lived in the Land of Israel, of the 3rd amoraic generation (about 279-320), sometimes cited as R. Abbahu of Caesarea (Ḳisrin). His rabbinic education was acquired mainly at Tiberias, in the academy presided over by R. Johanan, with whom his relations were almost those of a son (Yer. Berakhot ii.4b; Gittin 44b; Bava Batra 39a). He frequently made pilgrimages to Tiberias, even after he had become well known as rector of the Caesarean Academy (Yer. Shab viii.11a; Yer. Pesahim x.37c). Knowledge of Greek literature Abbahu was an authority on weights and measures (Yer. Terumot v.43c). He encouraged the study of Greek by Jews. He learned Greek himself in order to become useful to his people and Shimon, then under the Roman proconsuls, that language having become, to a considerable extent, the rival of the Hebrew even in prayer (Yer. Sotah, vii.21b). In spite of the bitter protest of Simon b. Abba, he also taught his daughters Greek (Yer. Shab. vi.7d; Yer. Sotah, ix.24c; San. 14a). Indeed, it was said of Abbahu that he was a living illustration of the maxim (Ecc. vii.18; compare Targum), "It is good that thou shouldest take hold of this [the study of the Law]; yea, also from that [other branches of knowledge] withdraw not thine hand: for he that feareth God shall come forth of them all" (Ecc. R. to vii.18). Rector in Caesarea Being wise, handsome, and wealthy (Bava Metzia 84a; Yer. Bava Metzia iv.9d), Abbahu became not only popular with his coreligionists, but also influential with the proconsular government (Hagigah 14a; Ketubot 17a). On one occasion, when his senior colleagues, Ḥiyya b. Abba, Rav Ammi, and Assi, had punished a certain woman, and feared the wrath of the proconsul, Abbahu was deputed to intercede for them. He had, however, anticipated the rabbis' request, and wrote them that he had appeased the informers but not the accuser. The witty enigmatic letter describing this incident, preserved in the Talmud (Yer. Meg. iii.74a), is in the main pure Hebrew, and even includes Hebrew translations of Greek proper names, to avoid the danger of possible exposure should the letter have fallen into the hands of enemies and informers (compare Eruvin 53b). After his ordination he declined a teacher's position, recommending in his stead a more needy friend, R. Abba of Acre (Acco), as worthier than himself (Sotah, 40a). He thereby illustrated his own doctrine that it is a divine virtue to sympathize with a friend in his troubles as well as to partake of his joys (Tan., Wa-yesheb, ed. Buber, 16). Later he assumed the office of rector in Cæsarea, the former seat of R. Hoshaya I, and established himself at the so-called Kenishta Maradta (Insurrectionary Synagogue; Yer. Nazir vii.56a; Yer. San. i.18a; compare Josephus, B. J. ii.14, § 5; Jastrow, Dict. p. 838), whence some of the most prominent teachers of the next generation issued. He did not, however, confine his activity to Cæsarea, where he originated several ritualistic rules (Yer. Demai ii.23a, R.H. 34a), one of which—that regulating the sounding of the shofar—has since been universally adopted, and is referred to by medieval Jewish casuists as "Takkanat R. Abbahu" (the Enactment of R. Abbahu; compare "Maḥzor Vitry," Berlin, 1893, p. 355). He also visited and taught in many other Jewish towns (Yer. Berakhot viii.12a; Yer. Shab. iii.5c). While on these journeys, Abbahu gathered so many Halakot that scholars turned to him for information on mooted questions (Yer. Shabbat viii.11a; Yer. Yevamot i.2d). In the course of these travels he made a point of complying with all local enactments, even where such compliance laid him open to the charge of inconsistency (Yer. Berakhot viii.12a; Yer. Beitzah, i.60d). On the other hand, where circumstances required it, he did not spare even the princes of his people (Yer. Avodah Zarah, i.39b). Where, however, the rigorous exposition of laws worked hardship on the masses, he did not scruple to modify the decisions of his colleagues for the benefit of the community (Shabbat 134b; Yer. Shabbat xvii.16b; Yer. Mo'ed Katan i.80b). As for himself, he was very strict in the observance of the laws. On one occasion he ordered some Samaritan wine, but subsequently learning that there were no longer any strict observers of the dietary laws among the Samaritans, with the assistance of his colleagues, Ḥiyya b. Abba, Rav Ammi, and Rav Assi, he investigated the report, and, ascertaining it to be well founded, did not hesitate to declare the Samaritans, for all ritualistic purposes, Gentiles (Yer. Avodah Zarah, v. 44d; Hullin 6a). Abbahu and Ḥiyya b. Abba R. Abbahu's chief characteristic seems to have been modesty. While lecturing in different towns, he met R. Ḥiyya b. Abba, who was lecturing on intricate halakic themes. As Abbahu delivered popular sermons, the masses naturally crowded to hear him, and deserted the halakist. At this apparent slight, R. Ḥiyya manifested chagrin, and R. Abbahu hastened to comfort him by comparing himself to the pedler of glittering fineries that always attracted the eyes of the masses, while his rival was a trader in precious stones, the virtues and values of which were appreciated only by the connoisseur. This speech not having the desired effect, R. Abbahu showed special respect for his slighted colleague by following him for the remainder of that day. "What," said Abbahu, "is my modesty as compared with that of R. Abba of Acre (Acco), who does not even remonstrate with his interpreter for interpolating his own comments in the lecturer's expositions." When his wife reported to him that his interpreter's wife had boasted of her own husband's greatness, R. Abbahu simply said, "What difference does it make which of us is really the greater, so long as through both of us heaven is glorified?" (Sotah, 40a). His principle of life he expressed in the maxim, R. Abbahu, though eminent as a halakist, was more distinguished as a haggadist and controversialist. He had many interesting disputes with the Christians of his day (Shab. 152b; San. 39a; Av. Zarah, 4a). Sometimes these disputes were of a jocular nature. Thus, a heretic bearing the name of Sason (=Joy) once remarked to him, "In the next world your people will have to draw water for me; for thus it is written in the Bible (Isaiah 12:3), 'With joy shall ye draw water.'" To this R. Abbahu replied, "Had the Bible said 'for joy' [le-sason], it would mean as thou sayest, but since it says 'with joy' [be-sason], it means that we shall make bottles of thy hide and fill them with water" (Suk. 48b). These controversies, though forced on him, provoked resentment, and it is even related that his physician, Jacob the Schismatic (Minaah), was slowly poisoning him, but R. Ammi and R. Assi discovered the crime in time (Av. Zarah, 28a). Abbahu had two sons, Zeira and Ḥanina. Some writers ascribe to him a third son, Abimi (Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor.). Abbahu sent Ḥanina to the academy at Tiberias, where he himself had studied, but the lad occupied himself with the burial of the dead, and on hearing of this, the father sent him a reproachful message in this laconic style: "Is it because there are no graves in Cæsarea (compare Exodus 14:11) that I have sent thee off to Tiberias? Study must precede practice" (Yer. Pesahim iii.30b). Abbahu left behind him a number of disciples, the most prominent among whom were the leaders of the 4th amoraic generation, R. Jonah and R. Jose. At Abbahu's death the mourning was so great that it was said, "Even the statues of Cæsarea shed tears" (Mo'ed Katan 25b; Yer. Av. Zarah, iii.42c). Other Abbahus There are several other Abbahus mentioned in the Talmudim and Midrashim, prominent among whom is Abbahu (Abuha, Aibut) b. Ihi (Ittai), a Babylonian halakist, contemporary of Samuel and Anan (Eruvin 74a), and brother of Minyamin (Benjamin) b. Ihi. While this Abbahu repeatedly applied to Samuel for information, Samuel in return learned many Halakot from him (Naz. 24b; Bava Metzia 14a, 75a). Against the Christians "When does your Messiah come?" a Christian (Minaah) once asked Abbahu in a tone of mockery, whereupon he replied: "When you will be wrapped in darkness, for it says, 'Behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the nations; then shall the Lord rise upon thee and His glory shall be seen on thee' [ Isaiah lx.2]," (Sanhedrin 99a). A Christian came to Abbahu with the quibbling question: "How could your God in His priestly holiness bury Moses without providing for purificatory rites, yet oceans are declared insufficient?" (Isaiah 40:12). "Why," said Abbahu, "does it not say, 'The Lord cometh with fire'?" (Isaiah 64:15). "Fire is the true element of purification, according to Numbers xxi.23," was his answer (Sanhedrin 39a). Another question of the same character: "Why the boastful claim: 'What nation on earth is like Thy people Israel' (II Sam. 7:23), since we read, 'All the nations are as nothing before Him'?" (Isaiah 40:17), to which Abbahu replied: "Do we not read of Israel, he 'shall not be reckoned among the nations'?" (Numbers xxiii. 9, Sanhedrin as above). Abbahu made a notable exception with reference to the Tosefta's statement that the Gilionim (Evangels) and other books of the Mineans are not to be saved from a conflagration on Sabbath: "the books of those at Abidan may be saved" (Shab. 116a). Of special historical interest is the observation of Abbahu in regard to the benediction "Baruk Shem Kebod Malkuto" (Blessed be the Name of His glorious Kingdom) after the "Shema' Yisrael," that in Palestine, where the Christians look for points of controversy, the words should be recited aloud (lest the Jews be accused of tampering with the unity of God proclaimed in the Shema'), whereas in the Babylonian city of Nehardea, where there are no Christians, the words are recited with a low voice (Pesahim 56a). Preaching directly against the Christian dogma, Abbahu says: "A king of flesh and blood may have a father, a brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sovereignty, but the Lord saith, 'I am the Lord thy God! I am the first; that is, I have no father, and I am the last; that is, I have no brother, and besides me there is no God; that is, I have no son'" (Isaiah 44:6; Ex. R. 29). His comment on Numbers 23:19 has a still more polemical tone: "God is not a man that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent. If a man say, 'I am God,' he lieth, and if he say, 'I am the son of man,' he will have to repent, and if he say, 'I shall go up to heaven,' he will not do it, nor achieve what he promises" (Yer. Ta'anit, ii.65b). Some of his controversies on Christian theological subjects, as on Adam (Yalḳ., Gen. 47), on Enoch (Gen. R. 25), and on the resurrection (Shab. 152b), are less clear and direct (see Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii.97, 115-118). Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, 2d ed., iv.304, 307-317; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und seiner Sekten, ii.161-164; Frankel, Mebo, pp. 58a-60; Weiss, Dor, iii.103-105; Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii.88-142. References

Abbahu |@lemmatized abbahu:31 jewish:4 talmudist:1 know:2 amora:1 live:1 land:1 israel:3 amoraic:2 generation:3 sometimes:2 cite:1 r:23 caesarea:2 ḳisrin:1 rabbinic:1 education:1 acquire:1 mainly:1 tiberias:4 academy:3 preside:1 johanan:1 relation:1 almost:1 son:7 yer:25 berakhot:3 ii:8 gittin:1 bava:4 batra:1 frequently:1 make:5 pilgrimage:1 even:8 become:4 well:3 rector:3 caesarean:1 shab:6 viii:4 pesahim:3 x:1 knowledge:2 greek:5 literature:1 authority:1 weight:1 measure:1 terumot:1 v:2 encourage:1 study:4 jew:2 learn:3 order:2 useful:1 people:4 shimon:1 roman:1 proconsul:2 language:1 considerable:1 extent:1 rival:2 hebrew:3 prayer:1 sotah:4 vii:4 spite:1 bitter:1 protest:1 simon:1 b:8 abba:7 also:4 teach:2 daughter:1 vi:1 ix:1 san:3 indeed:1 say:13 living:1 illustration:1 maxim:2 ecc:2 compare:7 targum:1 good:1 thou:2 shouldest:1 take:1 hold:1 law:4 yea:1 branch:1 withdraw:1 thine:1 hand:3 feareth:1 god:7 shall:8 come:3 forth:1 wise:1 handsome:1 wealthy:1 metzia:3 iv:2 popular:2 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h:1 regulate:1 sounding:1 shofar:1 since:3 universally:1 adopt:1 refer:1 medieval:1 casuist:1 takkanat:1 enactment:2 maḥzor:1 vitry:1 berlin:1 visit:1 many:4 town:2 journey:1 gather:1 halakot:2 scholar:1 turn:1 information:2 mooted:1 question:3 shabbat:3 yevamot:1 course:1 travel:1 point:2 comply:1 local:1 compliance:1 lay:1 open:1 charge:1 inconsistency:1 beitzah:1 circumstance:1 require:1 spare:1 prince:1 avodah:2 zarah:5 rigorous:1 exposition:2 work:1 hardship:1 mass:3 scruple:1 modify:1 decision:1 benefit:1 community:1 xvii:1 mo:2 katan:2 strict:2 observance:1 samaritan:3 wine:1 subsequently:1 longer:1 observer:1 dietary:1 among:4 assistance:1 investigate:1 report:2 ascertain:1 found:1 hesitate:1 declare:2 purpose:1 gentile:1 hullin:1 chief:1 characteristic:1 seem:1 modesty:2 lecture:2 different:1 meet:1 intricate:1 halakic:1 theme:1 deliver:1 sermon:1 naturally:1 crowd:1 hear:1 desert:1 halakist:3 apparent:1 slight:2 manifest:1 chagrin:1 hasten:1 comfort:1 pedler:1 glitter:1 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exodus:1 thee:3 must:1 precede:1 practice:1 leave:1 behind:1 number:4 disciple:1 leader:1 jonah:1 jose:1 death:1 mourning:1 statue:1 shed:1 tear:1 abbahus:2 mention:1 talmudim:1 midrash:1 abuha:1 aibut:1 ihi:2 ittai:1 babylonian:2 contemporary:1 samuel:3 anan:1 brother:3 minyamin:1 benjamin:1 repeatedly:1 apply:1 return:1 naz:1 messiah:1 ask:1 tone:2 mockery:1 whereupon:1 wrap:1 darkness:3 behold:1 cover:1 earth:2 gross:1 nation:4 lord:4 rise:1 upon:1 glory:1 see:2 lx:1 sanhedrin:3 quibble:1 could:1 priestly:1 holiness:1 bury:1 moses:1 without:1 provide:1 purificatory:1 rite:1 yet:1 ocean:1 insufficient:1 cometh:1 fire:2 true:1 element:1 purification:1 accord:1 xxi:1 answer:1 another:1 character:1 boastful:1 claim:1 like:1 sam:1 read:2 nothing:1 reckon:1 xxiii:1 notable:1 exception:1 reference:2 tosefta:1 statement:1 gilionim:1 evangel:1 book:2 mineans:1 save:2 conflagration:1 sabbath:1 abidan:1 may:2 historical:1 interest:1 observation:1 regard:1 benediction:1 baruk:1 shem:1 kebod:1 malkuto:1 bless:1 glorious:1 kingdom:1 shema:2 yisrael:1 palestine:1 look:1 word:2 recite:2 aloud:1 l:1 accuse:1 tamper:1 unity:1 proclaim:1 whereas:1 city:1 nehardea:1 low:1 voice:1 preach:1 directly:1 dogma:1 king:1 flesh:1 blood:1 share:1 sovereignty:1 saith:1 first:1 last:1 besides:1 ex:1 still:1 polemical:1 man:4 lie:1 neither:1 repent:2 lieth:1 go:1 achieve:1 promise:1 ta:1 anit:1 theological:1 subject:1 adam:1 yalḳ:1 gen:2 enoch:1 resurrection:1 less:1 clear:1 direct:1 encyclopedia:1 bibliography:1 grätz:1 gesch:2 juden:1 jost:1 de:1 judenthums:1 und:1 seiner:1 sekten:1 frankel:1 mebo:1 pp:1 wei:1 dor:1 |@bigram r_abbahu:9 bava_batra:1 bava_metzia:3 ed_buber:1 avodah_zarah:2 strict_observance:1 precious_stone:1 shed_tear:1 shema_yisrael:1 saith_lord:1 ta_anit:1

Geography_of_Greenland

Greenland, the largest island in the world, is located between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada and northwest of Iceland. Greenland has no land boundaries and 44,087 km of coastline. A sparse population is confined to small settlements along the coast. Greenland possesses the world's second largest ice sheet. The vegetation is generally sparse, with the only patch of forested land being found in Nanortalik Municipality in the extreme south near Cape Farewell. The climate is arctic to subarctic with cool summers and cold winters. The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast. The lowest elevation is sea level and the highest elevation is the summit of Gunnbjørn Fjeld, the highest point in the Arctic at . The northernmost point of the Island of Greenland is Cape Morris Jesup, discovered by Admiral Robert Peary in 1909. Natural resources include zinc, lead, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, gold, platinum, uranium, fish, seals, and whales. Area total: 2,175,600 km² land: 2,175,600 km² (341,700 km² ice-free, 1,833,900 km² ice-covered) (est.) Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 200 nautical miles territorial sea: 3 nautical miles Land use arable land: approximately 0% ; some land is used to grow silage. permanent crops: approximately 0% permanent pastures: 1% forests and woodland: approximately 0% ; there is a forest in Nanortalik municipality. other: 99% (1993 est.) Total population 56,000 inhabitants of which ca. 15,000 lives in the capital Nuuk. Natural hazards Continuous ice sheet covers 84% of the country; the rest is permafrost. Environment - current issues Protection of the Arctic environment; climatic change; pollution of the food chain; preservation of the Inuit traditional way of life, including whaling; excessive hunting on endangered species (walrus, polar bears, narwhal, beluga whale and several sea birds) - Greenland participates actively in Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC). Climate change See also: Greenland ice sheet The Greenland ice sheet is three thick and broad enough to blanket an area the size of Mexico. The ice is so massive that its weight presses the bedrock of Greenland below sea level and is so all-concealing that not until recently did scientists discover that Greenland might actually be three islands. Los Angeles Times, June 25, 2006, "Greenland's Ice Sheet Is Slip-Sliding Away" It is thought that before the Ice Age Greenland had mountainous edges, and a lowland (and probably very dry) center which drained to the sea by one big river flowing out westwards past where Disko Island is now. There is concern about sea level rise caused by ice loss (melt and glaciers falling into the sea) on Greenland. Between 1997 and 2003 ice loss was 80±12 km³/yr, compared to about 60 km³/yr for 1993/4-1998/9. Half of the increase was from higher summer melting, with the rest caused by velocities of some glaciers exceeding those needed to balance upstream snow accumulation (Krabill et al., L24402, GRL 2004). A complete loss of ice on Greenland would cause a sea level rise of as much as 6.40 meters. Retreat of the Helheim Glacier, Greenland Researchers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Kansas reported in February 2006 that the glaciers are melting twice as fast as they were five years ago. By 2005, Greenland was beginning to lose more ice volume than anyone expected — an annual loss of up to 52 cubic miles per year (216 km³/yr), according to more recent satellite gravity measurements released by JPL. Between 1991 and 2006, monitoring of the weather at one location (Swiss Camp) found that the average winter temperature had risen almost 10 degrees fahrenheit. thumd|Map of Greenland's rate of change in Ice Sheet Height However, a map of Greenland's Rate of change in Ice Sheet Height shows something different, since glacier is melting at the border but growing up at its center. Recently, Greenland's three largest outlet glaciers have started moving faster, satellite data show. These are the Jakobshavn Isbræ at Ilulissat on the western edge of Greenland, and the Kangerdlugssuaq and Helheim glaciers on the eastern edge of Greenland. The two latter accelerated greatly during the years 2004-2005, but returned to pre-2004 velocities in 2006 Rapid Changes in Ice Discharge from Greenland Outlet Glaciers - Howat et al., 10.1126/science.1138478 - Science . The accelerating ice flow has been accompanied by a dramatic increase in seismic activity. In March 2006, researchers at Harvard University and the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University reported that the glaciers now generate swarms of earthquakes up to magnitude 5.0. The retreat of Greenland's ice is revealing islands that were thought to be part of the mainland. In September 2005 Dennis Schmitt discovered an island 400 miles north of the Arctic Circle in eastern Greenland which he named Uunartoq Qeqertoq, Inuit for "warming island". The Warming of Greenland, New York Times, January 16, 2007 Extreme points This is a list of the extreme points of Greenland, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. Greenland (nation) Northernmost Point — Kaffeklubben Island (83°40'N) - the northernmost permanent land in the world. There are also some shifting gravel bars that lie north of Kaffeklubben, the most famous being Oodaaq. Southernmost Point — Cape Farewell, Egger Island (59°46'N) Westernmost Point — Cape Alexander (73°08'W) Easternmost Point — Nordostrundingen, Greenland (11°19'W) Greenland (island) Northernmost Point — Cape Morris Jesup (83°39'N) Southernmost Point — Peninsula near Nanortalik Westernmost Point — Cape Alexander (73°08'W) Easternmost Point — Nordostrundingen, Greenland (11°19'W) Gallery References External links www.geus.dk Geological map of Greenland from the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland ( GEUS).

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Melilla

Melilla (Tamelilt in Berber meaning "the white one") is an autonomous Spanish city located on the Mediterranean, on the north coast in North Africa. It was regarded as a part of Málaga province prior to March 14, 1995, when the city's Statute of Autonomy was passed. Melilla was a free port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 1994 it had a population of 63,670. Its population consists of Christians, Muslims (chiefly Berber), and small minorities of Jews and Hindus. Both Spanish and Tarifit-Berber are widely spoken. Spanish is the official language, while there are many calls to recognize Berber as well. Political status Melilla is, along with Ceuta, one of the two Spanish autonomous cities. Morocco claims Melilla, along with Ceuta and various small Spanish islands off the coast of Africa (Plazas de soberanía) that are sovereign posts. Morocco bases its claim on the fact that the area was part of the Idrisid and other succeeding Muslim dynasties from 791 until 1497, when the city was taken by Castile. The government of Morocco has also drawn comparisons with Spain's territorial claim to Gibraltar, which is a British Overseas Territory situated on the mainland of Spain. In both cases, the national governments and local populations of the contended territories reject these claims by a wide margin. Spanish sources claim that unlike the Protectorate territories included in former Spanish Morocco Melilla has been a constituent part of Spain since the very dawn of Spain as an independent country, the city being a part of Castile for longer than even other current Spanish regions such as Navarre. These sources also dispute any ties between the former Muslim dynasties ruling the city and the present day Kingdom of Morocco, noting that if those latter dynasties were to be considered most of present day Spain would be a part of Morocco too. The history of Melilla is similar to that of Moroccan towns in the region of the Rif and southern Spanish towns, passing through Amazigh, Phoenician, Punic, Roman, Ummayyad, Idrisid, Hammudid, Almoravid, Almohad, Merinid and then Wattasid rules before being annexed by Spain five years after the latter kingdom completed the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula in 1492. Melilla and Ceuta are the only two European-Union territories located in mainland Africa. The amateur radio call sign used for both cities is EA9. Subdivisions Melilla is subdivided into eight wards or neighborhoods (barrios) : Barrio de Medina Sidonia Barrio del General Larrea Barrio del Ataque Seco Barrio de los Héroes de España Barrio del General Gómez Jordana Barrio del Príncipe de Asturias Barrio del Carmen Barrio del Polígono Residencial de La Paz Climate Economy Melilla city The principal industry is fishing; cross-border commerce (legal or smuggled) and Spanish and European grants and wages are the other income sources. Melilla is regularly connected to the Peninsula by plane and vessels and also economically connected to Morocco: most of its fruits and vegetables are imported across the border. Also, Moroccans in the city's influence area are attracted to it: 36,000 Moroccans cross the border daily to work, shop, or trade goods . Map of Melilla, Spain History Melilla was a Phoenician and later Punic establishment under the name of Rusadir. Later it became a part of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana. As centuries passed, it went through Vandal, Byzantine and Hispano-Visigothic hands. Melilla was part of the Kingdom of Fez when Juan Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, known as Guzmán el Bueno, the 3rd Duke of Medina Sidonia conquered it in 1497, a few years before (1492) Castile had taken control of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, the last remnant of Al-Andalus. The current limits of the Spanish territory around the fortress were fixed by treaties with Morocco in 1859, 1860, 1861 and 1894. In the late 19th century, as Spanish influence expanded, Melilla became the only authorized centre of trade on the Rif coast between Tetuan and the Algerian frontier. The value of trade increased, goat skins, eggs and beeswax being the principal exports, and cotton goods, tea, sugar and candles being the chief imports. The Spaniards had had much trouble with the neighboring tribes—the turbulent Rif, independent Berbers (Amazighs) hardly subject to the sultan of Morocco. In 1893 the Rif berbers besieged Melilla, and 25,000 men had to be dispatched against them. In 1908 two companies, under the protection of El Roghi, a chieftain then ruling the Rif region, started mining lead and iron some 20 kilometers from Melilla. A railway to the mines was begun. In October of that year the Roghi's vassals revolted against him and raided the mines, which remained closed until June 1909. By July the workmen were again attacked and several of them killed. Severe fighting between the Spaniards and the tribesmen followed. In 1910, the Rif having submitted, saw the Spaniards restarting the mines and undertaking harbour works at Mar Chica. But hostilities broke out again in 1911 and the Abd el Krim forces inflicted a grave defeat on the Spanish (see Battle of Annual), and were not pacified until 1927, when the Spanish Protectorate finally managed to control the area again. General Francisco Franco used the city as one of his staging grounds for his rebellion in 1936, and a statue of him - the last statue of Franco in Spain - is still prominently featured. On November 6, 2007, King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia visited the city, which caused a previously unknown jubilee in the city, expressed by a massive support demonstration while, on the other side, it also sparked protests from the Moroccan government Mohamed VI "condena" y "denuncia" la visita "lamentable" de los Reyes de España a Ceuta y Melilla · ELPAÍS.com . It was the first time a Spanish monarch had visited Melilla in 80 years. City culture and society Lighthouse of Melilla Melilla's Capilla de Santiago or James's Chapel, by the city walls, is the only genuine Gothic architecture in Africa. In the first quarter of the 20th century, Melilla became a thriving port benefitting from the recently established Spanish Morocco protectorate in the contiguous Rif. A new bourgeois class expressed its prestige in the architectural style of Modernisme, the Catalan version of Art Nouveau, which was then in vogue in Spain. The workshops inspired by the Catalan architect, Enrique Nieto, continued in the modernist style, even after it went out of fashion elsewhere. So Melilla has the second most important concentration of Modernist works in Spain, after Barcelona. Melilla has been praised as an example of multiculturalism, being a small city in which one can find up to three major religions represented. However, the Christian majority of the past, being around 65% not so long time ago, has been shrinking while the number of Muslims has been steadily increasing to its present 45% of the population in either sides, and Jews have been leaving for years (from 20% of the population before World War II to less than 5% today). Besides, there is also an autochtonous small but commercially important Hindu community. The culture in this little city is divided in two halves, one is European and the other Amazigh, while the first one is represented all over the rest of the country, the second one, being represented only in this little piece of Spain, is considered by some, especially in the mainland, as foreign. Immigration There is considerable pressure by African refugees to enter Melilla, a part of the European Union. The border is secured by the Melilla border fence, a six-meter-tall double fence with watch towers, yet refugees frequently manage to cross it illegally, avoiding the attempts by Spanish police to take them back to their home countries. Detection wires, tear gas dispensers, radar, and day/night vision cameras are planned to increase security and prevent illegal immigration. In October 2005, over 700 sub-Saharan migrants tried to enter Spanish territory from the Moroccan border. Transportation The most common means to reach Melilla is by air to Melilla Airport from Barcelona, Granada, Almeria, Valencia, Malaga or Madrid, by the land border with Morocco or by ferry from Almería or Málaga. The nearby Moroccan city of Nador is reached by a 10 km long semi-autoroute. From 2010 or 2011 it will be possible to catch a train from nearby Nador to the rest of Morocco Sister cities Almería, Spain Ceuta, Spain Montevideo, Uruguay Motril, Spain See also Roman Catholic Diocese of Málaga Melilla border fence Melilla (Spanish Congress Electoral District) Ceuta UD Melilla List of Spanish Colonial Wars in Morocco Spanish Morocco References External links Official pages Official Tourism Melilla en Internet Journal Monuments of Melilla Official Spain's North African enclaves A Childhood Lost in the Cracks of Europe's Border Melilla in Google Maps Map of Melilla Melilla photo gallery Easter of Melilla Pictures of Melilla be-x-old:Мэлілья

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BMW

(BMW), () is a German automobile and motorcycle manufacturing company. Founded in 1916, it is known for its performance and luxury vehicles. It owns and produces the MINI brand, and is the parent company of Rolls-Royce Motor Cars. Company history |BMW Headquarters in Munich, Germany After World War I, BMW was forced to cease aircraft (engine) production by the terms of the Versailles Armistice Treaty. The company consequently shifted to motorcycle production in 1923 once the restrictions of the treaty started to be lifted, followed by automobiles in 1928. The circular blue and white BMW logo or roundel is often alleged to portray the movement of an airplane propeller, to signify the white blades cutting through the blue sky - an interpretation that BMW adopted for convenience in 1929, which was actually twelve years after the roundel was created. In fact, the emblem evolved from the circular Rapp Motorenwerke company logo, from which the BMW company grew. The Rapp logo was combined with the blue and white colors of the flag of Bavaria to produce the BMW roundel so familiar today. BMW's first significant aircraft engine was the BMW IIIa inline-six liquid-cooled engine of 1918, much preferred for its high-altitude performance. With German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for the Luftwaffe. Among its successful WWII engine designs were the BMW 132 and BMW 801 air-cooled radial engines, and the pioneering BMW 003 axial-flow turbojet, which powered the tiny, 1944-45-era jet-powered "emergency fighter", the Heinkel He 162 Salamander, and was tested in the A-1b version of the world's first jet fighter, the Messerschmitt Me 262. By 1959 the automotive division of BMW was in financial difficulties and a shareholders meeting was held to decide whether to go into liquidation or find a way of carrying on. It was decided to carry on and to try to cash in on the current economy car boom enjoyed so successfully by some of Germany's ex-aircraft manufacturers such as Messerschmitt and Heinkel. Therefore the rights to manufacture the tiny Italian Iso Isetta were bought using a modified form of BMW's own motorcycle engine. This was moderately successful and helped the company get back on its feet. The dominating shareholder of the BMW Aktiengesellschaft since 1959 is the Quandt family, which owns about 46% of the stock. The rest is in public float. In 1992, BMW acquired a large stake in Californian-based industrial design studio DesignworksUSA, which the fully acquired in 1995. In 1994, BMW bought the British Rover Group (which at the time consisted of the Rover, Land Rover and MG brands as well as the rights to defunct brands including Austin and Morris), and owned it for six years. By 2000, Rover was making huge losses and BMW decided to sell the combine. The MG and Rover brands were sold to the Phoenix Consortium to form MG Rover, while Land Rover was taken over by Ford. BMW, meanwhile, retained the rights to build the new MINI, which was launched in 2001. Chief designer Chris Bangle announced his departure from BMW after serving on the design team for nearly seventeen years. He will be replaced by Adrian van Hooydonk, Bangle's former right hand man. Bangle was famously (or infamously) known for his radical designs such as the 2002 7-Series and the 2002 Z4. Production Total world production in 2006 was 1,366,838 vehicles produced in 5 countries. World Motor Vehicle Production, OICA correspondents survey CountryMakeCars (2006)ModelsGermanyBMW905,057OthersUnited KingdomMini187,454All MinisRolls-Royce67All Rolls-RoyceAustriaBMW114,306BMW X3USABMW105,172BMW X5, X6South AfricaBMW54,782BMW 3-SeriesTotal1,366,838 Since 2006, production in Chennai, India has begun. Motorcycles The R32, the first BMW motorcycle. BMW began building motorcycle engines and then motorcycles after World War I. Its motorcycle division is now known as BMW Motorrad. Their first successful motorcycle, after the failed Helios and Flink, was the "R32" in 1923. This had a "Boxer" twin engine, in which a cylinder projects into the air-flow from each side of the machine. Apart from their single cylinder models (basically to the same pattern), all their motorcycles used this distinctive layout until the early 1980s. Many BMWs are still produced in this layout, which is designated the R Series. BMW roundel in 1939During the Second World War, BMW produced the BMW R75 motorcycle with a sidecar attached. Featuring a unique design copied from the Zündapp KS750, its sidecar wheel was also motor-driven. Combined with a lockable differential, this made the vehicle very capable off-road, an equivalent in many ways to the Jeep. In 1983 came the K Series (affectionately known as "The Flying Brick"),(Correction, "The flying brick" was the nickname of The BMW K1 model), shaft drive but water-cooled and with either 3 or 4 cylinders mounted in a straight line from front to back. Shortly after, BMW also started making the chain-driven F and G series with single and parallel twin Rotax engines. In the early 1990s, BMW updated the airhead Boxer engine which became known as the oilhead. In 2002, the oilhead engine had two spark plugs per cylinder. In 2004 it added a built-in balance shaft, an increased capacity to 1170 cc and enhanced performance to 100 hp (75 kW) for the R1200GS, compared to 85 hp (63 kW) of the previous R1150GS. More powerful variants of the oilhead and hexhead engines are available in the R1100S and R1200S, producing and , respectively. BMW K1200GT In 2004, BMW introduced the new K1200S Sports Bike which marked a departure for BMW. It is both powerful (the engine is a unit derived from the company's work with the Williams F1 team) and significantly lighter than previous K models. It was BMW's latest attempt to keep up with the pace of development of sports machines from the likes of Honda, Kawasaki, Yamaha, and Suzuki. Innovations include a unique electronically adjustable front and rear suspension, and a Hossack-type front fork BMW calls Duolever. BMW was one of the earliest manufacturers to offer anti-lock brakes on production motorcycles starting in the late 1980s. The generation of anti-lock brakes available on the 2006 and later BMW motorcycles pave the way for the introduction of sophisticated electronic stability control, or anti-skid technology - a first for production motorcycles - later in the 2007 model year. BMW has been an innovator in motorcycle suspension design, taking up telescopic front suspension long before most other manufacturers. Then they switched to Earles Fork, front suspension by swinging fork (1955 to 1969). Most modern BMWs are truly rear swingarm, single sided at the back (compare with the regular swinging fork usually, and wrongly, called swinging arm). Some BMWs started using yet another trademark front suspension design, the Telelever, in the early 1990s. Like the Earles Fork, the Telelever significantly reduces dive under braking. Motorcycle clubs BMW motorcycles have invoked worldwide interest from clubs. The two largest BMW motorcycle clubs in the world, the BMW Riders Association and the BMW Motorcycle Owners of America are headquartered in the United States. Automobiles Large-scale production models New Class The New Class (German: Neue Klasse) was a line of compact sedans and coupes starting with the 1962 1500 and continuing through the last 2002s in 1977. Powered by BMW's celebrated four-cylinder M10 engine, the New Class models featured a fully independent suspension, MacPherson struts in front, and front disc brakes. Initially a family of four-door sedans and two-door coupes, the New Class line was broadened to two-door sports sedans with the addition of the 02 Series 1600 and 2002 in 1966. Sharing little in common with the rest the line beyond power train, the sporty siblings caught auto enthusiasts' attention and established BMW as an international brand. Precursors to the famed BMW 3 Series, the two-doors' success cemented the firm's future as an upper tier performance car maker. New Class four-doors with numbers ending in "0" were replaced by the larger BMW 5 Series in 1972. The upscale 2000C and 2000CS coupes were replaced by the six-cylinder BMW E9, introduced in 1969 with the 2800CS. The 1600 two-door was discontinued in 1975, the 2002 replaced by the 320i in 1975. 1 Series The 1 Series was launched globally in Autumn 2004 and shares many structural, chassis, powertrain, hardware and electronic elements with the larger 3 Series. The model was started to provide a lower point of entry into the BMW range as the 3 Series moved gradually up-market. Initially launched as a 5-door hatchback, a 3-door version was also launched in July 2007. The 1 Series is priced between the MINI and the current E90 3 Series. Because the coupe is the only rear wheel drive vehicle in its class, it is somewhat considered the successor to the BMW 2002. The 1 Series coupe (E81) and convertible (E88) went on sale in the United States in model year 2008 as the 128i and the 135i. Other countries received the 120i and 125i in both platforms. The convertible, unlike the 3 Series convertible, uses a soft-top instead of a folding hardtop. This is lighter, cheaper to manufacture and preserves more trunk space than the folding hardtop would allow. The 1 Series is the only car in its class to offer rear wheel drive, perfect (50:50) weight distribution and highly advanced independent aluminum suspension. 3 Series The BMW 3 Series is an compact executive car manufactured since model year 1975. The 3 Series is currently in its fifth generation, the E90 Current models include the sport sedan (E90), station wagon (E91), coupe (E92), and convertible (E93). Since its first generation, the 3-Series is considered to be the benchmark, and the 3-Series' competitors are often judged on how close they come to this car. In some countries, it has even outsold significantly cheaper models, most notably Ford Mondeo in the UK. The 3 series is one of BMW's most important models, as it accounts for a majority of its worldwide sales. 5 Series A mid-size executive car. For model year 2008, BMW has revised the 5 Series with a slightly redesigned interior, subtle exterior details, and new motor options. The M5 is the Motorsport division's version of the 5 Series. The new M5 (built on the E60 5 series chassis) is powered by a F1-inspired V10 engine, producing and is mated with a 7-speed sequential manual gearbox (SMG) transmission, which is capable of a top speed of about 330 km/h (production variants are restricted to 250 km/h, or 155 mph). BMW has also recently added a 6-speed manual transmission for 2007 and newer models. 6 Series The 6 Series is BMW's grand touring luxury sport coupe, based on the 5 Series' platform. Currently available as the 650i in coupe (E63) and convertible (E64) models in the United States, elsewhere available in a diesel and petrol straight-6 option - 630i & 635d. The BMW 6 Series returned in 2004 after a 15-year absence from BMW's model lineup. M6: A high performance version of the 6 Series. Developed by BMW's M Division, it is powered by the same 5.0 L V10 engine seen in the BMW M5. It is currently available in Russia, Europe, North America, South America, Australia and South Africa. 7 Series BMW 7-Series (F01) BMW's full-size flagship executive sedan. Typically, BMW introduces many of their innovations first in the 7 Series. For example, the somewhat controversial iDrive system debuted in the 7 Series. The 7 Series Hydrogen, featuring one of the world's first hydrogen fueled electric engines, is fueled by liquid hydrogen and emits only water vapor. Since the infrastructure for refueling a hydrogen fueled engine is not widely available, the V12 engine also runs on gasoline. Numerous engines power the 7 Series worldwide. BMW offers diesel, straight 6, V8 and V12 motors, as well as the Alpina tuned supercharged V8. It is also available in a bulletproof version. X3 BMW X3 SUV (E83) BMW's second crossover SUV debuted in November 2003 as a Model Year 2004 (called SAV or Sports Activity Vehicle by BMW) and is based on the E46/16 3 Series platform. For 2007, the X3 is powered by the N52 inline 6 cylinder engine that debuted on the 2006 E90 3 Series. In 2007 a face lift was given to the X3, including an X-drive update, suspension adjustments, an engine upgrade, and aesthetics inside and out. As well in 2007 the BMW X3 range extended with smaller engines including the 4-cylinder petrol and diesel option. These options now becoming available to countries across Europe, America, Asia and Australia. Marketed in Europe as an off-roader, it benefits from BMW's xDrive all-wheel drive system. X5 BMW X5 SAV (E70) The BMW X5 (E53) is a mid-size luxury SUV (SAV) sold by BMW since 2000. It features all-wheel drive and a line of straight-6 and V8 engines. For non-U.S. models there is a 3.0 L diesel engine. The BMW E70 automobile platform replaced the BMW E53 as the X5's underpinnings in November 2006. The E70-based X5 SAV features many new technological advancements including BMW's iDrive system as standard equipment and, for the first time in a BMW, an optional third row seat. The current generation incorporates safety innovations for the crossover segment, such as a unique rear framing section to protect 3rd row occupants from injury due to an impact. The U.S. E70 features either a 3.0si(253 hp)or a 4.8i(350 hp) powertrain. In most parts of a 3.0d(232 hp)is offered and in North America and most parts of Europe a 3.0sd(282 hp) powertrain is available. For the 2010 model year the X5 will receive the new iDrive system and the BMW individual audio system along with various other minor updates. Another addition for 2010 will be the X5 M with 408 kW/555 hp from an all new Twin Turbo V8, it is the first production engine in the world with a common exhaust manifold encompassing both rows of cylinders and Twin Scroll Twin Turbo Technology. It has a more aggressive bodykit and a lowered ride height The Branding for the X5 from late 2008 onwards follows the new BMW branding scheme, for example the X5 3.0sd is now called the X5 XDrive 35D and the 4.8 i is called the X5 XDrive 48I. X6 BMW X6 SAC (E71) A crossover coupe SUV released by BMW in December 2007. The X6 is stated as the Sports Activity Coupe (SAC) by the BMW. Great design with the combination of a SUV and a coupe. From 2008 the BMW X6 SAC was available as a X6 xDrive 35d, X6 xDrive 35i or a X6 xDrive 50i. With high under-pinnings and luxury features from the BMW 6 Series, the BMW X6 seats only four persons in total. The rear seats share a centre console based from the BMW 3 Series Coupe (E92). An all new version of the 550i/650i's engine (N62) is being used in the X6 with twin turbo technology from the 135i/335i. The standard engines will be increased to . The advanced twin turbos will be placed in the 'v' of the V8 engine, therefore the exhaust and intake manifolds will be in the un-traditional position - exhausts top of the engine and engine intakes directed to the outer sides of the 'v'. Like the BMW X5 (E70) the BMW X6 will also have an upcoming M version, being the BMW X6 M. Seen in the 2009 MotoGP as one of the pace cars. Z4 A 2-seater roadster and coupe which succeeded the Z3. From 2006 the Z4 Roadster is available as a 3.0i (3.0 L I6 with 215 hp), a 3.0si available with the new generation 3.0 L I6 with , a 2.5si with a 2.5 I6 with or a 2.0i with a 2.0 L I4. The Z4 coupé is available only in the high-performance 3.0si trim powered by the 3.0 L I6. The Z4 (E85 Roadster/E86 Coupe) was built at the Spartanburg plant. Its successor, also named Z4 (E89) - this time a coupé-convertible with folding hardtop- will be built in Regensburg alongside the (E93) 3-Series Cabrio. Z4 M models The new M Roadster and M Coupe have been released with an E46 M3 motor (3.2 L, 333 hp) and also features the M braking, suspension, and styling characteristics. BMW M M3 BMW M3 Coupé (E92) Based on the 3 Series, the M3 defined an entirely new market for BMW: a race-ready production vehicle. Since its debut, the M3 is heralded in enthusiast circles, in large part due to its unique geometry and award winning engines. The newest platform became available the Autumn of 2007 in Europe, and second quarter of 2008 for the U.S. in Coupe (E92), and later the Cabriolet (E93), and Sedan (E90) variants. Transmission available in 6-speed manual or 7-speed M DCT DriveLogic (Double Clutch Transmission). M5 BMW M5 (E60) Based on the 5 Series, the M5 is the M division's 507 hp (378 kW) V10-powered version of the E60 5 series which accelerates to in 4.7 seconds. M6 BMW M6 Coupe (E63) The M6 is the M division's version of the 6 Series. The M6 shares its drivetrain with the M5. The V10 produces and 383lb/ft (520Nm) of Torque. The production M6 debuted at the 2005 Geneva Motor Show. It is currently available in a coupe and a convertible version. There is speculation that an M6 CSL version is to be released in the future. The vehicle is based on the 6 Series coupe and convertible, which were launched in 2004. Carbon fiber and other light materials are used in places like the bumpers and roof that are far from the centre of gravity and/or high up, so that they not only reduce the overall weight but improve the handling by reducing the moment of inertia and the centre of mass height. The previous generation was launched in 1983, but ended in 1989 with around 5,855 sold. Z4 M BMW M Roadster (E85) The Z4 M is powered a slightly detuned 3.2-litre BMW M3(E46) straight-six engine. Performance figures are: 3,246 cc displacement, at 7,900 rpm, of torque at 4,900 rpm, 8,000 rpm redline. Output per litre is , and power-to-weight ratio is 9.9 lb/bhp. Acceleration to comes in 4.8 seconds and top speed is limited electronically to . Prototypes BMW CS Concept 1990 BMW M8 Prototype: A high-performance version of the 8 Series coupe that was designed to compete with the likes of Ferrari. It was never put into production because of the lack of a market for such a car. 1999 Z9: a concept car designed by Adrian van Hooydonk that marked a departure from BMW's traditional conservative style, causing some controversy among BMW enthusiasts. This later on became the 6-series. BMW 750hL: showcased at Expo 2000 at the BMW World exhibit. A 7 Series sedan powered by a hydrogen fuel cell engine. As of March 2007, there are as many as 100 750hL vehicles worldwide for testing & publicity purposes.See the BMW website. 2001 BMW X-Coupe 2007 BMW CS Concept: Was set to be turned into a production vehicle, but later canceled. 2008 Concept 1 series tii: A high-performance tuned version of the 1 Series. "tii" references the 2002tii model. 2008 BMW GINA: concept based on the structure of a Z8 with a light fabric skin and hydro-electric technology to allow the shape to change. 2008 BMW Concept X1: BMW first Sports Activity Vehicle in the compact class. Out of production M1: a 1970s mid-engine sports car, designed in conjunction with Lamborghini. As Lamborghini went into bankruptcy the production was shifted to the largest independent motor vehicle company in Germany, Karmann in Osnabrueck. Z3: a 2-seater roadster. Appeared in the James Bond film GoldenEye M coupé and roadster: high-performance hard-top and soft-top versions of the Z3. 8 Series: a fast, high-technology coupé of the 1990s. Z1: a late 1980s two-seater with innovative modular construction; only 8,000 were made. Best known for its vertically sliding doors. Z8: a roadster and halo car with design based on the classic 507 roadster from the 1950s. Appeared in the James Bond film The World Is Not Enough, marking the last time Bond would drive a BMW. Only 5703 were built, the last 555 being a special edition built by Alpina but sold directly from BMW. It was built on an aluminum space frame design. Classics BMW 319/1 – built in 1935 BMW 3/15 "Dixi" 1936 BMW Model 319 4-Window Cabriolet 1958 BMW Model 507 Roadster BMW made many cars over the years which have had great impact on the world of motoring. 2002 3.0 CSL M1 M3 M5 M6 (e24) First production line M car. Supercoupe capable of over M Roadster Dixi, 3/20, 303, 309, 315, 319, 320, 321, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 335 Isetta, 600, 700 501, 502, 503, 507 3200 CS, 2000 CS, 2002 Turbo New Sixes (2500/2800/Bavaria/2.5/2.8/3.0/3.3): Predecessor to today's 7 Series New Class (1500/1502/1600/1800/1802/2000/2002): Predecessor to the 3 Series Series generations Internally, BMW associates an "e-code" for each generation of a series ("E" stands for Entwicklung, German for development or evolution). These "chassis codes" only change to signify a major redesign of a series, or the introduction of a new series. BMW AG reported in September 2006 that BMW would switch to the letter "F" for their future models, beginning with the F01 7 Series replacement. BMW E3 — (1968–1977) 2.5, 2.8, 3.0, 3.3 "New Six" sedans BMW E9 — (1969–1975) 2800CS, 3.0CS, 3.0CSL "New Six" Coupés BMW E12 — (1974–1981) 5 Series BMW E21 — (1976–1983) 3 Series BMW E23 — (1977–1986) 7 Series BMW E24 — (1976–1989) 6 Series BMW E26 — (1978–1981) M1 BMW E28 — (1981–1987) 5 Series BMW E30 — (1984–1991) 3 Series (1982-1983 E30 sold in Europe) BMW E31 — (1989–1997) 8 Series BMW E32 — (1986–1994) 7 Series BMW E34 — (1988–1995) 5 Series BMW E36 — (1992–1999) 3 Series BMW E36/5 — (1995–1998) 3 Series Compact (US market known as "318ti") BMW E36/7 — (1996-2002) Z3 Series Roadster BMW E36/8 — (1998-2002) Z3 Series Coupé BMW E38 — (1994–2001) 7 Series BMW E38/2 — (1994–2001) 7 Series long wheelbase BMW E38/3 — (1998–2001) 7 Series Protection BMW E39 — (1995–2003) 5 Series BMW E46/5 — (2000–2004) 3 Series Compact BMW E46/4 — (1998–2005) 3 Series Sedan BMW E46/3 — (1999–2005) 3 Series Touring/Sports Wagon BMW E46/2 — (1999–2006) 3 Series Coupé BMW E46/C — (1999–2006) 3 Series Convertible BMW E52 — (2000–2003) Z8 BMW E53 — (2000–2006) X5 BMW E60 — (2004–present) 5 Series BMW E61 — (2004–2007) 5 Series Touring/Sports Wagon BMW E63 — (2004–present) 6 Series Coupé BMW E64 — (2004–present) 6 Series convertible BMW E65 — (2001–2007) 7 Series short wheelbase BMW E66 — (2001–2007) 7 Series long wheelbase BMW E67 — (2001–2007) 7 Series Protection BMW E68 — (2005–2007) Hydrogen 7 BMW E70 — (2007-present) X5 BMW E71 — (2008) X6 BMW E81 — (2007-present) 1 Series (3-door) BMW E82 — (2007-present) 1 Series Coupé BMW E83 — (2004–present) X3 BMW E85 — (2003–present) Z4 BMW E86 — (2006–present) Z4 Coupé BMW E87 — (2004–present) 1 Series (5-door) BMW E88 — (2008) 1 Series Convertible BMW E89 — (2009) Z4 BMW E90 — (2005–present) 3 Series BMW E91 — (2005–present) 3 Series Touring/Sports Wagon BMW E92 — (2006–present) 3 Series Coupé BMW E93 — (2007–present) 3 Series Convertible BMW F01 — (2008) 7 Series BMW F02 — (2009) 7 Series long wheelbase Motorsport BMW Sauber F1 Team Logo. BMW first entered Formula One as a fully-fledged team in . BMW has been engaged in motorsport activities since the dawn of the first BMW motorcycle. Sponsoring Formula BMW - A Junior racing Formula category. Kumho BMW Championship - A BMW-exclusive championship run in the United Kingdom. Formula car Formula One - BMW has won 19 Grands Prix as an engine supplier. BMW won its first race as a constructor on 8 June 2008 at the Grand Prix of Canada with Robert Kubica driving. BMW Sauber F1 Team - current BMW works Formula One team WilliamsF1 - former Formula One partner from 2000-2005, and designer of BMW's Le Mans winning sports car Brabham - Former Formula One partner, winning the Drivers Championship in 1983 Arrows - used BMW engines from 1984 to 1986 Benetton - used BMW engines in 1986 with which Gerhard Berger took his first F1 victory. Sports car Le Mans 24 Hours - BMW won Le Mans in 1999 with the BMW V12 LMR designed by Williams Grand Prix Engineering. Also the Kokusai Kaihatsu Racing team won the 1995 24 Hours of Le Mans with a McLaren F1 GTR race car. Nürburgring - BMW won the 24 Hours Nürburgring 18 times and the 1000km Nürburgring 2 times (1976 and 1981). 24 Hours of Daytona - BMW won 1 time (1976) Spa 24 Hours - BMW won 21 times McLaren F1 - Successful mid-1990s GT racing car with a BMW designed engine. It won the BPR Global GT Series in 1995 and 1996 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1995. Touring car BMW has a long and successful history in touring car racing. European Touring Car Championship (ETCC) - Since 1968, BMW won 24 drivers' championships along with several manufacturers' and teams' titles. World Touring Car Championship (WTCC) - BMW won four drivers' championship (1987, 2005, 2006 and 2007) and three manufacturers' titles (2005–2007). DTM (Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft) - the following won the DTM drivers' championship driving BMWs: 1989: Roberto Ravaglia, BMW M3 1987: Eric van der Poele, BMW M3 The DRM (Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft) was won by Harald Ertl in a BMW 320i Turbo in 1978 British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) - BMW won the drivers' championship in 1988, 1991, 1992 and 1993 and manufacturers' championship in 1991 and 1993. Japanese Touring Car Championship (JTCC) - BMW (Schnitzer) flew from Europe to Japan to compete in the JTCC and won the championship in 1995. Mille Miglia - BMW won Mille Miglia in 1940 in with a 328 Touring Coupé. Previously in 1938 the 328 sport car also obtained a class victory. Rally RAC Rally - The 328 sport car won this event in 1939. Paris Dakar Rally - BMW motorcycles have won this event 6 times. Tour De Corse - The BMW M3 - E30 won this event in 1987 Culture The term "Beemer" started as a slang term for the acronym "BMW," adapted from Beezer, the early-20th century British pronunciation of BSA (as or ), whose motorcycles were often racing BMWs. Over time, the term became closely associated with BMW motorcycles. In the United States, the term "Bimmer" was later coined to refer (exclusively) to BMW automobiles. As such, use of the word "Beemer" to refer to a BMW automobile is frowned upon by some BMW enthusiasts, because it is the term used for motorcycles. Although the distinction is arbitrary, the media, movies, and people still use the term "Beemer" to refer to the automobiles. The initials BMW are in German. The model series are referred to as "Einser" ("One-er" for 1 series), "Dreier" ("Three-er" for 3 series), "Fünfer" ("Five-er" for the 5 series), "Sechser" ("Six-er" for the 6 series), "Siebener" ("Seven-er" for the 7 series). Environmental record The company is a charter member of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) National Environmental Achievement Track, which recognizes companies for their environmental stewardship and performance. It is also a member of the South Carolina Environmental Excellence Program and is on the Dow Jones Sustainability Group Index, which rates environmentally friendly companies. Grahl, C: “Green finishing”, page 35(4). Industrial Paint & Powder, 2006 BMW has taken measures to reduce the impact the company has on the environment. It is trying to design less-polluting cars by making existing models more efficient, as well as developing environmentally friendly fuels for future vehicles. Possibilities include: electric power, hybrid power (combustion, engines and electric motors)hydrogen engines. Bird, J and Walker, M: “BMW A Sustainable Future? ”, page 11. Wild World 2005 Based on a research made by Clean Green Cars, BMW is the least-polluting premium brand with average 160 g/km CO2 output http://www.cleangreencars.co.uk/jsp/co2_manufacturer.pdf In addition, BMW already offers 49 models with EU5/6 emissions norm and nearly 20 models with CO2 output less than 140 g/km, which puts it on the lowest tax group and therefor could provide the future owner with eco-bonus offered from some European states. At brand level, too, BMW does better than its main competitors in the premium segment by significantly more than half a litre of fuel consumption with an average level of 160 g CO2/km. The vehicles of the next best competitor have a CO2 emissions level of 16 grams more than the models of the brand BMW, with the next competitor after this at a level which is as much as 28 g higher than the brand BMW - equal to a whole litre of diesel. Between 2006 and 2008, the brand BMW achieved a reduction in fuel consumption of 16%, more than doubling the reduction attained by the next best premium segment competitor. At the same, BMW vehicles are still well ahead of their competitors in terms of average engine output. However, there have been some criticisms directed at BMW, and in particular, accusations of greenwash in reference to their BMW Hydrogen 7. Some critics claim that the emissions produced during hydrogen fuel production outweigh the reduction of tailpipe emissions, and that the Hydrogen 7 is a distraction from more immediate, practical solutions for car pollution. Bicycles BMW has created a range of high-end bicycles sold online and through dealerships. They range from the Kid's Bike to the EUR 4,499 Enduro Bike. In the United States, only the Cruise Bike and Kid's Bike models are sold. BMWonline - 1-888-BMW-ONLINE (888-269-6654) BMW, clothes, clothing, shirts, sweaters, polos, models, miniatures, shirt, tee, tees, sweater, polo, model, miniature, jewelry, motorcycle, leathers, boots, gloves Nomenclature BMWs follow a certain nomenclature in the naming of their vehicles; usually a 3 digit number is followed by 1 or 2 letters. The first number represents the series number. The next two numbers traditionally represent the engine displacement in cubic centimeters divided by 100. W.P. BMW Group Canada Inc. http://www.bmw.ca The system of letters can be used in combination, and is as follows: A = automatic transmission C = coupe c = cabriolet d = diesel† e = eta (efficient economy, from the Greek letter 'η') g = compressed natural gas/CNG h = hydrogen i = fuel-injected L = long wheelbase s = sport†† sDrive = rear wheel drive T = touring (wagon/estate) t = hatchback x / xDrive = BMW xDrive all wheel drive † historic nomenclature indicating "td" refers to "Turbo Diesel", not a diesel hatchback or touring model (524td, 525td) †† typically includes sport seats, spoiler, aerodynamic body kit, upgraded wheels, etc. For example, a BMW 760Li is a fuel-injected 7 Series with a long wheelbase and 6.0 liters of displacement. However, there are exceptions. Carver, Robert. BMW San Antonio. BMW Information http://www.mrbimmer.com/bmw.information The 2007 BMW 328i is a 3 Series that has a 3.0 liter engine. The E36 and E46 323i and E39 523i had 2.5 liter engines. The 2007 BMW 335i also has a 3.0 liter engine; however it is twin-turbocharged, which is not identified by the nomenclature. The 'M' - for Motorsport - identifies the vehicle as a high-performance model of a particular series (e.g. M3, M5, M6, etc). For example, the M6 is the highest performing vehicle in the 6 Series lineup. Although 'M' cars should be separated into their respective series platforms, it is very common to see 'M' cars grouped together as its own series. When 'L' supersedes the series number (e.g. L6, L7, etc) it identifies the vehicle as a special luxury variant, featuring extended leather and special interior appointments. The L7 is based on the E23 and E38, and the L6 is based on the E24. When 'X' is capitalized and supersedes the series number (e.g. X3, X5, etc.) it identifies the vehicle as one of BMW's Sports Activity Vehicles (SAV), featuring BMW's xDrive. The 'Z' identifies the vehicle as a two seat roadster (e.g. Z1, Z3, Z4, etc). 'M' variants of 'Z' models have the 'M' as a suffix or prefix, depending on country of sale (e.g. 'Z4 M' is 'M Roadster' in Canada). Previous X & Z vehicles had 'i' or 'si' following the engine displacement number (denoted in liters). BMW is now globally standardizing this nomenclature on X & Z vehicles FAQ from the BMW Z4 Press Conference, as reported by BMWBLOG, May 8 2009. http://www.bmwblog.com/2009/05/08/faq-from-the-recent-bmw-press-conference by using 'sDrive' or 'xDrive' (simply meaning rear or all wheel drive, respectively) followed by two numbers which vaguely represent the vehicle's engine (e.g. Z4 sDrive35i is a rear wheel drive Z4 roadster with a 3.0L twin-turbo fuel-injected engine). Community BMW logo sign in Düsseldorf From the summer of 2001 until October, 2005, BMW hosted the BMW Films website, showcasing sporty models being driven to extremes. These videos are still popular within the enthusiast community and proved to be a ground-breaking online advertising campaign. Annually since 1999, BMW enthusiasts have met in Santa Barbara, CA to attend Bimmerfest. One of the largest brand-specific gatherings in the U.S., over 3000 people attended in 2006, and over 1000 BMW cars were present. In 2007, the event was held on May 5. Overseas subsidiaries South Africa BMWs have been assembled in South Africa since 1970, when Praetor Monteerders' plant was opened in Rosslyn, near Pretoria. BMW acquired the company in 1973, which became BMW South Africa, the first wholly-owned subsidiary of BMW to be established outside Germany. Three unique models that BMW Motorsport created for the South African market were the BMW 333i, which added a 6-cylinder 3.2 litre engine to the BMW 3 Series, the BMW 325is which was powered by an Alpina derived 2.7 litre engine, and the E23 M745i, which used the engine from the BMW M1. Unlike U.S. manufacturers, such as Ford and GM, which divested from the country in the 1980s, BMW retained full ownership of its operations in South Africa. Following the end of apartheid in 1994, and the lowering of import tariffs, BMW South Africa ended local production of the 5-Series and 7-Series, in order to concentrate on production of the 3-Series for the export market. South African-built BMWs are now exported to right hand drive markets including Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Singapore, and Hong Kong, as well as Sub-Saharan Africa. Since 1997, BMW South Africa has produced vehicles in left hand drive for export to Taiwan, the United States and Iran, as well as South America. BMW's with a VIN number starting with "NC0" are manufactured in South Africa. United States BMW factory in Spartanburg BMW Manufacturing Co has been manufacturing the X5 and, more recently, the X6 in Spartanburg, South Carolina, USA. The smaller X3 is slated to begin production in Spartanburg in 2009-2010. BMW's with a VIN number starting with "4US" are manufactured in Spartanburg. India BMW established in 2006 a sales subsidiary in Gurgaon (National Capital Region) and a state-of-the-art assembly plant for BMW 3 and 5 Series started operation in early 2007 in Chennai. The construction of the plant started in January 2006 with an initial investment of more than one billion Indian Rupees. The plant started fullfledged operation in the first quarter of 2007 and produces the different variants of BMW 3 Series and BMW 5 Series. China In May 2004 BMW opened a factory in Shenyang, north-east China, in a joint venture with Brilliance China Automotive. The factory is expected to produce 30,000 3 and 5 Series annually. BMW also has plans for a 2nd factory in China where the 1 Series will be produced. BMW China archive at China Car Times Canada In October 2008, BMW Group Canada was named one of Greater Toronto's Top Employers by Mediacorp Canada Inc., which was announced by the Toronto Star newspaper. Austria The BMW X3 is made by Magna Steyr, a subsidiary of a Canadian company, in Graz, Austria under license from BMW. Controversy Nazi connections Günther Quandt, whose family became major shareholders of BMW 15 years after the war, was a member of the Nazi Party from 1933. After Hitler's election he was appointed to the position of Leader of the Armament Economy, which was a title given to industrialists who played a leading role in the Nazi war economy. Quandt's factories supplied ammunition, rifles, artillery and batteries for the Nazis and, it is claimed, used slave labourers from concentration camps in some of his factories. BMW's Quandt Family Faces Its Nazi Past Quandt's first wife, Magda, later married the Nazi propaganda chief, Joseph Goebbels. The gigolo, the German heiress, and a £6m revenge for her Nazi legacy A documentary aired on German TV in 2007 claimed that Quandt not only utilized slave labour, but also sidestepped postwar recrimination. BMW itself was not implicated in the documentary, and the firm has made no comment about the Quandts, but claims to have confronted its own wartime history via independent research projects. The Quandt family responded by pledging to fund a research project into the family's Nazi past and its role under the Third Reich. Quandts to reveal Nazi-era links Former Danish freedom fighter Carl Adolf Sørensen (b. ca. 1927) has been asked to meet with the Quandt family and possibly receive compensation, but has repeatedly refused to do so on the grounds that it is too late. In 1943, as a 17 year old, he and 39 other resistance fighters were sent to Germany where they worked with dangerous chemicals, some dying within a few months, and only four of the group are still alive (as of May 2009). 2009 job cuts In February, 2009, BMW cut 850 jobs at their plant near Oxford, England. The third of the workers that were agency staff did not receive any redundancy pay. Agency staff expressed their fury at being given just one hour's notice of the redundancies. Uproar in Cowley as BMW confirms 850 job cuts at Mini factory The joint general secretary of the union Unite, Tony Woodley, attacked the decision: Related companies A Combined BMW MINI dealership in Moncton, Canada Automobilwerk Eisenach Isetta Glas Rolls-Royce Motor Cars Limited Rover: Owned by BMW from 1994 to 2000, BMW retained the Mini after selling off the rest of the company (see MG Rover Group). Land Rover: Sold to Ford, now bought by Indian automaker Tata; the current Range Rover was developed during BMW's ownership of the company and until recently was powered by their 4.4 L V8 petrol (gasoline) engine and BMW 3.0 L I6 diesel engine MINI: A small hatchback; inspired by the original Mini, which was the British competitor to the Volkswagen Beetle. Wiesmann: A company making sporty 2-seater roadsters and coupés for which BMW supplies the engine and transmission components. Bavaria Wirtschaftsagentur GmbH: BMW Group subsidiary that offers insurance services. AC Schnitzer: A tuning company specialising in BMW vehicles. Alpina: A Motor Manufacturer in its own right, who creates vehicles based on BMW cars. Breyton: A tuning manufacturer specialising in BMW cars. Dinan Cars: A tuning company specialising in BMW and Mini cars G-Power: A tuning company specialising in BMW vehicles. Hartge: A tuning company specialising in BMW, MINI and Range Rover cars. Hamann Motorsport: A Motor Styling and Tuning Specialist who creates vehicles based on BMW cars. MK-Motorsport: A tuning company specialising in BMW cars. Racing Dynamics: A tuning company and motor manufacturer specialising in BMW Group vehicles. See also BMW Motorrad BMW Steptronic list of automobile manufacturers list of German cars list of Formula One constructors BMW films List of BMW engines BMW Headquarters BMW in motorsport BMW CleanEnergy BMW iDrive BMW Active Steering Clemson University Center for Automotive Research BMW model designations Streetcarver BMW Street Carver Skateboards History of BMW History of BMW motorcycles BMW Central Building References External links BMW Group International BMW Automobiles International BMW Motorrad International MINI International Rolls-Royce Motors be-x-old:BMW

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Gordon_Michael_Woolvett

Gordon Michael Woolvett (born June 12, 1970) is a Canadian-born actor from Hamilton, Ontario Canada, best known for his work as Seamus Zelazny Harper on the television series Andromeda (2000-2005). Previous to Andromeda he starred in another science fiction TV show, Deepwater Black. He also was in an episode of PSI Factor: Chronicles of the Paranormal. He's the younger brother of actor Jaimz Woolvett. Woolvett was also one of the first program jockeys for YTV's The Zone (then called The After-School Zone) and the original main host for a program called Video and Arcade Top 10 which also aired on YTV. Woolvett acted in the 1999 made-for-TV movie Ultimate Deception with Yasmine Bleeth. Currently Woolvett can be seen on the Canadian television series The Guard, airing on Global Television Network. Film credits Everything's Gone Green (2006) - Spike The Highwayman (2000) - Walter Ultimate Deception (1999) - Frank McThomas Bride of Chucky (1998) - David Clutch (1998) - Spit Television Mysterious Island (1995) - Herbert Pencroft External links Gordon Woolvett's official site Woolvett Bros fansite

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Heart_of_Darkness

Heart of Darkness is a novella written by Joseph Conrad. Before its 1902 publication, it appeared as a three-part series (1899) in Blackwood's Magazine. It is widely regarded as a significant work of English literature and part of the Western canon. The story details an incident when Marlow, an Englishman, took a foreign assignment as a ferry-boat captain, employed by a Belgian trading company. Although the river is never specifically named, readers may assume it is the Congo River, in the Congo Free State, a private colony of King Leopold II. Marlow is employed to transport ivory downriver; however, his more pressing assignment is to return Kurtz, another ivory trader, to civilization in a cover up. Kurtz has a reputation throughout the region. This very symbolic story is actually a story within a story, or frame narrative. It follows Marlow as he recounts, from dusk through to late night, his adventure into the Congo to a group of men aboard a ship anchored in the Thames Estuary. It should be noted from a structuralist point of view that Marlow is also the name of a town situated on the Thames further upstream from London. Background Eight and a half years before writing the book, Conrad had gone to serve as the captain of a Congo steamer. However, upon arriving in the Congo, he found his steamer damaged and under repair. He soon became ill and returned to Europe before ever serving as captain. Some of Conrad's experiences in the Congo, and the story's historic background, including possible models for Kurtz, are recounted in Adam Hochschild's King Leopold's Ghost. The story-within-a-story device (called framed narrative in literary terms) that Conrad chose for Heart of Darkness — one in which an unnamed narrator recounts Charles Marlow's recounting of his journey — has many literary precedents. Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights and Mary Shelley's Frankenstein used a similar device, but the best known examples of the framed narrative include Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, The Arabian Nights and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Plot summary The story opens with five men, apparently old friends, on a boat on the Thames. One man, Marlow, begins telling a story of a job he took as captain of a steamship in Africa. He describes how his "dear aunt" used many of her contacts to secure the job for him. When he arrives at the job, he encounters many men he dislikes, as they strike him as untrustworthy. They speak often of a man named Kurtz, who has quite a reputation in many areas of expertise. He is somewhat of a rogue ivory collector, "essentially a great musician," a journalist, a skilled painter, and "a universal genius." Marlow learns that he is to travel up the river to retrieve Kurtz (if he is alive), who was evidently left alone in unfamiliar territory. However, Marlow's steamer needs extensive repairs, and he cannot leave until he receives rivets, which take a suspiciously long time to arrive. Marlow suspects the manager of deliberately delaying his trip to prevent Kurtz from stealing the manager's job. Marlow is finally able to leave on his journey with five other white men and a group of cannibals they have hired to run the steamer. He notes that the cannibals use a respectable amount of restraint in not eating the white men, as their only food source is a small amount of rotting hippo meat, and they far outnumber the white men, or "pilgrims" as Marlow refers to them. Marlow's steamer is attacked by natives while en route to Kurtz's station - they are saved when Marlow blows the ship's steam whistle and frightens the natives into retreat. They arrive at the station and Marlow meets Kurtz's right-hand man, an unnamed Russian whose dress resembles a Harlequin and whose admiration and fear of Kurtz are palpable. The Russian explains that Kurtz is near death and that Kurtz had ordered the native tribes to attack the steam ship. Harlequin explains that Kurtz had used his guns and personal charisma to take over tribes of Africans and had used them to make war on other tribes for their ivory, which explains how Kurtz obtains so much ivory. The Russian, who idolizes Kurtz, worries that Kurtz's reputation will be sullied by the Manager. Marlow promises to maintain Kurtz's reputation as a great man and advises the Russian to flee to friendly natives. The Russian thanks Marlow and leaves after collecting a few oddments. At this point, near death, Kurtz has an enigmatic last desire to remain a part of the native culture, as exhibited by his ineffective striving toward tribal fire, dance and the darkness. Marlow and his crew take the ailing Kurtz aboard their ship and depart. During this time, Kurtz is lodged in Marlow's pilothouse and Marlow begins to see that Kurtz is every bit as grandiose as previously described. During this time, Kurtz gives Marlow a collection of papers and a photograph for safekeeping; both had witnessed the Manager going through Kurtz's belongings. The photograph is of a beautiful girl whom Marlow assumes is Kurtz's love interest. One night, Marlow happens upon Kurtz, obviously near death. As Marlow comes closer with a candle, Kurtz seems to experience a moment of clarity and speaks his last words: "The horror! The horror!" Marlow believes this to be Kurtz's reflection on the events of his life. Marlow does not inform the Manager or any of the other pilgrims of Kurtz's death; the news is instead broken by the Manager's child-servant. Marlow later returns to his home city and is confronted by many people seeking things and ideas of Kurtz. Marlow eventually sees Kurtz's fiancée about a year later. She is still in mourning. She asks Marlow about Kurtz's death and Marlow informs her that his last words were her name - rather than, as really happened, "The horror! The horror!" The story concludes as the scene returns to the trip on the Thames and mentions how it seems as though the boat is drifting into the heart of the darkness. Motifs T. S. Eliot's use of a quotation from The Heart of Darkness—"Mistah Kurtz, he dead"—as an epigraph to the original manuscript of his poem, The Hollow Men, contrasted its dark horror with the presumed "light of civilization," and suggested the ambiguity of both the dark motives of civilization and the freedom of barbarism, as well as the "spiritual darkness" of several characters in Heart of Darkness. This sense of darkness also lends itself to a related theme of obscurity—again, in various senses, reflecting the ambiguities in the work. Moral issues are not clear-cut; that which ought to be (in various senses) on the side of "light" is in fact mired in darkness, and vice versa. Africa was known as "The Dark Continent" in the Victorian Era with all the negative attributes of darkness attributed to Africans by the English. One of the possible influences for the Kurtz character was Henry Morton Stanley of "Dr. Livingstone, I presume" fame, as he was not a principal explorer of "The Dark Heart of Africa", particularly the Congo. Stanley was infamous in Africa for horrific violence and yet he was honoured with a knighthood. However, an agent Conrad himself encountered when travelling in the Congo, named Georges-Antoine Klein (klein means 'small' in German, as Kurtz alludes to kurz, 'short'), could have possibly served as an actual model for Kurtz. Klein died aboard Conrad's steamer and was interred along the Congo, much like Kurtz in the novel. Among the people Conrad may have encountered on his journey was a trader called Leon Rom, who was later named chief of the Stanley Falls Station. In 1895 a British traveller reported that Rom had decorated his flower-bed with the skulls of some twenty-one victims of his displeasure, including women and children, resembling the posts of Kurtz's Station. Conrad uses the river as the vehicle for Marlow to journey further into the "heart of darkness". The descriptions of the river, particularly its depiction as a snake, reveal its symbolic qualities. The river "resembl[es] an immense snake uncoiled" and "it fascinated [Marlow] as a snake would a bird." Not only is Marlow captivated by the river, representing as it does the jungle itself, but its association with a snake gives this "fascination of the abomination" its metaphorical characteristics. The statement, "The snake had charmed me" alludes to both the idea of snake charmer and the snake in the story of Genesis. While typically, a snake charmer would charm the snake, in this case, Marlow is charmed by the snake, a reversal which puts the power in the hands of the river, and thus the jungle wilderness. Furthermore, the allusion to the snake of temptation from the story of Adam and Eve demonstrates how the wilderness itself contains the knowledge of good and evil, and upon entering that wilderness Marlow will be able to see, or at least explore, the characteristics of humanity as well as good and evil. Throughout the novel Conrad dramatizes the tension in Marlow between the restraint of civilization and the savagery of barbarism. The darkness and amorality which Kurtz exemplifies is argued to be the reality of the human condition, upon which illusory moral structures are draped by civilization. Marlow's confrontation with Kurtz presents him with a 'choice of nightmares'—to commit himself to the savagery of the unmasked human condition, as Kurtz exemplifies, or to the lie and veneer of civilized restraint. Though Marlow 'cannot abide a lie' and subsequently cannot perceive civilization as anything but a veneer hiding the savage reality of the human condition, he is also horrified by the darkness of Kurtz he sees in his own heart. After emerging from this experience, his Buddha-like pose aboard the "Nellie" symbolizes a suspension between this choice of nightmares. Heart of Darkness explores the issues surrounding imperialism in complicated ways. As Marlow travels from the Outer Station to the Central Station and finally up the river to the Inner Station, he encounters scenes of torture, cruelty, and near-slavery. At the very least, the incidental scenery of the book offers a harsh picture of colonial enterprise. The impetus behind Marlow's adventures, too, has to do with the hypocrisy inherent in the rhetoric used to justify imperialism. The men who work for the Company describe what they do as “trade,” and their treatment of native Africans is part of a benevolent project of “civilization.” Kurtz, on the other hand, is open about the fact that he does not trade but rather takes ivory by force, and he describes his own treatment of the natives with the words “suppression” and “extermination”: he does not hide the fact that he rules through violence and intimidation. His perverse honesty leads to his downfall, as his success threatens to expose the evil practices behind European activity in Africa. However, for Marlow as much as for Kurtz or for the Company, Africans in this book are mostly objects: Marlow refers to his helmsman as a piece of machinery, and Kurtz's African mistress is at best a piece of statuary. It can be argued that Heart of Darkness participates in an oppression of nonwhites that is much more sinister and much harder to remedy than the open abuses of Kurtz or the Company's men. Africans become for Marlow a mere backdrop, a human screen against which he can play out his philosophical and existential struggles. Their existence and their exoticism enable his self-contemplation. This kind of dehumanization is harder to identify than colonial violence or open racism. While Heart of Darkness offers a powerful condemnation of the hypocritical operations of imperialism, it also presents a set of issues surrounding race that is ultimately more troubling. Duality of Human Nature To emphasize the theme of darkness within all of mankind 'Heart of Darkness' and late-Victorian fascination with the primitive and the double - novel by Joseph Conrad, p.4. , Marlow's narration takes place on a yawl in the Thames tidal estuary. Early in the novella, Marlow recounts how London, the largest, most populous and wealthiest city in the world at the time, was itself a "dark" place in Roman times. The idea that the Romans, at one time, conquered the "savage" Britons parallels Conrad's current tale of the Belgians conquering the "savage" Africans. The theme of darkness lurking beneath the surface of even "civilized" persons appears prominently, and is further explored through the character of Kurtz and through Marlow's passing sense of understanding with the Africans. Kurtz embodies all forms of an urge to be more or less than human. He employs his faculties for aims in the opposite direction from the idealism announced in his self-deconstructing report as a civilizer. His writings designate in Marlow's view an "exotic Immensity ruled by an august Benevolence" and they appeal to "every altruistic sentiment." His predisposition for benevolent sympathy is clear in the statement "We whites...must necessarily appear to them|savages~ in the nature of supernatural beings....By the simple exercise of our will we can exert a power for good practically unbounded". The Central Station manager quotes Kurtz, the exemplar: "Each station should be like a beacon on the road towards better things, a centre for trade of course, but also for humanizing, improving, instructing" (33). Kurtz's inexperienced, scientific self in the fiery report is alive with the possibility of the cultivation and conversion of the "savages." He would have subscribed to Moreau's proposition that "a pig may be educated". Themes developed in the novella's later scenes include the naïveté of Europeans—particularly women—regarding the various forms of darkness in the Congo; the British traders and Belgian colonialists' abuse of the natives; and man's potential for duplicity. The symbolic levels of the book expand on all of these in terms of a struggle between good and evil (light and darkness), not so much between people as within every major character's soul. Readings Conrad's novella is so often identified as a archetypal modern text for a number of reasons, with one of these reasons being the way it is rich in its levels of interpretation. These different readings include: Symbolic A symbolic reading of the text may pinpoint the constant contrasts between light and darkness as having been part of life since the origins of humanity, as the established train of thought of light equaling good, dark equaling evil playing an important part in the novel, as well as vice versa. Symbolic comparisons are also made between the River Thames and the Congo river, as well as those between the City of London seen at the start of the novel and the African settlement Marlow resides in for some time during his journey. Marlow himself is also symbolically compared to the maverick Kurtz as the novel progresses, and Kurtz can also be seen as a symbol of the imperial and the ignorant European mind. Mythical A mythical reading brings in the ideas of the primitive, the nature of primitive existence, and the role of a vague but powerful idea has upon humanity, as well as embodying a return to the origins of existence and a confrontation with darkness. The myth of the Seer, or apparent 'All-seeing Wise Man', is also included, with the character Kurtz occupying this role. Although this idea is not fulfilled, as we learn Kurtz is not this God-like figure described by colonists and natives alike, Marlow still learns from Kurtz, even at a point where the idea of Empire is in decline. Psychological This way of reading Conrad's tale has been the most common form of interpretation, and the most obvious and introspective reading of the novella is as a journey into Marlow's inner self. It is an exploration of identity, with the focus being on how the outside world may alter and disrupt the inner ideals and morals of even the most incorruptible and faithful. Political Since the late 1960s, political readings of Heart of Darkness have increased, exploring and commenting on the ideology of imperialism. Marlow's reference at the start of the novella to the actions of the Romans is a comparison to the actions of those exploring the Africa in the novella's context, particularly the Congo river itself. Through a political reading, much of the text can be interpreted as a satire of the greed and ignorance of Europe, but Marlow experiences something of a revelation, as we see him change his opinions as the plot develops. Realist Many readers, however, view Conrad as a realist and a documenter of the events he himself saw in the Congo. Readers of this approach argue that Heart of Darkness is therefore a documentation of Conrad's visit to the Congo and should be read as a judgement of Belgian colonialism rather than a psychological analysis. Historical context The Roi des Belges, the ship Conrad used to travel up the Congo The novel is largely autobiographical, based upon Joseph Conrad's six-month journey up the Congo River where he took command of a steamboat in 1890 after the death of its captain. At the time, the river was called the Congo, and the country was the Congo Free State. The area Conrad refers to as the Company Station was an actual location called Matadi, a location two hundred miles up river from the mouth of the Congo. The Central Station was a location called Kinshasa, and these two locations marked a stretch of river impassable by steamboat, upon which Marlow takes a "two-hundred mile tramp." Conrad met Roger Casement at Matadi on 13 June 1890, diarying "Made the acquaintance of Mr Roger Casement, which I should consider as a great pleasure under any circumstances and now it becomes a positive piece of luck. Thinks, speaks well, most intelligent and very sympathetic." The two were to share a room for several weeks, barring a period when Casement went down river to Boma escorting "a large lot of ivory." The Company was in reality the Anglo-Belgian India-Rubber Company formed by King Leopold II of Belgium. The Congo Free State was voted into existence by the Berlin Conference (1884), which Conrad refers to sarcastically in his novella as "the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs." Leopold II declared the Congo Free State his personal property in 1892, legally permitting the Belgians to take what rubber they wished from the area without having to trade with the African natives. This caused a rise in the atrocities perpetrated by the Belgian traders. The Congo Free State ceased to be the personal property of the king and became a regular colony of Belgium, called Belgian Congo, in 1908, after the extent of the atrocities committed there became generally known in the West, in part through Conrad's novella. Reception In a post-colonial reading, the Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe famously criticized the Heart of Darkness in his 1975 lecture An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's "Heart of Darkness", saying the novella de-humanized Africans, denied them language and culture, and reduced them to a metaphorical extension of the dark and dangerous jungle into which the Europeans venture. Achebe's lecture prompted a lively debate, reactions at the time ranged from dismay and outrage—Achebe recounted a Professor Emeritus from the University of Massachusetts saying to Achebe after the lecture, "How dare you upset everything we have taught, everything we teach? Heart of Darkness is the most widely taught text in the university in this country. So how dare you say it’s different?" —to support for Achebe's view—"I now realize that I had never really read Heart of Darkness although I have taught it for years," Achebe (1989), p. x. one professor told Achebe. Other critiques include Hugh Curtler's Achebe on Conrad: Racism and Greatness in Heart of Darkness (1997). In King Leopold's Ghost (1998), Adam Hochschild argues that literary scholars have made too much of the psychological aspects of Heart of Darkness while scanting the moral horror of Conrad's accurate recounting of the methods and effects of colonialism. He quotes Conrad as saying, "Heart of Darkness is experience ... pushed a little (and only very little) beyond the actual facts of the case." Heart of Darkness is also criticized for its characterization of women. In the novel, Marlow says that "It's queer how out of touch with truth women are." Marlow also suggests that women have to be sheltered from the truth in order to keep their own fantasy world from "shattering before the first sunset." Adaptations Orson Welles adapted and narrated the novel for his Mercury Theater radio show. The most famous adaptation of Conrad’s Heart of Darkness is Francis Ford Coppola's 1979 movie Apocalypse Now, which transposes the context of the narrative from the Congo into Vietnam and Cambodia during the Vietnam War. On March 13, 1993, Turner Network Television aired a new version of the story with Tim Roth as Marlow and John Malkovich as Kurtz. http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,301401,00.html Swiss author Christian Kracht's 2008 novel "Ich werde hier sein im Sonnenschein und im Schatten" also draws heavily upon basic story elements of "Heart of Darkness", but transposes them into fictitious, post-apocalyptic Switzerland. Notes References External links Downloadable audio book of Heart of Darkness by LoudLit.org 'Heart of Darkness' and late-Victorian fascination with the primitive and the double - novel by Joseph Conrad

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Politics_of_Guinea

Politics of Guinea takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Guinea is both head of state and head of government of Guinea. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. History A military junta, led by then-Lt. Col. Lansana Conté and styling itself the Military Committee of National Recovery (CMRN), took control of Guinea in April 1984, shortly after the death of independent Guinea's first president, Sékou Touré. With Conté as president, the CMRN set about dismantling Touré's oppressive regime, abolishing the authoritarian constitution, dissolving the sole political party and its mass youth and women's organizations, and announcing the establishment of the Second Republic. The new government released all political prisoners and committed itself to the protection of human rights. In order to reverse the steady economic decline under Touré's rule, the CMRN reorganized the judicial system, decentralized the administration, promoted private enterprise, and encouraged foreign investment In 1990, Guineans approved by referendum a new constitution that inaugurated the Third Republic, and established a Supreme Court. In 1991, the CMRN was replaced by a mixed military and civilian body, the Transitional Council for National Recovery (CTRN), with Conté as president and a mandate to manage a 5-year transition to full civilian rule. The CTRN drafted laws to create republican institutions and to provide for independent political parties, national elections, and freedom of the press. Political party activity was legalized in 1992, when more than 40 political parties were officially recognized. In December 1993, Conté was elected to a 5-year term as president in the country's first multi-party elections, which were marred by irregularities and lack of transparency on the part of the government. In 1995, Conté's ruling PUP party won 76 of 114 seats in elections for the National Assembly amid opposition claims of irregularities and government tampering. In 1996, President Conté reorganized the government, appointing Sidya Touré to the revived post of Prime Minister and charging him with special responsibility for leading the government's economic reform program. In the early hours of December 23, 2008, Aboubacar Somparé, the President of the National Assembly, announced on television that Conté had died at 6:45pm local time on December 22 "after a long illness", without specifying the cause of death. "Guinea's dictator, Lansana Conte, dies", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), 23 December 2008. According to Somparé, Conté "hid his physical suffering" for years "in order to give happiness to Guinea." Conté had left the country for medical treatment on numerous occasions in the years preceding his death, and speculation about his health had long been widespread. Contrary to his usual practice, Conté did not appear on television to mark Tabaski earlier in December 2008, and this sparked renewed speculation, as well as concern about the possibility of violence in the event of his death. At around the same time, a newspaper published a photograph suggesting that Conté was in poor physical condition and having difficulty standing up. The editor of that newspaper was arrested and the newspaper was required to print a photograph in which Conté looked healthy. According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly was to assume the Presidency of the Republic in the event of a vacancy, and a new presidential election was to be held within 60 days. Somparé requested that the President of the Supreme Court, Lamine Sidimé, declare a vacancy in the Presidency and apply the constitution. "Economie et Politique : Somparé demande au président de la Cour suprême de faire constater la vacance du pouvoir", Guinéenews, 22 December 2008 . Prime Minister Souaré and Diarra Camara, the head of the army, stood alongside Somparé during his announcement. "Guinea: Coup Follows Conté's Death", allAfrica.com, 23 December 2008. The government declared 40 days of national mourning "Economie et Politique : Le gouvernement décrète 40 jours de deuil national ; le programme des obsèques attendu mardi.", Guineenews, 22 December 2008 . and Camara called on soldiers to remain calm. "Economie et Politique : Exclusif : Aboubacar Somparé, confirme la mort du président Conté", Guineenews, 22 December 2008 . Six hours after Somparé announced Conté's death, a statement was read on television announcing [[2008 Guinean coup d'état|a military coup d'état]]. "Military-led group announces coup in Guinea", Associated Press, 23 December 2008. This statement, read by Captain Moussa Dadis Camara "Death of Guinea dictator prompts 'coup'", AFP (Sydney Morning Herald), 23 December 2008. on behalf of a group called National Council for Democracy, "Military-led group announces coup in Guinea", Associated Press, 23 December 2008. said that "the government and the institutions of the Republic have been dissolved". The statement also announced the suspension of the constitution "as well as political and union activity". In its place, the military said it had established a consultative council composed of civilian and military leaders. Executive branch The president of Guinea is normally elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; candidate must receive a majority of the votes cast to be elected president. The president governs Guinea, assisted by a council of 25 civilian ministers appointed by him. The government administers the country through eight regions, 33 prefectures, over 100 subprefectures, and many districts (known as communes in Conakry and other large cities and villages or "quartiers" in the interior). District-level leaders are elected; the president appoints officials to all other levels of the highly centralized administration. Since the 2008 Guinean coup d'état, the head of state has been Captain Moussa Dadis Camara, an army officer and President of the National Council for Democracy and Development. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 114 members, elected for a four year term, 38 members in single-seat constituencies and 76 members by proportional representation. Guinea is a one party dominant state with the Party of Unity and Progress in power. Opposition parties are allowed, but are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power. Political parties and elections Administrative divisions Guinea is divided into seven administrative regions and subdivided into thirty-three prefectures. The national capital, Conakry, ranks as a special zone. The regions are Boké, Faranah, Kankan, Kindia, Labé, Mamou, Nzérékoré and Conakry. International organization participation Guinea is member of the Agency for the French-Speaking Community, African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States, African Development Bank, Customs Cooperation Council, Economic Commission for Africa, Economic Community of West African States, Food and Agriculture Organization, Group of 77, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Criminal Court, International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Development Association, Islamic Development Bank, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance Corporation, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, International Criminal Police Organization, International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Migration (observer), International Organization for Standardization (correspondent), International Telecommunication Union, United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of African Unity, Organization of the Islamic Conference, Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Universal Postal Union, World Confederation of Labour, World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Tourism Organization, World Trade Organization See also Moussa Dadis Camara#December 2008 army intervention References

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Paleolithic

The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic Age, Era, or Period, or Old Stone Age, is a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of the first stone tools, and covers roughly 99% of human history. It extends from the introduction of stone tools by hominids such as Homo habilis 2.5 "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. or 2.6 million years ago, to the introduction of agriculture and the end of the Pleistocene around 10 000 BC. "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. The Paleolithic era ended with the Mesolithic, in Western Europe, and with the Epipaleolithic in areas not affected by the Ice Age (such as Africa). Mesolithic Period. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. During the Paleolithic, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, and subsisted by gathering plants and hunting or scavenging wild animals. Page 6–12 The Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegetable fibers; however, due to their nature, these have not been preserved to any great degree. Surviving artifacts of the Paleolithic era are known as Paleoliths. Humankind gradually evolved from early members of the genus Homo such as Homo habilis — who used simple stone tools — into fully behaviorally and anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) during the Paleolithic era. "Human Evolution," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Richard B. Potts, B.A., Ph.D. During the end of the Paleolithic, specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic, humans began to produce the earliest works of art and engage in religious and spiritual behavior such as burial and ritual. Page 6–12 World's Oldest Ritual Discovered -- Worshipped The Python 70,000 Years Ago The Research Council of Norway (2006, November 30). World's Oldest Ritual Discovered -- Worshipped The Python 70,000 Years Ago. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061130081347.htm The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures. The term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek: παλαιός, palaios, "old"; and λίθος, lithos, "stone", literally meaning "old age of the stone" or "Old Stone Age." Chronology The three-age system divides human technological prehistory into three periods: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The modern periodization of the Stone Age stretches from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic in the following scheme (crossing an epoch boundary on the geologic time scale): Pleistocene epoch (highly glaciated climate) Paleolithic age Holocene epoch (modern climate) Mesolithic or Epipaleolithic age, Neolithic age, Copper Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age Historical period (written record begins) Traditionally, the Paleolithic is divided into three (somewhat overlapping) periods: the Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and the Upper Paleolithic. The three ages mark technological and cultural advances in different human communities. Paleolithic Lower Paleolithic (c. 2.6 or 2.5 Ma–100 ka) Olduwan culture Acheulean culture Clactonian culture Middle Paleolithic (c. 300 000–30 000 years ago) Mousterian culture Aterian culture Upper Paleolithic (c. 45 000 or 40 000–10 000 years ago). Châtelperronian culture Aurignacian culture Gravettian culture Solutrean culture Magdalenian culture Age Period Tools Economy Dwelling Sites Society Religion Stone age Paleolithic Handmade tools and objects found in nature — cudgel, club, sharpened stone, chopper, handaxe, scraper, spear, Bow and arrow, harpoon, needle, scratch awl Hunting and gathering Mobile lifestyle — caves, huts, tooth or skin hovels, mostly by rivers and lakes A band of edible-plant gatherers and hunters (25–100 people) Evidence for belief in the afterlife first appears in the Middle Paleolithic or Upper Paleolithic, marked by the appearance of burial rituals and ancestor worship. Priests and sanctuary servants appear in the prehistory. Mesolithic (known as the Epipalaeolithic in areas not effected by the Ice Age (such as Africa)) Handmade tools and objects found in nature — bow and arrow, fish – basket, boats Tribes and Bands Neolithic Handmade tools and objects found in nature — chisel, hoe, plough, yoke, reaping-hook, grain pourer, barley, loom, earthenware (pottery) and weapons agriculture Gathering, hunting, fishing and domesticationFarmsteads during the Neolithic and the Bronze Age Formation of cities during the Bronze Age Tribes and the formation of chiefdoms in some Neolithic societies at the end of the Neolithic period' States and chiefdoms during the Bronze Age.Bronze Age Copper and bronze tools, potter's wheel Agriculture — cattle — breeding, agriculture, craft, tradeIron Age Iron tools Human evolution This cranium, of Homo heidelbergensis, a Lower Paleolithic predecessor to Homo neanderthalensis and possibly Homo sapiens, dates to sometime between 500 000 to 400 000 BP. Human evolution is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of humans as a distinct species. Paleogeography and climate The Paleolithic climate consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods. The climate of the Paleolithic Period spanned two geologic epochs known as the Pliocene and the Pleistocene. Both of these epochs experienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human societies. During the Pliocene, continents continued to drift from possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current locations. South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama, bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive marsupial fauna. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, because warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off, and the cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropped temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean. Central America completely formed during the Pliocene, allowing flora from North and South America to leave their native habitats and colonize new areas. University of California Museum of Paleontology website the Pliocene epoch(accessed March 25) Africa's collision with Asia created the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. During the Pleistocene, the modern continents were essentially at their present positions; the tectonic plates on which they sit have probably moved at most 100 km from each other since the beginning of the period. Climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates. Ice sheets grew on Antarctica. The formation of an Arctic ice cap around 3 Ma is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds (Van Andel 1994 p. 226). Mid-latitude glaciation probably began before the end of the epoch. The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas. The Pleistocene climate was characterized by repeated glacial cycles during which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places. Four major glacial events have been identified, as well as many minor intervening events. A major event is a general glacial excursion, termed a "glacial." Glacials are separated by "interglacials." During a glacial, the glacier experiences minor advances and retreats. The minor excursion is a "stadial"; times between stadials are "interstadials." Each glacial advance tied up huge volumes of water in continental ice sheets 1500–3000 m thick, resulting in temporary sea level drops of 100 m or more over the entire surface of the Earth. During interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions. Many large mammals such as wooly mammoths, wooly rhinoceros, and cave lions inhabited places like Siberia during the Pleistocene. Paleoindians hunting a glyptodont. The effects of glaciation were global. Antarctica was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap. There were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The now decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Ruwenzori Range in east and central Africa were larger. Glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains. In the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one. The Cordilleran ice sheet covered the North American northwest; the Laurentide covered the east. The Fenno-Scandian ice sheet covered northern Europe, including Great Britain; the Alpine ice sheet covered the Alps. Scattered domes stretched across Siberia and the Arctic shelf. The northern seas were frozen. During the late Upper Paleolithic (Latest Pleistocene) c. 18 000 BP, the Beringa land bridge between Asia and North America was blocked by ice which may have prevented early Paleo-Indians such as the Clovis culture from directly crossing Beringa to reach the Americas. According to Mark Lynas (through collected data), the Pleistocene's overall climate could be characterized as a continuous El Niño with trade winds in the south Pacific weakening or heading east, warm air rising near Peru, warm water spreading from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific, and other El Niño markers. National Geographic Channel, Six Degrees Could Change The World, Mark Lynas interview. Retrieved February 14, 2008. The ice age ended with the end of the Paleolithic era (the end of the Pleistocene epoch), and Earth's climate became warmer. This may have caused or contributed to the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna, although it is also possible that the late Pleistocene extinctions were (at least in part) caused by other factors such as disease and over hunting by humans. University of California Museum of Paleontology website the Pleistocene epoch(accessed March 25) New research suggests that the extinction of the Woolly mammoth may have been caused by the combined effect of climatic change and human hunting. Scientists suggest that climate change during the end of the Pleistocene caused the mammoths' habitat to shrink in size, resulting in a drop in population. The small populations were then hunted out by Paleolithic humans. The global warming that occurred during the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene may have made it easier for humans to reach mammoth habitats that were previously frozen and inaccessible. Currently agreed upon classifications as Paleolithic geoclimatic episodes Gamble, Clive (1990), El poblamiento Paleolítico de Europa, Barcelona: Editorial Crítica. ISBN 84-7423-445-X. Age (before)AmericaAtlantic EuropeMaghrebMediterranean EuropeCentral Europe 10 000 years Flandrian interglacial Flandriense Mellahiense Versiliense Flandrian interglacial 80 000 years Wisconsin DevensienseRegresión RegresiónWisconsin Stage 140 000 years Sangamoniense Ipswichiense Ouljiense Tirreniense II y III Eemian Stage 200 000 years Illinois Wolstoniense Regresión Regresión Wolstonian Stage 450 000 years Yarmouthiense Hoxniense Anfatiense Tirreniense I Hoxnian Stage 580 000 years Kansas Angliense Regresión Regresión Kansan Stage 750 000 years Aftoniense Cromeriense Maarifiense Siciliense Cromerian Stage 1 100 000 years Nebraska Beestoniense Regresión Regresión Beestonian stage 1 400 000 years interglaciar Ludhamiense Messaudiense Calabriense Donau-Günz Human way of life An artist's rendering of a temporary wood house, based on evidence found at Terra Amata (in Nice, France) and dated to the Lower Paleolithic (c. 400 000 BP). Due to a lack of written records from this time period, nearly all of our knowledge of Paleolithic human culture and way of life comes from archaeology and ethnographic comparisons to modern hunter-gatherer cultures such as the !Kung San who live similar to their Paleolithic predecessors. Page 70 The economy of a typical Paleolithic society was a hunter-gatherer economy. Pages 9–13 Humans hunted wild animals for meat and gathered food, firewood, and materials for their tools, clothes, or shelters. Human population density was very low, around only one person per square mile. pg 12 This was most likely due to low body fat, infanticide, women regularly engaging in intense endurance exercise, late weaning of infants and a nomadic lifestyle. Like contemporary hunter-gatherers, Paleolithic humans enjoyed an abundance of leisure time unparalleled in both Neolithic farming societies and modern industrial societies. ; Page 10 At the end of the Paleolithic, specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic, humans began to produce works of art such as cave paintings, rock art and jewellry and began to engage in religious behavior such as burial and ritual. Technology Picture of two Lower Paleolithic bifaces. Picture of a stone ball from a set of Paleolithic bolas. Paleolithic humans made tools of stone, bone, and wood. The earliest Paleolithic stone tool industry, the Olduwan, was developed by the earliest members of the genus Homo such as Homo habilis, around 2.6 million years ago. It contained tools such as choppers, burins and awls. It was completely replaced around 250 000 by the more complex Acheulean industry, which was first conceived by Homo ergaster around 1.8 or 1.65 million years ago. Roche H et al., 2002, Les sites archaéologiques pio-pléistocènes de la formation de Nachukui, Ouest-Turkana, Kenya: bilan synthétique 1997–2001, Comptes Rendus Palevol 2, 663–673, qtd in Scarre, 2005 The most recent Lower Paleolithic (Acheulean) implements completely vanished from the archeological record around 100 000 years ago and were replaced by more complex Middle Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age tool kits such as the Mousterian and the Aterian industries. Clark, JD, Variability in primary and secondary technologies of the Later Acheulian in Africa in Milliken, S and Cook, J (eds), 2001 Lower Paleolithic humans used a variety of stone tools, including hand axes and choppers. Although they appear to have used hand axes often, there is disagreement about their use. Interpretations range from cutting and chopping tools, to digging implements, flake cores, the use in traps and a purely ritual significance, maybe in courting behaviour. William H. Calvin has suggested that some rounder hand axes could have served as "killer frisbees" meant to be thrown at a herd of animals at a water hole so as to stun one of them. There are no indications of hafting, and some artifacts are far too large for that. Thus, a thrown hand axe would not usually have penetrated deeply enough to cause very serious injuries. Nevertheless, it could have been an effective weapon for defence against predators. Choppers and scrappers were likely used for skinning and butchering scavenged animals and sharp ended sticks were often obtained for digging up edible roots. Presumably, early humans used wooden spears as early as 5 million years ago to hunt small animals, much their relatives, chimpanzees, were recently observed to do in Senegal, Africa. Rick Weiss, "Chimps Observed Making Their Own Weapons", The Washington Post, February 22, 2007 Lower Paleolithic humans constructed shelters such as the possible wood hut at Terra Amata. Fire was used by the Lower Paleolithic hominid Homo erectus/Homo ergaster as early as 300 000 or 1.5 million years ago and possibly even earlier by the early Lower Paleolithic (Oldowan) hominid Homo habilis and/or by robust australopithecines such as Paranthropus. Page 8–12 However, the use of fire only became common in the societies of the following Middle Stone Age/Middle Paleolithic Period. The invention of fire reduced mortality rates and provided protection against predators. Early hominids may have begun to cook their food as early as the Lower Paleolithic (c. 1.9 million years ago) or at the latest in the early Middle Paleolithic (c. 250 000 years ago). Some scientists have hypothesized that Hominids began cooking food to defrost frozen meat, which would help ensure their survival in cold regions. The Lower Paleolithic hominid Homo erectus possibly invented rafts (c. 800 000 or 840 000 BP) to travel over large bodies of water, which may have allowed a group of Homo erectus to reach the island of Flores and evolve into the small hominid Homo floresiensis. However, this hypothesis is disputed within the anthropological community. Erectus Ahoy Prehistoric seafaring floats into view First Mariners Project Photo Gallery 1 First Mariners - National Geographic project 2004 The possible use of rafts during the Lower Paleolithic may indicate that Lower Paleolithic Hominids such as Homo erectus were more advanced than previously believed, and may have even spoken an early form of modern language. First Mariners Project Photo Gallery 1 Supplementary evidence from Neanderthal and Modern human sites located around the Mediterranean Sea such as Coa de sa Multa (c. 300 000 BP) has also indicated that both Middle and Upper Paleolithic humans used rafts to travel over large bodies of water (i.e. the Mediterranean Sea) for the purpose of colonizing other bodies of land. First Mariners Project Photo Gallery 1 Around 200 000 BP, Middle Paleolithic Stone tool manufacturing spawned a tool making technique known as the prepared-core technique, that was more elaborate than previous Acheulean techniques. This technique increased efficiency by allowing the creation of more controlled and consistent flakes. It allowed Middle Paleolithic humans to create stone tipped spears, which were the earliest composite tools, by hafting sharp, pointy stone flakes onto wooden shafts. In addition to improving tool making methods, the Middle Paleolithic also saw an improvement of the tools themselves that allowed access to a wider variety and amount of food sources. For example microliths or small stone tools or points were invented around 70 000 or 65 000 BP and were essential to the invention of bows and spear throwers in the following Upper Paleolithic period. Harpoons were invented and used for the first time during the late Middle Paleolithic (c.90 000 years ago); the invention of these devices brought fish into the human diets, which provided a hedge against starvation and a more abundant food supply. "Human Evolution," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Richard B. Potts, B.A., Ph.D. Thanks to their technology and their advanced social structures, Paleolithic groups such as the Neanderthals who had a Middle Paleolithic level of technology, appear to have hunted large game just as well as Upper Paleolithic modern humans and the Neanderthals in particular may have likewise hunted with projectile weapons. Boëda E., Geneste J.M., Griggo C., Mercier N., Muhesen S., Reyss J.L., Taha A. & Valladas H. (1999) A Levallois point embedded in the vertebra of a wild ass (Equus africanus): Hafting, projectiles and Mousterian hunting. Antiquity, 73, 394–402 Nonetheless, Neanderthal use of projectile weapons in hunting occurred very rarely (or perhaps never) and the Neanderthals hunted large game animals mostly by ambushing them and attacking them with mêlée weapons such as thrusting spears rather than attacking them from a distance with projectile weapons. During the Upper Paleolithic, further inventions were made, such as the net (c. 22 000 or 29 000 BP) bolas, J. Chavaillon, D. Lavallée, « Bola », in Dictionnaire de la Préhistoire, PUF, 1988. the spear thrower (c.30 000 BP), the bow and arrow (c. 25 000 or 30 000 BP) Page 8–12 "Archery," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. and the oldest example of ceramic art, the Venus of Dolní Věstonice (c. 29 000–25 000 BP). Early dogs were domesticated, sometime between 30 000 BP and 14 000 BP, presumably to aid in hunting. Lloyd, J & Mitchinson, J: "The Book of General Ignorance". Faber & Faber, 2006. However, the earliest instances of successful domestication of dogs may be much more ancient than this. Evidence from canine DNA collected by Robert k. Wayne suggests that dogs may have been first domesticated in late Middle Paleolithic around 100 000 BP or perhaps even earlier Archeological evidence from the Dordogne region of France demonstrates that members of the European early Upper Paleolithic culture known as the Aurignacian used calendars (c. 30 000 BP). This was a lunar calendar that was used to document the phases of the moon. Genuine solar calendars did not appear until the following Neolithic period. ; It is almost certain that Upper Paleolithic cultures could precisely time the migration of game animals such as wild horses and deer. "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. This ability allowed humans to become efficient hunters and to exploit a wide variety of game animals. "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Recent research indicates that the Neanderthals timed their hunts and the migrations of game animals long before the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. Social organization Humans may have partaken in long distance trade between bands for rare commodities and raw materials (such as stone needed for making tools) as early as 120 000 years ago in Middle Paleolithic. The social organization of the earliest Paleolithic (Lower Paleolithic) societies remains largely unknown to scientists, though Lower Paleolithic hominids such as Homo habilis and Homo erectus are likely to have had more complex social structures than chimpanzee societies. Late Oldowan/Early Acheulean humans such as Homo ergaster/Homo erectus may have been the first people to invent central campsites, or home bases and incorporate them into their foraging and hunting strategies like contemporary hunter-gatherers, possibly as early as 1.7 million years ago; however, the earliest solid evidence for the existence of home bases/central campsites (hearths and shelters) among humans only dates back to 500 000 years ago. Similarity, scientists disagree whether Lower Paleolithic humans were largely monogamous or polygamous. In particular, the Provisional model suggests that bipedalism arose in Pre Paleolithic australopithecine societies as an adaptation to monogamous lifestyles; however, other researchers note that sexual dimorphism is more pronounced in Lower Paleolithic Humans such as Homo erectus than in Modern humans, who are less polygamous than other primates, which suggests that Lower Paleolithic humans had a largely polygamous lifestyle, because species that have the most pronounced sexual dimorphism tend to be more likely to be polygamous. Human societies from the Paleolithic to the early Neolithic farming tribes lived without states and organized governments. For most of the Lower Paleolithic, human societies were possibly more hierarchical than their Middle and Upper Paleolithic descendants, and probably were not grouped into bands, Christopher Boehm (1999) "Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior" page 198–208 Harvard University Press though during the end of the Lower Paleolithic, the latest populations of the hominid Homo erectus may have began living in small scale (possibly egalitarian) bands similar to both Middle and Upper Paleolithic societies and modern hunter-gatherers. Christopher Boehm (1999) "Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior" page 198-208 Harvard university press Middle Paleolithic societies, unlike Lower Paleolithic and early Neolithic ones, consisted of bands that ranged from 20 to 30 or 25 to 100 members and were usually nomadic. Page 8–12 Pages 2–3 These bands were formed by several families. Bands sometimes joined together into larger "macrobands" for activities such as acquiring mates and celebrations or where resources were abundant. By the end of the Paleolithic era about 10 000 BP people began to settle down into permanent locations, and began to rely on agriculture for sustenance in many locations. Much evidence exists that humans took part in long-distance trade between bands for rare commodities (such as ochre, which was often used for religious purposes such as ritual ; ) and raw materials, as early as 120 000 years ago in Middle Paleolithic. Inter-band trade may have appeared during the Middle Paleolithic because trade between bands would have helped ensure their survival by allowing them to exchange resources and commodities such as raw materials during times of relative scarcity (i.e. famine, drought). Like in modern hunter-gatherer societies, individuals in Paleolithic societies may have been subordinate to the band as a whole. Pages 9–13Page 70 Both Neanderthals and modern humans took care of the elderly members of their societies during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic. Reconstruction of the 60 year-old man buried at the site of Sungir. The discovery of this person’s ornate burial suggests that at least some Upper Paleolithic groups may have developed complex, hierarchical social structures. Some sources claim that like the societies of our closest existent relative, the Bonobo, most Middle and Upper Paleolithic societies were possibly fundamentally egalitarian pg 128 Christopher Boehm (1999) "Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior" page 198 Harvard University Press Christopher Boehm (1999) "Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior" page 208 Harvard university press and may have rarely or never engaged in organized violence between groups (i.e. war). Pages 420-422 Page 123 Some Upper Paleolithic societies in resource-rich environments (such as societies in Sungir, in what is now Russia) may have had more complex and hierarchical organization (such as tribes with a pronounced hierarchy and a somewhat formal division of labor) and may have engaged in endemic warfare. Kelly, Raymond C. Warless societies and the origin of war. Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press, 2000. There was no formal leadership during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic. Like contemporary egalitarian hunter-gatherers such as the Mbuti pygmies, societies probably made decisions by communal consensus decision making rather than by appointing permanent rulers such as chiefs and monarchs. Nor was there a formal division of labor during the Paleolithic. Each member of the group was skilled at all tasks essential to survival, regardless of individual abilities. Theories to explain the apparent egalitarianism have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism. Page 71 Page 111 Christopher Boehm (1999) has hypothesized that egalitarianism may have evolved in Paleolithic societies because of a need to distribute resources such as food and meat equally to avoid famine and ensure a stable food supply. Christopher Boehm (1999) "Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior" page 192 Harvard university press Raymond C. Kelly speculates that the relative peacefulness of Middle and Upper Paleolithic societies resulted from a low population density, cooperative relationships between groups such as reciprocal exchange of commodities and collaboration on hunting expeditions, and because the invention of projectile weapons such as throwing spears provided less incentive for war, because they increased the damage done to the attacker and decreased the relative amount of territory attackers could gain. However, other sources claim that most Paleolithic groups may have been larger, more complex, sedentary and warlike than most contemporary hunter-gatherer societies, due to occupying more resource-abundant areas than most modern hunter-gatherers who have been pushed into more marginal habitats by agricultural societies. Anthropologists have typically assumed that in Paleolithic societies, women were responsible for gathering wild plants and firewood, and men were responsible for hunting and scavenging dead animals. Page 8-12 However, analogies to existent hunter-gatherer societies such as the Hadza people and the Australian aborigines suggest that the sexual division of labor in the Paleolithic was relatively flexible. Men may have participated in gathering plants, firewood and insects, and women may have procured small game animals for consumption and assisted men in driving herds of large game animals (such as woolly mammoths and deer) off cliffs. Additionally, recent research by anthropologist and archaeologist Steven Kuhn from the University of Arizona shows that this division of labor did not exist prior to the Upper Paleolithic and was invented relatively recently in human pre-history. Sexual division of labor may have been developed to allow humans to acquire food and other resources more efficiently. Possibly there was approximate parity between men and women during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic, and that period may have been the most gender-equal time in human history. Page 420-422 Page 9 Museum of Antiquites web site (accessed February 13, 2008). Archeological evidence from art and funerary rituals indicates that a number of individual women enjoyed seemingly high status in their communities, Museum of Antiquites web site (accessed February 13, 2008) and it is likely that both sexes participated in decision making. Pages 2–3 The earliest known Paleolithic shaman (c. 30 000 BP) was female. Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam. Jared Diamond suggests that the status of women declined with the adoption of agriculture because women in farming societies typically have more pregnancies and are expected to do more demanding work than women in hunter-gatherer societies. Like most contemporary hunter-gatherer societies, Paleolithic and the Mesolithic groups probably followed mostly matrilineal and ambilineal descent patterns; patrilineal decent patterns were probably rarer than in the following Neolithic period. ; Art and music The Venus of Willendorf is one of the most famous Venus figurines. Early examples of artistic expression, such as the Venus of Tan-Tan and the patterns found on elephant bones from Bilzingsleben in Thuringia, may have been produced by Acheulean tool users such as Homo erectus prior to the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. However, the earliest undisputed evidence of art during the Paleolithic period comes from Middle Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age sites such as Blombos Cave in the form of bracelets, beads, rock art, and ochre used as body paint and perhaps in ritual. Undisputed evidence of art only becomes common in the following Upper Paleolithic period. "Human Evolution," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Richard B. Potts, B.A., Ph.D. According to Robert G. Bednarik, Lower Paleolithic Acheulean tool users began to engage in symbolic behavior such as art around 850 000 BP and decorated themselves with beads and collected exotic stones for aesthetic rather than utilitarian qualities. According to Bednarik, traces of the pigment ochre from late Lower Paleolithic Acheulean archeological sites suggests that Acheulean societies, like later Upper Paleolithic societies, collected and used ochre to create rock art. Nevertheless, it is also possible that the ochre traces found at Lower Paleolithic sites is naturally occurring. Richard G. Klein, "The Dawn of Human Culture" ISBN 0471252522 Vincent W. Fallio interprets Lower and Middle Paleolithic marking on rocks at sites such as Bilzingsleben (such as zig zagging lines) as accounts or representation of altered states of consciousness Pages 98 to 109 though some other scholars interpret them as either simple doodling or as the result of natural processes. Upper Paleolithic humans produced works of art such as cave paintings, Venus figurines, animal carvings and rock paintings. "Paleolithic Art," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761578676/Paleolithic_Art.html © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Upper Paleolithic art can be divided into two broad categories: figurative art such as cave paintings that clearly depicts animals (or more rarely humans); and nonfigurative, which consists of shapes and symbols. "Paleolithic Art," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761578676/Paleolithic_Art.html © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Cave paintings have been interpreted in a number of ways by modern archeologists. The earliest explanation, by the physical anthropologist Abbe Breuil, interpreted the paintings as a form of magic designed to ensure a successful hunt. However, this hypothesis fails to explain the existence of animals such as saber-toothed cats and lions, which were not hunted for food, and the existence of half-human, half-animal beings in cave paintings. The anthropologist David Lewis-Williams has suggested that Paleolithic cave paintings were indications of shamanistic practices, because the paintings of half-human, half-animal paintings and the remoteness of the caves are reminiscent of modern hunter-gatherer shamanistic practices. Symbol-like images are more common in Paleolithic cave paintings than are depictions of animals or humans, and unique symbolic patterns might have been trademarks that represent different Upper Paleolithic ethnic groups. "Paleolithic Art," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761578676/Paleolithic_Art.html © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Venus figurines have evoked similar controversy. Archeologists and anthropologists have described the figurines as representations of goddesses, pornographic imagery, apotropaic amulets used for sympathetic magic, and even as self-portraits of women themselves. McDermott, LeRoy. "Self-Representation in Upper Paleolithic Female Figurines". Current Anthropology, Vol. 37, No. 2, April., 1996. pp. 227–275. R. Dale Guthrie R. Dale Guthrie, The Nature of Paleolithic Art. University Of Chicago Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-226-31126-5. Preface. has studied not only the most artistic and publicized paintings, but also a variety of lower-quality art and figurines, and he identifies a wide range of skill and ages among the artists. He also points that the main themes in the paintings and other artifacts (powerful beasts, risky hunting scenes and the over-sexual representation of women) are to be expected in the fantasies of adolescent males during the Upper Paleolithic. The Venus figurines have sometimes been interpreted as representing a mother goddess; the abundance of such female imagery has led some to believe that Upper Paleolithic (and later Neolithic) societies had a female-centered religion and a female-dominated society. For example, this was proposed by the archeologist Marija Gimbutas and the feminist scholar Merlin Stone who was the author of the 1978 book When God Was a Woman Marija Gimbutas 1991. The Civilization of the Goddess Various other explanations for the purpose of the figurines have been proposed, such as Catherine McCoid and LeRoy McDermott’s hypothesis that the figurines were created as self portraits of actual women and R.Dale Gutrie's hypothesis that the venus figurines represented a kind of "stone age pornography". The origins of music during the Paleolithic are unknown, since the earliest forms of music probably did not use musical instruments but instead used the human voice and or natural objects such as rocks, which leave no trace in the archaeological record. However, the anthropological and archeological designation suggests that human music first arose when language, art and other modern behaviors developed in the Middle or the Upper Paleolithic period. Music may have developed from rhythmic sounds produced by daily activities such as cracking nuts by hitting them with stones, because maintaining a rhythm while working may have helped people to become more efficient at daily activities. Karl Bücher. Trabajo y ritmo. Biblioteca Científico-Filosófica, Madrid. An alternative theory originally proposed by Charles Darwin explains that music may have begun as a hominid mating strategy as many birds and some other animals produce music like calls to attract mates. Charles Darwin. The origin of man. Edimat books, S. A. ISBN 84-8403-034-2. This hypothesis is generally less accepted than the previous hypothesis, but it nonetheless provides a possible alternative. Upper Paleolithic (and possibly Middle Paleolithic Nelson, D.E., Radiocarbon dating of bone and charcoal from Divje babe I cave, cited by Morley, p. 47 ) humans used flute-like bone pipes as musical instruments, Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The Brown Reference Group PLC Music may have played a large role in the religious lives of Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherers. Like in modern hunter-gatherer societies, music may have been used in ritual or to help induce trances. In particular, it appears that animal skin drums may have been used in religious events by Upper Paleolithic shamans, as shown by the remains of drum-like instruments from some Upper Paleolithic graves of shamans and the ethnographic record of contemporary hunter-gatherer shamanic and ritual practices.. "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Religion and beliefs Picture of a half-human, half-animal being in a Paleolithic cave painting in Dordogne. France. Archeologists believe that cave paintings of half-human, half-animal beings may be evidence for early shamanic practices during the Paleolithic. The established anthropological view is that it is more probable that humankind first developed religious and spiritual beliefs during the Middle Paleolithic or Upper Paleolithic. About OriginsNet by James Harrod Controversial scholars of prehistoric religion and anthropology, James Harrod and Vincent W. Fallio, have recently proposed that religion and spirituality (and art) may have first arisen in Pre-Paleolithic chimpanzees Appendices for chimpanzee spirituality by James Harrod or Early Lower Paleolithic (Oldowan) societies. [http://books.google.com/books?id=-kJHI9MdxNwC&pg=PA108&dq=Paleolithic+religions&lr=&sig=X1sptLBNugPV4n72XEUx-tmJ1Js#PPA98,M1 Pages 98 to 109] Oldowan Art, Religion, Symbols, Mind by James Harrod According to Fallio, the common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans experienced altered states of consciousness and partook in ritual, and ritual was used in their societies to strengthen social bonding and group cohesion. Middle Paleolithic humans' use of burials at sites such as Krapina, Croatia (c. 130 000 BP) and Qafzeh, Israel (c. 100 000 BP) have led some anthropologists and archeologists, such as Philip Lieberman, to believe that Middle Paleolithic humans may have possessed a belief in an afterlife and a "concern for the dead that transcends daily life". Cut marks on Neanderthal bones from various sites, such as Combe-Grenal and Abri Moula in France, suggest that the Neanderthals like some contemporary human cultures may have practiced ritual defleshing for (presumably) religious reasons. According to recent archeological findings from H. heidelbergensis sites in Atapuerca, humans may have begun burying their dead much earlier, during the late Lower Paleolithic; but this theory is widely questioned in the scientific community. Likewise, some scientists have proposed that Middle Paleolithic societies such as Neanderthal societies may also have practiced the earliest form of totemism or animal worship, in addition to their (presumably religious) burial of the dead. In particular, Emil Bächler suggested (based on archeological evidence from Middle Paleolithic caves) that a bear cult was widespread among Middle Paleolithic Neanderthals. Wunn, Ina (2000). "Beginning of Religion", Numen, 47(4), pp. 434–435 Additional evidence of Middle Paleolithic animal worship has been discovered in the Tsodilo Hills (c. 70 000 BP) in the Kalahari desert in Africa; here, a giant rock resembling a python is accompanied by large amounts of colored, broken spear points, and a secret chamber inside a cave. The broken spear points were most likely sacrificial offerings, and the python is also important to and worshipped by contemporary !Kung san hunter-gatherers who are the descendants of the of the people who devised the ritual at the Tsodilo Hills, and may have inherited their worship of the python from their distant Middle Paleolithic ancestors. World's Oldest Ritual Discovered -- Worshipped The Python 70 000 Years Ago The Research Council of Norway (2006, November 30). World's Oldest Ritual Discovered -- Worshipped The Python 70,000 Years Ago. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 2, 2008, fromhttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061130081347.htm Animal cults in the following Upper Paleolithic period, such as the bear cult, may have had their origins in these hypothetical Middle Paleolithic animal cults. Animal worship during the Upper Paleolithic was intertwined with hunting rites. For instance, archeological evidence from art and bear remains reveals that the bear cult apparently involved a type of sacrificial bear ceremonialism, in which a bear was shot with arrows, finished off by a shot in the lungs, and ritualistically buried near a clay bear statue covered by a bear fur with the skull and the body of the bear buried separately. Barbara Ehrenreich controversially theorizes that the sacrificial hunting rites of the Upper Paleolithic (and by extension Paleolithic cooperative big-game hunting) gave rise to war or warlike raiding during the following Epi-Paleolithic/Mesolithic or late Upper Paleolithic period. The existence of anthropomorphic images and half-human, half-animal images in the Upper Paleolithic period may further indicate that Upper Paleolithic humans were the first people to believe in a pantheon of gods or supernatural beings, though such images may instead indicate shamanistic practices similar to those of contemporary tribal societies. The earliest known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early Upper Paleolithic era (c. 30 000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic. However, during the early Upper Paleolithic it was probably more common for all members of the band to participate equally and fully in religious ceremonies, in contrast to the religious traditions of later periods when religious authorities and part-time ritual specialists such as shamans, priests and medicine men were relatively common and integral to religious life. Additionally, it is also possible that Upper Paleolithic religions, like contemporary and historical animistic and polytheistic religions, believed in the existence of a single creator deity in addition to other supernatural beings such as animistic spirits. pages 17–20 Vincent W. Fallio writes that ancestor cults first emerged in complex Upper Paleolithic societies. He argues that the elites of these societies (like the elites of many more contemporary complex hunter-gatherers such as the Tlingit) may have used special rituals and ancestor worship to solidify control over their societies, by convincing their subjects that they possess a link to the spirit world that also gives them control over the earthly realm. Secret societies may have served a similar function in these complex quasi-theocratic societies, by dividing the religious practices of these cultures into the separate spheres of Popular Religion and Elite Religion. Religion was possibly apotropaic; specifically, it may have involved sympathetic magic. The Venus figurines, which are abundant in the Upper Paleolithic archeological record, provide an example of possible Paleolithic sympathetic magic, as they may have been used for ensuring success in hunting and to bring about fertility of the land and women. Page 8–12 The Upper Paleolithic Venus figurines have sometimes been explained as depictions of an earth goddess similar to Gaia, or as representations of a goddess who is the ruler or mother of the animals. Christopher L. C. E. Witcombe, "Women in the Stone Age," in the essay "The Venus of Willendorf" (accessed March 13, 2008) James Harrod has described them as representative of female (and male) shamanistic spiritual transformation processes. Upper Paleolithic Art, Religion, Symbols, Mind By James Harrod Diet and nutrition People first began fermenting grapes in animal skin pouches to create wine during the Paleolithic. Paleolithic hunting and gathering peoples ate primarily meat, fish, shellfish, leafy vegetables, fruit, nuts and insects in varying proportions. However, there is little direct evidence of the relative proportions of plant and animal foods. According to some anthropologists and advocates of the modern Paleolithic diet, Paleolithic hunter-gatherers consumed a significant amount of meat and possibly obtained most of their food from hunting. Cordain L. Implications of Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diets for Modern Humans. In: Early Hominin Diets: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable. Ungar, P (Ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006, pp 363–83. Competing hypotheses suggest that Paleolithic humans may have consumed a plant-based diet in general, or that hunting and gathering possibly contributed equally to their diet. Nature's Magic: Synergy in Evolution and the Fate of Humankind By Peter Corning One hypothesis is that carbohydrate tubers (plant underground storage organs) may have been eaten in high amounts by our pre-agricultural humans. However, the relative proportions of plant and animal foods in the diets of Paleolithic peoples probably varied between regions. For instance, hunter gatherers in tropical regions such as Africa probably consumed a plant-based diet, while populations in colder regions such as Northern Europe most likely obtained most of their food from meat. ) Overall, they experienced less famine and malnutrition than the Neolithic farming tribes that followed them. Pages 2 This was partly because Paleolithic hunter-gatherers had access to a wider variety of plants and other foods, which allowed them a more nutritious diet and a decreased risk of famine. The Consequences of Domestication and Sedentism by Emily Schultz, et al. Many of the famines experienced by Neolithic (and some modern) farmers were caused or amplified by their dependence on a small number of crops. The greater amount of meat obtained by hunting big game animals in Paleolithic diets than in Mesolithic and Neolithic diets may have also allowed Paleolithic Hunter-gatherers to enjoy a more nutritious diet than both Epipaleolithic/Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic agriculturalists. It is also unlikely that Paleolithic hunter-gatherers were affected by modern diseases of affluence such as Type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, because they ate mostly lean meats and plants and frequently engaged in intense physical activity. The Paleolithic diet (also known as the paleodiet or the caveman diet) is a modern diet that seeks to eliminate these diseases of affluence from contemporary industrial society, by replicating the dietary habits of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers. Large-seeded legumes were part of the human diet long before the Neolithic agricultural revolution, as evident from archaeobotanical finds from the Mousterian layers of Kebara Cave, in Israel. Moreover, recent evidence indicates that humans processed and consumed wild cereal grains as far back as 23 000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic. However, seeds, such as grains and beans, were rarely eaten and never in large quantities on a daily basis. Recent archeological evidence also indicates that winemaking originated in the Paleolithic, when early humans drank the juice of naturally fermented wild grapes from animal-skin pouches. Paleolithic humans consumed animal organ meats, including the livers, kidneys and brains. Upper Paleolithic cultures appear to have had significant knowledge about plants and herbs and may have, albeit very rarely, practiced rudimentary forms of horticulture. ; p 61 In particular, bananas and tubers may have been cultivated as early as 25 000 BP in southeast Asia. Late Upper Paleolithic societies also appear to have occasionally practiced pastoralism and animal husbandry, presumably for dietary reasons. For instance, some European late Upper Paleolithic cultures domesticated and raised raindeer, presumably for their meat or milk, as early as 14 000 BP. Humans also probably consumed hallucinogenic plants during the Paleolithic period. The Australian Aborigines have been consuming a variety of native animal and plant foods, called bushfood, for an estimated 60 000 years, since the Middle Paleolithic. Large game animals such as deer were an important source of protein in Middle and Upper Paleolithic diets. People during the Middle Paleolithic, such as the Neanderthals and Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens in Africa, began to catch shellfish for food as revealed by shellfish cooking in Neanderthal sites in Italy about 110 000 years ago and Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens sites at Pinnacle Point, in Africa around 164 000 BP. Although fishing only became common during the Upper Paleolithic, African Bone Tools Dispute Key Idea About Human Evolution National Geographic News article. fish have been part of human diets long before the dawn of the Upper Paleolithic and have certainly been consumed by humans since at least the Middle Paleolithic. "Human Evolution," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Richard B. Potts, B.A., Ph.D. For example, the Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens in the region now occupied by the Democratic Republic of the Congo hunted large -long catfish with specialized barbed fishing points as early as 90 000 years ago. "Human Evolution," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Richard B. Potts, B.A., Ph.D. The invention of fishing allowed some Upper Paleolithic and later hunter-gatherer societies to become sedentary or semi-nomadic, which altered their social structures. Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The Brown Reference Group PLC Example societies are the Lepenski Vir as well as some contemporary hunter-gatherers such as the Tlingit. In some instances (at least the Tlingit) they developed social stratification, slavery and complex social structures such as chiefdoms. Anthropologists such as Tim White suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, based on the large amount of “butchered human" bones found in Neanderthal and other Lower/Middle Paleolithic sites. Cannibalism in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic may have occurred because of food shortages. However, it may have been for religious reasons, and would coincide with the development of religious practices thought to have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic. Nonetheless, it remains possible that Paleolithic societies never practiced cannibalism, and that the damage to recovered human bones was either the result of ritual post-mortem bone cleaning or predation by carnivores such as saber tooth cats, lions and hyenas. See also Abbassia Pluvial Caveman Cave painting Clovis culture Geologic time scale Hunter gatherer Neolithic Ice age Japanese Paleolithic Lascaux List of archaeological sites sorted by continent and age (includes Paleolithic) Luzia Woman Models of migration to the New World Mousterian Pluvial Pre-Siberian American Aborigines Stone Age Turkana Boy Footnotes References Wunn, Ina (2000). "Beginning of Religion", Numen, 47(4). Christopher Boehm (1999) "Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior" page 198 Harvard university press Leften Stavros Stavrianos (1991). A Global History from Prehistory to the Present. New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0133570053 Randall White, "The women of Brassempouy: A century of research and interpretation", Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 13.4, December 2006:253 pdf file Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The Brown Reference Group PLC Early Voices: The Leap to Language by Nicolas Wade "Human Evolution," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Richard B. Potts, B.A., Ph.D. "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Middle and Upper Paleolithic Hunter-Gatherers The Emergence of Modern Humans, The Mesolithic Map of Earth during the late Upper Paleolithic By Christopher scotese introduction to the human past be-x-old:Палеаліт

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hunting_gathering:2 hunting_fishing:1 neolithic_bronze:1 homo_heidelbergensis:1 homo_neanderthalensis:1 pliocene_pleistocene:1 isthmus_panama:1 arctic_antarctic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 pliocene_epoch:1 tethys_ocean:1 tectonic_plate:1 cooler_drier:1 ice_sheet:5 pacific_ocean:1 van_andel:1 grassland_savanna:1 mount_kilimanjaro:1 ruwenzori_range:1 northern_hemisphere:1 paleo_indian:1 el_niño:2 pleistocene_extinction:1 woolly_mammoth:2 global_warming:1 hunter_gatherer:29 nomadic_lifestyle:1 homo_ergaster:3 et_al:2 comptes_rendus:1 homo_erectus:9 erectus_homo:1 mortality_rate:1 homo_floresiensis:1 photo_gallery:3 faber_faber:1 archeological_evidence:5 raw_material:3 habilis_homo:1 ergaster_homo:1 sexual_dimorphism:2 christopher_boehm:7 boehm_hierarchy:6 ann_arbor:1 decision_making:1 jared_diamond:1 paleolithic_mesolithic:2 venus_figurine:7 tan_tan:1 encarta_msn:3 saber_toothed:1 toothed_cat:1 marija_gimbutas:2 charles_darwin:2 archeology_copyright:3 james_harrod:6 id_pg:1 pg_dq:1 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Politics_of_the_Falkland_Islands

Politics of the Falkland Islands takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, whereby the governor is the head of government. The islands, an archipelago in the southern Atlantic Ocean, is an internally self-governing overseas territory of the United Kingdom. Executive power is exercised by the government, whereas legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Council. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Military defence is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. The politics of the Falkland Islands is minimal, lacking any political parties and differing little from standard British governmental and legal proceedings. The constitution of the Falkland Islands was established October 3, 1985 and amended in 1997, and the islanders were granted full British citizenship from 1 January 1983 under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983. English common law holds sway. A new constitution came into force on 1 January 2009. New Falklands constitution agreed, BBC News, 6 November 2008 Sovereignty issues The Falkland Islands are also claimed by Argentina. The loss of the war against Britain over control of the islands led to the collapse of the Argentine military dictatorship in 1983. Disputes over control of the islands continue. In 2001, British Prime Minister Tony Blair became the first prime minister to visit Argentina since the war. On the 22nd anniversary of the war, Argentina's President Néstor Kirchner gave a speech insisting that the islands would once again be part of Argentina. Kirchner, who was campaigning for the presidential elections in 2003, regarded the islands a top priority. In June 2003 the issue was brought before a United Nations committee, and attempts have been made to open talks with the United Kingdom to resolve the issue of the islands. Executive branch Within the executive branch of the Falkland Islands, the chief of state has been Elizabeth II since February 6, 1952. Since May 1999 the viceroy of the British Crown has been Governor Donald Lamont and the head of government has been Chief Executive Michael Blanch. Lamont was succeeded by Howard Pearce on 3 December 2002. He was succeeded in September 2006 by Alan Huckle, then governor of Anguilla. Blanch was succeeded by Chris Simpkins in March 2003. After Chris Simpkins left office in September 2007, Blanch was again appointed as interim Chief Executive. He was followed by Tim Thorogood in January 2008. The cabinet consists of an Executive Council, with three members elected by the Legislative Council, two ex officio members (the chief executive and the financial secretary) and the governor. Legislative branch The legislative branch consists of a unicameral Legislative Council, with 10 seats, two ex officio and 8 elected by popular votes. Members serve four-year terms. Judiciary The judicial branch consists of a Supreme Court; the chief justice is a nonresident. The Government employs four lawyers - the Attorney General, Principal Crown Counsel and two Crown Counsel. The Falkland Islands does not have its own Bar or Law Society. There is no differentiation between being a barrister or a solicitor here - the private practitioners are called legal practitioners. The Legal Practitioners Ordinance defines who can hold themselves out as being a legal practitioner and therefore have rights of audience before the Falkland Islands courts. Only the Chief Justice of the Falkland Islands can prohibit a legal practitioner from practising. The court system is fairly straightforward. There is a panel of Justices of the Peace (JPs) who sit in the Summary Court. JPs are all non-lawyers and are made up of "upstanding members of the community". They would hear the most simple of criminal cases (or sit when the Senior Magistrate is not in the Islands) and they also act as the Licensing Justices - Licensing Justices deal with alcohol-related applications, such as extended opening hours, special occasion licences, etc. Next in line is the Senior Magistrate who presides over the Magistrate's Court. The SM is usually a UK qualified lawyer, with at least 10 years experience as an advocate and, usually, with some judicial experience. The SM holds office for three years maximum and is then replaced. The SM is resident in the Islands and hears the majority of cases from, again, simple criminal and civil matters right up to very serious criminal matters or complex civil cases. The SM hears appeal from the Summary Court. In both the Summary Court and the Magistrate's Court, both on the criminal and civil side, there is no jury. The Chief Justice (CJ) presides over the Supreme Court. The CJ is generally a senior barrister or solicitor with a good amount of judicial experience in the UK. The CJ is not resident in the Falkland Islands but travels here if and when necessary to hear cases. The most serious criminal and civil matters are reserved for the Supreme Court. In civil matters, again, generally there is no jury. However, in criminal matters, the defendant can elect trial by judge and jury or judge alone. This is the defendant's choice. There are only a few criminal cases that can, and indeed, must, be heard before the Supreme Court. These are murder, manslaughter, rape, piracy, treason and arson with the intent to endanger life. The CJ hears appeals from the Magistrate's Court. From the Supreme Court, appeals are sent to the Falkland Islands Court of Appeal. This court is based in the Court of Appeal in London. There are three UK Court of Appeal Judges who are appointed to be the Falkland Islands Court of Appeal. And, finally appeals from the Court of Appeal are sent to the Privy Council, which essentially is exactly the same body as the Judicial Committee of the House of Lords. Elections and parties There are no elections for the executive branch in the Falkland Islands. The monarch is hereditary, and the Governor is appointed by the monarch. For other elections, suffrage is universal, with the minimum voting age at 18. The Falkland Islands elects a legislature on territorial level. The Legislative Assembly has 10 members, 8 of which are elected every 4 years and 2 members ex officio. As of the last elections, 17 November, 2005, only non-partisans have been elected; there are no active political parties in the Falkland Islands. The next elections will be held in November 2009. References L.L. Ivanov et al., The Future of the Falkland Islands and Its People, Double T Publishers, Sofia, 2003, 96 pp. (Complete text) ISBN 954-91503-1-3

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E

E is the fifth letter in the Latin alphabet. Its name in English () is spelled e; the plural is ees, though this is rare. "E" Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993). Ees is the plural of the name of the letter; the plural of the letter itself is E's, Es, e's, or es. The letter E is the most commonly used letter in the Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Hungarian, Latin, Norwegian, Spanish, and Swedish languages. History Egyptian hieroglyph q’ Proto-Semitic H Phoenician H Etruscan E Greek Epsilon Roman/Cyrillic E A28Image:Proto-semiticE-01.pngRoman E E is derived from the Greek letter epsilon which is much the same in appearance (Ε, ε) and function. In etymology, the Semitic hê probably first represented a praying or calling human figure (hillul jubilation), and was probably based on a similar Egyptian hieroglyph that was pronounced and used quite differently. In Semitic, the letter represented (and in foreign words), in Greek hê became Εψιλον (Epsilon) with the value . Etruscans and Romans followed this usage. Arising from the Great Vowel Shift, English usage is rather different, namely (derived from in "me" or "bee") whereas other words like "bed" are closer to Latin and other languages in usage. Usage Like other Latin vowels, E came in a long and a short variety. Originally, the only difference was in length but later on, short e represented . In other languages that use the letter E or e, it represents various other phonetic values, sometimes with accents to indicate contrasts (e ê é è ë ē ĕ ě ẽ ė ẹ ę ẻ). Digraphs starting with E are common in many languages to indicate diphthongs and monophthongs, such as EA or EE for or in English, EI for in German, or EU for in French or in German. At the end of a word, E is very often silent in English (silent e), where old noun inflections have been dropped, although even when silent at the end of a word it often causes vowels in the word to be pronounced as diphthongs, conventionally called long vowels (compare as a noun rat and as a verb rate). The letter 'E' is the most common (or highest frequency) letter in the English language (starting off the typographer's phrase ETAOIN SHRDLU) and many other related languages, which has implications in both cryptography and data compression. This makes it a difficult and popular letter to use when writing lipograms. Ernest Vincent Wright's Gadsby (1939), is considered a "dreadful" novel, and that "at least part of Wright's narrative difficulties were caused by language restrictions imposed by the lack of E." Ross Eckler, Making the Alphabet Dance: Recreational Word Play. New York: St. Martin's Press (1996): 3 Both Georges Perec's novel A Void (La Disparition) (1969) and its English translation by Gilbert Adair omit the letter E and are considered better works. Eckler (1996): 3. Perec's novel "was so well written that at least some reviewers never realized the existence of a letter constraint." Codes for computing In Unicode the capital E is codepoint U+0045 and the lower case e is U+0065. The ASCII code for capital E is 69 and for lower case e is 101; or in binary 01000101 and 01100101, respectively. The EBCDIC code for capital E is 197 and for lowercase e is 133. The numeric character references in HTML and XML are "E" and "e" for upper and lower case, respectively. In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'e' is represented as extended index of right hand touching the tip of index on the left hand. All fingers of left hand should be open. See also See E (disambiguation) for uses of the letter E Similar Latin letters: Ɛɛ : Latin epsilon Similar non-Latin letters: Εε : Greek epsilon Ее : Cyrillic Ye/E Ёё : Cyrillic Yo Єє : Ukrainian Ye Ээ : Cyrillic backwards E Similar phonetic symbols: : Close-mid front unrounded vowel : Open-mid front unrounded vowel Special symbols similar to the letter E: ℮ : Estimated sign (used on prepackaged goods for sale within the European Union). € : Euro sign References </s>

E |@lemmatized e:37 fifth:1 letter:18 latin:7 alphabet:2 name:2 english:8 spell:1 plural:3 ees:1 though:1 rare:1 merriam:1 webster:1 third:1 new:2 international:1 dictionary:1 language:9 unabridged:1 ee:2 commonly:1 used:1 czech:1 danish:1 dutch:1 french:2 german:3 hungarian:1 norwegian:1 spanish:1 swedish:1 history:1 egyptian:2 hieroglyph:2 q:1 proto:2 semitic:3 h:2 phoenician:1 etruscan:2 greek:4 epsilon:5 roman:2 cyrillic:4 semitice:1 pngroman:1 derive:2 much:1 appearance:1 ε:2 function:1 etymology:1 hê:2 probably:2 first:1 represent:5 praying:1 call:2 human:1 figure:1 hillul:1 jubilation:1 base:1 similar:5 pronounce:2 use:4 quite:1 differently:1 foreign:1 word:6 become:1 εψιλον:1 value:2 follow:1 usage:4 arise:1 great:1 vowel:6 shift:1 rather:1 different:1 namely:1 bee:1 whereas:1 like:2 bed:1 close:2 come:1 long:2 short:2 variety:1 originally:1 difference:1 length:1 later:1 various:1 phonetic:2 sometimes:1 accent:1 indicate:2 contrast:1 ê:1 é:1 è:1 ë:1 ē:1 ĕ:1 ě:1 ẽ:1 ė:1 ẹ:1 ę:1 ẻ:1 digraphs:1 start:2 common:2 many:2 diphthong:2 monophthongs:1 ea:1 ei:1 eu:1 end:2 often:2 silent:3 old:1 noun:2 inflection:1 drop:1 although:1 even:1 cause:2 conventionally:1 compare:1 rat:1 verb:1 rate:1 high:1 frequency:1 typographer:1 phrase:1 etaoin:1 shrdlu:1 related:1 implication:1 cryptography:1 data:1 compression:1 make:2 difficult:1 popular:1 write:2 lipogram:1 ernest:1 vincent:1 wright:2 gadsby:1 consider:2 dreadful:1 novel:3 least:2 part:1 narrative:1 difficulty:1 restriction:1 impose:1 lack:1 ross:1 eckler:2 dance:1 recreational:1 play:1 york:1 st:1 martin:1 press:1 george:1 perec:2 void:1 la:1 disparition:1 translation:1 gilbert:1 adair:1 omit:1 well:2 work:1 reviewer:1 never:1 realize:1 existence:1 constraint:1 code:3 compute:1 unicode:1 capital:3 codepoint:1 u:2 low:3 case:3 ascii:1 binary:1 respectively:2 ebcdic:1 lowercase:1 numeric:1 character:1 reference:2 html:1 xml:1 upper:1 british:1 sign:3 bsl:1 extended:1 index:2 right:1 hand:3 touch:1 tip:1 left:2 finger:1 open:2 see:2 also:1 disambiguation:1 us:1 ɛɛ:1 non:1 εε:1 ее:1 ye:2 ёё:1 yo:1 єє:1 ukrainian:1 ээ:1 backwards:1 symbol:2 mid:2 front:2 unrounded:2 special:1 estimate:1 prepackaged:1 good:1 sale:1 within:1 european:1 union:1 euro:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 commonly_used:1 egyptian_hieroglyph:2 proto_semitic:1 ε_ε:1 é_è:1 front_unrounded:2 unrounded_vowel:2

John_the_Baptist

John the Baptist (Hebrew: יוחנן המטביל, Yo-hanan ha-matbil, Yaḥyá or يوحنا Yūḥannā, Aramaic: ܝܘܚܢܢ Yokhanan) (died c 30) Funk, et al., suggest c 27. Funk, Robert W.; Hoover, Roy W.; & the Jesus Seminar (1993). The Five Gospels. San Francisco: Harper "Stages in the Development of Early Christian Tradition" p. 128 was a mission preacher Cross, F. L. (ed.) (2005) Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3) article John the Baptist, St and a major religious figure Funk, Robert W. & the Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. San Francisco: Harper; "John the Baptist" cameo, p. 268 who led a movement of baptism at the Jordan River in expectation of a divine apocalypse that would restore occupied Israel. Crossan, John Dominic (1998). The Essential Jesus. Edison: Castle Books; p. 146 John followed the example of previous Hebrew prophets, living austerely, challenging sinful rulers, calling for repentance, and promising God's justice. Some scholars maintain that he was influenced by the Essenes, who were semi-ascetic, expected an apocalypse, and had rituals similar to baptism. Harris, Stephen L. (1985) Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield; p. 382 John's baptism was a purification rite for repentant sinners, performed in "living water" (in this case a running river) in accord with Jewish custom. John anticipated a messianic figure who would be greater than John himself. Funk, Robert W. & the Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.San Francisco: Harper; "Mark," p. 51-161 Jesus, the central figure of Christianity, was among those whom John baptized. It has been suggested that Jesus may have been a follower of John. Funk, et al. (1993), refer to John as Jesus' precursor and mentor. Funk, Robert W.;Hoover, Roy W. Hoover; & the Jesus Seminar. The Five Gospels. San Francisco: Harper. "Stages in the Development of Early Christian Tradition", p. 128 Herod Antipas saw John as a threat and had him executed. Jesus' own ministry followed John's, and some of Jesus' early followers had previously been followers of John. Harris, Stephen L. (1985) Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield John, like Jesus, preached at a time of political, social, and religious conflict. Accounts of John in the New Testament are not incompatible with the account in Josephus, whose authority is respected. "John the Baptist, St." In: Cross, F. L. (ed.) (2005) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press Here, Jesus is the one whose coming John foretold. Herod has John imprisoned for denouncing his marriage, and he is later executed. Christians commonly refer to John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus, since in the Gospels, John announces Jesus' coming. He is also identified with the prophet Elijah, Stephen L. Harris, Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. and is described as a relative of Jesus. Because Scripture described John as endowed with prenatal grace, the feast day of his birth (June 24) became celebrated more solemnly than that marking his martyrdom (August 29). Muslims also regard John as a prophet, Yahya ibn Zakariyya as do Bahá'ís and Mandaeans. In art, John's head often appears on a platter because that is what Herod's stepdaughter, Salome, is said to have asked for. The story appears in and , without the name Salome Another theme of Christian art is his beheading. Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994. He is also depicted as an ascetic wearing camel hair and with a staff and scroll inscribed "Ecce Agnus Dei" (Latin, "Behold the Lamb of God" — John 1:29 ) or bearing a book or dish with a lamb on it. In Orthodox icons, he often has angel's wings, since Mark 1:2 describes him as ἄγγελος (angelos) or messenger. "John the Baptist, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 In the New Testament Modern version of the traditional Eastern Orthodox iconography of the Baptism of Jesus by John in the Jordan River. All four Gospels record John the Baptist's ministry. They depict him as proclaiming Christ's arrival. In the Synoptics (Mark, Matthew, and Luke), Jesus is baptized. In Matthew and John, John the Baptist recognizes Jesus as the one he had foretold. Birth and infancy Icon depicting Elizabeth leaving the infant John in the desert (John the Baptist "in the Desert" Monastery near Jerusalem, Israel). The Gospel of Luke includes an account of John's infancy, introducing him as the son of Zachariah, an old man, and his wife Elizabeth, who was sterile. Just, Arthur A.; Oden, Thomas C. (2003), Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture - Luke: New Testament III, InterVarsity Press; p. 10. According to this account the birth of John was foretold by the angel Gabriel to Zachariah, while Zachariah was performing his functions as a priest in the temple of Jerusalem; since Zachariah is described as a priest of the course of Abijah, and his wife, Elizabeth, as one of the daughters of Aaron this would make John a descendant of Aaron on both his father's and mother's side. 'Aaron', In: Mills, Watson E. (ed.) (1998) Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 5, Macon GA: Mercer University Press, ISBN 0865542996; page 1 The Gospel of Luke states that Jesus was conceived when Elizabeth was about six months pregnant; when Mary came to tell her about her news, Elizabeth's unborn baby 'jumped for joy' in her womb. Zachariah had lost his speech at the behest and prophecy of the angel Gabriel, "And, behold, thou shalt be dumb, and not able to speak, until the day that these things shall be performed, because thou believest not my words...." and it was restored on the occasion of Zachariah naming John. "And he asked for a writing table, and wrote, saying, His name is John. And they marvelled all. And his mouth was opened immediately, and his tongue loosed, and he spoke...." On the basis of Luke's account, the Catholic calendar placed the feast of John the Baptist on June 24, six months before Christmas. According to Luke, Jesus and John the Baptist were related, their mothers being cousins; there is no mention of this in the other Gospels, and the scholar Raymond E. Brown has described the relationship as 'of dubious historicity'; Brown, Raymond Edward (1973), The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus, Paulist Press, p. 54 Géza Vermes has called it 'artificial and undoubtedly Luke's creation'. Vermes, Geza. The Nativity, p. 143. The very close similarities between the accounts of the birth of Samuel in the Old Testament have led scholars to suggest that this is the model for the Gospel of Luke story of the birth of John and of the annunciation and birth of Jesus. Freed, Edwin D. (2001), The Stories of Jesus' Birth: a Critical Introduction Continuum International, pp. 87-90. Ministry Jan Brueghel the Elder, John the Baptist preaching All four canonical gospels relate to John's ministry, his preaching and baptism in the River Jordan. Most notably he is the one who recognized Jesus as the Messiah, and on Jesus' request, baptized him. The baptism marked the beginning of Jesus' ministry. The Gospels of Mark, Matthew and (most clearly) Luke relate that Jesus came from Galilee to John and was baptized by him, whereupon the Spirit descended upon him and a voice from Heaven told him he was God's Son. Their lives (e.g., births) are believed to have been similar, although in Christianity, John is thought of as the last prophet and Jesus as the Messiah. The problem that Jesus, considered by Christians to be without sin, received John's baptism, which was for the forgiveness of sins, is addressed in the Gospel of Matthew's account, which has John refusing to baptize Jesus, saying, "I need to be baptized by you," until Jesus convinces him to baptize him nonetheless (Matthew 3:13-15 ). The Gospel of John does not describe John baptizing Jesus but has John introducing Jesus to his disciples as the "Lamb of God" (John 1:29-34 ). Domenico Veneziano, 1445, John casts off his normal clothes to begin his period in the wilderness The Gospel of John reports that Jesus' disciples were baptizing and that a debate broke out between some of the disciples of John and another Jew about purification with John explaining that Jesus "must become greater" while he, John, "must become less" (John 3:22-36 ). The Gospel of John then points out that Jesus' disciples were baptizing more people than John (John 4:2 ). Later, the Gospel relates Jesus regarding John as "a burning and shining lamp, and you were willing to rejoice for a while in his light". (John 5:35 ). The book of Acts portrays the disciples of John as eventually merging into the followers of Jesus (Acts 18:24-19:6 ), a development not reported by the Gospels except for the early case of Andrew, Simon Peter's brother (John 1:35-42 ). On various occasions the Gospels relate John denying any claim to be the Messiah and clearly acknowledging his inferiority to Jesus. However, scholars such as Harold W. Attridge contend that John's status as a "self-conscious and deliberate forerunner of Jesus" is likely to be an invention by early Christians, arguing that "for the early church it would have been something of an embarrassment to say that Jesus, who was in their minds superior to John the Baptist, had been baptized by him." Imprisonment and beheading Caravaggio, The Beheading of St John, 1608, Valletta Co-Cathedral, Malta According to the canonical Gospels, John the Baptist's public ministry was brought to a close when he was imprisoned on orders of Herod Antipas. The synoptic Gospels state that Herod Antipas reacted to John's condemnation of his marriage to Herodias, the former wife of his half-brother Herod II. ; The Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Mark both refer to Herod as Philip, apparently confusing him with Philip the tetrarch Josephus locates John's imprisonment in the fortress of Machaerus on the southern extremity of Peraea, nine miles (14 km) east of the Dead Sea (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities XVIII:5:1–2). Matthew relates that the imprisoned John sent messengers to Jesus to ask him whether he was the Messiah. Jesus indirectly answered in the affirmative and described John in terms of a return of the prophet Elijah (Matthew 11:2-15 ). Regarding John's death, Josephus states that Herod had John killed to preempt a possible uprising. Matthew links John's death as well with Herodias, as he related that her daughter Salome The story appears in Matthew 14:8 and Mark 6:25, without the name Salome so much delighted Antipas with a dance that he vowed to grant her any wish to which, after asking her mother (Herodias), she demanded the head of John the Baptist. (Matthew 14:6-8 ) The Gospels date John's death before the crucifixion of Jesus. Josephus places John's death no later than 36 CE. Neither Josephus nor the Gospels state where John was buried, though the Gospels state that John's disciples took his body and placed it in a tomb and then told Jesus all that had occurred, to which Jesus replied that there had been no greater son of woman than John the Baptist (Matthew 14:3-12 ). In the time of Julian the Apostate, however, his tomb was shown at Samaria, where the inhabitants opened it and burned part of his bones. The rest of the alleged remains were saved by some Christians, who carried them to an abbot of Jerusalem named Philip. Eccl. lib. iii. cap. 3 Chronic. Alex, p.686) John the Baptist and Old Testament Prophecy Icon of John the Baptist by Theophan the Greek, c. 1400. See gallery below for the icon in its setting. Christians believe that John the Baptist had a specific role ordained by God as forerunner or precursor of Jesus, who they understand to be the foretold Messiah. The New Testament Gospels speak of this role. In Luke 1:17 the role of John is referred to as being "to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the just; to make ready a people prepared for the Lord." In Luke 1:76 as "...thou shalt go before the face of the Lord to prepare his ways and in Luke 1:77 as being "To give knowledge of salvation unto his people by the remission of their sins." There are several passages within the Old Testament which are interpreted by Christians as being prophetic of John the Baptist in this role. These include a passage in the Book of Malachi 3:1 that refers to a prophet who would prepare the way of the Lord: Behold, I will send my messenger, and he shall prepare the way before me: and the Lord, whom ye seek, shall suddenly come to his temple, even the messenger of the covenant, whom ye delight in: behold, he shall come, saith the LORD of hosts. — Malachi 3:1 and also at the end of the next chapter in Malachi 4:5-6 where it says, Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD: And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers, lest I come and smite the earth with a curse. These passages are applied to John in the Synoptic Gospels. Mat 3:3 For this is he that was spoken of by the prophet Esaias, saying, The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight. Mar 1:2 As it is written in the prophets, Behold, I send my messenger before thy face, which shall prepare thy way before thee. Mar 1:3 The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight. Luk 1:16-17 And many of the children of Israel shall he turn to the Lord their God. And he shall go before him in the spirit and power of Elijah, to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the just; to make ready a people prepared for the Lord. The idea of a forerunner to the Messiah was not unique to the Christians, but was widely held by the Jews at the time of Jesus. They were expecting Elijah the prophet to come, rather than John the Baptist. This is why the disciples ask Jesus in Matthew 17:10, 'Why then say the scribes that Elias must first come?.' Eventually the disciples conclude that Elijah had come, as John, in a spiritual or allegorical sense. Josephus An account of John the Baptist is found in all extant manuscripts of the Jewish Antiquities (book 18, chapter 5, 2) by Flavius Josephus (37–100): "Josephus, Flavius." In: Cross, F. L. (ed.) (2005) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, that was called the Baptist: for Herod slew him, who was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness towards one another, and piety towards God, and so to come to baptism; for that the washing [with water] would be acceptable to him, if they made use of it, not in order to the putting away [or the remission] of some sins [only], but for the purification of the body; supposing still that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteousness. Now when [many] others came in crowds about him, for they were very greatly moved [or pleased] by hearing his words, Herod, who feared lest the great influence John had over the people might put it into his power and inclination to raise a rebellion, (for they seemed ready to do any thing he should advise,) thought it best, by putting him to death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into difficulties, by sparing a man who might make him repent of it when it would be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, out of Herod's suspicious temper, to Macherus, the castle I before mentioned, and was there put to death. Now the Jews had an opinion that the destruction of this army was sent as a punishment upon Herod, and a mark of God's displeasure to him. Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiqities 18. 5. 2. (Translation by William Whiston). As with other passages in Josephus relating to Christian themes concern remains over whether the passage was part of Josephus's original text or instead a later interpolation. Skeptical writer Frank Zindler argues that the passage is an interpolation by a Sabian. Zindler, Frank R. (2003), The Jesus the Jews Never Knew: Sepher Toldoth Yeshu and the Quest of the Historical Jesus in Jewish Sources. American Atheist Press ISBN 978-1578849161 The passage dates to at least the early third century as it is quoted by Origen in Contra Celsum. It was also quoted by Eusebius of Caesarea in the fourth century. According to this passage, the execution of John was blamed for a defeat Herod suffered ca. 36 CE. Divergences between the passage's presentation and the Biblical accounts of John include baptism for those whose souls have already been "purified beforehand by righteousness" is for purification of the body, not general repentance of sin (Mark 1:4 ). Biblical scholar John Dominic Crossan differentiates between Josephus's account of John and Jesus like this: "John had a monopoly, but Jesus had a franchise." To get baptized, Crossan writes, you went only to John; to stop the movement one only needed to stop John (therefore his movement ended with his death). Jesus invited all to come and see how he and his companions had already accepted the Government of God, entered it and were living it. Such a communal praxis was not just for himself, but could survive without him, unlike John's movement. Crossan, John Dominic (2007), God and Empire, London: HarperCollins, p. 117 ff In the main Christian traditions Eastern Orthodox Church Eastern Orthodox icon John the Baptist — the Angel of the Desert (Stroganov School, 1620s) Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow. The Eastern Orthodox believe that John was the last of the Old Testament prophets, thus serving as a bridge between that period of revelation and the New Covenant. They also teach that, following his death, John descended into Hades and there once more preached that Jesus the Messiah was coming, so he was the Forerunner of Christ in death as he had been in life. According to Sacred Tradition, John the Baptist appears at the time of death to those who have not heard the Gospel of Christ, and preaches the Good News to them, that all may have the opportunity to be saved. Orthodox churches will often have an icon of St. John the Baptist in a place of honor on the iconostasis, and he is frequently mentioned during the Divine Services. Every Tuesday throughout the year is dedicated to his memory. The Eastern Orthodox Church remembers Saint John the Forerunner on six separate feast days, listed here in order in which they occur during the church year (which begins on September 1): September 23 — Conception of St. John the Forerunner In late antiquity this feast in some churches marked the beginning of the Ecclesiastical Year; see Archbishop Peter (L'Huiller) of New York and New Jersey, "Liturgical Matters: "The Lukan Jump"", in: Newspaper of the Diocese of New York and New Jersey, Fall 1992. January 7 — The Synaxis of St. John the Forerunner. This is his main feast day, immediately after Theophany on January 6 (January 7 also commemorates the transfer of the relic of the right hand of John the Baptist from Antioch to Constantinople in 956) February 24 — First and Second Finding of the Head of St. John the Forerunner May 25 — Third Finding of the Head of St. John the Forerunner June 24 — Nativity of St. John the Forerunner August 29 — The Beheading of St. John the Forerunner In addition to the above, September 5 is the commemoration of Zechariah and Elisabeth, St. John's parents. The Russian Orthodox Church observes October 12 as the Transfer of the Right Hand of the Forerunner from Malta to Gatchina (1799). Roman Catholic Church The presumed 'Head of St John', enshrined in Rome Head of John the Baptist - Residenz - Munich Tomb of St. John the Baptist at a Coptic monastery in Lower Egypt. The bones of St. John the Baptist were said to have been found here.‎ The Roman Catholic Church commemorates St. John the Baptist on two feast days: June 24 – Nativity of St. John the Baptist August 29 – Beheading of St. John the Baptist Relics According to ancient tradition, the burial-place of John the Baptist was at Sebaste in Samaria, and mention is made of his relics being honored there around the middle of the fourth century. The historians Rufinus and Theodoretus record that the shrine was desecrated under Julian the Apostate around 362, the bones being partly burned. A portion of the rescued relics were carried to Jerusalem, then to Alexandria, where on 27 May, 395, they were laid in the basilica that was newly-dedicated to the Forerunner on the former site of the temple of Serapis. The tomb at Sebaste continued, nevertheless, to be visited by pious pilgrims, and St. Jerome bears witness to miracles being worked there. What became of the head of John the Baptist is difficult to determine. Nicephorus Nicephorus, Ecclesiastical History I, ix. See Patrologia Graeca, cxlv.–cxlvii. and Symeon Metaphrastes say that Herodias had it buried in the fortress of Machaerus (in accordance with Josephus). Other writers say that it was interred in Herod's palace at Jerusalem; there it was found during the reign of Constantine I, and thence secretly taken to Emesa, in Phoenicia, where it was concealed, the place remaining unknown for years, until it was manifested by revelation in 453. However, the decapitation cloth of St. John is kept at the Aachen Cathedral. The Coptic Christian Orthodox Church also claim to hold the relics of St. John the Baptist. These are to be found in a monastery in Lower Egypt between Cairo and Alexandria. It is possible, with permission from the monks, to see the original tomb where the remains were found. An obscure and surprising claim relates to the town of Halifax in West Yorkshire, where the Baptist's head appears on the official coat-of-arms. A legend first recorded in the late 16th century and reported in Camden's 'Britannia' stated that the first religious settlers of the district brought the 'face' of John the Baptist with them and this accounts for the town's place-name - 'halig' (holy) and 'fax' (face) Clucas, W. Early Halifax, 'Hull Quarterly & E Riding Portfolio', reprinted Barnwell, Hull, 1885, p.2-4; Watson, Rev. John. The History of the Town and Parish of Halifax, Milner, Halifax, 1789, p.90-92 . Over the centuries, there have been many discrepancies in the various legends and claimed relics throughout the Christian world. Several different locations claim to possess the severed head of John the Baptist. Among the various claimants are: Lost Worlds: Knights Templar, July 10, 2006 video documentary on The History Channel, directed and written by Stuart Elliott The Knights Templar. In medieval times it was rumored that they had possession of the saint's severed head, and multiple records from their Inquisition in the early 1300s make reference to some form of head being worshiped by the Knights. Martin, Sean (2005) The Knights Templar: the History & Myths of the Legendary Military Order, ISBN 1-56025-645-1 San Silvestro in Capite in Rome Amiens Cathedral, France, brought home by Wallon de Sarton from the Fourth Crusade in Constantinople Turkish Antioch The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus The Residenz Museum in Munich, Germany, the official residence of the Wittelsbach Family, the rulers of Bavaria, from 1385 to 1918. The Schatzkammer (Treasury) portion of the museum has treasures and relics accumulated over ten centuries. The museum currently claims to have and are displaying the head of St. John the Baptist, and his mother. Istanbul claims to possess the saint's arm and a piece of his skull in the Topkapi Palace, as does the Coptic Orthodox Monastery of Saint Macarius the Great in Scetes, Egypt, The Monastery of St. Macarius the Great while John's right hand, with which he baptised Jesus, is said to be in the possession of the Serbian Orthodox Cetinje monastery in Montenegro, and also at the Romanian skete of the Forerunner on Mount Athos. Armenians believe that Gandzasar Monastery's Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, in Nagorno Karabakh, too contains or contained in the past St. John's head. A discussion about how St. John's head ended up in medieval Armenia's province of Artsakh, and in Gandzasar, can be found in the “History of the Land of Aghvank,” a collection of texts attributed to the medieval Armenian historian Movses Kaghankatvatsi. Other views St John's Shrine inside the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus Islamic view John the Baptist is known as Yahya in Arabic and in the Qur'an. The Qur'an, in the sura Maryam, identifies John as the son of Zachariah and maternal cousin of Jesus. It relates an account similar to that of the Gospel of Luke, including the barrenness of Zachariah's unnamed wife and his doubts, though Zachariah is not described as actually mute but only that the sign of the coming of John was that he would not speak for three nights. John, whose tidings are foretold by the angels, is exhorted to hold fast to the Scripture and was given wisdom by God while still a child. (Surah 19:7-12 ). He is described as "pure", "devout", "dutiful towards his parents" and as "not arrogant or rebellious" (Surah 19:7-15 ) and is called "a Prophet of the Righteous" coming "to confirm a word from Allah". (Surah 3:39 )According to Agron Belica, Yahya has been misrepresented. In his article, Agron Belica say's the following: this prophet has been overlooked and misrepresented. One reason he has been overlooked is because there are five words used in the Quran to describe Prophet Yahya that have been misinterpreted in translations of the Quran. The first is the word hasur which is usually translated “chaste.” My research shows that the Arabic word hasur does not mean "chaste" with regard to Yahya; rather , it means "a concealer of secrets." Why the mistake in translation and commentary? As there was no extensive information given in the Quran about the life of Prophet Yahya nor in the hadith, the commentators then turned to Christian tradition and simply repeated what they found there. Nonetheless, the commentators of the Quran have placed considerable emphasis on this word. Al-Tabari interprets the word hasur to mean one who abstains from sexual intercourse with women. He then reports a hadith on the authority of Said ibn al-Musayyab which has Prophet Muhammad saying the following: “Everyone of the sons of Adam shall come on the Day of Resurrection with a sin (of sexual impropriety) except Yahya bin Zechariah.’ Then, picking up a tiny straw, he continued, ‘this is because his generative organ was no bigger then this straw (implying that he was impotent).’” Does this mean that even the prophets outside of Yahya will be raised up with this sin of sexual impropriety? How can we accept that this was said by such a modest human being, comparing a straw to another prophet's generative organ? Was Yahya impotent? One commentator, Ibn Kathir, a renowned Islamic scholar , rejects this view and adds, “This would be a defect and a blemish unworthy of prophets.” He then mentions that it was not that he had no sexual relations with women, but that he had no illegal sexual relations with them. Indeed, the whole discussion is unseemly. It is known that prophets of God are immune from major sins, so this statement makes no sense at all when interpreting the word, hasur. In addition, I would like to mention the fact that in his commentary, ibn Kathir says he (Yahya) probably married and had children. He said this on the basis of what was related in the Quran of the prayer of Zachariah. There are at least three reasons why interpreting hasur in this context as "chaste" is a misinterpretation: First of all, there is another word in the Quran for "chaste" and that is muhasanah. As God used a different word with hasur, it must mean something different. Secondly, God says in the Quran that Islam did not bring monasticism but that it was something that they (the Christians) invented. Therefore, God would not have sent a Prophet who was celibate. In addition, it is contrary the exhortation in the Torah to “go forth and multiply.” Thirdly, Yahya’s father, Zechariah prayed for a protector who would provide descendants (dhuriyyat) for his family. “There Zachariah called to his Lord; he said: My Lord! Bestow on me good offspring from Thy presence; truly Thou art hearing supplication.” (3:38) God gave him Yahya. God would not have sent a son to Zechariah who would not carry on the line of Jacob’s descendants because then God would not have answered the prayer of Zechariah. The word hasur is used only one time in the Quran and that is in regard to the Prophet Yahya. A major Arabic-English lexicon, that of Edward William Lane (Taj al-Arus) states that when hasur is used alone, it means “concealer of secrets.” In his translation, of Ibn al- Arabi's Book of the Fabulous Gryphon, Elmore also translates the Arabic hasur “as consealer of secrets.” In the referenced passage, “chaste” would not have been appropriate (Gerald T. Elmore, Islamic Sainthood in the Fullness of Time, Brill 1999, P. 482) The second word that has been misinterpreted is waliy (19:5) which in this verse and many others in the Quran means "protector" not "heir or successor." In this specific case, Zechariah prays to his Lord: “And truly I have feared my defenders after me and my wife has been a barren woman. So bestow on me from that which proceeds from Thy Presence a protector (waliy).” The third word that is misinterpreted is that of fard in (21:89): “And mention Zechariah when he cried out to his Lord: My Lord! Forsake me not unassisted (fard) and Thou art the Best of the ones who inherit.” It is usually translated as “heir,” but the same reasoning applies as above. The word “unassisted” refers to the fact that Zechariah did not want to be left alone without any protector. He feared for those who would defend him and his honor after he died, that they would be left without a protector and thereby could not defend his honor. The fourth misinterpreted word in relation to Prophet Yahya is sayyid. Prophet Yahya is referred to as a sayyid, chief in the Quran. The commentators have interpreted this to mean that he was a scholar of religious law, a wise man, a noble wise and pious man, and so forth. This was a prophet of God. Knowledge and wisdom were given to him by his Lord. The title given to Yahya by his Lord shows that Prophet Yahya is one who has authority over his people and not “noble” or “honorable” as this word is usually translated. Honor and nobility are good qualities but they fail to indicate that Prophet Yahya is given a role of leadership by his Lord. The fifth word is hanan which means “mercy,” which is part of the compound name Yu'hanan (in English “John”), meaning “God is Merciful.” The word hanan is used once in the Quran and that is in reference to Prophet Yahya: “And continuous mercy from Us and purity . . . .” This is singularly appropriate to the circumstances of the Prophet Yahya. The names Yahya and Yuhanan are not the same as many assume. They have two entirely different roots. Hanan and hanna both derive from the Semitic root h n n. While the word hanna means “mercy or tenderness,” the root word for Yahya is h y y. It means “life” or “he lives.” One does not need to be a linguist to see the obvious. In addition, I would like also to mention that this name and attribute given to Prophet Yahya can also be found in Sabean literature. The Sabians are mentioned in the Quran in verses (2:62), (5:69) and (22:17). In their canonical prayer book we find Yahya Yuhanna. It has been known that it is the practice of the Sabians to have two names, a real name and a special name. According to the Sabians, this prophet’s real name was Yahya (he lives) and his lay name was Yuhanna (John). Prophet Yahya is the only one given this name as the Quran clearly states: “O Zechariah! Truly We give thee the good tidings of a boy; his name will be Yahya (he who lives) and We assign it not as a namesake (samiyya) for anyone before.” Again, another word that we need to pay attention to is samiya. It is used twice in the Quran, once in reference to Yahya (19:7) “O Zechariah! Truly We give thee the good tidings of a boy; his name will be Yahya and We assign it not as a namesake (samiya) for anyone before.” The other time it is used is in reference to God. “. . . Knowest thou any namesake (samiya) for Him [God]?” (19:65) In the famous Arabic lexicon Lisan al-arab the root word s m w means elevation or highness. See The Sublime Quran Pocket Size translated by Laleh Bakhtiar (2009) Mandaean view Titian, 1542 John the Baptist plays a large part in some Mandaean writings, especially those dating from the Islamic period. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Mandaeans Mandaeans highly revere him and may possibly have some remote connection with his original disciples. They believe John the Baptist, called Yahya in the Sidra d-Yahia ("Book of John"), was the last and greatest of the prophets. While Mandaeans agree that he baptized Jesus (Yeshu), they reject the latter as either a saviour or prophet. They view John as the only true Messiah. According to the text of the Ginza Rba, John died at the hand of an angel. The angel appeared as a three-year-old child, coming to John for baptism. John knew the angel for what it was, and that once he touched its hand, he would die immediately. John performed the baptism anyway, and died in the process. Afterward, the angel covered John's body with mud. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, latter-day revelation confirms the biblical account and also makes known additional events in the ministry of John the Baptist. According to this belief, revelation reveals that John was "ordained by an angel," when he was 8 days of age, to overthrow the kingdom of the Jews and to prepare a people for the Lord. They also claim that he was baptized while yet in his childhood. Doctrine and Covenants 84:27–28 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that John the Baptist appeared on the banks of the Susquehanna River near Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania (present-day Oakton), as a resurrected being, to Joseph Smith, Jr. and Oliver Cowdery on 15 May 1829, and ordained them to the Aaronic priesthood. [D&C 13]; D&C 27:7–8 Joseph Smith History 1:68–72 According to LDS doctrine, John the Baptist's ministry has operated in three dispensations: he was the last of the prophets under the law of Moses; he was the first of the New Testament prophets; and he was sent to confer the Aaronic priesthood in our day, the dispensation of the fulness of times. They also believe John's ministry was foretold by two prophets in the Book of Mormon: Lehi THE FIRST BOOK OF NEPHI Chapter 10 and his son, Nephi (Book of Mormon 1 Nephi 11:27; Nephi 31:4-18 ; ). Bahá'í view There are numerous quotations in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh, Founder of the Bahá'í Faith mentioning John the Baptist. He is regarded by Bahá'ís as a lesser Prophet. Bahá'u'lláh claimed that His Forerunner, the Báb, was the spiritual return of John the Baptist. In His letter to Pope Pius IX, Bahá'u'lláh wrote: "O followers of the Son! We have once again sent John unto you, and He, verily, hath cried out in the wilderness of the Bayán: O peoples of the world! Cleanse your eyes! The Day whereon ye can behold the Promised One and attain unto Him hath drawn nigh! O followers of the Gospel! Prepare the way! The Day of the advent of the Glorious Lord is at hand! Make ready to enter the Kingdom. Thus hath it been ordained by God, He Who causeth the dawn to break." However, Bahá'ís consider the Báb to be a greater Prophet (Manifestation of God) and thus possessed of a far greater station than John the Baptist. Gnostic and anthroposophic views In Gnosticism, John the Baptist was a "personification" of the Old Testament prophet Elijah. As an Old Testament prophet, Elijah did not know the True God (the God of the New Testament), and thus had to be reincarnated in Gnostic theology. As predicted by the Old Testament prophet Malachi, Elijah must "come first" to herald the coming of Jesus Christ. Modern anthroposophy, initiated by Rudolf Steiner, concurs with the idea that the Baptist was a reincarnation of Elijah, in line with the Synoptic Gospels (e.g. Mark 9:11-13 ,Matthew 11:13-14 ,Luke 7:27 ), although the Gospel of John explicitly denies this (John 1:21 ). Furthermore, after his beheading at Machaerus his soul is said to have become the inspiring group genius of Christ's disciples. According to Steiner, the painter Raphael and the poet Novalis were more recent incarnations of John the Baptist. Sergei Prokofieff, The Mystery of John the Baptist and John the Evangelist Turning Point of Time: An Esoteric Study, ISBN 1902636678 Unification church The Unification Church teaches that God intended that John help Jesus during his public ministry in Judea. In particular, John should have done everything in his power to persuade the Jewish people that Jesus was the Messiah. He was to become Jesus' greatest disciple. John's failure to do so was the chief obstacle to the fulfillment of Jesus' mission. Divine Principle Chapter 4, Section 2 In art John has been one of the saints most frequently appearing in Christian art. The Baptism of Christ was one of the earliest scenes from the Life of Christ to be frequently depicted in Early Christian art, and John's tall thin, even gaunt, and bearded figure is already established by the 5th century. Only he and Jesus are consistently shown with long hair from Early Christian times, when the apostles generally have trim classical cuts; in fact John is more consistently depicted in this way than Jesus. In Byzantine art the composition of the Deesis came to be included in every Eastern Orthodox church, as remains the case to this day. Here John and the Theotokos (Mary) flank a Christ Pantocrator and intercede for humanity; in many ways this is the equivalent of Western Crucifixions on roods and elsewhere, where John the Evangelist takes the place of John the Baptist (except in the idiosyncratic Isenheim Altarpiece). John the Baptist is very often shown on altarpieces designed for churches dedicated to him, or where the donor patron was named for him or there was some other connection of patronage - John was the patron saint of Florence, among many other cities, which means he features among the supporting saints in many important works. A number of narrative scenes from his life were often shown on the predella of altarpieces dedicated to John, and other settings, notably the large series in grisaille fresco in the Chiostro del Scalzo, which was Andrea del Sarto's largest work, and the frescoed Life by Ghirlandajo in the Tornabuoni Chapel, both in Florence. There is another important fresco cycle by Filippo Lippi in Prato Cathedral. These include the typical scenes: See Tornabuoni Chapel for further information on these scenes the Annunciation to Zechariah, John's birth, his naming by his father, the Visitation, John's departure for the desert, his preaching in the desert, the Baptism of Christ, John before Herod, the dance of Samome, and his beheading. His birth, which unlike the Nativity of Jesus allowed a relatively wealthy domestic interior to be shown, became increasingly popular as a subject in the late Middle Ages, with depictions by Jan van Eyck (?) in the Turin-Milan Hours and Ghirlandajo in the Tornabuoni Chapel being among the best known. His execution, a Church feast-day, was often shown, and by the 15th century scenes such as the dance of Salome became popular, sometimes, as in an engraving by Israhel van Meckenem, the interest of the artist is clearly in showing the life of Herod's court, given contemporary dress, as much as the martyrdom of the saint. Engraving by Israhel van Meckenem Salome bearing John's head on a platter equally became a subject for the Northern Renaissance taste for images of glamourous but dangerous women (Delilah, Judith and others),<ref>On this see Chaper V, "The Power of Women", in H Diane Russell;Eva/Ave; Women in Renaissance and Baroque Prints; National Gallery of Art, Washington, 1990; ISBN 155861 0391</ref> and was often painted by Lucas Cranach the Elder and engraved by the Little Masters. These images remained popular into the Baroque, with Carlo Dolci painting at least three versions. John preaching, in a landscape setting, was a popular subject in Dutch art from Pieter Brueghel the Elder and his successors. As a child (of varying age), he is sometimes shown from the 15th century in family scenes from the life of Christ such as the Presentation of Christ, the Marriage of the Virgin and the Holy Kinship. Leonardo da Vinci's versions of the Virgin of the Rocks were influential in establishing a Renaissance fashion for variations on the Madonna and Child that included John, probably intended to depict the cousin's reunion in Egypt, when after Jesus's Flight to Egypt John was believed to have been carried to join him by an angel. Raphael in particular painted many compositions of the subject, such as the Alba Madonna, La belle jardinière, Aldobrandini Madonna, Madonna della seggiola, Madonna dell'Impannata, which were among his best known works. John was also often shown by himself as an older child or adolescent, usually already wearing his distinctive dress and carrying a long thin wooden cross - another theme influenced by Leonardo, whose equivocal composition, reintroducing the camel-skin dress, was developed by Raphael Titian and Guido Reni among many others. Often he is accompanied by a lamb, especially in the many Early Netherlandish paintings which needed this attribute as he wore normal clothes. Caravaggio painted an especially large number of works including John, from at least five largely nude youths attributed to him, to three late works on his death - the great Execution in Malta, and two sombre Salomes with his head, one in Madrid, and one in London. The death of John remained a popular subject throughout the Baroque period, and then enjoyed a considerable revival at the end of the 19th century with Symbolist painters such as Gustave Moreau and Puvis de Chavannes (National Gallery, London). Oscar Wilde's play Salome was illustrated by Aubrey Beardsley, giving rise to some of his most memorable images. Commemoration Wood Sculpture of John The Baptist’s Head by Santiago Martinez Delgado. As a patron saint Saint John the Baptist is the patron saint of Puerto Rico, and its capital city San Juan bears his name. In 1521, the island was given its formal name "San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico", following the usual custom of christening the town with both its formal name and the name which Christopher Columbus had originally given the island, honouring John the Baptist. The indistinct use of "San Juan Bautista" and "Puerto Rico" for calling both the city and the island led to a reversal in practical use by most inhabitants due largely to a map-making error. Therefore by 1746 the name for the city (Puerto Rico) had become that of the entire island, while the name for the island (San Juan Bautista) had become the name for the city. The official motto for the island of Puerto Rico also references the saint, Joannes Est Nomen Eius (translated, "John is his name"). He is also a patron saint of Jordan, French Canada, and Newfoundland. The Canadian cities of St. John's, Newfoundland (1497) and Saint John, New Brunswick (1604) were both named in his honor. In the Saint John the Baptist is the patron saint of Penzance, Cornwall. His feast day is June 24, celebrated in Quebec as the Fête nationale du Québec (la Fête St-Jean-Baptiste), and in Newfoundland as Discovery Day. Also on the night from 23 to 24 June, Saint John is celebrated as the patron saint of Porto, the second largest city in Portugal. An article from June 2004 in The Guardian, remarked that "Porto's Festa de São João is one of Europe's liveliest street festivals, yet it is relatively unknown outside the country". The Guardian, June 12 2004, "There's only one São João" He is also patron of the Knights Hospitaller of Jerusalem, Malta, Florence, and Genoa, Italy. Saint John the Baptist is also the patron saint of Jordan, his beheading is believed to have taken place in Machaerus in central Jordan. The Baptistines are the name given to a number of religious orders dedicated to the memory of John the Baptist. Saint John is also the patron saint of Lian, Batangas, San Juan, Metro Manila (Philippines) and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston which comprises the entire state of South Carolina. St. John the Baptist is (along with St. John the Evangelist) claimed as a Patron Saint by the fraternal society of Free and Accepted Masons (better known as the Freemasons). Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry Churches and other establishments in his name St. John's, Newfoundland and The Basilica of St. John the Baptist St. John The Baptist church, Štorje, Slovenia. Maronite Catholic Monastery of Saint John the Baptist, Beit Mery, Lebanon Armenian Apostolic Monastery of Gandzasar, Nagorno Karabakh Romanian Skete Prodromos (the name is the Greek for "The Forerunner") on Mount Athos, holding relics believed to be of John the Baptist St John's College of The University of Oxford, Oxford, England Puerto Rico was originally named San Juan Bautista; San Juan (then called Puerto Rico) is now its capital city. St. John's, Newfoundland, was founded on his feast day June 24, 1497. Exactly 34 years later San Juan del Río, Querétaro, Mexico was founded on June 24, 1531. Saint John, New Brunswick was named after the Saint John River which was named by Samuel de Champlain St. John's University located in Queens, New York; St. John's is the second largest Roman Catholic university in the United States. Saint John's University located in Collegeville, MN; a Roman Catholic-Benedictine liberal arts university. Fête nationale du Québec — also known as la St- Jean-Baptiste — is the provincial holiday of Quebec, celebrated on June 24 of every year. Prince Edward Island, a Canadian province, was originally called Île de St-Jean or St. John's Island. St. John's wort is named after St. John because it is traditionally harvested on his feast day, June 24. 12th century cathedral in Kamień Pomorski (Poland) with a famous 17th century organ St. John's Regional College in Dandenong Melbourne (Australia) St. John the Baptist Parish in the southern portion of the American state of Louisiana. In Louisiana, a civil parish is equivalent to a county elsewhere in North America. St. John's Avenue in Staten Island, New York, overlooks the Atlantic Ocean, Brooklyn, the Verrazano Narrows Bridge, New York Harbour, and Manhattan St. John Ambulance and the Venerable Order of St. John. Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta (commonly referred to as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta) Mission San Juan Bautista, one of the original 18th century missions in northern California. St. John the Baptist Mission, Clatskanie, Oregon St. John the Baptist parish, Tiaong, Quezon St. John the Baptist Lodge No.39, Exeter, Famous churches The Catholic Church in Ein Kerem on the site where John the Baptist is said to have been born. Two different Churches of St. John the Baptist in Ein Karem, traditional place of his birth Armenian Apostolic Church of St. John the Baptist, Gandzasar Monastery, Nagorno Karabakh Basilica of St. John Lateran St. John the Baptist of Coventry St. John the Baptist at St. John's, Newfoundland (Basilica-cathedral) San Giovanni Battista di Rimini (cathedral) San Giovanni Battista di Torino (cathedral) Saint-Jean-Baptiste d'Audresselles St. John's Cathedral of Valletta Saint-John-Baptiste Located on Christian Quarter Road, Old City , Jerusalem Church of St. John the Baptist, Mudgee, New South Wales, Australia St. John's (Episcopal) Church, Elizabeth, New Jersey, where the youngest signer of the United States Constitution is buried, Jonathan Dayton, and the 1769 wedding site of the parents of Elizabeth Ann Seton (first American Roman Catholic saint) Chapel of St. John the Baptist (Capela de São João Baptista), 18th century, at the time an expensive chapel in Europe. It is in the Igreja de São Roque (Lisbon) Cathedral of St John the Baptist, Warsaw, Poland. Coronation and Burial Site of Stanislaw August Poniatowski, last King of Poland. Monastery of St John The Baptist Bigorski, Macedonia. Built in 1020, destroyed by the Turks in the XVIth century and then rebuilt in 1743. Famous for its iconostasis. Cathedral of St John the Baptist in Charleston, South Carolina St. John the Evangilist Parish (Bergenfield, NJ) Festivity In many mediterranean countries the summer solstice is dedicated to St. John. The associated ritual is very similar to midsummer celebrations on the anglosaxon world inspired in the celtic festivity of Samhain. See also Johannite Baptism of Jesus Prophets of Islam Ebionites Beheading of John the Baptist Cultural and historical background of Jesus John the Baptist as patron saint of the eremitic Roman Catholic order of Carthusians. References Notes Books on John the Baptist Brooks Hansen (2009) John the Baptizer: A Novel. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-06947-1 Murphy, Catherine M. (2003) John the Baptist: Prophet of Purity for a New Age. Collegeville: Liturgical Press. ISBN 0-8146-5933-0 Taylor, Joan E. (1997) The Immerser: John the Baptist within Second Temple Judaism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-4236-4 Webb, Robert L. (1991) John the Baptizer and Prophet: a Socio-Historical Study. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1597529860 (first published Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991) Accounts in ancient literature Josephus wrote that "...Herod slew him, who was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness towards one another and piety towards God, and so to come to baptism." (Josephus, AJ, 18.5.2) Passages in the Qur'an Appraisals for Yahya: 6:85, 19:7, 19:12, 19:13, 19:14, 19:15 Yahya's prophecy: 3:39, 6:85, 19:12 External links Catholic Encyclopedia: St. John the Baptist "John the Baptist" from the Jewish Encyclopedia'' Prophet Yahya (John) in the light of Islamic tradition. Relics of John the Baptist Gandzasar Monastery, Nagorno Karabakh

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Bacteriophage

This article is about a biological infectious particle; for other uses, see phage (disambiguation). The structure of a typical bacteriophage A bacteriophage (from 'bacteria' and Greek φάγειν phagein "to eat") is any one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria. The term is commonly used in its shortened form, phage. Typically, bacteriophages consist of an outer protein capsid enclosing genetic material. The genetic material can be ssRNA, dsRNA, ssDNA, or dsDNA ('ss-' or 'ds-' prefix denotes single strand or double strand) between 5,000 and 500,000 nucleotides long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are much smaller than the bacteria they destroy - usually between 20 and 200 nm in size. Phages are estimated to be the most widely distributed and diverse entities in the biosphere. Phages are ubiquitous and can be found in all reservoirs populated by bacterial hosts, such as soil or the intestines of animals. One of the densest natural sources for phages and other viruses is sea water, where up to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface, and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages. Prescott, L. (1993). Microbiology, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, ISBN 0-697-01372-3 They have been used for over 60 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. BBC Horizon (1997): The Virus that Cures - Documentary about the history of phage medicine in Russia and the West They are seen as a possible therapy against multi drug resistant strains of many bacteria. Classification of phages The dsDNA tailed phages, or Caudovirales, account for 95% of all the phages reported in the scientific literature, and possibly make up the majority of phages on the planet. However, there are other phages that occur abundantly in the biosphere, phages with different virions, genomes and lifestyles. Phages are classified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) according to morphology and nucleic acid. + ICTV classification of phages Order Family Morphology Nucleic acid Caudovirales Myoviridae Non-enveloped, contractile tail Linear dsDNA Siphoviridae Non-enveloped, long non-contractile tail Linear dsDNA Podoviridae Non-enveloped, short noncontractile tail Linear dsDNA Tectiviridae Non-enveloped, isometric Linear dsDNA Corticoviridae Non-enveloped, isometric Circular dsDNA Lipothrixviridae Enveloped, rod-shaped Linear dsDNA Plasmaviridae Enveloped, pleomorphic Circular dsDNA Rudiviridae Non-enveloped, rod-shaped Linear dsDNA Fuselloviridae Non-enveloped, lemon-shaped Circular dsDNA Inoviridae Non-enveloped, filamentous Circular ssDNA Microviridae Non-enveloped, isometric Circular ssDNA Leviviridae Non-enveloped, isometric Linear ssRNA Cystoviridae Enveloped, spherical Segmented dsRNA History Since ancient times, there have been documented reports of river water having the ability to cure infectious diseases, such as leprosy. In 1896, Ernest Hanbury Hankin reported that something in the waters of the Ganges and Jumna rivers in India had marked antibacterial action against cholera and could pass through a very fine porcelain filter. In 1915, British bacteriologist Frederick Twort, superintendent of the Brown Institution of London, discovered a small agent that infected and killed bacteria. He considered the agent either 1) a stage in the life cycle of the bacteria, 2) an enzyme produced by the bacteria themselves or 3) a virus that grew on and destroyed the bacteria. Twort's work was interrupted by the onset of World War I and shortage of funding. Independently, French-Canadian microbiologist Félix d'Hérelle, working at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, announced on September 3, 1917 that he had discovered "an invisible, antagonistic microbe of the dysentery bacillus". For d’Hérelle, there was no question as to the nature of his discovery: "In a flash I had understood: what caused my clear spots was in fact an invisible microbe ... a virus parasitic on bacteria." D'Hérelle called the virus a bacteriophage or bacteria-eater (from the Greek phagein meaning to eat). He also recorded a dramatic account of a man suffering from dysentery who was restored to good health by the bacteriophages. In 1926 in the Pulitzer-prizewinning novel Arrowsmith, Sinclair Lewis fictionalized the application of bacteriophages as a therapeutic agent. Also in the 1920s the Eliava Institute was opened in Tbilisi, Georgia to research this new science and put it into practice. In 2006 the UK Ministry of Defence took responsibility for a G8-funded Global Partnership Priority Eliava Project as a retrospective study to explore the potential of bacteriophages for the 21st century. Replication Bacteriophages may have a lytic cycle or a lysogenic cycle, but a few viruses are capable of carrying out both. With lytic phages such as the T4 phage, bacterial cells are broken open (lysed) and destroyed after immediate replication of the virion. As soon as the cell is destroyed, the new bacteriophages viruses can find new hosts. Lytic phages are the kind suitable for phage therapy. In contrast, the lysogenic cycle does not result in immediate lysing of the host cell. Those phages able to undergo lysogeny are known as temperate phages. Their viral genome will integrate with host DNA and replicate along with it fairly harmlessly, or may even become established as a plasmid. The virus remains dormant until host conditions deteriorate, perhaps due to depletion of nutrients, then the endogenous phages (known as prophages) become active. At this point they initiate the reproductive cycle resulting in lysis of the host cell. As the lysogenic cycle allows the host cell to continue to survive and reproduce, the virus is reproduced in all of the cell’s offspring. Sometimes prophages may provide benefits to the host bacterium while they are dormant by adding new functions to the bacterial genome in a phenomenon called lysogenic conversion. A famous example is the conversion of a harmless strain of Vibrio cholerae by a phage into a highly virulent one, which causes cholera. This is why temperate phages are not suitable for phage therapy. Attachment and penetration A colored electron micrograph of multiple bacteriophages An electron micrograph of bacteriophages attached to a bacterial cell. These viruses are the size and shape of coliphage T1 To enter a host cell, bacteriophages attach to specific receptors on the surface of bacteria, including lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids, proteins or even flagella. This specificity means that a bacteriophage can only infect certain bacteria bearing receptors that they can bind to, which in turn determines the phage's host range. As phage virions do not move independently, they must rely on random encounters with the right receptors when in solution (blood, lymphatic circulation, irrigation, soil water etc.). Complex bacteriophages use a syringe-like motion to inject their genetic material into the cell. After making contact with the appropriate receptor, the tail fibers bring the base plate closer to the surface of the cell. Once attached completely, the tail contracts, possibly with the help of ATP present in the tail (Prescott, 1993), injecting genetic material through the bacterial membrane. Synthesis of proteins and nucleic acid Within minutes, bacterial ribosomes start translating viral mRNA into protein. For RNA-based phages, RNA replicase is synthesized early in the process. Proteins modify the bacterial RNA polymerase so that it preferentially transcribes viral mRNA. The host’s normal synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids is disrupted, and it is forced to manufacture viral products instead. These products go on to become part of new virions within the cell, helper proteins which help assemble the new virions, or proteins involved in cell lysis. Walter Fiers (University of Ghent, Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a gene (1972) and of the viral genome of Bacteriophage MS2 (1976). Fiers W et al., Complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA - primary and secondary structure of replicase gene, Nature, 260, 500-507, 1976 Virion assembly In the case of the T4 phage, the construction of new virus particles involves the assistance of helper proteins. The base plates are assembled first, with the tails being built upon them afterwards. The head capsids, constructed separately, will spontaneously assemble with the tails. The DNA is packed efficiently within the heads. The whole process takes about 15 minutes. Diagram of bacteriophage structure Release of virions Phages may be released via cell lysis, by extrusion, or, in a few cases, by budding. Lysis, by tailed phages, is achieved by an enzyme called endolysin which attacks and breaks down the cell wall peptidoglycan. An altogether different phage type, the filamentous phages, make the host cell continually secrete new virus particles. Released virions are described as free and unless defective are capable of infecting a new bacterium. Budding is associated with certain Mycoplasma phages. In contrast to virion release, phages displaying a lysogenic cycle do not kill the host but, rather, become long-term residents as prophage. Phage therapy Phages were discovered to be anti-bacterial agents and put to use as such soon after they were discovered, with varying success. However, antibiotics were discovered some years later and marketed widely, popular because of their broad spectrum; also easier to manufacture in bulk, store and prescribe. Hence development of phage therapy was largely abandoned in the West, but continued throughout 1940s in the former Soviet Union for treating bacterial infections, with widespread use including the soldiers in the Red Army - much of the literature being in Russian or Georgian, and unavailable for many years in the West. This has continued after the Cold War, with widespread use continuing in Georgia and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. There is anecdotal evidence there, but no completed clinical trials in the U.S. or Western Europe. Meanwhile, Western scientists are developing engineered viruses to overcome antibiotic resistance, and experimenting with tumor-suppressing agents. Bacteriophages in the environment Some time ago it was detected that phages are much more abundant in the water column of freshwater and marine habitats than previously thought and that they can cause significant mortality of bacterioplankton. Methods in phage community ecology have been developed to assess phage-induced mortality of bacterioplankton and its role for food web process and biogeochemical cycles, to genetically fingerprint phage communities or populations and estimate viral biodiversity by metagenomics. The release of lysis products by phages converts organic carbon from particulate (cells) to dissolved forms (lysis products), which makes organic carbon more bio-available and thus acts as a catalyst of geochemical nutrient cycles. Phages are not only the most abundant biological entities but probably also the most diverse ones. The majority of the sequence data obtained from phage communities has no equivalent in databases. These data and other detailed analyses indicate that phage-specific genes and ecological traits are much more frequent than previously thought. In order to reveal the meaning of this genetic and ecological versatility, studies have to be performed with communities and at spatiotemporal scales relevant for microorganisms. Bacteriophages have also been used in hydrological tracing and modelling in river systems especially where surface water and groundwater interactions occur. The use of phages is preferred to the more conventional dye marker because they are significantly less absorbed when passing through ground-waters and they are readily detected at very low concentrations. C. Martin (1988) The Application of Bacteriophage Tracer Techniques in South West Water, Water and Environment Journal 2 (6) , 638–642 Bacteriophages and food fermentation A broad number of food products, commodity chemicals, and biotechnology products are manufactured industrially by large-scale bacterial fermentation of various organic substrates. Because enormous amounts of bacteria are being cultivated each day in large fermentation vats, the risk that bacteriophage contamination rapidly brings fermentations to a halt and cause economical setbacks is a serious threat in these industries. The relationship between bacteriophages and their bacterial hosts is very important in the context of the food fermentation industry. Sources of phage contamination, measures to control their propagation and dissemination, and biotechnological defense strategies developed to restrain phages are of interest. The dairy fermentation industry has openly acknowledged the problem of phage and has been working with academia and starter culture companies to develop defense strategies and systems to curtail the propagation and evolution of phages for decades. Other areas of use In August, 2006 the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved using bacteriophages on cheese to kill the Listeria monocytogenes bacteria, giving them GRAS status (Generally Recognized As Safe). U.S. FDA/CFSAN: Agency Response Letter: GRAS Notice No. GRN 000198 In July 2007, the same bacteriophages were approved for use on all food products. U.S. FDA/CFSAN: Agency Response Letter: GRAS Notice No. GRN 000218 Government agencies in the West have for several years been looking to Georgia and the Former Soviet Union for help with exploiting phages for counteracting bioweapons and toxins e.g. Anthrax, Botulism. There are many developments with this amongst research groups in the US. Other uses include spray application in horticulture for protecting plants and vegetable produce from decay and the spread of bacterial disease. Other applications for bacteriophages are as a biocide for environmental surfaces e.g. hospitals - and as a preventative treatment for catheters and medical devices prior to use in clinical settings. The technology now exists for phages to be applied to dry surfaces e.g. uniforms, curtains - even sutures for surgery. Clinical trials reported in the Lancet show success in veterinary treatment of pet dogs with otitis. Phage display is a different use of phages. It is a powerful yet simple technique involving a library of phages with a variable peptide linked to a surface protein. Each phage's genome encodes the variant of the protein displayed on its surface (hence the name), providing a link between the peptide variant and its encoding gene. Variant phages from the library can be selected through their binding affinity to an immobilized molecule (e.g. Botulism toxin) to neutralize it. The bound selected phages can be multiplied by re-infecting a susceptible bacterial strain, thus allowing them to retrieve the peptides encoded in them for further study. Model bacteriophages Following is a list of bacteriophages that are extensively studied: λ phage - Lysogen T2 phage T4 phage (169 to 170 kbp, 200 nm long) T7 phage T12 phage R17 phage M13 phage MS2 phage (23-25 nm in size) G4 phage P1 phage P2 phage P4 phage Phi X 174 phage N4 phage Φ6 phage Φ29 phage 186 phage See also RNA viruses DNA viruses Phage ecology Phage monographs (a comprehensive listing of phage and phage-associated monographs, 1921-present) Phage scientific meetings Bacterivore References External links Häusler, T. (2006) "Viruses vs. Superbugs", Macmillan Phage.org general information on bacteriophages Felix d'Hérelle Reference Center for Bacterial Viruses August 2007 news article from the BBC http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1079784 BBC Horizon (1997): The Virus that Cures - Documentary about the history of phage medicine in Russia and the West NPR Science Friday podcast, "Using 'Phage' Viruses to Help Fight Infection", April 2008 Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy Animation by Hybrid Animation Medical for a T4 Bacteriophage targeting E. coli bacteria. Community curation of Phage Genomes at www.EcoliHub.org/EcoliWiki

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Guy_de_Maupassant

Henri René Albert Guy de Maupassant () (5 August 1850 – 6 July 1893) was a popular 19th-century French writer and considered one of the fathers of the modern short story. A protégé of Flaubert, Maupassant's stories are characterized by their economy of style and their efficient, effortless dénouement. Many of the stories are set during the Franco-Prussian War of the 1870s and several describe the futility of war and the innocent civilians who, caught in the conflict, emerge changed. He also wrote six short novels. Biography Maupassant was most likely born at the Chateau de Miromesnil, near Dieppe in the Seine-Inférieure (now Seine-Maritime) department. The Maupassants were an old Lorraine family who had settled in Normandy in the middle of the 18th century. In 1846 his father had married Laure Le Poittevin. With her brother Alfred, she had been the playmate of the novelist Gustave Flaubert, who was destined to have a guiding influence on her son's life. She was a woman of no common literary accomplishments, but was very fond of classic literature, especially Shakespeare. After separating from her husband, Le Poittevin kept her two sons, the elder Guy and younger Hervé. Until the age of thirteen, Guy happily lived with his mother, to whom he was deeply devoted, at Étretat, in the Villa des Verguies, where between the sea and the luxuriant countryside, he grew very fond of fishing and outdoor activities; he went fishing with the fishermen off the coast and spoke Norman with the peasants. At the age of 14 he ate roast monkey with Algernon Charles Swinburne, the famous poet. As he entered junior high school, he met the great author Gustave Flaubert. He first entered a seminary at Yvetot, but deliberately got himself expelled. From his early education he retained a marked hostility to religion. Then he was sent to the Rouen Lycée, where he proved a good scholar indulging in poetry and taking a prominent part in theatricals. The Franco-Prussian War broke out soon after his graduation from college in 1870; he enlisted as a volunteer and fought bravely. Afterwards, in 1871, he left Normandy and moved to Paris where he spent ten years as a clerk in the Navy Department. During these ten tedious years his only recreation and relaxation was canoeing on the Seine on Sundays and holidays. Gustave Flaubert took him under his protection and acted as a kind of literary guardian to him, guiding his debut in journalism and literature. At Flaubert's home he met Émile Zola and the Russian novelist Ivan Turgenev, as well as many of the protagonists of the realist and naturalist schools. In 1878 he was transferred to the Ministry of Public Instruction and became a contributing editor of several leading newspapers such as Le Figaro, Gil Blas, Le Gaulois and l'Echo de Paris. He devoted his spare time to writing novels and short stories. In 1880 he published what is considered his first masterpiece, "Boule de Suif", which met with an instant and tremendous success. Flaubert characterized it as "a masterpiece that will endure." This was Maupassant's first piece of short fiction set during the Franco-Prussian War, and was followed by short stories such as "Deux Amis," "Mother Savage," and "Mademoiselle Fifi." The decade from 1880 to 1891 was the most fertile period of Maupassant's life. Made famous by his first short story, he worked methodically and produced two or sometimes four volumes annually. He combined talent and practical business sense, which made him wealthy. In 1881 he published his first volume of short stories under the title of La Maison Tellier; it reached its twelfth edition within two years; in 1883 he finished his first novel, Une Vie (translated into English as A Woman's Life), 25,000 copies of which were sold in less than a year. In his novels, he concentrated all his observations scattered in his short stories. His second novel Bel-Ami, which came out in 1885, had thirty-seven printings in four months. His editor, Havard, commissioned him to write new masterpieces and Maupassant continued to produce them without the slightest apparent effort. At this time he wrote what many consider to be his greatest novel, Pierre et Jean. With a natural aversion to society, he loved retirement, solitude, and meditation. He traveled extensively in Algeria, Italy, England, Brittany, Sicily, Auvergne, and from each voyage he brought back a new volume. He cruised on his private yacht "Bel-Ami," named after his earlier novel. This feverish life did not prevent him from making friends among the literary celebrities of his day: Alexandre Dumas, fils had a paternal affection for him; at Aix-les-Bains he met Hippolyte Taine and fell under the spell of the philosopher-historian. Flaubert continued to act as his literary godfather. His friendship with the Goncourts was of short duration; his frank and practical nature reacted against the ambience of gossip, scandal, duplicity, and invidious criticism that the two brothers had created around them in the guise of an 18th-century style salon. Maupassant was but one of a fair number of 19th-century Parisians who did not care for the Eiffel tower; indeed, he often ate lunch in the restaurant at its base, not out of any preference for the food, but because it was only there that he could avoid seeing its otherwise unavoidable profile. Barthes, Roland. The Eiffel Tower and Other Mythologies. Tr. Howard, Richard. Berkeley:University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20982-4. Page 1. Moreover, he and forty-six other Parisian literary and artistic notables attached their names to letter of protest, ornate as it was irate, against the tower's construction to the then Minister of Public Works. Harriss, Joseph. The Tallest Tower. Unlimited Publishing LLC, 2004. ISBN 1-58832-102-9. Pages 15, 16. In his later years he developed a constant desire for solitude, an obsession for self-preservation, and a fear of death and crazed paranoia of persecution, that came from the syphilis he had contracted in his early days. On January 2, in 1892, Maupassant tried to commit suicide by cutting his throat and was committed to the celebrated private asylum of Dr. Esprit Blanche at Passy, in Paris, where he died on July 6, 1893. Guy De Maupassant penned his own epitaph: "I have coveted everything and taken pleasure in nothing." He is buried in Section 26 of the Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris. Significance Maupassant is considered one of the fathers of the modern short story. He delighted in clever plotting, and served as a model for Somerset Maugham and O. Henry in this respect. His stories about real or fake jewels ("La Parure", "Les Bijoux") are imitated with a twist by Maugham ("Mr Know-All", "A String of Beads") and Henry James. Taking his cue from Balzac, Maupassant wrote comfortably in both the high-Realist and fantastic modes; stories and novels such as "L'Héritage" and Bel-Ami aim to recreate Third Republic France in a realistic way, whereas many of the short stories (notably "Le Horla", cited as an inspiration for H. P. Lovecraft's "The Call of Cthulhu", and "Qui sait?") describe apparently supernatural phenomena. The supernatural in Maupassant, however, is often implicitly a symptom of the protagonists' troubled minds; Maupassant was fascinated by the burgeoning discipline of psychiatry, and attended the public lectures of Jean-Martin Charcot between 1885 and 1886. Pierre Bayard, Maupassant, juste avant Freud (Paris: Minuit, 1998) This interest is reflected in his fiction. Criticism De Maupassant is notable as the subject of one of Leo Tolstoy's essays on art: "The Works of Guy de Maupassant." Bibliography Novels Une vie (1883) Bel-Ami (1885) Mont-Oriol (1887) Pierre et Jean (1888) Fort comme la mort (1889) Notre Coeur (1890) Short story collections Les Soirées de Médan (with Zola, Huysmans et al. Contains Boule de Suif" by Maupassant) (1880) La Maison Tellier (1881) Mademoiselle Fifi (1882) Contes de la bécasse (1883) Miss Harriet (1884) Les Soeurs Rondoli (1884) Clair de lune (1884) (contains "Les Bijoux") Yvette (1884) Toine (1885) Contes du jour et de la nuit (1885) (contains "La Parure" or "The Necklace") Monsieur Parent (1886) La petite Roque (1886) Le Horla (1887) Le Rosier de Madame Husson (1888) La Main gauche (1889) L'Inutile Beauté (1890) Travel writing Au soleil (1884) Sur l'eau (1888) La Vie errante (1890) Poetry Des Vers (1880) References External links Maupassant online site Searchable online index of author's works Guy de Maupassant's works: text, concordances and frequency list Some of his works as free audiobooks His entire works as free audiobooks (in French) Web site in Spanish of Guy de Maupassant

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