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6,000	Civil_defense	The international distinctive sign of civil defense, defined by the rules of International Humanitarian Law and to be used as a protective sign Civil defense, civil defence (see spelling differences) or civil protection is an effort to prepare civilians for military attack. It uses the principles of emergency operations: prevention, mitigation, preparation, response, or emergency evacuation, and recovery. Programmes of this sort were initially discussed at least as early as the 1920s but only became widespread after the threat of nuclear weapons was realized. Since the end of the Cold War, the focus of civil defense has largely shifted from military attack to emergencies and disasters in general. The new concept is described by a number of terms, each of which has its own specific shade of meaning, such as crisis management, emergency management, emergency preparedness, contingency planning, emergency services, and civil protection. In some countries, the all-encompassing nature of civil defense is denoted by the term "total defense" such as the Swedish word totalförsvar. The name suggests committing all resources, hence the term total, of the nation to the defense. History Civil Defense literature such as Fallout Protection were common during the cold war era. In most of the NATO states, such as the United States, the United Kingdom or Germany as well as the [then] Soviet Bloc, and especially in the neutral countries, such as Switzerland and in Sweden during the 1950s and 60s, many civil defense practices took place to prepare for the aftermath of a nuclear war, which seemed quite likely at that time. Such efforts were opposed by the Catholic Worker Movement and by peace activists such as Ralph DiGia , on the grounds that these programs gave the public false confidence that they could survive a nuclear war. There was never strong civil defense policy because it fundamentally violated the doctrine of "mutual assured destruction" (M.A.D.) by making provisions for survivors. Also, a fully fledged total defense would have been too expensive. Above all, compared to the power of destruction a defense would have been ineffective. In the M.A.D. doctrine, there are not supposed to be any survivors for a civil defense system to assist (thus the acronym). Governments in the West sought to implement civil defense measures against nuclear war in the face of popular apathy and scepticism. Public Service Accouncements including children's songs were created by government institutes and then distributed and released by radio stations to educate the public in case of nuclear attack. Civil Defense & CONELRAD recordings During the Cold War, civil defense was seen largely as defending against and recovering from an attack involving nuclear weapons. After the end of the Cold War, the focus moved from defense against nuclear war to defense against a terrorist attack possibly involving chemical or biological weapons; in the context of the United States this eventually led to the replacement of the United States civil defense with the Federal Emergency Management Agency. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, in the United States the concept of civil defense has been revisited under the umbrella term of homeland security and all-hazards emergency management. In Europe, the triangle CD logo continues to be widely used. The old US civil defense logo was used in the FEMA logo until recently and is hinted at in the United States Civil Air Patrol logo. Created in 1939 by Charles Coiner of the N. W. Ayer Advertising Agency, it was used throughout World War II and the Cold War era. In 2006, the National Emergency Management Association — a U.S. organization made up of state emergency managers — officially retired the Civil Defense triangle logo, replacing it with a stylized EM (standing for Emergency management). The term "civil protection" is currently widely used within the European Union to refer to government-approved systems and resources tasked with protecting the civilian population, primarily in the event of natural and technological disasters. In recent years there has been emphasis on preparedness for technological disasters resulting from terrorist attack. Within EU countries the term crisis management emphasises the political and security dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs of the civilian population. In Australia, civil defense is the responsibility of the volunteer-based State Emergency Service. Importance Relatively small investments in preparation can speed up recovery by months or years and thereby prevent millions of deaths by hunger, cold and disease. According to human capital theory in economics, a country's population is more valuable than all of the land, factories and other assets that it possesses. People rebuild a country after its destruction, and it is therefore important for the economic security of a country that it protect its people. Also, reducing fear and uncertainty via civil defense helps people's quality of life and has positive economic benefits. According to psychology, it is important for people to feel like they are in control of their own destiny, and preparing for uncertainty via civil defense may help to achieve this. If the people are not in control, and the preparations ineffective, the government loses its credibility and the respect of its citizens. Threat assessment Threats to civilians and civilian life include nuclear threats, biological threats, chemical threats, and others. Threat assessment involves studying each threat so that preventative measures can be built into civilian life. Conventional This would be conventional explosives. Shelter intended to protect against nuclear blast effects would include thick concrete and other sturdy elements which are resistant to conventional explosives. A shelter designed to protect only from radiation and fallout, however, would be much more vulnerable to conventional explosives. Nuclear The biggest threats from a nuclear attack are effects from the blast, fires and radiation. One of the most prepared countries for a nuclear attack is Switzerland. Almost every building in Switzerland has an abri (shelter) against the initial nuclear bomb and explosion followed by the fallout. Because of this, many people use it as a safe to protect valuables, photos, financial information and so on. Switzerland also has air-raid and nuclear raid sirens in every village. Dirty Bomb A "radiologically enhanced weapon", or "dirty bomb" uses an explosive to spread radioactive material. This is a theoretical risk, and such weapons have not been used by terrorists. Depending on the quantity of the radioactive material, the dangers may be mainly psychological. Toxic effects can be managed by standard hazmat techniques. Biological The threat here is primarily from disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. Chemical Various chemical agents are a threat such as nerve gas (VX, Sarin, etc.). Other There are many other possible threats besides these, for example the invasion of enemy troops and armed warfare. Stages Mitigation A United States civil defense patch from Cuyahoga County, Ohio Civil defense logo on an Air raid siren in Topeka, Kansas. Civil Defense logo on a Thunderbolt 1003 siren. Mitigation is the process of actively preventing the war or the release of nuclear weapons. It includes policy analysis, diplomacy, political measures, nuclear disarmament and more military responses such as a National Missile Defense and air defense artillery. In the case of counter-terrorism, mitigation would include diplomacy, intelligence gathering and direct action against terrorist groups. Mitigation may also be reflected in long-term planning such as the design of the interstate highway system and the placement of military bases further away from populated areas. Preparation Preparation consists of building blast shelters, and pre-positioning information, supplies and emergency infrastructure. For example, most larger cities in the U.S. now have underground emergency operations centers that can perform civil defense coordination. FEMA also has many underground facilities located near major railheads such as the one in Denton, Texas and Mount Weather, Virginia for the same purpose. Other measures would include continuous government inventories of grain silos, the Strategic National Stockpile, the uncapping of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, the dispersal of truck-transportable bridges, water purification, mobile refineries, mobile decontamination facilities, mobile general and special purpose disaster mortuary facilities such as DMORT and DMORT-WMD, and other aids such as temporary housing to speed civil recovery. On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to nuclear fallout is to obtain potassium iodide (KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against alpha particles, which are only an internal hazard. To support and supplement efforts at national, regional and local level with regard to disaster prevention, the preparedness of those responsible for civil protection and the intervention in the event of disaster To establish a framework for effective and rapid cooperation between different civil protection services when mutual assistance is needed (police, fire service, healthcare service, public utility provider, voluntary agencies). To set up and implement training programs for intervention and coordination teams as well as assessment experts including joint courses and exchange systems. To enhance the coherence of actions undertaken at international level in the field of civil protection especially in the context of cooperation. Preparing also includes sharing information: To contribute to the information of the public in view of increasing the level of self-protection of citizens To collect and disseminate validated emergency information To pool information on national civil protection capabilities, military and medical resources. To ensure efficient information sharing between the different authorities. Response This Federal Signal SD-10 in Los Angeles shows signs of neglect. Response consists first of warning civilians so they can enter Fallout Shelters and protect assets. Staffing a response is always full of problems in a civil defense emergency. After an attack, conventional full-time emergency services are dramatically overloaded, with conventional fire fighting response times often exceeding several days. Some capability is maintained by local and state agencies, and an emergency reserve is provided by specialized military units, especially civil affairs, Military Police, Judge Advocates and combat engineers. However, the traditional response to massed attack on civilian population centers is to maintain a mass-trained force of volunteer emergency workers. Studies in World War II showed that lightly trained (40 hours or less) civilians in organized teams can perform up to 95% of emergency activities when trained, liaised and supported by local government. In this plan, the populace rescues itself from most situations, and provides information to a central office to prioritize professional emergency services. In the 1990s, this concept was revived by the Los Angeles Fire Department to cope with civil emergencies such as earthquakes. The program was widely adopted, providing standard terms for organization. In the U.S., this is now official federal policy, and it is implemented by community emergency response teams, under the Department of Homeland Security, which certifies training programs by local governments, and registers "certified disaster service workers" who complete such training. Recovery Recovery consists of rebuilding damaged infrastructure, buildings and production. The recovery phase is the longest and ultimately most expensive phase. Once the immediate "crisis" has passed, cooperation fades away and recovery efforts are often politicized or seen as economic opportunities. Preparation for recovery can be very helpful. If mitigating resources are dispersed before the attack, cascades of social failures can be prevented. One hedge against bridge damage in riverine cities is to subsidize a "tourist ferry" that performs scenic cruises on the river. When a bridge is down, the ferry takes up the load. Implementation Some advocates believe that government should change building codes to require autonomous buildings in order to reduce civil societies' dependence on complex, fragile networks of social services. An example of a crucial need after a general nuclear attack would be the fuel required to transport every other item for recovery. However, oil refineries are large, immobile, and probable targets. One proposal is to preposition truck-mounted fuel refineries near oil fields and bulk storage depots. Other critical infrastructure needs would include road and bridge repair, communications, electric power, food production, and potable water. Civil Defense organizations The old United States civil defense logo. The triangle emphasized the 3-step Civil Defense philosophy used before the foundation of FEMA and Comprehensive Emergency Management. Civil Defense is also the name of a number of organizations around the world dedicated to protecting civilians from military attacks, as well as to providing rescue services after natural and human-made disasters alike. In a few countries such as Jordan and Singapore (see Singapore Civil Defence Force), civil defense is essentially the same organization as the fire brigade. In most countries however, civil defense is a government-managed, volunteer-staffed organization, separate from the fire brigade and the ambulance service. As the threat of Cold War eased, a number of such civil defense organizations have been disbanded or mothballed (as in the United Kingdom and the United States civil defense), while others have changed their focuses into providing rescue services after natural disasters (as for the State Emergency Service in Australia). However the ideals of Civil Defense have been brought back in the United States under FEMA's Citizens Corps and CERT. In Ireland, the Civil Defence is still very much an active organisation and is occasionally called upon for its Auxiliary Fire Service and ambulance/rescue services when emergencies such as flash flooding occur and require additional manpower. The organisation has units of trained firemen and medical responders based in key areas around the country. See also Atomic Cafe Blast shelter Civil Air Patrol Civil Defence Corps Civil Defence Ireland Civil defense geiger counters Civil defense siren Collective protection Comprehensive Emergency Management Continuity of government CONELRAD Duck and cover Emergency preparedness Fallout shelter Nuclear bombs and health Nuclear warfare Nuclear war survival skills by Cresson Kearny Nuclear weapon Survivalism Transarmament United States civil defense Weapons of mass destruction Notes External links National Civil Defence College, Nagpur INDIA link by Ajoy VU2JHM Protezione Civile Italian Civil Defense Civil Protection (Ministry of Interior, Spain). Civil Protection Villena - Spain Institute of Civil Defence and Disaster Studies Civil Defense Logo dies at 67, and Some Mourn its Passing, The New York Times, 1 December 2006 by David Dunlap. Cold War Era Civil Defense Museum – Features much historical information about Civil Defense history, its equipment and methods, and many historical photographs and posters. Annotated bibliography for civil defense from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues The American Civil Defense Association Comprehensive Emergency Management Reference Material Repository Ready.gov - The official preparedness site of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security "Civil Defence" – A site with details of the UK's Civil Defence preparations, including those implemented during the Cold War such as the Burlington Central Government War HQ., at Corsham, Wiltshire. http://www.lincolnshire.gov.uk/section.asp?catId=2341 The official Civil Defence site for the Republic of Ireland The official Civil Defense site of São Paulo State - Brazil Doctors for Disaster Preparedness Physicians for Civil Defense Dutch civil defense instructions in English Web devoted to all subject related with Civil Protection (Catalonia) Emergency Management Portal - online resources for emergency planners and managers	Civil_defense \|@lemmatized international:3 distinctive:1 sign:3 civil:70 defense:52 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6,001	Cheerleading	Highschool cheerleaders performing a heel stretch. Cheerleading is a sport http://www.cnn.com/2009/US/01/27/cheerleader.lawsuit/ that uses organized routines that range from 1 minute to 3 minutes made from elements of tumbling, dance, jumps, cheers, and stunting to direct spectators of events to cheer on sports teams at games and matches and/or compete at cheerleading competitions. Cheerleaders draw attention to the event and encourage audience participation. The athlete involved is called a cheerleader. Cheerleading originates in the United States, and remains a predominantly American activity, with an estimated 1.5 million participants in allstar cheerleading. The growing presentation of the sport to a global audience has been led by the 1997 start of broadcasts of cheerleading competition by ESPN International and the worldwide release of the 2000 film Bring it On. Due in part to this recent exposure, there are now an estimated 100,000 participants scattered around the rest of the world in countries including Australia, Canada, China, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. History Minnesota Gopher cheerleader Johnny Campbell Princeton graduate Thomas Peebles introduced the idea of organized crowds cheering at football games to the University of Minnesota. However, it was not until 1898 that University of Minnesota student Johnny Campbell directed a crowd in cheering "Rah, Rah, Rah! Sku-u-mar, Hoo-Rah! Hoo-Rah! Varsity! Varsity! Varsity, Minn-e-So-Tah!”, making Campbell the very first cheerleader and November 2, 1898 the official birth date of organized cheerleading. Soon after, the University of Minnesota organized a "yell leader" squad of 6 male students, who still use Campbell's original cheer today In 1903 the first cheerleading fraternity, Gamma Sigma was founded. Cheerleading started out as an all-male activity, but females began participating in 1923, due to limited availability of female collegiate sports. At this time, gymnastics, tumbling, and megaphones were incorporated into popular cheers, and are still used today. Today it is estimated that 97% of cheerleading participants overall are female, but males still make up 50% of cheering squads at the collegiate level. Cornell University cheerleader on a 1906 postcard In 1948, Lawrence "Herkie" Herkimer, of Dallas, TX and a former cheerleader at Southern Methodist University formed the National Cheerleaders Association (NCA) as a way to hold cheerleading clinics. In 1949, The NCA held its first clinic in Huntsville, TX with 52 girls in attendance. "Herkie" contributed many "firsts" to the sport; The founding of Cheerleader & Danz Team uniform supply company, inventing the herkie, (where one leg is bent towards the ground and the other is out to the side as high as it will stretch in the toe touch position) and creating the "Spirit Stick". By the 1960s, college cheerleaders began hosting workshops across the nation, teaching fundamental cheer skills to eager high school age girls. In 1965, Fred Gastoff invented the vinyl pom-pon and it was introduced into competitions by the International Cheerleading Foundation (now the World Cheerleading Association or WCA). Organized cheerleading competitions began to pop up with the first ranking of the "Top Ten College Cheerleading Squads" and "Cheerleader All America" awards given out by the International Cheerleading Foundation in 1967. In 1978, America was introduced to competitive cheerleading by the first broadcast of Collegiate Cheerleading Championships on CBS. In the 1960s National Football League (NFL) teams began to organize professional cheerleading teams. The Baltimore Colts (now the Indianapolis Colts) was the first NFL team to have an organized cheerleading squad. It was the Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders who gained the spotlight with their revealing outfits and sophisticated dance moves, which debuted in the 1972-1973 season, but were first seen widely in Super Bowl X (1976). This caused the image of cheerleaders to permanently change, with many other NFL teams emulating them. Most of the professional teams' cheerleading squads would more accurately be described as dance teams by today's standards; as they rarely, if ever, actively encourage crowd noise or perform modern cheerleading moves. The 1980s saw the onset of modern cheerleading with more difficult stunt sequences and gymnastics being incorporated into routines. ESPN first broadcasted the National High School Cheerleading Competition nationwide in 1983. Cheerleading organizations such as the American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Advisors (AACCA), founded in 1987, started applying universal safety standards to decrease the number of injuries and prevent dangerous stunts, pyramids and tumbling passes from being included in routines. In 2003, the National Council for Spirit Safety and Education (NCSSE) was formed to offer safety training for youth, school, all star and college coaches. The NCAA requires college cheer coaches to successfully complete a nationally recognized safety-training program. The NCSSE or AACCA certification programs are both recognized by the NCAA. Even with its athletic and competitive development, cheerleading at the school level has retained its ties to the spirit leading traditions started back in the 1890s. Cheerleaders are seen as ambassadors for their schools, and leaders among the student body. At the college level, cheerleaders are often invited to help at university fundraisers. Today, cheerleading is most closely associated with American football and basketball. Sports such as association football (soccer), ice hockey, volleyball, baseball, and wrestling sometimes sponsor cheerleading squads. The ICC Twenty20 Cricket World Cup in South Africa in 2007 was the first international cricket event to have cheerleaders. The Florida Marlins were the first Major League Baseball team to have cheerleaders. Debuting in 2003, the "Marlin Mermaids" gained national exposure and have influenced other MLB teams to develop their own cheer/dance squads. Types of teams in the world today School-sponsored Collegiate cheerleaders at a college basketball game. Most American middle schools, high schools, and colleges have organized cheerleading squads made up solely of students. Several colleges that compete at cheerleading competitions offer cheerleading scholarships. Some military academies use their drill team or Color guard team instead of a cheersquad at athletic events, but some military academies have traditional cheerleading squads. Normally, the main reason for school-sponsored cheerleading is to promote school spirit and motivate the players and fans. A cheerleading team may compete outside of sporting events (local, regional, and national competitions), but their main task is to cheer for sporting events and encourage audience participation. Cheerleading is quickly becoming a year round sport starting with tryouts during the spring of the preceding school year, organized camp as a team, practices, attendance at various sporting events and ending with National competition season typically from winter through spring. The tryout process sometimes takes place over several days. The cheerleading coach usually arranges for a cheerleading clinic, during which basic materials are taught or reviewed before the final day of tryouts. This gives returning cheerleaders and new cheerleaders an equal chance of becoming familiar with the material. Skills that coaches look for include jumps, tumbling, motions, and dance ability. Tryouts are usually in the spring, so that the coach has the team chosen in time to attend summer camp as a team. Middle School Cheerleading Middle school cheerleading evolved shortly after high school squads started. In middle school, the squads serve mostly the same functions as high school squads and follow the same rules and regulations http://www.wcpss.net/athletics/middle_school/cheerleading.pdf . The cheerleaders cheer at basketball and football games. They also perform at pep rallies and compete against other schools from local competitions all the way to nationals http://www.mmscheer.com/ . Cheerleading in middle school is a two-season sport, taking place in the fall and winter. High school cheerleaders performing a K Pyramid High School Cheerleading In high school, there are usually two squads per school—a Varsity and a Junior Varsity. High School Cheerleading consists of a school spirit aspect and the competition aspect. These squads have become a part of a year round sport, starting with tryouts in the spring, to year round practice, to sporting events to cheer at in the fall and winter, and to cheerleading competitions. The school spirit aspect of cheerleading involves cheering, supporting, and “pumping up” the crowd at football games, basketball games, even wrestling meets. With this they also make posters, perform at pep rallies, and bring school spirit to the other students. The competition aspect makes cheerleading its own sport. There are year-round practices, cheer camps, and competitions through the fall and winter. There are different cheer organizations that put on these competitions, some of the major ones include a state competition and regionals competitions. The regional competitions are the qualifiers for the national competitions, such as the UCA (Universal Cheerleaders Association) in Orlando, Florida every year Universal Cheerleaders Association (UCA) 2008. 7 December 2008. http://uca.varsity.com . The competition aspect of cheer can be very enduring, styles and rules changing every year make it important and difficult to find the newest and hottest up coming routines AACCA American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Administrators. 2008. 7 December 2008. http://www.aacca.org/ . For list of rules visit AACCA (American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Administrators) Routines usually last around 2 minutes and 30 seconds and require cheer, dance, jumps, tumbling, and stunting portions. Not all high school cheerleading squads compete in competitions, but all support their schools. All cheerleaders dress in matching uniforms. They do this to look "together" and like a team when performing. "2008 Sun Prairie Coed ESPN Performance." YouTube. 2008. 7 December 2008. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Y4jFwmIwhY . Collegiate cheerleaders perform a high splits pyramid during a college football game College Cheerleading Most colleges and universities have a cheerleading squad. Most squads are coed (consisting of both men and women), but all-girl college squads are growing in rapid numbers in an effort to give female cheerleaders (especially female bases) who have cheered on an all-girl high school or all-star squads an opportunity to cheer at the collegiate level without making the transition to a coed squad. Unlike high school cheerleading, college squads can perform difficult stunts like rewinds, 2 1/2 high pyramids, and flipping and twisting basket tosses. Most college squads don't compete, but a handful of them compete nationally. Top collegiate squads include the University of Kentucky, the University of Louisville, Morehead State University, Hawai'i Pacific University, the University of Central Florida, the University of Alabama, and Stephen F. Austin State University. Youth league/ Athletic Association Youth Cheerleaders during a football halftime show. Youth Cheer—high school ages and younger—make up the vast majority of cheerleaders and cheer teams. Many organizations that sponsor youth league football or basketball sponsor cheerleading squads as well. Pop Warner organizations are an example of this. The YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) is also a popular sponsor for youth cheerleading leagues, as well as numerous other sports leagues. All-Star cheerleading In the early 1980s, cheerleading squads not associated with a schools or sports leagues, whose main objective was competition, began to emerge. The first organization to call themselves all stars and go to competitions were the Q94 Rockers from Richmond, Virginia, founded in 1982 by Hilda McDaniel. All-star teams competing prior to 1987 were place into the same divisions as teams that represented schools and sports leagues. In 1986 National Cheerleaders Association (NCA) decided to address this situation by creating a separate division for these teams lacking a sponsoring school or athletic association, calling it the 'All-Star Division' and debuting it at their 1987 competitions. As the popularity of these types of teams grew, more and more of them were formed, attending competitions sponsored by many different types of organizations and companies, all using their own set of rules, regulations and divisions. This situation became one of the chief concerns of gym owners. These inconsistencies caused coaches to keep their routines in a constant state of flux, detracting from time that should be utilized to develop skills and provide personal attention to their athletes. More importantly, because the various companies were constantly vying for the competitive edge, safety standards had becoming more and more lax. In some cases, unqualified coaches and inexperienced squads are attempting dangerous stunts as a result of these “expanded” sets of rules. A cheerleading squad performing toe-touches during a routine The USASF was formed in 2003 by these various competition companies to act as the national governing body for all star cheerleading and to create a standard set of rules and judging standards to be followed by all competitions sanctioned by the Federation and ultimately leading to the Cheerleading Worlds. The USASF hosted the first Cheerleading Worlds on Saturday, April 24, 2004. At the same time, cheerleading coaches from all over the country organize themselves for the same rule making purpose, calling themselves the National All Star Cheerleading Coaches Congress (NACCC). In 2005, the NACCC was absorbed by the USASF to become their rule making body. By late 2006, the USASF was ready to expand its reach even further, by facilitating the creation of the International All-Star Federation (IASF), the first international governing body for the sport of cheerleading. An All Star team during a competition Currently all-star cheerleading as sanctioned by the USASF involves a squad of 6-36 females and/or males. The squad prepares year-round for many different competition appearances, but they only actually perform for up to 2½ minutes during their routines. The numbers of competitions a team participates in varies from team to team, but generally, most teams tend to participate in eight-twelve competitions a year. These competitions include locals, which are normally taken place in school gymnasiums, nationals, hosted in big venues all around the U.S. with national champions, and the Cheerleading Worlds, taken place at Disney World in Orlando, Florida. During a competition routine, a squad performs carefully choreographed stunting, tumbling, jumping and dancing to their own custom music. Teams create their routines to an eight-count system and apply that to the music so the team members execute the elements with precise timing and synchronization. Judges at the competition watch for illegal moves from the group or any individual member. Here, an illegal move is something that is not allowed in that division due to difficulty and safety restrictions. More generally, judges look at the difficulty and execution of jumps, stunts and tumbling, synchronization, creativity, the sharpness of the motions, showmanship, and overall routine execution. All-star cheerleaders are placed into divisions, which are grouped based upon age, size of the team, gender of participants, and ability level. The age levels vary from under 4 year of age to 18 years and over. The divisions used by the USASF/IASF are currently Tiny, Mini, Youth, Junior, Junior International, Junior Coed, Senior, Senior coed, Open International and Open. If a team places high enough at selected USASF/IASF sanctioned national competitions, they could be included in the Cheerleading Worlds and compete against teams from all over the world, as well as receive money for placing. Professional Cheerleading There are only a few professional cheerleading leagues around the world. In professional cheerleading, the athletes are all women, and they must be trained as gymnasts and dancers.. In addition to cheering at games and competing, professional cheerleaders also, as teams, do a lot of philanthropy and charity work, modeling, motivational speaking, television performances, and advertising http://nflcheerleader.blogspot.com/2008/10/who-you-gonna-call-ghostbusters.html . Although professional cheerleading leagues exist in multiple countries, there are no Olympic Teams. Professional Cheerleaders cheer for football, basketball, rugby league, soccer, baseball, wrestling, or hockey teams. Some professional leagues include NBA Cheerleading League, NFL Cheerleading League, and CFL Cheerleading League. Famous former cheerleaders Many prominent people in the entertainment, business, and political fields have been cheerleaders. To see the list, go to List of cheerleaders. Cheerleading in popular culture Movies and television Also see List of cheerleaders in fiction The revamped and provocative Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders of the 1970s—and the many imitators that followed—firmly established the cheerleader as an American icon of wholesome sex appeal. In response, a new subgenre of exploitation films suddenly sprang up with titles such as The Cheerleaders (1972), The Swinging Cheerleaders (1974), Revenge of the Cheerleaders (1975), The Pom Pom Girls (1976), Satan's Cheerleaders (1977), and Cheerleaders's Wild Weekend (1979). In addition to R-rated sex comedies and horror films, cheerleaders became a staple of the adult film industry, starting with Debbie Does Dallas (1978) and its four sequels. On television, the made-for-TV movie The Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders (which aired January 14, 1979) starring Jane Seymour was a highly-rated success, spawning the 1980 sequel The Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders II. The Dallas squad was in high demand during the late '70s with frequent appearances on network specials, awards shows, variety programs, commercials, the game show Family Feud and sitcoms such as The Love Boat. The sci-fi sitcom Mork & Mindy also based a 1979 episode around the Denver Broncos cheerleaders with Mork (Robin Williams) trying out for the squad. Cheerleading's increasing popularity in recent decades has made it a prominent feature in high-school themed movies and television shows. The 2000 film Bring It On, about a San Diego high school cheerleading squad called "The Toros", starred real-life former cheerleader Kirsten Dunst. Bring It On was a surprise hit and earned nearly $70 million domestically. It spawned three direct-to-video sequels Bring It On Again in 2003, Bring It On: All or Nothing in 2006, and Bring It On: In It to Win It in 2007. Bring It On was followed in 2001 by another teen cheerleading comedy, Sugar & Spice. In 1993, The Positively True Adventures of the Alleged Texas Cheerleader-Murdering Mom was an acclaimed TV movie which told the true story of Wanda Holloway, the Texas mother whose obsession with her daughter's cheerleading career made headline news. In 2006, Hayden Panettiere, star of Bring It On: All or Nothing, took another cheerleading role as Claire Bennet, the cheerleader with an accelerated healing factor on NBC's hit sci-fi TV series Heroes, launching cheerleading back into the limelight of pop culture. Claire was the main focus of the show's first story arc, featuring the popular catchphrase, "Save the cheerleader, save the world." Her prominent, protagonist role in Heroes was supported by a strong fan-base and provided a positive image for high school cheerleading. In 2006, Cheerleader Nation, was a reality show featured on the channel, Lifetime. Cheerleader Nation is a 60 minute television series based on the Paul Laurence Dunbar High School cheerleading team's ups and downs on the way to nationals, of which they are the three time champions. This show also explains how cheerleading is a tough sport. This show takes place in Lexington, Kentucky. The team is on a quest to win a third national championship. In 2007, the series "Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders: Making the Team" was started to show the process of getting on the pro squad of the Dallas Cowboy cheerleaders. Everything from initial tryouts to workout routines and the difficulties involved was shown. The series was given another year to show the process of getting the 08 Cheerleaders ready. Video games Nintendo has released a pair of video games in Japan for the Nintendo DS, Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan and its sequel Moero! Nekketsu Rhythm Damashii that star teams of male cheer squads, or Ouendan that practice a form of cheerleading. Each of the games' most difficult modes replaces the male characters with female cheer squads that dress in western cheerleading uniforms. The games task the cheer squads with assisting people in desperate need of help by cheering them on and giving them the motivation to succeed. There is also a All Star Cheerleader for the Wii in which you do routines at competitions with the Wiimote & Nunchuck. This is also available for Nintendo DS Sport debate and Leadership Issues There has been debate on whether or not cheerleading truly is a sport. Supporters consider cheerleading, as a whole, a sport, citing the heavy use of athletic talents while critics do not see it as deserving of that status since sport implies a competition among squads and not all squads compete along with subjectivity of competitions. In the UK, there is less of a debate , as the sports councils recognize cheerleading as a sport, they have however yet to assign a national governing body. There are currently two groups applying for the position: British Cheerleading Association, and British Gymnastics. On January 27, 2009 in a lawsuit involving an accidental injury sustained during a cheerleading practice, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that cheerleading is a full-contact sport in that state. http://sports.espn.go.com/highschool/rise/news/story?id=3864291 Dangers of cheerleading The risk of cheerleading was highlighted when Kristi Yamaoka, a cheerleader for Southern Illinois University, suffered from a fractured vertebra after she hit her head after falling from a human pyramid. She also suffered from a concussion, and a bruised lung. The fall occurred when Yamaoka lost her balance during a basketball game between Southern Illinois University and Bradley University at the Savvis Center in St. Louis on March 5 2006. The fall gained "national attention", because Yamaoka continued to perform from a stretcher as she was moved away from the game. Yamaoka has since made a full recovery. The accident caused the Missouri Valley Conference to ban its member schools from allowing cheerleaders to be "launched or tossed and from taking part in formations higher than two levels" for one week during a women's basketball conference tournament, and also resulted in a recommendation by the NCAA that conferences and tournaments do not allow pyramids two and one half levels high or higher, and a stunt known as basket tosses, during the rest of the men's and women's basketball season. On July 11 2006, the bans were made permanent by the AACCA rules committee: The committee unanimously voted for sweeping revisions to cheerleading safety rules, the most major of which restricts specific upper-level skills during basketball games. Basket tosses, 2½ high pyramids, one-arm stunts, stunts that involve twisting or flipping, and twisting tumbling skills may only be performed during halftime and post-game on a matted surface and are prohibited during game play or time-outs. However, there have been far worse catastrophes in the world of cheerleading. Last October, at Los Angeles' John Marshall High School, 17 year-old Patty Phommanyvong became a comatose quadriplegic as the result of a fall to the ground; she later died as a result of the brain injury. Eighteen year-old Jessica Smith suffered a fractured back and neck after hitting the ground during practice at Sacramento City College in California. Most tragically, 20 year-old Lauren Chang died in April 2008 from being kicked in the chest at a cheerleading competition in Worcester, Massachusetts. There was also the 2005 case of Ashley Burns who, at 14 years old, ruptured her spleen. This occurred when she landed stomach down while practicing an airborne spin with her high school cheerleading squad </blockquote> Out of the nation's 2.9 million female high school athletes, only 3% are cheerleaders, yet cheerleading accounts for 65% of all catastrophic injuries in girls' high school athletics. Since the NCAA has yet to recognize cheerleading as an official college sport, there are no solid numbers on college cheerleading, yet when it comes to injuries, 67% of female athlete injuries at the college level are due to cheerleading mishaps. Cheerleading is now considered one of the most dangerous school activities. The main source of injuries comes from stunting, also known as pyramids. These stunts are performed at games and pep rallies, as well as competitions. Sometimes competition routines are focused solely around the use of difficult and risky stunts. These stunts usually include a flyer (the girl on top), along with one or two bases (the girls or boys on the bottom) and, one or two spotters in the front and back on the bottom. The most common cheerleading related injuries are: sprained ankles, sprained wrists, back injuries, head injuries (sometimes concussions), broken arms, elbow injuries, knee injuries, and broken collarbones. The Pediatrics journal reported that the number of cheerleaders suffering from broken bones, concussions, and sprains has increased by over 100 percent between the years of 1990 and 2002. In 2001 there were 25,000 hospital visits reported for cheerleading injuries dealing with the shoulder, ankle, head, and neck. See also List of cheerleaders List of cheerleading jumps List of cheerleading stunts National Football League cheerleading National Basketball Association Cheerleading Canadian Football League Cheerleading Pom-pon UAAP Cheerdance Competition Cheerleader Nation Majorettes Colorguard Gymnastics Dance Aviator Allstars Cheerleaders Ōendan Dance squad References External links International Cheer Union - Building the 1st Cheerleading Olympic Structure (ICU) National Council for Spirit Safety and Education (NCSSE) American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Advisors (AACCA) United States All-Star Federation (USASF) International All Star Federation (IASF) British Cheerleading Association (BCA) UK Cheerleading Association (UKCA) Irish Cheer Sport Association(ICSA) Cheerleading 101: the Basics National Cheer Safety Foundation Comissão Paulista de Cheerleading - São Paulo, Brazil All-Star Cheerleading Coaches' Association In Arkansas France Cheerleading Association (FCA) Thai Cheerleading 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6,002	Hausdorff_maximal_principle	In mathematics, the Hausdorff maximal principle, (also called the Hausdorff maximality theorem) formulated and proved by Felix Hausdorff in 1914, is an alternate and earlier formulation of Zorn's lemma and therefore also equivalent to the axiom of choice. It states that in any partially ordered set, every totally ordered subset is contained in a maximal totally ordered subset (i.e. in a totally ordered subset which, if enlarged in any way, does not remain totally ordered: in general, there are many maximal totally ordered subsets containing a given totally ordered subset). An equivalent (but not obviously so) form of the theorem is that in every partially ordered set there exists a maximal totally ordered subset. Formal statement The theorem can be stated in more formal terms. Let E be the collection of totally ordered subsets of a partially ordered set A. This collection E can itself be turned into a partially ordered system, simply by means of set inclusion, since the elements of E are subsets of A. That is, if , then if x is a subset of y, and so is a partially ordered system. The Hausdorff maximality theorem then states that E has a maximal element. One possible proof of the theorem follows from Zorn's lemma, by noting that the union of a chain in E is again an element of E. References	Hausdorff_maximal_principle \|@lemmatized mathematics:1 hausdorff:4 maximal:5 principle:1 also:2 call:1 maximality:2 theorem:5 formulate:1 prove:1 felix:1 alternate:1 early:1 formulation:1 zorn:2 lemma:2 therefore:1 equivalent:2 axiom:1 choice:1 state:3 partially:5 order:3 set:4 every:2 totally:8 ordered:10 subset:9 contain:2 e:7 enlarge:1 way:1 remain:1 general:1 many:1 give:1 obviously:1 form:1 exist:1 formal:2 statement:1 term:1 let:1 collection:2 turn:1 system:2 simply:1 mean:1 inclusion:1 since:1 element:3 x:1 one:1 possible:1 proof:1 follow:1 note:1 union:1 chain:1 reference:1 \|@bigram hausdorff_maximal:1 zorn_lemma:2 axiom_choice:1 totally_ordered:8 ordered_subset:7 maximal_totally:3
6,003	Hoy	Hoy (from Old Norse Háey meaning high island) is one of the Orkney Islands in Scotland. With an area of , it is the second largest of the Orkney Islands after the Mainland. It is connected by a southern causeway called The Ayre to South Walls. Unusually, the two islands are treated as one entity by the UK census. General Register Office for Scotland (28 Nov 2003) Occasional Paper No 10: Statistics for Inhabited Islands. The dramatic coastline of Hoy is what usually greets visitors travelling to the Orkney Islands by ferry from the Scottish mainland. It has extremes of many kinds: some of the highest cliffs in the UK at St John's Head; the impressive and famous sea stack, the Old Man of Hoy; some of the most northerly surviving natural woodland in the British Isles; the remote possibility that Arctic Char survive in Heldale Water and the most northerly Martello Towers, which were built to defend the area during the Napoleonic War, but were never used in combat. The highest point in Orkney, Ward Hill, is found on Hoy. The main naval base for Scapa Flow in both the First and Second World Wars was situated at Lyness in the south-east of the island. Some rather incongruous art deco structures nearby date from this period. An unusual rock-cut tomb, the Dwarfie Stane, lies in a valley at the west of the island. It is unique in northern Europe, bearing similarity to Neolithic or Bronze Age tombs around the Mediterranean. The northern part of the island is an RSPB reserve due to its importance for birdlife, particularly Great skuas and red-throated divers. In Norse mythology, Hoy is the location of the never-ending battle between Hedin and Högni. Orkney Ferries serve the island with two routes. One links Lyness on Hoy and Longhope on Walls with the island of Flotta and Houton on the Orkney Mainland. The other links Moaness in northern Hoy to the island of Graemsay and Stromness on Orkney Mainland. Trivia Featured prominently in the 1984 video for "Here Comes The Rain Again" by the Eurythmics. Gallery References External links Island of Hoy website launched December 2008 Old Man of Hoy picture gallery	Hoy \|@lemmatized hoy:9 old:3 norse:2 háey:1 meaning:1 high:3 island:12 one:3 orkney:7 islands:1 scotland:2 area:2 second:2 large:1 mainland:4 connect:1 southern:1 causeway:1 call:1 ayre:1 south:2 wall:2 unusually:1 two:2 treat:1 entity:1 uk:2 census:1 general:1 register:1 office:1 nov:1 occasional:1 paper:1 statistic:1 inhabited:1 dramatic:1 coastline:1 usually:1 greet:1 visitor:1 travel:1 ferry:2 scottish:1 extreme:1 many:1 kind:1 cliff:1 st:1 john:1 head:1 impressive:1 famous:1 sea:1 stack:1 man:2 northerly:2 survive:2 natural:1 woodland:1 british:1 isle:1 remote:1 possibility:1 arctic:1 char:1 heldale:1 water:1 martello:1 tower:1 build:1 defend:1 napoleonic:1 war:2 never:2 use:1 combat:1 point:1 ward:1 hill:1 find:1 main:1 naval:1 base:1 scapa:1 flow:1 first:1 world:1 situate:1 lyness:2 east:1 rather:1 incongruous:1 art:1 deco:1 structure:1 nearby:1 date:1 period:1 unusual:1 rock:1 cut:1 tomb:2 dwarfie:1 stane:1 lie:1 valley:1 west:1 unique:1 northern:3 europe:1 bear:1 similarity:1 neolithic:1 bronze:1 age:1 around:1 mediterranean:1 part:1 rspb:1 reserve:1 due:1 importance:1 birdlife:1 particularly:1 great:1 skua:1 red:1 throated:1 diver:1 mythology:1 location:1 end:1 battle:1 hedin:1 högni:1 serve:1 route:1 link:3 longhope:1 flotta:1 houton:1 moaness:1 graemsay:1 stromness:1 trivia:1 feature:1 prominently:1 video:1 come:1 rain:1 eurythmics:1 gallery:2 reference:1 external:1 website:1 launch:1 december:1 picture:1 \|@bigram martello_tower:1 scapa_flow:1 art_deco:1 neolithic_bronze:1 norse_mythology:1 orkney_mainland:2 external_link:1
6,004	Badminton	Badminton is a racquet sport played by either two opposing players (singles) or two opposing pairs (doubles), who take positions on opposite halves of a rectangular court that is divided by a net. Players score points by striking a shuttlecock with their racquet so that it passes over the net and lands in their opponents' half of the court. A rally ends once the shuttlecock has struck the ground, and each side may only strike the shuttlecock once before it passes over the net. The shuttlecock (or shuttle) is a feathered projectile whose unique aerodynamic properties cause it to fly differently from the balls used in most racquet sports; in particular, the feathers create much higher drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly than a ball. Shuttlecocks have a much higher top speed, when compared to other racquet sports. Because shuttlecock flight is affected by wind, competitive badminton is best played indoors. Badminton is also played outdoors as a casual recreational activity, often as a garden or beach game. Since 1992, badminton has been an Olympic sport with five events: men's and women's singles, men's and women's doubles, and mixed doubles, in which each pair is a man and a woman. At high levels of play, the sport demands excellent fitness: players require aerobic stamina, agility, strength, speed and precision. It is also a technical sport, requiring good motor coordination and the development of sophisticated racquet movements. History and development Battledore and Shuttlecock. 1854, from the John Leech Archive Cartoon taken from the John Leech Archive which gave the artist as John Leech and the date as 1854. Badminton has been played since ancient times; an early form of the sport was played in ancient Greece. In Japan, the related game Hanetsuki was played as early as the 16th century. In the west, badminton came from a game called battledore and shuttlecock, in which two or more players keep a feathered shuttlecock in the air with small racquets. The modern form of Badminton however can be traced to India, where British military officers stationed there in the late 19th century became interested in a similar local game which was known to them as Poona (derived from Pune, an Indian garrison town). This game was taken back to England where the rules of badminton were set out. Another early version of the game was recorded in the 1850s in the southern Indian city of Tanjore, called pooppanthu vilayattam (Tamil for flower-ball game) in which balls made of wool and cardboard were used in the place of the modern-day shuttlecock. Isaac Spratt, a London toy dealer, published a booklet, "Badminton Battledore - a new game" in 1860, but unfortunately no copy has survived. The new sport was definitively launched in 1873 at the Badminton House, Gloucestershire, owned by the Duke of Beaufort. During that time, the game was referred to as "The Game of Badminton," and the game's official name became Badminton. Until 1887, the sport was played in England under the rules that prevailed in India. The Bath Badminton Club standardized the rules and made the game applicable to English ideas. The basic regulations were drawn up in 1887. In 1893, the Badminton Association of England published the first set of rules according to these regulations, similar to today's rules, and officially launched badminton in a house called "Dunbar" at 6 Waverley Grove, Portsmouth, England on September 13 of that year. They also started the All England Open Badminton Championships, the first badminton competition in the world, in 1899. The International Badminton Federation (IBF) (now known as Badminton World Federation) was established in 1934 with Canada, Denmark, England, France, the Netherlands, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, and Wales as its founding members. India joined as an affiliate in 1936. The BWF now governs international badminton and develops the sport globally. While set-out in England, international badminton has traditionally been dominated by Denmark from Europe. Indonesia, South Korea and Malaysia are among the nations that have consistently produced world-class players in the past few decades and dominated competitions on the international level, with China being the most dominant in recent years. Laws of the game The following information is a simplified summary of the Laws, not a complete reproduction. The definitive source of the Laws is the BWF Statutes publication, although the digital distribution of the Laws contains poor reproductions of the diagrams. Playing court dimensions Badminton court, isometric view The court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net. Courts are usually marked for both singles and doubles play, although the laws permit a court to be marked for singles only. The doubles court is wider than the singles court, but both are the same length. The exception, which often causes confusion to newer players, is that the doubles court has a shorter serve-length dimension. The full width of the court is 6.1 metres (20 ft), and in singles this width is reduced to 5.18 metres (17 ft). The full length of the court is 13.4 metres (44 ft). The service courts are marked by a centre line dividing the width of the court, by a short service line at a distance of 1.98 metres (6.5 ft) from the net, and by the outer side and back boundaries. In doubles, the service court is also marked by a long service line, which is 0.78 metres (2 ft 6 inch) from the back boundary. The net is 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 inch) high at the edges and 1.524 metres (5 ft) high in the centre. The net posts are placed over the doubles sidelines, even when singles is played. There is no mention in the Laws of Badminton of a minimum height for the ceiling above the court. Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is likely to be hit on a high serve. Equipment laws The Laws specify which equipment may be used. In particular, the Laws restrict the design and size of racquets and shuttlecocks. The Laws also provide for testing a shuttlecock for the correct speed: 3.1 To test a shuttlecock, use a full underhand stroke which makes contact with the shuttlecock over the back boundary line. The shuttlecock shall be hit at an upward angle and in a direction parallel to the side lines. 3.2 A shuttlecock of the correct speed will land not less than 530 mm and not more than 990 mm short of the other back boundary line. Scoring system and service The basics Each game is played with 21 points, with players scoring a point whenever they win a rally (this differs from the old system, where players could only win a point on their serve). A match is the best of three games. At the start of the rally, the server and receiver stand in diagonally opposite service courts (see court dimensions). The server hits the shuttlecock so that it would land in the receiver's service court. This is similar to tennis, except that a badminton serve must be hit below waist height and with the racquet head below the server's wrist, the shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce and in badminton, the players stand inside their service courts unlike tennis. When the serving side loses a rally, the serve passes to their opponent(s) (unlike the old system, there is no "second serve" in doubles). In singles, the server stands in his right service court when his score is even, and in his left service court when his score is odd. In doubles, if the serving side wins a rally, the same player continues to serve, but he changes service courts so that he serves to each opponent in turn. If the opponents win the rally and their new score is even, the player in the right service court serves; if odd, the player in the left service court serves. The players' service courts are determined by their positions at the start of the previous rally, not by where they were standing at the end of the rally. A consequence of this system is that, each time a side regains the service, the server will be the player who did not serve last time. Details When the server serves, the shuttlecock must pass over the short service line on the opponents' court or it will count as a fault. If the score reaches 20-all, then the game continues until one side gains a two point lead (such as 24-22), up to a maximum of 30 points (30-29 is a winning score). At the start of a match, a coin is tossed. The winners of the coin toss may choose whether to serve or receive first, or they may choose which end of the court they wish to occupy. Their opponents make the remaining choice. In less formal settings, the coin toss is often replaced by hitting a shuttlecock into the air: whichever side the corked end points will be the side that serves first. In subsequent games, the winners of the previous game serve first. These can also be called rubbers. If one team wins a game they play once more and if they win again they win that match, but if they lose they play one more match to find the winning team. For the first rally of any doubles game, the serving pair may decide who serves and the receiving pair may decide who receives. The players change ends at the start of the second game; if the match reaches a third game, they change ends both at the start of the game and when the leading pair's score reaches 11 points. The server and receiver must remain within their service courts, without touching the boundary lines, until the server strikes the shuttlecock. The other two players may stand wherever they wish, so long as they do not unsight the opposing server or receiver. Faults Players win a rally by striking the shuttlecock over the net and onto the floor within the boundaries of their opponents' court. Players also win a rally if their opponents commit a fault. The most common fault in badminton is when the players fail to return the shuttlecock so that it passes over the net and lands inside their opponents' court, but there are also other ways that players may be faulted. Several faults pertain specifically to service. A serving player shall be faulted if the shuttlecock is above his waist (defined as his lowest rib) at point of contact, or if his racket's head is not pointing downwards at the moment of impact. This particular law was modified in 2006: previously, the server's racket had to be pointing downwards to the extent that the racket head was below the hand holding the racket; and now, any angle below the horizontal is acceptable. Neither the server nor the receiver may lift a foot until the server has struck the shuttlecock. The server must also initially hit the base (cork) of the shuttlecock, although he may afterwards also hit the feathers as part of the same stroke. This law was introduced to ban an extremely effective service style known as the S-serve or Sidek serve, which allowed the server to make the shuttlecock spin chaotically in flight. Each side may only strike the shuttlecock once before it passes back over the net; but during a single stroke movement, a player can not contact a shuttlecock twice (this happens in some sliced shots). A player may not, however, hit the shuttlecock once and then hit it with a new movement, nor may he carry and sling the shuttlecock on his racket. It is a fault if the shuttlecock hits the ceiling. Lets If a let is called, the rally is stopped and replayed with no change to the score. Lets may occur due to some unexpected disturbance such as a shuttlecock landing on court (having been hit there by players on an adjacent court) or in small halls the shuttle may touch an overhead rail which can be classed as a let. If the receiver is not ready when the service is delivered, a let shall be called; yet, if the receiver attempts to return the shuttlecock, he shall be judged to have been ready. There is no let if the shuttlecock hits the tape (even on service). Equipment Badminton racquets Racquets Badminton racquets are light, with top quality racquets weighing between 79 and 91 grams including the strings. They are composed of many different materials ranging from carbon fibre composite (graphite reinforced plastic) to solid steel, which may be augmented by a variety of materials. Carbon fibre has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. Before the adoption of carbon fibre composite, racquets were made of light metals such as aluminium. Earlier still, racquets were made of wood. Cheap racquets are still often made of metals such as steel, but wooden racquets are no longer manufactured for the ordinary market, due to their excessive mass and cost. There is a wide variety of racquet designs, although the Laws limit the racquet size and shape. Different racquets have playing characteristics that appeal to different players. The traditional oval head shape is still available, but an isometric head shape is increasingly common in new racquets. Strings Badminton strings are thin, high performing strings in the range of about 0.65 to 0.73 mm thickness. Thicker strings are more durable, but many players prefer the feel of thinner strings. String tension is normally in the range of 80 to 130 N (18 to 36 lbf). Recreational players generally string at lower tensions than professionals, typically between 18 and . Professionals string between about 25 and . It is often argued that high string tensions improve control, whereas low string tensions increase power. The arguments for this generally rely on crude mechanical reasoning, such as claiming that a lower tension string bed is more bouncy and therefore provides more power. This is in fact incorrect, for a higher string tension can cause the shuttle to slide off the racquet and hence make it harder to hit a shot accurately. An alternative view suggests that the optimum tension for power depends on the player: the faster and more accurately a player can swing their racquet, the higher the tension for maximum power. Neither view has been subjected to a rigorous mechanical analysis, nor is there clear evidence in favour of one or the other. The most effective way for a player to find a good string tension is to experiment. Grip The choice of grip allows a player to increase the thickness of his racquet handle and choose a comfortable surface to hold. A player may build up the handle with one or several grips before applying the final layer. Players may choose between a variety of grip materials. The most common choices are PU synthetic grips or towelling grips. Grip choice is a matter of personal preference. Players often find that sweat becomes a problem; in this case, a drying agent may be applied to the grip or hands, sweatbands may be used, the player may choose another grip material or change his grip more frequently. There are two main types of grip: replacement grips and overgrips. Replacement grips are thicker, and are often used to increase the size of the handle. Overgrips are thinner (less than 1 mm), and are often used as the final layer. Many players, however, prefer to use replacement grips as the final layer. Towelling grips are always replacement grips. Replacement grips have an adhesive backing, whereas overgrips have only a small patch of adhesive at the start of the tape and must be applied under tension; overgrips are more convenient for players who change grips frequently, because they may be removed more rapidly without damaging the underlying material. Shuttlecocks with feathers A shuttlecock with a plastic skirt Shuttlecock A shuttlecock (often abbreviated to shuttle and also commonly known as a bird) is a high-drag projectile, with an open conical shape: the cone is formed from sixteen overlapping goose feathers embedded into a rounded cork base. The cork is covered with thin leather or synthetic material. Synthetic shuttles are often used by recreational players to reduce their costs as feathered shuttles break easily. These nylon shuttles may be constructed with either natural cork or synthetic foam base, and a plastic skirt. Additionally, nylon shuttlecocks come in three varieties, each variety for a different range of temperatures. These three varieties are known as green (slow speed), blue (middle speed), and red (fast speed). The colours, and therefore speeds, are indicated by coloured strips fastened around the cork. In colder temperatures, a faster shuttle is used, and in hotter climates, a slower one is chosen. Shoes Badminton shoes are lightweight with soles of rubber or similar high-grip, non-marking materials. Compared to running shoes, badminton shoes have little lateral support. High levels of lateral support are useful for activities where lateral motion is undesirable and unexpected. Badminton, however, requires powerful lateral movements. A highly built-up lateral support will not be able to protect the foot in badminton; instead, it will encourage catastrophic collapse at the point where the shoe's support fails, and the player's ankles are not ready for the sudden loading, which can cause sprains. For this reason, players should choose badminton shoes rather than general trainers or running shoes, because proper badminton shoes will have a very thin sole, lower a person's centre of gravity, and therefore result in fewer injuries. Players should also ensure that they learn safe and proper footwork, with the knee and foot in alignment on all lunges. This is not only a safety concern, as proper footwork is critical in order to move effectively around the court. Strokes Francesca Setiadi, Canada, flies high at the Golden Gate Badminton Club (GGBC) in Menlo Park, 2006 Forehand and backhand Badminton offers a wide variety of basic strokes, and players require a high level of skill to perform all of them effectively. All strokes can be played either forehand or backhand. A player's forehand side is the same side as his playing hand: for a right-handed player, the forehand side is his right side and the backhand side is his left side. Forehand strokes are hit with the front of the hand leading (like hitting with the palm), whereas backhand strokes are hit with the back of the hand leading (like hitting with the knuckles). Players frequently play certain strokes on the forehand side with a backhand hitting action, and vice versa. In the forecourt and midcourt, most strokes can be played equally effectively on either the forehand or backhand side; but in the rearcourt, players will attempt to play as many strokes as possible on their forehands, often preferring to play a round-the-head forehand overhead (a forehand "on the backhand side") rather than attempt a backhand overhead. Playing a backhand overhead has two main disadvantages. First, the player must turn his back to his opponents, restricting his view of them and the court. Second, backhand overheads cannot be hit with as much power as forehands: the hitting action is limited by the shoulder joint, which permits a much greater range of movement for a forehand overhead than for a backhand. The backhand clear is considered by most players and coaches to be the most difficult basic stroke in the game, since precise technique is needed in order to muster enough power for the shuttlecock to travel the full length of the court. For the same reason, backhand smashes tend to be weak. Position of the shuttlecock and receiving player The choice of stroke depends on how near the shuttlecock is to the net, whether it is above net height, and where an opponent is currently positioned: players have much better attacking options if they can reach the shuttlecock well above net height, especially if it is also close to the net. In the forecourt, a high shuttlecock will be met with a net kill, hitting it steeply downwards and attempting to win the rally immediately. This is why it is best to drop the shuttlecock just over the net in this situation. In the midcourt, a high shuttlecock will usually be met with a powerful smash, also hitting downwards and hoping for an outright winner or a weak reply. Athletic jump smashes, where players jump upwards for a steeper smash angle, are a common and spectacular element of elite men's doubles play. In the rearcourt, players strive to hit the shuttlecock while it is still above them, rather than allowing it to drop lower. This overhead hitting allows them to play smashes, clears (hitting the shuttlecock high and to the back of the opponents' court), and dropshots (hitting the shuttlecock so that it falls softly downwards into the opponents' forecourt). If the shuttlecock has dropped lower, then a smash is impossible and a full-length, high clear is difficult. Rookie Camaclang, Philippines, prepares for a vertical jump smash Vertical position of the shuttlecock When the shuttlecock is well below net height, players have no choice but to hit upwards. Lifts, where the shuttlecock is hit upwards to the back of the opponents' court, can be played from all parts of the court. If a player does not lift, his only remaining option is to push the shuttlecock softly back to the net: in the forecourt this is called a netshot; in the midcourt or rearcourt, it is often called a push or block. When the shuttlecock is near to net height, players can hit drives, which travel flat and rapidly over the net into the opponents' rear midcourt and rearcourt. Pushes may also be hit flatter, placing the shuttlecock into the front midcourt. Drives and pushes may be played from the midcourt or forecourt, and are most often used in doubles: they are an attempt to regain the attack, rather than choosing to lift the shuttlecock and defend against smashes. After a successful drive or push, the opponents will often be forced to lift the shuttlecock. Other factors When defending against a smash, players have three basic options: lift, block, or drive. In singles, a block to the net is the most common reply. In doubles, a lift is the safest option but it usually allows the opponents to continue smashing; blocks and drives are counter-attacking strokes, but may be intercepted by the smasher's partner. Many players use a backhand hitting action for returning smashes on both the forehand and backhand sides, because backhands are more effective than forehands at covering smashes directed to the body. The service presents its own array of stroke choices. Unlike in tennis, the serve is restricted by the Laws so that it must be hit upwards. The server can choose a low serve into the forecourt (like a push), or a lift to the back of the service court, or a flat drive serve. Lifted serves may be either high serves, where the shuttlecock is lifted so high that it falls almost vertically at the back of the court, or flick serves, where the shuttlecock is lifted to a lesser height but falls sooner. Deceptions Once players have mastered these basic strokes, they can hit the shuttlecock from and to any part of the court, powerfully and softly as required. Beyond the basics, however, badminton offers rich potential for advanced stroke skills that provide a competitive advantage. Because badminton players have to cover a short distance as quickly as possible, the purpose of many advanced strokes is to deceive the opponent, so that either he is tricked into believing that a different stroke is being played, or he is forced to delay his movement until he actually sees the shuttle's direction. "Deception" in badminton is often used in both of these senses. When a player is genuinely deceived, he will often lose the point immediately because he cannot change his direction quickly enough to reach the shuttlecock. Experienced players will be aware of the trick and cautious not to move too early, but the attempted deception is still useful because it forces the opponent to delay his movement slightly. Against weaker players whose intended strokes are obvious, an experienced player will move before the shuttlecock has been hit, anticipating the stroke to gain an advantage. Slicing and using a shortened hitting action are the two main technical devices that facilitate deception. Slicing involves hitting the shuttlecock with an angled racquet face, causing it to travel in a different direction than suggested by the body or arm movement. Slicing also causes the shuttlecock to travel much slower than the arm movement suggests. For example, a good crosscourt sliced dropshot will use a hitting action that suggests a straight clear or smash, deceiving the opponent about both the power and direction of the shuttlecock. A more sophisticated slicing action involves brushing the strings around the shuttlecock during the hit, in order to make the shuttlecock spin. This can be used to improve the shuttle's trajectory, by making it dip more rapidly as it passes the net; for example, a sliced low serve can travel slightly faster than a normal low serve, yet land on the same spot. Spinning the shuttlecock is also used to create spinning netshots (also called tumbling netshots), in which the shuttlecock turns over itself several times (tumbles) before stabilizing; sometimes the shuttlecock remains inverted instead of tumbling. The main advantage of a spinning netshot is that the opponent will be unwilling to address the shuttlecock until it has stopped tumbling, since hitting the feathers will result in an unpredictable stroke. Spinning netshots are especially important for high level singles players. The lightness of modern racquets allows players to use a very short hitting action for many strokes, thereby maintaining the option to hit a powerful or a soft stroke until the last possible moment. For example, a singles player may hold his racquet ready for a netshot, but then flick the shuttlecock to the back instead with a shallow lift. This makes the opponent's task of covering the whole court much more difficult than if the lift was hit with a bigger, obvious swing. A short hitting action is not only useful for deception: it also allows the player to hit powerful strokes when he has no time for a big arm swing. The use of grip tightening is crucial to these techniques, and is often described as finger power. Elite players develop finger power to the extent that they can hit some power strokes, such as net kills, with less than a 10 cm racquet swing. It is also possible to reverse this style of deception, by suggesting a powerful stroke before slowing down the hitting action to play a soft stroke. In general, this latter style of deception is more common in the rearcourt (for example, dropshots disguised as smashes), whereas the former style is more common in the forecourt and midcourt (for example, lifts disguised as netshots). Deception is not limited to slicing and short hitting actions. Players may also use double motion, where they make an initial racquet movement in one direction before withdrawing the racquet to hit in another direction. This is typically used to suggest a crosscourt angle but then play the stroke straight, or vice versa. Triple motion is also possible, but this is very rare in actual play. An alternative to double motion is to use a racquet head fake, where the initial motion is continued but the racquet is turned during the hit. This produces a smaller change in direction, but does not require as much time. Strategy To win in badminton, players need to employ a wide variety of strokes in the right situations. These range from powerful jumping smashes to delicate tumbling net returns. Often rallies finish with a smash, but setting up the smash requires subtler strokes. For example, a netshot can force the opponent to lift the shuttlecock, which gives an opportunity to smash. If the netshot is tight and tumbling, then the opponent's lift will not reach the back of the court, which makes the subsequent smash much harder to return. Deception is also important. Expert players prepare for many different strokes that look identical, and use slicing to deceive their opponents about the speed or direction of the stroke. If an opponent tries to anticipate the stroke, he may move in the wrong direction and may be unable to change his body momentum in time to reach the shuttlecock. Doubles Both pairs will try to gain and maintain the attack, smashing downwards when possible. Whenever possible, a pair will adopt an ideal attacking formation with one player hitting down from the rearcourt, and his partner in the midcourt intercepting all smash returns except the lift. If the rearcourt attacker plays a dropshot, his partner will move into the forecourt to threaten the net reply. If a pair cannot hit downwards, they will use flat strokes in an attempt to gain the attack. If a pair is forced to lift or clear the shuttlecock, then they must defend: they will adopt a side-by-side position in the rear midcourt, to cover the full width of their court against the opponents' smashes. In doubles, players generally smash to the middle ground between two players in order to take advantage of confusion and clashes. At high levels of play, the backhand serve has become popular to the extent that forehand serves almost never appear in professional games. The straight low serve is used most frequently, in an attempt to prevent the opponents gaining the attack immediately. Flick serves are used to prevent the opponent from anticipating the low serve and attacking it decisively. At high levels of play, doubles rallies are extremely fast. Men's doubles is the most aggressive form of badminton, with a high proportion of powerful jump smashes. A mixed doubles game - Scottish Schools under 12s tournament, Tranent, May 2002 Singles The singles court is narrower than the doubles court, but the same length, with the exception that a serve in the single can reach the end of the court while a serve in the doubles could not. Since one person needs to cover the entire court, singles tactics are based on forcing the opponent to move as much as possible; this means that singles strokes are normally directed to the corners of the court. Players exploit the length of the court by combining lifts and clears with dropshots and netshots. Smashing is less prominent in singles than in doubles because players are rarely in the ideal position to execute a smash, and smashing often leaves the smasher vulnerable if the smash is returned. In singles, players will often start the rally with a forehand high serve. Low serves are also used frequently, either forehand or backhand. Flick serves are less common, and drive serves are rare. At high levels of play, singles demands extraordinary fitness. Singles is a game of patient positional manoeuvring, unlike the all-out aggression of doubles. Mixed doubles In mixed doubles, both pairs try to maintain an attacking formation with the woman at the front and the man at the back. This is because the male players are substantially stronger, and can therefore produce smashes that are more powerful. As a result, mixed doubles requires greater tactical awareness and subtler positional play. Clever opponents will try to reverse the ideal position, by forcing the woman towards the back or the man towards the front. In order to protect against this danger, mixed players must be careful and systematic in their shot selection. At high levels of play, the formations will generally be more flexible: the top women players are capable of playing powerfully from the rearcourt, and will happily do so if required. When the opportunity arises, however, the pair will switch back to the standard mixed attacking position, with the woman in front. Governing bodies The Badminton World Federation (BWF) is the internationally recognized governing body of the sport. Five regional confederations are associated with the BWF: Asia: Badminton Asia Confederation (BAC) Africa: Badminton Confederation of Africa (BCA) Americas: Badminton Pan Am (North America and South America belong to the same confederation; BPA) Europe: Badminton Europe (BE) Oceania: Badminton Oceania (BO) Competitions A mens doubles match. The blue lines are those for the badminton court. The other coloured lines denote uses for other sports – such complexity being common in multi-use sports halls. The BWF organizes several international competitions, including the Thomas Cup, the premier men's event, and the Uber Cup, the women's equivalent. The competitions take place once every two years. More than 50 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within continental confederations for a place in the finals. The final tournament involves 12 teams, following an increase from eight teams in 2004. The Sudirman Cup, a mixed team event held once every two years, began in 1989. It is divided into seven groups based on the performance of each country. To win the tournament, a country must perform well across all five disciplines (men's doubles and singles, women's doubles and singles, and mixed doubles). Like association football (soccer), it features a promotion and relegation system in every group. Individual competition in badminton was a demonstration event in the 1972 and 1988 Summer Olympics. It became a Summer Olympics sport at the Barcelona Olympics in 1992. The 32 highest ranked badminton players in the world participate in the competition, and each country submitting three players to take part. In the BWF World Championships, only the highest ranked 64 players in the world, and a maximum of three from each country, can participate in any category. All these tournaments, along with the BWF World Junior Championships, are level one tournaments. At the start of 2007, the BWF also introduce a new tournament structure: the BWF Super Series. This level two tournament will stage twelve open tournaments around the world with 32 players (half the previous limit). The players collect points that determine whether they can play in Super Series Final held at the year end. Level three tournaments will consist of Grand Prix Gold and Grand Prix event. Top players can collect the world ranking points and enable them to play in the BWF Super Series open tournaments. These include the regional competitions in Asia (Badminton Asia Championships) and Europe (European Badminton Championships), which produce the world's best players as well as the Pan America Badminton Championships. The level four tournaments, known as International Challenge, International Series and Future Series, encourages participation by junior players. Records The most powerful stroke in badminton is the smash, which is hit steeply downwards into the opponents' midcourt. The maximum speed of a smashed shuttlecock exceeds that of any other racquet sport projectile. The recordings of this speed measure the initial speed of the shuttlecock immediately after it has left the player's racquet. Men's doubles player Fu Haifeng of China set the official world smash record of 332 km/h (206 mph) on June 3, 2005 in the Sudirman Cup. The fastest smash recorded in the singles competition is 305 km/h (189 mph) by Taufik Hidayat of Indonesia. Comparisons with other racquet sports Badminton is frequently compared to tennis. The following is a list of uncontentious comparisons: In tennis, the ball may bounce once before the player hits it; in badminton, the rally ends once the shuttlecock touches the floor. In tennis, the serve is dominant to the extent that the server is expected to win most of his service games; a break of service, where the server loses the game, is of major importance in a match. In badminton, however, the serving side and receiving side have approximately equal opportunity to win the rally. In tennis, the server is allowed two attempts to make a correct serve; in badminton, the server is allowed only one attempt. In tennis, a let is played on service if the ball hits the net tape; in badminton, there is no let on service. The tennis court is larger than the badminton court. Tennis racquets are about four times heavier than badminton racquets, 10-12 ounces (approximately 284-340 grams) versus 85-93 grams. Tennis balls are more than eleven times heavier than shuttlecocks, 57 grams versus 5 grams. The fastest recorded tennis stroke is Andy Roddick's serve; the fastest recorded badminton stroke is Fu Haifeng's smash. Comparisons of speed and athletic requirements Statistics such as the smash speed, above, prompt badminton enthusiasts to make other comparisons that are more contentious. For example, it is often claimed that badminton is the fastest racquet sport. Although badminton holds the record for the fastest initial speed of a racket sports projectile, the shuttlecock decelerates substantially faster than other projectiles such as tennis balls. In turn, this qualification must be qualified by consideration of the distance over which the shuttlecock travels: a smashed shuttlecock travels a shorter distance than a tennis ball during a serve. Badminton's claim as the fastest racquet sport might also be based on reaction time requirements, but arguably table tennis requires even faster reaction times. There is a strong case for arguing that badminton is more physically demanding than tennis, but such comparisons are difficult to make objectively due to the differing demands of the games. Some informal studies suggest that badminton players require much greater aerobic stamina than tennis players, but this has not been the subject of rigorous research. A more balanced approach suggests the following comparisons, although these also are subject to dispute: Badminton, especially singles, requires substantially greater aerobic stamina than tennis; the level of aerobic stamina required by badminton singles is similar to squash singles, although squash may have slightly higher aerobic requirements. Tennis requires greater upper body and core strength than badminton. Badminton requires greater explosive leg strength than tennis, and badminton men's doubles probably requires much greater explosive leg strength than any other racket sport due to the demands of performing multiple consecutive jumping smashes. Badminton requires much greater explosive athleticism than tennis and somewhat greater than squash, with players required to jump for height or distance. Badminton requires significantly faster reaction times than either tennis or squash, although table tennis may require even faster reaction times. The fastest reactions in badminton are required in men's doubles, when returning a powerful smash. Comparisons of technique Badminton and tennis techniques differ substantially. The lightness of the shuttlecock and of badminton rackets allow badminton players to make use of the wrist and fingers much more than tennis players; in tennis the wrist is normally held stable, and playing with a mobile wrist may lead to injury. For the same reasons, badminton players can generate power from a short racket swing: for some strokes such as net kills, an elite player's swing may be less than 5 cm. For strokes that require more power, a longer swing will typically be used, but the badminton racket swing will rarely be as long as a typical tennis swing. It is often asserted that power in badminton strokes comes mainly from the wrist. This is a misconception and may be criticised for two reasons. First, it is strictly speaking a category error: the wrist is a joint, not a muscle; the forearm muscles control its movement. Second, wrist movements are weak when compared to forearm or upper arm movements. Badminton biomechanics have not been the subject of extensive scientific study, but some studies confirm the minor role of the wrist in power generation, and indicate that the major contributions to power come from internal and external rotations of the upper and lower arm. Modern coaching resources such as the Badminton England Technique DVD reflect these ideas by emphasising forearm rotation rather than wrist movements. Distinctive characteristics of the shuttlecock The shuttlecock differs greatly from the balls used in most other racquet sports. Aerodynamic drag and stability The feathers impart substantial drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate greatly over distance. The shuttlecock is also extremely aerodynamically stable: regardless of initial orientation, it will turn to fly cork-first, and remain in the cork-first orientation. One consequence of the shuttlecock's drag is that it requires considerable skill to hit it the full length of the court, which is not the case for most racquet sports. The drag also influences the flight path of a lifted (lobbed) shuttlecock: the parabola of its flight is heavily skewed so that it falls at a steeper angle than it rises. With very high serves, the shuttlecock may even fall vertically. Spin Balls may be spun to alter their bounce (for example, topspin and backspin in tennis), and players may slice the ball (strike it with an angled racket face) to produce such spin; but, since the shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce, this does not apply to badminton. Slicing the shuttlecock so that it spins, however, does have applications, and some are particular to badminton. (See Basic strokes for an explanation of technical terms.) Slicing the shuttlecock from the side may cause it to travel in a different direction from the direction suggested by the player's racket or body movement. This is used to deceive opponents. Slicing the shuttlecock from the side may cause it to follow a slightly curved path (as seen from above), and the deceleration imparted by the spin causes sliced strokes to slow down more suddenly towards the end of their flight path. This can be used to create dropshots and smashes that dip more steeply after they pass the net. When playing a netshot, slicing underneath the shuttlecock may cause it to turn over itself (tumble) several times as it passes the net. This is called a spinning netshot or tumbling netshot. The opponent will be unwilling to address the shuttlecock until it has corrected its orientation. Due to the way that its feathers overlap, a shuttlecock also has a slight natural spin about its axis of rotational symmetry. The spin is in a counter-clockwise direction as seen from above when dropping a shuttlecock. This natural spin affects certain strokes: a tumbling netshot is more effective if the slicing action is from right to left, rather than from left to right. The Spin Doctor, Power & Precision Magazine, July 2006 See also Racquet sports Speed Badminton References External links Badminton World Federation Badminton Asia Confederation Badminton Pan Am Badminton Oceania Badminton Europe Badminton Confederation of Africa Laws of Badminton WorldBadminton.com Badminton Central Badders.com Badzine.info	Badminton \|@lemmatized badminton:97 racquet:40 sport:23 play:40 either:8 two:14 oppose:3 player:100 single:27 pair:11 double:35 take:6 position:9 opposite:2 half:4 rectangular:2 court:56 divide:4 net:29 score:10 point:14 strike:8 shuttlecock:101 pass:9 land:6 opponent:34 rally:18 end:10 ground:2 side:26 may:44 shuttle:10 feathered:3 projectile:5 whose:2 unique:1 aerodynamic:2 property:1 cause:12 fly:3 differently:1 ball:12 use:33 particular:4 feather:7 create:3 much:14 high:32 drag:6 decelerate:3 rapidly:4 top:4 speed:16 compare:4 flight:5 affect:2 wind:1 competitive:2 best:4 played:2 indoors:1 also:31 outdoors:1 casual:1 recreational:3 activity:2 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6,005	Messerschmitt_Me_163_Komet	The Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, designed by Alexander Martin Lippisch, was a German rocket-powered fighter aircraft. It was the only operational rocket-powered fighter aircraft to date. Although revolutionary and capable of performance unrivaled at the time, it proved ineffective as a fighter and resulted in the destruction of very few Allied aircraft. Development Work on the design started under the aegis of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug (DFS) - the German Institute for the Study of sailplane flight. Their first design was a conversion of the earlier Lippisch Delta IV known as the DFS 39 and used purely as a glider testbed of the airframe. A larger follow-on version with a small propeller engine started as the DFS 194. This version used wingtip-mounted rudders, which Lippisch felt would cause problems at high speed, and he later redesigned them to be mounted on a conventional vertical stabilizer at the rear of the aircraft. The design included a number of features from its glider heritage, notably a skid used for landings, which could be retracted into the aircraft's keel in flight. For takeoff, a pair of wheels, each mounted onto the ends of a specially designed cross-axle, together comprising a takeoff "dolly" mounted under the landing skid, were needed due to the weight of the fuel, but these were released shortly after takeoff. It was planned to move to the Walter R-1-203 cold engine of 400 kgf (882 lbf) thrust when available. Heinkel had also been working with Walter on his rocket engines, mounting them in the He 112 for testing, and later the first purpose-designed rocket aircraft, the He 176. Heinkel had also been selected to produce the fuselage for the DFS 194 when it entered production, as it was felt that the highly volatile fuel would be too dangerous in a wooden fuselage, with which it could react. Work continued under the code name Projekt X. "Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet." World War 2 Planes. Retrieved: 22 March 2009. However the division of work between DFS and Heinkel led to problems, notably that DFS seemed incapable of building even a prototype fuselage. Lippisch eventually requested to leave DFS and join Messerschmitt instead. On 2 January 1939, he moved along with his team and the partially completed DFS 194 to the Messerschmitt works at Augsburg. The delays caused by this move allowed the engine development to "catch up", and once at Messerschmitt the decision was made to skip over the propeller-powered version and move directly to rocket power. The airframe was completed in Augsburg and shipped to Peenemünde West in early 1940 to receive its engine. Although the engine proved to be extremely unreliable, the aircraft had excellent performance, reaching a speed of in one test. Me 163 A Production of a prototype series started in early 1941, known as the Me 163. Secrecy was such that the number, 163, was actually that of the earlier Messerschmitt Bf 163 project to produce a small two-passenger light plane, which had competed against the Fieseler Fi 156 Storch for a production contract, as it was thought that intelligence services would conclude any reference to the number would be for that earlier design. Me 163 A V4 was shipped to Peenemünde to receive the HWK RII-203 engine on May 1941, and on 2 October 1941, the Me 163 A V4, bearing the radio call sign letters, or Stammkennzeichen, "KE+SW", set a new world speed record of 1,004.5 km/h (623.8 mph), piloted by Heini Dittmar Käsemann 1999, pp. 17, 122. Stüwe 1999, pp. 207, 211, 212, 213. . This would not be officially approached until the postwar period by the new jet fighters of the British and U.S., and was not surpassed until the American Douglas Skystreak turbojet-powered research aircraft did so on 20 August 1947. Five prototype Me 163 Anton A-series experimental V-aircraft were built, adding to the original DFS 194 (V1) Stüwe 1999, p. 207. , followed by eight pre-production examples designated Me 163 A-0. During testing the jettisonable main landing gear arrangement proved to be a serious problem and caused many aircraft to be damaged at takeoff when the wheels rebounded and crashed into the aircraft. Malfunctioning hydraulic dampers in the skid could lead to back injuries for the pilot on landing, as the aircraft lacked steering or braking control during the landing run, leaving the pilot unable to avoid obstacles. Once on the ground, it had to be retrieved by an adapted tractor-like vehicle, towing a special retrieval trailer that rolled along on a pair of short continuous track setups (one per side), with twin trailing lifting arms, that lifted the stationary aircraft off the ground, from under each wing panel. The tractor itself was originally meant for agricultural use on small farms, the three-wheeled Scheuch-Schlepper "Me 163 ground equipment: Scheuch-Schlepper" , as the Komet was unpowered and lacked wheels at this point. During flight testing, the superior gliding capability of the swept-wing Komet proved detrimental to safe landing. The aircraft would rise back into the air with the slightest updraft. Since the approach was made unpowered, there was no opportunity to make another landing pass if the aircraft failed to stop at the proper airfield. For production models, a set of landing flaps allowed somewhat more controlled landings. This issue remained a problem throughout the program, however. Nevertheless, the performance was tremendous and plans were made to put Me 163 squadrons all over Germany in 40 km (25 mi) rings. Development of an operational version was given the highest priority. Me 163 B Me 163B on display at the National Museum of the USAF Meanwhile, Walter had started work on the newer HWK 109-509 hot engine, which added a true fuel of hydrazine hydrate and methanol, designated C-Stoff, that burned with the oxygen-rich exhaust from the T-Stoff, used as the oxidizer, for added thrust. (See List of Stoffs.) This resulted in the significantly modified Me 163 B of late 1941. Due to the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) requirement that it should be possible to throttle the engine, the originally simple power plant grew complicated and lost reliability. The new fuel proved an unfortunate choice as well, since hydrazine hydrate was also used in the launcher of the V-1 "Doodlebug" flying bomb and was in short supply throughout the 1943-45 period. The fuel system was particularly troublesome, as leaks experienced during hard landings easily degenerated in fires and explosions. Metal fuel lines and fittings, which failed in unpredictable ways, were used as this was the best technology available. Both fuel and oxidizer were toxic and required extreme care when loading in the airframe - yet there were still occasions when Komets simply exploded on the tarmac. The corrosive nature of the liquids also mandated special protective gear for the pilots. Two prototypes were followed by 30 Me 163B-0 aircraft armed with two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon and some 400 Me 163B-1s armed with two 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons, but which were otherwise similar to the B-0. Occasional references to B-1a or Ba-1 subtypes are found in the literature on the aircraft, but the meanings of these designations are somewhat unclear. Early in the war, when German aircraft firms created versions of their aircraft for export purposes, the a was added to export (ausland) variants (B-1a) or to foreign-built variants (Ba-1) but for the Me 163, there were neither export nor a foreign-built version. Later in the war the a, and successive letters, were used for aircraft using different engine types (Me 262A-1a with Jumo engines, A-1b with BMW engines). As the Me 163 was planned with an alternative BMW P3330A rocket engine it's quite safe to assume the a was used for this purpose on early examples. Only one Me 163, the V10, was tested with the BMW engine so this designation suffix was soon dropped. The Me 163 B-1a didn't have any wingtip "washout" built into it, and as a result had a much higher critical Mach number than the Me 163 B-1. Stüwe 1999, p. 254. The Me 163B had very docile landing characteristics, mostly due to its integrated leading edge slots, located directly forward, along the wing's leading edge, of the elevon control surfaces. It was found to be impossible to stall, nor would it spin. One could fly the Komet with the stick full back and have it in a turn and then use the rudder to take it out of the turn and not fear it snapping into a spin. It would also slip beautifully. Because it was derived from a glider, it had excellent gliding qualities which meant it had the tendency to keep on flying above the ground. On the other hand, making a too close turn from base onto final, the sink rate would increase, and one could quickly lose altitude and come in short. Another main difference from a propeller-driven aircraft is that there was no slipstream over the rudder. On takeoff, one had to attain the speed at which the aerodynamic controls become effective - about 129 km/h (80 mph) - and that was always a critical thing. One had to be careful the control stick wasn't somewhere in the corner when the control surfaces began working. These, like many other specific Me 163 problems, would be resolved by specific training. The performance of the Me 163 far exceeded that of contemporary piston engine fighters. At a speed of over 320 km/h (200 mph) the aircraft would take off, in a so-called "sharp start" from the ground, from its two-wheeled dolly. The aircraft would be kept at low altitude until the best climbing speed of around 676 km/h (420 mph) was reached, at which point it would jettison the dolly, pull up into a 70° angle of climb, and rapidly climb to the bombers' altitude. It could go even higher if need be, reaching 12,000 m (40,000 ft) in an unheard-of three minutes. Once there, it would level off and quickly accelerate to speeds around 880 km/h (550 mph) or faster, which no Allied fighter could hope to match. Because of its thin wings it didn't suffer from compressibility or other aerodynamic problems as much as other early jet aircraft. What's more, the aircraft was remarkably agile and docile to fly at high speed. According to Rudolf Opitz, chief test pilot of the Me 163, it could "fly circles around any other fighter of its time". By this point, Messerschmitt was completely overloaded with production of the Bf 109 and attempts to bring the Me 210 into service. Production in a dispersed network was handed over to Klemm, but quality control problems were such that the work was later given to Junkers, who was at that time underworked. As with many German designs of World War II, parts of the airframe (esp. wings) were made of wood, which allowed furniture manufacturers to act as subcontractors. For training purposes, the older Me 163A and first Me 163B prototypes were used. But it was planned to introduce the Me 163 S, which removed the rocket engine and tank capacity and placed a second seat for the instructor behind the pilot. The 163 S would be used for glider landing training, which as explained above, was essential to operate the Me 163. It appears the 163 Ss were converted from the earlier Me 163B series prototypes. In service, the Me 163 turned out to be difficult to use against enemy aircraft. Its tremendous speed and climb rate meant a target was reached and passed in a matter of seconds. Although the Me 163 was a stable gun platform, it required excellent marksmanship to bring down an enemy bomber. The Komet was equipped with two 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons which had a relatively low muzzle velocity, with the characteristic ballistic drop of such a weapon, which meant they were only accurate at short distance, and that it was almost impossible to hit a slow-moving bomber when the Komet was traveling very fast (four or five hits were typically needed to take down a B-17). A number of innovative solutions were implemented to ensure kills by less experienced pilots; the most promising was a unique weapon called the Sondergerät 500 Jägerfaust. This consisted of a series of single-shot, short-barreled 50 mm (2 in) guns pointing upwards. Five were mounted in the wing roots on each side of the aircraft. The trigger was tied to a photocell in the upper surface of the aircraft, and when the Komet flew under the bomber, the resulting change in brightness caused by the underside of the aircraft could cause the rounds to be fired. As each shell shot upwards, the disposable gun barrel that fired it was ejected downwards, thus making the weapon recoilless. It appears that this weapon was used in combat only once, resulting in the destruction of a Halifax bomber, Komet weapons: SG500 Jägerfaust though other sources say it was a Boeing B-17 Ethel and Price 1979, pp. 133–135. Ethell 1978, p. 140. Later versions The biggest concern about the design was the short flight time, which never met the projections made by Walter. With only seven and a half minutes of powered flight, the fighter truly was a dedicated point defense interceptor. In order to improve on this, work started on the development of an engine with two separate combustion chambers of differing sizes, oriented one above the other, with the upper one, of the larger size, and supported by the "thrust tube" exactly as on the 509A motor's single chamber, was tuned for "high power" for takeoff and climb, and the smaller volume, lower chamber with approximately 400 kg (880 lb) of thrust at its top performance level, for efficient lower-power cruise. This HWK 109-509 C would improve endurance by as much as 50%. Two 163 Bs, V6 and V18, were experimentally fitted with the new engine and tested in 1944. On 6 July 1944, the Me 163 B V18 (VA+SP) set a new world speed record of 1,130 km/h (702 mph), piloted by Heini Dittmar, and landed with almost all of the vertical rudder surface broken away from flutter. This record was not broken in terms of absolute speed until 6 November 1947 by Chuck Yeager in a flight that was part of the of the Bell X-1 test program, with a 1,434 km/h (891 mph), or Mach 1.35 supersonic speed, recorded at an altitude of nearly 14,820 m (49,000 ft) altitude.. But the X-1 never exceed this speed in a normal runway liftoff, Heini Dittmar reached this 1,130 km/h (700 mph) performance, after a normal "sharp start" ground takeoff, without an air drop from a mother ship. Neville Duke exceed Heini Dittmars record mark in 31 August 1953 with the Hawker Hunter F Mk3 with a speed of 1,171 km/h (728 mph), after a normal ground start. Käsemann 1999, pp. 47, 128 World record Nevile Duke Aircraft of the configuration the Me 163 used were eventually found to have serious stability problems when entering transonic flight, like the similarly configured, and turbojet powered, Northrop X-4 Bantam and de Havilland DH 108, which made the V18's record with the Walter 509C "cruiser" rocket more remarkable. Woldemar Voigt of Messerschmitt's Oberammergau offices started a redesign of the 163 to incorporate the new engine, as well as fix other problems. The resulting Me 163 C design featured a larger wing through the addition of an insert at the wing root, an extended fuselage with extra tank capacity through the addition of a "plug" insert behind the wing, and a new pressurized cockpit topped with a bubble canopy giving dramatically improved visibility. The additional tank capacity and cockpit pressurization allowed the maximum altitude to increase to 15,850 m (52,000 ft), as well as improving powered time to about twelve minutes, almost doubling combat time (from about five minutes to nine). Three Me 163C-1a prototypes were planned, but it appears only one was flown, and that without its intended engine. Green 1970, p. 604. But by this time the project was moved to Junkers. Here a new design effort under the direction of Heinrich Hertel at Dessau attempted to improve the Komet. The Hertel team had to compete with the Lippisch team and their Me 163C. Hertel investigated the Me 163 and found it was not well suited for mass production and not optimized as a fighter aircraft, with the most glaring defeciency being the lack of a retractable landing gear of any sort. For this the Me 163V-18 was equipped with a non-retractable tricycle landing gear. (This prototype is often called the Me 163D but it is now clear that there never was a 163 D.) The resulting Junkers Ju 248 used a three-section fuselage to ease construction. The V1 prototype was completed for testing in August 1944, and was glider tested behind a Junkers Ju 188. Some sources state that the Walter 109-509 C engine was fitted in September, but it was probably never tested under this power. At this point the RLM re-assigned the project to Messerschmitt, where it became the Me 263. This appears to have been a formality only, with Junkers continuing the work and planning production Green 1971, pp. 112–114. . However, by the time the design was ready to go into production, after many delays, the plant it was to be made at was overrun by Soviet forces. While it did not reach operational status, the work was briefly continued by the Russian Mikoyan-Gurevich (MiG) design bureau as the Mikoyan-Gurevich I-270 Green 1971, pp. 150–151. . Operational history Operations began in 1944. As expected, the aircraft was extremely fast, and for a time the Allied fighters were at a complete loss as what to do about it. Singly or in pairs, the Komets attacked, often faster than the opposing fighters could dive in an attempt to intercept them. A typical Me 163 tactic was to zoom through the bomber formations at 9,000 m (30,000 ft), up to an altitude of 10,700-12,000 m (35,000–40,000 ft), then dive through the formation again. This approach afforded the pilot two brief chances to fire a few rounds from his cannons before gliding back to his airfield. The pilots reported that it was possible to make four passes on a bomber, but only if it was flying alone. Späte 1989, p. 252. As the cockpit was unpressurized, the operational ceiling was limited by what the pilot could endure for several minutes while breathing oxygen from a mask, without losing consciousness. Pilots underwent altitude chamber training to harden them against the rigors of operating in the thin air of the stratosphere without a pressure suit. Special low-fiber diets also had to be prepared for pilots as any gas in the gastrointestinal tract would expand rapidly as the aircraft rocketed toward the high-flying bomber formations. One fighter wing, Jagdgeschwader 400 (JG 400), commanded by Major Wolfgang Späte, was equipped with the craft in two groups, with the mission of defending synthetic gasoline installations during May 1944. First actions occurred at the end of July, attacking two USAAF B-17 Flying Fortress bombers without confirmed kills and continuing in combat from May 1944 to spring 1945. During this time, there were nine confirmed kills with 14 lost. Feldwebel Siegfried Schubert was the most successful pilot with three four-engine-bombers to his credit. Späte 1989, p. XII. Allied fighter pilots quickly noted the short lifetime of the powered flight. They would wait it out, and as soon as the engine went dead they would pounce on the unpowered, gliding Komet. The Komet was however extremely manoeuvrable and could pull out of a turn much later than any Allied fighter. Another Allied method was to attack the fields the rocket fighters operated from and started strafing them after the Me 163s landed Ethell 1978, pp. 94–144. . Setting up a defensive perimeter with anti-aircraft guns quickly meant that Allied fighters stayed clear of these bases. At the end of 1944, 91 aircraft had been delivered to JG 400 but a continuous lack of fuel had kept most of them grounded. It was clear that the original plan for a huge network of Me 163 bases was never going to happen. Up to that point, JG 400 had lost merely six aircraft due to the enemy actions. Nine were lost to other causes, remarkably low for such a revolutionary and technically advanced aircraft. In those last days of the Third Reich the Me 163 was given up in favour of the more successful and threatening Me 262. In May 1945, Me 163 operations were stopped, the JG 400 disbanded, and many of their pilots sent to fly Me 262s. In any operational sense, the Komet was a failure. Even though they shot down 16 aircraft, and mainly expensive four-engined bombers, it did not warrant the efforts put into the project. With the projected Me 263 things could have turned out differently. But in the end, the Komet never was an effective fighter aircraft. Due to fuel shortages late in the war, very few actually went into combat, and it took an experienced pilot with excellent shooting skills to achieve "kills" with the Me 163. Furthermore, due to the volatile nature of its rocket fuel, flying the Me 163 proved to be more dangerous to the pilots than to the enemy. Not counting aircraft built specifically for kamikaze attacks, the Me 163 thus remains the war plane most deadly to its pilots. But at the same time, the Komet was a remarkable design that pointed the way to the future. It was one more piece of strong evidence that the day of the propeller fighter was over, and it also spawned later weapons like the Bachem Ba 349 Natter and Convair XF-92. Ultimately, the point defense role that the Me 163 played would be taken over by the surface-to-air missile (SAM), Messerschmitt's own example being the Enzian. The airframe designer, Alexander Martin Lippisch went on to design delta-winged supersonic aircraft for the Convair Corporation. Surviving aircraft It has been claimed that at least 29 Komets were shipped out of Germany after the war and that of those at least 10 have been known to survive the war Ethell 1978, pp. 157–158. to be put on display in museums around the world. Most of the 10 surviving Me 163s were part of the special Luftwaffe rocket fighter wing known as Jagdgeschwader 400 (JG 400), and were captured by the British at Husum, the squadron's base at the time of Germany's surrender in 1945. United States Five Me 163s were originally brought to the United States in 1945, receiving the Foreign Equipment numbers FE-495 and FE-500 to 503 Andrade 1979, p. 251. . An Me 163 B-1a, Werknummer (serial number) 191301, arrived at Freeman Field, Indiana, during the summer of 1945, and received the foreign equipment number FE-500. On 12 April 1946, it was flown aboard a cargo aircraft to the U.S. Army Air Forces facility at Muroc dry lake in California for flight testing. Testing began on 3 May 1946 in the presence of Dr. Alexander Lippisch and involved towing the unfueled Komet behind a B-29 to an altitude of 9,000-10,500 m (30,000-35,000 ft) before it was released for a glide back to earth under the control of test pilot Major Gus Lundquist. Powered tests were planned, but not carried out after delamination of the aircraft's wooden wings was discovered. It was then stored at Norton AFB, California until 1954, when it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution. The aircraft remained on display in an unrestored condition at the museum's Paul E. Garber Restoration and Storage Facility in Suitland, Maryland, until 1996, when it was lent to the Mighty Eighth Air Force Museum in Pooler, Georgia for restoration and display. It will eventually be returned to the Smithsonian for display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center near Washington D.C.. Werknummer 191301 is held by NASM, Silver Hill. Me 163 B, Werknummer 191095 is held at the USAFM and was gifted from the National Aviation Museum, Ottawa in 1999. It was placed on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio on 10 December 1999. The aircraft had been owned and restored by the Canadian National Aviation Museum. Komet test pilot Rudolf "Rudi" Opitz was on hand for the dedication of the aircraft and discussed his experiences of flying the rocket-propelled fighter to a standing room only crowd. During the aircraft's restoration in Canada it was discovered that the aircraft had been assembled by French "forced labourers" who had deliberately sabotaged it by placing sharp objects between the rocket's fuel tanks and its supporting straps. There are also indications that the wing was improperly assembled. Inside the fuselage was found patriotic French writing. The aircraft is displayed without any unit identification or Werk Nummer. Me 163 B, Werknummer 191660, "Yellow 3", is held by the Flying Heritage Collection. Between 1961 and 1976, this aircraft was displayed at the Imperial War Museum in London. In 1976, it was moved the Imperial War Museum Duxford. It underwent a lengthy restoration, beginning in 1997, that was frequently halted as the restorers were diverted to more pressing projects. In May 2005, it was sold, reportedly for £800,000, to raise money for the purchase of a de Havilland/Airco DH.9 as the Duxford museum had no examples of a World War I bomber in its collection. Permission for export was granted by the British government's Department for Culture, Media and Sport as three other Komets were held in British museums. "Yellow 3" has since been sold to Paul Allen. United Kingdom Of the 21 aircraft that were captured by the British, at least three have survived until today. They were assigned the British serial numbers AM200 until AM220. Pejčoch 2007, p. 69. Me 163 B, Werknummer 191316, "Yellow 6", has been on display at the Science Museum in London, England since 1964 with the Walter motor removed for separate display. A second Walter motor and a takeoff dolly are part of the museum's reserve collection and are not generally on display to the public. Me 163 B, Werknummer 191614, has been at the RAF Museum site at RAF Cosford, since 1975. Before then, it was at the Rocket Propulsion Establishment at Westcott, Buckinghamshire. Me 163 B-1a, Werknummer 191659 and RAF Air Ministry number AM215, "Yellow 15", was captured at Husum in 1945 and was sent to the College of Aeronautics at Cranfield, England in 1947. After many years of touring airshows and various outdoor gatherings around the UK it was finally loaned to the National Museum of Flight at East Fortune Airfield, East Lothian, Scotland in 1976. Germany Messerschmitt Me 163 at the Luftwaffenmuseum in Berlin-Gatow A Me 163 B, Werknummer 191904, "Yellow 25", belonging to JG 400 was captured by the RAF at Husum in 1945. It was sent to England, arriving first at Farnborough, receiving the RAF Air Ministry number AM219 and than transferred to Brize Norton on 8 August 1945, before finally being placed on display at the Station Museum at Colerne. When the museum closed in 1975 the aircraft went to RAF St Athan, receiving the ground maintenance number 8480M. On 5 May 1988 the aircraft was returned to the Luftwaffe and moved to the Luftwaffe Alpha Jet factory at the air base in Oldenburg (JBG 43). The airframe was in good condition but the cockpit had been stripped and the rocket engine was missing. Eventually an elderly German woman came forward with Me 163 instruments that her late husband had collected after the war, and the engine was reproduced by a machine shop owned by Me 163 enthusiast Reinhold Opitz. The factory closed in the early 1990s and the "Yellow 25" was moved to a small museum created on the site. The museum contained aircraft that had once served as gate guards, monuments and other damaged aircraft previously located on the air base. In 1997 "Yellow 25" was finally moved to the official Luftwaffe Museum located at the former RAF base at Berlin-Gatow, where it is displayed today alongside a restored Walter HWK 109-509 rocket engine. Me 163 B, Werknummer 120370, "Yellow 6" of JG 400, is displayed at the Deutsches Museum, Munich. It was originally sent to Britain, where it had received the RAF Air Ministry number AM210. It was given to the Deutsches museum by RAF Biggin Hill station. Some claim this is 191316, but that is still at the London Science Museum. Canada Me 163 B Komet, Werknummer 191914 at the Canada Aviation Museum Me 163 B, Werknummer 191659 (AM215) or 191914 (AM220), is held at the Canada Aviation Museum, Ottawa. Like two of the British Komets, this aircraft was part of JG 400 and captured at Husum. It was shipped to Canada in 1946. Werknummer 19116 (but more probable 191916) and 191095 (AM211) also seem to have been held at one time in this museum. Ethell 1978, p. 158. Australia Me 163 B, Werknummer 191907, is part of the collection of the Australian War Memorial. This aircraft was also part of JG 400 and captured at Husum. Japanese versions As part of their alliance, Germany provided the Japanese Empire with plans and an example of the Me 163 Ethell 1978, pp. 155–157. . One of the two submarines carrying Me 163 parts did not arrive in Japan, so at the time the Japanese lacked a few important parts, including the turbopump which they could not make themselves. The Japanese Me 163 crashed on its first flight and was completely destroyed. Späte 1989, p. 243. The Japanese versions were designed as trainers, fighters, and interceptors. Differences between the versions were fairly minor. The Mitsubishi Ki-200 Shusui ("Shu" means "autumn", "sui" means "water" in Japanese) was the equivalent of the 163 B, armed with two 30 mm (1.18 in) Ho 155-II cannon. The Navy version, the Mitsubishi J8M1 Shusui, simply replaced the Ho 155 cannon with the Navy's 30 mm (1.18 in) Type 5. Mitsubishi also planned on producing a version of the 163 C for the Navy, known as the J8M2 Shusui Model 21. A version of the 163 D/263 was known as the J8M3 Shusui for the Navy with the Type 5 cannon, and Ki-202 Shusui-kai ("kai" means "modified" in Japanese) with the Ho 155-II for the Army. Trainers were planned, roughly the equivalent of the Me 163 A-0/S. These were known as the Yokoi Ku-13 Akigusa ("Aki" means also "autumn" and "gusa (kusa)" means "grass" in Japanese) or Ki-200 Syusui Rocket Interceptor practice glider. Other trainer variants included: Yokoi Experimental Ki-13 Shusui Heavy Glider. This glider was created as the Ki-200 Syusui Rocket Interceptor practice glider. The project was cancelled due to high costs. Kugisho/Yokosuka MXY-8 Akigusa Rocket Interceptor practice glider (Experimental Shusui Light Glider). Created as the J8M1 Syusui Rocket Interceptor practice glider. Kugisho/Yokosuka MXY-9 Experimental Shusui Heavy Glider. This glider was created as the J8M1 Syusui Rocket Interceptor practice glider, but was cancelled due to high costs. Kugisho/Yokosuka MXY-9 Shuka Rocket Interceptor Operative training glider. This aircraft would have used the Hitachi "Hatsukaze-11" fan jet engine on the MXY-8 "Akigusa" airframe. Replicas Me 163 replica glider. A flying replica Me 163 was constructed between 1994 and 1996 by Joseph Kurtz, a former Luftwaffe pilot who trained to fly Me 163s but who never flew in combat. He subsequently sold the aircraft to EADS. The replica is an unpowered glider whose shape closely matches that of an Me 163, although its weight and internal construction differ considerably. Reportedly, it has excellent flying characteristics. XCOR Aerospace, an aerospace and rocketry company, proposed a rocket-powered replica - the Komet II. Although outwardly the same as a wartime aircraft, the design would have differed considerably for safety reasons. It would have been partially constructed with composite materials, powered by a simpler and safer, pressure fed, liquid oxygen/alcohol engine and retractable undercarriage would have been used instead of a take-off trolley and landing skid . The project is no longer discussed on the company's website and it appears work has ceased on this project. Several static replica aircraft are exhibited in museums. Specifications (Me 163 B-1) See also Hellmuth Walter Eric "Winkle" Brown References Notes Bibliography Andrade, John M. U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909. The Hollow, Earl Shilton, Leicester, UK: Midland Counties Publications, 1979. ISBN 0-904597-22-9. Ethell, Jeffrey L. Komet, the Messerschmitt 163. Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Ltd., 1978. ISBN 0-7110-0827-2. Ethell, Jeffrey L. and Alfred Price. The German Jets in Combat. London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1979. ISBN 0345-01252-5. Green, William. Warplanes of the Third Reich. London: Macdonald and Jane's (Publishers) Ltd., 1970 (fourth Impression 1979). ISBN 0-356-02382-6. Green, William. Rocket Fighter(Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II, Weapons Book No.20). New York: Ballantine Books, 1971. ISBN 0-34525-893-2. Käsmann, Ferdinand C.W. Die schnellsten Jets der Welt (in German). Berlin: Aviatic-Verlag GmbH, 1999. ISBN 3-925505-26-1. Maloney, Edward T., Uwe Feist and Ronald Ferndock. Messerschmitt 163 "Komet". Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, Inc., 1968. ISBN 0-81680-564-4. Pejčoch, Ivo. Bojové Legendy: Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet (in Czech). Prague, Chech Republic: Jan Vašut s.r.o., 2007. ISBN 80-7236-305-6. Späte, Wolfgang. Der streng geheime Vogel Me 163 (in German). Eggolsheim, Germany: Dörfler im Nebel Verlag GmbH., 2003. ISBN 3-89555-142-0. Späte, Wolfgang. Top Secret Bird: Luftwaffe's Me-163 Komet. Missoula, Montana: Pictorial Histories Publishing Co., 1989. ISBN 1-87283-610-0. Späte, Wolfgang and Richard P. Bateson. Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet (Aircraft in Profile number 225). Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1971. Stüwe, Botho. Peenemünde West (in German). Augsburg, Germany: Bechtermünz Verlag, 1999. ISBN 3-8289-0294-4. Ziegler, Mano. Rocket Fighter: The Story of the Messerschmitt Me 163. London: Arms and Armour Press, 1976. ISBN 0-85368-161-9. External links The Hellmuth Walter Website Photos of Me 163B Luftwaffepics A large source of information on ME163B ME163B Test Flight Flight Journal A list of bases where Komet operated.	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6,006	Mariner_4	Mariner 4 (together with Mariner 3 known as Mariner-Mars 1964) was the fourth in a series of spacecraft, launched on November 28, 1964, intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode and performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space; their depiction of a cratered, seemingly dead world largely changed the view of the scientific community on life on Mars. Mariner 4 was designed to conduct closeup scientific observations of Mars and to transmit these observations to Earth. Other mission objectives were to perform field and particle measurements in interplanetary space in the vicinity of Mars and to provide experience in and knowledge of the engineering capabilities for interplanetary flights of long duration. On December 21, 1967 communications with Mariner 4 were terminated. Spacecraft and subsystems The Mariner 4 spacecraft consisted of an octagonal magnesium frame, 1270 mm across a diagonal and 457 mm high. Four solar panels were attached to the top of the frame with an end-to-end span of 6.88 m, including solar pressure vanes which extended from the ends. A 1,168 mm diameter high-gain parabolic antenna was mounted at the top of the frame as well. An omnidirectional low-gain antenna was mounted on a 7 ft 4 in (2235 mm) tall mast next to the high-gain antenna. The overall height of the spacecraft was 2.89 m. The octagonal frame housed the electronic equipment, cabling, midcourse propulsion system, and attitude control gas supplies and regulators. Scientific instruments included: A helium magnetometer, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna, to measure the magnitude and other characteristics of the interplanetary and planetary magnetic fields. An ionization chamber/Geiger counter, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna nearer the body of the spacecraft, to measure the charged-particle intensity and distribution in interplanetary space and in the vicinity of Mars. A trapped radiation detector, mounted on the body with counter-axes pointing 70° and 135° from the solar direction, to measure the intensity and direction of low-energy particles. A cosmic ray telescope, mounted inside the body pointing in anti-solar direction, to measure the direction and energy spectrum of protons and alpha particles. A solar plasma probe, mounted on the body pointing 10° from the solar direction, to measure the very low energy charged particle flux from the Sun. A cosmic dust detector, mounted on the body with microphone plate approximately perpendicular to the plane of orbit, to measure the momentum, distribution, density, and direction of cosmic dust. A television camera, mounted on a scan platform at the bottom center of the spacecraft, to obtain closeup pictures of the surface of Mars. Power was supplied by 28,224 solar cells contained in the four 176 x 90 cm solar panels, which could provide 310 W at Mars. A rechargeable 1200 W·h silver-zinc battery was also used for maneuvers and backup. Monopropellant hydrazine was used for propulsion, via a 4 jet vane vector control motor, with thrust, installed on one of the sides of the octagonal structure. Attitude control was provided by 12 cold nitrogen gas jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels and three gyros. Solar pressure vanes, each with an area of 0.65 square meter (7 ft²), were attached to the tips of the solar panels. Positional information was provided by four Sun sensors, and an Earth, a Mars, and a Canopus sensor. Mariner 4 was the first spacecraft needing a star as a reference object, as earlier missions, remaining near Earth or Venus, had sighted on the home planet. During this flight Earth would be too dim to lock onto. An other bright source at a wide angle away from the Sun was needed and Canopus filled this requirement. Subsequently, Canopus was used as a reference point in many following missions. Telecommunications equipment consisted of dual S-band transmitters (7 W triode cavity amplifier/10 W traveling-wave tube amplifier) and a single receiver which together could send and receive data via the low- and high-gain antennas at 8⅓ or 33⅓ bit/s. Data could also be stored on a tape recorder with a capacity of 5.24 million bits for later transmission. All operations were controlled by a command subsystem which could process any of 29 direct command words or 3 quantitative word commands for midcourse maneuvers. The central computer and sequencer operated stored time-sequence commands using a 38.4 kHz synchronization frequency as a time reference. Temperature control was achieved through the use of adjustable louvers mounted on six of the electronics assemblies, plus multilayer insulating blankets, polished aluminum shields, and surface treatments. Other instruments included: Radio signal occultation Celestial mechanics based on precision tracking Mission profile Launch of Mariner 4 Launch After launch from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 12 the protective shroud covering Mariner 4 was jettisoned and the Agena D/Mariner 4 combination separated from the Atlas D booster at 14:27:23 UTC on November 28, 1964. The Agena D first burn from 14:28:14 to 14:30:38 put the spacecraft into an Earth parking orbit and the second burn from 15:02:53 to 15:04:28 injected the craft into a Mars transfer orbit. Mariner 4 separated from the Agena D at 15:07:09 and began cruise mode operations. The solar panels deployed and the scan platform was unlatched at 15:15:00 and Sun acquisition occurred 16 minutes later. Lock on Canopus After Sun acquisition, the Canopus star tracker went searching for Canopus. The star tracker was set to respond to any object more than one-eighth and less than eight times as bright as Canopus. Including Canopus, there were seven such objects visible to the sensor. It took more than a day of 'star-hopping' to find Canopus, as the sensor locked on to others instead: a stray light pattern from the near Earth, Alderamin, Regulus, Naos, and γ Velorum were acquired before Canopus. During the early part of the mission, roll error signal transients occurred frequently, making the spacecraft lose its lock on Canopus. The lock was lost six times in less than three weeks, each time requiring radio commands to reacquire the lock. Analysis concluded that it was probably due to small dust particles that scattered sunlight at the same brightness as Canopus. If the brightness of the object exceeded the maximum limit of eight times the brightness of Canopus, the spacecraft would search for a new star. A radio command was sent on December 17, 1964 to remove this limit; the limit was initially implemented to prevent a lock on Earth, but no longer necessary. No further loss of the Canopus lock was experienced, although roll transients occurred 38 more times before the encounter with Mars. Midcourse maneuver The 7½ months of flight of Mariner 4 involved one midcourse maneuver on December 5, 1964. The maneuver was initially scheduled for December 4, but due to a loss of lock with Canopus, it was postponed. The maneuver was successfully completed on December 5; it consisted of a negative pitch turn of 39.16 degrees, a positive roll turn of 156.08 degrees, and a thrusting time of 20.07 seconds. The turns aimed the motor of the spacecraft back in the general direction of Earth, as the motor was initially pointed along the direction of flight. Both the pitch and roll changes were completed with better than 1% accuracy, the velocity change with about 2½% accuracy. After the maneuver, Mariner 4 was heading straight for Mars as planned. Mars flyby The spacecraft flew by Mars on July 14 and July 15, 1965. Planetary science mode was turned on at 15:41:49 UT on July 14. The camera sequence started at 00:18:36 UT on July 15 (7:18:49 p.m. EST on July 14) and 21 pictures using alternate red and green filters, plus 21 lines of a 22nd picture were taken. The images covered a discontinuous swath of Mars starting near 40° N, 170° E, down to about 35° S, 200° E, and then across to the terminator at 50° S, 255° E, representing about 1% of the planet's surface. The closest approach was 9,846 km from the Martian surface at 01:00:57 UT July 15, 1965 (8:00:57 p.m. EST July 14). The images taken during the flyby were stored in the on-board tape recorder. At 02:19:11 UT Mariner 4 passed behind Mars as seen from Earth and the radio signal ceased. The signal was reacquired at 03:13:04 UT when the spacecraft reappeared. Cruise mode was then re-established. Transmission of the taped images to Earth began about 8.5 hours after signal reacquisition and continued until August 3. All images were transmitted twice to ensure no data was missing or corrupt. The spacecraft performed all programmed activities successfully and returned useful data from launch until 22:05:07 UT on October 1, 1965, when the distance from Earth (309.2 million km) and the antenna orientation temporarily halted signal acquisition. Micrometeoroid hits and end of communications Data acquisition resumed in late 1967. The cosmic dust detector registered 17 hits in a 15 minute span on September 15, part of an apparent micrometeoroid shower which temporarily changed the spacecraft attitude and probably slightly damaged the thermal shield. Later it was speculated that the probe passed through the debris of Comet D/Swift, and even made a close flyby of that comet's possibly shattered nucleus at only 20 million kilometers. On December 7 the gas supply in the attitude control system was exhausted, and on December 10 and 11 a total of 83 micrometeoroid hits were recorded which caused perturbation of the attitude and degradation of the signal strength. On December 21, 1967 communications with Mariner 4 were terminated. The spacecraft is currently in an exterior heliocentric orbit. Results The total data returned by the mission was 5.2 million bits (about 634 kB). All instruments operated successfully with the exception of a part of the ionization chamber, namely the Geiger-Müller tube, which failed in February 1965. Also, the plasma probe had its performance degraded by a resistor failure on December 8, 1964, but by taking this failure into account, experimenters were able to recalibrate the instrument and still interpret the data. The images returned showed a Moon-like cratered terrain, which later missions showed was not typical for Mars, but only for the more ancient region imaged by Mariner 4. A surface atmospheric pressure of 4.1 to 7.0 mbar (410 to 700 pascal) and daytime temperatures of −100 degrees Celsius were estimated. No magnetic field or Martian radiation belts were detected. Images of craters and measurements of a thin atmosphere, indicating a relatively inactive planet exposed to the harshness of space, generally dissipated hopes of finding intelligent life on Mars. Life on Mars had been the subject of speculation and science fiction for centuries. If there was life on Mars, after Mariner 4 most concluded it would probably be smaller, simpler forms. Others concluded that a search for life on Earth at kilometer resolution, using several thousand photographs, did not reveal a sign of life on the vast majority of these photographs; thus, based on the 22 photographs taken by Mariner 4, one could not conclude there was no intelligent life on Mars. Mariner 4 may have concluded the gradual change, in science fiction, from describing intelligent aliens as dwellers on other planets in our Solar System, to describing them as living on planets circling distant stars. The total cost of the Mariner 4 mission is estimated at $83.2 million. Total research, development, launch, and support costs for the Mariner series of spacecraft (Mariners 1 through 10) was approximately $554 million. See also Exploration of Mars Space exploration Space probe References External links Mariner 4 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration Space Flight Operations Plan Mariner Mars '64 (PDF) Processed images and mosaics from the Mariner 4 mission to Mars Ted Stryk's Mariner 4 page	Mariner_4 \|@lemmatized mariner:26 together:2 know:1 mar:24 fourth:1 series:2 spacecraft:17 launch:7 november:2 intend:1 planetary:3 exploration:4 flyby:5 mode:4 perform:3 first:5 successful:1 planet:7 return:5 picture:4 martian:3 surface:6 capture:1 image:9 another:1 ever:1 deep:1 space:7 depiction:1 cratered:2 seemingly:1 dead:1 world:1 largely:1 change:5 view:1 scientific:3 community:1 life:7 design:1 conduct:1 closeup:2 observation:2 transmit:2 earth:12 mission:10 objective:1 field:3 particle:6 measurement:2 interplanetary:4 vicinity:2 provide:4 experience:2 knowledge:1 engineering:1 capability:1 flight:5 long:1 duration:1 december:9 communication:3 terminate:2 subsystems:1 consist:3 octagonal:3 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still:1 interpret:1 show:2 moon:1 like:1 terrain:1 typical:1 ancient:1 region:1 atmospheric:1 mbar:1 pascal:1 daytime:1 celsius:1 estimate:2 belt:1 detect:1 crater:1 thin:1 atmosphere:1 indicate:1 relatively:1 inactive:1 expose:1 harshness:1 generally:1 dissipate:1 hope:1 intelligent:3 subject:1 speculation:1 fiction:2 century:1 simple:1 form:1 resolution:1 several:1 thousand:1 photograph:3 reveal:1 sign:1 vast:1 majority:1 thus:1 may:1 gradual:1 describe:2 alien:1 dweller:1 living:1 circle:1 distant:1 cost:2 research:1 development:1 support:1 external:1 link:1 nasa:1 pdf:1 mosaic:1 ted:1 stryk:1 page:1 \|@bigram magnetic_field:2 ionization_chamber:2 geiger_counter:1 cosmic_ray:1 perpendicular_plane:1 tape_recorder:2 celestial_mechanic:1 cape_canaveral:1 atlas_booster:1 temporarily_halt:1 geiger_müller:1 müller_tube:1 atmospheric_pressure:1 daytime_temperature:1 degree_celsius:1 science_fiction:2 vast_majority:1 external_link:1
6,007	Abjuration	Abjuration is the solemn repudiation, abandonment, or renunciation by or upon oath, often the renunciation of citizenship or some other right or privilege. It comes from the Latin abjurare, "to forswear"). Abjuration of the realm was a type of abjuration in ancient English law that was a renunciation of citizenship, a type of self-imposed exile. The person taking the oath swore never to return to the kingdom unless by permission. This was often taken by fugitives who had taken sanctuary: In England, an oath of abjuration was taken by members of Parliament, clergy, and laymen, pledging to support the current British monarch and repudiated the right of the Stuarts and other claimants to the throne. This oath was imposed under William III, George I and George III. It was superseded by the oath of allegiance. Another famous abjuration was brought about by the Plakkaat van Verlatinghe of July 26, 1581, the formal declaration of independence of the Low Countries from the Spanish king, Philip II. This oath was the climax of the Eighty Years' War (Dutch Revolt). Sources Black, Henry Campbell, and Bryan A. Garner (editors). Black's Law Dictionary (7th edition). West: 1999. ISBN 0-314-22864-0. Knight, Bernard. "Crowner Part 4: The Right of Sanctuary." Meehan, Andrew B. "Abjuration." The Catholic Encyclopedia. 1907.	Abjuration \|@lemmatized abjuration:6 solemn:1 repudiation:1 abandonment:1 renunciation:3 upon:1 oath:6 often:2 citizenship:2 right:3 privilege:1 come:1 latin:1 abjurare:1 forswear:1 realm:1 type:2 ancient:1 english:1 law:2 self:1 impose:2 exile:1 person:1 take:4 swore:1 never:1 return:1 kingdom:1 unless:1 permission:1 fugitive:1 sanctuary:2 england:1 member:1 parliament:1 clergy:1 layman:1 pledge:1 support:1 current:1 british:1 monarch:1 repudiate:1 stuart:1 claimant:1 throne:1 william:1 iii:2 george:2 supersede:1 allegiance:1 another:1 famous:1 bring:1 plakkaat:1 van:1 verlatinghe:1 july:1 formal:1 declaration:1 independence:1 low:1 country:1 spanish:1 king:1 philip:1 ii:1 climax:1 eighty:1 year:1 war:1 dutch:1 revolt:1 source:1 black:2 henry:1 campbell:1 bryan:1 garner:1 editor:1 dictionary:1 edition:1 west:1 isbn:1 knight:1 bernard:1 crowner:1 part:1 meehan:1 andrew:1 b:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 \|@bigram claimant_throne:1 oath_allegiance:1 declaration_independence:1
6,008	Crash_(J._G._Ballard_novel)	Crash is a novel by English author J. G. Ballard, first published in 1973. It is a story about car-crash sexual fetishism: its protagonists become sexually aroused by staging and participating in real car-crashes, often with real consequences. Ballard uses a cold and detached language about this automotive paraphilia which gives the novel the tone of an engineering report or a medical journal. It was a highly controversial novel: famously one publisher's reader returned the verdict "This author is beyond psychiatric help. Do Not Publish!" Lars Svendsen, A Philosophy of Boredom, trans. John Irons (London: Reaktion Books, 2005), 82. The novel was made into a movie of the same name in 1996 by David Cronenberg. The Normal's 1978 song "Warm Leatherette" was also inspired by the novel. Plot summary The story is told through the eyes of narrator James Ballard, named after the author himself, but it centers on the sinister figure of Dr. Robert Vaughan, a “former TV-scientist, turned nightmare angel of the expressways”. Ballard meets Vaughan after being involved in a car accident himself near London Airport. Gathering around Vaughan is a group of alienated people, all of them former crash-victims, who follow him in his pursuit to re-enact the crashes of celebrities, and experience what the narrator calls "a new sexuality, born from a perverse technology". Vaughan’s ultimate fantasy is to die in a head-on collision with movie star Elizabeth Taylor. Analysis The book explores themes such as the transformation of human psychology by modern technology, and consumer culture's fascination with celebrities and technological commodities. The human characters in the novel are cold and passionless, unable to become sexually excited unless some kind of technology is involved (typically architecture and cars). The gruesome damage inflicted on car-crash victims is not seen as shocking, but as the liberation of new sexual possibilities, that have yet to be explored, such as in one scene where a man and a woman have sex in a car that was involved in an accident, but rather than have vaginal sex, he penetrates a wound on her thigh that she received in a crash. Finally, the book asks why we, as an enlightened society, accept such a “perverse technology” – that kills a vast number of people yearly – as such an integral part of our culture. Ballard writes in the foreword: “Do we see, in the car-crash, the portents of a nightmare marriage between technology, and our own sexuality? … Is there some deviant logic unfolding here, more powerful than that provided by reason?” Quotes “After having … been constantly bombarded by road-safety propaganda, it was almost a relief to find myself in a real accident.” “Trying to exhaust himself, Vaughan devised an endless almanac of terrifying wounds and insane collisions: The lungs of elderly men punctured by door-handles; the chests of young women impaled on steering-columns; the cheek of handsome youths torn on the chromium latches of quarter-lights. To Vaughan, these wounds formed the key to a new sexuality, born from a perverse technology. The images of these wounds hung in the gallery of his mind, like exhibits in the museum of a slaughterhouse.” "The crushed body of the sportscar had turned her into a being of free and perverse sexuality, releasing within its dying chromium and leaking engine-parts, all the deviant possibilities of her sex." Ballard (as author) talking about his reasons for writing the book: "I wanted to rub the human face in its own vomit, and force it to look in the mirror" References in popular culture The Normal's famous hit, "Warm Leatherette", appears to describe car crash fetishism: The handbrake...penetrates your thigh Join the car crash set Both the novel and "Warm Leatherette" have been acknowledged as influences on John Foxx's 1980 album Metamatic, which features titles such as "Underpass" and "No-One Driving". The Manic Street Preachers' song "Mausoleum" from 1994's "The Holy Bible" contains the famous Ballard quote about the book. See also Death Proof References External links Crash by J.G. Ballard, reviewed by Ted Gioia (Conceptual Fiction) The Terminal Collection: JG Ballard First Editions	Crash_(J._G._Ballard_novel) \|@lemmatized crash:11 novel:7 english:1 author:4 j:2 g:2 ballard:9 first:2 publish:2 story:2 car:9 sexual:2 fetishism:2 protagonist:1 become:2 sexually:2 arouse:1 stag:1 participate:1 real:3 often:1 consequence:1 use:1 cold:2 detached:1 language:1 automotive:1 paraphilia:1 give:1 tone:1 engineering:1 report:1 medical:1 journal:1 highly:1 controversial:1 famously:1 one:3 publisher:1 reader:1 return:1 verdict:1 beyond:1 psychiatric:1 help:1 lars:1 svendsen:1 philosophy:1 boredom:1 trans:1 john:2 iron:1 london:2 reaktion:1 book:5 make:1 movie:2 name:2 david:1 cronenberg:1 normal:2 song:2 warm:3 leatherette:3 also:2 inspire:1 plot:1 summary:1 tell:1 eye:1 narrator:2 james:1 center:1 sinister:1 figure:1 dr:1 robert:1 vaughan:6 former:2 tv:1 scientist:1 turn:2 nightmare:2 angel:1 expressway:1 meet:1 involve:3 accident:3 near:1 airport:1 gather:1 around:1 group:1 alienated:1 people:2 victim:2 follow:1 pursuit:1 enact:1 celebrity:2 experience:1 call:1 new:3 sexuality:4 bear:2 perverse:4 technology:6 ultimate:1 fantasy:1 die:2 head:1 collision:2 star:1 elizabeth:1 taylor:1 analysis:1 explore:2 theme:1 transformation:1 human:3 psychology:1 modern:1 consumer:1 culture:3 fascination:1 technological:1 commodity:1 character:1 passionless:1 unable:1 excited:1 unless:1 kind:1 typically:1 architecture:1 gruesome:1 damage:1 inflict:1 see:3 shocking:1 liberation:1 possibility:2 yet:1 scene:1 man:1 woman:2 sex:3 rather:1 vaginal:1 penetrate:2 wound:4 thigh:2 receive:1 finally:1 ask:1 enlightened:1 society:1 accept:1 kill:1 vast:1 number:1 yearly:1 integral:1 part:2 write:2 foreword:1 portent:1 marriage:1 deviant:2 logic:1 unfold:1 powerful:1 provide:1 reason:2 quote:2 constantly:1 bombard:1 road:1 safety:1 propaganda:1 almost:1 relief:1 find:1 try:1 exhaust:1 devise:1 endless:1 almanac:1 terrify:1 insane:1 lung:1 elderly:1 men:1 puncture:1 door:1 handle:1 chest:1 young:1 impale:1 steer:1 column:1 cheek:1 handsome:1 youth:1 tear:1 chromium:2 latch:1 quarter:1 light:1 form:1 key:1 image:1 hung:1 gallery:1 mind:1 like:1 exhibit:1 museum:1 slaughterhouse:1 crushed:1 body:1 sportscar:1 free:1 release:1 within:1 leak:1 engine:1 talk:1 want:1 rub:1 face:1 vomit:1 force:1 look:1 mirror:1 reference:2 popular:1 famous:2 hit:1 appear:1 describe:1 handbrake:1 join:1 set:1 acknowledge:1 influence:1 foxx:1 album:1 metamatic:1 feature:1 title:1 underpass:1 driving:1 manic:1 street:1 preacher:1 mausoleum:1 holy:1 bible:1 contain:1 death:1 proof:1 external:1 link:1 review:1 ted:1 gioia:1 conceptual:1 fiction:1 terminal:1 collection:1 jg:1 edition:1 \|@bigram reaktion_book:1 david_cronenberg:1 vaginal_sex:1 external_link:1 jg_ballard:1
6,009	Koenigsegg	Koenigsegg Automotive AB ( in Swedish: ) is a Swedish manufacturer of high-performance cars based in Ängelholm. Company The company was founded in 1994 in Sweden by Christian von Koenigsegg, with the intention of producing a world-class supercar. mid-engine layout with a hardtop. Many years of diligent development and protyping finally led to the first street legal production car delivery in 2002 to a waiting customer. What signifies all Koenigsegg model is very high attention to details and state of the art fit and finnish as well as high tech materials and solutions. In 2006 Koenigsegg hit a milestone, by starting the production of the CCX. The CCX is street legal in most countries in the world, including the US and has an engine purposefully created for the CCX. These two criterias makes Koenigsegg totally unique as a small volume Supercar manufacturer. The only other small volume manufacturer that can say the same is Bugatti and then larger companies like Lamborghini and Ferrari. Apart from developing manufacturing and selling the Koenigsegg line of Supercar, Koenigsegg is also involved in "green technology" development programs. This enabled Koenigsegg to produce the CCXR - "Flower Power" Flexfuel Supercar as an example. Koenigsegg is also active in development programs when it comes to plug in electrical cars systems and next generation combustion engine technologies. Koenigsegg holds patent within the engine development area for example the Rocket catalytic converter that reduced backpressure and size while shortening lightof time and a Supercharger respons system that eliminated the need to use bypass valves, which in turn reduces consumption and improves engine respons time. In March 2009 the Koenigsegg CCXR was choosen by Forbes to be one of the ten most beautiful cars in History. History The initial design of the Koenigsegg CC was drawn by Christian von Koenigsegg. Then he went with his sketches to Industrial Designer David Crafoord in order for him to realize the sketches into a scale 1:5 model. David then laid his personal touch to the design brief and finished the model. This model was later scaled up by Sven-Harry Åkesson in order to create the base plug for the initial Koenigsegg prototype that was finished in 1996. During the next years the prototype went through extensive testing and several new prototypes were built. von Koenigsegg got the idea to build his own car after watching the Norwegian puppet movie Pinchcliffe Grand Prix in his youth. However, he took his first steps in the world of business in his early 20's running a trading company called Alpraaz in Stockholm, Sweden. The success of this venture gave von Koenigsegg the necessary financial standing to launch his chosen career as a car manufacturer. Initially, Koenigsegg Automotive was based in Olofström. In 1997 The company needed larger facilities and moved to Margretetorp, just outside of Ängelholm. However, on February 22, 2003, one of the production facilities caught fire and was badly damaged. From 2003 and on Koenigsegg has converted two large fighter-jet hangars and an office building into a car factory. Since the factory is located on the still active Ängelhom airport, clients can arrive by private jet right next to the factory. Furthermore, Koenigsegg controls and uses the former military runway for shakedown runs of production cars and high speed testing. The Koenigsegg badge was designed in 1994 by Jacob Låftman, based on the shield of the Koenigsegg family. The shield has been the family's coat-of-arms since the 12th century when a family member was knighted by the German-based Holy Roman Empire. The phantom insignia on the Koenigsegg`s rear window is a tribute to the Swedish squadron that operated from the F10 base, which had the ghost as its emblem. Koenigsegg is reportedly also in negotiations to purchase fellow Swedish automaker Saab. Models A Koenigsegg CC prototype was first publicized in 1996, while the full carbon fiber production prototype was finally unveiled at the 2000 Paris Motor Show. The first customer took delivery of a red CC 8S in 2002 at the Geneva Auto Show and four more cars were built that year. Koenigsegg was established in Asia later that year with a premiere at the Seoul Auto Show. In 2004, the new CCR was unveiled at the Geneva Auto Show. In 2006 Koenigsegg introduced the CCX, a new model, that was created in order to meet world wide regulations (homologations) for road use. Never before had such a big undertaking been executed by an independent manufacturer. This meant the cars had to go through extensive development in order reach the latest and most stringent safety and emission standards that the world's authorities demanded. Therefore Koenigsegg had to, for example, develop their own engines and other related technologies. Furthermore, Koenigsegg is the only supercar and low volume manufacturer to pass the new European pedestrian impact tests. Just after Koenigsegg passed this test, the test requirement was deemed too complicated for low volume manufacturers to cope with. So it is now not necessary to meet these regulations if the production volume is lower than 10.000 cars annually for a certain model. Therefore, the Koenigsegg CCX may likely be the only supercar with this safety feature. In 2007 Koenigsegg premiered the world's first "green" supercar in production - the CCXR. The CCXR is a bioflexfuel version of the CCX. The car features a modified engine, fuel system and engine management system, that enables the car to run on regular petrol or ethanol, and in any mixture between these two fuels. Ethanol has a higher octane rating compared to regular petrol and has an internal cooling effect on the combustion chamber. This enables the power of the CCXR to rise to 1018 HP, when run on a mixture of 15% regular petrol and 85% ethanol, known as E85. Furthermore, this makes the CCXR the most powerful homologated production car in the world, eclipsing the Bugatti Veyron by 17 HP and not counting non-homologated cars with higher HP claims that have not complied with the same strict regulations. In 2009 Koenigsegg unveiled plans to release a four seat two door "solar electric" sports car called the Quant. Records Koenigsegg CCR at Broughtons, Berkshire, UK On 28 February, 2005, at 12:08 hrs local time, in Nardò, Italy, the CCR broke the Guinness record for the fastest homologated production car in the world, having attained , breaking the record previously held by the McLaren F1. The record was held until September 2005 when the long awaited Bugatti Veyron broke the record again at , proven by Car and Driver and BBC Top Gear. However, Bugatti's record was set on Volkswagen's own test-track Ehra-Lessien, which features a 9 km (5.6 mi) long straight. Since the Nardò Ring is a circular track of 12.5 km (7.8 mi) circumference, the records are not comparable until Bugatti tests the Veyron on Nardò or allows Koenigsegg to test on Ehra-Lessien. During its review of the CCX, BBC television program Top Gear reported that the Koenigsegg CCR holds the fastest speeding ticket in the United States, which was supposedly for in a zone This allegedly occurred in May 2003 in Texas on the San Francisco to Miami Gumball 3000 Rally. The Koenigsegg CCXR holds the power to weight ratio record for homologated productions cars, with a power to weight ratio of 1.3 kg per hp. The Koenigsegg CCX holds the record for the only official and independent conducted 0-300–0 km/h test for production cars, with a total time of 29.2 seconds. The test was conducted by German Magazine Sportauto in 2008. Awards Red Dot Award for excellent Design National Swedish Design Price - Utmärkt Svensk Form Entrepreneur of the Year Nomination - Företagarna Sweden Powercar Superexotic import of the year 2007 and 2008 - Germany Model lineup (1998-Present) ''For the present model, see also: Koenigsegg CCX The following is a history of the models that the manufacturer has produced to date. Koenigsegg model line up Koenigsegg CC (1998-2001) Koenigsegg CC8S (2002-2005) Koenigsegg CCR (2004-2006) Koenigsegg CCX (2006-present) Koenigsegg CCGT (2007, one-off) Koenigsegg CCXR (2007-present) References External links Official Koenigsegg Website Forbes list of the ten most beautiful cars in history Fox News	Koenigsegg \|@lemmatized koenigsegg:46 automotive:2 ab:1 swedish:5 manufacturer:8 high:6 performance:1 car:21 base:6 ängelholm:2 company:5 found:1 sweden:3 christian:2 von:4 intention:1 produce:3 world:8 class:1 supercar:7 mid:1 engine:8 layout:1 hardtop:1 many:1 year:6 diligent:1 development:5 protyping:1 finally:2 lead:1 first:5 street:2 legal:2 production:11 delivery:2 wait:1 customer:2 signify:1 model:11 attention:1 detail:1 state:2 art:1 fit:1 finnish:1 well:1 tech:1 material:1 solution:1 hit:1 milestone:1 start:1 ccx:10 country:1 include:1 u:1 purposefully:1 create:3 two:4 criterias:1 make:2 totally:1 unique:1 small:2 volume:5 say:1 bugatti:5 large:3 like:1 lamborghini:1 ferrari:1 apart:1 develop:2 manufacture:1 sell:1 line:2 also:4 involve:1 green:2 technology:3 program:3 enable:3 ccxr:8 flower:1 power:4 flexfuel:1 example:3 active:2 come:1 plug:2 electrical:1 system:4 next:3 generation:1 combustion:2 hold:6 patent:1 within:1 area:1 rocket:1 catalytic:1 converter:1 reduce:1 backpressure:1 size:1 shorten:1 lightof:1 time:4 supercharger:1 respons:2 eliminate:1 need:2 use:3 bypass:1 valve:1 turn:1 reduces:1 consumption:1 improve:1 march:1 choosen:1 forbes:2 one:3 ten:2 beautiful:2 history:4 initial:2 design:5 cc:4 draw:1 go:3 sketch:2 industrial:1 designer:1 david:2 crafoord:1 order:4 realize:1 scale:2 lay:1 personal:1 touch:1 brief:1 finish:2 later:2 sven:1 harry:1 åkesson:1 prototype:5 extensive:2 testing:1 several:1 new:4 build:3 get:1 idea:1 watch:1 norwegian:1 puppet:1 movie:1 pinchcliffe:1 grand:1 prix:1 youth:1 however:3 take:2 step:1 business:1 early:1 run:4 trading:1 call:2 alpraaz:1 stockholm:1 success:1 venture:1 give:1 necessary:2 financial:1 stand:1 launch:1 chosen:1 career:1 initially:1 olofström:1 facility:2 move:1 margretetorp:1 outside:1 february:2 catch:1 fire:1 badly:1 damage:1 convert:1 fighter:1 jet:2 hangar:1 office:1 building:1 factory:3 since:3 locate:1 still:1 ängelhom:1 airport:1 client:1 arrive:1 private:1 right:1 furthermore:3 control:1 former:1 military:1 runway:1 shakedown:1 speed:1 test:9 badge:1 jacob:1 låftman:1 shield:2 family:3 coat:1 arm:1 century:1 member:1 knight:1 german:2 holy:1 roman:1 empire:1 phantom:1 insignia:1 rear:1 window:1 tribute:1 squadron:1 operate:1 ghost:1 emblem:1 reportedly:1 negotiation:1 purchase:1 fellow:1 automaker:1 saab:1 publicize:1 full:1 carbon:1 fiber:1 unveil:3 paris:1 motor:1 show:4 red:2 geneva:2 auto:3 four:2 establish:1 asia:1 premiere:1 seoul:1 ccr:5 introduce:1 meet:2 wide:1 regulation:3 homologations:1 road:1 never:1 big:1 undertaking:1 execute:1 independent:2 mean:1 reach:1 late:1 stringent:1 safety:2 emission:1 standard:1 authority:1 demand:1 therefore:2 related:1 low:3 pass:2 european:1 pedestrian:1 impact:1 requirement:1 deem:1 complicate:1 cope:1 annually:1 certain:1 may:2 likely:1 feature:3 premier:1 bioflexfuel:1 version:1 modified:1 fuel:2 management:1 regular:3 petrol:3 ethanol:3 mixture:2 octane:1 rating:1 compare:1 internal:1 cooling:1 effect:1 chamber:1 rise:1 hp:4 know:1 powerful:1 homologated:4 eclipse:1 veyron:3 count:1 non:1 claim:1 comply:1 strict:1 plan:1 release:1 seat:1 door:1 solar:1 electric:1 sport:1 quant:1 record:9 broughtons:1 berkshire:1 uk:1 hr:1 local:1 nardò:3 italy:1 break:3 guinness:1 fast:2 attain:1 previously:1 mclaren:1 september:1 long:2 awaited:1 proven:1 driver:1 bbc:2 top:2 gear:2 set:1 volkswagen:1 track:2 ehra:2 lessien:2 km:3 mi:2 straight:1 ring:1 circular:1 circumference:1 comparable:1 allow:1 review:1 television:1 report:1 speeding:1 ticket:1 united:1 supposedly:1 zone:1 allegedly:1 occur:1 texas:1 san:1 francisco:1 miami:1 gumball:1 rally:1 weight:2 ratio:2 kg:1 per:1 official:2 conduct:2 h:1 total:1 second:1 magazine:1 sportauto:1 award:2 dot:1 excellent:1 national:1 price:1 utmärkt:1 svensk:1 form:1 entrepreneur:1 nomination:1 företagarna:1 powercar:1 superexotic:1 import:1 germany:1 lineup:1 present:4 see:1 following:1 date:1 ccgt:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 list:1 fox:1 news:1 \|@bigram combustion_engine:1 catalytic_converter:1 pinchcliffe_grand:1 grand_prix:1 stockholm_sweden:1 badly_damage:1 coat_arm:1 octane_rating:1 combustion_chamber:1 bugatti_veyron:2 long_awaited:1 san_francisco:1 external_link:1
6,010	Folk_etymology	A false etymology is an assumed or postulated etymology that current consensus among scholars of historical linguistics holds to be incorrect. Many false etymologies may also be described as folk etymologies, the distinction being that folk etymologies are widely believed to be true, and of anonymous origin. The terms may be used in two distinct ways: A commonly held misunderstanding of the origin of a particular word. "The popular perversion of the form of words in order to render it apparently significant"; OED, second edition, 1989. "the process by which a word or phrase, usually one of seemingly opaque formation, is arbitrarily reshaped so as to yield a form which is considered to be more transparent." R.L. Trask (1996). A Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology. London; New York: Routledge. Source and influence Erroneous etymologies can exist for many reasons. Some are simply outdated. For a given word there may often have been many serious attempts by scholars to propose etymologies based on the best information available at the time, and these can be later modified or rejected as linguistic scholarship advances. The results of medieval etymology, for example, were plausible given the insights available at the time, but have mostly been rejected by modern linguists. The etymologies of humanist scholars in the early modern period began to produce more reliable results, but many of their hypotheses have been superseded. Even today, knowledge in the field advances so rapidly that many of the etymologies in contemporary dictionaries are outdated. The term "folk etymology", as referring both to erroneous beliefs about derivation and the consequent changes to words, is derived from the German Volksetymologie. Similar terms are found in other languages, e.g. volksetymologie in Dutch, Afrikaans volksetymologie, Danish folkeetymologi, Swedish folketymologi, and full parallels in non-Germanic languages, e.g. Hungarian népetimológia, French étymologie populaire and Israeli Hebrew etimológya amamít (popular etymology). Examples of alternative names are Italian pseudoetimologia and paretimologia (<paraetimologia), as well as English etymythology. See Zuckermann, Ghil‘ad (2006), "'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237-258. Association with urban legends Some etymologies are part of urban legends, and seem to respond to a general taste for the surprising, counterintuitive and even scandalous. One common example has to do with the phrase rule of thumb, meaning a rough measurement. An urban legend has it that the phrase refers to an old English law under which a man could legally beat his wife with a stick no thicker than his thumb (though no such law ever existed). World Wide Words etymology of "rule of thumb" The same idiom exists in other cultures – in Finland as "nyrkkisääntö" and in German-speaking countries as "Faustregel"; both mean "rule of fist". In the United States, many of these scandalous legends have had to do with racism and slavery. Common words such as picnic, Urban Legends reference pages on supposed etymology of picnic buck, Urban Legends reference pages on supposed etymology of buck and crowbar Urban Legends reference pages on supposed origin of crowbar have been alleged to stem from derogatory terms or racist practices. The "discovery" of these alleged etymologies is often believed by those who circulate them to draw attention to racist attitudes embedded in ordinary discourse. On one occasion, the use of the word niggardly led to the resignation of a U.S. public official because it sounded similar to the word nigger, despite the two words being unrelated etymologically. Article on the etymology of the word niggardly Another false etymology claims that the term Georgia cracker dates back to slavery in the antebellum South. This is based on tales of overseers using bullwhips to discipline African slaves, with the sound of the whip described as "cracking". However, there is no evidence of this usage prior to the 20th-century, suggesting this is a neologism created through cultural assumptions. The term actually has much older origins in the British Isles, based on a term for braggarts. Etymology of the word cracker Article on false etymology of the word cracker Folk etymology as a productive force Folk etymology becomes especially interesting when it feeds back into the development of the word and thus becomes a part of the true etymology. Because a population wrongly believes a word to have a certain origin, they begin to pronounce or use the word in a manner appropriate to that perceived origin, in a kind of misplaced pedantry. Thus a new standard form of the word appears which has been influenced by the misconception. In such cases it is often said that the form of the word has been "altered by folk etymology". (Less commonly, but found in the etymological sections of the OED, one might read that the word was altered by pseudo-etymology, or false etymology.) Pyles and Algeo give the example of "chester drawers" for "chest of drawers"; similarly, "chaise lounge" for "chaise longue". "The Origins and Development of the English Language", 4th ed., Thomas Pyles and John Algeo, 1993. The term 'folk etymology' is also used (originally as a shorthand) to refer to the change itself, and knowledge of the popular etymology is indispensable for the (more complex) true etymology of the resulting 'hybridized' word. Other misconceptions which leave the word unchanged may of course be ignored, but are generally not called popular etymology. The question of whether the resulting usage is "correct" or "incorrect" depends on one's notion of correctness and is in any case distinct from the question of whether a given etymology is correct. False etymologies are a consequence of the longstanding interest in putatively original, and therefore normative, meanings of words, a characteristic of logocentrism. Until academic linguistics developed the comparative study of philology and the development of the laws underlying sound changes, the derivation of words was a matter mostly of guess-work, sometimes right but more often wrong, based on superficial resemblances of form and the like. This popular etymology has had a powerful influence on the forms which words take (e.g., crawfish or crayfish, from the French crevis, modern crevisse, or sand-blind, from samblind, i.e. semi-, half-blind), and has frequently been the occasion of homonyms resulting from different etymologies for what appears a single word, with the original meaning(s) reflecting the true etymology and the new meaning(s) reflecting the 'incorrect' popular etymology. Influence on spelling Over time, many words have been altered in order to better reflect false Latin or Greek etymologies. Island (previously iland) and ptarmigan (previously tarmigan) are two such words. See English spelling reform—successes in spelling complication. Examples of words modified by folk etymology In linguistic change caused by folk etymology, the form of a word changes so that it better matches its popular rationalisation. For example: Old English sam-blind ("semi-blind" or "half-blind") became sand-blind (as if "blinded by the sand") when people were no longer able to make sense of the element sam ("half"). Old English bryd-guma ("bride-man") became bridegroom after the Old English word guma fell out of use and made the compound semantically obscure. The silent s in island is a result of folk etymology. This native Old English word, at one time spelled iland, derives from an Old English compound of īeg or īg + land, but was erroneously believed to be related to "isle", which had come to English via Old French from Latin insula ("island"; cf. Modern Spanish isla). Old English īeg, īg derives from Germanic aujō = "object on the water", from earlier Germanic agwjō, and is akin to Old English ēa = "water", "river", from prehistoric Germanic ahwō. Hence through ahwō, island is related, not to Latin insula, but rather to Latin aqua ("water"). (For a use of ēa, see Eton, Berkshire, Origin of the Name.) buttonhole from buttonhold (originally a loop of string that held a button down) Charterhouse from Chartreuse, the feminine of Chartreux hangnail from agnail penthouse from pentice shamefaced from shamefast ("caught in shame") chaise lounge from chaise longue ("long chair") lanthorn (as old lanterns were glazed with strips of cows' horn) from lantern A slug of liquor from the Irish word slog, meaning to swallow butt-naked from the term buck-naked. French (e)crevisse (likely from Germanic krebiz) which became the English crayfish. asparagus, which in England became sparrow-grass. cater-corner became kitty-corner or catty-corner when the original meaning of cater ("four") had become obsolete. Other changes due to folk etymology include: When a back-formation rests on a misunderstanding of the morphology of the original word, it may be regarded as a kind of folk etymology. In heraldry, a rebus coat-of-arms (which expresses a name by one or more elements only significant by virtue of the supposed etymology) may reinforce a folk etymology for a noun proper, usually of a place. The same process sometimes influences the spelling of proper names. The name Antony/Anthony is often spelled with an "h" because of the Elizabethan belief that it is derived from Greek ανθος (flower). In fact it is a Roman family name, probably meaning something like "ancient". Further examples See the following articles that discuss folk etymologies for their subjects: belfry (architecture) blunderbuss brass monkey Brent Goose Caesarean section chaise longue chav crawfish dork dormouse ducking stool gringo hamburger Jerusalem artichoke poll tax rake-hell serviceberry sic sincere Welsh rarebit Other languages The French verb savoir (to know) was formerly spelled sçavoir, in order to link it with the Latin scire (to know). In fact it is derived from sapere (to be wise). Medieval Latin has a word, bachelarius (bachelor), of uncertain origin, referring to a junior knight, and by extension to the holder of a University degree inferior to Master or Doctor. This was later re-spelled baccalaureus to reflect a false derivation from bacca laurea (laurel berry), alluding to the possible laurel crown of a poet or conqueror. Olisipona (Lisbon) was explained as deriving from the city's supposed foundation by Ulysses (Odysseus), though the settlement certainly antedates any Greek presence. In Southern Italy in the Greek period there was a city Maloeis (gen. Maloentos), meaning "fruitful". This was rendered in Latin as Maleventum, "ill come" or "ill wind", and renamed Beneventum ("welcome" or "good wind") after the Roman conquest. The Dutch word for "hammock" is hangmat, ("hanging mat") formed as a folk etymology of Spanish hamaca. A similar story goes for the Swedish word, hängmatta. In the Alexandrian period, and in the Renaissance, many (wrongly) explained the name of the god Kronos as being derived from chronos (time), and interpreted the myth of his swallowing his children as an allegory meaning that Time consumes all things. The Mandarin word for "crisis", wēijī, is often said to be "composed of two characters, one represent[ing] danger, and the other represent[ing] opportunity." Remarks by President Kennedy at the Convocation of the United Negro College Fund The character jī, however, does not mean "opportunity," and linguists generally dismiss this folk etymology as fanciful. False etymologies for individual Chinese characters are also common. Acceptability of resulting forms The question of whether the resulting usage is "correct" or "incorrect" depends on one's notion of correctness; at any rate it is a separate issue from the question of whether the assumed etymology is correct. When a confused understanding of etymology produces a new form today, there is typically resistance to it on the part of those who see through the confusion, but there is no question of long-established words being considered wrong because folk etymology has affected them. Chaise lounge and Welsh rarebit are disparaged by many, but shamefaced and buttonhole are universally accepted. See prescription and description. See also Backronym Back-formation Chinese translation of crisis Eggcorn Johannes Goropius Becanus Okay Phono-semantic matching Pseudoscientific language comparison Slang dictionary Notes References Anatoly Liberman (2005). Word Origins ... and How We Know Them: Etymology for Everyone. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195161472. Adrian Room (1986). Dictionary of True Etymologies. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0340-3. David Wilton (2004). Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517284-1. Ghil'ad Zuckermann (2003). Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN 1-4039-1723-X. External links Richard Lederer, Spook Etymology on the Internet Popular fallacies in the attribution of phrase origins EtymologyOnLine - both true and folk etymologies- here mainly examples of popular etymologies	Folk_etymology \|@lemmatized false:9 etymology:57 assumed:2 postulated:1 current:1 consensus:1 among:1 scholar:3 historical:1 linguistics:2 hold:3 incorrect:4 many:9 may:6 also:4 describe:2 folk:18 distinction:1 widely:1 believe:4 true:6 anonymous:1 origin:11 term:9 use:7 two:4 distinct:2 way:1 commonly:2 misunderstanding:2 particular:1 word:40 popular:9 perversion:1 form:10 order:3 render:2 apparently:1 significant:2 oed:2 second:1 edition:1 process:2 phrase:4 usually:2 one:9 seemingly:1 opaque:1 formation:3 arbitrarily:1 reshape:1 yield:1 consider:2 transparent:1 r:1 l:1 trask:1 dictionary:4 phonetics:1 phonology:1 london:1 new:4 york:1 routledge:2 source:1 influence:5 erroneous:2 exist:2 reason:1 simply:1 outdated:2 give:4 often:6 serious:1 attempt:1 propose:1 base:4 best:1 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6,011	Civil_Rights_Memorial	The Civil Rights Memorial detail - The Civil Rights Memorial The Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, Alabama is a memorial to 40 people who died in the struggle for equal and integrated treatment of people of European and African descent. The memorial is sponsored by the Southern Poverty Law Center. The names included belong to those who died between 1954 and 1968. Those dates were chosen because in 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation in schools was unlawful. 1968 is the year of Martin Luther King's assassination. The monument was created by Maya Lin who also created a similar work, the "Women's Table", at Yale University and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. The memorial was dedicated in 1989. The concept of Maya Lin's design is based on the soothing and healing effect of water. It was inspired by Martin Luther King, Jr.'s quotation "... we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream. ...", from the "I Have a Dream" speech, delivered at the National Mall, Washington D.C. August 28, 1963. This passage in King's speech is a direct reference to Amos , as translated in the King James version of the Bible. The memorial is a round stone inverted cone, which is a fountain. A film of water flows over the base of the cone, which contains the 40 names. It is possible to touch the smooth film of water and temporarily alter the surface film, which quickly returns to smoothness. As such, the memorial represents the aspiration of the American civil rights movement against racism. External links Official Site Image of Yale's Women's Table	Civil_Rights_Memorial \|@lemmatized civil:4 right:4 memorial:9 detail:1 montgomery:1 alabama:1 people:2 die:2 struggle:1 equal:1 integrated:1 treatment:1 european:1 african:1 descent:1 sponsor:1 southern:1 poverty:1 law:1 center:1 name:2 include:1 belong:1 date:1 choose:1 u:1 supreme:1 court:1 rule:1 racial:1 segregation:1 school:1 unlawful:1 year:1 martin:2 luther:2 king:4 assassination:1 monument:1 create:2 maya:2 lin:2 also:1 similar:1 work:1 woman:2 table:2 yale:2 university:1 vietnam:1 veteran:1 washington:2 c:2 dedicate:1 concept:1 design:1 base:2 soothing:1 heal:1 effect:1 water:4 inspire:1 jr:1 quotation:1 satisfy:1 justice:1 roll:1 like:2 righteousness:1 mighty:1 stream:1 dream:1 speech:2 deliver:1 national:1 mall:1 august:1 passage:1 direct:1 reference:1 amos:1 translate:1 jam:1 version:1 bible:1 round:1 stone:1 invert:1 cone:2 fountain:1 film:3 flow:1 contain:1 possible:1 touch:1 smooth:1 temporarily:1 alter:1 surface:1 quickly:1 return:1 smoothness:1 represent:1 aspiration:1 american:1 movement:1 racism:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 image:1 \|@bigram montgomery_alabama:1 supreme_court:1 racial_segregation:1 martin_luther:2 maya_lin:2 external_link:1
6,012	Limousine_liberal	Limousine liberal (also limousine leftist, latte liberal, lakefront liberal, Learjet liberal, Lexus liberal, Gucci Marxist, MasterCard Marxist, parlor pink, silk stocking socialist, or white wine socialist) is a pejorative North American political term used to illustrate perceived hypocrisy by a political liberal of upper class or upper middle class status, such as calling for the use of mass transit while frequently using limousines or private jets (ergo 'learjet liberal') Time . "Limousine Liberal Hypocrisy" by Charles Krauthammer‎. Published March 16, 2007. , claiming to be highly environmentally conscious but driving a gas-hungry sports car or SUV, or ostensibly supporting public education while actually sending their children to private schools. Formation and early use Democratic New York City mayoral hopeful Mario Procaccino coined the term "limousine liberal" to describe incumbent Republican Mayor John Lindsay and his wealthy Manhattan backers during a heated 1969 campaign. It was a populist epithet, carrying an implicit accusation that the people it described were insulated from all negative consequences of their programs intended to benefit the poor, and that the costs and consequences of such programs would be borne in the main by working class or lower middle class people who were not so poor as to be beneficiaries themselves. In particular, Procaccino criticized Lindsay for favoring unemployed blacks over working-class whites. The New York Times. "Mayoral Follies, The 1969 Edition " Published January 25, 1998. One Procaccino campaign memo attacked "rich super-assimilated people who live on Fifth Avenue and maintain some choice mansions outside the city and have no feeling for the small middle class shopkeeper, home owner, etc. They preach the politics of confrontation and condone violent upheaval in society because they are not touched by it and are protected by their courtiers". The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and His Struggle to Save New York by Vincent J. Cannato, page 428. The Independent later stated that "Lindsay came across as all style and no substance, a 'limousine liberal' who knew nothing of the concerns of the same 'Silent Majority' that was carrying Richard Nixon to the White House at the very same time." The Independent. [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20001222/ai_n14346783 "Obituary: John Lindsay "].Written December 22, 2000 by Rupert Cornwell. Later use In the 1970s, the term was applied to wealthy liberal supporters of open-housing and forced school busing who didn't make use of public schooling. "A liberal interpretation: The current definition of right- and left-" by Geoffrey Nunberg. Chicago Sun-Times. Published July 30, 2006. In Boston, Massachusetts, supporters of busing, such as Senator Ted Kennedy, sent their children to private schools or lived in affluent suburbs. To some South Boston residents, Kennedy's support of a plan that "integrated" their children with blacks and his apparent unwillingness to do the same with his own children, was hypocrisy. News/Features \| By the late 1990s and early 21st century, the term has also come to be applied to those who support environmentalist or "green" goals, such as mass transit, yet drive large SUVs or literally have a limousine and driver. The Weekly Standard applied the term to Sheila Jackson-Lee for being "routinely chauffeured the one short block to work--in a government car, by a member of her staff, at the taxpayers' expense." PREVIEW: Sheila Jackson Lee, Limousine Liberal The term was also used disparagingly in a 2004 episode of Law & Order by Fred Thompson's character, Arthur Branch, to belittle his more liberal colleague, Serena Southerlyn. Thompson, himself a Republican politician, later ran for president in the 2008 presidential election. South Park's creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone poked fun at the tendency of many liberals to be more concerned with image than actually helping the earth in the episode Smug Alert. The New York Observer applied the term to 2008 Democratic candidate John Edwards for paying $400 for a haircut and, according to the newspaper, "lectures about poverty while living in gated opulence". Is Edwards An Easy Mark? \| The New York Observer In 2009, the term was applied by many commentators to former Senate Majority Leader and then-Obama cabinet appointee Tom Daschle for failing to pay back taxes and interest on the use of a limousine service. http://www.charleston.net/news/2009/feb/03/pull_this_limousine_liberal70391/ , http://www.newsherald.com/articles/government_71658___article.html/pay_country.html , http://blogs.denverpost.com/opinion/2009/02/05/geithner%E2%80%99s-gotta-be-wondering-and-there%E2%80%99s-another-one/ Other countries In Australia and New Zealand, a roughly equivalent insult of chardonnay socialist is used; in the United Kingdom the phrase champagne socialist or Bollinger Bolshevik is preferred, and in France such people are referred to as the gauche caviar ("caviar left"). In Portugal "Esquerda caviar" is used, basically a direct translation of the French term. In Germany "Toskana Fraktion" is used. In Italy, the term "radical chic" (borrowed from American journalist Tom Wolfe's satirical 1970 book Radical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers) is used. In Peru, many former Maoists and Fidel Castro supporters, who had renounced those views, worked in state agencies during the governments of Valentín Paniagua (2000-2001) and Alejandro Toledo (2001 - 2006) and were paid very high wages in comparison to the income of the average population. They were given the name of "Izquierda Caviar" or "Izquierda Rosa", terms similar to gauche caviar and parlor pink, respectively. In the Netherlands, a near equivalent of "limousine liberal" would be "salon socialist". The point of a salon socialist, however, is not that he does not spend money charitably, but rather that he or she is too high to be actively involved in the class struggle. Charity is seen as a capitalist and conservative project, because it leaves the alleged social structures of hegemony intact, and would even reinforce them (by making the poor dependent on the rich). Charity also implies that mandatory taxation is not needed, or need not collect sufficient funds. In Poland, the rough equivalent of this term is "coffee shop revolutionist" meaning a journalist, poet or any other intellectual who criticizes capitalism and free market mechanisms in his/her publications, but has generally weak understanding of economy because of living in the ivory tower of salon life, so he/she has no idea about the real life of the poor. See also Champagne socialist Chardonnay socialist Chattering class East Coast liberal Elitism Hipster (contemporary subculture) Liberal elite Radical chic San Francisco values Smug Alert References	Limousine_liberal \|@lemmatized limousine:10 liberal:18 also:5 leftist:1 latte:1 lakefront:1 learjet:2 lexus:1 gucci:1 marxist:2 mastercard:1 parlor:2 pink:2 silk:1 stock:1 socialist:8 white:3 wine:1 pejorative:1 north:1 american:2 political:2 term:12 use:12 illustrate:1 perceive:1 hypocrisy:3 upper:2 class:8 middle:3 status:1 call:1 mass:2 transit:2 frequently:1 private:3 jet:1 ergo:1 time:4 charles:1 krauthammer:1 publish:3 march:1 claim:1 highly:1 environmentally:1 conscious:1 drive:2 gas:1 hungry:1 sport:1 car:2 suv:2 ostensibly:1 support:3 public:2 education:1 actually:2 send:2 child:4 school:3 formation:1 early:2 democratic:2 new:6 york:5 city:3 mayoral:2 hopeful:1 mario:1 procaccino:3 coin:1 describe:2 incumbent:1 republican:2 mayor:1 john:4 lindsay:5 wealthy:2 manhattan:1 backer:1 heated:1 campaign:2 populist:1 epithet:1 carry:2 implicit:1 accusation:1 people:4 insulate:1 negative:1 consequence:2 program:2 intend:1 benefit:1 poor:4 cost:1 would:3 bear:1 main:1 work:4 low:1 beneficiary:1 particular:1 criticize:2 favor:1 unemployed:1 black:2 folly:1 edition:1 january:1 one:3 memo:1 attack:1 rich:2 super:1 assimilated:1 live:2 fifth:1 avenue:1 maintain:1 choice:1 mansion:1 outside:1 feeling:1 small:1 shopkeeper:1 home:1 owner:1 etc:1 preach:1 politics:1 confrontation:1 condone:1 violent:1 upheaval:1 society:1 touch:1 protect:1 courtier:1 ungovernable:1 struggle:2 save:1 vincent:1 j:1 cannato:1 page:1 independent:2 later:3 state:2 come:2 across:1 style:1 substance:1 know:1 nothing:1 concern:1 silent:1 majority:2 richard:1 nixon:1 house:1 http:4 findarticles:1 com:3 p:1 article:2 obituary:1 write:1 december:1 rupert:1 cornwell:1 apply:5 supporter:3 open:1 housing:1 forced:1 busing:1 make:2 schooling:1 interpretation:1 current:1 definition:1 right:1 leave:3 geoffrey:1 nunberg:1 chicago:1 sun:1 july:1 boston:2 massachusetts:1 bus:1 senator:1 ted:1 kennedy:2 affluent:1 suburb:1 south:2 resident:1 plan:1 integrate:1 apparent:1 unwillingness:1 news:2 feature:1 late:1 century:1 environmentalist:1 green:1 goal:1 yet:1 large:1 literally:1 driver:1 weekly:1 standard:1 sheila:2 jackson:2 lee:2 routinely:1 chauffeur:1 short:1 block:1 government:2 member:1 staff:1 taxpayer:1 expense:1 preview:1 disparagingly:1 episode:2 law:1 order:1 fred:1 thompson:2 character:1 arthur:1 branch:1 belittle:1 colleague:1 serena:1 southerlyn:1 politician:1 run:1 president:1 presidential:1 election:1 park:1 creator:1 trey:1 parker:1 matt:1 stone:1 poke:1 fun:1 tendency:1 many:3 concerned:1 image:1 help:1 earth:1 smug:2 alert:2 observer:2 candidate:1 edward:1 pay:3 haircut:1 accord:1 newspaper:1 lecture:1 poverty:1 living:2 gated:1 opulence:1 edwards:1 easy:1 mark:1 commentator:1 former:2 senate:1 leader:1 obama:1 cabinet:1 appointee:1 tom:2 daschle:1 fail:1 back:1 tax:1 interest:1 service:1 www:2 charleston:1 net:1 feb:1 newsherald:1 html:2 blog:1 denverpost:1 opinion:1 geithner:1 gotta:1 wonder:1 another:1 country:1 australia:1 zealand:1 roughly:1 equivalent:3 insult:1 chardonnay:2 united:1 kingdom:1 phrase:1 champagne:2 bollinger:1 bolshevik:1 prefer:1 france:1 refer:1 gauche:2 caviar:5 portugal:1 esquerda:1 basically:1 direct:1 translation:1 french:1 germany:1 toskana:1 fraktion:1 italy:1 radical:3 chic:3 borrow:1 journalist:2 wolfe:1 satirical:1 book:1 mau:1 mauing:1 flak:1 catcher:1 peru:1 maoist:1 fidel:1 castro:1 renounce:1 view:1 agency:1 valentín:1 paniagua:1 alejandro:1 toledo:1 high:2 wage:1 comparison:1 income:1 average:1 population:1 give:1 name:1 izquierda:2 rosa:1 similar:1 respectively:1 netherlands:1 near:1 salon:3 point:1 however:1 spend:1 money:1 charitably:1 rather:1 actively:1 involve:1 charity:2 see:2 capitalist:1 conservative:1 project:1 allege:1 social:1 structure:1 hegemony:1 intact:1 even:1 reinforce:1 dependent:1 imply:1 mandatory:1 taxation:1 need:2 collect:1 sufficient:1 fund:1 poland:1 rough:1 coffee:1 shop:1 revolutionist:1 mean:1 poet:1 intellectual:1 capitalism:1 free:1 market:1 mechanism:1 publication:1 generally:1 weak:1 understanding:1 economy:1 ivory:1 tower:1 life:2 idea:1 real:1 chatter:1 east:1 coast:1 elitism:1 hipster:1 contemporary:1 subculture:1 elite:1 san:1 francisco:1 value:1 reference:1 \|@bigram limousine_liberal:6 richard_nixon:1 http_findarticles:1 findarticles_com:1 boston_massachusetts:1 presidential_election:1 poke_fun:1 http_www:2 tom_wolfe:1 fidel_castro:1 coffee_shop:1 san_francisco:1
6,013	Politics_of_Italy	The politics of Italy take place in a framework of a parliamentary, democratic republic, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised collectively by the Council of Ministers, which is led by the President of the Council, in jargon referred to as "premier", "primo ministro" or "prime minister" in English. Legislative power is vested in the two houses of parliament primarily, and secondarily on the Council of Ministers. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislative branches. Italy has been a democratic republic since 2 June 1946, when the monarchy was abolished by popular referendum (see birth of the Italian Republic). The constitution was promulgated on 1 January 1948. Government The 1948 Constitution of Italy established a bicameral legislature (parliament), an executive branch (cabinet), headed by the President of the Council (prime minister), and an independent judicial branch headed by the 'Consiglio Superiore della Magistratura'. The President is the head of state, though his position is separate from all branches. Head of State Giorgio Napolitano was elected President on 10 May 2006. As the head of state, the President of the Republic represents the unity of the nation and has many of the duties previously given to the king of Italy. The president serves as a point of connection between the three branches of power: he is elected by the lawmakers, he appoints the executive, and is the president of the judiciary. The president is also the commander-in-chief of armed forces. The President of the Republic is elected by an electoral college consisting of both houses of Parliament and 58 regional representatives for a seven-year term. His election needs a wide majority that is progressively reduced from two-thirds to one-half plus one of the votes as the ballots progress. The only Presidents ever to be elected on the first ballot are Francesco Cossiga and Carlo Azeglio Ciampi. Mr. Ciampi was replaced by Giorgio Napolitano, who was elected on 10 May 2006. While it is not forbidden by law, no president has ever served two terms. Usually, the President tries to stay out of the political debate, and to be an institutional guarantee for all those involved in the political process. The president can also reject openly anti-constitutional laws by refusing to sign them, since he acts as the guardian of the Constitution of Italy. Executive The President of the Republic appoints the Council of Ministers and its President (the prime minister). The prime minister advises the President of the Republic on the composition of the rest of the Council of Ministers (the cabinet), which comprises the ministers in charge of the various governmental departments. In practice, the President accepts prime minister's advice, and submits the proposed Council for a vote of confidence from both parliamentary chambers. The government has the power to issue decrees. Decrees have to be confirmed in the parliament, and "decree jam" has been a problem in recent years, as governments try to reform the structure of the state using chiefly decrees instead of passing laws directly through the parliament.cool The prime minister, through the cabinet, effectively runs the government of Italy. The current Prime Minister is Silvio Berlusconi. Legislative branch Judicial branch The Italian judicial system is based on Roman law modified by the Napoleonic code and later statutes. It is based on a mix of the adverserial and inquisitorial civil law systems, although the adversarial system was adopted in the Appeal Courts in 1988. Appeals are treated almost as new trials, and three degrees of trial are present. The third is a legitimating trial. There is only partial judicial review of legislation in the American sense. Judicial review exists under certain conditions in the Constitutional Court, or Corte Costituzionale, which can reject anti-constitutional laws after scrutiny. The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 judges one of which is the President of the Italian Constitutional Court elected from the court itself. One third of the judges are appointed by the President of the Italian Republic, one-third are elected by Parliament and one-third are elected by the ordinary and administrative supreme courts. The Constitutional Court passes on the constitutionality of laws, and is a post-World War II innovation. Its powers, case load, and frequency of decisions are not as extensive as those of the U.S. Supreme Court. Italy has not accepted compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice. Political parties and elections All Italian citizens older than 18 can vote. However, to vote for the senate, the voter must be at least 25 or older. Chamber of Deputies Composition of the elected Chamber of Deputies. The Berlusconi-led coalition won the nationwide majority bonus with a 9 point lead over the nearest coalition. Senate of the Republic Composition of the elected Senate. Political parties a poster for the European Parliament election 2004 in Italy, showing party lists Italy's dramatic self-renewal transformed the political landscape between 1992 and 1997. Scandal investigations touched thousands of politicians, administrators, and businessmen; the shift from a proportional to an Additional Member System (with the requirement to obtain a minimum of 4% of the national vote to obtain representation) also altered the political landscape. Party changes were sweeping. The Christian Democratic party dissolved; the Italian People's Party and the Christian Democratic Center emerged. Other major parties, such as the Socialists, saw support plummet. A new liberal movement, Forza Italia, gained wide support among moderate voters. The Alleanza Nazionale (National Alliance) broke from the (alleged neo-fascist) Italian Social Movement (MSI). A trend toward two large coalitions (one on the center-left and the other on the center-right) emerged from the April 1995 regional elections. For the 1996 national elections, the center-left parties created the Olive Tree coalition while the center-right united again under the House of Freedoms. These coalitions continued into the 2001 and 2006 national elections. This emerging bipolarity represents a major break from the fragmented, multi-party political landscape of the postwar era, although it appears to have reached a plateau, since efforts via referendums to further curtail the influence of small parties were defeated in 1999 and 2000. History of the post-war political landscape campaigners working on posters in Milan, Italy, 2004 First Republic There have been frequent government turnovers since 1945, indeed there have been 61 governments in this time. "Pasta and fries".The Economist (February 24th -March 2nd 2007 Issue) Volume 382, Number 8517 The dominance of the Christian Democratic party during much of the postwar period lent continuity and comparative stability to Italy's political situation, mainly dominated by the attempt of keeping the Italian Communist Party (PCI) out of power, to maintain Cold War equilibrium in the region. The communists were in the government only in the national unity governments before 1948, in which their party's secretary Palmiro Togliatti was minister of Justice. After the first democratic elections with universal suffrage in 1948, in which the Christian Democracy and their allies won against the Popular front of the Italian Communist and Socialists parties, the communist party never returned in the government. Even though many repeat the cliché that Italy had over fifty governments in its first fifty years of democracy to stigmatise its alleged political instability, Italy's main political problem was actually the opposite: in all the course of the so-called First Republic, the government was in the hands of the Christian Democrats and their allies, since it was unacceptable for a communist party to rule a western country during the Cold war. The system had been nicknamed the imperfect bipolarism, referring to more proper bipolarism in other western countries (the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France etc.) where right-wing and left-wing parties alternated in government. The Socialists enter the Government The main event in the First Republic in the sixties was the inclusion of the Socialist party in the government, after the reducing edge of the Christian Democracy (DC) had forced them to accept this alliance; attempts to incorporate the Italian Social Movement (MSI) in the Tambroni government led to riots, and were short-lived. Aldo Moro, a relatively left-leaning Christian democrat, inspired this alliance. He would later try to include the Communist Party as well, with a deal called the historical compromise. This attempt at compromise was, however, stopped by the kidnapping and murder of Moro in 1978 by the Red Brigades, an extremist left-wing terrorist organization. The Communist party was at this point the largest communist party in western Europe, and remained such for the rest of its existence. Their ability to attract members was largely due to their pragmatic stance, especially their rejection of extremism, and to their growing independence from Moscow (see Eurocommunism). The Italian communist party was especially strong in areas like Emilia Romagna, where communists had been elected to stable government positions. This practical political experience may have contributed to their taking a more pragmatic approach to politics. The Years of Lead On December 12, 1969, a roughly decade-long period of extremist left- and right-wing political terrorism, known as the years of lead (as in the metal of bullets, Italian: anni di piombo), began with the Piazza Fontana bombing in the center of Milan. Neofascist Vincenzo Vinciguerra later declared the bombing to be an attempt to push the Italian state to declare a state of emergency, in order to lead to a more authoritative state. A bomb left in a bank killed about twenty, and was initially blamed on anarchist Giuseppe Pinelli. This accusation was hotly contested by left-wing circles, especially the Maoist Student Movement, which had support in those years from some students of Milan's universities, and who considered the bombing to have all the marks of a fascist operation. Their guess proved correct, but only after many years of difficult investigations. The strategy of tension attempted to blame the left for bombings carried out by right-wing terrorists. Fascist "black terrorists," such as Ordine Nuovo and the Avanguardia Nazionale, were, in the 1980s-90s, found to be responsible for several terrorist attacks. On the other extreme of the political spectrum, the leftist Red Brigades carried out assassinations against specific persons, but weren't responsible for any blind bombings. The Red Brigades killed socialist journalist Walter Tobagi, and, in their most famous operation, kidnapped and assassinated Aldo Moro, president of the Christian Democracy, who was trying to involve the Communist Party in the government through the compromesso storico ("historic compromise"), to which the radical left, as well as Washington, were opposed. It is worth noting that the Red Brigades met fierce resistance from the Communist Party and the trade unions; some left-wing politicians, however, used the sympathetic expression "comrades who are mistaken" (Italian: Compagni che sbagliano) to refer to the Red Brigades. Some radical left apologists have alleged that the Red Brigades (or at least the 2nd Red Brigades, led by Mario Moretti) were exploited by right-wing or possibly foreign forces to destabilize Italy, discredit the Communist Party and impede the historic compromise. This is a hotly contested claim which many consider to have the hallmarks of a blame-the-victim conspiracy theory, that the evidence does not support. The last and largest of the bombings, known as the Bologna massacre, destroyed the city's railway station in 1980. This was found to be a neofascist bombing, in which Propaganda Due was involved. On October 24, 1990, Prime minister Giulio Andreotti (DC) revealed to the Parliament the existence of Gladio, NATO's secret "stay-behind" networks which stocked weapons in order to facilitate an armed resistance in case of a communist coup. In 2000, a Parliament Commission report from the Olive Tree (centre-left) coalition concluded that the strategy of tension followed by Gladio had been supported by the United States to "stop the PCI and, to a certain degree, the PSI [Italian Socialist Party] from reaching executive power in the country." The Eighties With the end of the lead years, the communist party gradually increased their votes under the leadership of Enrico Berlinguer. The Italian Socialist Party, led by Bettino Craxi, became more and more critical of the communists and of the Soviet Union; Craxi himself pushed in favor of Ronald Reagan's positioning of Pershing missiles in Italy, a move many communists strongly disapproved of. As the socialist party moved to more moderate positions, it attracted many reformists, some of whom were irritated by the failure of the communists to modernize. Increasingly, many on the left began to see the communists as old and out of fashion, while Craxi and the socialists seemed to represent a new liberal-socialism. The Communist party surpassed the Christian Democrats only in the European elections of 1984, held barely two days after Berlinguer's death, a passing that likely drew sympathy from many voters. The election of 1984, however, was to be the only time the Christian Democrats did not emerge as the largest party in a nation-wide election in which they participated. In 1987, one year after the Chernobyl accident following a referendum in that year, a nuclear phase-out was commenced. Italy's four nuclear power plants were closed down, the last in 1990. A moratorium on the construction of new plants, originally in effect from 1987 until 1993, has since been extended indefinitely. In these years, corruption began to be more extensive, a development that would be exposed in the early nineties and nicknamed Tangentopoli. With the Mani Pulite investigation, starting just one year after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the whole power structure faltered, and seemingly indestructible parties, such as the Christian Democrats and the Socialist party, disbanded; the communist party changed its name to the Democratic Party of the Left and took the role of the socialist party as the main social democratic party in Italy. What was to follow was then called the transition to the Second Republic. Second Republic Bettino Craxi contested by students. From 1992 to 1997, Italy faced significant challenges, as voters, disenchanted with past political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organized crime's considerable influence--collectively called Tangentopoli after being uncovered by Mani pulite)--demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms. In the Italian referendums of 1993, voters approved substantial changes, including moving from a proportional to an Additional Member System, which is largely dominated by a majoritarian electoral system and the abolition of some ministries, some of which, however, have been reintroduced with only partly modified names, such as the Ministry of Agriculture reincarnated as the Ministry of Agricultural Resources). Major political parties, beset by scandal and loss of voter confidence, underwent far-reaching changes. New political forces and new alignments of power emerged in the March 1994 national elections. This election saw a major turnover in the new parliament, with 452 out of 630 deputies and 213 out of 315 senators elected for the first time. The 1994 elections also swept media magnate Silvio Berlusconi (leader of "House of Freedoms" coalition) into office as Prime Minister. Berlusconi, however, was forced to step down in December 1994 when the Lega Nord withdrew support. The Berlusconi government was succeeded by a technical government headed by Prime Minister Lamberto Dini, which left office in early 1996. A series of center-left coalitions dominated Italy's political landscape between 1996 and 2001. In April 1996, national elections led to the victory of a center-left coalition, the Olive Tree, under the leadership of Romano Prodi. Prodi's government became the third-longest to stay in power before he narrowly lost a vote of confidence, by three votes, in October 1998. In May 1999, the Parliament selected Carlo Azeglio Ciampi as the President of the Republic. Ciampi, a former Prime Minister and Minister of the Treasury and, before entering the government, the governor of the Bank of Italy, was elected on the first ballot by a comfortable margin over the required two-thirds of the votes. A new government was formed by the Democrats of the Left leader and former communist Massimo D'Alema, but in April 2000, following poor performance by his coalition in regional elections, D'Alema resigned. The succeeding center-left government, including most of the same parties, was headed by Giuliano Amato, a social-democrat, who had previously served as Prime Minister in 1992-93, and had at the time sworn never to return to active politics. National elections held on May 13, 2001 returned Berlusconi to power at the head of the five-party center-right "Freedom House" coalition, comprising the prime minister's own party, Forza Italia, the National Alliance, the Northern League, the Christian Democratic Center, and the Democrats' Center Union. Between May 17, 2006 and Feb 21 2007, Romano Prodi served as Prime Minister of Italy following the narrow victory of his l'Unione coalition over the Casa delle Libertà led by Silvio Berlusconi in the April 2006 Italian elections. Following a government crisis, Prodi submitted his resignation on February 21, 2007. Three days later he was asked by the Italian President, Giorgio Napolitano to stay on as Prime Minister and he agreed to do so. On 28 February 2007, Prodi narrowly survived a senate no confidence vote. BBC News: Italian Prime Minister survives senate vote Later, on 24 January 2008 the Prodi II Cabinet went through a new crisis, because the Minister of Justice, Clemente Mastella, retracted his support to the Cabinet. After the Prodi Cabinet lost the vote of confidence and the President Giorgio Napolitano called a new general election. The election set against two new parties, the Democratic Party (founded in October 2007 by the union of the Democrats of the Left and Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy) led by Walter Veltroni, and The People of Freedom (federation of Forza Italia, National Alliance and other parties) led Silvio Berlusconi. The Democratic Party was in alliance with Italy of Values, while The People of Freedom forged an alliance with Lega Nord and the Movement for Autonomy. The coalition led by Berlusconi won the election and the leader of the centre-right created the Berlusconi IV Cabinet. Administrative division The Italian State has twenty regions and about a hundred provinces. The constitution of Italy provides for twenty regions with extended powers. Regions are further divided in provinces. Provinces also have their own local elections. For each of the provinces, a prefect is appointed by and responds to the central government, which he locally represents. While the number of regions is somewhat stable (the only modification to the original set is the separation of Molise from Abruzzo), there has been a tendency in later years to create new provinces, such as Crotone, Verbania, Lodi, Biella, Lecco and others. Five regions (Aosta Valley, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Sardinia, Sicily, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol) have special charters granting them varying degrees of autonomy. The raisons d'être of these charters is in most cases the presence of significant linguistic and cultural minorities, but in the case of Sicily it was to calm down separatist movements. The other 15 regions were in practice established in 1970, even if their ideation had been a much earlier idea. See also Foreign relations of Italy List of political parties in Italy History of Italy as a Republic Convicted Italian MPs References	Politics_of_Italy \|@lemmatized politics:3 italy:26 take:3 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:2 democratic:11 republic:16 multi:2 party:47 system:8 executive:6 power:13 exercise:1 collectively:2 council:7 minister:24 lead:15 president:23 jargon:1 refer:3 premier:1 primo:1 ministro:1 prime:16 english:1 legislative:3 vest:1 two:7 house:5 parliament:11 primarily:1 secondarily:1 judiciary:2 independent:2 branch:7 since:6 june:1 monarchy:1 abolish:1 popular:2 referendum:4 see:4 birth:1 italian:22 constitution:4 promulgate:1 january:2 government:26 establish:2 bicameral:1 legislature:1 cabinet:7 head:8 judicial:5 consiglio:1 superiore:1 della:1 magistratura:1 state:10 though:2 position:3 separate:1 giorgio:4 napolitano:4 elect:11 may:6 represent:4 unity:2 nation:2 many:8 duty:1 previously:2 give:1 king:1 serve:4 point:3 connection:1 three:4 lawmaker:1 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6,014	Politics_of_Moldova	Politics of Moldova takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The position of the break-away republic of Transnistria, relations with Romania and integration into the dominate the political agenda. Developments Achieving independence In the new political conditions created after 1985 by the glasnost policy introduced by Mikhail Gorbachov, in 1986, to support the perestroika (restructuring), a Democratic Movement of Moldova () was formed, which in 1989 became known as the pro-nationalist Popular Front of Moldova (PFM; ). Horia C. Matei, "State lumii. Enciclopedie de istorie." Meronia, Bucureşti, 2006, p. 292-294 "Romanian Nationalism in the Republic of Moldova" by Andrei Panici, American University in Bulgaria, 2002; pages 40 and 41 Along with the other peripheral Soviet republics, from 1988 onwards, Moldova started to move towards independence. On August 27, 1989, the PFM organized a mass demonstration in Chişinău, that became known as the Great National Gathering (), which pressured the authorities of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic to adopt on August 31, 1989 a language law that proclaimed Moldovan language written in the Latin script the state language of the Moldavian SSR. The identity with the Romanian Language was also established. Legea cu privire la functionarea limbilor vorbite pe teritoriul RSS Moldovenesti Nr.3465-XI din 01.09.89 Vestile nr.9/217, 1989 (Law regarding the usage of languages spoken on the territory of the Republic of Moldova): "Moldavian SSR supports the desire of the Moldovans that live across the borders of the Republic, and considering the existing linguistic Moldo-Romanian identity — of the Romanians that live on the territory of the USSR, of doing their studies and satisfying their cultural needs in their native language." The first independent elections into the local parliament were held in February and March 1990. Mircea Snegur was elected as Speaker of the Parliament, and Mircea Druc as Prime-Minister. On June 23, 1990, the Parliament adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty of the Soviet Socialist Republic Moldova, which among other things stipulated the supremacy of Moldovan laws over those of the Soviet Union. On May 23, 1991, the name of the state is again changed into the current Republic of Moldova. After the failure of the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, on August 27, 1991, Moldova declared its independence, which was recognized the same day by Romania, and afterwards by numerous other countries. In early December of that year, a former communist reformer, Mircea Snegur, won an unchallenged election for the presidency. On December 21 of the same year Moldova, along with most of the former Soviet republics, signed the constitutive act that formed the post-Soviet Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Declaring itself a neutral state, it did not join the military branch of the CIS. Three months later, on March 2, 1992, the country achieved formal recognition as an independent state at the United Nations. Mircea Snegur was elected president of Moldova in October 1990 by the Parliament. A former Communist Party official, he endorsed independence and actively sought Western recognition. Moldova declared its independence from the Soviet Union in August 1991. However, Snegur's opposition to immediate reunification with Romania led to a split with the Moldovan Popular Front in October 1991 and to his decision to run as an independent candidate in a December 1991 presidential election. Running unopposed, he won after the Popular Front's efforts to organize a voter boycott failed. Transnistrian conflict Transnistrian region of Moldova In the region east of the Dniester river, Transnistria, which includes a large proportion of Russophone ethnic Russians and Ukrainians (as of 1989, 51%, as opposed to only 40% ethnic Moldovans), and where the headquarters and many units of the Soviet Guards 14th Army were stationed, an independent "Transdnestrian Moldovan Republic" (TMR) was proclaimed on August 16, 1990, with its capital in Tiraspol. The motives behind this move were fear of the rise of nationalism in Moldova and the country's expected reunification with Romania upon secession from the USSR. In the winter of 1991-1992 clashes occurred between Transnistrian forces, supported by elements of the 14th Army, and the Moldovan police. Between March 2 and July 26, 1992, the conflict escalated into a military engagement. Negotiations held during the conflict between Russia, Ukraine, Romania, and Moldova did not produce any practical results. After a series of direct negotiations facilitated by Russia, an agreement was reached between Moldova and Transnistria. Russian military stationed in the region (14th Army) were removed from the main part of Moldova by January 1993, but remain to this day east of the Dniester in the breakaway region, despite signing international obligations to withdraw, and against the will of Moldovan government. Statement by H.E. Mr. Andrei Stratan at the General Debate of the Sixty Second Session of the UN General Assembly, New-York, 1 October 2007: "I would like to reiterate on this occasion the position of the Republic of Moldova according to which the withdrawal of the Russian troops that remain on the Moldovan territory against its will, in conformity with the obligations assumed by the Russian Federation in 1999 in Istanbul, would create the necessary premises for ratifying and applying the Adapted CFE Treaty." http://www.jamestown.org/edm/article.php?article_id=2368523 Jamestown: "Moldovan President wants out of Russia's orbit" One such obligation was undertaken at the 1999 OSCE summit in Istanbul to withdraw the Russian troops and ammunition within 3 years, a promise reiterated at the next summit in Porto in 2003. After 1992, Romania and Ukraine were excluded from the diplomatic activity aimed to solve the Transnistrian crisis. Later, OSCE was included, and the Ukraine wes re-included. The postwar status quo remains to this day: Chişinău offers a large autonomy, while Tiraspol demands independence. De jure, Transnistria is internationally recognized as part of Moldova, but de facto, the authorities in Chişinău do not exercise any control over that territory. Transition to market economy On January 2, 1992, Moldova introduced the market reforms, of which included price liberalization. This resulted in a 2,600% inflation in 1992, and a further 700% inflation in 1993. From 1992 till 2001, the young country suffered its worst economic crisis that left most of the population below the poverty line. In 1993, a new national currency, the Moldovan leu was introduced to replace the Soviet ruble. The end of the planned economy meant also that the industrial enterprises would have to buy supplies and sell their goods by themselves, and most of the management was not prepared for such a change. Moldova undertook a privatisation plan which was effective in the transfer of the ownership of houses to the people. The attempted privatization of production means did not boost the economy as it was desired. International financial institutions, judging the apparent presence of landmarks indicating a modern developed society in 1992, have overestimated the capacity of Moldova's economy and government to withstand the transition to market economy, and imposed the country to open its market to outside goods without implementation of any effective action to support internal production. As a result, Moldova's industry, especially machine building, became all but defunct, and unemployment skyrocketed. The economic fortunes of Moldova began to change in 2001; since then the country has seen a steady annual growth of between 5% and 10%. Early 2000s also saw a considerable growth of emigration of Moldovans looking for work (mostly illegally) in Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, and other countries, in addition to work in Russia. One of the reasons for this was that in 1991, 1.3 million Moldovans, or ca. 60% of the workforce, were employed in agriculture, which normally does not require such a large number of people. Remittances from Moldovans abroad account for ca. 30% of Moldova's GDP, the largest percentage in Europe. Officially, Moldova's annual GDP is of the order of 1,000$ per capita, however a significant part of the economy goes unregistered due to corruption. Political developments in 1990s Moldova's transition to democracy was initially impeded by an ineffective Parliament, the lack of a new constitution, a separatist movement led by the Gagauz (Christian Turkic) minority in the south, and unrest in the Transnistria region on the left bank of the Dniester river, where a separatist movement assisted by uniformed Russian military forces in the region and led by supporters of the 1991 coup attempt in Moscow declared a "Dniester republic." Progress has been made on all these fronts. In 1992, the government negotiated a cease-fire arrangement with Russian and Transnistrian officials (although tensions continue) and negotiations are ongoing. In February 1994, new legislative elections were held, and the ineffective Parliament that had been elected in 1990 to a 5-year term was replaced. A new constitution was adopted in July 1994. The conflict with the Gagauz minority was defused by the granting of local autonomy in 1994. The governments of Mircea Druc (May 25, 1990 - May 28, 1991), and of Valeriu Muravschi (May 28, 1991 - July 1, 1992) were followed by a more moderate/concervative (pending on one's political interpretation) government of Andrei Sangheli, which saw the removal of most reform-oriented individuals. In the February 1994 elections, only 4 of the dozens of political parties surpassed the 4% threshold. A new government was formed by Andrei Sangheli of the Democratic Agrarian Party. The February 1994 Parliamentary elections were conducted peacefully and received good ratings from international observers for their fairness. Prime Minister Andrei Sangheli was re-elected to his post in March 1994, as was Petru Lucinschi to his post as speaker of the Parliament. Authorities in Transnistria, refused to allow balloting there and discouraged the local population from participating. Inhabitants of the Gagauz separatist region did participate in the elections, however. Following the elections, the Parliament ratified the CIS accession treaty, modified the national anthem from Deşteaptă-te, române to Limba noastră, adopted a new Constitution that called the official language Moldova as opposed to Romanian (as it was called in 1991-93), and adopted other measures that distanced Moldova from Romania. The new Moldovan Constitution also provided for autonomy for Transnistria and Gagauzia. On December 23, 1994, the Parliament of Moldova adopted a "Law on the Special Legal Status of Gagauzia", and in 1995 it was constituted. In 1994, Moldova became a member of NATO Partnership for Peace. On June 29, 1995, Moldova became a member of the Council of Europe. After winning the presidential elections of 1996, on January 15, 1997, Petru Lucinschi, the former First Secretary of the Moldavian Communist Party in 1989-91 became the country's second president. At the legislative elections on March 22, 1998, the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova, which was re-legalized after being banned in 1991, gained 40 of the 101 places in the Parliament, but was reduced to opposition when an Alliance for Democracy and Reform was formed by the Democratic Convention of Moldova (26 MPs), Movement for a democratic and Prosperous Moldova (24 MPs), and Party of democratic Forces (11 MPs). However, the activity of new government of Ion Ciubuc (January 24, 1997- February 1, 1999) was marked by chronic political instability, which prevented a coherent reform program. Foreign policy was marked by a duality of belonging to the CIS and steps towards a rapprochement with Europe. In the presidential elections of 1996, parliamentary speaker Petru Lucinschi surprised with an upset victory over the incumbent, Mircea Snegur, in a second round of balloting. The elections were judged as free and fair by international observers. President Lucinschi did manage to institute some very controversial reforms (perhaps the United States Assistance for International Development-funded "Pămînt" land privatization program was the most controversial). Indeed, his tenure was marked by constant legislative struggles with Moldova's Parliament. Several times, the Parliament considered votes of no confidence in the president's government, and a succession of moderate, pro-Western reform prime ministers were dismissed by a Parliament that increasingly favored the growing Communist Party faction. The 1998 economic crisis in Russia, Moldova's main economic partner at the time, produced an economic crisis in the country. Privatization was stalled, the Moldovan leu lost 60% with respect to the US dollar within a year (August 1998-July 1999), an energy crisis swept through the country, wages and pensions were paid with a considerable delay of several months, corruption extended. The level of life plunged, with 75% of population living below the poverty line, while the economic disaster caused 600,000 people to leave the country. This eventually resulted in the interruption of relations with the International Monetary Fund. In economic terms, the 1998 crisis provoked an emigration of labor, as well as permanent emigration from Moldova. According to the census data, from 1989 to 2004, Moldova has lost about 400,000 inhabitants, or 9% of the population. Analysts estimate that actual emigration could be higher, as many seasonal workers remain registered as living in the country. New governments were formed by Ion Sturza (February 19 - November 9, 1999) and Dumitru Braghiş (December 21, 1999 - April 19, 2001). Political developments in 2000-2008 On July 21, 2000, the Parliament adopted an amendment to the Constitution that transformed Moldova from a presidential to a parliamentary republic, in which the president is elected by 3/5 of the votes in the parliament, and no longer directly by popular vote. Later that year, when Parliament failed three times to successfully elect a new president, Petru Lucinschi exercised his right to dissolve Parliament, calling for new parliamentary elections. However, since no single candidate was able to garner a majority of votes, Lucinschi temporarily remained president. Widespread popular dissatisfaction with the government, the economy, and the reforms, however, led to a surprise at the polls in February 2001. In elections certified by international observers as free and fair, Moldova's populace voted overwhelmingly for the communists. The communist faction, which had previously occupied 40 of the Parliament's 101 seats since they were legally allowed to exist in 1998, jumped to 71 - a clear majority. Communist deputies were then able to elect Vladimir Voronin, the leader of their faction, as President. Only 3 of the 31 political parties passed the 6% threshold of the February 25, 2001 elections. Winning 49.9% of the vote, the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova gained 71 of the 101 MPs, and on April 4, 2001, elected Vladimir Voronin as the country's third president. A new government was formed on April 19, 2001 by Vasile Tarlev. The country became the first post-Soviet state where a non-reformed Communist Party comes back to power. Since his election, President Voronin has proceeded with Lucinschi's plans to privatize several important state-owned industries, and even has on occasion broken with his own party over important issues. He also also repeatedly announced plans to introduce measures to promote land consolidation in the countryside, a move outside observers have dubbed "recollectivizaiton." However, under President Voronin, relations with Romania have, at times, worsened. Tensions arose when the President tried to introduce Russian as a second national language as well as insist that the Moldovan state language be called Moldovan. The Romanian language in Moldova has come to be called "Moldovan", propting a long controversy whether the language is identical or closely resembles Romanian. In 2007 the Moldovan government did not allow Romania to open two consulates in major cities of Moldova, Bălţi and Cahul, that were intended to simplify the acquisition of Romanian visas for the Moldovan population.. In March-April 2002, in Chişinău, several mass protests took place against the plans of the government to fulfil its electoral promise and introduce Russian as the second state language along with its compulsory study in schools. The government mainly renounced these plans, but Russian was eventually re-introduced as a compulsory subject in Moldovan schools, albeit only 1 to 2 hours per week. An attempt at re-introduction of Russian into Moldovan schools caused protests in the center of Chisinău, led by the nationalist CDPP party, and was aborted as the movement lost momentum. The Communist party has also attracted much criticism over the increasingly authoritarian rule in Chişinău. Relationship between Moldova and Russia deteriorated in November 2003 over a Russian proposal for the solution of the Transnistrian conflict, which Moldovan authorities refused to accept due to political pressure from the West, since it stipulated a 20-year Russian military presence in Moldova. The federalization of Moldova would have also turned Transnistria and Gagauzia into a blocking minority over all major policy matters of Moldova. As of 2006, approximately 1,200 of the 14th army personnel remain stationed in Transnistria. In the last years, negotiations between the Transnistrian and Moldovan leaders have been going on under the mediation of the OSCE, Russia, and Ukraine; lately observers from the European Union and the United States have become involved as observers, creating a 5+2 format. In the wake of the November 2003 deadlock with Russia, a series of shifts in the external policy of Moldova occurred, targeted at rapprochement with the European Union. In the context of the EU's expansion to the east, Moldova wants to sign a Stability an Association Agreement, and demands an Individual Action Plan to accede to the EU. A national commission for European integration was created in June 2003, and in November 2003 all three political parties present in the parliament adopted a common declaration stating a pro-European orientation of Moldova. Since 1999, Moldova has affirmed its desire to join the European Union, Moldpres:"Voronin highlighted, that we will strive for becoming an EU member" Itar-Tass and implement its first three-year Action Plan within the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) of the EU. Moldova-EU Action Plan Approved by European Commission, http://www.azi.md, December 14, 2004, retrieved July 2, 2007 EU/MOLDOVA ACTION PLAN Analysts claim that, in fact, Moldova did not manage to fully implement the Action Plan and instead of positive ideas it was constantly sending to Brussels contradictory signals about its commitment to implement reforms. Ion Marandici, De a raportul Comisiei Europene la viitorul Acord cu UE, Timpul, nr. 45, 28.03.2008. See: http://europa.timpul.md/Article.asp?idIssue=179&idRubric=2146&idArticle=5509 On December 19, 2003, the Parliament passed a Law of Nationalities, which made a controversial distinction between a Moldovan majority and a Romanian minority (a historically, ethnically, and linguistically contentious distinction). In the 2004 population census, first since independence, of the 2,638,125 Moldovans and Romanians (78.3% of the country's population), 2,564,850 (97.2%) were registered as Moldovans and 73,276 (2.8%) as Romanians (94.9%, resp. 5.1% in urban areas, and 98.4%, resp. 1.6% in rural areas). 2,012,542 or 76.3% of them called native language Moldovan (58.9% in urban areas and 84.8% in rural ones), and 552,920 or 21.0% of them called it Romanian (34.3% in urban areas and 14.4% in rural ones). In the March, 6, 2005 elections, the Communist Party won 46% of the vote, (56 of the 101 seats in the Parliament), Democratic Moldova Block won 28.5% of the vote (34 MPs), and the Christian Democratic People Party (CDPP) won 9.1% (11 MPs). On April 4, 2005, Vladimir Voronin was re-elected as country's president, supported by a part of the opposition, and on April 8, Vasile Tarlev was again charged as head of government. Several major shifts produced in the political scene of Moldova since 2005. At first most of the opposition supported Vladimir Voronin, who was regarded as changed from being pro-Russian to being pro-Western, but this was changed largely after Voronin launched a sustained verbal campaign (in press, in official declarations, and at European fora) against Romanians and Romania, whom he blames for stealing Moldova's citizens (ca. 100,000 Moldovans have also Romanian citizenship, and other 800,000 are waiting in line). Current situation Currently, the government is formed by the Party of the Communists, supported parliamentary by CDPP (deserted by many members because of that) and mostly (not always) by the Democratic Party of Moldova. The major opposition parties include Party Alliance Our Moldova, Liberal Party, whose candidate Dorin Chirtoacă won on June 17, 2007 the elections for the mayor of the capital Chişinău, Results of the 2007 local elections in Moldova and Liberal Democratic Party of Moldova. On March 31, 2008, Vasile Tarlev was replaced by Zinaida Greceanîi as head of the government. On November 18, 2008, NATO Parliamentary Assembly adopted Resolution 371 on the future of NATO-Russia relations, with among other things, "urges the government and the parliament of Russia to respect its commitments which were taken at the Istanbul OSCE Summit in 1999 and has to withdraw its illegal military presence from the Transdnestrian region of Moldova in the nearest future." NATO Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 371 Issues Criticism There is disagreement as to whether elections and politics in Moldova are carried out in a free and democratic climate on the part of certain organizations. The United States Senate has held committee hearings on irregularities that marred elections in Moldova, including arrests and harassment of opposition candidates, intimidation and suppression of independent media, and state run media bias in favor of candidates backed by the Communist-led Moldovan Government. U.S. Library of Congress, Senate report 2004 Other critics have also referred to the Communist Party government as being authoritarian. Statement of Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) Press freedom report (CPJ) Nevertheless, George W. Bush stated that: "We note and welcome Moldova's positive record since independence in conducting free and fair elections and in implementing democratic reforms." Joint Statement by President George W. Bush and President Vladimir Voronin on U.S.-Moldovan Relations U.S. State Department December 17, 2002. Retrieved 11-20, 2006. There have also been reports of politically motivated arrests and arrests without valid legal grounds. Such arrests are allegedly carried out against opponents of the Communist Party government of President Vladimir Voronin. In one case which was criticized by various Western organizations and individuals, opposition politician Valeriu Pasat was sentenced to ten years imprisonment on dubious grounds. Moldova: An Insider Looks At The Pasat Case Radio Free Europe. July 4, 2005. Retrieved 11-15, 2006 In recent months, the leadership of the autonomous region of Gagauzia has become more vocal in its complaints that the Moldovan Government does not respect the region's statutory-enshrined autonomy. Human Trafficking Due to the high rate of poverty, Moldova remains a large source-country of illegal sex workers that are exported to Western Europe and the Middle East. Because of pervasive corruption and a general lack of awareness, many victims of human trafficking are lured into the business with offers of high-salary jobs abroad, and are often trapped once out of the country. The U.S government urged Moldova to pass an anti-trafficking law in 2005, but due to a lack of enforcement, low regard of legal institutions, and unequal benchmark requirements, clear progress is difficult to ascertain. Organizations such as the International Organization for Migration provide non-governmental support integral to helping victims. However, NGOs are often subject to domestic constraints and government interference in their work, complicating their operations. Transnistria The population of the Moldovan region of Transnistria is approximately 32% Moldovan, 31% Ukrainian, and 29% Russian. After failing to establish control over the breakaway region in the War of Transnistria, Moldova offered a rather broad cultural and political autonomy to the region. The dispute has strained Moldova's relations with Russia. The July 1992 cease-fire agreement established a tripartite peacekeeping force composed of Moldovan, Russian, and Transnistrian units. Negotiations to resolve the conflict continue, and the cease-fire is still in effect. The OSCE is also trying to facilitate a negotiated settlement and has had an observer mission in place for several years. Some progress by Russia in early 2000s in destroying the weapons and munitions of the Organized Group of Russian Forces stationed in Transnistria have raised hopes that Russia intends to comply with the 1999 Istanbul Accords. The country remains divided, with the Transnistrian region along the Ukrainian border controlled by separatist forces. The new communist government has shown increased determination to resolve the ongoing conflict, but has been unable to make any significant progress because of fundamental disagreements with the separatist authorities in Transnistria over the status of that region, as well as complex international political pressure exerted by the US, the OSCE, the EU and especially Russia. General situation Moldova had successfully joined the World Trade Organization and the Southeast European Stability Pact in 2001. Of primary importance have been the government's efforts to improve relations with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank and to comply with agreements negotiated in 2000 by the former government. Agreement in these areas was critical, because large government debts that were due in 2002 had to be rescheduled. The government has made concerted efforts to find ways to pay for Moldova's energy supplies. Politically the government is committed to present a budget that will deal with social safety net items such as health, education, and increasing pensions and salaries. The Moldovan Government supported democracy and human rights in FY 2001. Political parties and other groups publish newspapers, which often criticize government policies. There are several independent news services, radio stations, and an independent television station. Peaceful assembly is allowed, though permits for demonstrations must be obtained; private organizations, including political parties, are required to register with the government. Legislation passed in 1992 codified freedom of religion but required that religious groups be recognized by the government. A 1990 Soviet law and a 1991 Parliamentary decision authorizing formation of social organizations provide for independent trade unions. However, the Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Moldova, successor to the former organizations of the Soviet trade union system, is the sole structure. It has tried to influence government policy in labor issues and has been critical of many economic policies. Moldovan labor law, which is based on former Soviet legislation, provides for collective bargaining rights. Legislative branch The Parliament (Parlamentul) has 101 members, elected for a four year term by proportional representation. The president is elected for a four year term by parliament. Political parties and elections Next elections are scheduled for spring 2009. According to a November 2008 pool, four Moldovan political parties have real chances to pass the 6% threshold to acceed to the Moldovan Parliament: Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova (42%), Party Alliance Our Moldova (11%), and two new parties Liberal Party (10%) and Liberal-Democratic Party of Moldova (9%). Democratic Party of Moldova, which merged with Social Liberal Party is situated at the threshold level (5.9%), while the Christian-Democratic People's Party seems to have fallen below. Executive branch \|President \|Vladimir Voronin \|PCRM \|7 April 2001 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Zinaida Greceanîi \|PCRM \|31 March 2008 \|} The president is elected by the Parliament for a four-year term. According to the Moldovan constitution, the president, on consulting with the parliament, will designate a candidate for the office of prime minister; within 15 days from designation, the prime minister-designate will request a vote of confidence from the parliament regarding his/her work program and entire cabinet. The cabinet is selected by prime minister-designate, subject to approval of parliament. Judicial branch Supreme Court; Constitutional Court is the sole authority of constitutional judicature Administrative divisions Moldova is divided into 32 raions, or raioane, 5 municipalities (Chişinău, Bălţi and Bender), one autonomous region (Gagauzia), and the breakaway region of Transnistria, the status of which is disputed. International organization participation ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, SECI, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) Notes External links 2005 Chişinău mayor election	Politics_of_Moldova \|@lemmatized politics:2 moldova:79 take:3 place:4 framework:2 parliamentary:9 representative:1 democratic:15 republic:17 whereby:1 prime:8 minister:8 head:3 government:38 multi:1 party:37 system:2 executive:3 power:3 exercise:3 legislative:5 vest:1 parliament:30 judiciary:1 independent:11 legislature:1 position:2 break:2 away:1 transnistria:15 relation:7 romania:10 integration:2 dominate:1 political:17 agenda:1 development:4 achieve:2 independence:8 new:16 condition:1 create:4 glasnost:1 policy:8 introduce:7 mikhail:1 gorbachov:1 support:9 perestroika:1 restructure:1 movement:5 form:7 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icftu:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ilo:1 imf:1 intelsat:1 nonsignatory:1 user:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 opcw:1 pfp:1 seci:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 applicant:1 link:1 \|@bigram prime_minister:8 judiciary_independent:1 moldavian_ssr:2 mircea_snegur:4 soviet_union:2 coup_état:1 presidential_election:3 transnistrian_conflict:2 ethnic_moldovans:1 romania_moldova:1 http_www:2 status_quo:1 de_jure:1 de_facto:1 moldovan_leu:2 planned_economy:1 per_caput:1 petru_lucinschi:4 transnistria_gagauzia:2 monetary_fund:2 vladimir_voronin:7 vasile_tarlev:3 moldovan_romanian:1 moldovans_romanian:2 w_bush:2 politically_motivated:1 negotiated_settlement:1 collective_bargaining:1 legislative_branch:1 proportional_representation:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 participation_acct:1 bi_bsec:1 ce_cei:1 eapc_ebrd:1 ebrd_ece:1 fao_iaea:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icftu:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_intelsat:1 intelsat_nonsignatory:1 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6,015	Au_file_format	The Au file format is a simple audio file format introduced by Sun Microsystems. The format was common on NeXT systems and on early web pages. Originally it was headerless, being simply 8-bit µ-law-encoded data at an 8000 Hz sample rate. Hardware from other vendors often used sample rates as high as 8192 Hz, often integer factors of video clock signals. Newer files have a header that consists of six 32-bit words, an optional information chunk and then the data (in big endian format). Although the format now supports many audio encoding formats, it remains associated with the µ-law logarithmic encoding. This encoding was native to the SPARCstation 1 hardware, where SunOS exposed the encoding to apps through the /dev/audio interface. This encoding and interface became a de facto standard for Unix sound. New format All fields are stored in big-endian format, including the sample data. 32 bit word field Description/Content Hexadecimal numbers in C notation 0 magic number the value 0x2e736e64 (four ASCII characters ".snd") 1 data offset the offset to the data in bytes. The minimum valid number is 24 (decimal), since this is the header length (six 32-bit words) with no space reserved for extra information. 2 data size data size in bytes. If unknown, the value 0xffffffff should be used. 3 encoding Data encoding format: 1 = 8-bit G.711 µ-law 2 = 8-bit linear PCM 3 = 16-bit linear PCM 4 = 24-bit linear PCM 5 = 32-bit linear PCM 6 = 32-bit IEEE floating point 7 = 64-bit IEEE floating point 8 = Fragmented sample data 9 = DSP program 10 = 8-bit fixed point 11 = 16-bit fixed point 12 = 24-bit fixed point 13 = 32-bit fixed point 18 = 16-bit linear with emphasis 19 = 16-bit linear compressed 20 = 16-bit linear with emphasis and compression 21 = Music kit DSP commands 23 = 4-bit ISDN u-law compressed using the ITU-T G.721 ADPCM voice data encoding scheme 24 = ITU-T G.722 ADPCM 25 = ITU-T G.723 3-bit ADPCM 26 = ITU-T G.723 5-bit ADPCM 27 = 8-bit G.711 A-law 4 sample rate the number of samples/second (e.g., 8000) 5 channels the number of interleaved channels (e.g., 1 for mono, 2 for stereo, more channels possible but may not be supported by all readers) The type of encoding depends on the value of the 'encoding' field (word 3 of the header). Formats 2–7 are uncompressed PCM, therefore lossless. Formats 23–26 are ADPCM, which is a lossy, roughly 4:1 compression. Formats 1 and 27 are μ-law and A-law, respectively, both lossy. Several of the others are DSP commands or data, designed to be processed by the NeXT MusicKit software. Note: PCM data appears to be encoded as signed, rather than unsigned. External links Sample .AU file Sun .au sound file format	Au_file_format \|@lemmatized au:3 file:5 format:13 simple:1 audio:3 introduce:1 sun:2 microsystems:1 common:1 next:2 system:1 early:1 web:1 page:1 originally:1 headerless:1 simply:1 bit:22 µ:3 law:7 encode:8 data:12 hz:2 sample:7 rate:3 hardware:2 vendor:1 often:2 used:1 high:1 integer:1 factor:1 video:1 clock:1 signal:1 new:2 header:3 consist:1 six:2 word:4 optional:1 information:2 chunk:1 big:2 endian:2 although:1 support:2 many:1 remain:1 associate:1 logarithmic:1 encoding:4 native:1 sparcstation:1 sunos:1 expose:1 apps:1 dev:1 interface:2 become:1 de:1 facto:1 standard:1 unix:1 sound:2 field:3 store:1 include:1 description:1 content:1 hexadecimal:1 number:5 c:1 notation:1 magic:1 value:3 four:1 ascii:1 character:1 snd:1 offset:2 byte:2 minimum:1 valid:1 decimal:1 since:1 length:1 space:1 reserve:1 extra:1 size:2 unknown:1 use:2 g:8 linear:7 pcm:6 ieee:2 float:2 point:6 fragment:1 dsp:3 program:1 fixed:4 emphasis:2 compress:2 compression:2 music:1 kit:1 command:2 isdn:1 u:1 itu:4 adpcm:5 voice:1 scheme:1 second:1 e:2 channel:3 interleaved:1 mono:1 stereo:1 possible:1 may:1 reader:1 type:1 depends:1 uncompressed:1 therefore:1 lossless:1 lossy:2 roughly:1 μ:1 respectively:1 several:1 others:1 design:1 process:1 musickit:1 software:1 note:1 appear:1 sign:1 rather:1 unsigned:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram sun_microsystems:1 big_endian:2 endian_format:2 de_facto:1 external_link:1
6,016	Eugene_Wigner	Eugene Paul "E.P." Wigner (Hungarian Wigner Pál Jenő) (November 17, 1902 – January 1, 1995) was a Hungarian American physicist and mathematician. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles". Some contemporaries referred to Wigner as the Silent Genius and some even considered him the intellectual equal to Albert Einstein, though without his prominence. Wigner is important for having laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics as well as for his research into atomic nuclei, and for his several theorems. Early life Wigner was born in Budapest, Hungary (Austria-Hungary) to a middle class Jewish family. At age 11, Wigner contracted what his parents believed was tuberculosis. They sent him for six weeks to a sanitarium in the Austrian mountains. During this period, Wigner began to develop an interest in mathematical problems. From 1915 till 1919, concurrently with John von Neumann, Wigner studied at the Lutheran Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium where they both greatly benefited from encouragement by the legendary mathematics teacher László Rátz. In 1919, to escape the Bela Kun Communist regime, the family briefly moved to Austria, returning after Kun's downfall. Partly as a reaction to the prominence of Jews in the Kun regime, the family converted to Lutheranism. Wigner, E.P., as told to Andrew Szanton The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner (Plenum, 1992) ISBN 0-306-44326-0 In 1921, Wigner studied chemical engineering at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin (today the Technische Universität Berlin). He also attended the Wednesday afternoon colloquia of the German Physical Society. These colloquia featured such luminaries as Max Planck, Max von Laue, Rudolf Ladenburg, Werner Heisenberg, Walther Nernst, Wolfgang Pauli, and Albert Einstein. Wigner also met physicist Leó Szilárd, who at once became Wigner's closest friend. A third experience in Berlin was formative. Wigner worked at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry (now Fritz Haber Institute), and there met Michael Polanyi, who became, after László Rátz, Wigner's greatest teacher. Middle years In the late 1920s, Wigner deeply explored the field of quantum mechanics. A period at Göttingen as an assistant to the great mathematician David Hilbert proved a disappointment, as Hilbert was no longer active in his works. Wigner nonetheless studied independently. He laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics and in 1927 introduced what is now known as the Wigner D-matrix. Wigner, E., 1927, Zeitschrift f. Physik 43: 624-52. It is safe to state that he and Hermann Weyl carry the whole responsibility for the introduction of group theory into quantum mechanics (they spread the "Gruppenpest"). See Wigner's 1931 monograph for a survey of his work on group theory. In the late 1930s, he extended his research into atomic nuclei. He developed an important general theory of nuclear reactions (see for instance the Wigner-Eckart theorem). By 1929, his papers were drawing notice in the physics world. In 1930, Princeton University recruited Wigner, which was timely as the Nazis soon came to power in Germany. In Princeton in 1934 Wigner introduced his sister Manci to the physicist Paul Dirac, whom she married. In 1936, Princeton did not rehire Wigner, so he moved to the University of Wisconsin-Madison. There he met his first wife, a physics student named Amelia Frank. Her 1937 death left Wigner distraught. On January 8, 1937, Wigner became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Princeton University shortly invited Wigner back, and he rejoined its faculty in the fall of 1938. Though a professed political amateur, in 1939 and 1940 he played a major role in agitating for the Manhattan Project, which developed the first atomic bomb. However, by personal preference he was a pacifist. Wigner was present in a converted squash-racquets court at the University of Chicago's abandoned Stagg Field on Dec. 2, 1942, when the worlds first nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile One (CP-1) went critical. http://www.anl.gov/Science_and_Technology/History/cp1list.html He later contributed to civil defense in the U.S. In 1946, Wigner accepted a job as director of research and development at Clinton Laboratory (now Oak Ridge National Laboratory) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. When this did not work out especially well, Wigner returned to Princeton. In 1941 Wigner married his second wife, Professor Mary Annette Wheeler, of Vassar College, also a physicist, who completed a Yale Ph.D. in 1932. They were married until her 1977 death, and had two children. Last years Patricia Eileen (left) and Eugene Paul Wigner at their home in Princeton. In 1960, Wigner published a now classic article on the philosophy of mathematics and of physics, which has become his best-known work outside of technical mathematics and physics, "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences." He argued that biology and cognition could be the origin of physical concepts, as we humans perceive them, and that the happy coincidence that mathematics and physics were so well matched, seemed to be "unreasonable" and hard to explain. His reasoning was resisted by the Harvard mathematician Andrew M. Gleason. In 1963, Wigner received the Nobel Prize in Physics. He professed never to have even considered the possibility that this might occur, and added: "I never expected to get my name in the newspapers without doing something wicked." He later won the Enrico Fermi award, and the National Medal of Science. In 1992, at the age of 90, he published a memoir, The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner with Andrew Szanton. Wigner died three years later in Princeton. One of his significant students was Abner Shimony. His third wife was Patricia Hamilton Wigner, widow of another physicist, Donald Ross Hamilton, the retired Dean of the Graduate School at Princeton University, who had died in 1971. Feza Gursey (right) with Eugene Wigner, photo by Y.S.Kim (1988) (permission of Prof. Kim to release it to public domain) Near the end of his life, his thought turned more philosophical. In his memoir, Wigner said: "The full meaning of life, the collective meaning of all human desires, is fundamentally a mystery beyond our grasp. As a young man, I chafed at this state of affairs. But by now I have made peace with it. I even feel a certain honor to be associated with such a mystery." He became interested in the Vedanta philosophy of Hinduism, particularly its ideas of the universe as an all pervading consciousness. In his collection of essays Symmetries and Reflections - Scientific Essays, he commented "It was not possible to formulate the laws (of quantum theory) in a fully consistent way without reference to consciousness." Wigner also conceived the Wigner's friend thought experiment, which is an extension of the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment. The Wigner's friend experiment asks the question: at what stage does a "measurement" take place? Wigner designed the experiment to highlight how he believed consciousness is necessary to the quantum mechanical measurement process. Wigner was a committee chairman at Unification Church founder Sun Myung Moon's annual International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences (ICUS) for several years. At the 11th ICUS conference in Philadelphia, he was given the Founder's Award "for his outstanding contributions to science." The Work of the Church: In Service to God and to Humanity - To Bigotry, No Sanction - Mose Durst Honors Enrico Fermi Award. Wigner Fellowship Program at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Walli, Ron. "Auditorium at ORNL Renamed in Honor of Eugene P. Wigner" ORNL Press Release, (Jan. 11, 1996). Eugene P. Wigner Reactor Physicist Award at the American Nuclear Society. Publications 1939, "On unitary representations of the inhomogeneous Lorentz group," Annals Math. 40: 149-204. (with Creutz, E. C. & R. R. Wilson) "Absorption of Thermal Neutrons in Uranium," Princeton University, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (Sept. 26, 1941). "Radioactivity of the Cooling Water," Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (March 1, 1943). "Solutions of Boltzmann`s Equation for Mono-energetic Neutrons in an Infinite Homogeneous Medium," Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (Nov. 30, 1943). (with Weinberg, A. M. & J. Stephenson) "Recalculation of the Critical Size and Multiplication Constant of a Homogeneous UO{sub 2} - D{sub 2}O Mixtures," Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, (Feb. 11, 1944). (with F.L. Friedman) "On the Boundary Condition Between Two Multiplying Media," Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, (April 19, 1944). (with J. E. Wilkins, Jr.) "Effect of the Temperature of the Moderator on the Velocity Distribution of Neutrons with Numerical Calculations for H as Moderator," Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (Sept. 14, 1944). "On the Variation of Eta with Energy in the 100-1000 ev Region," Brookhaven National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (Nov. 1, 1949). "The Magnitude of the Eta Effect," Du Pont de Nemours (E.I.) & Co., United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (April 25, 1951). 1958 (with Alvin M. Weinberg). Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors (University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-88517-8 1959. Group Theory and its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra. New Yor: Academic Press. Translation by J. J. Griffin of 1931, Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendungen auf die Quantenmechanik der Atomspektren, Vieweg Verlag, Braunschweig. 1960, "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences," Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics 13(1): 1–14. 1970. Symmetries and Reflections: Scientific Essays. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-73021-9 1992 (as told to Andrew Szanton). The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner. Plenum. ISBN 0-306-44326-0 1997 (with G. G. Emch; Jagdish Mehra and Arthur S. Wightman, eds.). Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses. Springer. ISBN 3-540-63372-3 See also Wigner semicircle distribution Wigner quasi-probability distribution Particle physics and representation theory Wigner effect Wigner-Seitz cell 3-jm symbol The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences Notes External links Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy Oral history interview, 12 May 1987. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Eugene Wigner Biography Nobel Prize Biography National Academy of Sciences biography his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles Annotated bibliography for Eugene Wigner from the Alsos Digital Library An interview with Wigner about his experience at Princeton Oral history interview transcript with Eugene Wigner 21 November 1963, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives Oral history interview transcript with Eugene Wigner 24 January 1981, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives	Eugene_Wigner \|@lemmatized eugene:12 paul:3 e:6 p:7 wigner:57 hungarian:2 pál:1 jenő:1 november:2 january:3 american:4 physicist:6 mathematician:3 receive:2 nobel:3 prize:3 physic:9 contribution:3 theory:11 atomic:12 nucleus:4 elementary:2 particle:3 particularly:3 discovery:2 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6,017	Biopolymer	DNA is a biopolymer Cellulose is a biopolymer Biopolymers are a class of polymers produced by living organisms. Cellulose and starch, proteins and peptides, and DNA and RNA are all examples of biopolymers, in which the monomeric units, respectively, are sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides. Cellulose is the most common biopolymer and the common organic compound on Earth, and about 33 percent of all plant matter is cellulose (the cellulose content of cotton is 90 percent and that of wood is 50 percent) Cellulose. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 11, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Biopolymers versus polymers A major but defining difference between polymers and biopolymers can be found in their structures. Polymers, including biopolymers, are made of repetitive units called monomers. Biopolymers often have a well defined structure, though this is not a defining characteristic (example:ligno-cellulose): The exact chemical composition and the sequence in which these units are arranged is called the primary structure, in the case of proteins. Many biopolymers spontaneously fold into characteristic compact shapes (see also "protein folding" as well as secondary structure and tertiary structure), which determine their biological functions and depend in a complicated way on their primary structures. Structural biology is the study of the structural properties of the biopolymers. In contrast most synthetic polymers have much simpler and more random (or stochastic) structures. This fact leads to a molecular mass distribution that is missing in biopolymers. In fact, as their synthesis is controlled by a template directed process in most in vivo systems all biopolymers of a type (say one specific protein) are all alike: they all contain the similar sequences and numbers of monomers and thus all have the same mass. This phenomenon is called monodispersity in contrast to the polydispersity encountered in synthetic polymers. As a result biopolymers have a polydispersity index of 1. Conventions and nomenclature Polypeptides The convention for a polypeptide is to list its constituent amino acid residues as they occur from the amino terminus to the carboxylic acid terminus. The amino acid residues are always joined by peptide bonds. Protein, though used colloquially to refer to any polypeptide, refers to larger or fully functional forms and can consist of several polypeptide chains as well as single chains. Proteins can also be modified to include non-peptide components, such as saccharide chains and lipids. Nucleic acids The convention for a nucleic acid sequence is to list the nucleotides as they occur from the 5' end to the 3' end of the polymer chain, where 5' and 3' refer to the numbering of carbons around the ribose ring which participate in forming the phosphate diester linkages of the chain. Such a sequence is called the primary structure of the biopolymer. Sugars Sugar-based biopolymers are often difficult with regards to convention. Sugar polymers can be linear or branched are typically joined with glycosidic bonds. However, the exact placement of the linkage can vary and the orientation of the linking functional groups is also important, resulting in α- and β-glycosidic bonds with numbering definitive of the linking carbons' location in the ring. In addition, many saccharide units can undergo various chemical modification, such as amination, and can even form parts of other molecules, such as glycoproteins. Structural characterization There are a number of biophysical techniques for determining sequence information. Protein sequence can be determined by Edman degradation, in which the N-terminal residues are hydrolyzed from the chain one at a time, derivatized, and then identified. Mass spectrometer techniques can also be used. Nucleic acid sequence can be determined using gel electrophoresis and capillary electrophoresis. Lastly, mechanical properties of these biopolymers can often be measured using optical tweezers or atomic force microscopy. Biopolymers as materials Some biopolymers- such as polylactic acid (PLA), naturally occurring zein, and poly-3-hydroxybutyrate can be used as plastics, replacing the need for polystyrene or polyethylene based plastics. Some plastics are now referred to as being 'degradable', 'oxy-degradable' or 'UV-degradable'. This means that they break down when exposed to light or air, but these plastics are still primarily (as much as 98 per cent) oil-based and are not currently certified as 'biodegradable' under the European Union directive on Packaging and Packaging Waste (94/62/EC). Biopolymers, however, will break down and some are suitable for domestic composting. Biopolymers as packaging Biopolymers (also called renewable polymers) are produced from biomass for use in the packaging industry. Biomass comes from crops such as sugar beet, potatoes or wheat: when used to produce biopolymers, these are classified as non food crops. These can be converted in the following pathways: Sugar beet > Glyconic acid > Polyglonic acid Starch > (fermentation) > Lactic acid > Polylactic acid (PLA) Biomass > (fermentation) > Bioethanol > Ethene > Polyethylene Many types of packaging can be made from biopolymers: food trays, blown starch pellets for shipping fragile goods, thin films for wrapping. Biopolymers are renewable, sustainable, and can be carbon neutral Biopolymers are renewable, because they are made from plant materials which can be grown year on year indefinitely. These plant materials come from agricultural non food crops. Therefore, the use of biopolymers would create a sustainable industry. In contrast, the feedstocks for polymers derived from petrochemicals will eventually run out. In addition, biopolymers have the potential to cut carbon emissions and reduce CO2 quantities in the atmosphere: this is because the CO2 released when they degrade can be reabsorbed by crops grown to replace them: this makes them close to carbon neutral. Biopolymers are biodegradable, and some are also compostable Some biopolymers are biodegradable: they are broken down into CO2 and water by microorganisms. In addition, some of these biodegradable biopolymers are compostable: they can be put into an industrial composting process and will break down by 90% within 6 months. Biopolymers that do this can be marked with a 'compostable' symbol, under European Standard EN 13432 (2000). Packaging marked with this symbol can be put into industrial composting processes and will break down within 6 months (or less). An example of a compostable polymer is PLA film under 20μm thick: films which are thicker than that do not qualify as compostable, even though they are biodegradable. A home composting logo may soon be established: this will enable consumers to dispose of packaging directly onto their own compost heap. The standards for such a home composting logo have not yet been developed. See also Biomaterials Bioplastics Polymer chemistry Condensation polymers DNA sequence Melanin Non food crops Phosphoramidite Small molecules Sequencing Worm-like chain References External links bioplastics MAGAZINE - The only trade magazine, 100% dedicated to biopolymers Biopolymer group Bio-Polym Blog What’s Stopping Bioplastic?	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6,018	Bornholm	Bornholm and Christiansø (Ertholmene) with 5 former municipalities in green colour Bornholm ( or ) (Old Norse: Burgundaholm, "the island of the Burgundians") is a Danish island in the Baltic Sea located to the east of (most of) the rest of Denmark, the south of Sweden, and the north of Poland. The main industries on the island include fishing, arts and crafts like glass making and pottery using locally worked clay, and dairy farming. Tourism is important during the summer. The topography of the island consists of dramatic rock formations in the north, sloping down towards “pine and deciduous forests” (greatly damaged by storms in the 1950s) and farmland in the middle and sandy beaches in the south. It also refers to Bornholm Regional Municipality, the municipality () which covers the entire island. Bornholm was one of the three last Danish municipalities not belonging to a county— the others being Copenhagen and Frederiksberg. On 1 January 2007, the municipality lost its short-lived (2003 until 2006) county privileges and became part of Region Hovedstaden (i.e. the Copenhagen Capital Region). The small islands Ertholmene are located to the northeast of Bornholm. They do not belong to either a municipality or a region but are administered by the Ministry of Defence. Strategically located in the Baltic Sea, Bornholm has been a bone of contention usually ruled by Denmark, but also by Lübeck and Sweden. The castle ruin Hammershus, on the northwestern tip of the island, is the largest fortress in northern Europe, testament to the importance of its location. Language Many inhabitants speak bornholmsk, by some said to be a dialect of Danish that retains three grammatical genders, like Icelandic and most dialects of Norwegian, but unlike standard Danish. Its phonology includes archaisms (unstressed and internal {{[d̥, g̊]}}, where other dialects have and ) and innovations ( for before and after front-tongue vowels). This renders the language difficult to understand for some Danish-speakers, whereas Swedish-speakers often consider Bornholmsk to be easier to understand than Danish. The intonation resembles the Scanian dialects spoken in the nearby Scania, the southernmost province of Sweden. Climate Municipality \|Official flag of Bornholm. Bornholm Regional Municipality is the local authority (Danish, kommune) covering the entire island. It comprises the five former (April 1 1970 until 2002) municipalities on the island (Allinge-Gudhjem, Hasle, Nexø, Rønne and Aakirkeby) and the former Bornholm County. The island had 22 municipalities until March 1970, of which 6 were market cities and 16 parish municipalities. The market city municipalities were supervised by the county and not by the interior ministry as was the case in the rest of Denmark. The seat of the municipal council is the island's main town, Rønne. The first regional mayor is Bjarne Kristiansen. Ferry services connect Rønne to Świnoujście (Poland), Sassnitz (Germany), Køge (near Copenhagen, Denmark) and catamaran to Ystad (Sweden). Simrishamn (Sweden) has a ferry connection during the summer. There are also regular catamaran services between Nexø and the Polish ports of Kolobrzeg, Leba and Ustka. There are direct train and bus connections Ystad-Copenhagen, coordinated with the catamaran. There are also air connections from the Bornholm Airport to Copenhagen and other locations. Bornholm Regional Municipality was not merged with other municipalities on January 1, 2007 as the result of the nationwide Kommunalreformen ("The Municipal Reform" of 2007), which is quite understandable, since the island, as can be seen on maps, is quite far from the rest of Denmark. History Hammershus Ruin. In Old Norse the island was known as Borgundarholm, and in ancient Danish especially the island's name was Borghand or Borghund; these names were related to Old Norse borg "height" and bjarg/berg "mountain, rock", as it is an island that rises high from the sea. Mallory, J.P. and D.Q. Adams. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997: p. 269 Other names known for the island include Burgendaland (9th century), Hulmo / Holmus (Adam of Bremen), Burgundehulm (1145), and Borghandæholm (14th century). Politikens Nudansk Ordborg (1993), 15th edition, entry "Bornholm" Alfred the Great uses the form Burgenda land. King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of Orosius, London, 1859, edited by J. Bosworth Some scholars Essai sur l'histoire du peuple burgonde, de Bornholm (Burgundarholm) vers la Bourgogne et les Bourguignons, 1965, by Rene Guichard, published by A. et J. Picard et Cie. believe that the Burgundians are named after Bornholm; the Burgundians were a Germanic tribe which moved west when the western Roman Empire collapsed, and occupied and named Burgundy in France. Landsat satellite photo Wind mill in Gudhjem, Bornholm Bornholm formed part of the historical Lands of Denmark when the nation united out of a series of petty chiefdoms. It was originally administratively part of the province of Scania and was administered by the Scanian Law after this was codified in the 13th century. Control over the island evolved into a long-raging dispute between the See of Lund and the Danish crown culminating in several battles. The first fortress on the island was Gamleborg which was replaced by Lilleborg, built by the king in 1150. In 1149, the king accepted the transfer of three of the island's four herreder to the archbishop. In 1250, the archbishop constructed his own fortress, Hammershus. A campaign launched from it in 1259 conquered the remaining part of the island including Lilleborg. The island's status remained a matter of dispute for an additional 200 years. Bornholm was pawned to Lübeck for 50 years starting 1525. Its first militia, Bornholms Milits was formed in 1624. Swedish forces conquered the island in 1645, but returned the island to Denmark in the following peace settlement. After the war in 1658, Denmark ceded the island to Sweden under the Treaty of Roskilde along with the rest of the Scanian provinces and Trøndelag and it was occupied by Swedish forces. A revolt broke out the same year, culminating in Villum Clausen's shooting of the Swedish commander Johan Printzensköld on December 8, 1658. http://www.bornholmsmuseum.dk/1658/1658_1.htm Following the revolt, a deputation of islanders presented the island as a gift to King Frederick III on the condition that the island would never be ceded again. This status was confirmed in the treaty of Copenhagen in 1660. A immigration of Swedes, notably from Småland and Skåne, occurred during the 19th century, seeking work and better conditions. Most of these people did not remain on the island. Bornholm, as a part of Denmark, was captured by Germany relatively early in the Second World War, and served as a lookout post and listening station during the war, as it was a part of the eastern front. The island's perfect central position in the Baltic Sea meant that it was an important "natural fortress" between Germany and Sweden, effectively keeping submarines and destroyers away from Nazi occupied waters. Several concrete coastal installations were built during the war, and several coastal batteries had tremendous range. However, none of them were ever used and only a single test shot was fired during the occupation. These remnants of Nazi rule have since then fallen into disrepair and are mostly regarded today as historical curiosities. Many tourists visit the ruins each year, however, providing supplemental income to the tourist industry. Rønne, Bornholm. On 22 August 1943 a V-1 flying bomb (numbered V83, probably launched from a Heinkel He 111) crashed on Bornholm during a test - the warhead was a dummy made of concrete. This was photographed or sketched by the Danish Naval Officer-in-Charge on Bornholm, Lieutenant Commander Hasager Christiansen. This was the first sign British Intelligence saw of Germany's aspirations to develop flying bombs and rockets - which were to become known as V1 and V2. Bornholm was heavily bombarded by Soviet forces in May 1945. Gerhard von Kamptz, the German superior officer in charge of the island garrison refused to surrender to Soviets, as his orders were to surrender to the Western Allies. The Germans sent several telegrams to Copenhagen requesting that at least one British soldier should be transferred to Bornholm, so that the Germans could surrender to the western allied forces instead of the Russians. When von Kamptz failed to provide a written capitulation as demanded by the Soviet commanders, Soviet aircraft relentlessly bombed and destroyed more than 800 civilian houses in Rønne and Nexø and seriously damaged roughly 3000 more during 7-8 May 1945. Here it's important to note that during the Russian bombing of the two major cities on May 7th. and again May 8th. The Danish radio was not allowed to broadcast the news because it would spoil the liberation festivities in Denmark. Many Bornholmers never forgot that. Sadly these facts are not taught in school today. On May 9 Soviet troops landed on the island and after a short fight, the German garrison (about 12,000 strong ) surrendered. Soviet forces left the island on April 5, 1946. Thus, Bornholm could be said to have played a part - to its inhabitants' bad luck - in the inception of the Cold War. More recently NATO radar installations have been placed on the island. After the evacuation of its forces from Bornholm, the Soviets took the position that "The stationing 'foreign troops' on Bornholm would be considered a declaration of war against the Soviet Union, and that Denmark should keep troops on it at all times to protect it from such foreign aggression". This policy remained in force also after NATO was formed and Denmark joined it - i.e. the Soviets accepted the stationing of Danish troops, which were perforce part of NATO but were far from that alliance's most powerful element, but strongly objected to the presence of other NATO troops on the island - particularly, of US troops. This caused diplomatic problems at least twice: once when an American helicopter landed outside the city of Svaneke due to engine problems in a NATO exercise over the Baltic Sea, and once (sometime between 1999 and 2003) when the Danish government suggested shutting down Almegårdens Kaserne, the local military facility, since "the island could quickly be protected by troops from surrounding areas and has no strategic importance after the fall of the Iron Curtain". Historical architecture Østerlars Round Church, Bornholm. The island also hosts some notable examples of 19th and early 20th century architecture, amongst others, about 300 wooden houses in Rønne and Nexø, donated by Sweden after World War II, when the island was repairing damage caused by the war. Famous people The Danish painter Oluf Høst was born in Svaneke in 1884. The Danish writer and painter Gustaf Munch-Petersen moved to Bornholm in 1935 and married Lisbeth Hjorth while living on the island. At age 8, socialist writer Martin Andersen Nexø moved to the island, and took his last name after the city of Nexø on its east coast. M.P. Möller, a pipe-organ builder and manufacturer, was born on Bornholm and lived in a town a few miles south of Allinge. References in popular culture A considerable part of the Second World War spy thriller Hornet Flight by Ken Follett takes place on Bornholm, depicting the island under German occupation. Ruins of Hammershus, a Medieval fortress. The island is home to 15 medieval churches, four of which are Round Churches and display unique artwork and architecture. Other islands in the Baltic Sea Gotland, Öland, Åland Rügen, Usedom Saaremaa, Hiiumaa Wolin See also Bornholm disease Dromaeosauroides bornholmensis References In-line General The Island of Bornholm, a chapter in Selected Prose by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, 1969, Northwestern University Press. The Battle of Bornholm in The hidden folk: stories of fairies, dwarves, selkies, and other secret beings, by Lise Lunge-Larsen, 2004, Houghton Mifflin. The Templars' Secret Island: The Knights, the Priest, and the Treasure, 1992, by Erling Haagensen and Henry Lincoln Behind the Da Vinci Code, 2006 documentary by The History Channel Bornholm i krig 1940-1946 (Bornholm in War), Bornholm museum, 2001, ISBN 8788179494. Book of photos from World War II. Bernt Jensen: Soviet Remote Control: the Island of Bornholm as a Relay Station in Soviet-Danish Relations, 1945-71, in Mechanisms of Power in the Soviet Union, Macmillan Press, 2000, ISBN 0-312-23089-3. External links Municipality's official website (Dansk+Deutsch+English) Krak searchable/printable municipality map Bornholm Map and Web Index Bornholm's Museum (Dansk+Deutsch+English+Polski) Municipal statistics: NetBorger Kommunefakta, delivered from KMD aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data) (Danish) Kings of Bornholm Bornholm (Polish) Frit Bårrijnhålm / Free Bornhom (Bornholmish+Danish+English) Bevar det Bornholmske sprog / save the Bornholm language (Bornholmish+Danish)	Bornholm \|@lemmatized bornholm:42 christiansø:1 ertholmene:2 former:3 municipality:16 green:1 colour:1 old:3 norse:3 burgundaholm:1 island:44 burgundians:3 danish:19 baltic:5 sea:6 locate:3 east:2 rest:4 denmark:12 south:3 sweden:8 north:2 poland:2 main:2 industry:2 include:4 fishing:1 art:1 craft:1 like:2 glass:1 making:1 pottery:1 use:3 locally:1 work:2 clay:1 dairy:1 farming:1 tourism:1 important:3 summer:2 topography:1 consist:1 dramatic:1 rock:2 formation:1 slop:1 towards:1 pine:1 deciduous:1 forest:1 greatly:1 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december:1 http:1 www:1 bornholmsmuseum:1 dk:1 htm:1 follow:1 deputation:1 islander:1 present:1 gift:1 frederick:1 iii:1 condition:2 would:3 never:2 confirm:1 immigration:1 swede:1 notably:1 småland:1 skåne:1 occur:1 seek:1 good:1 people:2 capture:1 relatively:1 early:2 second:2 world:4 serve:1 lookout:1 post:1 listen:1 station:3 eastern:1 perfect:1 central:1 position:2 mean:1 natural:1 effectively:1 keep:2 submarine:1 destroyer:1 away:1 nazi:2 occupied:1 water:1 concrete:2 coastal:2 installation:2 battery:1 tremendous:1 range:1 however:2 none:1 ever:1 single:1 test:2 shot:1 fire:1 occupation:2 remnant:1 fall:2 disrepair:1 mostly:1 regarded:1 today:2 curiosity:1 tourist:2 visit:1 provide:2 supplemental:1 income:1 august:1 v:1 fly:2 bomb:3 numbered:1 probably:1 heinkel:1 crash:1 warhead:1 dummy:1 made:1 photograph:1 sketch:1 naval:1 officer:2 charge:2 lieutenant:1 hasager:1 christiansen:1 sign:1 british:2 intelligence:1 saw:1 aspiration:1 develop:1 rocket:1 heavily:1 bombard:1 soviet:12 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relay:1 relation:1 mechanism:1 power:1 macmillan:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 dansk:2 deutsch:2 english:3 krak:1 searchable:1 printable:1 web:1 index:1 polski:1 statistic:1 netborger:1 kommunefakta:1 deliver:1 kmd:1 aka:1 kommunedata:1 data:1 frit:1 bårrijnhålm:1 free:1 bornhom:1 bornholmish:2 bevar:1 det:1 bornholmske:1 sprog:1 save:1 \|@bigram baltic_sea:5 dairy_farming:1 deciduous_forest:1 sandy_beach:1 grammatical_gender:1 copenhagen_denmark:1 indo_european:1 fitzroy_dearborn:1 adam_bremen:1 anglo_saxon:1 essai_sur:1 histoire_du:1 du_peuple:1 germanic_tribe:1 http_www:1 fall_disrepair:1 bad_luck:1 soviet_union:2 iron_curtain:1 pipe_organ:1 spy_thriller:1 ken_follett:1 houghton_mifflin:1 da_vinci:1 external_link:1
6,019	Alfonso_II_of_Asturias	Statue of Alfonso II at Santiago de Compostela. Alfonso II (759-842), called the Chaste, was the king of Asturias from 791 to his death, the son of Fruela I and the Basque Munia. He was born in Oviedo in 759 or 760. He was put under the guardianship of his aunt Adosinda after his father's death, but one tradition relates his being put in the monastery of Samos. He was the governor of the palace during the reign of Adosinda's husband Silo. On Silo's death, he was elected king by Adosinda's allies, but the magnates raised his uncle Mauregatus to the throne instead. Alfonso fled to Álava to live with his maternal relatives. Mauregatus was succeeded by Bermudo, Alfonso's cousin, who abdicated after his defeat at Burbia. Alfonso was subsequently elected king on 14 September 791. The events of his reign are in reality almost unknown. Poets of a later generation invented the story of the secret marriage of his sister Ximena with Sancho, count of Saldana, and the feats of their son Bernardo del Carpio. Bernardo is the hero of a cantar de gesta (chanson de geste) written to please the anarchical spirit of the nobles. What is known is that he maintained contact with the court of Charlemagne. He sent delegations to Aachen in 796, 797, and 798, but we do not know the purposes. They may have dealt with the security of his kingdom from the ongoing attacks of the Ibn Mugait brothers. On the other hand, they may have been related to the adoptionist controversy which had brought Bermudo's kingdom into Charlemagne's view. Militarily, Alfonso did much to secure his own realm against the Moors. He took Lisbon in 798. He defeated the Moslems at Narón and Anceo (825) and, thanks to these victories, began the repopulation of parts of Galicia, León, and Castile. Alfonso also moved the capital from Pravia, where Silo had located it, to Oviedo, the city of his father's founding and his birth. There he constructed churches and a palace. He built San Tirso, where he is buried, and Santullano, on the outskirts. The Crónica Sebastianense records his death in 842, saying: tras haber llevado por 52 años casta, sobria, inmaculada, piadosa y gloriosamente el gobierno del reino [after having held for 52 years chastely, soberly, immaculately, piously, and gloriously the government of the realm] Tradition relates that in 814, the body of Saint James the Greater was discoverred in Compostela and that Alfonso was the first pilgrim to that famous medieval (and modern) shrine. Portrait of Alfonso II: References	Alfonso_II_of_Asturias \|@lemmatized statue:1 alfonso:9 ii:3 santiago:1 de:3 compostela:2 call:1 chaste:1 king:3 asturias:1 death:4 son:2 fruela:1 basque:1 munia:1 bear:1 oviedo:2 put:2 guardianship:1 aunt:1 adosinda:3 father:2 one:1 tradition:2 relate:3 monastery:1 samos:1 governor:1 palace:2 reign:2 husband:1 silo:3 elect:2 ally:1 magnate:1 raise:1 uncle:1 mauregatus:2 throne:1 instead:1 flee:1 álava:1 live:1 maternal:1 relative:1 succeed:1 bermudo:2 cousin:1 abdicate:1 defeat:2 burbia:1 subsequently:1 september:1 event:1 reality:1 almost:1 unknown:1 poet:1 late:1 generation:1 invent:1 story:1 secret:1 marriage:1 sister:1 ximena:1 sancho:1 count:1 saldana:1 feat:1 bernardo:2 del:2 carpio:1 hero:1 cantar:1 gesta:1 chanson:1 geste:1 write:1 please:1 anarchical:1 spirit:1 noble:1 know:2 maintain:1 contact:1 court:1 charlemagne:2 send:1 delegation:1 aachen:1 purpose:1 may:2 dealt:1 security:1 kingdom:2 ongoing:1 attack:1 ibn:1 mugait:1 brother:1 hand:1 adoptionist:1 controversy:1 bring:1 view:1 militarily:1 much:1 secure:1 realm:2 moor:1 take:1 lisbon:1 moslem:1 narón:1 anceo:1 thanks:1 victory:1 begin:1 repopulation:1 part:1 galicia:1 león:1 castile:1 also:1 move:1 capital:1 pravia:1 locate:1 city:1 founding:1 birth:1 construct:1 church:1 build:1 san:1 tirso:1 bury:1 santullano:1 outskirt:1 crónica:1 sebastianense:1 record:1 say:1 tras:1 haber:1 llevado:1 por:1 años:1 casta:1 sobria:1 inmaculada:1 piadosa:1 gloriosamente:1 el:1 gobierno:1 reino:1 hold:1 year:1 chastely:1 soberly:1 immaculately:1 piously:1 gloriously:1 government:1 body:1 saint:1 james:1 great:1 discoverred:1 first:1 pilgrim:1 famous:1 medieval:1 modern:1 shrine:1 portrait:1 reference:1 \|@bigram de_compostela:1 cantar_de:1 chanson_de:1 de_geste:1 león_castile:1
6,020	John_Ray	John Ray (November 29, 1627 – January 17, 1705) was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. Until 1670, he wrote his name as John Wray. From then on, he used 'Ray', 'having ascertained that such had been the practice of his family before him.' (ed. Robert W. T. Gunther) Further Correspondence of John Ray, (Ray Society, 1928) Pg 16 He published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology. His classification of plants in his Historia Plantarum, was an important step towards modern taxonomy. Ray rejected the system of dichotomous division by which species were classified according to a pre-conceived, either/or type system, and instead classified plants according to similarities and differences that emerged from observation. Thus he advanced scientific empiricism against the deductive rationalism of the scholastics. He coined the term species. Historia plantarum generalis, in the volume published in 1686, Tome I, Libr. I, Chap. XX, page 40 (Quoted in Mayr, Ernst. 1982. The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution, and inheritance. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press: 256) Early life John Ray was born in the village of Black Notley, near Braintree, in the county of Essex, in the south east of England. He is said to have been born in the smithy, his father having been the village blacksmith. From Braintree school he was sent at the age of sixteen to Cambridge University: at first admitted to Trinity College, he migrated to Catharine Hall after a month, and returned to Trinity College after about one year and three-quarters. His tutor at Trinity was James Duport, Regius Professor of Greek, and his intimate friend and fellow-pupil the celebrated Isaac Barrow. Ray was chosen minor fellow of Trinity in 1649, and in due course became a major fellow on proceeding to the master's degree. He held many college offices, becoming successively lecturer in Greek (1651), mathematics (1653),and humanity (1655), praelector (1657), junior dean (1657), and college steward (1659 and 1660); and according to the habit of the time, he was accustomed to preach in his college chapel and also at Great St Mary's before the university, long before he took holy orders. Among his sermons preached before his ordination, which was not till the 23 December, 1660, were the famous discourses on The Wisdom of God in the Creation, and on Deluge and Dissolution of the World. Ray's reputation was high also as a tutor; and he communicated his own passion for natural history to several pupils, of whom Francis Willughby is by far the most famous. Career Ray's quiet college life closed when he found himself unable to subscribe to the Act of Uniformity 1661, and was obliged to give up his fellowship in 1662, the year after Isaac Newton had entered the college. We are told by Dr Derham in his Life of Ray that the reason of his refusal: [...] his having taken the 'Solemn League and Covenant', for that he never did, and often declared that he ever thought it an unlawful oath; but he said he could not declare for those that had taken the oath that no obligation lay upon them, but feared there might. From this time onwards he seems to have depended chiefly on the bounty of his pupil Willughby, who made Ray his constant companion while he lived, and at his death left him 6 shillings a year, with the charge of educating his two sons. In the spring of 1663 Ray started together with Willughby and two other pupils on a tour through Europe, from which he returned in March 1666, parting from Willughby at Montpellier, whence the latter continued his journey into Spain. He had previously in three different journeys (1658, 1661, 1662) travelled through the greater part of Great Britain, and selections from his private notes of these journeys were edited by George Scott in 1760, under the title of Mr Ray's Itineraries. Ray himself published an account of his foreign travel in 1673, entitled Observations topographical, moral, and physiological, made on a Journey through part of the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France. From this tour Ray and Willughby returned laden with collections, on which they meant to base complete systematic descriptions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Willughby undertook the former part, but, dying in 1672, left only an ornithology and ichthyology, in themselves vast, for Ray to edit; while the latter used the botanical collections for the groundwork of his Methodus planiarurn nova (1682), and his great Historia generalis plantarum (3 vols., 1686, 1688, 1704). The plants gathered on his British tours had already been described in his Catalogus plantarum Angliae (1670), which work is the basis of all later English floras. In 1667 Ray was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1669 he published in conjunction with Willughby his first paper in the Philosophical Transactions on Experiments concerning the Motion of Sap in Trees. They demonstrated the ascent of the sap through the wood of the tree, and supposed the sap to precipitate a kind of white coagulum or jelly, which may be well conceived to be the part which every year between bark and tree turns to wood and of which the leaves and fruits are made. Immediately after his admission into the Royal Society he was induced by Bishop John Wilkins to translate his Real Character into Latin, and it seems he actually completed a translation, which, however, remained in manuscript; his Methodus plantarum nova was in fact undertaken as a part of Wilkins's great classificatory scheme. In 1673 Ray married Margaret Oakley of Launton; in 1676 he went to Sutton Coldfield, and in 1677 to Falborne Hall in Essex. Finally, in 1679, he removed to Black Notley, where he afterwards remained. His life there was quiet and uneventful, although he had poor health, including chronic sores. He occupied himself in writing books and in keeping up a wide scientific correspondence, and lived, in spite of his infirmities, to the age of seventy-six, dying at Black Notley. The Ray Society, for the publication of works on natural history, was founded in his honor in 1844. Works Ray's first book, the Catalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium (1660, followed by appendices in 1663 and 1685), was written in conjunction with his amicissimus et individuus comes, John Nid. The 626 plants are listed alphabetically, but a system of classification differing little from Caspar Bauhin's is sketched at the end of the book; and the notes contain many references to other parts of natural history. The locations of the plants are minutely described; and Cambridge students still gather some of their rarer plants in the copses or chalk-pits where he found them. The book shows signs of his indebtedness to Joachim Jung of Hamburg, who had died in 1657, leaving his writings unpublished; but a manuscript copy of some of them was sent to Ray by Samuel Hartlib in 1660. Jung invented or gave precision to many technical terms which Ray and others at once made use of in their descriptions, and which are now classical; and his notions of what constitutes a specific distinction and what characters are valueless as such seem to have been adopted with little change by Ray. The first two editions of the Catalogus plantarum Angliae (1670, 1677) were likewise it must be remembered that the difference between the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous embryo was detected by Nehemiah Grew. A serious fault was his persistent separation of trees from herbs, a distinction whose falsity had been exposed by Jung and others, but to which Ray tried to give scientific foundation by denying the existence of buds in the latter. At this time he based his classification, like Caesalpinus, chiefly upon the fruit, and he distinguished several natural groups, such as the grasses, Labiatae, Umbelliferae and Papilionaceae. The classification of the Methodus was extended and improved in the Historia plantarum, but was disfigured by a large class of Anomalae, to include forms that the other orders did not easily admit, and by the separation of the cereals from other grasses. This vast book enumerates and describes all the plants known to the author or described by his predecessors, to the number, according to Adanson, of 18,625 species. In the first volume a chapter De plantis in genere contains an account of all the anatomical and physiological knowledge of the time regarding plants, with the recent speculations and discoveries of Caesalpinus, Grew, Malpighi and Jung; and Cuvier and Dupetit Thouars, declaring that it was this chapter which gave acceptance and authority to these authors works, say that the best monument that could be erected to the memory of Ray would be the republication of this part of his work separately. The Stirpium Europaearum extra Britannias nascentium Sylloge (1694) is a much amplified edition of the catalogue of plants collected on his own European tour. In the preface to this book he first clearly admitted the doctrine of the sexuality of plants, which, however, he had no share in establishing. Here also begins his long controversy with August Bachmann (Augustus Quirinus Rivinus) which chiefly turned upon Ray's indefensible separation of ligneous, from herbaceous plants, and also upon what he conceived to be the misleading reliance that Rivinus placed on the characters of the corolla. But in the second edition of his Methodus (1704) he followed Rivinus and Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in taking the flower instead of the fruit as his basis of classification: he was no longer a fructicist but a corollist. He also proved that a tree (living) conducts water. Besides editing his friend Francis Willughby's books, Ray wrote several zoological works of his own, including Synopsis methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis (1693), that is to say, both mammals and reptiles, and Synopsis methodica Avium et Piscium (1713); the latter was published posthumously, as was also the more important Historia Insectorum, which embodied a great mass of Willughbys notes. Most of Ray's minor works were the outcome of his faculty for carefully amassing facts; for instance, his Collection of English Proverbs (1670), his Collection of Out-of-the-way English Words (1674), his Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages (1693), and his Dictionariolum trilingue (1675, 5th edition as Nomenclator classicus, 1706). The last was written for the use of Willughby's sons, his pupils; it passed through many editions, and is still useful for its careful identifications of plants and animals mentioned by Greek and Latin writers. But Ray's influence and reputation have depended largely upon his two books entitled The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Creation (1691), and Miscellaneous Discourses concerning the Dissolution and Changes of the World (1692). The latter includes three essays on The Primitive Chaos and Creation of the World, The General Deluge, its Causes and Effects, and The Dissolution of the World and Future Conflagrations. The germ of these works was contained in sermons preached long before in Cambridge. Both books obtained immediate popularity, and the former, at least, was translated into several languages. In The Wisdom of God Ray recites innumerable examples of the perfection of organic mechanism, the multitude and variety of living creatures, the minuteness and usefulness of their parts, and many, if not most, of the familiar examples of purposive adaptation and design in nature were suggested by him, such as the structure of the eye, the hollowness of the bones, the camel's stomach and the hedgehog's armour. Legacy Ray's works were directly influential on the development of taxonomy by Linneaus. In 1844, the Ray Society was founded, named after John Ray, and has since published over 160 books on natural history. In 1986, to mark the 300th anniversary of the publication of Ray's Historia Plantarum, there was a celebration of Ray's legacy in Braintree. A "John Ray Gallery" was opened in the Braintree Museum. The scientific society at his old college, St Catharine's College, Cambridge, is named the "John Ray Society" after him. John Ray Society official website. References (1950): John Ray: Naturalist: His Life and Works (1686): Historia Plantarum Species, etc. 3 vols. Vol. I. Londini: Clark. (1713a): Synopsis methodica avium & piscium: opus posthumum, etc. (vol. 1: Avium) [in Latin]. William Innys, London. Digitized version (1713b): Synopsis methodica avium & piscium: opus posthumum, etc. (vol. 2: Piscium) [in Latin]. William Innys, London. Digitized version External links The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation By John Ray, The Seventh Edition, Corrected, London: Printed by R. Harbin, for William Innys, at the Prince’s-Arms in St Paul’s Church Yard, 1717. (First edition, 1691). Synopsis methodica avium and Synopsis methodica piscium at Göttinger Digitalisierungszentrum The John Ray Initiative: connecting Environment and Christianity A preliminary English translation of John Ray's Methodus plantarum nova (1682) A preliminary English translation of John Ray's Dissertatio de variis methodis John Ray Biography (UCMP Berkeley) The first biological species concept (Evolving Thoughts)	John_Ray \|@lemmatized john:16 ray:44 november:1 january:1 english:7 naturalist:2 sometimes:1 refer:1 father:2 natural:7 history:5 write:5 name:3 wray:1 use:4 ascertain:1 practice:1 family:1 ed:1 robert:1 w:1 gunther:1 far:2 correspondence:2 society:8 pg:1 publish:6 important:3 work:13 plant:13 animal:3 theology:1 classification:5 historia:7 plantarum:11 step:1 towards:1 modern:1 taxonomy:2 reject:1 system:3 dichotomous:1 division:1 specie:5 classify:2 accord:4 pre:1 conceive:3 either:1 type:1 instead:2 similarity:1 difference:2 emerge:1 observation:2 thus:1 advance:1 scientific:4 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6,021	Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders	The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association and provides diagnostic criteria for mental disorders. It is used in the United States and in varying degrees around the world, by clinicians, researchers, psychiatric drug regulation agencies, health insurance companies, pharmaceutical companies and policy makers. The DSM has attracted controversy and criticism as well as praise. There have been five revisions since it was first published in 1952, gradually including more disorders, though some have been removed and are no longer considered to be mental disorders. It initially evolved out of systems for collecting census and psychiatric hospital statistics, and from a manual developed by the US Army. The last major revision was the DSM-IV published in 1994, although a "text revision" was produced in 2000. The DSM-V is currently in consultation, planning and preparation, due for publication in May 2012. DSM-V: The Future Manual An early draft will be released for comment in 2009. Internet addictions: A real medical menace?, Yahoo Tech Blog: christopher Null: the Working Guy, 3/24/08. The mental disorders section of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) is another commonly-used guide, used more often in some parts of the world. The coding system used in the DSM-IV is designed to correspond with the codes used in the ICD, although not all codes may match at all times because the two publications are not revised synchronously. Uses Many mental health professionals use this book to determine and help communicate a patient's diagnosis after an evaluation; hospitals, clinics, and insurance companies also generally require a 'five axis' DSM diagnosis of all the patients treated. The DSM can be used to establish a diagnosis or categorize patients using diagnostic criteria. The DSM may also be used in mental health research. Studies done on specific diseases often recruit patients whose symptoms match the criteria listed in the DSM for that disease. An international survey of psychiatrists in 66 countries comparing use of the ICD-10 and DSM-IV found the former was more often used for clinical diagnosis while the latter was more valued for research. The DSM, including DSM-IV, is a registered trademark belonging to the American Psychiatric Association. History The initial impetus for developing a classification of mental disorders in the United States was the need to collect statistical information. The first official attempt was the 1840 census which used a single category, "idiocy/insanity". The 1880 census distinguished among seven categories: mania, melancholia, monomania, paresis, dementia, dipsomania, and epilepsy. In 1917, a "Committee on Statistics" from what is now known as the American Psychiatric Association (APA), together with the National Commission on Mental Hygiene, developed a new guide for mental hospitals called the "Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane", which included 22 diagnoses. This was subsequently revised several times by APA over the years. APA, along with the New York Academy of Medicine, also provided the psychiatric nomenclature subsection of the US medical guide, the "Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease", referred to as the "Standard". Greenberg SA, Shuman DW, Meyer RG. (2004) Unmasking forensic diagnosis. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2004 January-February;27(1):1-15. doi=10.1016/j.ijlp.2004.01.001 World War II saw the large-scale involvement of US psychiatrists in the selection, processing, assessment and treatment of soldiers. This moved the focus away from mental institutions and traditional clinical perspectives. A committee headed by psychiatrist and brigadier general William C. Menninger developed a new classification scheme called Medical 203, issued in 1943 as a "War Department Technical Bulletin" under the auspices of the Office of the Surgeon General. Houts, A.C. (2000) Fifty years of psychiatric nomenclature: Reflections on the 1943 War Department Technical Bulletin, Medical 203. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56 (7), Pages 935 - 967 The foreword to the DSM-I states the US Navy had itself made some minor revisions but "the Army established a much more sweeping revision, abandoning the basic outline of the Standard and attempting to express present day concepts of mental disturbance. This nomenclature eventually was adopted by all Armed Forces", and "assorted modifications of the Armed Forces nomenclature [were] introduced into many clinics and hospitals by psychiatrists returning from military duty." The Veterans Administration also adopted a slightly modified version of Medical 203. In 1949, the World Health Organization published the sixth revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD) which included a section on mental disorders for the first time. The foreword to DSM-1 states this "categorized mental disorders in rubrics similar to those of the Armed Forces nomenclature." An APA Committee on Nomenclature and Statistics was empowered to develop a version specifically for use in the United States, to standardize the diverse and confused usage of different documents. In 1950 the APA committee undertook a review and consultation. It circulated an adaptation of Medical 203, the VA system and the Standard's Nomenclature, to approximately 10% of APA members. 46% replied, of which 93% approved, and after some further revisions (resulting in it being called DSM-I), the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders was approved in 1951 and published in 1952. The structure and conceptual framework were the same as in Medical 203, and many passages of text identical. The manual was 130 pages long and listed 106 mental disorders. Grob, GN. (1991) Origins of DSM-I: a study in appearance and reality Am J Psychiatry. April;148(4):421–31. Although the APA was closely involved in the next significant revision of the mental disorder section of the ICD (version 8 in 1968), it decided to also go ahead with a revision of the DSM. It was also published in 1968, listed 182 disorders, and was 134 pages long. It was quite similar to the DSM-I. The term “reaction” was dropped but the term “neurosis” was retained. Both the DSM-I and the DSM-II reflected the predominant psychodynamic psychiatry, Mayes, R. & Horwitz, AV. (2005) DSM-III and the revolution in the classification of mental illness. J Hist Behav Sci 41(3):249–67. although they also included biological perspectives and concepts from Kraepelin's system of classification. Symptoms were not specified in detail for specific disorders. Many were seen as reflections of broad underlying conflicts or maladaptive reactions to life problems, rooted in a distinction between neurosis and psychosis (roughly, anxiety/depression broadly in touch with reality, or hallucinations/delusions appearing disconnected from reality). Sociological and biological knowledge was also incorporated, in a model that did not emphasize a clear boundary between normality and abnormality. Wilson, M. (1993) DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history. Am J Psychiatry. 1993 March;150(3):399–410. Following controversy and protests from gay activists at APA annual conferences from 1970 to 1973, as well as the emergence of new data from researchers such as Alfred Kinsey and Evelyn Hooker, the seventh printing of the DSM-II, in 1974, no longer listed homosexuality as a category of disorder. But through the efforts of psychiatrist Robert Spitzer, who had led the DSM-II development committee, a vote by the APA trustees in 1973, and confirmed by the wider APA membership in 1974, the diagnosis was replaced with the category of "sexual orientation disturbance". "The diagnostic status of homosexuality in DSM-III: a reformulation of the issues", by R.L. Spitzer, Am J Psychiatry 1981; 138:210-215 In 1974, the decision to create a new revision of the DSM was made, and Robert Spitzer was selected as chairman of the task force. The initial impetus was to make the DSM nomenclature consistent with the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), published by the World Health Organization. The revision took on a far wider mandate under the influence and control of Spitzer and his chosen committee members. Speigel, A. (2005) The Dictionary of Disorder: How one man revolutionized of 2005-01-03. One goal was to improve the uniformity of psychiatric diagnosis in the wake of a number of critiques, including the famous Rosenhan experiment. There was also a perceived need to standardize diagnostic practices within the US and with other countries. The establishment of these criteria was also an attempt to facilitate the pharmaceutical regulatory process. The criteria adopted for many of the mental disorders were taken from the Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) and Feighner Criteria, which had just been developed by a group of research-orientated psychiatrists based primarily at Washington University and the New York State Psychiatric Institute. Other criteria, and potential new categories of disorder, were established by a consensus during meetings of the committee, as chaired by Spitzer. A key aim was to base categorization on colloquial English descriptive language (which would be easier to use by Federal administrative offices), rather than assumptions of etiology, although its categorical approach assumed each particular pattern of symptoms in a category reflected a particular underlying pathology (an approach described as "neo-Kraepelinian”). The psychodynamic or physiologic view was abandoned, in favor of a regulatory or legislative model. A new "multiaxial" system attempted to yield a picture more amenable to a statistical population census, rather than just a simple diagnosis. Spitzer argued, “mental disorders are a subset of medical disorders” but the task force decided on the DSM statement: “Each of the mental disorders is conceptualized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome.” The first draft of the DSM-III was prepared within a year. Many new categories of disorder were introduced; a number of the unpublished documents that aim to justify them have recently come to light. Field trials sponsored by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) were conducted between 1977 and 1979 to test the reliability of the new diagnoses. A controversy emerged regarding deletion of the concept of neurosis, a mainstream of psychoanalytic theory and therapy but seen as vague and unscientific by the DSM task force. Faced with enormous political opposition, so the DSM-III was in serious danger of not being approved by the APA Board of Trustees unless “neurosis” was included in some capacity, a political compromise reinserted the term in parentheses after the word “disorder” in some cases. Additionally, the diagnosis of ego-dystonic homosexuality replaced the DSM-II category of "sexual orientation disturbance". Finally published in 1980, the DSM-III was 494 pages long and listed 265 diagnostic categories. It rapidly came into widespread international use by multiple stakeholders and has been termed a revolution or transformation in psychiatry.. In 1987 the DSM-III-R was published as a revision of DSM-III, under the direction of Spitzer. Categories were renamed, reorganized, and significant changes in criteria were made. Six categories were deleted while others were added. Controversial diagnoses such as pre-menstrual dysphoric disorder and Masochistic Personality Disorder were considered and discarded. "Sexual orientation disturbance" was also removed, but was largely subsumed under "sexual disorder not otherwise specified" which can include "persistent and marked distress about one’s sexual orientation." Spiegel, Alix. (18 January 2002.) "81 Words". In Ira Glass (producer), "This American Life." Chicago: Chicago Public Radio. Altogether, DSM-III-R contained 292 diagnoses and was 567 pages long. In 1994, DSM-IV was published, listing 297 disorders in 886 pages. The task force was chaired by Allen Frances. A steering committee of 27 people was introduced, including four psychologists. The steering committee created 13 work groups of 5–16 members. Each work group had approximately 20 advisers. The work groups conducted a three step process. First, each group conducted an extensive literature review of their diagnoses. Then they requested data from researchers, conducting analyses to determine which criteria required change, with instructions to be conservative. Finally, they conducted multicenter field trials relating diagnoses to clinical practice. Allen Frances, Avram H. Mack, Ruth Ross, and Michael B. First (2000) The DSM-IV Classification and Psychopharmacology. Schaffer, David (1996) A Participant's Observations: Preparing DSM-IV Can J Psychiatry 1996;41:325–329. A major change from previous versions was the inclusion of a clinical significance criterion to almost half of all the categories, which required symptoms cause “clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning”. A "Text Revision" of the DSM-IV, known as the DSM-IV-TR, was published in 2000. The diagnostic categories and the vast majority of the specific criteria for diagnosis were unchanged. APA Summary of Practice-Relevant Changes to the DSM-IV-TR. The text sections giving extra information on each diagnosis were updated, as were some of the diagnostic codes in order to maintain consistency with the ICD. DSM-IV - the current version DSM-IV-TR, the current DSM edition Categorization The DSM-IV is a categorical classification system. The categories are prototypes, and a patient with a close approximation to the prototype is said to have that disorder. DSM-IV states, “there is no assumption each category of mental disorder is a completely discrete entity with absolute boundaries...” but isolated, low-grade and noncriterion (unlisted for a given disorder) symptoms are not given importance. Maser, JD. & Patterson, T. (2002) Spectrum and nosology: implications for DSM-V Psychiatric Clinics of North America, December, 25(4)p855-885 Qualifiers are sometimes used, for example mild, moderate or severe forms of a disorder. For nearly half the disorders, symptoms must be sufficient to cause “clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning", although DSM-IV-TR removed the distress criterion from tic disorders and several of the paraphilias. Each category of disorder has a numeric code taken from the ICD coding system, used for health service (including insurance) administrative purposes. Multi-axial system The DSM-IV organizes each psychiatric diagnosis into five levels (axes) relating to different aspects of disorder or disability: Axis I: clinical disorders, including major mental disorders, as well as developmental and learning disorders Axis II: underlying pervasive or personality conditions, as well as mental retardation Axis III: acute medical conditions and physical disorders Axis IV: psychosocial and environmental factors contributing to the disorder Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning or Children’s Global Assessment Scale for children and teens under the age of 18 Common Axis I disorders include depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, ADHD, phobias, and schizophrenia. Common Axis II disorders include personality disorders: paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, schizotypal personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, and mental retardation. Common Axis III disorders include brain injuries and other medical/physical disorders which may aggravate existing diseases or present symptoms similar to other disorders. Cautions The DSM-IV-TR states, because it is produced for the completion of Federal legislative mandates, its use by people without clinical training can lead to inappropriate application of its contents. Appropriate use of the diagnostic criteria is said to require extensive clinical training, and its contents “cannot simply be applied in a cookbook fashion”. DSM FAQ The APA notes diagnostic labels are primarily for use as a “convenient shorthand” among professionals.' The DSM advises laypersons should consult the DSM only to obtain information, not to make diagnoses, and people who may have a mental disorder should be referred to psychiatric counseling or treatment. Further, a shared diagnosis/label may have different etiologies (causes) or require different treatments; the DSM contains no information regarding treatment or cause for this reason. The range of the DSM represents an extensive scope of psychiatric and psychological issues or conditions, and it is not exclusive to what may be considered “illnesses”. Sourcebooks The DSM-IV doesn't specifically cite its sources, but there are four volumes of "sourcebooks" intended to be APA's documentation of the guideline development process and supporting evidence, including literature reviews, data analyses and field trials. DSM-IV Sourcebook Volume 1 DSM-IV Sourcebook Volume 2 DSM-IV Sourcebook Volume 3 DSM-IV Sourcebook Volume 4 The Sourcebooks have been said to provide important insights into the character and quality of the decisions that led to the production of DSM-IV, and hence the scientific credibility of contemporary psychiatric classification. Poland, JS. (2001) Review of Volume 1 of DSM-IV sourcebook Poland, JS. (2001) Review of vol 2 of DSM-IV sourcebook Criticism Beginning with the problem that there is no single objective diagnostic test for a mental illness in the field of psychiatry — a problem the DSM sidesteps by referring only to "mental disorders", defined modestly as dysfunctional psychological or behavioral patterns — the DSM-IV has come under various criticisms over the years. Validity and reliability The most fundamental criticism of the DSM concerns the construct validity and reliability of its diagnostic categories and criteria. Kendell R, Jablensky A. (2003) Distinguishing between the validity and utility of psychiatric diagnoses. Am J Psychiatry. January;160(1):4-12. PMID 12505793 Baca-Garcia E, Perez-Rodriguez MM, Basurte-Villamor I, Fernandez del Moral AL, Jimenez-Arriero MA, Gonzalez de Rivera JL, Saiz-Ruiz J, Oquendo MA. (2007) Diagnostic stability of psychiatric disorders in clinical practice. Br J Psychiatry. March;190:210-6. PMID 17329740 Pincus et al. (1998) "Clinical Significance" and DSM-IV Arch Gen Psychiatry.1998; 55: 1145 Although increasingly standardized, critics argue that the DSM's claim of an empirical foundation is overstated. A reliance on operational definitions necessitates that intuitive concepts such as depression be operationally defined before they can be used in scientific investigation. Such definitions are used as a follow up to a conceptual definition, in which the specific concept is defined as a measurable occurrence. John Stuart Mill pointed out the dangers of believing anything that could be given a name must refer to a thing and Stephen Jay Gould and others have criticized psychologists for doing just that. A committed operationalist would respond that speculation about the thing in itself, or noumenon, should be resisted as meaningless, and would comment only on phenomena using operationally defined terms and tables of operationally defined measurements. This line of criticism has also appeared in non-specialist venues. In 1997, Harper's Magazine published an essay, ostensibly a book review of the DSM-IV, that criticized the lack of hard science and the proliferation of disorders. The language of the DSM was described as "simultaneously precise and vague", and the manual itself compared to "a militia's Web page, insofar as it constitutes an alternative reality under siege," and a "fertilizer bomb" against hard science. Symptomatological bias By design, the DSM is primarily concerned with the symptoms of mental disorders, it does not attempt to analyze or explain the conditions it lists or even to discuss possible patterns or relationships between them. As such, it has been compared to a naturalist’s field guide to birds, with similar advantages and disadvantages. Paul R. McHugh (2005) Striving for Coherence: Psychiatry’s Efforts Over Classification JAMA. 2005;293(no.20)2526-2528. The lack of causative or explanatory material, however, is not specific to the DSM, but rather reflects a general lack of pathophysiological understanding of psychiactric disorders. As DSM-III chief architect Robert Spitzer and DSM-IV editor Michael First outlined in 2005, "little progress has been made toward understanding the pathophysiological processes and etiology of mental disorders. If anything, the research has shown the situation is even more complex than initially imagined, and we believe not enough is known to structure the classification of psychiatric disorders according to etiology." Spitzer and First (2005) Classification of Psychiatric Disorders. JAMA.2005; 294: 1898-1899. The DSM's apparent superficiality is therefore largely a result of nescessity, since there no agreement exists for a more explanatory classification system. Despite the lack of consensus, advocates for specific psychopathlogical paradigms have nonetheless faulted the current diagnostic scheme for not incorporating the innovations of their particular model; the most recent example being evolutionary psychologists' criticism that the DSM does not differentiate between genuine cognitive malfunctions and those induced by psychological adaptations, a key distinction within evolutionary psychology, but one widely challenged within general psychology. Dominic Murphy, PhD; Steven Stich, PhD (1998) Darwin in the Madhouse Leda Cosmides, PhD; John Tooby, PhD (1999) Toward an Evolutionary Taxonomy of Treatable Conditions "J of Abnormal Psychology." 1999;108(3):453-464. McNally RJ. (2001) On Wakefield's harmful dysfunction analysis of mental disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2001 March;39(3):309-14. PMID 11227812 Reductionist bias Despite caveats in the introduction to the DSM, it has long been argued that its system of classification makes unjustified categorical distinctions between disorders, and between normal and abnormal. Although the DSM-V may move away from this categorical approach in some limited areas, some argue that a fully dimensional, spectrum or complaint-oriented approach would better reflect the evidence. Spitzer, Robert L, M.D., Williams, Janet B.W, D.S.W., First, Michael B, M.D., Gibbon, Miriam, M.S.W., Biometric Research Maser, JD & Akiskal, HS. et al. (2002) Spectrum concepts in major mental disorders Psychiatric Clinics of North America, Vol. 25, Special issue 4 Krueger, RF., Watson, D., Barlow, DH. et al. (2005) Toward a Dimensionally Based Taxonomy of Psychopathology Journal of Abnormal Psychology Vol 114, Issue 4 Bentall, R. (2006) Madness explained : Why we must reject the Kraepelinian paradigm and replace it with a 'complaint-orientated' approach to understanding mental illness Medical hypotheses, vol. 66(2), pp. 220-233 Similarly, the current individual symptom-based approach has been argued to not adequately take into account the context in which a person is living, and to what extent there is internal disorder of an individual or a psychological response to adverse situations. Chodoff, P. (2005) Psychiatric Diagnosis: A 60-Year Perspective Psychiatric News June 3, 2005 Volume 40 Number 11, p17 Jerome C. Wakefield, PhD, DSW; Mark F. Schmitz, PhD; Michael B. First, MD; Allan V. Horwitz, PhD (2007) Extending the Bereavement Exclusion for Major Depression to Other Losses: Evidence From the National Comorbidity Survey Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64:433-440. Because the level of impairment is often not correlated with symptom counts and can stem from various individual and social factors, the standard of distress or disability can often produce false positives. Spitzer RL, Wakefield JC. (1999) DSM-IV diagnostic criterion for clinical significance: does it help solve the false positives problem? Am J Psychiatry. 1999 December;156(12):1856-64. PMID 10588397 Some psychiatrists also argue that current diagnostic standards rely on an exagerated intepretation of neurophysiological findings and so understate the scientific importance of social-psychological variables. Advocating a more culturally sensitive approach to psychology, critics such as Carl Bell and Marcello Maviglia contend that the cultural and ethnic diversity of individuals is often discounted by researchers and service providers. Shankar Vedantam, Psychiatry's Missing Diagnosis: Patients' Diversity Is Often Discounted Washington Post: Mind and Culture, June 26 . In addition, current diagnostic guidelines have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro-American outlook. Although these guidelines have been widely implemented, opponents argue that even when a diagnostic criteria set is accepted across different cultures, it does not necessarily indicate that the underlying constructs have any validity within those cultures; even reliable application can only prove consistency, not legitimacy. Cross-cultural psychiatrist Arthur Kleinman contends that the Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the DSM-IV: the fact that disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as "culture-bound", whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever, is to Kleinman revelatory of an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal. Kleinman's negative view towards the culture-bound syndrome is largely shared by other cross-cultural critics, common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out, and frustration that even those included were often misintepreted or misrepresented. Bhugra, D. & Munro, A. (1997) Troublesome Disguises: Underdiagnosed Psychiatric Syndromes Blackwell Science Ltd Many mainstream psychiatrists have also been dissatisfied with the these new culture-bound diagnoses, although not for the same reasons. Robert Spitzer, a lead architect of the DSM-III, has opined that the addition of cultural formulations was an attempt to placate cultural critics, and that they lack any scientific motivation or support. Spitzer also posits that the new culture-bound diagnoses are rarely used in practice, maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved. In general, the mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid, cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are only signficant to specific symptom presentations. It has also been suggested that the apparent reductionism of the DSM, as well as its substantial expansions, are representative of an increasing medicalization of human nature, a result of disease mongering by drug companies, whose influence on psychiatry has dramatically grown in recent decades. Healy D (2006) The Latest Mania: Selling Bipolar Disorder PLoS Med 3(4): e185. Of the authors who selected and defined the DSM-IV psychiatric disorders, roughly half had had a financial relationships with the pharmaceutical industry at one time, raising the prospect of a direct conflict of interest. Cosgrove, Lisa, Krimsky, Sheldon,Vijayaraghavan, Manisha, Schneider, Lisa, Financial Ties between DSM-IV Panel Members and the Pharmaceutical Industry In 2008, then American Psychiatric Association President Steven Sharfstein released a statement in which he conceded that psychiatrists had "allowed the biopsychosocial model to become the bio-bio-bio model". Sharfstein, SS. (2005) Big Pharma and American Psychiatry: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly Psychiatric News August 19, 2005 Volume 40 Number 16 Political controversies There is scientific and political controversy regarding the continued inclusion of sex-related diagnoses such as the paraphilias (sexual fetishes) and hypoactive sexual desire disorder (low sex drive). Critics of these and other controversial diagnoses often cite the DSM's previous inclusion of homosexuality, as well as the APA's eventual decision to remove it, as a precedent for current disputes. Alexander, B. (2008) What's ‘normal’ sex? Shrinks seek definition Controversy erupts over creation of psychiatric rule book's new edition MSNBC Today, May. That 1974 decision, however, is still challenged by many conservative and religious groups who maintain that homosexuality is in fact a mental disorder. The fact that this diagnostic revision continues to be passionately disputed, so many years after the fact, underscores that any reevaluation of controversial disorders must be viewed as a political as well as scientific decision. Indeed, even Robert Spitzer (psychiatrist), a leading proponent of continued inclusion, conceded that a significant reason that certain diagnoses are not removed from the DSM is because "it would be a public relations disaster for psychiatry". Kleinplatz, P.J & Moser, C. (2005). Politics versus science: An addendum and response to Drs. Spitzer and Fink. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 17(3/4), 135-139. DSM-V - the next version The DSM-V is tentatively scheduled for publication in 2012. In 1999, a DSM–V Research Planning Conference, sponsored jointly by APA and the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), was held to set the research priorities. Research Planning Work Groups produced "white papers" on the research needed to inform and shape the DSM-IV, First, M. (2002) A Research Agenda for DSM-V: Summary of the DSM-V Preplanning White Papers Published in May 2002 and the resulting work and recommendations were reported in an APA monograph Kupfer, First & Regier (2002) A Research Agenda for DSM-V and peer-reviewed literature. There were six workgroups, each focusing on a broad topic: Nomenclature, Neuroscience and Genetics, Developmental Issues and Diagnosis, Personality and Relational Disorders, Mental Disorders and Disability, and Cross-Cultural Issues. Three additional white papers were also due by 2004 concerning gender issues, diagnostic issues in the geriatric population, and mental disorders in infants and young children. DSM-5 Research Planning The white papers have been followed by a series of conferences to produce recommendations relating to specific disorders and issues, with attendance limited to 25 invited researchers. APA DSM-V Research Planning Activities On July 23 2007, the APA announced the task force that will oversee the development of DSM-V. The DSM-V Task Force consists of 27 members, including a chair and vice chair, who collectively represent research scientists from psychiatry and other disciplines, clinical care providers, and consumer and family advocates. Scientists working on the revision of the DSM have experience in research, clinical care, biology, genetics, statistics, epidemiology, public health and consumer advocacy. They have interests ranging from cross-cultural medicine and genetics to geriatric issues, ethics and addiction. The APA Board of Trustees required that all task force nominees disclose any competing interests or potentially conflicting relationships with entities that have an interest in psychiatric diagnoses and treatments as a precondition to appointment to the task force. The APA made all task force members' disclosures available during the announcement of the task force. Several individuals were ruled ineligible for task force appointments due to their competing interests. Revision of the DSM will continue over the next five years. Future announcements will include naming the workgroups on specific categories of disorders and their research-based recommendations on updating various disorders and definitions. Owing to criticism over the perceived proliferation of diagnoses in the current edition of the DSM, David Kupfer, who is shepherding the DSM's revision, said in an interview: "One of the raps against psychiatry is that you and I are the only two people in the U.S. without a psychiatric diagnosis." Criticism Robert Spitzer, the head of the DSM-III task force, has publicly criticized the American Psychiatric Association for mandating that DSM-V task force members sign a nondisclosure agreement, effectively conducting the whole process in secret: “When I first heard about this agreement, I just went bonkers. Transparency is necessary if the document is to have credibility, and, in time, you’re going to have people complaining all over the place that they didn’t have the opportunity to challenge anything.” Although the American Psychiatric Association has since instituted a disclosure policy for DSM-V task force members, many still believe the Association has not gone far enough in its efforts to be transparent and to protect against industry influence. In a recent Point/Counterpoint article, [Cosgrove L, Bursztajn HJ, Kupfer DJ, Regier DA. "Toward Credible Conflict of Interest Policies in Clinical Psychiatry" Psychiatric Times 26:1.] Lisa Cosgrove, PhD and Harold J. Bursztajn, MD noted that "the fact that 70% of the task force members have reported direct industry ties---an increase of almost 14% over the percentage of DSM-IV task force members who had industry ties---shows that disclosure policies alone, especially those that rely on an honor system, are not enough and that more specific safeguards are needed." David Kupfer, MD, chair of the DSM-V task force, and Darrel A. Regier, MD, MPH, Vice Chair of the task force, countered that "collaborative relationships among government, academia, and industry are vital to the current and future development of pharmacological treatments for mental disorders." They asserted that the development of DSM-V is the "most inclusive and transparent developmental process in the 60-year history of DSM." The developments to this new version can be viewed on www.dsm5.org. The appointment, in May 2008, of two of the taskforce members, Kenneth Zucker and Ray Blanchard, has led to an internet petition "Objection to DSM-V Committee Members on Gender Identity Disorders," last accessed 22.55GMT 10 May 2008. to remove them. According to MSNBC, "The petition accuses Zucker of having engaged in 'junk science' and promoting 'hurtful theories' during his career." According to The Gay City News, "Dr. Ray Blanchard, a psychiatry professor at the University of Toronto, is deemed offensive for his theories that some types of transsexuality are paraphilias, or sexual urges. In this model, transsexuality is not an essential aspect of the individual, but a misdirected sexual impulse." Blanchard responded, "Naturally, it's very disappointing to me there seems to be so much misinformation about me on the Internet. [They didn't distort] my views, they completely reversed my views." Zucker "rejects the junk-science charge, saying there 'has to be an empirical basis to modify anything' in the DSM. As for hurting people, 'in my own career, my primary motivation in working with children, adolescents and families is to help them with the distress and suffering they are experiencing, whatever the reasons they are having these struggles. I want to help people feel better about themselves, not hurt them.'" See also Relational disorder (proposed DSM-V new diagnosis) Classification of mental disorders Chinese Classification and Diagnostic Criteria of Mental Disorders DSM-IV Codes GAF Scale Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID)'' References External links DSM-IV-TR Official Site - American Psychiatric Association DSM-V Prelude Project - DSM-V Prelude Review Project by American Psychiatric Association Topic Center: DSM-V Reproduction of Medical 203 The DSM-II Sections of the DSM-IV-TR on Google Books. 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6,022	Galilean_moons	Jupiter's four Galilean moons, in a composite image comparing their sizes and the size of Jupiter. From top to bottom: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto. The Galilean moons are the four moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo Galilei on January 7, 1610. They are the largest of the many moons of Jupiter and derive their names from the lovers of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Jupiter): Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Ganymede, Europa and Io participate in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance. They are among the most massive objects in the Solar System outside the Sun and the eight planets, with a radius larger than any of the dwarf planets. The four moons were discovered sometime between 1609 and 1610 when Galileo made improvements to his telescope, which enabled him to observe celestial bodies more distinctly than had ever been possible before. Galileo’s discovery showed the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by proving that there were objects in space that cannot be seen by the naked eye. More importantly, the incontrovertible discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than the Earth dealt a serious blow to the then-accepted Ptolemaic world system, or the geocentric theory in which everything orbits around the Earth. Galileo initially named his discovery the Cosmica Sidera ("Cosimo's stars"), but names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius. Marius claimed to have discovered the moons at the same time as Galileo, and gave them their present names in his Mundus Jovialis, published in 1614. Historic Discovery Galileo Galilei, the discoverer of the four Galilean moons As a result of improvements Galileo Galilei made to the telescope, with a magnifying capability of 30×, he was able to see celestial bodies more distinctly than was ever possible before. This allowed Galilei to discover sometime between December 1609 and January 1610 what came to be known as the Galilean moons. Galilei, Galileo, Sidereus Nuncius. Translated and prefaced by Albert Van Helden. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press 1989, 14–16 Nevertheless, a Chinese historian of astronomy, Xi Zezong, claimed that the Chinese astronomer Gan De observed one of Jupiter's moons in 362 BC, nearly 2 millennia earlier than Galileo. Zezong, Xi, "The Discovery of Jupiter's Satellite Made by Gan De 2000 years Before Galileo," Chinese Physics 2 (3) (1982): 664–67. On January 7, 1610, Galileo wrote a letter containing the first mention of Jupiter’s moons. At the time, he saw only three of them, and he believed them to be fixed stars near Jupiter. He continued to observe these celestial orbs from January 8 to March 2, 1610. In these observations, he discovered a fourth body, and also observed that the four were not fixed stars, but rather were orbiting Jupiter. Galileo’s discovery proved the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by showing that there were objects in space to be discovered that until then had remained unseen by the naked eye. More importantly, the discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than the Earth dealt a blow to the then-accepted Ptolemaic world system, which held that the Earth was at the center of the universe and all other celestial bodies revolved around it. Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), which announced celestial observations through his telescope, does not explicitly mention Copernican heliocentrism, a theory that placed the Sun at the center of the universe. Nevertheless, Galileo believed in the Copernican theory. As a result of these discoveries, Galileo was able to develop a method of determining longitude based on the timing of the orbits of the Galilean moons. Dedication to the Medicis Surface features of the four members In 1605, Galileo had been employed as a mathematics tutor for Cosimo de’ Medici. In 1609, Cosimo became Grand Duke Cosimo II of Tuscany. Galileo, seeking patronage from his now-wealthy former student and his powerful family, used the discovery of Jupiter’s moons to gain it. On February 13, 1610, Galileo wrote to the Grand Duke’s secretary: God graced me with being able, through such a singular sign, to reveal to my Lord my devotion and the desire I have that his glorious name live as equal among the stars, and since it is up to me, the first discoverer, to name these new planets, I wish, in imitation of the great sages who placed the most excellent heroes of that age among the stars, to inscribe these with the name of the Most Serene Grand Duke. Galileo asked whether he should name the moons the "Cosmian Stars," after Cosimo alone, or the "Medician Stars," which would honor all four brothers in the Medici clan. The secretary replied that the latter name would be best. On March 12, 1610, Galileo wrote his dedicatory letter to the Duke of Tuscany, and the next day sent a copy to the Grand Duke, hoping to obtain the Grand Duke’s support as quickly as possible. On March 19, he sent the telescope he had used to first view Jupiter’s moons to the Grand Duke, along with an official copy of Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger) that, following the secretary's advice, named the four moons the Medician Stars. In his dedicatory introduction, Galileo wrote: Scarcely have the immortal graces of your soul begun to shine forth on earth than bright stars offer themselves in the heavens which, like tongues, will speak of and celebrate your most excellent virtues for all time. Behold, therefore, four stars reserved for your illustrious name ... which ... make their journeys and orbits with a marvelous speed around the star of Jupiter ... like children of the same family ... Indeed, it appears the Maker of the Stars himself, by clear arguments, admonished me to call these new planets by the illustrious name of Your Highness before all others. Name Galileo initially called his discovery the Cosmica Sidera ("Cosimo's stars"), in honour of Cosimo II de' Medici (1590–1621). At Cosimo's suggestion, Galileo changed the name to Medicea Sidera ("the Medician stars"), honouring all four Medici brothers (Cosimo, Francesco, Carlo, and Lorenzo). The discovery was announced in the Sidereus Nuncius ("Starry Messenger"), published in Venice in March 1610, less than two months after the first observations. Other names put forward include: Principharus, Victipharus, Cosmipharus and Ferdinandipharus, for each of the four Medici brothers - by Giovanni Batista Hodierna, a disciple of Galileo and author of the first ephemerides (Medicaeorum Ephemerides, 1656); Circulatores Jovis, or Jovis Committees - by Johannes Hevelius; Gardes, or Satellites (from the Latin satelles, satellitis, meaning "escorts") - by Jacques Ozanam. The names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius, who claimed to have discovered the moons at the same time as Galileo: he named them after lovers of the god Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter): Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, in his Mundus Jovialis, published in 1614. Galileo steadfastly refused to use Marius' names and invented as a result the numbering scheme that is still used nowadays, in parallel with proper moon names. The numbers run from Jupiter outward, thus I, II, III and IV for Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto respectively. Galileo used this system in his notebooks but never actually published it. The numbered names (Jupiter x) were used until mid-20th century when other inner moons were discovered, and Marius' names became widely used. Members Simulations suggest there may have been several generations of Galilean satellites in Jupiter's early history. Each generation of moons to have formed would have spiraled into Jupiter and been destroyed, due to drag from Jupiter's proto-lunar disk, with new moons forming from the remaining debris. By the time the present generation formed, the debris had thinned out to the point that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons' orbits. These moons are, in increasing order of distance from Jupiter: NameImage Diameter(km) Mass(kg) Density(g/cm³) Semi-major axis(km) Computed using the IAU-MPC Satellites Ephemeris Service µ value Orbital period(d) Source: JPL/NASA (relative) Inclination(°) Computed from IAG Travaux 2001. Eccentricity Io (Jupiter I) 3660.0×3637.4×3630.6 3.528 421,800 1.769 (1) 0.050 0.0041 Europa (Jupiter II) 3121.6 3.014 671,100 3.551 (2) 0.471 0.0094 Ganymede (Jupiter III) 5262.4 1.942 1,070,400 7.155 (4) 0.204 0.0011 Callisto (Jupiter IV) 4820.6 1.834 1,882,700 16.69 (9.4) 0.205 0.0074 Io The three inner Galilean moons revolve in a 4:2:1 resonance. Io is the innermost of the four Galilean moons moons of Jupiter and, with a diameter of 3,642 kilometers, the fourth-largest moon in the Solar System. It was named after Io, a priestess of Hera who became one of the lovers of Zeus. Nevertheless, it was simply referred to as “Jupiter I,” or “The first satellite of Jupiter,” until mid-20th century. With over 400 active volcanoes, Io is the most geologically active object in the Solar System. Its surface is dotted with more than 100 mountains, some which are taller than Earth's Mount Everest. Unlike most satellites in the outer Solar System (which have a thick coating of ice), Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core. Although not proven, recent data from the Galileo orbiter indicates that Io might have its own magnetic field. Io has an extremely thin atmosphere made up mostly of sulfur dioxide (SO2). If a surface data or collection vessel were to land on Io in the future, it would have to be extremely tough (similar to the tank-like bodies of the Soviet Venera landers) to survive the radiation and magnetic fields that originate from Jupiter. Europa The relative masses of the Jovian moons. Io and Callisto together are 50%, as are Europa and Ganymede. The Galileans so dominate the system that all the other Jovian moons put together are not visible at this scale. Europa, the second of the four Galilean moons, is the second closest to Jupiter and the smallest at 3121.6 kilometers in diameter, which is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon. The name, Europa was after a mythical Phoenician noblewoman, Europa, who was courted by Zeus and became the queen of Crete, but did not become widely used until the mid-20th century. It is one of the smoothest objects in the solar system, with a layer of water surrounding the mantle of the planet, thought to be 100 kilometers thick. Schenk, P. M.; Chapman, C. R.; Zahnle, K.; Moore, J. M.; Chapter 18: Ages and Interiors: the Cratering Record of the Galilean Satellites, in Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere, Cambridge University Press, 2004 The smooth surface includes a layer of ice, while the bottom of the ice is theorized to be liquid water. The apparent youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it, which could conceivably serve as an abode for extraterrestrial life. Heat energy from tidal flexing ensures that the ocean remains liquid and drives geological activity. Life may exist in Europa's under-ice ocean, perhaps subsisting in an environment similar to Earth's deep-ocean hydrothermal vents or the Antarctic Lake Vostok. Exotic Microbes Discovered near Lake Vostok, Science@NASA (December 10, 1999) Life in such an ocean could possibly be similar to microbial life on Earth in the deep ocean. Jones, N.; Bacterial explanation for Europa's rosy glow, NewScientist.com (11 December 2001) So far, there is no evidence that life exists on Europa, but the likely presence of liquid water has spurred calls to send a probe there. Phillips, C.; Time for Europa, Space.com (28 September 2006) The prominent markings that criss-cross the moon seem to be mainly albedo features, which emphasize low topography. There are few craters on Europa because its surface is tectonically active and young. Arnett, B.; Europa (November 7, 1996) Some theories suggest that Jupiter’s gravity is causing these markings, as one side of Europa is constantly facing Jupiter. Also, volcanic water eruptions splitting the surface of Europa, and even geysers have been considered as a cause. The color of the markings, reddish-brown, is theorized to be caused by sulfur, but scientists cannot confirm that, because no data collection devices have been sent to Europa. Europa is primarily made of silicate rock and likely has an iron core. It has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen. Ganymede Ganymede, the third Galilean is named the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus's beloved. Ganymede is largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury - although only at about half of its mass. It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core. Ganymede is composed primarily of silicate rock and water ice, and a salt-water ocean is believed to exist nearly 200 below Ganymede's surface, sandwiched between layers of ice. The metallic core of Ganymede suggests a greater heat at some time in its past than had previously been proposed. The surface is a mix of two types of terrain – highly cratered dark regions and younger, but still ancient, regions with a large array of grooves and ridges. Ganymede has a high number of craters, but many are gone or barely visible due to its icy crust forming over them. The satellite has a thin oxygen atmosphere that includes O, O2, and possibly O3 (ozone), and some atomic hydrogen. Callisto Callisto is the fourth and last Galilean moon, and is the second largest of the four, and at 4820.6 kilometers in diameter, it is the third largest moon in the Solar System. It does not form part of the orbital resonance that affects three inner Galilean satellites and thus does not experience appreciable tidal heating. Callisto is composed of approximately equal amounts of rock and ices, which makes it the least dense of the Galilean moons. It is one of the most heavily cratered satellites in the solar system, and one major feature is a basin around 3000 km wide called Valhalla. Callisto is surrounded by an extremely thin atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide and probably molecular oxygen. Investigation revealed that Callisto may have possibly a subsurface ocean of liquid water at depths greater than 100 kilometers. The likely presence of an ocean within Callisto indicates that it can or could harbor life. However, this is less likely than on nearby Europa. Callisto has long been considered the most suitable place for a human base for future exploration of the system of Jupiter. Visibility The Galilean moons seen with an amateur telescope. All four Galilean moons are bright enough that they could, if they were farther away from Jupiter, be sighted from Earth without a telescope. They have apparent magnitudes between 4.6 and 5.6 when Jupiter is in opposition with the Sun, and are about one unit of magnitude dimmer when Jupiter is in conjunction. The main difficulty in observing the moons from Earth is their proximity to Jupiter since they are obscured by its brightness. Jupiter is about 750 times brighter than Ganymede and about 2000 times brighter than Callisto.Ganymede: (5th root of 100)^(4.4 Ganymede APmag - (-2.8 Jup APmag)) = 758Callisto: (5th root of 100)^(5.5 Callisto APmag - (-2.8 Jup APmag)) = 2089 The maximum angular separations of the moons are between 2 and 10 minutes of arc from Jupiter, Jupiter near perihelion 2010-Sep-19: 656.7 (Callisto angular separation arcsec) - 24.9 (jup angular radius arcsec) = 631 arcsec = 10 arcmin close to the limit of human visual acuity. Ganymede and Callisto, at their maximum separation, are the likeliest targets for potential naked-eye observation. The easiest way to observe them is to cover Jupiter with an object, e.g. a tree limb or a power line that is perpendicular to the plane of moons' orbits. References See also Jupiter's natural satellites Jupiter's moons in fiction External links Animation of Galileo's observation, march 1613	Galilean_moons \|@lemmatized jupiter:43 four:15 galilean:17 moon:40 composite:1 image:1 compare:1 size:2 top:1 bottom:2 io:15 europa:22 ganymede:19 callisto:17 discover:9 galileo:29 galilei:5 january:4 large:8 many:2 derive:1 name:24 lover:3 zeus:5 greek:3 equivalent:2 roman:1 god:4 participate:1 orbital:3 resonance:3 among:3 massive:1 object:6 solar:9 system:14 outside:1 sun:3 eight:1 planet:7 radius:2 dwarf:1 sometime:2 make:8 improvement:2 telescope:8 enable:1 observe:5 celestial:7 body:7 distinctly:2 ever:2 possible:3 discovery:11 show:2 importance:2 tool:2 astronomer:3 prove:3 space:3 cannot:2 see:4 naked:3 eye:3 importantly:2 incontrovertible:1 orbit:8 something:2 earth:11 deal:2 serious:1 blow:2 accept:2 ptolemaic:2 world:2 geocentric:1 theory:4 everything:1 around:4 initially:2 cosmica:2 sidera:3 cosimo:9 star:14 eventually:2 prevail:2 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6,023	Gluon	Gluons (glue and the suffix -on) are elementary expressions of quark interaction, and are indirectly involved with the binding of protons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei. In technical terms, they are vector gauge bosons that mediate strong color charge interactions of quarks in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Unlike the electric charge neutral photon of quantum electrodynamics (QED), gluons themselves carry color charge and therefore participate in the strong interaction in addition to mediating it. The gluon has the ability to do this as it carries the color charge and so interacts with itself, making QCD significantly harder to analyze than QED. Properties The gluon is a vector boson; like the photon, it has a spin of 1. While massive spin-1 particles have three polarization states, massless gauge bosons like the gluon have only two polarization states because gauge invariance requires the polarization to be transverse. In quantum field theory, unbroken gauge invariance requires that gauge bosons have zero mass (experiment limits the gluon's mass to less than a few MeV). The gluon has negative intrinsic parity and zero isospin. It is its own antiparticle. Numerology of gluons Unlike the single photon of QED or the three W and Z bosons of the weak interaction, there are eight independent types of gluon in QCD. This may be difficult to understand intuitively. Quarks carry three types of color charge; antiquarks carry three types of anticolor. Gluons may be thought of as carrying both color and anticolor, but to correctly understand how they are combined, it is necessary to consider the mathematics of color charge in more detail. Color charge and superposition In quantum mechanics, the states of particles may be added according to the principle of superposition; that is, they may be in a "combined state" with a probability, if some particular quantity is measured, of giving several different outcomes. A relevant illustration in the case at hand would be a gluon with a color state described by: This is read as "red-antiblue plus blue-antired." (The factor of the square root of two is required for normalization, a detail which is not crucial to understand in this discussion.) If one were somehow able to make a direct measurement of the color of a gluon in this state, there would be a 50% chance of it having red-antiblue color charge and a 50% chance of blue-antired color charge. Color singlet states It is often said that the stable strongly-interacting particles observed in nature are "colorless," but more precisely they are in a "color singlet" state, which is mathematically analogous to a spin singlet state. Griffiths, 280-281 (footnote) Such states allow interaction with other color singlets, but not with other color states; because long-range gluon interactions do not exist, this illustrates that gluons in the singlet state do not exist either. Griffiths, 281 (first complete footnote) The color singlet state is Griffiths, 280 : In words, if one could measure the color of the state, there would be equal probabilities of it being red-antired, blue-antiblue, or green-antigreen. Eight gluon colors There are eight remaining independent color states, which correspond to the "eight types" or "eight colors" of gluons. Because states can be mixed together as discussed above, there are many ways of presenting these states, which are known as the "color octet." One commonly used list is: These are equivalent to the Gell-Mann matrices; the translation between the two is that red-antired is the upper-left matrix entry, red-antiblue is the left middle entry, blue-antigreen is the bottom middle entry, and so on. The critical feature of these particular eight states is that they are linearly independent, and also independent of the singlet state; there is no way to add any combination of states to produce any other. (It is also impossible to add them to make , , or Why are there eight gluons and not nine? ; otherwise the forbidden singlet state could also be made.) There are many other possible choices, but all are mathematically equivalent, at least equally complex, and give the same physical results. Group theory details Technically, QCD is a gauge theory with SU(3) gauge symmetry. Quarks are introduced as spinor fields in Nf flavours, each in the fundamental representation (triplet, denoted 3) of the color gauge group, SU(3). The gluons are vector fields in the adjoint representation (octets, denoted 8) of color SU(3). For a general gauge group, the number of force-carriers (like photons or gluons) is always equal to the dimension of the adjoint representation. For the simple case of SU(N), the dimension of this representation is N2−1. In terms of group theory, the assertion that there are no color singlet gluons is simply the statement that quantum chromodynamics has an SU(3) rather than a U(3) symmetry. There is no known a priori reason for one group to be preferred over the other, but as discussed above, the experimental evidence supports SU(3). Griffiths, 281 (second complete footnote) Confinement Since gluons themselves carry color charge, they participate in strong interactions. These gluon-gluon interactions constrain color fields to string-like objects called "flux tubes", which exert constant force when stretched. Due to this force, quarks are confined within composite particles called hadrons. This effectively limits the range of the strong interaction to 10-15 meters, roughly the size of an atomic nucleus. (Beyond a certain distance, the energy of the flux tube binding two quarks increases linearly. At a large enough distance, it becomes energetically more favorable to pull a quark-antiquark pair out of the vacuum rather than increase the length of the flux tube.) Gluons also share this property of being confined within hadrons. One consequence is that gluons are not directly involved in the nuclear forces between hadrons. The force mediators for these are other hadrons called mesons. Although in the normal phase of QCD single gluons may not travel freely, it is predicted that there exist hadrons which are formed entirely of gluons — called glueballs. There are also conjectures about other exotic hadrons in which real gluons (as opposed to virtual ones found in ordinary hadrons) would be primary constituents. Beyond the normal phase of QCD (at extreme temperatures and pressures), quark gluon plasma forms. In such a plasma there are no hadrons; quarks and gluons become free particles. Experimental observations The first direct experimental evidence of gluons was found in 1979 when three-jet events were observed at the electron-positron collider called PETRA at DESY in Hamburg. Experimentally, confinement is verified by the failure of free quark searches. Free gluons have never been observed, however at Fermilab single production of top quarks has been statistically shown http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/38140 . Although there have been hints of exotic hadrons, no glueball has been observed either. Quark-gluon plasma has been found recently at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratories (BNL). See also Quark Hadron Meson Gauge boson Glueball Exotic hadrons Quark model Quantum chromodynamics Standard model Three-jet events Deep inelastic scattering References and external links Kaufmann(ed), Scientific American: Particles & Fields (special edition), 1980 Summary tables in the "Review of particle physics" DESY glossary Logbook of gluon discovery Why are there eight gluons and not nine?	Gluon \|@lemmatized gluon:35 glue:1 suffix:1 elementary:1 expression:1 quark:14 interaction:9 indirectly:1 involve:2 binding:1 proton:1 neutron:1 together:2 atomic:2 nucleus:2 technical:1 term:2 vector:3 gauge:10 boson:6 mediate:2 strong:4 color:26 charge:10 quantum:6 chromodynamics:3 qcd:6 unlike:2 electric:1 neutral:1 photon:4 electrodynamics:1 qed:3 carry:6 therefore:1 participate:2 addition:1 ability:1 interacts:1 make:4 significantly:1 harder:1 analyze:1 property:2 like:4 spin:3 massive:1 particle:7 three:6 polarization:3 state:21 massless:1 two:4 invariance:2 require:3 transverse:1 field:5 theory:4 unbroken:1 zero:2 mass:2 experiment:1 limit:2 less:1 mev:1 negative:1 intrinsic:1 parity:1 isospin:1 antiparticle:1 numerology:1 single:3 w:1 z:1 weak:1 eight:8 independent:4 type:4 may:5 difficult:1 understand:3 intuitively:1 antiquark:2 anticolor:2 think:1 correctly:1 combine:2 necessary:1 consider:1 mathematics:1 detail:3 superposition:2 mechanic:1 add:3 accord:1 principle:1 probability:2 particular:2 quantity:1 measure:2 give:2 several:1 different:1 outcome:1 relevant:1 illustration:1 case:2 hand:1 would:4 describe:1 read:1 red:5 antiblue:4 plus:1 blue:4 antired:4 factor:1 square:1 root:1 normalization:1 crucial:1 discussion:1 one:6 somehow:1 able:1 direct:2 measurement:1 chance:2 singlet:9 often:1 say:1 stable:1 strongly:1 interacting:1 observe:4 nature:1 colorless:1 precisely:1 mathematically:2 analogous:1 griffith:4 footnote:3 allow:1 long:1 range:2 exist:3 illustrate:1 either:2 first:2 complete:2 word:1 could:2 equal:2 green:1 antigreen:2 remain:1 correspond:1 mixed:1 discuss:2 many:2 way:2 present:1 know:2 octet:2 commonly:1 used:1 list:1 equivalent:2 gell:1 mann:1 matrix:2 translation:1 upper:1 leave:1 entry:3 left:1 middle:2 bottom:1 critical:1 feature:1 linearly:2 also:6 combination:1 produce:1 impossible:1 nine:2 otherwise:1 forbidden:1 possible:1 choice:1 least:1 equally:1 complex:1 physical:1 result:1 group:5 technically:1 su:6 symmetry:2 introduce:1 spinor:1 nf:1 flavour:1 fundamental:1 representation:4 triplet:1 denote:2 adjoint:2 general:1 number:1 force:5 carrier:1 always:1 dimension:2 simple:1 n:1 assertion:1 simply:1 statement:1 rather:2 u:1 priori:1 reason:1 prefer:1 experimental:3 evidence:2 support:1 second:1 confinement:2 since:1 constrain:1 string:1 object:1 call:5 flux:3 tube:3 exert:1 constant:1 stretch:1 due:1 confine:2 within:2 composite:1 hadron:11 effectively:1 meter:1 roughly:1 size:1 beyond:2 certain:1 distance:2 energy:1 bind:1 increase:2 large:1 enough:1 become:2 energetically:1 favorable:1 pull:1 pair:1 vacuum:1 length:1 share:1 consequence:1 directly:1 nuclear:1 mediator:1 meson:2 although:2 normal:2 phase:2 travel:1 freely:1 predict:1 form:2 entirely:1 glueballs:1 conjecture:1 exotic:3 real:1 oppose:1 virtual:1 find:3 ordinary:1 primary:1 constituent:1 extreme:1 temperature:1 pressure:1 plasma:3 free:3 observation:1 jet:2 event:2 electron:1 positron:1 collider:2 petra:1 desy:2 hamburg:1 experimentally:1 verify:1 failure:1 search:1 never:1 however:1 fermilab:1 production:1 top:1 statistically:1 show:1 http:1 physicsworld:1 com:1 cws:1 article:1 news:1 hint:1 glueball:2 recently:1 relativistic:1 heavy:1 ion:1 rhic:1 brookhaven:1 national:1 laboratory:1 bnl:1 see:1 model:2 standard:1 deep:1 inelastic:1 scattering:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 kaufmann:1 ed:1 scientific:1 american:1 special:1 edition:1 summary:1 table:1 review:1 physic:1 glossary:1 logbook:1 discovery:1 \|@bigram proton_neutron:1 atomic_nucleus:2 gauge_boson:4 quantum_chromodynamics:3 chromodynamics_qcd:1 quantum_electrodynamics:1 gauge_invariance:2 intrinsic_parity:1 z_boson:1 quantum_mechanic:1 spin_singlet:1 commonly_used:1 gell_mann:1 linearly_independent:1 adjoint_representation:2 energetically_favorable:1 quark_antiquark:1 antiquark_pair:1 quark_gluon:3 gluon_plasma:2 electron_positron:1 ion_collider:1 brookhaven_national:1 inelastic_scattering:1 external_link:1
6,024	Internal_combustion_engine	An automobile engine partly opened and colored to show components The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidiser (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, that are produced by the combustion, directly apply force to a movable component of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades and by moving it over a distance, generate useful mechanical energy. Encyclopedia Britannica: Internal Combustion engines Answers.com Internal combustion engine Columbia encyclopedia: Internal combustion engine http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0825332.html The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described. The internal combustion engine (or ICE) is quite different from external combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurised water or even liquid sodium, heated in some kind of boiler by fossil fuel, wood-burning, nuclear, solar etc. A large number of different designs for ICEs have been developed and built, with a variety of different strengths and weaknesses. While there have been and still are many stationary applications, the real strength of internal combustion engines is in mobile applications and they completely dominate as a power supply for cars, aircraft, and boats, from the smallest to the biggest. Only for hand-held power tools do they share part of the market with battery powered devices. Powered by an energy-dense fuel (nearly always liquid, derived from fossil fuels) the ICE delivers an excellent power-to-weight ratio with few safety or other disadvantages. Applications A 1906 gasoline engine Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. In mobile equipment, internal combustion is advantageous since it can provide high power-to-weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy density. Generally using fossil fuel (mainly petroleum), these engines have appeared in transport in almost all vehicles (automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives). Internal combustion engines appear in the form of gas turbines as well where a very high power is required, such as in jet aircraft, helicopters, and large ships. They are also frequently used for electric generators and by industry. Classification At one time the word, "Engine" (from Latin, via Old French, ingenium, "ability") meant any piece of machinery—a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A "motor" (from Latin motor, "mover") is any machine that produces mechanical power. Traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as, "Engines"; however, combustion engines are often referred to as, "motors." (An electric engine refers to a locomotive operated by electricity.) Engines can and are classified in many different ways, by the engine cycle used, by the layout of the engine, by the source of energy, by the use of the engine, or by the cooling system employed. Principles of operation Reciprocating: Two-stroke cycle Four-stroke cycle Six stroke engine Diesel engine Atkinson cycle Rotary: Wankel engine Continuous combustion: Brayton cycle: Gas turbine Jet engine (including turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, Rocket etc.) History Engine configurations Internal combustion engines can be classified by their configuration. Four stroke configuration Operation Four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle)1. Intake2. compression3. power4. exhaust Basic process As their name implies, operation of a four stroke internal combustion engines have 4 basic steps that repeat with every two revolutions of the engine: Intake Combustible mixtures are emplaced in the combustion chamber Compression The mixtures are placed under pressure Combustion/Expansion The mixture is burnt, almost invariably a deflagration, although a few systems involve detonation. The hot mixture is expanded, pressing on and moving parts of the engine and performing useful work. Exhaust The cooled combustion products are exhausted into the atmosphere Many engines overlap these steps in time, jet engines do all steps simultaneously at different parts of the engines. Combustion All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion: the reaction of a fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide in order to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry). The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include dieselfuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Some engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas. Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable electrical methods hot tube and flame methods were used. Gasoline Ignition Process Gasoline engine ignition systems generally rely on a combination of a lead-acid battery and an induction coil to provide a high-voltage electrical spark to ignite the air-fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. This battery is recharged during operation using an electricity-generating device such as an alternator or generator driven by the engine. Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it to not more than 12.8 bar (1.28 MPa), then use a spark plug to ignite the mixture when it is compressed by the piston head in each cylinder. Diesel Ignition Process Diesel engines and HCCI(Homogeneous charge compression ignition) engines, rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its compression process for ignition. The compression level that occurs is usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines will take in air only, and shortly before peak compression, a small quantity of diesel fuel is sprayed into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines will take in both air and fuel but continue to rely on an unaided auto-combustion process, due to higher pressures and heat. This is also why diesel and HCCI engines are more susceptible to cold-starting issues, although they will run just as well in cold weather once started. Light duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and light trucks employ glowplugs that pre-heat the combustion chamber just before starting to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is secondary and is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning fuel on and off (which can also be done via a switch or mechanical apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and accessories. Most new engines rely on electrical and electronic control system that also control the combustion process to increase efficiency and reduce emissions. Two stroke configuration Animated two stroke engine in operation Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down) for every power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes, alternative methods must be used to scavenge the cylinders. The most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the downward motion of the piston to pressurize fresh charge in the crankcase, which is then blown through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls. Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light for their power output and mechanically very simple; however, they are also generally less efficient and more polluting than their four-stroke counterparts. In terms of power per cubic centimetre, a single-cylinder small motor application like a two-stroke engine produces much more power than an equivalent four-stroke engine due to the enormous advantage of having one power stroke for every 360 degrees of crankshaft rotation (compared to 720 degrees in a 4 stroke motor). Small displacement, crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engines have been less fuel-efficient than other types of engines when the fuel is mixed with the air prior to scavenging allowing some of it to escape out of the exhaust port. Modern designs (Sarich and Paggio) use air-assisted fuel injection which avoids this loss, and are more efficient than comparably sized four-stroke engines. Fuel injection is essential for a modern two-stroke engine in order to meet ever more stringent emission standards. Research continues into improving many aspects of two-stroke motors including direct fuel injection, amongst other things. The initial results have produced motors that are much cleaner burning than their traditional counterparts. Two-stroke engines are widely used in snowmobiles, lawnmowers, weed-whackers, chain saws, jet skis, mopeds, outboard motors, and many motorcycles. Two-stroke engines have the advantage of an increased specific power ratio (i.e. power to volume ratio), typically around 1.5 times that of a typical four-stroke engine. The largest compression-ignition engines are two-strokes and are used in some locomotives and large ships. These particular engines use forced induction to scavenge the cylinders; an example of this type of motor is the Wartsila-Sulzer turbocharged two-stroke diesel as used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful engine in the world with over 50% thermal efficiency. For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke motors are around 43% thermal efficiency (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area. Common cylinder configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the more compact V configuration, and the wider but smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as the H, U, X, and W have also been used. Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all because they can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder called an opposed piston design. This design was used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine, using at either end of a single bank of cylinders with two crankshafts, and most remarkably in the Napier Deltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and continues to be used for marine engines, both for propulsion and for auxiliary generators. The Gnome Rotary engine, used in several early aircraft, had a stationary crankshaft and a bank of radially arranged cylinders rotating around it. Wankel The Wankel cycle. The shaft turns three times for each rotation of the rotor around the lobe and once for each orbital revolution around the eccentric shaft. The Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not have piston strokes. It operates with the same separation of phases as the four-stroke engine with the phases taking place in separate locations in the engine. In thermodynamic terms it follows the Otto engine cycle, so may be thought of as a "four-phase" engine. While it is true that three power strokes typically occur per rotor revolution due to the 3/1 revolution ratio of the rotor to the eccentric shaft, only one power stroke per shaft revolution actually occurs; this engine provides three power 'strokes' per revolution per rotor giving it a greater power-to-weight ratio than piston engines. This type of engine is most notably used in the current Mazda RX-8, the earlier RX-7, and other models. Gas turbines A gas turbine is a rotary machine similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air after being compressed in the compressor is heated by burning fuel in it. About two-thirds of the heated air combined with the products of combustion is expanded in a turbine resulting in work output which is used to drive the compressor. The rest (about one-third) is available as useful work output. Jet engine Jet engines take a large volume of hot gas from a combustion process (typically a gas turbine, but rocket forms of jet propulsion often use solid or liquid propellants, and ramjet forms also lack the gas turbine) and feed it through a nozzle which accelerates the jet to high speed. As the jet accelerates through the nozzle, this creates thrust and in turn does useful work. Engine cycle Idealised P/V diagram for two stroke Otto cycle Two-stroke This system manages to pack one power stroke into every two strokes of the piston (up-down). This is achieved by making the exhaust and re-charging of the cylinder happen simultaneously. The steps involved here are: Intake and exhaust occur at bottom dead center. Some form of pressure is needed, either crankcase compression or super-charging. Compression stroke: Fuel-air mix compressed and ignited. Power stroke: piston is pushed downwards by the hot exhaust gases. Four-stroke Idealised Pressure/volume diagram of the Otto cycle showing combustion heat input Qp and waste exhaust output Qo, the power stroke is the top curved line, the bottom is the compression stroke Engines based on the four-stroke ("Otto cycle") have one power stroke for every four strokes (up-down-up-down) and employ spark plug ignition. Combustion occurs rapidly, and during combustion the volume varies little ("constant volume"). They are used in cars, larger boats, some motorcycles, and many light aircraft. They are generally quieter, more efficient, and larger than their two-stroke counterparts. The steps involved here are: Intake stroke: Air and vaporized fuel are drawn in. Compression stroke: Fuel vapor and air are compressed and ignited. Combustion stroke: Fuel combusts and piston is pushed downwards. Exhaust stroke: Exhaust is driven out. During the 1st, 2nd, and 4th stroke the piston is relying on power and the momentum generated by the other pistons. In that case, a four cylinder engine would be less powerful than a six or eight cylinder engine. There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the Atkinson and Miller cycles. The diesel cycle is somewhat different. Diesel cycle P-v Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers 1-4 in clockwise direction. Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four-stroke cycle, but with a compression heating ignition system, rather than needing a separate ignition system. This variation is called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure, as the piston moves, rather than with the four stroke with the piston essentially stationary. Six-stroke The six stroke engine captures the wasted heat from the four-stroke Otto cycle and creates steam, which simultaneously cools the engine while providing a free power stroke. This removes the need for a cooling system making the engine lighter while giving 40% increased efficiency over the Otto Cycle. Brayton cycle Brayton cycle A gas turbine is a rotary machine somewhat similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air after being compressed in the compressor is heated by burning fuel in it, this heats and expands the air, and this extra energy is tapped by the turbine which in turn powers the compressor closing the cycle and powering the shaft. Gas turbine cycle engines employ a continuous combustion system where compression, combustion, and expansion occur simultaneously at different places in the engine—giving continuous power. Notably the combustion takes place at constant pressure, rather than with the Otto cycle, constant volume. Disused methods In some old noncompressing internal combustion engines: in the first part of the piston downstroke, a fuel-air mixture was sucked or blown in, and in the rest of the piston downstroke, the inlet valve closed and the fuel-air mixture fired. In the piston upstroke, the exhaust valve was open. This was an attempt at imitating the way a piston steam engine works, and since the explosive mixture was not compressed, the heat and pressure generated by combustion was much less causing lower overall efficiency. Fuels and oxidizers Fuels Nowadays, fuels used include: Petroleum: Petroleum spirit (North American term: gasoline, British term: petrol) Petroleum diesel. Autogas (liquified petroleum gas). Compressed natural gas. Jet fuel (aviation fuel) Residual fuel Coal: Most methanol is made from coal. Gasoline can be made from carbon (coal) using the Fischer-Tropsch process Diesel fuel can be made from carbon using the Fischer-Tropsch process Biofuels and vegoils: Peanut oil and other vegoils. Biofuels: Biobutanol (replaces gasoline). Biodiesel (replaces petrodiesel). Bioethanol and Biomethanol (wood alcohol) and other biofuels (see Flexible-fuel vehicle). Biogas Hydrogen (mainly spacecraft rocket engines) Oxyhydrogen Liquid nitrogen Even fluidized metal powders and explosives have seen some use. Engines that use gases for fuel are called gas engines and those that use liquid hydrocarbons are called oil engines, however gasoline engines are also often colloquially referred to as, "gas engines" ("petrol engines" in the UK). The main limitations on fuels are that it must be easily transportable through the fuel system to the combustion chamber, and that the fuel releases sufficient energy in the form of heat upon combustion to make practical use of the engine. Diesel engines are generally heavier, noisier, and more powerful at lower speeds than gasoline engines. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly so for their increased fuel efficiency over gasoline engines), ships, railway locomotives, and light aircraft. Gasoline engines are used in most other road vehicles including most cars, motorcycles, and mopeds. Note that in Europe, sophisticated diesel-engined cars have taken over about 40% of the market since the 1990s. There are also engines that run on hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and biodiesel. Paraffin and tractor vaporizing oil (TVO) engines are no longer seen. Hydrogen At present, hydrogen is mostly used as fuel for rocket engines. In the future, hydrogen might replace more conventional fuels in traditional internal combustion engines. If hydrogen fuel cell technology becomes widespread, then the use of internal combustion engines may be phased out. Although there are multiple ways of producing free hydrogen, those methods require converting combustible molecules into hydrogen or consuming electric energy. Unless that electricity is produced from a renewable source—and is not required for other purposes—it seems hydrogen does not solve any energy crisis. The disadvantage of hydrogen in many situations is its storage. Liquid hydrogen has extremely low density (14 times lower than water) and requires extensive insulation—whilst gaseous hydrogen requires heavy tankage. Even when liquefied, hydrogen has a higher specific energy but the volumetric energetic storage is still roughly five times lower than petrol. The 'Hydrogen on Demand' process (see direct borohydride fuel cell) creates hydrogen as it is needed, but has other issues such as the high price of the sodium borohydride which is the raw material. Oxidizers Since air is plentiful at the surface of the earth, the oxidizer is typically atmospheric oxygen which has the advantage of not being stored within the vehicle, increasing the power-to-weight and power to volume ratios. There are other materials that are used for special purposes, often to increase power output or to allow operation under water or in space. Compressed air has been commonly used in torpedoes. Compressed oxygen, as well as some compressed air, was used in the Japanese Type 93 torpedo. Some submarines are designed to carry pure oxygen. Rockets very often use liquid oxygen. Nitromethane is added to some racing and model fuels to increase power and control combustion. Nitrous oxide has been used—with extra gasoline—in tactical aircraft and in specially equipped cars to allow short bursts of added power from engines that otherwise run on gasoline and air. It is also used in the Burt Rutan rocket spacecraft. Hydrogen peroxide power was under development for German World War II submarines and may have been used in some non-nuclear submarines and some rocket engines. Other chemicals such as chlorine or fluorine have been used experimentally, but have not been found to be practical. One-cylinder gasoline engine (ca. 1910). Engine capacity For piston engines, an engine's capacity is the engine displacement, in other words the volume swept by all the pistons of an engine in a single movement. It is generally measured in litres (L) or cubic inches (c.i.d. or cu in or in³) for larger engines, and cubic centimetres (abbreviated cc) for smaller engines. Engines with greater capacities are usually more powerful and provide greater torque at lower rpm, but also consume more fuel. Apart from designing an engine with more cylinders, there are two ways to increase an engines' capacity. The first is to lengthen the stroke: the second is to increase the pistons' diameter (See also: Stroke ratio). In either case, it may be necessary to make further adjustments to the fuel intake of the engine to ensure optimum performance. Common components Combustion chambers Internal combustion engines can contain any number of combustion chambers (cylinders), with numbers between one and twelve being common, though as many as 36 (Lycoming R-7755) have been used. Having more cylinders in an engine yields two potential benefits: first, the engine can have a larger displacement with smaller individual reciprocating masses, that is, the mass of each piston can be less thus making a smoother-running engine since the engine tends to vibrate as a result of the pistons moving up and down. Doubling the number of the same size cylinders will double the torque and power. The downside to having more pistons is that the engine will tend to weigh more and generate more internal friction as the greater number of pistons rub against the inside of their cylinders. This tends to decrease fuel efficiency and robs the engine of some of its power. For high-performance gasoline engines using current materials and technology—such as the engines found in modern automobiles, there seems to be a break-point around 10 or 12 cylinders after which the addition of cylinders becomes an overall detriment to performance and efficiency. Although, exceptions such as the W16 engine from Volkswagen exist. Most car engines have four to eight cylinders with some high performance cars having ten, twelve—or even sixteen, and some very small cars and trucks having two or three. In previous years, some quite large cars such as the DKW and Saab 92, had two-cylinder or two-stroke engines. Radial aircraft engines (now obsolete) had from three to 28 cylinders; an example is the Pratt & Whitney R-4360. A row contains an odd number of cylinders so an even number indicates a two- or four-row engine. The largest of these was the Lycoming R-7755 with 36 cylinders (four rows of nine cylinders), but it did not enter production. Motorcycles commonly have from one to four cylinders, with a few high performance models having six; although, some 'novelties' exist with 8, 10, or 12. Snowmobiles Usually have one to four cylinders and can be both 2 stroke or 4 stroke, normally in the in-line configuration however there are again some novelties that exist with V-4 Engines Small portable appliances such as chainsaws, generators, and domestic lawn mowers most commonly have one cylinder, but two-cylinder chainsaws exist. Large reversible two cycle marine diesels have a minimum of three to over ten cylinders. Freight diesel locomotives usually have around 12 to 20 cylinders due to space limitations as larger cylinders take more space (volume ) per kwh, due to the limit on average piston speed of less than 30 ft/sec on engines lasting more than 40000 hours under full power. Ignition system The ignition system of an internal combustion engines depends on the type of engine and the fuel used. Petrol engines are typically ignited by a precisely timed spark, and diesel engines by compression heating. Historically, outside flame and hot-tube systems were used, see hot bulb engine. Spark The mixture is ignited by an electrical spark from a spark plug—the timing of which is very precisely controlled. Almost all gasoline engines are of this type. Diesel engines timing is precisely controlled by the pressure pump and injector. Compression Ignition occurs as the temperature of the fuel/air mixture is taken over its autoignition temperature, due to heat generated by the compression of the air during the compression stroke. The vast majority of compression ignition engines are diesels in which the fuel is mixed with the air after the air has reached ignition temperature. In this case, the timing comes from the fuel injection system. Very small model engines for which simplicity and light weight is more important than fuel costs use easily ignited fuels (a mixture of kerosene, ether, and lubricant) and adjustable compression to control ignition timing for starting and running. Ignition Timing For reciprocating engines, the point in the cycle at which the fuel-oxidizer mixture is ignited has a direct effect on the efficiency and output of the ICE. The thermodynamics of the idealized Carnot heat engine tells us that an ICE is most efficient if most of the burning takes place at a high temperature, resulting from compression—near top dead center. The speed of the flame front is directly affected by the compression ratio, fuel mixture temperature, and octane or cetane rating of the fuel. Leaner mixtures and lower mixture pressures burn more slowly requiring more advanced ignition timing. It is important to have combustion spread by a thermal flame front (deflagration), not by a shock wave. Combustion propagation by a shock wave is called detonation and, in engines, is also known as pinging or Engine knocking. So at least in gasoline-burning engines, ignition timing is largely a compromise between an earlier "advanced" spark—which gives greater efficiency with high octane fuel—and a later "retarded" spark that avoids detonation with the fuel used. For this reason, high-performance diesel automobile proponents such as, Gale Banks, believe that There’s only so far you can go with an air-throttled engine on 91-octane gasoline. In other words, it is the fuel, gasoline, that has become the limiting factor. ... While turbocharging has been applied to both gasoline and diesel engines, only limited boost can be added to a gasoline engine before the fuel octane level again becomes a problem. With a diesel, boost pressure is essentially unlimited. It is literally possible to run as much boost as the engine will physically stand before breaking apart. Consequently, engine designers have come to realize that diesels are capable of substantially more power and torque than any comparably sized gasoline engine. Diesel — The Performance Choice, Banks Talks Tech, 11.19.04 Fuel systems Animated cut through diagram of a typical fuel injector, a device used to deliver fuel to the internal combustion engine. Fuels burn faster and more efficiently when they present a large surface area to the oxygen in air. Liquid fuels must be atomized to create a fuel-air mixture, traditionally this was done with a carburetor in petrol engines and with fuel injection in diesel engines. Most modern petrol engines now use fuel injection too - though the technology is quite different. While diesel must be injected at an exact point in that engine cycle, no such precision is needed in a petrol engine. However, the lack of lubricity in petrol means that the injectors themselves must be more sophisticated. Carburetor Simpler reciprocating engines continue to use a carburetor to supply fuel into the cylinder. Although carburetor technology in automobiles reached a very high degree of sophistication and precision, from the mid-1980s it lost out on cost and flexibility to fuel injection. Simple forms of carburetor remain in widespread use in small engines such as lawn mowers and more sophisticated forms are still used in small motorcycles. Fuel injection Larger gasoline engines used in automobiles have mostly moved to fuel injection systems (see Gasoline Direct Injection). Diesel engines have always used fuel injection because the timing of the injection initiates and controls the combustion. Autogas (LPG) engines use either fuel injection systems or open- or closed-loop carburetors. Fuel pump Most internal combustion engines now require a fuel pump. Diesel engines use an all-mechanical precision pump system that delivers a timed injection direct into the combustion chamber, hence requiring a high delivery pressure to overcome the pressure of the combustion chamber. Petrol fuel injection delivers into the inlet tract at atmospheric pressure (or below) and timing is not involved, these pumps are normally driven electrically. Gas turbine and rocket engines use electrical systems. Other Other internal combustion engines like jet engines and rocket engines employ various methods of fuel delivery including impinging jets, gas/liquid shear, preburners and others. Oxidiser-Air inlet system Some engines such as solid rockets have oxidisers already within the combustion chamber but in most cases for combustion to occur, a continuous supply of oxidiser must be supplied to the combustion chamber. Natural aspirated engines When air is used with piston engines it can simply suck it in as the piston increases the volume of the chamber. However, this gives a maximum of 1 atmosphere of pressure difference across the inlet valves, and at high engine speeds the resulting airflow can limit potential power output. Superchargers A supercharger is a "forced induction" system which uses a compressor powered by the shaft of the engine which forces air through the valves of the engine to achieve higher flow. When these systems are employed the maximum absolute pressure at the inlet valve is typically around 2 times atmospheric pressure or more. Turbochargers/gas turbine powered compressors A cutaway of a turbocharger Turbochargers are another type of forced induction system which has its compressor powered by a gas turbine running off the exhaust gases from the engine. Duct jet engines use the same basic system, but eschew the piston engine, and replace it with a burner instead. Liquids In liquid rocket engines, the oxidiser comes in the form of a liquid and needs to be delivered at high pressure (typically 10-230 bar or 1–23 MPa) to the combustion chamber. This is normally achieved by the use of a centrifugal pump powered by a gas turbine - a configuration known as a turbopump, but it can also be pressure fed. Parts An illustration of several key components in a typical four-stroke engine. For a four-stroke engine, key parts of the engine include the crankshaft (purple), connecting rod (orange), one or more camshafts (red and blue), and valves. For a two-stroke engine, there may simply be an exhaust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve system. In both types of engines there are one or more cylinders (grey and green), and for each cylinder there is a spark plug (darker-grey, gasoline engines only), a piston (yellow), and a crankpin (purple). A single sweep of the cylinder by the piston in an upward or downward motion is known as a stroke. The downward stroke that occurs directly after the air-fuel mix passes from the carburetor or fuel injector to the cylinder, where it is ignited. This is also known as a power stroke. A Wankel engine has a triangular rotor that orbits in an epitrochoidal (figure 8 shape) chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation (intake, compression, power, and exhaust) take place in what is effectively a moving, variable-volume chamber. Valves All four-stroke internal combustion engines employ valves to control the admittance of fuel and air into the combustion chamber. Two-stroke engines use ports in the cylinder bore, covered and uncovered by the piston, though there have been variations such as exhaust valves. Piston engine valves In piston engines, the valves are grouped into 'inlet valves' which admit the entrance of fuel and air and 'outlet valves' which allow the exhaust gases to escape. Each valve opens once per cycle and the ones that are subject to extreme accelerations are held closed by springs that are typically opened by rods running on a camshaft rotating with the engines' crankshaft. Control valves Continuous combustion engines—as well as piston engines—usually have valves that open and close to admit the fuel and/or air at the startup and shutdown. Some valves feather to adjust the flow to control power or engine speed as well. Exhaust systems Internal combustion engines have to manage the exhaust of the cooled combustion gas from the engine. The exhaust system frequently contains devices to control pollution, both chemical and noise pollution. In addition, for cyclic combustion engines the exhaust system is frequently tuned to improve emptying of the combustion chamber. For jet propulsion internal combustion engines, the 'exhaust system' takes the form of a high velocity nozzle, which generates thrust for the engine and forms a colimated jet of gas that gives the engine its name. Cooling systems Combustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this transfers to the walls of the engine. Failure will occur if the body of the engine is allowed to reach too high a temperature, either the engine will physically fail, or any lubricants used will degrade to the point that they no longer protect the engine. Cooling systems usually employ air (air cooled) or liquid (usually water) cooling while some very hot engines using radiative cooling (especially some Rocket engines). Some high altitude rocket engines use ablative cooling where the walls gradually erode in a controlled fashion. Rockets in particular can use regenerative cooling which uses the fuel to cool the solid parts of the engine. Piston A piston is a component of reciprocating engines. It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. Its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In two-stroke engines the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. Propelling nozzle For jet engine forms of internal combustion engines a propelling nozzle is present. This takes the high temperature, high pressure exhaust and expands and cools it. The exhaust leaves the nozzle going at much higher speed and provides thrust, as well as constricting the flow from the engine and raising the pressure in the rest of the engine, giving greater thrust for the exhaust mass that exits. Crankshaft A crankshaft for a 4 cylinder engine Most reciprocating internal combustion engines end up turning a shaft. This means that the linear motion of a piston must be converted into rotation. This is typically achieved by a crankshaft. Flywheels The flywheel is a disk or wheel attached to the crank, forming an inertial mass that stores rotational energy. In engines with only a single cylinder the flywheel is essential to carry energy over from the power stroke into a subsequent compression stroke. Flywheels are present in most reciprocating engines to smooth out the power delivery over each rotation of the crank and in most automotive engines also mount a gear ring for a starter. The rotational inertia of the flywheel also allows a much slower minimum unloaded speed and also improves the smoothness at idle. The flywheel may also perform a part of the balancing of the system and so by itself be out of balance, although most engines will use a neutral balance for the flywheel, enabling it to be balanced in a separate operation. The flywheel is also used as a mounting for the clutch or a torque converter in most automotive applications. Starter systems All internal combustion engines require some form of system to get them into operation. Most piston engines use a starter motor powered by the same battery as runs the rest of the electric systems. Jet engines and gas turbines need spinning electrically, sometimes by an external battery or an APU. Small ICE's are often started by pull cords. Motorcycles of all sizes were traditionally kick-started, but all but the smallest are now electric-start. Large stationary and marine engines may be started by the timed injection of compressed air into the cylinders - or occasionally with cartridges. Jump starting refers to assistance from another battery (typically when the fitted battery is discharged), while bump starting refers to an alternative method of starting by the application of some external force, eg rolling down a hill. Lubrication Systems Internal combustions engines require lubrication in operation that moving parts slide smoothly over each other. Insufficient lubrication subjects the parts of the engine to metal-to-metal contact, friction, heat build-up, rapid wear often culminating in parts becoming friction welded together eg pistons in their cylinders. Big end bearings seizing up will sometimes lead to a connecting rod breaking and poking out through the crankcase. Several different types of lubrication systems are used. Simple two-stroke engines are lubricated by oil mixed into the fuel or injected into the induction stream as a spray. Early slow-speed stationary and marine engines were lubricated by gravity from small chambers similar to those used on steam engines at the time—with an engine tender refilling these as needed. As engines were adapted for automotive and aircraft use, the need for a high power-to-weight ratio led to increased speeds, higher temperatures, and greater pressure on bearings which in turn required pressure-lubrication for crank bearings and connecting-rod journals. This was provided either by a direct lubrication from a pump, or indirectly by a jet of oil directed at pickup cups on the connecting rod ends which had the advantage of providing higher pressures as the engine speed increased. Control systems Most engines require one or more systems to start and shutdown the engine and to control parameters such as the power, speed, torque, pollution, combustion temperature, efficiency and to stabilise the engine from modes of operation that may induce self-damage such as pre-ignition. Such systems may be referred to as engine control units. Many control systems today are digital, and are frequently termed FADEC (Full Authority Digital Electronic Control) systems. Diagnostic systems Engine On Board Diagnostics (also known as OBD) is a computerized system that allows for electronic diagnosis of a vehicles' powerplant. The first generation, known as OBD1, was introduced 10 years after the U.S. Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1970 as a way to monitor a vehicles' fuel injection system. OBD2, the second generation of computerized on-board diagnostics, was codified and recommended by the California Air Resource Board in 1994 and became mandatory equipment aboard all vehicles sold in the United States as of 1996. Measures of engine performance Engine types vary greatly in a number of different ways: energy efficiency fuel/propellant consumption (brake specific fuel consumption for shaft engines, thrust specific fuel consumption for jet engines) power to weight ratio thrust to weight ratio Torque curves (for shaft engines) thrust lapse (jet engines) Compression ratio for piston engines, Overall pressure ratio for jet engines and gas turbines Energy efficiency Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products—hot gases—have more available thermal energy than the original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons. Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any heat that isn't translated into work is normally considered a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system. Engine efficiency can be discussed in a number of ways but it usually involves a comparison of the total chemical energy in the fuels, and the useful energy extracted from the fuels in the form of kinetic energy. The most fundamental and abstract discussion of engine efficiency is the thermodynamic limit for extracting energy from the fuel defined by a thermodynamic cycle. The most comprehensive is the empirical fuel efficiency of the total engine system for accomplishing a desired task; for example, the miles per gallon accumulated. Internal combustion engines are primarily heat engines and as such the phenomenon that limits their efficiency is described by thermodynamic cycles. None of these cycles exceed the limit defined by the Carnot cycle which states that the overall efficiency is dictated by the difference between the lower and upper operating temperatures of the engine. A terrestrial engine is usually and fundamentally limited by the upper thermal stability derived from the material used to make up the engine. All metals and alloys eventually melt or decompose and there is significant researching into ceramic materials that can be made with higher thermal stabilities and desirable structural properties. Higher thermal stability allows for greater temperature difference between the lower and upper operating temperatures—thus greater thermodynamic efficiency. The thermodynamic limits assume that the engine is operating in ideal conditions. A frictionless world, ideal gases, perfect insulators, and operation at infinite time. The real world is substantially more complex and all the complexities reduce the efficiency. In addition, real engines run best at specific loads and rates as described by their power curve. For example, a car cruising on a highway is usually operating significantly below its ideal load, because the engine is designed for the higher loads desired for rapid acceleration. The applications of engines are used as contributed drag on the total system reducing overall efficiency, such as wind resistance designs for vehicles. These and many other losses result in an engines' real-world fuel economy that is usually measured in the units of miles per gallon (or fuel consumption in liters per 100 kilometers) for automobiles. The miles in miles per gallon represents a meaningful amount of work and the volume of hydrocarbon implies a standard energy content. Most steel engines have a thermodynamic limit of 37%. Even when aided with turbochargers and stock efficiency aids, most engines retain an average efficiency of about 18%-20%. Physics In an Automotive Engine Improving IC Engine Efficiency Rocket engine efficiencies are better still, up to 70%, because they combust at very high temperatures and pressures and are able to have very high expansion ratios. Rocket propulsion elements 7th edition-George Sutton, Oscar Biblarz pg 37-38 There are many inventions concerned with increasing the efficiency of IC engines. In general, practical engines are always compromised by trade-offs between different properties such as efficiency, weight, power, heat, response, exhaust emissions, or noise. Sometimes economy also plays a role in not only the cost of manufacturing the engine itself, but also manufacturing and distributing the fuel. Increasing the engines' efficiency brings better fuel economy but only if the fuel cost per energy content is the same. Measures of fuel/propellant efficiency For stationary and shaft engines including propeller engines, fuel consumption is measured by calculating the brake specific fuel consumption which measures the number of pounds of fuel that is needed to generate an hours' worth of horsepower-energy. In metric units, the number of grams of fuel needed to generate a kilowatt-hour of energy is calculated. For internal combustion engines in the form of jet engines, the power output varies drastically with airspeed and a less variable measure is used: thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC), which is the number of pounds of propellant that is needed to generate impulses that measure a pound an hour. In metric units, the number of grams of propellant needed to generate an impulse that measures one kilonewton per second. For rockets— TSFC can be used, but typically other equivalent measures are traditionally used, such as specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity. Air and noise pollution Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines produce air pollution emissions, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel. The main derivatives of the process are carbon dioxide , water and some soot—also called particulate matter (PM). The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There are however some additional products of the combustion process that include nitrogen oxides and sulfur and some uncombusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating conditions and the fuel-air ratio. Not all of the fuel will be completely consumed by the combustion process; a small amount of fuel will be present after combustion, some of which can react to form oxygenates, such as formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, or hydrocarbons not initially present in the fuel mixture. The primary causes of this is the need to operate near the stoichiometric ratio for gasoline engines in order to achieve combustion and the resulting "quench" of the flame by the relatively cool cylinder walls, otherwise the fuel would burn more completely in excess air. When running at lower speeds, quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that run on natural gas. It reduces the efficiency and increases knocking, sometimes causing the engine to stall. Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces the amount of the first two pollutants, but tends to encourage the oxygen and nitrogen in the air to combine to produce nitrogen oxides (NOx) that has been demonstrated to be hazardous to both plant and animal health. Further chemicals released are benzene and 1,3-butadiene that are also particularly harmful; and not all of the fuel burns up completely, so carbon monoxide (CO) is also produced. Carbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that eventually lead to producing sulfur oxides (SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust which promotes acid rain. One final element in exhaust pollution is ozone (O3). This is not emitted directly but made in the air by the action of sunlight on other pollutants to form "ground level ozone", which, unlike the "ozone layer" in the high atmosphere, is regarded as a bad thing if the levels are too high. Ozone is broken down by nitrogen oxides, so one tends to be lower where the other is higher. For the pollutants described above (nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and ozone) there are accepted levels that are set by legislation to which no harmful effects are observed—even in sensitive population groups. For the other three: benzene, 1,3-butadiene, and particulates, there is no way of proving they are safe at any level so the experts set standards where the risk to health is, "exceedingly small". Finally, significant contributions to noise pollution are made by internal combustion engines. Automobile and truck traffic operating on highways and street systems produce noise, as do aircraft flights due to jet noise, particularly supersonic-capable aircraft. Rocket engines create the most intense noise. References Bibliography Singer, Charles Joseph; Raper, Richard, A History of Technology: The Internal Combustion Engine, edited by Charles Singer ... [et al.], Clarendon Press, 1954-1978. pp.157–176 Hardenberg, Horst O., The Middle Ages of the Internal combustion Engine, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 1999 See also Adiabatic flame temperature Air-fuel ratio Crude oil engine - a two stroke engine Dynamometer Electric vehicle Engine test stand — information about how to check an internal combustion engine External Combustion Engine Fossil fuels Gas turbine Heat pump Diesel engine Forced induction Indirect injection Direct injection Turbocharger Dieselisation Gasoline direct injection Hybrid vehicle Jet engine Petrofuel Piston engine Reciprocating engine Steam engine William Barnett — an early patentee (1838) External links Animated Engines - explains a variety of types Intro to Car Engines - Cut-away images and a good overview of the internal combustion engine Walter E. Lay Auto Lab - Research at The University of Michigan youtube - Animation of the components and built-up of a 4-cylinder engine youtube - Animation of the internal moving parts of a 4-cylinder engine Hypervideo showing construction and operation of a four cylinder internal combustion engine courtesy of Ford Motor Company Next generation engine technologies retrieved May 9, 2009 MIT Overview - Present & Future Internal Combustion Engines: Performance, Efficiency, Emissions, and Fuels The cars can drive well .	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6,025	Angilbert	Saint Angilbert (died 18 February 814) was a Frank who served Charlemagne as a diplomat, abbot, poet and semi-son-in-law. He was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated at the palace school in Aquisgranum (Aachen) under Alcuin. He is venerated as a saint, on the day of his death—18 February. When Charlemagne sent his young son Pepin to Italy as King of the Lombards Angilbert went along as primicerius palatii, a high administrator of the satellite court. As the friend and adviser of Pepin, he assisted for a while in the government of Italy. Angilbert delivered the document on Iconoclasm from the Frankish Synod of Frankfurt to Pope Adrian I, and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796. In 790 he was named abbot of Centulum, also called Sancti Richarii monasterium (Saint-Riquier) in northern France, where his brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. It was not uncommon for the Merovingian, Carolingian, or later kings to make laymen abbots of monasteries; the layman would often use the income of the monastery as his own and leave the monks a bare minimum for the necessary expenses of the foundation. Angilbert, in contrast, spent a great deal rebuilding Saint-Riquier, and when he completed it Charlemagne spent Easter of the year 800 there. Angilbert's non-sacramental relationship with Bertha was evidently recognized by the court - if she had not been the daughter of the King historians might refer to her as his concubine. They had at least two sons, one of whom, Nithard, became a notable figure in the mid-9th century. Control of marriage and the meanings of legitimacy were hotly contested in the Middle Ages. Bertha and Angilbert are an example of how resistance to the idea of a sacramental marriage could coincide with holding church offices. His poems reveal the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814. Angilbert was the Homer of the emperor's literary circle, and was the probable author of an epic, of which the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and Venantius Fortunatus, composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius, and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the Avars (796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation. Angilbert's poems have been published by E. Dummler in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. For criticisms of this edition see Traube in Roederer's Schriften für germanische Philologie (1888). See also A. Molinier, Les Sources de l'histoire de France. References External links Catholic Encyclopedia article about Angilbert	Angilbert \|@lemmatized saint:5 angilbert:9 die:1 february:2 frank:1 serve:1 charlemagne:6 diplomat:1 abbot:3 poet:2 semi:1 son:3 law:1 noble:1 frankish:2 parentage:1 educate:1 palace:3 school:1 aquisgranum:1 aachen:1 alcuin:1 venerate:1 day:1 death:1 send:3 young:1 pepin:2 italy:2 king:3 lombard:1 go:1 along:1 primicerius:1 palatii:1 high:1 administrator:1 satellite:1 court:2 friend:1 adviser:1 assist:1 government:1 deliver:1 document:1 iconoclasm:1 synod:1 frankfurt:1 pope:2 adrian:1 later:3 three:1 important:1 embassy:1 name:2 centulum:1 also:2 call:1 sancti:1 richarii:1 monasterium:1 riquier:2 northern:1 france:2 brilliant:1 rule:1 gain:1 renown:1 uncommon:1 merovingian:1 carolingian:1 make:1 laymen:1 monastery:2 layman:1 would:1 often:1 use:2 income:1 leave:1 monk:1 bare:1 minimum:1 necessary:1 expense:1 foundation:1 contrast:1 spend:1 great:1 deal:1 rebuild:1 complete:1 spent:1 easter:1 year:1 non:1 sacramental:2 relationship:1 bertha:3 evidently:1 recognize:1 daughter:1 historian:1 might:1 refer:1 concubine:1 least:1 two:1 one:2 nithard:1 become:1 notable:1 figure:1 mid:1 century:1 control:1 marriage:2 meaning:1 legitimacy:1 hotly:1 contest:1 middle:1 age:1 example:1 resistance:1 idea:1 could:1 coincide:1 hold:1 church:1 office:1 poems:1 reveal:2 culture:1 taste:1 man:1 world:1 enjoy:1 close:1 intimacy:1 imperial:1 family:1 accompany:1 rome:1 witness:1 homer:1 emperor:2 literary:1 circle:1 probable:1 author:1 epic:1 fragment:1 preserve:1 describe:1 life:1 meeting:1 leo:1 iii:1 mosaic:1 virgil:1 ovid:1 lucan:1 venantius:1 fortunatus:1 compose:1 manner:1 einhard:1 suetonius:1 exhibit:1 true:1 poetic:1 gift:1 shorter:1 poem:2 besides:1 greeting:1 pippin:1 return:1 campaign:1 avars:1 epistle:1 david:1 incidentally:1 delightful:1 picture:1 living:1 child:1 house:1 surround:1 pleasant:1 garden:1 near:1 reference:2 however:1 distant:1 respectful:1 occur:1 merely:1 list:1 princess:1 salutation:1 publish:1 e:1 dummler:1 monumenta:1 germaniae:1 historica:1 criticism:1 edition:1 see:2 traube:1 roederer:1 schriften:1 für:1 germanische:1 philologie:1 molinier:1 les:1 source:1 de:2 l:1 histoire:1 external:1 link:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 article:1 \|@bigram merovingian_carolingian:1 bare_minimum:1 hotly_contest:1 venantius_fortunatus:1 monumenta_germaniae:1 germaniae_historica:1 external_link:1
6,026	Abdulaziz_al-Omari	An airport security guard and Imam, Abdulaziz al-Omari (, also transliterated Abdul Aziz Alomari) was named by the FBI as one of the hijackers of the first plane which was crashed into the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks. History Little is known about al-Omari's life, and it is unclear whether some information refers to al-Omari or another person by that name. He has used birth dates of December 24, 1972 and May 28, 1979. al-Omari came from Asir Province, a poor region in southwestern Saudi Arabia that borders Yemen, and graduated with honours from high school, attained a degree from the Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud University, was married, and had a daughter. CIA analytic report,"The Plot and the Plotters," June 1, 2003, p. 25. He is alleged to have often served as an imam at his mosque in Saudi Arabia and is believed by American Authorities to have been a student of a Saudi cleric named Sulayman al Alwan, whose mosque is located in Al Qasim. According to Tawfiq bin Attash, al-Omari was one of a group of future hijackers who provided security at Kandahar airport after their basic training at an al-Qaeda camp. During the 2000 Al Qaeda Summit in Kuala Lumpur, American authorities claim that immigration records show that a person named Abdulaziz al-Omari was visiting the country, although they say they are not sure that this was the same person. Abdul Aziz al-Omari in the farewell suicide videoIn the autumn of 2001, after September 11th, al Jazeera television broadcast a tape they claim was made by al-Omari. The speaker made a farewell suicide video. In it, he reads "I am writing this with my full conscience and I am writing this in expectation of the end, which is near. . . God praise everybody who trained and helped me, namely the leader Sheikh Osama bin Laden." According to FBI director Robert Mueller and the 9/11 Commission, al-Omari entered the United States through a Dubai flight on June 29 with Salem al-Hazmi http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html On June 29, 2001, al-Omari travelled to the U.S. for the first time, landing in New York. He had used the controversial Visa Express program to gain entry. He apparently stayed with several other hijackers in Paterson, New Jersey, before moving to his own place at 4032 57th Terrace, Vero Beach, Florida. On his rental agreement form for that house, Omari gave two license-plates authorized to park in his space, one of which was registered to Atta. FBI Affidavit: Page 11 ABC Al-Omari occasionally trained on simulators at the FlightSafety Academy in Vero Beach, Florida together with Mohand al-Shehri and Saeed Al-Ghamdi. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1341136/Piecing-together-the-shadowy-lives-of-the-hijackers.html al-Omari obtained a fake USA ID card from All Services Plus in Passaic County, New Jersey, which was in the business of selling fake documents, including another to Khalid al-Mihdhar. Attack Abdulaziz al-Omari (center) and Mohamed Atta withdrawing money from an ATM On September 10, Mohamed Atta picked up Omari from the Milner Hotel in Boston, Massachusetts, and the two drove their rented Nissan to a Comfort Inn in South Portland, Maine, where they spent the night in room 232 for unknown reasons, although it was within sight of Portland International Jetport. It was initially reported that Adnan and Ameer Bukhari were the two hijackers who had rented and driven the car. Two Brothers among Hijackers: CNN Report People's Daily Atta (blue shirt) and al-Omari in the Portland, Maine airport on the morning of 9/11 The two spent their last night pursuing ordinary activities: making an ATM withdrawal, a shared meal at Pizza Hut, and a 15- to 20-minute stop at Wal-Mart. In the early morning hours of September 11, they boarded a commuter flight to Boston to connect to American Airlines Flight 11. Al-Omari's luggage never made the connection onto Flight 11, which resulted in his passport and belongings being found after the attacks. On Flight 11, al-Omari helped hijack the plane, and assisted Mohamed Atta in crashing it into the World Trade Center part of an attack that killed thousands of people. Mistaken identity The wrongly accused Abdul Rahman al-Omari, photographed after the 9/11 attacks Controversy over al-Omari's identity erupted shortly after the attacks. At first, the FBI had named Abdul Rahman al-Omari, a pilot for Saudi Arabian Airlines, as the pilot of Flight 11. It was quickly shown that this person was still alive, and the FBI issued an apology. It was also quickly determined that Mohammed Atta was the pilot among the hijackers. The FBI then named Abdulaziz al-Omari as a hijacker. A man with the same name as those given by the FBI turned up alive in Saudi Arabia, saying that he had studied at the University of Denver and his passport was stolen there in 1995. The name, origin, birth date, and occupation were released by the FBI, but the picture was not of him. "I couldn't believe it when the FBI put me on their list", he said. "They gave my name and my date of birth, but I am not a suicide bomber. I am here. I am alive. I have no idea how to fly a plane. I had nothing to do with this." ? The New York Times This individual was not the same person as the hijacker whose identity was later confirmed by Saudi government interviews with his family, according to the 9/11 Commission Report. References External links The Final 9/11 Commission Report portal.telegraph.co.uk (Article which reports that the Saudi Arabian Airlines pilot named al-Omari was not involved with the terrorist attacks)	Abdulaziz_al-Omari \|@lemmatized airport:3 security:2 guard:1 imam:3 abdulaziz:4 al:30 omari:23 also:2 transliterate:1 abdul:4 aziz:2 alomari:1 name:10 fbi:9 one:3 hijacker:9 first:3 plane:3 crash:2 world:2 trade:2 center:3 september:4 attack:7 history:1 little:1 know:1 life:1 unclear:1 whether:1 information:1 refers:1 another:2 person:5 use:2 birth:3 date:3 december:1 may:1 come:1 asir:1 province:1 poor:1 region:1 southwestern:1 saudi:7 arabia:3 border:1 yemen:1 graduate:1 honour:1 high:1 school:1 attain:1 degree:1 muhammad:1 ibn:1 saud:1 university:2 marry:1 daughter:1 cia:1 analytic:1 report:6 plot:1 plotter:1 june:3 p:1 allege:1 often:1 serve:1 mosque:2 believe:2 american:3 authority:2 student:1 cleric:1 sulayman:1 alwan:1 whose:2 locate:1 qasim:1 accord:3 tawfiq:1 bin:2 attash:1 group:1 future:1 provide:1 kandahar:1 basic:1 training:1 qaeda:2 camp:1 summit:1 kuala:1 lumpur:1 claim:2 immigration:1 record:1 show:2 visit:1 country:1 although:2 say:3 sure:1 farewell:2 suicide:3 videoin:1 autumn:1 jazeera:1 television:1 broadcast:1 tape:1 make:4 speaker:1 video:1 read:1 write:2 full:1 conscience:1 expectation:1 end:1 near:1 god:1 praise:1 everybody:1 train:2 help:2 namely:1 leader:1 sheikh:1 osama:1 laden:1 director:1 robert:1 mueller:1 commission:3 enter:1 united:1 state:1 dubai:1 flight:6 salem:1 hazmi:1 http:2 www:2 fa:1 org:1 irp:1 congress:1 html:2 travel:1 u:1 time:2 land:1 new:4 york:2 controversial:1 visa:1 express:1 program:1 gain:1 entry:1 apparently:1 stay:1 several:1 paterson:1 jersey:2 move:1 place:1 terrace:1 vero:2 beach:2 florida:2 rental:1 agreement:1 form:1 house:1 give:3 two:5 license:1 plat:1 authorize:1 park:1 space:1 register:1 atta:6 affidavit:1 page:1 abc:1 occasionally:1 simulator:1 flightsafety:1 academy:1 together:2 mohand:1 shehri:1 saeed:1 ghamdi:1 telegraph:2 co:2 uk:2 news:1 worldnews:1 northamerica:1 usa:2 piece:1 shadowy:1 live:1 obtain:1 fake:2 id:1 card:1 service:1 plus:1 passaic:1 county:1 business:1 sell:1 document:1 include:1 khalid:1 mihdhar:1 mohamed:3 withdraw:1 money:1 atm:2 pick:1 milner:1 hotel:1 boston:2 massachusetts:1 drive:2 rented:1 nissan:1 comfort:1 inn:1 south:1 portland:3 maine:2 spend:2 night:2 room:1 unknown:1 reason:1 within:1 sight:1 international:1 jetport:1 initially:1 adnan:1 ameer:1 bukhari:1 rent:1 car:1 brother:1 among:2 cnn:1 people:2 daily:1 blue:1 shirt:1 morning:2 last:1 pursue:1 ordinary:1 activity:1 withdrawal:1 share:1 meal:1 pizza:1 hut:1 minute:1 stop:1 wal:1 mart:1 early:1 hour:1 board:1 commuter:1 connect:1 airline:3 luggage:1 never:1 connection:1 onto:1 result:1 passport:2 belonging:1 find:1 hijack:1 assist:1 part:1 kill:1 thousand:1 mistake:1 identity:3 wrongly:1 accuse:1 rahman:2 photograph:1 controversy:1 erupt:1 shortly:1 pilot:4 arabian:2 quickly:2 still:1 alive:3 issue:1 apology:1 determine:1 mohammed:1 man:1 turn:1 study:1 denver:1 steal:1 origin:1 occupation:1 release:1 picture:1 put:1 list:1 bomber:1 idea:1 fly:1 nothing:1 individual:1 later:1 confirm:1 government:1 interview:1 family:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 final:1 portal:1 article:1 involve:1 terrorist:1 \|@bigram abdulaziz_al:4 al_omari:21 abdul_aziz:2 unclear_whether:1 saudi_arabia:3 muhammad_ibn:1 ibn_saud:1 al_qasim:1 al_qaeda:2 kuala_lumpur:1 al_jazeera:1 osama_bin:1 bin_laden:1 al_hazmi:1 http_www:2 license_plat:1 al_shehri:1 al_ghamdi:1 passaic_county:1 al_mihdhar:1 mohamed_atta:3 boston_massachusetts:1 portland_maine:2 pizza_hut:1 wal_mart:1 abdul_rahman:2 saudi_arabian:2 external_link:1
6,027	Cetacea	The order Cetacea (, L. cetus, whale, from Greek) includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Cetus is Latin and is used in biological names to mean "whale"; its original meaning, "large sea animal", was more general. It comes from Ancient Greek (), meaning "whale" or "any huge fish or sea monster". In Greek mythology the monster Perseus defeated was called Ceto, which is depicted by the constellation of Cetus. Cetology is the branch of marine science associated with the study of cetaceans. Cetaceans are the mammals best adapted to aquatic life. Their body is fusiform (spindle-shaped). The forelimbs are modified into flippers. The tiny hindlimbs are vestigial; they do not attach to the backbone and are hidden within the body. The tail has horizontal flukes. Cetaceans are nearly hairless, and are insulated by a thick layer of blubber. As a group, they are noted for their high intelligence. The order Cetacea contains about ninety species, all marine except for four species of freshwater dolphins. The order is divided into two suborders, Mysticeti (baleen whales) and Odontoceti (toothed whales, which includes dolphins and porpoises). The species range in size from the Commerson's Dolphin and Tucuxi, smaller than a human, to the Blue Whale, the largest animal that has ever lived. Respiration, vision, hearing and echolocation Cetacean in Strait of Gibraltar As mammals, cetaceans need to breathe air. Because of this, they need to come to the water's surface to exhale carbon dioxide and inhale a fresh supply of oxygen. During diving, a muscular action closes the blowholes (nostrils), which remain closed until the cetacean next breaks the surface; when it surfaces, the muscles open the blowholes and warm air is exhaled. Cetaceans' blowholes have evolved to a position on top of the head, allowing more time to expel stale air and inhale fresh air. When the stale air, warmed from the lungs, is exhaled, it condenses as it meets the cold air outside. As with a terrestrial mammal breathing out on a cold day, a small cloud of 'steam' appears. This is called the 'blow' or 'spout' and is different in terms of shape, angle and height, for each cetacean species. Cetaceans can be identified at a distance, using this characteristic, by experienced whalers or whale-watchers. Cetaceans can go underwater for much longer periods of time than other mammals. Their duration under water varies greatly between species due to large physiological differences between many members of this Order. There are two studied advantages of cetacean physiology that let this Order (and other marine mammals) forage underwater for extended periods of time without breathing at the water surface. Myoglobin concentrations in skeletal muscle of mammals have much variation. A New Zealand white rabbit has 0.08+/-0.06 g (in a 100 g Wet muscle) of myoglobin, Castellini and Somero, 1981 whereas a Northern Bottlenose Whale has 6.34 g (in a 100 g Wet muscle) of myoglobin. Scholander, 1940 Myoglobin, by nature, has a higher affinity to oxygen than hemoglobin. That is, myoglobin retains oxygen molecules better than hemoglobin. Therefore, it is useful to have higher concentrations of myoglobin when needed and there is no oxygen available for re-uptake. The higher the myoglobin concentration in cetacean skeletal muscle, the longer they can stay underwater and forage. Increased body size is another way of elongating dive duration of large cetaceans. This is true because of two considered aspects. An increase in body size means that there is increase in muscle mass, therefore, increase in muscle oxygen stores. Another aspect is the universal correlation of mass and metabolic rate (Kleiber's law). In layman’s terms, Kleiber’s law states that the metabolic rate of a large animal is slower than a small animal per unit mass. From this we can conclude that larger animals will use up less oxygen than smaller animals (per mass unit). The cetacean's eyes are set well back and to either side of its huge head. This means that cetaceans with pointed 'beaks' (such as dolphins) have good binocular vision forward and downward but others, with blunt heads (such as the Sperm Whale), can see either side but not directly ahead or directly behind. Tear glands secrete greasy tears, which protect the eyes from the salt in the water. Cetaceans also have an almost spherical lens in their eyes, which is most efficient at focusing what little light there is in the deep waters. Cetaceans make up for their generally quite poor vision (with the exception of the dolphin) with excellent hearing. As with the eyes, the cetacean's ears are also small. Life in the sea accounts for the cetacean's loss of its external ears, whose function is to collect airborne sound waves and focus them in order for them to become strong enough to hear well. However, water is a better conductor of sound than air, so the external ear was no longer needed: it is no more than a tiny hole in the skin, just behind the eye. The inner ear, however, has become so well developed that the cetacean can not only hear sounds dozens of miles away, but it can also discern from which direction the sound comes. Some cetaceans are capable of echolocation. Many toothed whales emit clicks similar to those in echolocation, but it has not been demonstrated that they echolocate. Mysticeti have little need of echolocation, as they prey upon small fish that would be impractical to locate with echolocation. Some members of Odontoceti, such as dolphins and porpoises, do perform echolocation. These cetaceans use sound in the same way as bats—they emit a sound (called a click), which then bounces off an object and returns to them. From this, cetaceans can discern the size, shape, surface characteristics and movement of the object, as well as how far away it is. With this ability cetaceans can search for, chase and catch fast-swimming prey in total darkness. Echolocation is so advanced in most Odontoceti that they can distinguish between prey and non-prey (such as humans or boats); captive cetaceans can be trained to distinguish between, for example, balls of different sizes or shapes. Cetaceans also use sound to communicate, whether it be groans, moans, whistles, clicks or the complex 'singing' of the Humpback Whale. Feeding When it comes to food and feeding, cetaceans can be separated into two distinct groups. The toothed whales, Odontoceti like the Sperm Whale, Beluga, dolphins and porpoises, usually have lots of teeth that they use for catching fish, squid or other marine life. They do not chew their food, but swallow it whole. In the rare cases that they catch large prey, as when the Orca (Orcinus orca) catches a seal, they tear chunks off it that in turn are swallowed whole. The baleen whales or Mysticeti do not have teeth. Instead they have plates made of keratin (the same substance as human fingernails) which hang down from the upper jaw. These plates act like a giant filter, straining small animals (such as krill and fish) from the seawater. Cetaceans included in this group include the Blue Whale, the Humpback Whale, the Bowhead Whale and the two minke whale species. Not all Mysticeti feed on plankton: the larger whales tend to eat small shoaling fish, such as herrings and sardines, called micronecton. One species of Mysticeti, the Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus), is a benthic feeder, primarily eating sea floor crustaceans. Mammalian nature Cetaceans are mammals, that is, members of the class Mammalia. The closest living relative of cetaceans is the hippopotamus. As mammals, cetaceans have characteristics that are common to all mammals: they are warm-blooded, breathe in air through their lungs, bear their young alive and suckle them on their own milk, and have hair, although very little of it. Another way of discerning a cetacean from a fish is by the shape of the tail. The tail of a fish is vertical and moves from side to side when the fish swims. The tail of a cetacean—called a fluke—is horizontal and moves up and down, as cetaceans' spines bend in the same manner as a human spine. Taxonomic listing Size comparison of all known extant cetacean species. Note the human diver at lower right for scale. The classification here closely follows Dale W. Rice, Marine Mammals of the World: Systematics and Distribution (1998), which has become the standard taxonomy reference in the field. There is very close agreement between this classification and that of Mammal Species of the World: 3rd Edition (Wilson and Reeder eds., 2005). Any differences are noted using the abbreviations "Rice" and "MSW3" respectively. Further differences due to recent discoveries are also noted. Discussion of synonyms and subspecies are relegated to the relevant genus and species articles. ORDER CETACEA Suborder Mysticeti: Baleen whales Family Balaenidae: Right whales and Bowhead Whale Genus Balaena Bowhead Whale, Balaena mysticetus Genus Eubalaena North Atlantic Right Whale, Eubalaena glacialis North Pacific Right Whale, Eubalaena japonica Southern Right Whale, Eubalaena australis Family Balaenopteridae: Rorquals Subfamily Balaenopterinae Genus Balaenoptera Common Minke Whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata Antarctic Minke Whale, Balaenoptera bonaerensis Sei Whale, Balaenoptera borealis Bryde's Whale, Balaenoptera brydei Eden's Whale Balaenoptera edeni - Rice lists this as a separate species, MSW3 does not Balaenoptera omurai - MSW3 lists this is a synonym of Bryde's Whale but suggests this may be temporary. Blue Whale, Balaenoptera musculus Fin Whale, Balaenoptera physalus Subfamily Megapterinae Genus Megaptera Humpback Whale, Megaptera novaeangliae † Genus Eobalaenoptera † Harrison's Whale, Eobalaenoptera harrisoni Family Eschrichtiidae Genus Eschrichtius Gray Whale, Eschrichtius robustus Family Neobalaenidae: Pygmy Right Whale Genus Caperea Pygmy Right Whale, Caperea marginata Suborder Odontoceti: toothed whales Family Delphinidae: Dolphin Genus Cephalorhynchus Commerson's Dolphin, Cephalorhyncus commersonii Chilean Dolphin, Cephalorhyncus eutropia Heaviside's Dolphin, Cephalorhyncus heavisidii Hector's Dolphin, Cephalorhyncus hectori Genus Delphinus Long-beaked Common Dolphin, Delphinus capensis Short-beaked Common Dolphin, Delphinus delphis Arabian Common Dolphin, Delphinus tropicalis. Rice recognises this as a separate species. MSW3 does not. Genus Feresa Pygmy Killer Whale, Feresa attenuata Genus Globicephala Short-finned Pilot Whale, Globicephala macrorhyncus Long-finned Pilot Whale, Globicephala melas Genus Grampus Risso's Dolphin, Grampus griseus Genus Lagenodelphis Fraser's Dolphin, Lagenodelphis hosei Genus Lagenorhynchus Atlantic White-sided Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus acutus White-beaked Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus albirostris Peale's Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus australis Hourglass Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus cruciger Pacific White-sided Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens Dusky Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obscurus Genus Lissodelphis Northern Right Whale Dolphin, Lissodelphis borealis Southern Right Whale Dolphin, Lissodelphis peronii Genus Orcaella Irrawaddy Dolphin, Orcaella brevirostris Australian Snubfin Dolphin, Orcaella heinsohni. 2005 discovery, thus not recognized by Rice or MSW3 and subject to revision. Genus Orcinus Killer Whale, Orcinus orca Genus Peponocephala Melon-headed Whale, Peponocephala electra Genus Pseudorca False Killer Whale, Pseudorca crassidens Genus Sotalia Tucuxi, Sotalia fluviatilis, see the species article for a discussion Costero, Sotalia guianensis, see the species article for a discussion Genus Sousa Pacific Humpback Dolphin, Sousa chinensis Indian Humpback Dolphin, Sousa plumbea Atlantic Humpback Dolphin, Sousa teuszii Genus Stenella Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, Stenella attenuata Clymene Dolphin, Stenella clymene Striped Dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba Atlantic Spotted Dolphin, Stenella frontalis Spinner Dolphin, Stenella longirostris Genus Steno Rough-toothed Dolphin, Steno bredanensis Genus Tursiops - Rice and MSW3 tentatively agree on this classification but see species article for more detail. Indian Ocean Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops aduncus Common Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops truncatus Family Monodontidae Genus Delphinapterus Beluga, Delphinapterus leucas Genus Monodon Narwhal, Monodon monoceros Family Phocoenidae: Porpoises Genus Neophocaena Finless Porpoise, Neophocaena phocaenoides Genus Phocoena Spectacled Porpoise, Phocoena dioptrica Harbour Porpoise, Phocoena phocaena Vaquita, Phocoena sinus Burmeister's Porpoise, Phocoena spinipinnis Genus Phocoenoides Dall's Porpoise, Phocoenoides dalli Family Physeteridae: Sperm Whale family Genus Physeter Sperm Whale, Physeter catodon (syn. P. macrocephalus) Family Kogiidae - MSW3 treats Kogia as a member of Physeteridae Genus Kogia Pygmy Sperm Whale, Kogia breviceps Dwarf Sperm Whale, Kogia sima Superfamily Platanistoidea: River dolphins Family Iniidae Genus Inia Bolivian River Dolphin, Inia boliviensis Amazon River Dolphin, Inia geoffrensis Family Lipotidae - MSW3 treats Lipotes as a member of Iniidae Genus Lipotes Baiji, Lipotes vexillifer Family Pontoporiidae - MSW3 treats Pontoporia as a member of Iniidae Genus Pontoporia Franciscana, Pontoporia blainvillei Family Platanistidae Genus Platanista Ganges and Indus River Dolphin, Platanista gangetica. MSW3 treats Platanista minor as a separate species, with common names Ganges River Dolphin and Indus River Dolphin, respectively. Family Ziphidae, Beaked whales Genus Berardius Arnoux's Beaked Whale, Berardius arnuxii Baird's Beaked Whale (North Pacific Bottlenose Whale), Berardius bairdii Subfamily Hyperoodontidae Genus Hyperoodon Northern Bottlenose Whale, Hyperoodon ampullatus Southern Bottlenose Whale, Hyperoodon planifrons Genus Indopacetus Indo-Pacific Beaked Whale (Longman's Beaked Whale), Indopacetus pacificus Genus Mesoplodon, Mesoplodont Whale Sowerby's Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon bidens Andrews' Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon bowdoini Hubbs' Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon carlhubbsi Blainville's Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon densirostris Gervais' Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon europaeus Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon ginkgodens Gray's Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon grayi Hector's Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon hectori Layard's Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon layardii True's Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon mirus Perrin's Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon perrini. This species was recognised in 2002 and as such is listed by MSW3 but not Rice. Pygmy Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon peruvianus Stejneger's Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon stejnegeri Spade Toothed Whale, Mesoplodon traversii Genus Tasmacetus Tasman Beaked Whale (Shepherd's Beaked Whale), Tasmacetus shepherdi Genus Ziphius Cuvier's Beaked Whale, Ziphius cavirostris †Extinct See also Beached whale Cetacean Conservation Center Cetacean intelligence Evolution of cetaceans Famous cetaceans List of cetaceans List of dolphin species List of extinct cetaceans List of porpoise species List of whale species Vocal learning References External links ARKive - images and movies of Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises Tree of Life illustration showing how Cetacea relates to other lifeforms Images and movies of Whales and Dolphins. Text is in French ACS American Cetacean Society British Cetacean Site including a page on taxonomy Dolphins and Whales on Science Daily All About Dolphins: Information and News Concerning Dolphins and other Cetacea Sounds of the cetaceans, bioindicators, acoustic trauma, acoustic signals Cetacea Evolution by Douglas J. Futuyma Whale Trackers- A Documentary Series about Whales, Dolphns and Porpoises.	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6,028	James_Joyce	James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish expatriate author of the 20th century. He is best known for his landmark novel Ulysses (1922) and its controversial successor Finnegans Wake (1939), as well as the short story collection Dubliners (1914) and the semi-autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916). Although he spent most of his adult life outside Ireland, Joyce's psychological and fictional universe is firmly rooted in his native Dublin, the city which provides the settings and much of the subject matter for all his fiction. In particular, his tempestuous early relationship with the Irish Roman Catholic Church is reflected through a similar inner conflict in his recurrent alter ego Stephen Dedalus. As the result of his minute attentiveness to a personal locale and his self-imposed exile and influence throughout Europe, notably in Paris, Joyce became paradoxically one of the most cosmopolitan yet one of the most regionally focused of all the English language writers of his time. Life Dublin: 1882-1904 James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was born on February 2, 1882 to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane Murray in the Dublin suburb of Rathgar. He was the oldest of 10 surviving children; two of his siblings died of typhoid. His father's family, originally from Fermoy in Cork, had once owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce's father and paternal grandfather both married into wealthy families. In 1887, his father was appointed rate (i.e., a local property tax) collector by Dublin Corporation; the family subsequently moved to the fashionable adjacent small town of Bray from Dublin. Around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog; this resulted in a lifelong canine phobia. He also suffered from a fear of thunderstorms, which his deeply religious aunt had described to him as being a sign of God's wrath. Asked why he was afraid of thunder when his children weren't, "'Ah,' said Joyce in contempt, 'they have no religion.' His fears were part of his identity, and he had no wish, even if he had had the power, to slough any of them off." (Ellmann, p. 514). In 1891, Joyce wrote a poem, "Et Tu Healy," on the death of Charles Stewart Parnell. His father was angry at the treatment of Parnell by the Catholic church and at the resulting failure to secure Home Rule for Ireland. The elder Joyce had the poem printed and even sent a copy to the Vatican Library. In November of that same year, John Joyce was entered in Stubbs Gazette (an official register of bankruptcies) and suspended from work. In 1893 John Joyce was dismissed with a pension. This was the beginning of a slide into poverty for the family, mainly due to John's drinking and general financial mismanagement. Ellmann, p. 132. James Joyce was initially educated by the Jesuit order at Clongowes Wood College, a boarding school near Clane in County Kildare, which he entered in 1888 but had to leave in 1892 when his father could no longer pay the fees. Joyce then studied at home and briefly at the Christian Brothers school on North Richmond Street, Dublin, before he was offered a place in the Jesuits' Dublin school, Belvedere College, in 1893. The offer was made at least partly in the hope that he would prove to have a vocation and join the Order. Joyce, however, was to reject Catholicism by the age of 16, although the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas would remain a strong influence on him throughout his life. Ellmann, p. 30, 55. He enrolled at the recently established University College Dublin (UCD) in 1898. He studied modern languages, specifically English, French and Italian. He also became active in theatrical and literary circles in the city. The article Ibsen's New Drama, his first published work, was published in 1900 and resulted in a letter of thanks from the Norwegian dramatist himself. Joyce wrote a number of other articles and at least two plays (since lost) during this period. Many of the friends he made at University College Dublin would appear as characters in Joyce's written works. He was an active member of the Literary and Historical Society, University College Dublin, and presented his paper "Drama and Life" to the L&H in 1900. After graduating from UCD in 1903, Joyce left for Paris to "study medicine", but in reality he squandered money his family could ill afford. He returned to Ireland after a few months, when his mother was diagnosed with cancer. She was originally diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver, but this proved incorrect, and she was diagnosed with cancer in April, 1903 (Ellmann, p. 128–129). Fearing for her son's "impiety", his mother tried unsuccessfully to get Joyce to make his confession and to take communion. She finally passed into a coma and died on August 13, Joyce having refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside. Ellmann, pp. 129, 136. After her death he continued to drink heavily, and conditions at home grew quite appalling. He scraped a living reviewing books, teaching and singing — he was an accomplished tenor, and won the bronze medal in the 1904 Feis Ceoil. History of the Feis Ceoil Association. Retrieved 20 December 2007. On 7 January 1904, he attempted to publish A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, an essay-story dealing with aesthetics, only to have it rejected by the free-thinking magazine Dana. He decided, on his twenty-second birthday, to revise the story and turn it into a novel he planned to call Stephen Hero. However, he never published this novel in this original name. This was the same year he met Nora Barnacle, a young woman from Galway city who was working as a chambermaid at Finn's Hotel in Dublin. On 16 June 1904, they went on their first date, an event that would be commemorated by providing the date for the action of Ulysses. Joyce remained in Dublin for some time longer, drinking heavily. After one of his alcoholic binges, he got into a fight over a misunderstanding with a man in St. Stephen's Green; he was picked up and dusted off by a minor acquaintance of his father, Alfred H. Hunter, who brought him into his home to tend to his injuries. Ellmann, p. 162. Hunter was rumored to be Jewish and to have an unfaithful wife, and would serve as one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the main protagonist of Ulysses. Ellmann, p. 230. He took up with medical student Oliver St John Gogarty, who formed the basis for the character Buck Mulligan in Ulysses. After staying in Gogarty's Martello Tower for 6 nights he left in the middle of the night following an altercation that involved Gogarty shooting a pistol at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed. Ellmann, p. 175. He walked all the way back to Dublin to stay with relatives for the night, and sent a friend to the tower the next day to pack his possessions into his trunk. Shortly thereafter he eloped to the continent with Nora. Trieste and Zürich: 1904-1920 Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile, moving first to Zürich, where he had supposedly acquired a post teaching English at the Berlitz Language School through an agent in England. It turned out that the English agent had been swindled, but the director of the school sent him on to Trieste, which was part of Austria-Hungary until World War I (today part of Italy). Once again, he found there was no position for him, but with the help of Almidano Artifoni, director of the Trieste Berlitz school, he finally secured a teaching position in Pula, then also part of Austria-Hungary (today part of Croatia). He stayed there, teaching English mainly to Austro-Hungarian naval officers stationed at the Pula base, from October 1904 until March 1905, when the Austrians — having discovered an espionage ring in the city — expelled all aliens. With Artifoni's help, he moved back to the city of Trieste and began teaching English there. He would remain in Trieste for most of the next 10 years. Later that year Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio. Joyce then managed to talk his brother, Stanislaus, into joining him in Trieste, and secured him a position teaching at the school. Ostensibly his reasons were for his company and offering his brother a much more interesting life than the simple clerking job he had back in Dublin, but in truth, he hoped to augment his family's meagre income with his brother's earnings. According to Ellmann, Stanislaus allowed James to collect his pay, "to simplify matters" (p. 213). Stanislaus and James had strained relations the entire time they lived together in Trieste, with most arguments centering on James' frivolity with money and drinking habits. The worst of the conflicts were in July, 1910 (Ellmann, pp. 311–313). With chronic wanderlust much of his early life, Joyce became frustrated with life in Trieste and moved to Rome in late 1906, having secured employment in a bank. He intensely disliked Rome, and moved back to Trieste in early 1907. His daughter Lucia was born in the summer of the same year. Joyce returned to Dublin in the summer of 1909 with Giorgio, to visit his father and work on getting Dubliners published. He visited Nora's family in Galway, meeting them for the first time (a successful visit, to his relief). When preparing to return to Trieste he decided to bring one of his sisters, Eva, back to Trieste with him to help Nora run the home. He would spend only a month in Trieste before returning to Dublin, this time as a representative of some cinema owners to set up a regular cinema in Dublin. The venture was successful (but quickly fell apart in his absence), and he returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister in tow, Eileen. While Eva became very homesick for Dublin and returned a few years later, Eileen spent the rest of her life on the continent, eventually marrying Czech bank cashier František Schaurek. Joyce returned to Dublin briefly in the summer of 1912 during his years-long fight with his Dublin publisher, George Roberts, over the publication of Dubliners. His trip was once again fruitless, and on his return he wrote the poem "Gas from a Burner" as a thinly veiled invective against Roberts. It was his last trip to Ireland, and he never again came closer to Dublin than London, despite the many pleas of his father and invitations from fellow Irish writer William Butler Yeats. Joyce concocted many money-making schemes during this period, such as his attempt to become a cinema magnate in Dublin, as well as a frequently discussed but ultimately abandoned plan to import Irish tweeds into Trieste. His expert borrowing skills saved him from indigence. His income was partially from his position at the Berlitz school and from teaching private students. Many of his acquaintances through meeting these private students proved invaluable allies when he faced problems getting out of Austria-Hungary and into Switzerland in 1915. One of his students in Trieste was Ettore Schmitz, better known by the pseudonym Italo Svevo; they met in 1907 and became lasting friends and mutual critics. Schmitz was a Catholic of Jewish origin, and became the primary model for Leopold Bloom; most of the details about the Jewish faith included in Ulysses came from Schmitz in response to Joyce's queries. Ellmann, p. 272. Joyce would spend most of the rest of his life on the Continent. It was in Trieste that he was first beset with eye problems, ultimately requiring over a dozen surgeries. In 1915, when Joyce moved to Zürich to avoid the complexities (as a British subject) of living in Austria-Hungary during World War I, he met one of his most enduring and important friends, Frank Budgen, whose opinion Joyce constantly sought through the writing of Ulysses and Finnegans Wake. It was also here where Ezra Pound brought him to the attention of English feminist and publisher Harriet Shaw Weaver, who would become Joyce's patron, providing him thousands of pounds over the next 25 years and relieving him of the burden of teaching to focus on his writing. After the war he returned to Trieste briefly, but found the city had changed, and his relations with his brother (who had been interned in an Austrian prison camp for most of the war due to his pro-Italian politics) were more strained than ever. Joyce headed to Paris in 1920 at an invitation from Ezra Pound, supposedly for a week, but he ended up living there for the next twenty years. Paris and Zürich: 1920-1941 During this era, Joyce traveled frequently to Switzerland for eye surgeries and treatments for Lucia, who, according to the Joyce estate, suffered from schizophrenia. Lucia was even analyzed by Carl Jung at the time, who was of the opinion that her father had schizophrenia after reading Ulysses. Shloss, p.278 Jung noted that she and her father were two people heading to the bottom of a river, except that he was diving and she was falling. Pepper, Tara Shloss p.297 In-depth knowledge of Joyce's relationship with his schizophrenic daughter is scant, because the current heir of the Joyce estate, Stephen Joyce, burned thousands of letters between Lucia and her father that he received upon Lucia's death in 1982. Stanley, Alessandra. "Poet Told All; Therapist Provides the Record," The New York Times, July 15, 1991. Retrieved 9 July 2007. Stephen Joyce stated in a letter to the editor of the New York Times that "Regarding the destroyed correspondence, these were all personal letters from Lucia to us. They were written many years after both Nonno and Nonna [i.e. Joyce and Nora Barnacle..] died and did not refer to them. Also destroyed were some postcards and one telegram from Samuel Beckett to Lucia. This was done at Sam's written request." In Paris, Maria and Eugene Jolas nursed Joyce during his long years of writing Finnegans Wake. Were it not for their unwavering support (along with Harriet Shaw Weaver's constant financial support), there is a good possibility that his books might never have been finished or published. In their now legendary literary magazine "transition," the Jolases published serially various sections of Joyce's novel under the title Work in Progress. He returned to Zürich in late 1940, fleeing the Nazi occupation of France. On 11 January 1941, he underwent surgery for a perforated ulcer. While at first improved, he relapsed the following day, and despite several transfusions, fell into a coma. He awoke at 2 a.m. on 13 January 1941, and asked for a nurse to call his wife and son before losing consciousness again. They were still en route when he died 15 minutes later. He is buried in the Fluntern Cemetery within earshot of the lions in the Zürich zoo. Although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, neither attended Joyce's funeral, and the Irish government subsequently declined Nora's offer to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains. Nora, whom Joyce had finally married in London in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried now by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976. Ellmann reports that when the arrangements for Joyce's burial were being made, a Catholic priest tried to convince Nora that there should be a funeral Mass. Ever loyal, she replied, 'I couldn't do that to him'. Swiss tenor Max Meili sang Addio terra, addio cielo from Monteverdi's L'Orfeo at the funeral service. Major works Dubliners Joyce's Irish experiences constitute an essential element of his writings, and provide all of the settings for his fiction and much of their subject matter. His early volume of short stories, Dubliners, is a penetrating analysis of the stagnation and paralysis of Dublin society. The final and most famous story in the collection, "The Dead," was made into a feature film in 1987, directed by John Huston (Huston's last major work). A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is a nearly complete rewrite of the abandoned novel Stephen Hero, the original manuscript of which Joyce partially destroyed in a fit of rage during an argument with Nora, who asserted that it would never be published. A Künstlerroman, or story of the personal development of an artist, it is a heavily biographical coming-of-age novel in which Joyce depicts a gifted young man's gradual attainment of maturity and self-consciousness; the main character, Stephen Dedalus, is in many ways based upon Joyce himself. MacBride, P. 14. Some hints of the techniques Joyce was to employ frequently in later works — such as the use of interior monologue and references to a character's psychic reality rather than his external surroundings — are evident in this novel. Deming, p, 749. Joseph Strick directed a film of the book in 1977 starring Luke Johnston, Bosco Hogan, T.P. McKenna and John Gielgud. Exiles and poetry Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of World War I in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband and wife relationship, the play looks back to The Dead (the final story in Dubliners) and forward to Ulysses, which was begun around the time of the play's composition. Joyce also published a number of books of poetry. His first mature published work was the satirical broadside "The Holy Office" (1904), in which he proclaimed himself to be the superior of many prominent members of the Celtic revival. His first full-length poetry collection Chamber Music (referring, Joyce explained, to the sound of urine hitting the side of a chamber pot) consisted of 36 short lyrics. This publication led to his inclusion in the Imagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, who was a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes "Gas From A Burner" (1912), Pomes Penyeach (1927) and "Ecce Puer" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). It was published in Collected Poems (1936). Ulysses As he was completing work on Dubliners in 1906, Joyce considered adding another story featuring a Jewish advertising canvasser called Leopold Bloom under the title Ulysses. Although he did not pursue the idea further at the time, he eventually commenced work on a novel using both the title and basic premise in 1914. The writing was completed in October, 1921. Three more months were devoted to working on the proofs of the book before Joyce halted work shortly before his self-imposed deadline, his 40th birthday (2 February 1922). Thanks to Ezra Pound, serial publication of the novel in the magazine The Little Review began in 1918. This magazine was edited by Margaret Anderson and Jane Heap, with the backing of John Quinn, a New York Attorney at law with an interest in contemporary experimental art and literature. Unfortunately, this publication encountered censorship problems in the United States; serialization was halted in 1920 when the editors were convicted of publishing obscenity. The novel remained proscribed in the United States until Judge John M. Woolsey lifted the ban in 1933. At least partly because of this controversy, Joyce found it difficult to get a publisher to accept the book, but it was published in 1922 by Sylvia Beach from her well-known Rive Gauche bookshop, Shakespeare and Company at 12 Rue l'Odéon, Paris. An English edition published the same year by Joyce's patron, Harriet Shaw Weaver, ran into further difficulties with the United States authorities, and 500 copies that were shipped to the States were seized and possibly destroyed. The following year, John Rodker produced a print run of 500 more intended to replace the missing copies, but these were burned by English customs at Folkestone. A further consequence of the novel's ambiguous legal status as a banned book was that a number of 'bootleg' versions appeared, most notably a number of pirate versions from the publisher Samuel Roth. In 1928, a court injunction against Roth was obtained and he ceased publication. The year 1922 was a key year in the history of English-language literary modernism, with the appearance of both Ulysses and T. S. Eliot's poem, The Waste Land. In Ulysses, Joyce employs stream of consciousness, parody, jokes, and virtually every other literary technique to present his characters. Examined at length in Vladimir Nabokov's Lectures on Ulysses. A Facsimile of the Manuscript. The action of the novel, which takes place in a single day, 16 June 1904, sets the characters and incidents of the Odyssey of Homer in modern Dublin and represents Odysseus (Ulysses), Penelope and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom and Stephen Dedalus, contrasted with their lofty models. The book explores various areas of Dublin life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Nevertheless, the book is also an affectionately detailed study of the city, and Joyce said that "I want to give a picture of Dublin so complete that if the city one day suddenly disappeared from the earth it could be reconstructed out of my book". Budgen, p. 69. In order to achieve this level of accuracy, Joyce used the 1904 edition of Thom's Directory — a work that listed the owners and/or tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city. He also bombarded friends still living there with requests for information and clarification. The book consists of 18 chapters, each covering roughly one hour of the day, beginning around about 8 a.m. and ending sometime after 2 a.m. the following morning. Each of the 18 chapters of the novel employs its own literary style. Each chapter also refers to a specific episode in Homer's Odyssey and has a specific colour, art or science and bodily organ associated with it. This combination of kaleidoscopic writing with an extreme formal, schematic structure represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th century modernist literature. Sherry, p. 102. Others include the use of classical mythology as a framework for his book and the near-obsessive focus on external detail in a book in which much of the significant action is happening inside the minds of the characters. Nevertheless, Joyce complained that, "I may have oversystematised Ulysses," and played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles that had been taken from Homer. Dettmar, p. 285. Joseph Strick directed a film of the book in 1967 starring Milo O'Shea, Barbara Jefford and Maurice Roëves. Sean Walsh directed another version released in 2004 starring Stephen Rea, Angeline Ball and Hugh O'Conor. Finnegans Wake Having completed work on Ulysses, Joyce was so exhausted that he did not write a line of prose for a year. Bulson, Eric. The Cambridge Introduction to James Joyce. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Page 14. On 10 March 1923 he informed a patron, Harriet Weaver: "Yesterday I wrote two pages — the first I have since the final Yes of Ulysses. Having found a pen, with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of foolscap so that I could read them. Il lupo perde il pelo ma non il vizio, the Italians say. The wolf may lose his skin but not his vice or the leopard cannot change his spots". Joyce, James. Ulysses: The 1922 Text. Oxford University Press, 1998. Page xlvii. Thus was born a text that became known, first, as Work in Progress and later Finnegans Wake. By 1926 Joyce had completed the first two parts of the book. In that year, he met Eugene and Maria Jolas who offered to serialise the book in their magazine transition. For the next few years, Joyce worked rapidly on the new book, but in the 1930s, progress slowed considerably. This was due to a number of factors, including the death of his father in 1931, concern over the mental health of his daughter Lucia and his own health problems, including failing eyesight. Much of the work was done with the assistance of younger admirers, including Samuel Beckett. For some years, Joyce nursed the eccentric plan of turning over the book to his friend James Stephens to complete, on the grounds that Stephens was born in the same hospital as Joyce exactly one week later, and shared the first name of both Joyce and of Joyce's fictional alter-ego (this is one example of Joyce's numerous superstitions). Ellmann, pp. 591–592 Reaction to the work was mixed, including negative comment from early supporters of Joyce's work, such as Pound and the author's brother Stanislaus Joyce. Ellmann, pp. 577–585, 603. In order to counteract this hostile reception, a book of essays by supporters of the new work, including Beckett, William Carlos Williams and others was organised and published in 1929 under the title Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress. At his 47th birthday party at the Jolases' home, Joyce revealed the final title of the work and Finnegans Wake was published in book form on 4 May 1939. Joyce's method of stream of consciousness, literary allusions and free dream associations was pushed to the limit in Finnegans Wake, which abandoned all conventions of plot and character construction and is written in a peculiar and obscure language, based mainly on complex multi-level puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky. If Ulysses is a day in the life of a city, then Wake is a night and partakes of the logic of dreams. This has led many readers and critics to apply Joyce's oft-quoted description in the Wake of Ulysses as his "usylessly unreadable Blue Book of Eccles" Finnegans Wake, 179.26–27. to the Wake itself. However, readers have been able to reach a consensus about the central cast of characters and general plot. Much of the wordplay in the book stems from the use of multilingual puns which draw on a wide range of languages. The role played by Beckett and other assistants included collating words from these languages on cards for Joyce to use and, as Joyce's eyesight worsened, of writing the text from the author's dictation. Gluck, p. 27. The view of history propounded in this text is very strongly influenced by Giambattista Vico, and the metaphysics of Giordano Bruno of Nola are important to the interplay of the "characters". Vico propounded a cyclical view of history, in which civilisation rose from chaos, passed through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapsed back into chaos. The most obvious example of the influence of Vico's cyclical theory of history is to be found in the opening and closing words of the book. Finnegans Wake opens with the words 'riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs.' ('vicus' is a pun on Vico) and ends 'A way a lone a last a loved a long the'. In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the book into one great cycle. Indeed, Joyce said that the ideal reader of the Wake would suffer from "ideal insomnia" Finnegans Wake, 120.9–16. and, on completing the book, would turn to page one and start again, and so on in an endless cycle of reading. Legacy Joyce's work has been subject to intense scrutiny by scholars of all types. He has also been an important influence on writers and scholars as diverse as Hugh MacDiarmid, GRIN Publishing: Hugh MacDiarmid and his influence on modern Scottish poetry - language and national identity - Examination Thesis Samuel Beckett, Friedman, Melvin J. A review of Barbara Reich Gluck's Beckett and Joyce: friendship and fiction, Bucknell University Press (June 1979), ISBN 0-8387-2060-9. Retrieved 3 December 2006. Jorge Luis Borges, Williamson, 123–124, 179, 218. Flann O'Brien, For example, Hopper, p. 75, says "In all of O'Brien's work the figure of Joyce hovers on the horizon …". Máirtín Ó Cadhain, Salman Rushdie, Interview of Salman Rushdie, by Margot Dijkgraaf for the Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad, translated by K. Gwan Go. Retrieved 3 December 2006. Robert Anton Wilson, Edited transcript of an April 23, 1988 interview of Robert Anton Wilson by David A. Banton, broadcast on HFJC, 89.7 FM, Los Altos Hills, California. Retrieved 3 December 2006. and Joseph Campbell. "About Joseph Campbell", Joseph Campbell Foundation. Retrieved 3 December 2006. Some scholars, most notably Vladimir Nabokov, have mixed feelings on his work, often championing some of his fiction while condemning other works. In Nabokov's opinion, Ulysses was brilliant; "When I want good reading I reread Proust's A la Recherche du Temps Perdu or Joyce's Ulysses" (Nabokov, letter to Elena Sikorski, August 3, 1950, in Nabokov's Butterflies: Unpublished and Uncollected Writings [Boston: Beacon, 2000], 464–465.) Nabokov put Ulysses at the head of his list of the "greatest twentieth century masterpieces" (Nabokov, Strong Opinions [New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974] excerpt). Finnegans Wake, horrible (see Strong Opinions, The Annotated Lolita or Pale Fire "Of course, it would have been unseemly for a monarch to appear in the robes of learning at a university lectern and present to rosy youths Finnigan's Wake [sic] as a monstrous extension of Angus MacDiarmid's "incoherent transactions" and of Southey's Lingo-Grande. . ." (Nabokov, Pale Fire [New York: Random House, 1962], p. 76). The comparison is made by an unreliable narrator, but Nabokov in an unpublished note had compared "the worst parts of James Joyce" to McDiarmid and to Swift's letters to Stella (quoted by Brian Boyd, "Notes" in Nabokov's Novels 1955–1962: Lolita / Pnin / Pale Fire [New York: Library of America, 1996], 893). ), an attitude Jorge Luis Borges shared. Borges, p. 195. In recent years, literary theory has embraced Joyce's innovation and ambition. Joyce's influence is also evident in fields other than literature. The phrase "Three Quarks for Muster Mark" in Joyce's Finnegans Wake is often called the source of the physicists' word "quark", the name of one of the main kinds of elementary particles, proposed by the physicist Murray Gell-Mann. "quark", American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition 2000. American philosopher Donald Davidson has written on Finnegans Wake in comparison with Lewis Carroll. Psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan used Joyce's writings to explain his concept of the sinthome. According to Lacan, Joyce's writing is the supplementary cord which kept Joyce from psychosis. Evans, Dylan, An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psychoanalysis, Routledge, 1996, p.189 The life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide. The James Joyce Society was founded in February 1947 at the Gotham Book Mart in Manhattan. Its first member was T. S. Eliot. The Joyce bibliographer, John Slocum, was the society's first president and Frances Steloff, founder and owner of the Gotham, served as its first treasurer. Each year in Dedham, Massachusetts, USA literary-minded runners hold the James Joyce Ramble, a 10K Road Race with each mile dedicated to a different work by Joyce. James Joyce Ramble. Retrieved 28 November 2006. With professional actors in period garb lining the streets and reading from his books as the athletes run by, it is billed as the only theatrical performance where the performers stand still and the audience does the moving. Much of Joyce's legacy is protected by the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas, which houses thousands of manuscripts, pieces of correspondence, drafts, proofs, notes, novel fragments, poems, song lyrics, musical scores, limericks, and translations by Joyce. The singled largest collection of James Joyce artifacts is owned by The Poetry Collection of the University at Buffalo, which houses over 10,000 pages of holograph manuscripts, typescripts, notebooks, page proofs and pieces of correspondence, Joyce's private library, and artifacts such as Joyce's passports, glasses and canes. http://library.buffalo.edu/pl/collections/jamesjoyce/ Not everyone is eager to expand upon academic study of Joyce, however; Stephen Joyce, James' grandson and sole beneficiary owner of the estate, has been alleged to have destroyed some of the writer's correspondence, Max, "The Injustice Collector". threatened to sue if public readings were held during Bloomsday, Max, D.T., "The Injustice Collector: Is James Joyce’s Grandson Suppressing Scholarship?," The New Yorker, 19 June 2006. Retrieved 9 July 2007. and blocked adaptations he felt were 'inappropriate'. Cavanaugh, "Ulysses Unbound". On 12 June 2006, Carol Schloss, a Stanford University professor, sued the estate for refusing to give permission to use material about Joyce and his daughter on the professor's website. Schloss. Stanford Law School, The Center for Internet and Society. June 12, 2006, Retrieved on 28 November 2006. Associated Press. Professor sues James Joyce’s estate: Carol Schloss wants right to use copyrighted material on her Web site. MSNBC. 12 June 2006, Retrieved 28 November 2006. The main libraries at Joyce's Alma mater, University College Dublin and Clongowes Wood College, are now named in his honour. Works Stephen Hero (written 1904–6, published 1944) Chamber Music (1907 poems) Giacomo Joyce (written 1907, published 1968) Dubliners (1914) A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) Exiles (1918 play) Ulysses (1922) Pomes Penyeach (1927 poems) Collected Poems (1936 poems) Finnegans Wake (1939) James Joyce’s Letters to Sylvia Beach, 1921-1940 (1987) Notes References Adams, David. Colonial Odysseys: Empire and Epic in the Modernist Novel. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 2003. ISBN 0-8014-8886-9. Borges, Jorge Luis, (ed.) Eliot Weinberger, Borges: Selected Non-Fictions, Penguin (31 October, 2000). ISBN 0-14-029011-7. Bradley, Bruce. James Joyce's Schooldays. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982; and Dublin: Gill & MacMillan, 1982. ISBN 978-0-3124-3978-1. Budgen, Frank. [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/JoyceColl.BudgenUlyssesJames Joyce and the Making of 'Ulysses', and other writings]. Oxford University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-19-211713-0. Burgess, Anthony, Joysprick: An Introduction to the Language of James Joyce (1973), Harcourt (March 1975). ISBN 0-15-646561-2. Burgess, Anthony, Here Comes Everybody: An Introduction to James Joyce for the Ordinary Reader, Faber & Faber (1965), ISBN 0571063950; (also published as Re Joyce ); Hamlyn Paperbacks; Rev. ed edition (1982). ISBN 0-600-20673-4. Cavanaugh, Tim, "Ulysses Unbound: Why does a book so bad it "defecates on your bed" still have so many admirers?". reason, July 2004. Clark, Hilary. The Fictional Encyclopaedia: Joyce, Pound, Sollers. Taylor & Francis, 1990. ISBN 978-0-8240-0006-6. Deming, Robert H., ed. James Joyce: The Critical Heritage. New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 978-0-203-27490-3. Dettmar, Kevin J. H., ed. Rereading the New: A Backward Glance at Modernism. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-472-10290-7. Ellmann, Richard. James Joyce. Oxford University Press, 1959, revised edition 1983. ISBN 0-19-503381-7. Gluck, Barbara Reich. Beckett and Joyce: Friendship and Fiction. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell UP, 1979. ISBN 0-8387-2060-9. Gravgaard, Anna-Katarina. Could Leopold Bloom Read Ulysses? University of Copenhagen, 2006. Hopper, Keith. Flann O'Brien: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Post-Modernist. Cork UP (May 1995). ISBN 1-85918-042-6. Igoe, Vivien. A Literary Guide to Dublin. ISBN 0-413-69120-9. Klein, Scott W. The Fictions of James Joyce and Wyndham Lewis: Monsters of Nature and Design. Cambridge UP, 1994. ISBN 978-0521434522. Levin, Harry (ed. with introduction and notes). The Essential James Joyce. Cape, 1948. Revised edition Penguin in association with Jonathan Cape, 1963. Max, D. J., "The Injustice Collector", The New Yorker, 2006-06-19. Nabokov, Vladimir. Lectures on Ulysses: A Facsimile of the Manuscript. Bloomfield Hills/Columbia: Bruccoli Clark, 1980. ISBN 0-89723-027-2. Pepper, Tara. "Portrait of the Daughter: Two works seek to reclaim the legacy of Lucia Joyce." Newsweek International. March 8, 2003. Quillian, William H. Hamlet and the New Poetic: James Joyce and T. S. Eliot. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983. Perelman, Bob. The Trouble with Genius: Reading Pound, Joyce, Stein, and Zukofsky. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. Read, Forrest. Pound/Joyce: The Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce, with Pound's Essays on Joyce. New Directions, 1967. Schloss, Carol Loeb. Lucia Joyce: To Dance in the Wake. London: Bloomsbury, 2004. ISBN 0-374-19424-6. Williamson, Edwin. Borges: A Life, Viking Adult (5 August, 2004). ISBN 0-670-88579-7. Ulysses Blamires, Harry. The New Bloomsday Book: A Guide through Ulysses. 3rd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-00704-6. Groden, Michael Ulysses in Progress. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1986. ISBN 978-0-6911-0215-3. Kenner, Hugh. Ulysses. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980. ISBN 0-04-800003-5. Sherry, Vincent B. James Joyce: Ulysses. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, 2004. ISBN 0-521-53976-5. Finnegans Wake Beckett, Samuel; William Carlos Williams; et al. Our Exagmination Round His Factification For Incamination Of Work In Progress. Shakespeare and Company, 1929. Burgess, Anthony (ed.) A Shorter 'Finnegans Wake, 1969. Campbell, Joseph and Henry Morton Robinson. A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake, 1944. New World Library; New Ed edition (10 May, 2005) ISBN 1-57731-405-0. Concic-Kaucic, Gerhard Anna. /S/E/M/EI/ON/ /A/OR/IST/I/CON/ II oder zur Autobiographie Sem Schauns. Wien: Passagen Verlag, 1994. ISBN 3-85165-039-5. Tindall, William York. A Reader's Guide to Finnegans Wake. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse UP, 1969 and 1996. ISBN 978-0-8156-0385-6. Further readingGeneral Attridge, Derek. The Cambridge Companion to James Joyce. 2nd ed. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, 2004. ISBN 978-0-5218-3710-1. Benstock, Bernard, ed. Critical Essays on James Joyce. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1985. ISBN 0-81618-751-7. Bloom, Harold. James Joyce. New York: Chelsea House, 1986. ISBN 0-87754-625-8. Brannon, Julie Sloan. Who Reads Ulysses?: The Rhetoric of the Joyce Wars and the Common Reader. New York: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0-4159-4206-5. Brooker, Joseph. Joyce's Critics: Transitions in Reading and Culture. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004. ISBN 0-2991-9604-6. Brown, Richard, ed. A Companion to James Joyce. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. ISBN 978-1-4051-1044-0. Bulson, Eric. The Cambridge Introduction to James Joyce. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, 2006. ISBN 978-0-5218-4037-8. Connolly, Thomas Edmund. James Joyce's Books, Portraits, Manuscripts, Notebooks, Typescripts, Page Proofs: Together With Critical Essays About Some of His Works. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1997. ISBN 0-77348-645-3. Epstein, Edmund L., ed. Mythic Worlds, Modern Words: On the Art of James Joyce/Joseph Campbell. Novato, CA: Josephe Campbell Foundation, New World Library, 2003. ISBN 978-1-5773-1406-6. Fargnoli, A. Nicholas and Michael Patrick Gillespie. Critical Companion to James Joyce: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work. Rev. ed. New York: Checkmark Books, 2006. ISBN 978-0-8160-6689-6. Freund, Gisele, Carleton V.B.: Preface by Simone de Beauvoir. James Joyce: His Final Years. Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1965. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 65-21029. Hodgart, Matthew. James Joyce: A Student's Guide. London and Boston: Routledge, 1978. ISBN 0-71008-817-5. Jones, Ellen Carol and Beja Morris, eds. Twenty-First Joyce. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8130-2760-9. Knowles, Sebastian D. G., et al., eds. Joyce in Trieste: An Album of Risky Readings. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007. ISBN 978-0-8130-3033-3. Manista, Frank C. Voice, Boundary, and Identity in the Works of James Joyce. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2006. ISBN 978-0-7734-5522-1. Milesi, Laurent, ed. James Joyce and the Difference of Language. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, 2003. ISBN 0-52162-337-5. Nash, John. James Joyce and the Act of Reception: Reading, Ireland, Modernism. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, 2006. ISBN 978-0-5218-6576-0. O'Neill, Patrick. Polyglot Joyce: Fictions of Translation. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-8020-3897-5. Pierce, David. Reading Joyce. Harlow, England and New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. ISBN 978-1-4058-4061-3. Rabate, Jean-Michel. Palgrave Advances in James Joyce Studies. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. ISBN 978-1-4039-1210-7. Scholes, Robert. In Search of James Joyce. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992. ISBN 0-25206-245-0. Seidel, Michael. James Joyce: A Short Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002. ISBN 0-63122-702-4. Stewart, Bruce. James Joyce. Very Interesting People series, no. 11. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. ISBN 978-0-1992-1752-6. Tindall, William York. A Reader's Guide to James Joyce. London: Thames & Hudson, 1959, 1960, and 1963.Dubliners Benstock, Bernard. Narrative Con/Texts in Dubliners. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-2520-2059-9. Bloom, Harold. James Joyce's Dubliners. New York: Chelsea House, 1988. ISBN 978-1-5554-6019-8. Bosinelli Bollettieri, Rosa Maria and Harold Frederick Mosher, eds. ReJoycing: New Readings of Dubliners. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998. ISBN 978-0-8131-2057-7. Frawley, Oona. A New & Complex Sensation: Essays on Joyce's Dubliners. Dublin: Lilliput, 2004. ISBN 978-1-8435-1051-2. Hart, Clive. James Joyce's Dubliners: Critical Essays. London: Faber, 1969. ISBN 978-0-5710-8801-0. Ingersoll, Earl G. Engendered Trope in Joyce's Dubliners. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1996. ISBN 978-0-8093-2016-5. Norris, Margot, ed. Dubliners: Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism. New York: Norton, 2006. ISBN 0-393-97851-6. Thacker, Andrew, ed. Dubliners: James Joyce. New Casebook Series. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. ISBN 978-0-3337-7770-1.A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Bloom, Harold. James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. New York: Chelsea House, 1988. ISBN 1-55546-020-8. Brady, Philip and James F. Carens, eds. Critical Essays on James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. New York: G. K. Hall, 1998. ISBN 978-0-7838-0035-6. Doherty, Gerald. Pathologies of Desire: The Vicissitudes of the Self in James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. New York: Peter Lang, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8204-9735-8. Empric, Julienne H. The Woman in the Portrait: The Transforming Female in James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. San Bernardino, CA: Borgo Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-8937-0193-2. Epstein, Edmund L. The Ordeal of Stephen Dedalus: The Conflict of Generations in James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1971. ISBN 978-0-8093-0485-1 . Harkness, Marguerite. Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man: Voices of the Text. Boston: Twayne, 1989. ISBN 978-0-8057-8125-0. Morris, William E. and Clifford A. Nault, eds. Portraits of an Artist: A Casebook on James Joyce's Portrait. New York: Odyssey, 1962. Seed, David. James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-3120-8426-4. Thornton, Weldon. The Antimodernism of Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse UP, 1994. ISBN 978-0-8156-2587-2. Wollaeger, Mark A., ed. James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man: A Casebook. Oxford and New York: Oxford UP, 2003. ISBN 978-0-1951-5075-9. Yoshida, Hiromi. Joyce & Jung: The "Four Stages of Eroticism" in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. New York: Peter Lang, 2007. ISBN 978-0-8204-6913-3. Exiles Bauerle, Ruth and Connie Jo Coker. A Word List to James Joyce's Exiles. New York: Garland, 1981. ISBN 978-0-8240-9500-0. MacNicholas, John. James Joyce's Exiles: A Textual Companion. New York: Garland, 1979. ISBN 978-0-8240-9781-3.Ulysses Arnold, Bruce. The Scandal of Ulysses: The Life and Afterlife of a Twentieth Century Masterpiece. Rev. ed. Dublin: Liffey Press, 2004. ISBN 190-4148-45X. Attridge, Derek, ed. James Joyce's Ulysses: A Casebook. Oxford and New York: Oxford UP, 2004. ISBN 978-0-1951-5830-4. Benstock, Bernard. Critical Essays on James Joyce's Ulysses. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1989. ISBN 978-0-8161-8766-9. Blamires, Harry. The New Bloomsday Book. Routledge, 1996. ISBN 978-0-4151-3858-2 Duffy, Enda, The Subaltern Ulysses. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8166-2329-5. Ellmann, Richard. Ulysses on the Liffey. New York: Oxford UP, 1972. ISBN 978-0-1951-9665-8. French, Marilyn. The Book as World: James Joyce's Ulysses. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1976. ISBN 978-0-6740-7853-6. Gillespie, Michael Patrick and A. Nicholas Fargnoli, eds. Ulysses in Critical Perspective. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006 . ISBN 978-0-8130-2932-0. Goldberg, Samuel Louis. The Classical Temper: A Study of James Joyce's Ulysses. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1961 and 1969. Henke, Suzette. Joyce's Moraculous Sindbook: A Study of Ulysses. Columbus: Ohio State UP, 1978. ISBN 978-0-8142-0275-3. Killeen, Terence. Ulysses Unbound: A Reader's Companion to James Joyce's Ulysses. Bray, County Wicklow, Ireland: Wordwell, 2004. ISBN 978-1-8698-5772-1. MacBride, Margaret. Ulysses and the Metamorphosis of Stephen Dedalus. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell UP, 2001. ISBN 0-8387-5446-5. McKenna, Bernard. James Joyce's Ulysses: A Reference Guide. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-3133-1625-8. Mood, John. Joyce's Ulysses for Everyone: Or How to Skip Reading It the First Time. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2004. ISBN 978-1-4184-5105-9. Murphy, Niall. A Bloomsday Postcard. Dublin: Lilliput Press, 2004. ISBN 978-1-8435-1050-5. Norris, Margot. A Companion to James Joyce's Ulysses: Biographical and Historical Contexts, Critical History, and Essays From Five Contemporary Critical Perspectives. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998. ISBN 978-0-3122-1067-0. Schutte, William M. James Index of Recurrent Elements in James Joyce's Ulysses. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1982. ISBN 978-0-8093-1067-8. Segall, Jeffrey. Joyce in America: Cultural Politics and the Trials of Ulysses. Berkeley: University of California, 1993. ISBN 978-0-5200-7746-1. Vanderham, Paul. James Joyce and Censorship: The Trials of Ulysses. New York: New York UP, 1997. ISBN 978-0-8147-8790-8. Weldon, Thornton. Allusions in Ulysses: An Annotated List. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968 and 1973. ISBN 978-0-8078-4089-4.Finnegans Wake''' Beckman, Richard. Joyce's Rare View: The Nature of Things in Finnegans Wake. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007. ISBN 978-0-8130-3059-3. Brivic, Sheldon. Joyce's Waking Women: An Introduction to Finnegans Wake. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-2991-4800-3. Crispi, Luca and Sam Slote, eds. How Joyce Wrote Finnegans Wake: A Chapter-By-Chaper Genetic Guide. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-2992-1860-7. McHugh, Roland. Annotations to Finnegans Wake. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2006. ISBN 978-0-8018-8381-1. Platt, Len. Joyce, Race and Finnegans Wake''. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, 2007. ISBN 978-0-5218-6884-6. External links The James Joyce Checklist: A Bibliography of Primary and Secondary Materials The James Joyce Literary Supplement The James Joyce Quarterly Joyce Studies Annual James Joyce from Dublin to Ithaca Exhibition from the collections of Cornell University Dirty Letters to Nora How to Read Joyce, a seminar by Derek Attridge for Cambridge University Press. Music in his works James Joyce Centre (Dublin) University at Buffalo James Joyce Collection Recording of James Joyce reading from Finnegans Wake from Ubunet James Joyce's handwriting as a True Type font James Joyce in the streetscapes of Dublin today Patrick Healy, in Lacanian Ink 11, on "Joyce: Through the Lacan Glass" Grave site in Fluntern Cemetery, Zurich Poems and Exiles at themodernword.com The James Joyce Scholars' Collection from the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center James Joyce's Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin	James_Joyce \|@lemmatized james:75 augustine:2 aloysius:2 joyce:203 february:4 january:5 irish:7 expatriate:1 author:3 century:4 best:1 know:4 landmark:1 novel:17 ulysses:55 controversial:1 successor:1 finnegans:25 wake:32 well:3 short:4 story:8 collection:11 dubliner:17 semi:1 autobiographical:1 portrait:22 artist:19 young:20 man:18 although:4 spend:4 adult:2 life:15 outside:1 ireland:6 psychological:1 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6,029	Liber_Memorialis	The Liber Memorialis is an ancient book in Latin featuring an extremely concise summary—a kind of index—of universal history from earliest times to the reign of Trajan. It was written by Lucius Ampelius, who was possibly a tutor or schoolmaster. Nothing is known of him or of the date at which he lived; the times of Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, the beginning of the 3rd century, and the age of Diocletian and Constantine have all been suggested. The book is dedicated to a Macrinus, who may have been the emperor who reigned 217-218, but that name was not uncommon, and it seems more likely he was simply a young man with a thirst for universal knowledge, which the book was compiled to satisfy. The book's object and scope are indicated in its dedication: "Since you desire to know everything, I have written this 'book of notes,' that you may learn of what the universe and its elements consist, what the world contains, and what the human race has done." The Liber Memorialis seems to have been intended as a textbook to be learned by heart. This little work, in fifty chapters, gives a sketch of cosmography, geography, mythology (Chapters I-X), and history (Chapters X to end). The historical portion, dealing mainly with the republican period, is untrustworthy and the text in many places corrupt; the earlier chapters are more valuable, and contain some interesting information. Chapter VIII (Miracula Mundi) contains the following, the only reference by an ancient writer to the famous sculptures of Pergamon, which were discovered in 1871, excavated in 1878, and are now in Berlin: "At Pergamum there is a great marble altar, high, with colossal sculptures, representing a battle of the giants." The first edition of the Liber Memorialis was published in 1638 by Claudius Salmasius (Saumaise) from the Dijon manuscript, now lost, together with the Epitome of Florus. An 1854 edition by Wölfflin was based on Salmasius's copy of the lost codex. The more recent editions are Erwin Assmann's Teubner edition of 1935 Nicola Terzaghi's edition, published by Chiantore in Turin ca. 1947 (preface dated 1943) Marie-Pierre Arnaud-Lidet's 1993 edition for the Collection Budé (includes French translation) References Glaser, Rheinisches Museum, ii. (1843) Wölfflin, De L. Ampelii Libro Memoriali (1854) Zink, Eos, ii (1866) External links Liber Memorialis (Wölfflin's Latin text) at LacusCurtius	Liber_Memorialis \|@lemmatized liber:4 memorialis:4 ancient:2 book:5 latin:2 feature:1 extremely:1 concise:1 summary:1 kind:1 index:1 universal:2 history:2 early:2 time:2 reign:2 trajan:2 write:2 lucius:1 ampelius:1 possibly:1 tutor:1 schoolmaster:1 nothing:1 know:2 date:2 live:1 hadrian:1 antoninus:1 pius:1 beginning:1 century:1 age:1 diocletian:1 constantine:1 suggest:1 dedicate:1 macrinus:1 may:2 emperor:1 name:1 uncommon:1 seem:2 likely:1 simply:1 young:1 man:1 thirst:1 knowledge:1 compile:1 satisfy:1 object:1 scope:1 indicate:1 dedication:1 since:1 desire:1 everything:1 note:1 learn:2 universe:1 element:1 consist:1 world:1 contain:3 human:1 race:1 intend:1 textbook:1 heart:1 little:1 work:1 fifty:1 chapter:5 give:1 sketch:1 cosmography:1 geography:1 mythology:1 x:2 end:1 historical:1 portion:1 deal:1 mainly:1 republican:1 period:1 untrustworthy:1 text:2 many:1 place:1 corrupt:1 valuable:1 interesting:1 information:1 viii:1 miracula:1 mundi:1 following:1 reference:2 writer:1 famous:1 sculpture:2 pergamon:1 discover:1 excavate:1 berlin:1 pergamum:1 great:1 marble:1 altar:1 high:1 colossal:1 represent:1 battle:1 giant:1 first:1 edition:6 publish:2 claudius:1 salmasius:2 saumaise:1 dijon:1 manuscript:1 lose:1 together:1 epitome:1 florus:1 wölfflin:3 base:1 copy:1 lost:1 codex:1 recent:1 erwin:1 assmann:1 teubner:1 nicola:1 terzaghi:1 chiantore:1 turin:1 ca:1 preface:1 marie:1 pierre:1 arnaud:1 lidet:1 collection:1 budé:1 include:1 french:1 translation:1 glaser:1 rheinisches:1 museum:1 ii:2 de:1 l:1 ampelii:1 libro:1 memoriali:1 zink:1 eos:1 external:1 link:1 lacuscurtius:1 \|@bigram trajan_hadrian:1 hadrian_antoninus:1 antoninus_pius:1 diocletian_constantine:1 external_link:1
6,030	Final_Fantasy:_The_Spirits_Within	Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within is a computer animated science fiction film by Hironobu Sakaguchi, the creator of the Final Fantasy series of role-playing games. It was released on July 11, 2001, in the United States by Columbia Pictures. Film Search - Variety Although bearing the title Final Fantasy, the film shares few aspects with the original Final Fantasy series, therefore establishing itself as a standalone/non-canon film. The story follows scientists Aki Ross and Doctor Sid in their efforts to free Earth from a mysterious and deadly alien race known as the Phantoms, which has driven surviving humanity into "barrier cities". They must compete against General Hein, who wishes to attack the aliens with the Zeus space cannon to end the conflict. The film received mixed reviews and was a box office bomb. The film was the first attempt to make a photorealistic rendered 3D feature film. Setting Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within is set on an alien-infested Earth in the year 2065. The remaining humans live in "barrier cities" all over the world and attempt to free their planet from the Phantoms, an alien race. The only hope for the planet comes from the scientist Aki Ross and her mentor, Dr. Cid, who have a plan to destroy the Phantoms without damaging the planet, but a general named Hein is determined to use the Zeus space cannon to destroy the Phantoms—even if it means destroying the Earth in the process. While the film does carry the name Final Fantasy, it is only vaguely thematically related to Square Co.'s popular Final Fantasy series of games. However, Dr. Sid's Gaia Theory, relating to a lifeforce within the planet to which spirits belong, is highly reminiscent of the Lifestream/Mako in Final Fantasy VII. The plot, characters, and storyline were all created specifically for the movie although the character of Dr. Sid does continue the games' tradition of having a character named Cid appear in most Final Fantasy games, despite the Doctor's name being spelled with an untraditional "S". The film has several pacifist themes, as well as a general pro-environment attitude. Since the phantoms are the end result of an alien war in which the combatants literally tore their planet apart, they represent the unsettling self-destructiveness of endless warfare on an entire ecosystem and not just the inhabitants. Similarly, military solutions in the film tend to be futile or only temporarily effective—often exacerbating the problems until a non-violent, spiritual alternative is discovered. Cast CharacterVoice actorCredit statusAki RossMing-NaCreditedDoctor SidDonald SutherlandGeneral HeinJames WoodsGray EdwardsAlec BaldwinRyan WhittakerVing RhamesNeil FlemingSteve BuscemiJane ProudfootPeri GilpinMajor ElliotMatt McKenzieCouncil Member 1Keith DavidCouncil Member 2Jean SimmonsBCR Soldier/Space Station TechnicianJohn DeMitaUncreditedBFW SoldierJohn Di MaggioSpace Station TechniciansAlex Fernandez David Rasner Dwight SchultzLittle Girl/The Fifth SpiritAnnie Wu Plot The story starts with Aki Ross onboard her ship—the Black Boa—waking up from a dream about the Phantoms. After she records her dream, she lands in Old New York City, on a mission to find the 6th spirit. She continues looking until she runs into some Phantoms, and it appears that she is about to be killed until a military squad known as the Deep Eyes arrive to save her life. Despite the captain indicating to her that she is under arrest, Aki runs and eventually finds the 6th spirit, which is a plant. At this moment the squad and Aki are surrounded by Phantoms, and they escape by going to higher ground and getting on a transport. An altercation occurs between Doctor Ross and the captain of the mission, who accuses her of irresponsibility. Afterwards, he removes his helmet, and is revealed to be Captain Gray Edwards, an old acquaintance of Doctor Ross. When they land they are all scanned for Phantom contamination (except Aki, because she has special clearance). The captain is found to be infected, with a Phantom inside him. Aki performs bio laser surgery on him, saving his life with one second to spare. She then leaves, while talking to Doctor Sid and confirming that the plant she found is the 6th spirit. Sid shows Aki a diary he wrote when he was her age, and after she has read it, he burns it, stating that their ideas are unpopular among men. Later, after waking up from another Phantom dream, Aki is drawn into a Council debate on whether to use the Zeus cannon, a weapon that was designed to destroy the Phantoms- but is under the general command of the Council itself. Sid argues against the use of the cannon, saying that the cannon would destroy "Gaia — the spirit of the planet". The general mocks this concept and asks for proof. Aki gives him proof by revealing that she has been infected by the Phantoms, and yet still remains alive- because of a procedure that Doctor Sid himself carried out on her. With this new turn of events, the Council adjourn the meeting, and Hein is left to make his own plans regarding getting access to the Zeus cannon. After the debate, Aki proceeds to search for the 7th spirit along with Captain Gray. They are both stranded when members of Gray's squad short circuit the system, saying that they want the captain and Aki to have time to talk to each other in order to build their relationship. Gray asks Aki about the spirits, and Aki replies, "When I was young, I was infected by a Phantom. However, I didn't die because Doctor Sid placed a membrane around the infection. Therefore the first spirit was me, the second was a fish, the third was a deer I found in a wildlife preserve outside Moscow, the fourth was a bird... Ever tried tracking a sparrow from space? It's not fun... And the latest one was the plant I found." Gray then points out, " You missed one — you said that the plant was the 6th one. What happened to the 5th?" Aki hesitates, saying "The 5th was a little girl, dying in a hospital. I managed to get the sample, however, she... I told her that everything had a spirit, little girls, the earth, plants, trees... She said that I didn't need to lie to her to make everything feel better and she said she was ready to die. Only seven and ready to die." Aki then sobs quietly. Gray and Aki draw close to kiss, but before they do, the power is turned back on. Paranoid that Aki might be a spy for the Phantoms, the General orders Gray and the Deep Eyes to guard Doctor Ross and report any suspicious behavior. If she acts in any way abnormal, she is to be arrested. Dr. Ross, accompanied by the rest of the squad and some soldiers sent by the General, then leaves the barrier city for the Tucson Wastelands, where she hopes to find the 7th spirit. After dropping energy buoys to distract the Phantoms, they descend and attempt to locate and retrieve the spirit. After a while, they find it — it is contained in the living tissues inside the OVO pack of a dead soldier. After retrieving it, they discover that they are surrounded by Phantoms, who, apparently, have been attracted to the one located inside Dr.Ross. The squad is picked up, but the General's soldiers try to apprehend Dr. Ross. One is killed by a Phantom, and Ross, Deep Eyes, and the rest of the soldiers narrowly escape. Citing the General's orders, one of the surviving non-team soldiers orders Gray to complete the mission, which is to place the doctor under arrest and return her to Hein. Dr. Ross, who began feeling side effects from the infestation due to the mission, collapsed and was carried back to the transport ship by Gray. During the mutiny, she was dreaming about the aliens and realized what happened to them on their planet- awakening right at the crucial point, she startled the soldier who was holding the squad at gunpoint and he fired his weapon directly at her, damaging her chestplate in the process. Gray and his team mutiny against Hein's soldiers and kill them before the transport ship returns to the barrier city. Convinced of the treachery of both doctors, Klein and his men gain access to Dr. Ross' dream recorder, and viewing the playback- see the images of the aliens. He then uses those images as a pretense to arrest not only Dr. Ross, but also the Deep Eyes squad, when made aware of the fact that they haven't arrested the doctor yet. Interestingly enough, the General's intentions- however misguided they may be, are revealed. When the phantoms attacked the San Franciso barrier city after the generators failed, his wife and daughter died in that attack. Because of his loss, he's placed men around him who have also lost loved ones to the phantoms, and thus- are more willing to carry out his orders because they believe in what he's doing just as much as he does. After returning to the city, the Deep Eyes squad take Dr. Ross to Dr. Cid, who begins performing a procedure to repair her chestplate. He needs someone to go to Aki and be her spiritual support, and volunteers Gray for the job. Inside her dream, Gray and Aki witness the aliens fighting just prior to the destruction of their world. When Gray awakens, Dr. Cid tells him that he repaired her chestplate and now she has to rest. Just as things begin to settle down, soldiers barge into the operating room and arrest everyone inside under the orders of the general. General Hein is now desperate to gain clearance to fire the Zeus Cannon. He tells the operators of New York's barrier to lower the shields in a section of the city. Hein's plan is to sacrifice a small part of the population in order to convince the Council that the Phantoms can breach the shields, allowing him to take necessary steps. His plan backfires, as the Phantoms are able to use plasma conduits to travel through the rest of the city (under the assumption that Phantoms are living creatures, Hein believes it impossible for them to do this). Aki and the others are in a detention facility, with her explaining what happened to the aliens. The aliens were fighting a massive battle with one another, when one side detonated a weapon that destroyed their world. As their planet fractured, a large portion of it was thrown into space. When it crashed on Earth, the aliens didn't realize they were already dead (revealing that the Phantoms are ghosts), and have been attacking the cities and humans out of anger and confusion. Gray and the Deep Eye's don't really believe this, but they can't explain it any other way. Since Gray himself saw what happened through Aki's dreams, he's inclined to believe it- even if it does sound far fetched. The dentention center loses power because of the aliens attack throughout the city. As they flee the city, every member of the Deep Eyes Squad dies, until only doctors Sid and Ross, plus Gray- are left to flee using Ross' ship, Black Boa. Subsequently, Hein fled to his own personal shuttle and was about to commit suicide when he decides instead to proceed to the Zeus station. There, he receives a transmission from the Council, giving him authorization to fire the cannon in an attempt to destroy the phantoms at their heart in the Phantom crater. Aki and Dr. Sid devise a plan to locate the 8th spirit by lowering Aki and Gray into the crater inside a bio-etheric shield vehicle. The pair locate the 8th spirit, a phantom, when an energy beam from the Zeus station crashes into the crater, seemingly killing the Phantoms on the surface, including the 8th spirit. The beam leaves the vehicle shieldless and exposed to the Phantoms (which were only made stronger by the attack beam), which are now spreading to cover the crater in response to the attack. Gray leaves the vehicle to protect Aki from the Phantoms. Meanwhile, Aki has her final vision in which a Phantom tells her that the spirit within her is in fact the new 8th spirit. When Aki wakes up, she calls Gray in to use his OVO pack battery to project the completed wave pattern of the eight spirits. As the projection begins, another Zeus beam penetrates the atmosphere, completely obliterating the bio-etheric shield vehicle, and triggering a massive reaction from the Phantom world's spirit, which resides in the crater. This attack, however, overloads and destroys the Zeus cannon, killing General Hein. With the vehicle destroyed, Gray sacrifices his own life to distribute Aki's wave, using his body to transmit it directly to the Phantom world spirit. The Phantoms all turn into bright floating orbs which return to space, and the end scene is of Aki holding Gray's body and looking into the newly liberated world. Production Square accumulated four SGI Origin 2000 series servers, four Onyx2 systems, and 167 Octane workstations. The basic movie was rendered at a home-made render farm which consisted of 960 Pentium III-933MHz workstations. The render farm was made by Square Pictures located in Hawaii. The film had cost overruns during the end of production. Prior to the film's release, Square had indicated plans for the Aki Ross "synthetic actress" to appear in other films, possibly even interacting with live actors. A sample of what this might have looked like can be seen on the introduction to the second DVD in the Special Edition release, which shows Aki "breaking character" after filming a scene and walking through the studio, interacting with both CGI and real people. Chris Lee, the producer of Final Fantasy, defended his use of animation, stating that live actors often cannot physically accomplish what computer characters easily can, citing his experience from making Starship Troopers and Godzilla. Lee also noted that the difference between the CGI and live action footage can be jarring for viewers when the film requires heavy use of computer effects in almost every scene. The model used for the characters were of high detail: each of 60,000 hairs was separately and fully animated and rendered, at a render farm consisting of 960 Pentium III-933MHz workstations that took 1.5 hours to render each frame. The Aki model is estimated to be made up of around 400,000 polygons, as are the other main characters of the movie. Aki Ross's voice actor, actress Ming-Na, says she feels like she "has given birth with [her] voice to a character" and that it was a little "eerie". She added that it was difficult to work without the presence and spontaneity of real actors; however, she gradually accustomed herself to this feeling, and noted that the voice-acting work did not take much time, as she would just go into the studio "once or twice a month for about four months" with no need for make-up and costuming sessions. She continued to play in the television series ER during the works on Final Fantasy. The story for the film was written by director Hironobu Sakaguchi. Al Rienert worked on multiple screenplays during the early years of production, until the studio brought in Jeff Vintar as a three-week "script doctor." He re-shaped the screenplay with Sakaguchi into a workable film script. It was Vintar's draft that landed the high-profile voice cast, including Alec Baldwin, James Woods, and Donald Sutherland. Unfortunately, the screenplay tinkering continued through the long years of production, with new drafts by voice director Jack Fletcher (who would receive an "additional dialogue by" credit), closely overseen by the non-English speaking Sakaguchi, resulting in a confusing final product that sounds translated from the Japanese. As several Japanese film critics took great joy in pointing out, the film-makers clearly believed they knew more about English than the English-speaking screenwriters. Merchandise Novelization Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within was novelized by Dean Wesley Smith. The Making of Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within was also made available, which was edited by Steven L. Kent. Soundtrack Elliot Goldenthal's score for the movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within is a typical Goldenthalian sci-fi affair with epic, sweeping, anthemic themes and many moments are (as Goldenthal acknowledges in the liner notes) similar in style and texture to his work on the Alien³ score: modernist, dark, and percussion-heavy. The orchestra for the movie was conducted by Belgian composer Dirk Brossé. The film's director Hironobu Sakaguchi opted for the acclaimed film composer instead of Nobuo Uematsu, the composer of the games' soundtracks, a decision met with mixed opinion as many of the game's fans were completely unaware of who Goldenthal was. Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within - Elliot Goldenthal Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within (Soundtrack) by Elliot Goldenthal - Original soundtrack review at Tracksounds allmusic ((( Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within > Overview ))) Goldenthal discuss the soundtrack in the album's liner notes. Elliot Goldenthal Discography: Final Fantasy - The Spirits Within (2001) Critical reception The film received mixed reviews and despite aggressive promotion by Sony, it became a huge box office bomb. With a budget of $137 million (including marketing costs) the film made $85 million worldwide, meaning total losses were approximately $94 million (the studio typically receives half the box office gross). The merger between Square and Enix, which had been under consideration since at least 2000 according to the then Enix chairman Yasuhiro Fukushima, was delayed because of the failure of the film and Enix' hesitation at merging with a company that had just lost a substantial amount of money. Roger Ebert was a strong advocate of the film; he gave the film 3 1/2 stars out of 4, praising it as a "technical milestone" while conceding that its "nuts and bolts" story lacked "the intelligence and daring of, say, Steven Spielberg's A.I.". He also expressed a desire for the film to succeed in hopes of seeing more films made in its image, though he was skeptical of its ability to be accepted. Roger Ebert review of Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within References External links Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within at MetaCritic Elliot Goldenthal discussing his score for the film	Final_Fantasy:_The_Spirits_Within \|@lemmatized final:22 fantasy:20 spirit:30 within:13 computer:3 animate:2 science:1 fiction:1 film:29 hironobu:3 sakaguchi:5 creator:1 series:5 role:1 playing:1 game:6 release:3 july:1 united:1 state:3 columbia:1 picture:2 search:2 variety:1 although:2 bear:1 title:1 share:1 aspect:1 original:2 therefore:2 establish:1 standalone:1 non:4 canon:1 story:4 follow:1 scientist:2 aki:33 ross:18 doctor:13 sid:10 effort:1 free:2 earth:5 mysterious:1 deadly:1 alien:12 race:2 know:3 phantom:34 drive:1 survive:2 humanity:1 barrier:6 city:12 must:1 compete:1 general:13 hein:10 wish:1 attack:8 zeus:9 space:6 cannon:9 end:4 conflict:1 receive:5 mixed:3 review:4 box:3 office:3 bomb:2 first:2 attempt:4 make:13 photorealistic:1 render:7 feature:1 set:2 infested:1 year:3 remain:2 human:2 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6,031	Normal_subgroup	In mathematics, more specifically in abstract algebra, a normal subgroup is a special kind of subgroup. Normal subgroups are important because they can be used to construct quotient groups from a given group. Évariste Galois was the first to realize the importance of the existence of normal subgroups. Definitions A subgroup, N, of a group, G, is called a normal subgroup if it is invariant under conjugation; that is, for each element, n, in N and each g in G, the element gng−1 is still in N. We write For any subgroup, the following conditions are equivalent to normality. Therefore any one of them may be taken as the definition: For all g in G, gNg−1 ⊆ N. For all g in G, gNg−1 = N.* The sets of left and right cosets of N in G coincide. For all g in G, gN = Ng.* N is a union of conjugacy classes of G. There is some homomorphism on G for which N is the kernel. *These are logically stronger than the conditions above them and are not necessary for N to be a subgroup. They are properties of the subgroup. The last condition accounts for some of the importance of normal subgroups; they are a way to internally classify all homomorphisms defined on a group. For example, a non-identity finite group is simple if and only if it is isomorphic to all of its non-identity homomorphic images, a finite group is perfect if and only if it has no normal subgroups of prime index, and a group is imperfect if and only if the derived subgroup is not supplemented by any proper normal subgroup. Examples {e} and G are always normal subgroups of G. The former is called the trivial subgroup, and if these are the only normal subgroups, then G is said to be simple. The center of a group is a normal subgroup. The commutator subgroup is a normal subgroup. More generally, any characteristic subgroup is normal, since conjugation is always an automorphism. All subgroups N of an abelian group G are normal, because gN = Ng. A group that is not abelian but for which every subgroup is normal is called a Hamiltonian group. The translation group in any dimension is a normal subgroup of the Euclidean group; for example in 3D rotating, translating, and rotating back results in only translation; also reflecting, translating, and reflecting again results in only translation (a translation seen in a mirror looks like a translation, with a reflected translation vector). The translations by a given distance in any direction form a conjugacy class; the translation group is the union of those for all distances. In the Rubik's Cube group, the subgroup consisting of operations which only affect the corner pieces is normal, because no conjugate transformation can make such an operation affect an edge piece instead of a corner. By contrast, the subgroup consisting of turns of the top face only is not normal, because a conjugate transformation can move parts of the top face to the bottom and hence not all conjugates of elements of this subgroup are contained in the subgroup. Properties Normality is preserved upon surjective homomorphisms, and is also preserved upon taking inverse images. Normality is preserved on taking direct products A normal subgroup of a normal subgroup of a group need not be normal in the group. That is, normality is not a transitive relation. However, a characteristic subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal. Also, a normal subgroup of a central factor is normal. In particular, a normal subgroup of a direct factor is normal. Every subgroup of index 2 is normal. More generally, a subgroup H of finite index n in G contains a subgroup K normal in G and of index dividing n! called the normal core. In particular, if p is the smallest prime dividing the order of G, then every subgroup of index p is normal. Lattice of normal subgroups The normal subgroups of a group G form a lattice under subset inclusion with least element {e} and greatest element G. Given two normal subgroups N and M in G, meet is defined as and join is defined as The lattice is complete and modular. Normal subgroups and homomorphisms Normal subgroups are of relevance because if N is normal, then the quotient group G/N may be formed: if N is normal, we can define a multiplication on cosets by (a1N)(a2N) := (a1a2)N. This turns the set of cosets into a group called the quotient group G/N. There is a natural homomorphism f : G → G/N given by f(a) = aN. The image f(N) consists only of the identity element of G/N, the coset eN = N. In general, a group homomorphism f: G → H sends subgroups of G to subgroups of H. Also, the preimage of any subgroup of H is a subgroup of G. We call the preimage of the trivial group {e} in H the kernel of the homomorphism and denote it by ker(f). As it turns out, the kernel is always normal and the image f(G) of G is always isomorphic to G/ker(f) (the first isomorphism theorem). In fact, this correspondence is a bijection between the set of all quotient groups G/N of G and the set of all homomorphic images of G (up to isomorphism). It is also easy to see that the kernel of the quotient map, f: G → G/N, is N itself, so we have shown that the normal subgroups are precisely the kernels of homomorphisms with domain G. See also Operations taking subgroups to subgroups: normalizer conjugate closure normal core Subgroup properties stronger than normality: characteristic subgroup fully characteristic subgroup Subgroup properties weaker than normality: subnormal subgroup ascendant subgroup descendant subgroup serial subgroup quasinormal subgroup seminormal subgroup conjugate permutable subgroup modular subgroup pronormal subgroup paranormal subgroup polynormal subgroup c normal subgroup Subgroup properties complementary (or opposite) to normality: malnormal subgroup contranormal subgroup abnormal subgroup self-normalizing subgroup Related notions in algebra: ideal (ring theory) References I. N. Herstein, Topics in algebra. Second edition. Xerox College Publishing, Lexington, Mass.-Toronto, Ont., 1975. xi+388 pp. David S. Dummit; Richard M. Foote, Abstract algebra. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991. xiv+658 pp. ISBN 0-13-004771-6 External links Normal subgroup in Springer's Encyclopedia of Mathematics Robert Ash: Group Fundamentals in Abstract Algebra. The Basic Graduate Year John Baez, What's a Normal Subgroup?	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6,032	Cane_toad	The cane toad (Bufo marinus), also known as the Giant Neotropical Toad or Marine Toad, is a large, terrestrial true toad native to Central and South America. It is a member of the subgenus Chaunus of the genus Bufo, which includes many different true toad species throughout Central and South America. The cane toad is a prolific breeder; females lay single-clump spawns with large numbers of eggs. Its reproductive success is partly because of opportunistic feeding: it has a diet, unusual among Anurans, of both dead and living matter. Adults average 10 to 15 centimetres (4–6 in) in length; the largest recorded specimen weighed 2.65 kg (5.8 lb) with a length of 38 cm (15 in) from snout to vent. The cane toad has poison glands, and the tadpoles are highly toxic to most animals if ingested. Because of its voracious appetite, the cane toad has been introduced to many regions of the Pacific and the Caribbean islands as a method of agricultural pest control, notably failing in the case of Australia in 1935, and derives its common name from its use against the greyback cane beetle pests. The cane toad is now considered a pest and invasive species in many of its introduced regions because its toxic skin kills many native predators when ingested. It has many negative effects on farmers because of pets and animals eating the creatures. Taxonomy The common name is derived from the original purpose of using it to eradicate pests in sugar cane crops. The cane toad has many other common names, including "Giant Toad" and "Marine Toad"; the former refers to their size, and the latter to the binomial name, Bufo marinus. It was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. Linnaeus based the specific epithet, marinus, on an illustration by Dutch zoologist Albertus Seba, who mistakenly believed the cane toad to inhabit both terrestrial and marine environments. Other common names include "Giant Neotropical Toad", "Dominican Toad", "Giant Marine Toad", and "South American Cane Toad". In Trinidadian English they are commonly called "Crapaud" (the French name for "toad"). In Australia, the adults may be confused with species of the Limnodynastes, Neobatrachus, Mixophyes, and Notaden genera. These species can be readily distinguished from the cane toad by the lack of large parotoid glands behind their eyes. Cane toads have been confused with the Giant Burrowing Frog (Heleioporus australiacus), because both are large and warty in appearance; however, the Giant Burrowing Frog can be readily distinguished from the cane toad by its vertical pupils. Juvenile cane toads may be confused with species of the Uperoleia genus, because they all have large parotoid glands; juvenile cane toads can be distinguished from these species by the ridging around their eyes and the lack of bright colouring on their thighs. A lightly coloured cane toad. In the United States, the cane toad closely resembles many Bufonid species. In particular, it could be confused with the Southern toad (Bufo terrestris) and Fowler's Toad (Bufo fowleri). The Southern Toad can be distinguished by the presence of two bulbs in front of the parotoid glands, and the Fowler's Toad has a pale, cream-white stripe that runs down the dorsal surface; the cane toad lacks this stripe. It is possible to confuse the cane toad with the Rococo Toad (Bufo schneideri), sometimes referred to as Schneider's Toad, whose range overlaps that of the cane toad. The Rococo Toad grows to nearly the same size but has additional poison glands on its back legs which can be used to reliably identify it. Within its native range, the cane toad can be distinguished from the other true toads by the shape of its parotoid glands and the arrangement of the ridges on its head. Description The cane toad is very large; the females are larger than males, reaching an average length of 10–15 centimeters (4–6 in), and much longer in some cases. "Prinsen", a toad kept as a pet in Sweden, is listed by the Guinness Book of Records as the largest recorded specimen. It reportedly weighed 2.65 kilograms (5.84 lb) and measured 38 centimetres (15 in) from snout to vent, or 54 centimetres (21 in) when fully extended. In general, larger toads tend to be found in areas of lower population density. They have a life expectancy of 10 to 15 years in the wild, Tyler, pp. 117–118. and as long as 20 years in captivity. A young cane toad (Bufo marinus). The skin of the cane toad is dry and warty. It has distinct ridges above the eyes which run down the snout. Cane toads can be grey, brown, red-brown or olive in colour, with varying patterns. A large parotoid gland lies behind each eye. The ventral surface is cream and may have blotches in shades of black or brown. The pupils are horizontal and the irises golden. The toes have a fleshy webbing at their base, and the fingers are free of webbing. Juvenile cane toads are much smaller than adult cane toads—only 5 to 10 centimetres (2–4 in) long. Typically, they have smooth, dark skin, although some specimens have a red wash. Juveniles lack the adults' large parotoid glands, so they are usually less poisonous. Because they lack this key defence, it is estimated that only 0.5% of metamorph cane toads reach adulthood. Tyler, p. 117. The tadpoles are small and uniformly black. They are bottom-dwellers and congregate around plants forming schools. Tadpoles reach 27 millimetres (1 in) in length but are smaller—up to 22 millimetres (0.9 in)—under overcrowded conditions. Ecology, behaviour and life history Adult cane toads possess enlarged parotoid glands behind the eyes and other glands across the back. When threatened, the cane toad secretes a milky-white fluid known as bufotoxin from these glands. Bufotoxin contains components that are toxic to many animals. There are many reported deaths of animals, Tyler, pp. 134–136. and even reported deaths of humans, after consumption of cane toads. A cane toad is capable of inflating its lungs, puffing up and lifting its body off the ground to appear taller and larger to a predator. Tyler, p. 134. Most frogs identify prey by their movements; cane toads can also locate food using their sense of smell. They are therefore not limited to living prey and can eat plants, carrion, dog food and household refuse apart from the normal frog prey of small vertebrates and a range of invertebrates. They are known for eating widely and tend to swallow their prey. Tyler, pp. 130–132. They are active primarily at night and can range far from water. The common name of "Marine Toad", and the scientific name Bufo marinus, suggest a link to marine life; however, there is no such link.Tyler, p. 116. Adult cane toads are entirely terrestrial, venturing to fresh water to breed, and tadpoles have been found to only tolerate salt concentrations equivalent to 15% that of sea water. Just as adult toads, both eggs and tadpoles are toxic to many animals. This toxic protection remains at all stages of life, and very young cane toads kill small reptiles that eat them. Cane toads inhabit open grassland and woodland, and generally avoid heavily forested areas; this inhibits their spread in many of the regions in which they were introduced. Cane toads begin life at eggs that are laid in long strings of jelly in water, which can stretch up to 20 m in length. The black eggs are covered by a membrane and their diameter is in the range 1.7–2.0 mm. A female lays 8,000–25,000 eggs at once.Tyler, p. 116. The rate at which an egg evolves into a tadpole is dependent on the temperature. The speed increases with temperature. Tadpoles typically hatch within 48 hours, but the period can vary from 14 hours up to almost a week. This usually involves thousands of tadpoles—which are small, black and have short tails—forming into groups. It takes between 12 to 60 days for the tadpoles to develop into frogs, with four weeks being a typical value. Cane toads are estimated to have a critical thermal maximum of 40–42 degrees celsius and a minimum of around 10–15 degrees. Tyler, p. 118. The ranges can change due to adaptation to the local environment.Tyler, p. 119. Cane toads also have a high tolerance of water loss. One study showed that they can survive at 52.6% loss in water, which allows them to survive outside tropical environments. Many species prey on the cane toad in its native distribution. These include the Broad-snouted Caiman (Caiman latirostris), the Banded Cat-eyed Snake (Leptodeira annulata), the eel (family: Anguillidae), various species of killifish, the Rock flagtail (Kuhlia rupestris), some species of catfish (order: Siluriformes) and some species of ibis (subfamily: Threskiornithinae). Tyler, pp. 138–139. Predators outside the cane toad's native range include the Whistling Kite (Haliastur sphenurus), the Rakali (Hydromys chrysogaster), the Black Rat (Rattus rattus) and the Water Monitor (Varanus salvator). Occasional cases of the Tawny Frogmouth (Podargus strigoides) and the Papuan Frogmouth (Podargus papuensis) and afuran snakes (Acrochordus arafurae) feeding on cane toads have been reported. These predators possess either a tolerance to the cane toad's toxins or behavioural adaptations that allow them to avoid the most poisonous areas of the toad as they hunt and consume it. Poison Bufotenin, one of the chemicals excreted by the cane toad, is classified as a Class 1 drug under Australian drug laws. This is the same classification as heroin and marijuana. It is thought that the effects of bufotenin are similar to that of mild poisoning; the stimulating effect, which includes mild hallucinations, lasts for less than one hour. Since the cane toad excretes bufotenin in very small amounts, and other toxins in relatively large amounts, toad licking could result in serious illness or death. Distribution The cane toad is native to the Americas, from the Rio Grande Valley in southern Texas to central Amazon and south-eastern Peru. This range includes both tropical and semi-arid environments. The density of the cane toad within its native distribution is significantly lower than that of its introduced distribution. In South America, it is recorded at densities of 20 adults per 100 metres of shoreline, but in Australia the density reaches 1,000–2,000 adults over the same area. The cane toad was originally brought to Australia to eat the Cane grub. Introductions The cane toad has been introduced to many regions of the world, particularly the Pacific, for the biological control of agricultural pests. Up until 1840, cane toads had been introduced into Martinique, Barbados and Jamaica. Tyler, p. 111. Following problems with a beetle infestation, which ravaged the sugar cane plantations of Puerto Rico in the early 20th century, the toad was introduced into the country because it would breed quickly and devour the beetles. Following the economic success of the toad in negating the beetles, scientists in the 1930s praised it as an agricultural solution.Tyler, pp. 112–113. As a result, many countries in the Pacific region emulated the lead of Puerto Rico and introduced the toad in the 1930s. Tyler, pp. 113–114. There are introduced populations in Australia, Florida, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Ogasawara and Ryukyu Islands of Japan, most Caribbean islands and many Pacific islands, including Hawaii and Fiji. The introductions generally failed to control the targeted pests, most of which were later controlled by the use of insecticides. Since then, the cane toad has become a pest in the host countries, posing a serious threat to native animals. Australia Since its original introduction as a biological control agent in 1935, the cane toad has had a particularly great effect on Australian biodiversity. The population of a number of native predatory reptiles has declined, like the varanid lizards Varanus mertensi, V. mitchelli and V. panoptes, as well as the crocodile species Crocodylus johnstoni; in contrast, the population of the agamid lizard Amphibolurus gilberti – known to be a prey item of V. ponaptes – has increased. New Guinea The cane toad was successfully introduced into New Guinea to control the hawk moth larvae, which were eating the sweet potato crops. Cane toads have since become abundant in rural and urban regions and have not penetrated the forested areas; because most of the native wildlife is restricted to forested areas, the cane toad has not caused significant environmental problems. Fiji Cane toads were introduced into Fiji to combat insects which infest sugar cane plantations. A 1963 study concluded that since the toad's diet included both harmful and beneficial invertebrates, it was considered "economically neutral". Jamaica They were unsuccessfully introduced into Jamaica to control the rat population. Hawaii Around 150 cane toads were introduced in 1932 and the number swelled to 105,517 after only 17 months. Tyler, pp. 113–114. Puerto Rico In 1920, cane toads were introduced into Puerto Rico to control the populations of white-grub (Phyllophaga spp.), a pest of sugar cane. Tyler, p. 112. Prior to this, the pests were manually collected by humans, so the introduction of the toad eliminated labour costs. A second group was imported in 1923, and by 1932 the cane toad was well established on the island. The population white-grubs dramatically decreased, and at annual meeting of the International Sugar Cane Technologists in Puerto Rico, the the decrease in the white-grub population was attributed to the cane toad. However, there may have been other factors. Tyler, p. 113. The six year period after 1931 (when the cane toad was most prolific, and the white-grub saw dramatic decline) recorded the highest ever rainfall for Puerto Rico. However, the assumption that the cane toad controlled the white-grub; this view was reinforced by a Nature article titled "Toads save sugar crop", which led to the large scale introductions throughout many parts of the Pacific. Tyler, pp. 113–115. Citations References External links Species Profile - Cane Toad (Bufo marinus), National Invasive Species Information Center, National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for cane toad.	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6,033	Houston_Texans	The Houston Texans are a professional American football team based in Houston, Texas. They are currently members of the Southern Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Texans joined the NFL in 2002 as an expansion team after Houston's previous franchise, the Houston Oilers (now the Tennessee Titans), moved to Nashville, Tennessee. http://www.hworth.net/nfl_history/hou.html] The club is one of five in the NFL that have yet to qualify for the Super Bowl, and the only team in the league that has not achieved a playoff berth. The Houston Texans' principal owner and chairman is Bob McNair and the minority owner and vice chairman is Chuck Watson. Franchise history 1997 - Bringing Football Back to Houston In June 1997, Bob McNair and Chuck Watson were bypassed by the National Hockey League in an attempt to bring a team to Houston. http://www.hworth.net/nfl_history/hou.html Two weeks later, Houston found itself without professional football for the first time since 1959 as Houston Oilers owner Bud Adams got the final approval to move his team to Tennessee. A lawsuit filed by the city of Houston, Harris County, and other parties was settled with Adams paying millions of dollars for leaving town. In an interview with the Houston Chronicle, local entrepreneur and San Diego Padres owner John J. Moores, whose name was often attached to efforts to return the NFL to Houston, said that the city’s football fans would be in for a long, dry spell without football and that he did not foresee another league expansion in the next 10 years. While efforts to get an NHL team in Houston faltered, McNair made his decision to set his sights higher and founded Houston NFL Holdings. Steve Patterson, who had been working with McNair in an attempt to bring NHL to Houston, was immediately named as head of the new organization. Now committed to the task at hand, McNair and Houston got an immediate morale boost in October 1997, when the NFL Stadium Committee reported to Commissioner Paul Tagliabue on the current attractiveness of Cleveland, Los Angeles, and Houston. Cleveland had lost the Browns in 1995 and had been promised by Tagliabue that the next expansion team would play there, bringing the league total to 31 teams. A future expansion to 32 teams seemed both logical and destined to happen, and Tagliabue praised McNair’s strong initial efforts. Two days later, Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo (HLS&R) officials announced they would push for a domed stadium as part of the bid to lure the NFL back to Houston. 1998 In March 1998, McNair learned that the NFL officially awarded Cleveland its promised expansion franchise, making it the NFL's 31st team; NFL Commissioner Tagliabue said that the league would likely add a 32nd team in the next two years, with the three top candidates being Toronto (which would have been the NFL's first franchise outside the USA), Los Angeles (the USA's second largest media market, and the victim of two relocated franchises in the 1990's), and Houston. Houston officials worried that Los Angeles would get the nod due to its media market size; in early May, those fears became reality as entertainment guru Michael Ovitz announced he would lead a largely privately financed $750 million project to build a stadium in Carson, California in hopes of landing the expansion team. However, both McNair and Ovitz stated that they needed to know the NFL's intentions regarding expansion by early 1999, lest they lose public support as a result of long delays while the league developed. In late October 1998, Tagliabue announced that the NFL owners would indeed expand the league to 32 teams, and would decide by April 1999 which city would be awarded the NFL expansion franchise. Meanwhile, Ovitz now had competition coming from his own market, as real estate developer Ed Roski announced a rival bid for a future Los Angeles team; his proposal centered around putting a 68,000-seat stadium inside the shell of the historic Los Angeles Coliseum. 1999 On March 16, 1999, the NFL owners, by a 29–2 vote, approved a resolution to award Los Angeles the expansion 32nd franchise. However, the award was contingent on the city putting together an acceptable ownership team and stadium deal by September 15; if the parties could not reach an agreement or be close to doing so, the committee would then turn its recommendation to Houston. A month later, NFL executives flew to Los Angeles to see how things had progressed. What they found was that neither Ovitz nor Roski would concede its bid to the other (or combine their efforts) in attempts to put together a deal, Los Angeles would not allow tax dollars to be used for a new stadium, and neither group was prepared to build a state-of-the-art facility – the kind that Houston had been guaranteeing for more than six months. When the NFL executives returned to Los Angeles in late May, nothing had progressed on Roski's bid. Meanwhile, Ovitz had changed his tune, unveiling plans to turn the area around the Coliseum into a complex of parks, parking garages, shopping areas and a brand-new stadium. Tagliabue and the NFL officials were pleased with the concept, but daunted by the cost, which included $225 million for parking garages, especially since neither Los Angeles nor the State of California was willing to commit the necessary funds. In June, Tagliabue expressed his frustration with Los Angeles’ inability to get a plan together, and advised McNair to resume his discussions with the expansion committee. On September 9, 1999, the league’s expansion committee indicated that McNair and other Houston officials should be prepared to attend an October 6 meeting of the NFL owners in Atlanta. The LA effort was not completely dead as Ovitz, Roski, and newcomer Marvin Davis all scrambled to find the right deal to woo the league back in the last six days before the deadline. In the first week of October, Ovitz announced that his group was prepared to offer $540 million for the NFL franchise. Later that week, McNair’s Houston NFL Holdings proposed a bid of $700 million to the owners. On the morning of October 6, 1999, McNair's persistence finally paid off – the NFL owners voted 29–0 to accept McNair's $700M offer and awarded the 32nd franchise to Houston as well as the 2004 Super Bowl. 2000 After that, things moved fast for the yet-to-be-named football team. Focus groups were formed across the state to determine the image and direction for the franchise. NFL Properties and team officials began working on the identity, name and logo and the front office began to take shape with the hiring of former Washington Redskins General Manager Charley Casserly as Executive Vice President/General Manager in January 2000. That spring, Houston NFL 2002 celebrated the official groundbreaking of Reliant Stadium. The 69,500-seat state-of-the-art facility would become the NFL's first retractable-roof stadium. After almost a year of speculation, the worst kept secret in Houston became reality as the team was officially christened the Houston Texans during a downtown celebration in September 2000 that included NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue and Bob McNair unveiling the new logo. 2001 On January 21, 2001, the Texans turned to the coaching staff and introduced Dom Capers as the club's first head coach. Capers had served the previous two seasons as the Jacksonville Jaguars' defensive coordinator. From 1995 to 1998, Capers was the head coach of the expansion Carolina Panthers. Capers would soon fill out the rest of the staff in the months to follow. After five long seasons, Houston was at last ready to rejoin the league. Play begins: 2002–2005 The Texans launched their inaugural campaign on September 8, 2002 against the Dallas Cowboys at Reliant Stadium. Rookie David Carr hooked up with tight end Billy Miller on the third play from scrimmage for a touchdown (scoring the first points for the franchise). The Texans shocked their intrastate rivals 19-10, becoming just the second expansion team ever to win their first game (after the Minnesota Vikings in 1961). The Texans lost their next five games before winning for the first time on the road against the Jaguars, a team they would find success against in the seasons to come. Victories over the New York Giants in Houston and the Steelers in Pittsburgh (despite just 46 total yards of offense – an NFL low for a winning team) and the Texans finished the season 4–12, sending two players (Gary Walker and Aaron Glenn) to the Pro Bowl, the most ever by an expansion team. The season was deemed a success despite David Carr being sacked an NFL record 76 times and the realization that Tony Boselli, the man they had hoped would protect their young quarterback, would never play a down of football for the team. During the next two seasons, the Texans made steady progress. In 2003, they started out much as they had done in 2002 by shocking the heavily favored Dolphins in Miami to open the season. No other expansion team had ever won the season opener in each of its first two seasons. The Texans would only improve their record by one game in that season, but after a victory over the eventual NFC champion Carolina Panthers and a tough overtime loss to the eventual Super Bowl champion New England Patriots, optimism was high going into 2004 that they could compete with any team in the league. That optimism soured, however, after the Texans started the ’04 season 0–3 and for the first time fans began to question the direction in which head coach Dom Capers and the front office were taking. No other expansion team had taken so long to win back-to-back games and expectations in the third season were growing. Finally, after their first victory of 2004 in Kansas City, the Texans came home and defeated the Oakland Raiders the following week to secure their first win streak in franchise history. Reliant Stadium, 2005After sweeping division rivals Tennessee and Jacksonville and another impressive pair of back-to-back wins late in the season, the Texans were poised to finish the year 8–8. All they had to do was beat the 3-12 Cleveland Browns at home. The Texans came out flat and unprepared, however, and fell to the Browns 22–14. The game served as an omen of bad times ahead. On the bright side, second year receiver Andre Johnson was selected to his first Pro Bowl and as of 2007, and it was the only season the Texans did not finish last in the AFC South. Despite the disappointing end to the 2004 season and a troubling preseason, a playoff push by the Texans in 2005 still seemed likely. They got hammered by the Bills in Buffalo 22–7 to open the season and then humiliated by the Steelers at home 27–7 the following week. As the losses mounted, whatever optimism that was left over from the previous year faded away. Offensive Coordinator Chris Palmer was replaced before the third week and media and fans began to point to questionable personal decisions and lackluster draft picks by General Manager Charley Casserly and doubt about Dom Capers ability to lead the team in the future began to surface. They started the season 0–6 before beating the Browns in Houston only to follow that up with another six game losing streak. By the end of the season most were calling for Dom Capers and Charley Casserly to be fired. Conspiracy theories that the Texans were tanking games to secure the number one pick after several close losses late in the year culminated with the “Bush Bowl” in San Francisco during the last week of the season. The Texans and 49ers came into the game with the two worst records in the NFL and the loser would “win” the right to choose USC running back Reggie Bush in the 2006 NFL Draft. The Texans lost 20–17 and finished 2–14, the worst in the league. One bright spot was the sensational rookie season by kick returner Jerome Mathis who returned two kicks back for touchdowns, including one for 99-yards against Kansas City. Mathis was Houston's only player in 2005 to be selected to the Pro Bowl. After finishing 2–14 in 2005 the Texans fired Dom Capers and most of his staff. General Manager Charley Casserly was spared, but would eventually leave after the draft, replaced by Rick Smith. Gary Kubiak, offensive coordinator of the Denver Broncos and a Houston native, was hired to take over and the franchise headed into the most controversial off-season in team history. While most in the national media believed that the Texans drafting Reggie Bush in the 2006 Draft was a no-brainer, many in Houston began to voice their desire for the team to draft hometown hero Vince Young after his performance in leading the University of Texas to victory over Bush's USC team in the Rose Bowl, that year's NCAA National Championship Game. In February, after a vote of confidence from Gary Kubiak, the Texans exercised an $8 million bonus option for David Carr, guaranteeing he would be a Texan in 2006. Still, the debate between Bush and Young raged on for months over local sports talk radio and internet message boards. While support for Vince Young was mounting, most still thought Reggie Bush would eventually be drafted by the Texans. In a stunning turn of events, however, the Texans shocked the NFL world on the eve of the NFL Draft by announcing that North Carolina State defensive end Mario Williams - not Reggie Bush or Vince Young - would be the team’s choice for their number one pick. Fans were angered and shocked, many booed the choice during a public draft party at Reliant Stadium and the Texans were ridiculed by the national media for committing what many believed was the worst mistake in NFL Draft history. Comparisons to Michael Jordan and Sam Bowie were immediately being made and the endless second-guessing began. Reggie Bush fell to the New Orleans Saints and Vince Young was taken by the Titans. By drafting Williams, the Texans addressed their greatest need, yet it would turn out to be a public relations nightmare that would haunt them for much of the 2006 season. By the end of the year Bush and the Saints were on their way to the NFC Championship game and Young had won the Offensive Rookie of the Year Award. Mario Williams finished with 4.5 sacks and 47 tackles despite suffering from plantar fasciitis for the entire season. 2006 On September 10, 2006, native Houstonian Gary Kubiak made his head coaching debut as he led the Texans against the Philadelphia Eagles at Reliant Stadium. Despite taking the first drive down the field for a touchdown, the game resulted in a disappointing 24-10 loss. They lost the next two in embarrassing fashion before awarding Kubiak his first career victory with a win over the Miami Dolphins in week four. After a loss to Dallas, two of the next four games would be against division rival Jacksonville – and Houston beat them both times. As unexplainable as the Texans’ continued ability to beat the Jaguars, so too was a game against the Titans where they out-gained Tennessee in total yards 427 to 197 but lost because of five turnovers. The Texans went on to suffer two heart-breaking losses in their final eight games because of a weak defense, which proved to cost them their first breakeven season. They first allowed the Buffalo Bills to score a go-ahead touchdown with just nine seconds remaining, and then three weeks later Tennessee Titans QB Vince Young ran 39 yards for the winning touchdown in overtime. A week later, the emotionally exhausted Texans showed up in Foxborough to face the New England Patriots and were hammered 40–7. The Texans made the most of the remainder of the season as Carr led the team to victories in what would prove to be his final two games as a Texan. Snapping a nine game losing streak to the Indianapolis Colts, the Texans stunned the eventual Super Bowl Champions 27–24 as Carr went 16–23 with 1 TD and no interceptions or sacks; and finished the game with a 6-play, 31 yard drive to put Kris Brown in a position to kick the winning field goal. Carr finished the season by beating the Cleveland Browns in Houston; giving the Texans their first back-to-back wins in two years. The Texans finished with six wins in 2006, four more than the previous year. Had it not been for the last minute defensive failures versus the Bills and the Titans, the Texans would have finished with their first breakeven season at 8–8, on the back of their rapidly improving offense. In terms of individual performances, David Carr finished the season with a career high 68.9% pass completion percentage and tied the NFL record of 22 for consecutive pass completions in the game versus the Buffalo Bills. The Carr-to-Johnson combination again proved to be formidable, as Andre Johnson led the league in receptions with 103 and was selected to his second Pro Bowl. Finally, the Texans got contributions from all seven of their 2006 NFL Draft picks, including DE Mario Williams, TE Owen Daniels and LB DeMeco Ryans - a second round pick who was selected as the NFL’s Defensive Rookie of the Year. 2007 Most of the speculation in Houston following the 2006 season involved David Carr and his future with the Texans. On March 21, reports surfaced that backup Atlanta Falcons QB Matt Schaub would be traded to the Texans. The Texans and Falcons swapped first round picks and the Texans gave Atlanta their second round pick in 2007 and 2008. ESPN - Falcons agree to deal backup QB Schaub to Houston - NFL Upon his introduction in Houston on March 22, Schaub was announced as the starting quarterback in 2007. Despite rumors that the Texans were attempting to trade him, the team granted the popular Carr an unconditional release so that the former #1 pick could shop for his own team. On April 6, 2007 David Carr joined the Carolina Panthers and became the starter after an injury to longtime Panthers Jake Delhomme ended his season. The Texans' first-round pick in 2007, DT Amobi Okoye, is the youngest player ever selected in the history of the NFL Draft. Okoye did not turn 20 until June 10, 2007. For Matt Schaub and the Texans, the 2007 season started on a high note. They extended their franchise record two-game winning streak from the end of 2006 to four with victories at home against the Chiefs and on the road in Carolina. After the 2–0 start, however, the Texans would be plagued with injuries and turnovers. Matt Schaub missed five full games due to injury and major portions of two others. Former Pro-Bowl receiver Andre Johnson missed 7 games due to a knee injury. Dunta Robinson was lost for the season after a leg injury in a Week 9 game against Oakland, starting Center Steve McKinney suffered a season-ending injury in the third game of the season, and Ahman Green, who was signed in the offseason to a large contract, rushed for only 260 yards, missed several games and finished the season on IR. Despite all of this, the Texans would have one of the best seasons in franchise history, finishing with a .500 record for the first time ever, including going 6-2 at home and setting several team and individual records. The Texans had their best offense, setting team highs in points, average yards per play, total touchdowns, passing touchdowns, total yards and passing yards. Andre Johnson finished with a career and franchise high 8 touchdowns. Mario Williams set a franchise record with 14 sacks, finishing first in the AFC and tied for third in the league and DeMeco Ryans was selected as a starter in his first Pro Bowl. The Texans posted a 1–5 division record, finishing last in the AFC South, and a 7–3 record outside of their division. In 2007, Kris Brown became the first kicker in NFL history to make three field goals of 54 yards or longer in a single game, which included a franchise record 57-yard field goal to beat the Dolphins. 2008 The Texans opened the 2008 season with consecutive losses to the Pittsburgh Steelers 38-17, and the Tennessee Titans 31-12. Their week two home opener against Baltimore was rescheduled due to damage in and around the city of Houston Hurricane Ike forcing the Texans to play three consecutive road games before finally returning home in October. After back-to-back heartbreaking losses against Jacksonville and Indianapolis, the Texans secured their first win of the season against the Dolphins in dramatic come from behind fashion capped with a fourth and goal touchdown run by Matt Schaub with three seconds remaining in the game. The Texans then went on to beat Detroit 28-21. The following week they blew out the Bengals 35-6, the largest point differential in Texans history. They set a franchise record for consecutive wins with 4, after beating the Cleveland Browns, Jacksonville Jaguars, Green Bay Packers, and the Tennessee Titans. After a disappointing loss to the Oakland Raiders in Week 16 the Texans finished the 2008 NFL Season with a 31-24 win against the Chicago Bears, effectively playing spoiler and eliminating the Bears from a playoff spot that they would have secured with a win over the Texans. On December 1, 2008, the Texans defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 30-17 in their first-ever game on Monday Night Football. Rookie Steve Slaton rushed for 130 yards and 2 touchdowns and caught 2 passes for 52 yards. Mario Williams had 3 sacks and a forced fumble, and Andre Johnson caught 7 passes for 75 yards and a touchdown. They finished the season with an 8-8 record, tying the franchise record for wins in a season. Little did the Texans realize that their 2nd of two 3rd round picks in the 2008 NFL Draft, acquired via trade, would be one of their two best offensive players in 2008. Steve Slaton was the 10th running back selected in the draft, but wound up being the steal of the draft by leading all rookies with 1,282 yards rushing and 1,659 yards from scrimmage. Other highlights included Andre Johnson leading the NFL in receptions with 115 and receiving yards with 1,575. The Texans also sent three players to the Pro Bowl: Andre Johnson, Mario Williams and Owen Daniels. Nickname Houston Texans uniform combination On March 2, 2000, Houston NFL 2002 announced that the team name search had been narrowed down to five choices: Apollos, Bobcats, Stallions, Texans and Wildcatters. The name Oilers had been retired by the owner of the Titans. The five names are determined after several months of research conducted jointly by Houston NFL 2002 and NFL Properties. An online survey regarding the name generated more than 65,000 responses in just seven days. In April the list of five names was narrowed down to three: Apollos, Stallions and Texans. Before selecting "Texans", owner Bob McNair asked fellow NFL owner Lamar Hunt for his permission to use the moniker. Hunt and his franchise, the Dallas Texans (now the Kansas City Chiefs), were charter members of the American Football League; Hunt granted permission for the Houston franchise to use the Texan nickname. Logos and uniforms On September 6, 2000, the NFL's 32nd franchise was officially christened the Houston Texans before thousands at a downtown rally on Texas Avenue. Before unveiling the logo Bob McNair described the colors as "Deep Steel Blue", "Battle Red" and "Liberty White". The logo was an abstract depiction of a bull split in such a way to resemble the flag of Texas, including a lone star, the five points of which representing pride, courage, strength, tradition and independence. A year later the Texans unveiled their uniforms during another downtown rally. The Texans' helmet is dark blue with the Texans bull logo. The uniform design consists of red trim and either dark blue or white jerseys. The team wears white pants with its blue jerseys, blue pants with its white jerseys. Starting with the 2006 season, the Texans wear all-white for their home opener, and also in 2006, the team began to wear an all-blue combination for home games vs. the Indianapolis Colts. In 2003, the Texans introduced an alternative red jersey (most of the time worn in divisional game against the Jacksonville Jaguars) with blue trim. In 2007 the Texans introduced red pants for the first time, pairing them with the red jerseys for an all-red look. In October 2008 the Texans paired blue socks (instead of the traditional red) with their blue pants and white jerseys. Their uniforms are made by Reebok. In 2002 the team wore a patch commemorating their inaugural season. Like many other NFL teams located in subtropical climates, the Texans traditionally wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season — forcing opponents to wear their dark ones during the hot autumns in Houston. The team will still wear white jerseys during those early regular season games even though the retractable roof of the club's home field, Reliant Stadium, may be closed. In the preseason, the Texans wear white at home. ‎ Statistics Season-by-season records Super Bowl Champions (1970–present)Conference ChampionsDivision ChampionsWild Card Berth SeasonTeamLeagueConferenceDivisionRegular SeasonPost Season ResultsAwardsFinishWinsLossesTies20022002NFLAFCSouth4th4120 20032003NFLAFCSouth4th5110 Domanick Williams (NFL OROY) (as Domanick Davis)20042004NFLAFCSouth3rd790 20052005NFLAFCSouth4th2140 20062006NFLAFCSouth4th6100 DeMeco Ryans (NFL DROY)20072007NFLAFCSouth4th880 20082008NFLAFCSouth3rd880 Total40720(2002–2008, includes only regular season)000(2002–2008, includes only playoffs)40720(2002–2008, includes both regular season and playoffs) Players of note Current players NFL Draft history First-round draft picks by year = Pro Bowler YearPickPlayerPositionCollege20021st overallDavid CarrQuarterbackFresno State20033rd overallAndre JohnsonWide receiverMiami (FL)200410th overallDunta RobinsonCornerbackSouth Carolina200427th overall (from Tennessee)Jason BabinDefensive endWestern Michigan200516th overall (from New Orleans)Travis JohnsonDefensive tackleFlorida State20061st overallMario WilliamsDefensive endNorth Carolina State200710th overall (from Atlanta)Amobi OkoyeDefensive tackleLouisville200826th overall (from Baltimore)Duane BrownOffensive tackleVirginia Tech200915th overallBrian CushingLinebackerSouthern California Awards and honors Coaches of note Head coaches NameFromToRecordTitlesWLTDom CapersJanuary 21, 2001January 2, 2006184600Gary KubiakJanuary 26, 2006Present222600 Current staff Traditions Battle Red Day - On Battle Red Day the team wears the red alternate jerseys and fans are encouraged to wear red to the game. Starting in 2007 and including 2008, this included the Texans wearing red pants along with the red shirts. Bull Pen - The sections behind the north end zone of Reliant Stadium are known as the Bull Pen. The most avid fans attend games in the Bull Pen and regular members have helped create and implement fan traditions, songs and chants. Bull Pen Pep Band - 45-member musical group that performs at all Houston Texans home games. Pre-Kickoff Tradition - Before each kickoff at a home game, the Texans will run a short clip of a raging bull thrashing the opponent of the week. The video is paired with the AC/DC song "Thunderstruck" Radio and television , the Texans' flagship radio stations were KILT SportsRadio 610AM and KILT 100.3FM. The AM station has an all-sports format, while the FM station plays contemporary country music. Both are owned by CBS Radio. Marc Vandermeer is the play-by-play announcer. Heisman Trophy winner Andre Ware provides color commentary, and SportsRadio 610 host Rich Lord serves as the sideline reporter. Preseason games are telecast by KTRK, an ABC owned and operated station. Joel Meyers calls the preseason games on TV, with former Oilers running back Spencer Tillman providing color commentary. Also it has been reported that singer/actress Hilary Duff is a huge fan of her hometown Texans. She plans to sing at some of their games this upcoming season and bring Houston Texans football to new heights as they will be trying to make the playoffs for the first time in franchise history. Spanish language radio broadcasts of the team's games are aired on KLAT La Tremenda 1010AM. Notes and references External links Official Houston Texans website Sports E-Cyclopedia.com	Houston_Texans \|@lemmatized houston:50 texan:79 professional:2 american:3 football:12 team:44 base:1 texas:4 currently:1 member:4 southern:1 division:5 conference:2 afc:4 national:5 league:16 nfl:51 join:2 expansion:16 previous:4 franchise:24 oiler:4 tennessee:9 titans:2 move:3 nashville:1 http:2 www:2 hworth:2 net:2 hou:2 html:2 club:3 one:9 five:9 yet:3 qualify:1 super:5 bowl:14 achieve:1 playoff:6 berth:2 principal:1 owner:12 chairman:2 bob:5 mcnair:16 minority:1 vice:2 chuck:2 watson:2 history:10 bring:5 back:16 june:3 bypass:1 hockey:1 attempt:4 two:20 week:15 later:7 find:4 without:2 first:31 time:10 since:2 bud:1 adam:2 get:7 final:3 approval:1 lawsuit:1 file:1 city:8 harris:1 county:1 party:3 settle:1 pay:2 million:6 dollar:2 leave:3 town:1 interview:1 chronicle:1 local:2 entrepreneur:1 san:2 diego:1 padre:1 john:1 j:1 moore:1 whose:1 name:9 often:1 attach:1 effort:5 return:4 say:2 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6,034	Demographics_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia	This article is about the demographic features of the population of Republic of Macedonia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populous, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Demographics of the Republic of Macedonia, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Total: 2,022,547 (2002 census); 2,038,514 (2006 est. ) Age structure 0-14 years: 19.5% (male 210,078; female 203,106) 15-64 years: 67.8% (male 707,298; female 696,830) 65 years and over: 12.7% (male 97,437; female 124,661) (2004 est.) Population growth rate 0.39% (2004 est.) Birth rate: 13.14 births/1,000 population (2004 est.) Death rate: 7.83 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.) There were 22,585 live births in 2006. There were 18,630 deaths in 2006. Net migration rate -1.45 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.08 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.78 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2004 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 11.74 deaths/1,000 live births female: 10.73 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.) male: 12.67 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth total population: 74.73 years male: 72.45 years female: 77.2 years (2004 est.) Total fertility rate 1.74 children born/woman (2004 est.) HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.) people living with HIV/AIDS: less than 100 (1999 est.) deaths: less than 100 (2001 est.) Nationality noun: Macedonian adjective: Macedonian Ethnic map of the Republic of Macedonia, according to the 1981 census Ethnic map of the Republic of Macedonia, according to the 2002 census Ethnic groups in the Republic of Macedonia, according to the 2002 census Ethnic groups in the Republic of Macedonia, according to the 2002 census Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia, according to the 2002 census Ethnic groups (based on 2002 census) Totally 2,022,547 Macedonians: 1,297,981 or 64.17%. (This also includes Macedonian Muslims 5.86%.) Albanians: 509,083 or 25.17% Turks: 77,959 or 3.85% Roma: 53,879 or 2.66% Serbs: 35,939 or 1.78% Bosniaks 17,018 or 0.84% Muslims by nationality: 2,553 or 0.13% Aromanians: 9695 or 0.479% Egyptians: 3,713 or 0.184% Croats: 2686 or 0.133% Montenegrins: 2003 or 0.1% Bulgarians: 1417 or 0.073% Greeks: 422 or 0.021% Russians: 368 or 0.018% Slovenes: 365 or 0.018% Poles: 162 or 0.008% Ukrainians: 136 or 0.007% Germans: 88 or 0.004% Czechs: 60 or 0.005% Slovaks: 60 or 0.005% Jews: 53 or 0.003% Italians: 46 or 0.002% Austrians: 35 or 0.002% Rusyns: 24 or 0.001% Regionally affiliated: 829 or 0.041% Non-declared: 404 or 0.02% Others: 5332 or 0.264% Religions Eastern Orthodox (Macedonian Orthodox ): 66% Muslim: 33% other: 1% Languages (2002 census) Macedonian: 66.5% Albanian: 25.1% Turkish: 3.5% Roma: 1.9% Serbian: 1.2% other: 1.8% Literacy definition: NA total population: NA% male: NA% female: NA% Trends The process of industrialization and urbanization after the WWII that caused the population growth to decrease involved the Macedonians to a greater extent than the Muslims. Rates of increase were very high among rural Muslims: Turks and Torbesh are 2.5 times those of the Macedonian majority, while Albanians and Roma have 3 times as high. This has resulted in a significant demographic change as the Albanian population part has swelled from 8% after WWII to 25% in the 1990s. This has caused an increase in political tension and ultimately after a brief conflict forced the country to undertake reforms that decentralized the government. In 1994, Macedonian Slavs had a TFR of 2.07, while the TFR of others were - Albanian(4.10), Turkish(3.55), Roma(4.01), Serb(2.07), Vlax(1.88) and Others(3.05). The TFR by religions was - Christian (2.17,with 2.20 for Catholics and 2.06 for Orthodox), Islam (4.02) and others (2.16) . See also Republic of Macedonia Demographic history of the Republic of Macedonia External links Results of the 2002 census CIA's World Factbook entry on the Republic of Macedonia References Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Macedonia 2004 (CD version)	Demographics_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia \|@lemmatized article:1 demographic:6 feature:1 population:12 republic:11 macedonia:11 include:2 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populous:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:3 world:3 factbook:3 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 data:1 fao:1 year:10 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 total:6 census:9 est:13 age:1 structure:1 male:11 female:11 growth:2 rate:8 birth:8 death:7 live:5 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 aid:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 less:3 people:1 nationality:2 noun:1 macedonian:9 adjective:1 ethnic:5 map:2 accord:5 group:3 albanian:6 base:1 totally:1 also:2 muslim:5 turk:2 rom:4 serb:2 bosniaks:1 aromanians:1 egyptian:1 croat:1 montenegrins:1 bulgarian:1 greek:1 russian:1 slovene:1 pole:1 ukrainian:1 german:1 czech:1 slovak:1 jew:1 italian:1 austrian:1 rusyns:1 regionally:1 affiliate:1 non:1 declare:1 others:4 religion:2 eastern:1 orthodox:3 language:1 turkish:2 serbian:1 literacy:1 definition:1 na:4 trend:1 process:1 industrialization:1 urbanization:1 wwii:2 cause:2 decrease:1 involve:1 great:1 extent:1 increase:2 high:2 among:1 rural:1 torbesh:1 time:2 majority:1 result:2 significant:1 change:1 part:1 swell:1 political:1 tension:1 ultimately:1 brief:1 conflict:1 force:1 country:1 undertake:1 reform:1 decentralize:1 government:1 slav:1 tfr:3 vlax:1 christian:1 catholic:1 islam:1 see:1 history:1 external:1 link:1 entry:1 reference:1 statistical:1 yearbook:1 cd:1 version:1 \|@bigram republic_macedonia:11 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:8 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 serb_bosniaks:1 czech_slovak:1 eastern_orthodox:1 literacy_definition:1 industrialization_urbanization:1 macedonian_slav:1 external_link:1 statistical_yearbook:1
6,035	Telecommunications_in_Gabon	Communications in Gabon, a West African nation, consists of a number of methods. Land Lines Telephones - main lines in use: 39,100 (2005); 32,000 (1995) Mobile and Cellular lines Telephones - mobile cellular: 720,000 (2007) SystemsTelephone system:Domestic: Adequate system of cable Microwave radio relay Tropospheric scatter Radiotelephone communication stations Domestic satellite system with 12 Earth stations International: Satellite Earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) Radio CommunicationRadio broadcast stations:AM 6, FM 7, shortwave 6 (1998)Radios:208,000 (1997) There are two main broadcasters in Gabon. The state broadcaster, Radiodiffusion Télévision Gabonaise (RTG), operates two main networks - a national network in French and a provincial network in French and vernacular languages. There is also a special programme on RTG's FM frequencies. Perhaps the most important station in Gabon (and one that many shortwave radio listeners are familiar with) is the privately owned Afrique Numero Un , which operates on FM in the Libreville area and also broadcasts via shortwave radio. Afrique Numero Un also has relay stations in mostly French-speaking African countries. Radio France Internationale has relay stations throughout Gabon. Other privately owned stations also operate in Gabon, though concentrated mostly in the Libreville area. (WRTH, 2005) Television CommunicationTelevision broadcast stations:4 (plus five low-power repeaters) (2005) Like many former French colonies, Gabon uses the SECAM-K standard. However, RTG is the only television broadcaster operating in Gabon. Two television channels (chs. 4 and 8) are found in the Libreville area. All other channels and repeaters relay ch4. (WRTH, 2005)Televisions:63,000 (1997) Internet CommunicationInternet Service Providers (ISPs):1 (1999) CodesCountry code (Top-level domain): GATelephone code (when dialing Gabon internationally):' 241See also :'' Gabon	Telecommunications_in_Gabon \|@lemmatized communication:2 gabon:9 west:1 african:2 nation:1 consist:1 number:1 method:1 land:1 line:3 telephone:2 main:3 use:2 mobile:2 cellular:2 systemstelephone:1 system:3 domestic:2 adequate:1 cable:1 microwave:1 radio:6 relay:4 tropospheric:1 scatter:1 radiotelephone:1 station:9 satellite:2 earth:2 international:1 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 communicationradio:1 broadcast:3 fm:3 shortwave:3 two:3 broadcaster:3 state:1 radiodiffusion:1 télévision:1 gabonaise:1 rtg:3 operate:4 network:3 national:1 french:4 provincial:1 vernacular:1 language:1 also:5 special:1 programme:1 frequency:1 perhaps:1 important:1 one:1 many:2 listener:1 familiar:1 privately:2 afrique:2 numero:2 un:2 libreville:3 area:3 via:1 mostly:2 speaking:1 country:1 france:1 internationale:1 throughout:1 though:1 concentrate:1 wrth:2 television:4 communicationtelevision:1 plus:1 five:1 low:1 power:1 repeater:2 like:1 former:1 colony:1 secam:1 k:1 standard:1 however:1 channel:2 chs:1 find:1 internet:1 communicationinternet:1 service:1 provider:1 isps:1 codescountry:1 code:2 top:1 level:1 domain:1 gatelephone:1 dial:1 internationally:1 \|@bigram mobile_cellular:2 tropospheric_scatter:1 radiotelephone_communication:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:3 provider_isps:1
6,036	Nephrology	A drawing of the human kidney from Gray's Anatomy. Nephrology (from Greek: nephros, "kidney", combining with the suffix -logy, "the study of")) is a branch of internal medicine and pediatrics dealing with the study of the function and diseases of the kidney. American Society of Nephrology \| Facts and Statistics \| FAQ Scope of the specialty Nephrology concerns itself with the diagnosis and treatment of kidney diseases, including electrolyte disturbances and hypertension, and the care of those requiring renal replacement therapy, including dialysis and renal transplant patients. Many diseases affecting the kidney are systemic disorders not limited to the organ itself, and may require special treatment. Examples include acquired conditions such as systemic vasculitides (eg. ANCA vasculitis) and autoimmune diseases (eg lupus), as well as congenital or genetic conditions such as polycystic kidney disease. Training A nephrologist is a physician who has been trained in the diagnosis and management of kidney disease, by regulating blood pressure, regulating electrolytes, balancing fluids in the body, and administering dialysis. Nephrologists treat many different kidney disorders including acid-base disorders, electrolyte disorders, nephrolithiasis (kidney stones), hypertension (high blood pressure), acute kidney disease and end-stage renal disease. Nephrology is a subspecialty of internal medicine. In the United States, after medical school nephrologists complete a three year residency in internal medicine followed by a two year (or longer) fellowship in nephrology. Knowledge of internal medicine is required to obtain certification. To become a nephrologist requires many years of school and training. Nephrologists also must be approved by the board. To be approved, the physician must fulfill the requirements for education and training in nephrology in order to qualify to take the board's examination. If a physician passes the examination, then he or she can become a nephrology specialist. Typically, nephrologists also need two to three years of training in an ACGME accredited program in nephrology. Information that a nephrologist learns in training are fluid and acid base and electrolyte physiology, medical management of acute and chronic renal failure, glomerular and vasuclar disorders, tubular/interstitial disorders, mineral metabolism, clinical pharmacology, hypertension, epidemiology, and nutrition. Procedures a nephrologist may learn in a training program include native and transplant kidney biopsies, ultrasound guidance, placement of temporary dialysis catheters, placement of tunneled hemodialysis catheters and placement of peritoneal dialysis catheters. Nearly all programs train nephrologists in continuous renal replacement therapy; fewer than half train in the provision of plasmapheresis. Once training is satisfactorily completed, the physician is eligible to take the ABIM nephrology examination. Subspecialties within nephrology include interventional nephrology, dialytician, and transplant nephrology. Only pediatric trained physicians are able to train in pediatric nephrology, and internal medicine (adult) trained physicians may enter general (adult) nephrology fellowships. Physicians that achieved training in both medicine and pediatrics may subspecialize in both adult and pediatric nephrology. Conditions requiring a nephrologist Patients are referred to nephrology specialists for various reasons, such as: Acute renal failure, a sudden loss of renal function Chronic kidney disease, declining renal function, usually with an inexorable rise in creatinine. Hematuria, blood loss in the urine Proteinuria, the loss of protein especially albumin in the urine Kidney stones, usually only recurrent stone formers. Chronic or recurrent urinary tract infections Hypertension that has failed to respond to multiple forms of anti-hypertensive medication or could have a secondary cause Electrolyte disorders or acid/base imbalance Urologists are surgical specialists of the urinary tract (see urology). They are involved in renal diseases that might be amenable to surgery: Diseases of the Bladder and prostate such as malignancy, stones, or obstruction of the urinary tract. Diagnosis As with the rest of medicine, important clues as to the cause of any symptom are gained in the history and physical examination. Laboratory tests are almost always aimed at: urea, creatinine, electrolytes, and urinalysis, which is frequently the key test in suggesting a diagnosis. More specialized tests can be ordered to discover or link certain systemic diseases to kidney failure such as hepatitis b or hepatitis c, lupus serologies, paraproteinemias such as amyloidosis or multiple myeloma or various other systemic diseases that lead to kidney failure. Collection of a 24-hour sample of urine can give valuable information on the filtering capacity of the kidney and the amount of protein loss in some forms of kidney disease. However, 24-hour urine samples have recently, in the setting of chronic renal disease, been replaced by spot urine ratio of protein and creatinine. Other tests often performed by nephrologists are: Renal biopsy, to obtain a tissue diagnosis of a disorder when the exact nature or stage remains uncertain.; Ultrasound scanning of the urinary tract and occasionally examining the renal blood vessels; CT scanning when mass lesions are suspected or to help diagnosis nephrolithiasis; Scintigraphy (nuclear medicine) for accurate measurement of renal function (rarely done), and MAG3 scans for diagnosis of renal artery disease or 'split function' of each kidney; Angiography or Magnetic resonance imaging angiography when the blood vessels might be affected Therapy Many kidney diseases are treated with medication, such as steroids, DMARDs (disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs), antihypertensives (many kidney diseases feature hypertension). Often erythropoietin and vitamin D treatment is required to replace these two hormones, the production of which stagnates in chronic kidney disease. When chronic kidney disease progresses to stage five, dialysis or transplant is required. Please refer to the main articles dialysis and renal transplant for a comprehensive account of these treatments. Sub-specialties within nephrology include interventional nephrologists who focus on access placement and maintenance, a dialytician who focus upon ordering dialysis for patients, and transplant nephrologists who focus on the acute or sub-acute monitoring of immunosuppression in the transplant patient. If patients proceed to transplant, nephrologists will continue to follow patients to monitor the immunosuppressive regimen and watch for the infection that can occur post transplant. Notable nephrologists Robert J. Alpern, Dean of the Yale School of Medicine. Gerald B. Appel, leading authority on glomerular diseases and Director of Clinical Nephrology at Columbia University. Richardson, Lynda. Public Lives, New York Times December 4, 2003 Morrell Avram, among the first in the United States to use the artificial kidney to treat patients with kidney failure and alumnus of Long Island University. Hugh R. Brady, President of the University College Dublin, Ireland. Richard Bright, the first physician to publish research into the causes and symptoms of kidney disease, historically known as Bright's disease. James Robert Cade, inventor of Gatorade. Joseph Castaigne, developer of the "Achard-Castaigne test", a urinary test using methylene blue dye to examine the excretory function of the kidneys, and "Castaigne test" for examining the density of urine. Graeme Catto, President of the General Medical Council in the United Kingdom. Joseph W. Eschbach, whose research led to the treatment of anemia in renal patients. Georg Haas, performer of the first human hemodialysis treatment. Steven C. Hebert, whose research led to a new class of drugs for the treatment of hyperparathyroidism in renal patients. Kamyar Kalantar-Zadeh, advancer of the controversial concept of reverse epidemiology. Willem Johan Kolff, pioneer in the development of the hemodialysis machine as well as in the field of other artificial organs. Jonathan Michael, knighted in the New Year's Honours List of 1 January 2005. Arthur Arnold Osman, first doctor to call himself a nephrologist. Hernán Padilla, former two-term Mayor of the oldest city in the United States: San Juan, Puerto Rico. Patrick Parfrey, is a Canadian nephrologist, a clinical epidemiologist and Officer to the Order of Canada in 2004 as well as a Newfoundland Rugby legend. Belding H. Scribner, one of the pioneers of ongoing kidney dialysis. Adrian Spitzer, extensive researcher, professor at Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Former Department Chair of Pediatric Nephrology at Montefiore Medical Center, founder of Spitzer-Weinstein Syndrome. Max Wilms, extensive researcher of renal tumors, also known as Wilms' tumor. Dr. Gregory House, on the TV Series House M.D Organizations In the USA, the National Kidney Foundation is a national organization representing patients and professionals who treat kidney diseases. Founded in 1966, the American Society of Nephrology (ASN) is the world’s largest professional society devoted to the study of kidney disease. In the United Kingdom, the National Kidney Federation represents patients, and the Renal Association represents renal physicians and works closely with the National Service Framework for kidney disease. The Renal Support Network (RSN) is a nonprofit, patient-focused, patient-run organization that provides non-medical services to those affected by chronic kidney disease (CKD). The American Association of Kidney Patients (AAKP) is a non-profit, patient-centric group focused on improving the health and well-being of CKD and dialysis patients. References External links American Society of Nephrology Nephrology Now - Literature Update Service and Meta-Journal Latin American Nephrology Nursing Association Latin American Nephrology Nursing Association Asian Pacific Society of Nephrology National and Regional Societies of Nephrology	Nephrology \|@lemmatized drawing:1 human:2 kidney:34 gray:1 anatomy:1 nephrology:26 greek:1 nephros:1 combine:1 suffix:1 logy:1 study:3 branch:1 internal:5 medicine:10 pediatrics:2 deal:1 function:6 disease:28 american:6 society:6 fact:1 statistic:1 faq:1 scope:1 specialty:2 concern:1 diagnosis:7 treatment:7 include:7 electrolyte:5 disturbance:1 hypertension:5 care:1 require:7 renal:21 replacement:2 therapy:3 dialysis:9 transplant:9 patient:16 many:5 affect:3 systemic:4 disorder:8 limit:1 organ:2 may:4 special:1 example:1 acquire:1 condition:3 vasculitides:1 eg:2 anca:1 vasculitis:1 autoimmune:1 lupus:2 well:4 congenital:1 genetic:1 polycystic:1 train:7 nephrologist:7 physician:9 management:2 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remain:1 uncertain:1 scanning:1 occasionally:1 examine:3 vessel:2 ct:1 scan:2 mass:1 lesion:1 suspect:1 help:1 scintigraphy:1 nuclear:1 accurate:1 measurement:1 rarely:1 artery:1 split:1 angiography:2 magnetic:1 resonance:1 image:1 steroid:1 dmards:1 modify:1 antirheumatic:1 drug:2 antihypertensive:1 feature:1 erythropoietin:1 vitamin:1 hormone:1 production:1 stagnate:1 progress:1 five:1 please:1 main:1 article:1 comprehensive:1 account:1 sub:2 focus:5 access:1 maintenance:1 upon:1 monitoring:1 immunosuppression:1 proceed:1 continue:1 monitor:1 immunosuppressive:1 regimen:1 watch:1 occur:1 post:1 notable:1 robert:2 j:1 alpern:1 dean:1 yale:1 gerald:1 appel:1 authority:1 director:1 columbia:1 university:3 richardson:1 lynda:1 public:1 life:1 new:3 york:1 time:1 december:1 morrell:1 avram:1 among:1 first:4 use:2 artificial:2 alumnus:1 island:1 hugh:1 r:1 brady:1 president:2 college:2 dublin:1 ireland:1 richard:1 bright:2 publish:1 research:3 historically:1 know:2 james:1 cade:1 inventor:1 gatorade:1 joseph:2 castaigne:3 developer:1 achard:1 methylene:1 blue:1 dye:1 excretory:1 density:1 graeme:1 catto:1 council:1 kingdom:2 w:1 eschbach:1 whose:2 anemia:1 georg:1 haas:1 performer:1 steven:1 hebert:1 class:1 hyperparathyroidism:1 kamyar:1 kalantar:1 zadeh:1 advancer:1 controversial:1 concept:1 reverse:1 willem:1 johan:1 kolff:1 pioneer:2 development:1 machine:1 field:1 jonathan:1 michael:1 knight:1 honour:1 list:1 january:1 arthur:1 arnold:1 osman:1 doctor:1 call:1 hernán:1 padilla:1 term:1 mayor:1 old:1 city:1 san:1 juan:1 puerto:1 rico:1 patrick:1 parfrey:1 canadian:1 epidemiologist:1 officer:1 canada:1 newfoundland:1 rugby:1 legend:1 belding:1 h:1 scribner:1 one:1 ongoing:1 adrian:1 spitzer:2 extensive:2 researcher:2 professor:1 albert:1 einstein:1 department:1 chair:1 montefiore:1 center:1 founder:1 weinstein:1 syndrome:1 max:1 wilms:2 tumor:2 dr:1 gregory:1 house:2 tv:1 series:1 organization:3 usa:1 national:5 foundation:1 represent:3 professional:2 found:1 asn:1 world:1 large:1 devote:1 federation:1 association:4 work:1 closely:1 service:3 framework:1 support:1 network:1 rsn:1 nonprofit:1 run:1 provide:1 non:2 ckd:2 aakp:1 profit:1 centric:1 group:1 improve:1 health:1 reference:1 external:1 literature:1 update:1 meta:1 journal:1 latin:2 nurse:2 asian:1 pacific:1 regional:1 \|@bigram kidney_disease:15 autoimmune_disease:1 polycystic_kidney:1 acute_chronic:1 renal_failure:2 clinical_pharmacology:1 chronic_kidney:4 chronic_recurrent:1 urinary_tract:4 tract_infection:1 multiple_myeloma:1 ct_scan:1 renal_artery:1 artery_disease:1 magnetic_resonance:1 san_juan:1 juan_puerto:1 puerto_rico:1 albert_einstein:1 external_link:1
6,037	Chocolate	Chocolate most commonly comes in dark, milk, and white varieties, with cocoa solids contributing to the brown coloration. Chocolate (pronounced or /-ˈələt/) comprises a number of raw and processed foods that are produced from the seed of the tropical cacao tree. Native to lowland, tropical South America, cacao has been cultivated for at least three millennia in Central America and Mexico, with its earliest documented use around 1100 BC. The majority of the Mesoamerican peoples made chocolate beverages, including the Maya and Aztecs, who made it into a beverage known as xocolātl, a Nahuatl word meaning "bitter water". The seeds of the cacao tree have an intense bitter taste, and must be fermented to develop the flavor. After fermentation, the beans are dried, cleaned, and roasted, and the shell is removed to produce cacao nibs. The nibs are then ground and liquified, resulting in pure chocolate in fluid form: chocolate liquor. The liquor can be further processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Pure, unsweetened chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. "White chocolate" contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk but no cocoa solids (and thus does not qualify to be considered true chocolate). Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have physiological effects on the body. It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain. Scientists claim that chocolate, eaten in moderation, can lower blood pressure. Dark chocolate has recently been promoted for its health benefits, including a substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the formation of free radicals, though the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, such as dogs and cats. Chocolate has become one of the most popular flavors in the world. Gifts of chocolate molded into different shapes have become traditional on certain holidays: chocolate bunnies and eggs are popular on Easter, chocolate coins on Hanukkah, Santa Claus and other holiday symbols on Christmas, and hearts on Valentine's Day. Chocolate is also used in cold and hot beverages, to produce chocolate milk and hot chocolate. Etymology The word "chocolate" entered the English language from Spanish. How the word came into Spanish is less certain, and there are multiple competing explanations. Perhaps the most cited explanation is that "chocolate" comes from Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, from the word "chocolatl", which many sources derived from the Nahuatl word "xocolatl" made up from the words "xococ" meaning sour or bitter, and "atl" meaning water or drink. However, as William Bright noted the word "chocolatl" doesn't occur in central Mexican colonial sources making this an unlikely derivation. Santamaria gives a derivation from the Yucatec Maya word "chokol" meaning hot, and the Nahuatl "atl" meaning water. More recently Dakin and Wichmann derive it from another Nahuatl term, "chicolatl" from Eastern Nahuatl meaning "beaten drink". They derive this term from the word for the frothing stick, "chicoli". History A mug of hot chocolate. Chocolate was first drunk rather than eaten. Cacao, native to lowland, tropical South America, has been cultivated for at least three millennia in Mesoamerica and Central America . It was used in Mesoamerica both as a beverage, and as an ingredient in foods. Chocolate has been used as a drink for nearly all of its history. The earliest record of using chocolate dates back before the Olmec. In November 2007, archaeologists reported finding evidence of the oldest known cultivation and use of cacao at a site in Puerto Escondido, Honduras, dating from about 1100 to 1400 BC. The residues found and the kind of vessel they were found in indicate that the initial use of cacao was not simply as a beverage, but the white pulp around the cacao beans was likely used as a source of fermentable sugars for an alcoholic drink. The Maya civilization grew cacao trees in their backyard, and used the cacao seeds it produced to make a frothy, bitter drink. Documents in Maya hieroglyphs stated that chocolate was used for ceremonial purposes, in addition to everyday life. The chocolate residue found in an early ancient Maya pot in Río Azul, Guatemala, suggests that Maya were drinking chocolate around 400 AD. In the New World, chocolate was consumed in a bitter, spicy drink called xocoatl, and was often flavored with vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote (known today as annatto). Xocoatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is probably attributable to the theobromine content. Chocolate was also an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cacao beans were often used as currency. For example, the Aztecs used a system in which one turkey cost one hundred cacao beans and one fresh avocado was worth three beans. South American and European cultures have used cocoa to treat diarrhea for hundreds of years. All of the areas that were conquered by the Aztecs that grew cacao beans were ordered to pay them as a tax, or as the Aztecs called it, a "tribute". Until the 16th century, no European had ever heard of the popular drink from the Central and South American peoples. It was not until the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs that chocolate could be imported to Europe, where it quickly became a court favorite. To keep up with the high demand for this new drink, Spanish armies began enslaving Mesoamericans to produce cacao. Even with cacao harvesting becoming a regular business, only royalty and the well-connected could afford to drink this expensive import. Before long, the Spanish began growing cacao beans on plantations, and using an African workforce to help manage them. The situation was different in England. Put simply, anyone with money could buy it. The first chocolate house opened in London in 1657. In 1689, noted physician and collector Hans Sloane developed a milk chocolate drink in Jamaica which was initially used by apothecaries, but later sold to the Cadbury brothers. For hundreds of years, the chocolate making process remained unchanged. When the people saw the Industrial Revolution arrive, many changes occurred that brought about the food today in its modern form. A Dutch family's (van Houten) inventions made mass production of shiny, tasty chocolate bars and related products possible. In the 1700s, mechanical mills were created that squeezed out cocoa butter, which in turn helped to create hard, durable chocolate. But, it was not until the arrival of the Industrial Revolution that these mills were put to bigger use. Not long after the revolution cooled down, companies began advertising this new invention to sell many of the chocolate treats we see today. When new machines were produced, people began experiencing and consuming chocolate worldwide. Types of chocolate A half beat of milk chocolate with salmiak filling by Fazer Several types of chocolate can be distinguished. Pure, unsweetened chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. "White chocolate" contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk but no cocoa solids. Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have some physiological effects in humans, but the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, such as dogs and cats. It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain. Dark chocolate has recently been promoted for its health benefits, as it seems to possess substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the formation of free radicals. White chocolate is formed from a mixture of sugar, cocoa butter, and milk solids. Although its texture is similar to milk and dark chocolate, it does not contain any cocoa solids. Because of this, many countries do not consider white chocolate as chocolate at all. Although first introduced by Hebert Candies in 1955, Mars, Incorporated was the first to produce white chocolate within the United States. Because it does not contain any cocoa solids, white chocolate does not contain any theobromine, meaning it can be consumed by animals. Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao mixture. The U.S. Government calls this "sweet chocolate", and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids. Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is a rich source of the flavonoids epicatechin and gallic acid, which are thought to possess cardioprotective properties. Dark chocolate has also been said to reduce the possibility of a heart attack when consumed regularly in small amounts. Semisweet chocolate is a dark chocolate with a low sugar content. Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor to which some sugar (typically a third), more cocoa butter, vanilla and sometimes lecithin have been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking. Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, also known as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground, roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavor. Production Chocolate is created from the cocoa bean. A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages of ripening Roughly two-thirds of the entire world's cocoa is produced in Western Africa, with 43% sourced from Côte d'Ivoire. According to the World Cocoa Foundation, some 50 million people around the world depend on cocoa as a source of livelihood. The industry is dominated by three chocolate makers, Barry Callebaut, Cargill and Archer Daniels Midland Company (ADM). In the UK, most chocolatiers purchase their chocolate from them, to melt, mold and package to their own design. Despite some disagreement in the EU about the definition, chocolate is any product made primarily of cocoa solids and cocoa fat. The different flavors of chocolate can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans, by adjusting the relative quantities of the cocoa solids and cocoa fat, and by adding non-chocolate ingredients. Production costs can be decreased by reducing cocoa solid content or by substituting cocoa butter with a non-cocoa fat. Cocoa growers object to allowing the resulting food to be called "chocolate", due to the risk of lower demand for their crops. There are two main jobs associated with creating chocolate candy, chocolate makers and chocolatiers. Chocolate makers use harvested cacao beans and other ingredients to produce couverture chocolate. Chocolatiers use the finished couverture to make chocolate candies (bars, truffles, etc.). Cacao varieties Chocolate Cream Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich, well-drained soils. They naturally grow within 20 degrees of either side of the equator because they need about 2000 millimeters of rainfall a year, and temperatures in the range of 21 to 32 degrees Celsius. Cacao trees cannot tolerate a temperature lower than 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit). The three main varieties of cacao beans used in chocolate are criollo, forastero and trinitario. Representing only five percent of all cocoa beans grown, criollo is the rarest and most expensive cocoa on the market and is native to Central America, the Caribbean islands and the northern tier of South American states. There is some dispute about the genetic purity of cocoas sold today as Criollo, as most populations have been exposed to the genetic influence of other varieties. Criollos are particularly difficult to grow, as they are vulnerable to a variety of environmental threats and produce low yields of cocoa per tree. The flavor of Criollo is described as delicate yet complex, low in classic chocolate flavor, but rich in "secondary" notes of long duration. The most commonly grown bean is forastero, a large group of wild and cultivated cacaos, most likely native to the Amazon basin. The African cocoa crop is entirely of the Forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and of higher yield than Criollo. The source of most chocolate marketed, forastero cocoas are typically strong in classic "chocolate" flavor, but have a short duration and are unsupported by secondary flavors, producing "quite bland" chocolate. Trinitario is a natural hybrid of Criollo and Forastero. Trinitario originated in Trinidad after an introduction of Forastero to the local Criollo crop. Nearly all cacao produced over the past five decades is of the Forastero or lower-grade Trinitario varieties. Processing Cacao pods are harvested by cutting the pods from the tree using a machete, or by knocking them off the tree using a stick. The beans with their surrounding pulp are removed from the pods and placed in piles or bins to ferment. The fermentation process is what gives the beans their familiar chocolate taste. It is important to harvest the pods when they are fully ripe because if the pod is unripe, the beans will have a low cocoa butter content, or there will be insufficient sugars in the white pulp for fermentation, resulting in a weak flavor. After fermentation, the beans must be quickly dried to prevent mold growth. Climate and weather permitting, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun from 5 to 7 days. The dried beans are then transported from the plantation where they were grown to a chocolate manufacturing facility. The beans are then cleaned (removing twigs, stones, and other debris), roasted, and graded. Next the shells are removed to extract the nib. Finally, the nibs are ground and liquified, resulting in pure chocolate in fluid form: chocolate liquor. The liquor can be further processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Chocolate made with enough cocoa butter flows gently over a chocolate fountain to serve dessert fondue. Blending Chocolate Melanger Chocolate liquor is blended with the cocoa butter in varying quantities to make different types of chocolate or couvertures. The basic blends of ingredients for the various types of chocolate (in order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first), are as follows: Dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and vanilla White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder, and vanilla Usually, an emulsifying agent such as soy lecithin is added, though a few manufacturers prefer to exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain GMO free, sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture. Some manufacturers are now using PGPR, an artificial emulsifier derived from castor oil that allows them to reduce the amount of cocoa butter while maintaining the same mouthfeel. The texture is also heavily influenced by processing, specifically conching (see below). The more expensive chocolate tends to be processed longer and thus have a smoother texture and "feel" on the tongue, regardless of whether emulsifying agents are added. Different manufacturers develop their own "signature" blends based on the above formulas, but varying proportions of the different constituents are used. The finest, plain dark chocolate couvertures contain at least 70% cocoa (both solids and butter), whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%. High-quality white chocolate couvertures contain only about 33% cocoa. Producers of high quality, small batch chocolate argue that mass production produces bad quality chocolate. Some mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in many cases) and fats other than cocoa butter. Vegetable oils and artificial vanilla flavor are often used in cheaper chocolate to mask poorly fermented and/or roasted beans. In 2007, the Chocolate Manufacturers Association in the United States, whose members include Hershey, Nestlé, and Archer Daniels Midland, lobbied the Food and Drug Administration to change the legal definition of chocolate to let them substitute partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for cocoa butter in addition to using artificial sweeteners and milk substitutes. Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not allow a product to be referred to as "chocolate" if the product contains any of these ingredients. Conching Various chocolate-making machinery The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by frictional heat. Chocolate prior to conching has an uneven and gritty texture. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, lesser grades about four to six hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to approximately 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) until final processing. Tempering The final process is called tempering. Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen with the naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken. The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the result of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process. The fats in cocoa butter can crystallize in six different forms (polymorphous crystallization). The primary purpose of tempering is to assure that only the best form is present. The six different crystal forms have different properties. Crystal Melting temp. Notes I 17 °C (63 °F) Soft, crumbly, melts too easily. II 21 °C (70 °F) Soft, crumbly, melts too easily. III 26 °C (78 °F) Firm, poor snap, melts too easily. IV 28 °C (82 °F) Firm, good snap, melts too easily. V 34 °C (94 °F) Glossy, firm, best snap, melts near body temperature (37 °C). VI 36 °C (97 °F) Hard, takes weeks to form. Making chocolate considered "good" is about forming as many type V crystals as possible. This provides the best appearance and texture and creates the most stable crystals so the texture and appearance will not degrade over time. To accomplish this, the temperature is carefully manipulated during the crystallization. Generally, the chocolate is first heated to 45 °C (115 °F) to melt all six forms of crystals. Next, the chocolate is cooled to about 27 °C (80 °F), which will allow crystal types IV and V to form. At this temperature, the chocolate is agitated to create many small crystal "seeds" which will serve as nuclei to create small crystals in the chocolate. The chocolate is then heated to about 31 °C (88 °F) to eliminate any type IV crystals, leaving just type V. After this point, any excessive heating of the chocolate will destroy the temper and this process will have to be repeated. However, there are other methods of chocolate tempering used. The most common variant is introducing already tempered, solid "seed" chocolate. The temper of chocolate can be measured with a chocolate temper meter to ensure accuracy and consistency. A sample cup is filled with the chocolate and placed in the unit which then displays or prints the results. Two classic ways of manually tempering chocolate are: Working the molten chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab, until thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal "seeds"; the chocolate is then gently warmed to working temperature. Stirring solid chocolate into molten chocolate to "inoculate" the liquid chocolate with crystals (this method uses the already formed crystal of the solid chocolate to "seed" the molten chocolate). Chocolate tempering machines (or temperers) with computer controls can be used for producing consistently tempered chocolate, particularly for large volume applications. Storage Molten chocolate and a piece of a chocolate bar Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 °C (59 to 63 °F), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. Chocolate is generally stored away from other foods as it can absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped, and placed in proper storage with the correct humidity and temperature. Additionally chocolate is frequently stored in a dark place or protected from light by wrapping paper. Various types of "blooming" effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly. If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can absorb enough moisture to cause a whitish discoloration, the result of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface. Moving chocolate from one temperature extreme to another, such as from a refrigerator on a hot day, can result in an oily texture. Although visually unappealing, chocolate suffering from bloom is perfectly safe for consumption. Health While chocolate is regularly eaten for pleasure, there are potential beneficial health effects of eating chocolate. Cocoa or dark chocolate benefits the circulatory system. Other beneficial effects suggested include anticancer, brain stimulator, cough preventor and antidiarrhoeal effects. An aphrodisiac effect is yet unproven. On the other hand, the unconstrained consumption large quantities of any energy-rich food such as chocolate is thought to increase the risk of obesity without a corresponding increase in activity. Raw chocolate is high in cocoa butter, a fat which is removed during chocolate refining, then added back in in varying proportions during the manufacturing process. Manufacturers may add other fats, sugars, and milk as well, all of which increase the caloric content of chocolate. There is concern of mild lead poisoning for some types of chocolate. Chocolate is toxic to many animals because of insufficient capacity to metabolize theobromine. A study reported by the BBC indicated that melting chocolate in one's mouth produced an increase in brain activity and heart rate that was more intense than that associated with passionate kissing, and also lasted four times as long after the activity had ended. Circulatory benefits Recent studies have suggested that cocoa or dark chocolate may possess certain beneficial effects on human health. This is mainly caused by a particular substance present in cocoa called epicatechin. Epicatechin Cocoa possesses a significant antioxidant action, protecting against LDL oxidation, perhaps more than other polyphenol antioxidant-rich foods and beverages. Some studies have also observed a modest reduction in blood pressure and flow-mediated dilation after consuming dark chocolate daily. . However, consuming milk chocolate or white chocolate, or drinking fat-containing milk with dark chocolate, appears largely to negate the health benefit. Serafini, M., Bugianesi, R., Maiani, G., Valtuena, S., De Santis, S. & Crozier, A. 2003. Plasma antioxidants from chocolate. Nature 424, 1013 Processed cocoa powder (so called Dutch chocolate), processed with alkali greatly reduces the antioxidant capacity as compared to "raw" cocoa powder. Processing cocoa with alkali destroys most of the flavonoids. One-third of the fat in chocolate comes in the forms of a saturated fat called stearic acid and a monounsaturated fat called oleic acid. However, unlike other saturated fats, stearic acid does not raise levels of LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Consuming relatively large amounts of dark chocolate and cocoa does not seem to raise serum LDL cholesterol levels; some studies even find that it could lower them. Kondo K, Hirano R, Matsumoto A, Igarashi O, Itakura H., Inhibition of LDL oxidation by cocoa, Lancet, November 1996; 348(2):1514. Indeed, small but regular amounts of dark chocolate lower the possibility of a heart attack, . Aphrodisiac Romantic lore commonly identifies chocolate as an aphrodisiac. The reputed aphrodisiac qualities of chocolate are most often associated with the simple sensual pleasure of its consumption. Although there is no proof that chocolate is indeed an aphrodisiac, a gift of chocolate is a familiar courtship ritual. Other benefits Several population studies have observed an increase in the risk of certain cancers among people who frequently consume sweet 'junk' foods such as chocolate . However, very little evidence exists to suggest whether consuming flavonoid-rich dark chocolate may increase or decrease the risk of cancer. Evidence from laboratory studies suggests that cocoa flavonoids may possess anticarcinogenic mechanisms, but more research is needed to prove this idea . Studies suggest a specially formulated type of cocoa may be nootropic and delay brain function decline as people age. Mars, Incorporated, a Virginia-based candy company, spends money each year on flavonol research. The company is talking with pharmaceutical companies to license drugs based on synthesized cocoa flavonol molecules. According to Mars-funded researchers at Harvard, the University of California, and European universities, cocoa-based prescription drugs could potentially help treat diabetes, dementia and other diseases. . The ingredient theobromine was found to be almost one third more effective than codeine, the leading cough medicine. . Flavonoids can inhibit the development of diarrhea, suggesting antidiarrhoeal effects of cocoa. A study done at Children's Hospital & Research Center Oakland, in collaboration with scientists at Heinrich Heine University in Germany: Obesity risk The major concern that nutritionists have is that even though eating dark chocolate may not affect serum cholesterol, blood pressure or LDL oxidation, it is not known whether it favorably affect certain biomarkers of cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, the amount needed to have this effect would provide a relatively large quantity of calories, which, if unused, would promote weight gain. Obesity is a significant risk factor for many diseases, including cardiovascular disease. As a consequence, consuming large quantities of dark chocolate in an attempt to protect against cardiovascular disease has been described as 'cutting off one's nose to spite one's face'. Acne Chocolate, ranging from dark to light, can be molded and decorated like these chickens with ribbons. There is a popular belief that the consumption of chocolate can cause acne. This belief is not supported by scientific studies. Kruszelnicki, Karl S. (June 8, 2004), “Chocolate-Flavoured Acne” (http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/06/08/1110361.htm). ABC Science. Porter,Leah L. (June 2006). “Benefits of Cocoa Polyphenols.” (http://www.chocolateusa.org/pdfs/PMCA_article_June06_MC.pdf) The Manufacturing Confectioner, p. 52. Various studies point not to chocolate, but to the high glycemic nature of certain foods, like sugar, corn syrup, and other simple carbohydrates, as a cause of acne. Smith, Robyn N., Mann, Neil J., Braue, Anna, Maekelaeinen, Henna, Varigos, George A. (July 2007). "A low-glycemic-load diet improves symptoms in acne vulgaris patients: A randomized controlled trial" (abstract at http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/86/1/107). American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86(1), pp. 107-115. O’Connor, Anahad (February 23, 2009). “The Claim: Sugar in the Diet Can Lead to Acne” (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/health/24real.html). New York Times. “Chocolate” (http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/(Pages)/Chocolate?OpenDocument). Better Health Channel. Retrieved April 3, 2009. Cordain, Loren, Lindeberg, Staffan, Hurtado, Magdalena, Hill, Kim, Eaton, S. Boyd, Brand-Miller, Jennie (December 2002). "Acne Vulgaris: A Disease of Western Civilization” (http://archderm.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/138/12/1584). Archives of Dermatology 138 (12), pp. 1584-1590. Chocolate itself has a low glycemic index. “Sweet News for Managing Blood Sugar.” allchocolate.com. http://www.allchocolate.com/health/basics/glycemic_effects.aspx. Retrieved April 3, 2009. In addition, it has been suggested that since chocolate boosts the serotonin levels in the brain, it might reduce stress and actually aid in restraining acne. “The Chocolate and Acne Myth.” The Acne Resource Center Online. http://www.acne-resource.org/acne-articles/chocolate-myth.html. Retrieved April 3, 2009. Other dietary causes of acne cannot be excluded yet, but more rigorous research is required. Lead Chocolate has one of the higher concentrations of lead among products that constitute a typical Westerner's diet, with a potential to cause mild lead poisoning. Recent studies have shown that although the beans themselves absorb little lead, it tends to bind to cocoa shells and contamination may occur during the manufacturing process. A recent peer-reviewed publication found significant amounts of lead in chocolate. Rankin CW, Nriagu JO, Aggarwal JK, Arowolo TA, Adebayo K, Flegal AR. (2005) Lead contamination in cocoa and cocoa products: isotopic evidence of global contamination. Environmental Health Perspectives Oct;113(10):1344-8. Abstract) . In a USDA study in 2004, mean lead levels in the samples tested ranged from 0.0010 to 0.0965 µg lead per gram of chocolate, but another study by a Swiss research group in 2002 found that some chocolate contained up to 0.769 µg per gram, close to the international (voluntary) standard limit for lead in cocoa powder or beans, which is 1 µg of lead per gram. Karrie Heneman and Sheri Zidenberg-Cherr, "Is Lead Toxicity Still a Risk to U.S. Children?", California Agriculture, Volume 60, Number 4 2006. (accessed 15 February 2007) In 2006, the U.S. FDA lowered by one-fifth the amount of lead permissible in candy, but compliance is only voluntary. Lorraine Heller, "FDA issues new guidance on lead in candy", FoodNavigator.com November 29, 2006. (accessed 15 February 2007) While studies show that the lead consumed in chocolate may not all be absorbed by the human body, there is no known threshold for the effects of lead on children's brain function and even small quantities of lead can cause permanent neurodevelopmental deficits including impaired IQ. Canfield RL, Henderson CR Jr, Cory-Slechta DA, Cox C, Jusko TA, Lanphear BP. (2003) Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 microg per deciliter. New England Journal of Medicine Apr;348(16):1517-26. (Abstract) Toxicity in animals In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found in chocolate is toxic to animals such as horses, dogs, parrots, small rodents, and cats because they are unable to metabolise the chemical effectively. If they are fed chocolate, the theobromine will remain in their bloodstream for up to 20 hours, and these animals may experience epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually death. Medical treatment performed by a veterinarian involves inducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion and administration of benzodiazepines or barbiturates for seizures, antiarrhythmics for heart arrhythmias, and fluid diruesis. A typical 20-kilogram (40-lb) dog will normally experience great intestinal distress after eating less than 240 grams (8.5 oz) of dark chocolate, but will not necessarily experience bradycardia or tachycardia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram (1.1 lb) of milk chocolate. Dark chocolate has 2 to 5 times more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical 25-gram (0.88 oz) baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog. Of course, baking chocolate is rarely consumed directly due to its unpleasant taste, but other dark chocolates' canine toxicities may be extrapolated based on this figure. As dogs like the taste of chocolate products as much as humans do, and are capable of finding and eating quantities much larger than typical human servings, they should be kept out of their reach. There are reports that mulch made from cacao bean shells is dangerous to dogs and livestock. Drolet R, Arendt TD, Stowe CM. Cacao bean shell poisoning in a dog. JAVMA 1984;185(8): 902. Blakemore F, Shearer GD. The poisoning of livestock by cacao products. Vet Record 1943;55(15). As a stimulant Molten Chocolate A chocolate sweet. A model of the Reichstag made of chocolate at a Berlin shop Chocolate contains a variety of substances, some of which have an effect on body chemistry. These include: Sugar Theobromine, the primary alkaloid in cocoa and chocolate and partly responsible for chocolate's mood-elevating effect Tryptophan, an essential amino acid and precursor to serotonin Phenethylamine, an endogenous alkaloid sometimes described as a 'love chemical; it is quickly metabolized by monoamine oxidase-B and does not reach the brain in significant amounts Caffeine, present in smaller amounts Chocolate is a mild stimulant to humans mainly due to the presence of theobromine. It is much more potent for horses, and its use in horse racing is prohibited. Labelling Some manufacturers provide the percentage of chocolate in a finished chocolate confection as a label quoting percentage of "cocoa" or "cacao". It should be noted that this refers to the combined percentage of both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in the bar, not just the percentage of cocoa solids. Chocolates that are organic or fair trade certified carry labels accordingly. In the United States, some large chocolate manufacturers lobbied the federal government to permit confection containing cheaper hydrogenated vegetable oil in place of cocoa butter to be sold as "chocolate". In June 2007, as a response to consumer concern after the proposed change, the FDA re-iterated that "Cacao fat, as one of the signature characteristics of the product, will remain a principal component of standardized chocolate" Manufacturers Many chocolate manufacturers have created products from chocolate bars to fudge, hoping to attract more consumers with each creation. Both The Hershey Company and Mars have become the largest manufacturers in the world. Major examples include Cadbury, Nestlé and Lindt. The Hershey Company is the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America. Its headquarters is in Hershey, Pennsylvania, a town permeated by the aroma of cocoa on some days, and home to Hershey's Chocolate World. It was founded by Milton S. Hershey in 1894 as the Hershey Chocolate Company, a subsidiary of his Lancaster Caramel Company. Hershey's candies and other products are sold worldwide. The Hershey Company reached fame mainly because of three of its creations: the Hershey bar, Hershey's kisses and Reese's Peanut Butter Cups. Mars, Incorporated is a worldwide manufacturer of confectionery and other food products with US$21 billion in annual sales in 2006. Headquartered in McLean, Virginia, USA, the company is entirely owned by the Mars family, making it one of the largest privately owned U.S. corporations. Mars is most famous for its eponymous Mars Bar, as well as other confectionery such as Milky Way, M&M's, Twix, Skittles and Snickers. Chocolate in popular culture Cadbury Creme Eggs are fondant-filled chocolate eggs. Holidays Chocolate is one of the most popular treats given on holidays. On Valentine's Day, a box of chocolate is given, usually with flowers and a greeting card. It is given on other holidays, including Christmas, Thanksgiving, and birthdays, although no special chocolate creation is common on these holidays. On Easter, chocolate eggs are popular gifts. A chocolate egg is a confectionery made primarily of chocolate, and can either be solid, hollow, or filled with cream. Books and film Chocolate has been the center of several successful book and film adaptations. In 1964, Roald Dahl published a children's novel titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The novel centers around a poor boy named Charlie Bucket who takes a tour through the greatest chocolate factory in the world, owned by Willy Wonka. Two film adaptations of the novel were produced. The first was Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, a 1971 film which later became a cult classic. Thirty-four years later, a second film adaptation was produced, titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The 2005 film was very well received by critics and was one of the highest grossing films of its year, earning over US$470,000,000 worldwide. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was also recognized at the 78th Academy Awards, where it was nominated for Best Costume Design for Gabriella Pesucci. Chocolat is a 1999 novel by Joanne Harris. It tells the story of Vianne Rocher, a young mother, whose confections change the lives of the townspeople through magic. The 2000 film adaptation, Chocolat, also proved successful, grossing over US$150,000,000 worldwide, and receiving Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Picture, Best Actress, and Best Original Score. Notes Bibliography Further reading See also Chocolate chip Big Chocolate Cacao Candida krusei Cocoa Chocolate milk Fudge United States military chocolate Chocolate activism The chocolate game Economics of cocoa External links Glossary of Chocolate Terms	Chocolate \|@lemmatized chocolate:251 commonly:3 come:4 dark:24 milk:26 white:12 variety:8 cocoa:87 solid:21 contribute:1 brown:1 coloration:1 pronounced:1 ˈələt:1 comprise:1 number:2 raw:3 process:20 food:12 produce:21 seed:7 tropical:3 cacao:32 tree:10 native:4 lowland:2 south:5 america:6 cultivate:2 least:4 three:6 millennium:2 central:5 mexico:1 early:3 document:2 use:29 around:5 bc:2 majority:1 mesoamerican:2 people:7 make:16 beverage:6 include:9 maya:6 aztec:6 know:5 xocolātl:1 nahuatl:6 word:9 meaning:5 bitter:6 water:3 intense:2 taste:4 must:2 ferment:3 develop:3 flavor:11 fermentation:4 bean:26 dry:2 clean:2 roast:5 shell:5 remove:5 nib:4 ground:3 liquify:2 result:9 pure:6 fluid:3 form:15 liquor:12 far:2 two:8 component:3 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6,038	Holocene_extinction	The Dodo, a bird of Mauritius, became extinct during the mid-late seventeenth century after humans destroyed the forests where the birds made their homes and introduced mammals that ate their eggs. The Holocene extinction event is the widespread, ongoing mass extinction of species during the modern Holocene epoch. The large number of extinctions span numerous families of plants and animals including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and arthropods; a sizeable fraction of these extinctions are occurring in the rainforests. This extinction event is sometimes referred to as the sixth extinction following the previous five extinction events. Between 1500 and 2006 CE, 784 extinctions have been documented by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 2006 version of IUCN redlist, http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/HTML-books/Red%20List%202004/completed/Executive%20Summary.html However, since most extinctions are likely to go undocumented, scientists estimate that during the 20th century, between 20,000 and two million species became extinct, but the precise total cannot be determined more accurately within the limits of present knowledge. Up to 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory) S.L. Pimm, G.J. Russell, J.L. Gittleman and T.M. Brooks, The Future of Biodiversity, Science 269: 347-350 (1995) may be the present rate of extinction based upon upper bound estimating. In broad usage, the Holocene extinction event includes the notable disappearance of large mammals, known as megafauna, starting 10,000 years ago as humans developed and spread. Such disappearances have been considered as either a response to climate change, a result of the proliferation of modern humans, or both. These extinctions, occurring near the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary, are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event or Ice Age extinction event. However the Holocene extinction event continues into the 21st century. The observed rate of extinction has accelerated dramatically since the 1950s. There is no general agreement on whether to consider more recent extinctions as a distinct event or merely part of a single escalating process. Only during these most recent parts of the extinction have plants also suffered large losses. Overall, the Holocene extinction event is most significantly characterised by the presence of human-made driving factors and its very short geological timescale (tens to thousands of years) compared to most other extinction events. The prehistoric extinction events The ongoing extinction event seems more outstanding in light of separating recent extinctions (approximately since the industrial revolution) from the Pleistocene extinction near the end of the last glacial period. The latter is exemplified by the extinction of the woolly mammoth and, incorrectly, the Neanderthal people. However, modern climatology suggests the current Holocene epoch is no more than the latest in a series of interglacial intervals. Furthermore, there is a continuum of extinctions since 11,000 years BCE. If only considering human impact, the vulnerability and extinction rate of species simply rises with the increase in human population, so there would be no need to separate the Pleistocene extinction from the recent one. Nevertheless, the Pleistocene extinction event is large enough and has not been resolved completely. Younger extinctions New Zealand c. CE 1500, several species became extinct after Polynesian settlers arrived, including: Ten species of Moa, giant flightless ratite birds. The giant Haast's Eagle, Harpagornis The flightless predatory Adzebills. Pacific, including Hawaii Recent research, based on archaeological and paleontological digs on 70 different islands, has shown that numerous species went extinct as people moved across the Pacific, starting 30,000 years ago in the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands (Steadman & Martin 2003). It is currently estimated that among the bird species of the Pacific some 2000 species have gone extinct since the arrival of humans (Steadman 1995). Among the extinctions were: The Moa-nalos, giant grazing ducks from Hawaii. A giant megapode from New Caledonia. Mekosuchine crocodiles from New Caledonia, Fiji and Samoa. Madagascar Starting with the arrival of humans in the first century BCE or first century CE, nearly all of the island's megafauna became extinct, including: Eight or more species of elephant birds, giant flightless ratites in the genera Aepyornis and Mullerornis. 17 of 50 species of lemur, including: Giant aye-aye (Daubentonia robusta) sloth lemurs, including chimpanzee-sized Palaeopropithecus and gorilla-sized Archaeoindris Megaladapis, an orangutan-sized arboreal lemur Giant Fossa Two species of Malagasy Hippopotamus Indian Ocean Islands Starting c. 1500 CE, a number of species became extinct upon human settlement of the islands, including: several species of giant tortoise on the Seychelles and Mascarene Islands 14 species of birds on the Mascarene Islands, including the Dodo, the Rodrigues Solitaire, and the unrelated Réunion Solitaire. Ongoing Holocene extinction Significantly, the rate of species extinctions at present is estimated at 100 to 1000 times "background" or average extinction rates in the evolutionary time scale of planet Earth. J.H.Lawton and R.M.May, Extinction rates, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK Megafaunal extinctions continue into the 21st century. Modern extinctions are more directly attributable to human influences. Extinction rates are minimized in the popular imagination by the survival of captive trophy populations of animals that are "merely" extinct in the wild (Père David's Deer, etc.), by marginal survivals of highly-publicized megafauna that is ecologically extinct (Giant Panda, Sumatran Rhinoceros, the North American Black-Footed Ferret, etc.) and by unregarded extinctions among arthropods. Some notable examples of modern extinctions of "charismatic" mammal fauna include: Aurochs, Europe Tarpan, Europe Thylacine or Tasmanian Tiger, Thylacinus cynocephalus, Tasmania [extinction disputed] Quagga, a zebra relative, Southeast Africa Steller's Sea Cow Falkland Island Fox Many birds have become extinct as a result of human activity, especially birds endemic to islands, including many flightless birds (see a more complete list under extinct birds). Notable extinct birds include: the Dodo, the giant flightless pigeon of Mauritius, Indian Ocean the Great Auk of islands in the north Atlantic the Passenger Pigeon of North America several species of Moa, giant flightless birds from New Zealand the Carolina Parakeet of the American southeast Most biologists believe that we are at this moment at the beginning of a tremendously accelerated anthropogenic mass extinction. E.O. Wilson of Harvard, in The Future of Life (2002), estimates that at current rates of human disruption of the biosphere, one-half of all species of life will be extinct by 2100. In 1998 the American Museum of Natural History conducted a poll of biologists that revealed that the vast majority of biologists believe that we are in the midst of an anthropogenic mass extinction. Numerous scientific studies since then—such as a 2004 report from Nature, Study sees mass extinctions via warming. MSNBC. URL accessed July 26 2006. and those by the 10,000 scientists who contribute to the IUCN's annual Red List of threatened species—have only strengthened this consensus. Peter Raven, past President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, states in the foreword to their publication AAAS Atlas of Population and Environment: "We have driven the rate of biological extinction, the permanent loss of species, up several hundred times beyond its historical levels, and are threatened with the loss of a majority of all species by the end of the 21st century." The reasons for the current mass extinction are all human related and include deforestation and other habitat destruction, hunting and poaching, the introduction of non-native species, pollution and climate change with the United Nations estimating that the world is facing its worst extinction period since the dinosaurs became extinct 65 million years ago. Measuring extinction, species by species The Golden Toad of Costa Rica, extinct since around 1989. Its disappearance has been attributed to climate change. Evidence for all previous extinction events is geological in nature, and the shortest scales of geological time are in the order of several hundred thousand to several million years. Even those extinction events that were caused by instantaneous events — the Chicxulub asteroid impact being currently the demonstrable example — unfold through the equivalent of many human lifetimes, due to the complex ecological interactions that are unleashed by the event. There was a limited debate as to the extent to which the disappearance of megafauna at the end of the last glacial period can also be attributed to human activities, directly, by hunting, or indirectly, by decimation of prey populations. While climate change is still cited as another important factor, anthropogenic explanations have become predominant. 189 countries which are signatory to the Rio Accord have committed to preparing a Biodiversity Action Plan, a first step at identifying specific endangered species and habitats, country by country. See also Slash-and-burn Timeline of extinctions Deforestation Extinction risk from climate change List of extinct plants List of extinct animals References Further reading External links	Holocene_extinction \|@lemmatized dodo:3 bird:13 mauritius:2 become:8 extinct:17 mid:1 late:2 seventeenth:1 century:7 human:15 destroy:1 forest:1 make:2 home:1 introduced:1 mammal:4 eat:1 egg:1 holocene:8 extinction:52 event:17 widespread:1 ongoing:3 mass:5 specie:26 modern:5 epoch:2 large:4 number:2 span:1 numerous:3 family:1 plant:3 animal:3 include:13 amphibian:1 reptile:1 arthropod:2 sizeable:1 fraction:1 occur:2 rainforest:1 sometimes:2 refer:2 sixth:1 follow:1 previous:2 five:1 ce:4 document:1 international:1 union:1 conservation:1 nature:3 natural:2 resource:1 version:1 iucn:3 redlist:1 http:1 www:1 org:1 bookstore:1 html:2 book:1 red:2 complete:2 executive:1 however:3 since:8 likely:1 go:3 undocumented:1 scientist:2 estimate:6 two:2 million:3 precise:1 total:1 cannot:1 determine:1 accurately:1 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6,039	Wikipedia:Historical_archive%2FWikiProject_proposal	This proposal has become accepted and is superseded by Wikipedia:WikiProject and Wikipedia:WikiProject Best practices. This page is kept for historic purposes only. This proposal was originally written by Manning Bartlett. This is a proposal for all and sundry to read and consider. Because of its length, I chose not to include it in the general "suggestions" page, although I have placed a link there [n.b. which page is this?]. If you feel this belongs somewhere else, please feel free to move it. My field of professional expertise is Metadata Management - that is, the information about the information. I have spent the past few days pondering how to apply this knowledge to the Wikipedia. I have adapted a concept from this field and (tentatively) titled it a "WikiProject". I am defining a "Project" as a comprehensive catalogue of "related information entities". Examples would include "Countries of the World", "Famous Scientists", "Games and Sports", whatever. (q.v. the Tree of life, already in existence.) A WikiProject is a metadata page that serves as a reference point for those who wish to be involved in a specific project. Structural principles defines the scope of the particular project establishes the formatting conventions for individual entries eg: how each individual entry should be structured - in a biographical entry - relevant dates, notable achievements, etc establishes the formatting conventions for hierarchical descendants eg: guidelines on how to define "Prime Ministers of New Zealand" as a descendant of "Prime Minister" as a descendant of "Political Leader" (optional) Define 'Minimum standards'. A WikiProject can lay down the principles by which an individual entry can be considered to have achieved 'Minimum standard of completion'. Eg: "WikiProject Countries of the World" may require Capital, imports/exports, major cities, poopulation, political history, etc etc... whatever. Both the standards and the 'accreditation' maintain their dynamic status, so we are not getting into "locking pages" or other methods which contradict the essential nature of the Wikipedia. lists participating contributors provides subject specific forums Note: such pages already exist in an ad hoc sense (eg: Tree of Life). However, my concept for a WikiProject page seeks to standardise and formalise this approach. also it seeks to segregate the "information" from the "management of the information". Advantages Standardisation of look and feel. There are existing page that deal with standardisation, but they cannot be applied generically. The conventions for entries on mathematics or chemistry are worlds apart from the conventions for 'famous authors'. Even a generic standard for 'Biographical Entries' cannot be applied universally - the method of describing 'Egyptian Pharoahs' would be radically different to pages for "American Baseball Players' (Pharoahs don't have RBI statistics). Decreases the volume of REDIRECTs, due to there being a consistent and well-defined hierarchical descendant schema. Allows the development of special interest communities within the Wikipedia. This has already happened of course, but the WikiProject page formalises the process. Permits strategic planning and consensual discussion. by centralising the TALK forums to predictable locations, we minimise the fragmentation of discussion into multiple locations which occurs presently. Allows controlled dynamic evolution. The inherent problem in any communal project is that without central authority chaos emerges. But with excessive central authority, stagnation sets in. The WikiProject is a 'central authority' (thus providing the benefits of stability), but the WikiProject page itself remains consensual and dynamic. Where evolution occurs, the process can be centrally managed. A convention for information management. Participants in the overall Wikipedia will have a convention defined for creating new projects, and they will know where to go to find existing framework definitions and discussion forums for the framework. A resource for standards and comprehensiveness. Numerous attempts have been made to document what has not been achieved and give suggestions for areas needing attention. This merely formalises the process. Provides a forum for 'Endorsement', without closing off editorial freedom. Each Wikiproject can evolve a definition of "minimum required standard". As entries achieve this status, they can be documented on the WikiProject page. Dissenters can always remove the status, or upgrade the entry in question. What a WikiProject is not A WikiProject is not a place for subject information. It is a place for the management of entries within a specific subject area. Neither is it rigids in its hierarchical management. All hierarchies are arbitrary, the Wikipedia seeks to create one purely for the management of entry creation, not as a schema of knowledge. Is it worth the effort? The value of such a metadata management model increases with the volume of contributors. In a case where only a handful of contributors are working on a project the actual value of a WikiProject page is negative - it only adds additional work. However, as the volume of contributors increases the work required to maintain the WikiProject pages is substantially less than the work required to correct the fragmentation of style and content, and the duplication which will otherwise occur. (Have you ever spent an hour tracking down and editing REDIRECTs?) A sample WikiProject page is laid out below for consideration: Example Title: WikiProject Musical Instruments Scope: This WikiProject aims to catalogue all known musical instruments. Parentage: This WikiProject is a child WikiProject of Music Descendant Wikiprojects: No descendant WikiProjects defined Formatting: (Discussion of how each musical instrument entry is to be formatted, sample given, including eg: Name, alternate names, description, evolution, relatives, see also, etc) TALK section related to formatting Hierarchy definition: Instruments can be placed into one or more of the following categories - Orchestral, Brass, wind, stringed, ethnic... (notice the categories are not mutually exclusive - a trumpet is both brass and orchestral and belongs in both) TALK section related to hierarchy definition Directory of Participants General Strategy and Discussion forum Notes Notice that in the example the structural definitions are as fluid as everything else. The natural evolution of "proposal - consensual discussion - consolidation" will occur. As the discussions about structure die down, the suggestion becomes the "convention". Anyway, this is just a proposal and I am keen to hear feedback from any and all. As this is the Wikipedia, I am aware that I am free to commence this WikiProject idea anyway. However if people are warm to the idea, it would be nice to plan and consult as we lay down the framework.	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6,040	Max_Weber	Maximilian Carl Emil Weber () (21 April 1864–14 June 1920) was a German lawyer, politician, scholar, political economist and sociologist, who profoundly influenced sociological theory. "Max Weber." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Apr. 2009. Weber's major works deal with rationalization in sociology of religion, government, organizational theory, and behavior. Weber wrote his books in German. Original titles printed after his death (1920) are most likely compilations of his unfinished works (note the 'Collected Essays...' form in titles). Many translations are made of parts or selections of various German originals, and the names of the translations often do not reveal what part of German work they contain. Weber's work is generally quoted according to the critical Gesamtausgabe (collected works edition), which is published by Mohr Siebeck in Tübingen, Germany. For an extensive list of Max Weber's works see list of Max Weber works. His most famous work is his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which began his work in the sociology of religion. In this work, Weber argued that religion was one of the non-exclusive reasons for the different ways the cultures of the Occident and the Orient have developed, and stressed that particular characteristics of ascetic Protestantism influenced the development of capitalism, bureaucracy and the rational-legal state in the West. Some have used Weber's work on The Protestant Ethic as an argument that human institutions were not shaped by materialism, as Karl Marx had argued, but by religious ideals and ideas that could not be reduced to material causes. In another major work, Politics as a Vocation, Weber defined the state as an entity which claims a "monopoly on the legitimate use of violence", a definition that became pivotal to the study of modern Western political science. His analysis of bureaucracy in his Economy and Society is still central to the modern study of organizations. His most known contributions are often referred to as the "Weber Thesis". He was the first to recognize several diverse aspects of social authority, which he respectively categorized according to their charismatic, traditional, and legal forms. His analysis of bureaucracy thus noted that modern state institutions are based on a form of rational-legal authority. Biography Weber was born in Erfurt in Thuringia, Germany, the eldest of seven children of Max Weber Sr., a wealthy and prominent politician in the National Liberal Party (Germany) and a civil servant, and Helene Fallenstein, a Protestant and a Calvinist, with strong moral absolutist ideas. Periodical, Sociology Volume 250, September, 1999, 'Max Weber' Weber Sr.'s engagement with public life immersed the family home in politics, as his salon received many prominent scholars and public figures. Weber was strongly influenced by his mother's views and approach to life, but he did not claim to be religious himself. The young Weber and his brother Alfred, who also became a sociologist and economist, thrived in this intellectual atmosphere. Weber's 1876 Christmas presents to his parents, when he was thirteen years old, were two historical essays entitled "About the course of German history, with special reference to the positions of the emperor and the pope" and "About the Roman Imperial period from Constantine to the migration of nations". Sica, Alan (2004). Max Weber and the New Century. London: Transaction Publishers, p. 24. ISBN 0-7658-0190-6. At the age of fourteen, he wrote letters studded with references to Homer, Virgil, Cicero, and Livy, and he had an extended knowledge of Goethe, Spinoza, Kant, and Schopenhauer before he began university studies. It seemed clear that Weber would pursue advanced studies in the social sciences. Max Weber and his brothers, Alfred and Karl, in 1879 In 1882 Weber enrolled in the University of Heidelberg as a law student. Weber joined his father's duelling fraternity, and chose as his major study Weber Sr.'s field of law. Along with his law coursework, young Weber attended lectures in economics and studied medieval history and theology. Intermittently, he served with the German army in Strasbourg. In the autumn of 1884, Weber returned to his parents' home to study at the University of Berlin. For the next eight years of his life, interrupted only by a term at the University of Göttingen and short periods of further military training, Weber stayed at his parents' house; first as a student, later as a junior barrister, and finally as a Dozent at the University of Berlin. In 1886 Weber passed the examination for "Referendar", comparable to the bar association examination in the British and American legal systems. Throughout the late 1880s, Weber continued his study of history. He earned his law doctorate in 1889 by writing a doctoral dissertation on legal history entitled The History of Medieval Business Organisations. Two years later, Weber completed his Habilitationsschrift, The Roman Agrarian History and its Significance for Public and Private Law. Having thus become a "Privatdozent", Weber was now qualified to hold a German professorship. In the years between the completion of his dissertation and habilitation, Weber took an interest in contemporary social policy. In 1888 he joined the "Verein für Socialpolitik", Gianfranco Poggi, Weber: A Short Introduction, Blackwell Publishing, 2005, Google Print, p.5 the new professional association of German economists affiliated with the historical school, who saw the role of economics primarily as the solving of the wide-ranging social problems of the age, and who pioneered large-scale statistical studies of economic problems. He also involved himself in politics, joining the left leaning Evangelical Social Congress. In 1890 the "Verein" established a research program to examine "the Polish question" or Ostflucht, meaning the influx of foreign farm workers into eastern Germany as local labourers migrated to Germany's rapidly industrialising cities. Weber was put in charge of the study, and wrote a large part of its results. The final report was widely acclaimed as an excellent piece of empirical research, and cemented Weber's reputation as an expert in agrarian economics. Max Weber and his wife Marianne in 1894 In 1893 he married his distant cousin Marianne Schnitger, later a feminist and author in her own right, Marianne Weber. Last accessed on 18 September 2006. Based on Lengermann, P., & Niebrugge-Brantley, J.(1998). The Women Founders: Sociology and Social Theory 1830–1930. New York: McGraw-Hill. who was instrumental in collecting and publishing Weber's journal articles as books after his death. The couple moved to Freiburg in 1894, where Weber was appointed professor of economics at Freiburg University, before accepting the same position at the University of Heidelberg in 1896. Next year, Max Weber Sr. died, two months after a severe quarrel with his son that was never resolved. Essays in Economic Sociology, Princeton University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-691-00906-6, Google Print, p.7 After this, Weber became increasingly prone to nervousness and insomnia, making it difficult for him to fulfill his duties as a professor. His condition forced him to reduce his teaching, and leave his last course in the fall of 1899 unfinished. After spending months in a sanatorium during the summer and fall of 1900, Weber and his wife traveled to Italy at the end of the year, and did not return to Heidelberg until April 1902. After Weber's immense productivity in the early 1890s, he did not publish a single paper between early 1898 and late 1902, finally resigning his professorship in fall 1903. Freed from those obligations, in that year he accepted a position as associate editor of the Archives for Social Science and Social Welfare next to his colleagues Edgar Jaffé and Werner Sombart. The Early Academic Career. Last accessed on 18 September 2006. Based on Coser, 1977:237–239. In 1904, Weber began to publish some of his most seminal papers in this journal, notably his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. It became his most famous work, Essays in Economic Sociology, Princeton University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-691-00906-6, Google Print, p.22 and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of cultures and religions on the development of economic systems. Iannaccone, Laurence (1998). "Introduction to the Economics of Religion". Journal of Economic Literature 36, 1465–1496. This essay was the only one of his works that was published as a book during his lifetime. Also that year, he visited United States and participated in the Congress of Arts and Sciences held in connection with the World's Fair (Louisiana Purchase Exposition) at St. Louis. Despite his successes, Weber felt that he was unable to resume regular teaching at that time, and continued on as a private scholar, helped by an inheritance in 1907. In 1912, Weber tried to organise a left-wing political party to combine social-democrats and liberals. This attempt was unsuccessful, presumably because many liberals feared social-democratic revolutionary ideals at the time. Wolfgang J. Mommsen, The Political and Social Theory of Max Weber, University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0-226-53400-6, Google Print, p.81, p. 60, p. 327.] Max Weber in 1917 During the First World War, Weber served for a time as director of the army hospitals in Heidelberg. Kaesler, Dirk (1989). Max Weber: An Introduction to His Life and Work. University of Chicago Press, p. 18. ISBN 0226425606 In 1915 and 1916 he sat on commissions that tried to retain German supremacy in Belgium and Poland after the war. Weber's views on war, as well as on expansion of the German empire, changed throughout the war. Gerth, H.H. and C. Wright Mills (1948). From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. London: Routledge (UK), ISBN 0415175038 He became a member of the worker and soldier council of Heidelberg in 1918. In the same year, Weber became a consultant to the German Armistice Commission at the Treaty of Versailles and to the commission charged with drafting the Weimar Constitution. He argued in favor of inserting Article 48 into the Weimar Constitution. Turner, Stephen (ed) (2000). The Cambridge Companion to Weber. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 142. This article was later used by Adolf Hitler to institute rule by decree, thereby allowing his government to suppress opposition and obtain dictatorial powers. Weber's contributions to German politics remain a controversial subject to this day. Weber resumed teaching during this time, first at the University of Vienna, then in 1919 at the University of Munich. In Munich, he headed the first German university institute of sociology, but ultimately never held a personal sociology appointment. Weber left politics due to right-wing agitation in 1919 and 1920. Many colleagues and students in Munich argued against him for his speeches and left-wing attitude during the German Revolution of 1918 and 1919, with some right-wing students holding protests in front of his home. Max Weber contracted the Spanish flu and died of pneumonia in Munich on June 14, 1920. Achievements Along with Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim, William Petersen, Against the Stream, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0-7658-0222-8, 2004, Google Print, p.24 Weber is regarded as one of the founders of modern sociology, although in his time he was viewed primarily as a historian and an economist. Peter R. Baehr, Founders Classics Canons, Transaction Publishers, 2002, ISBN 0-7658-0129-9, Google Print, p.22 Whereas Durkheim, following Comte, worked in the positivist tradition, Weber created and worked – like Werner Sombart, his friend and then the most famous representative of German sociology – in the antipositivist, hermeneutic, tradition. John K. Rhoads, Critical Issues in Social Theory, Penn State Press, 1991, ISBN 0-271-00753-2, Google Print, p.40 Those works started the antipositivistic revolution in social sciences, which stressed the difference between the social sciences and natural sciences, especially due to human social actions (which Weber differentiated into traditional, affectional, value-rational and instrumental Joan Ferrante, Sociology: A Global Perspective, Thomson Wadsworth, 2005, ISBN 0-495-00561-4, Google Print, p.21 ). Weber's early work was related to industrial sociology, but he is most famous for his later work on the sociology of religion and sociology of government. Weber began his studies of rationalisation in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in which he argued that the redefinition of the connection between work and piety in Protestantism, and especially in ascetic Protestant denominations, particularly Calvinism, shifted human effort towards rational efforts aimed at achieving economic gain. In Calvinism in particular, but also in Lutheranism, Christian piety towards God was expressed through or in one's secular vocation. Calvin, in particular, viewed the expression of the work ethic as a sign of "election". The rational roots of this doctrine, he argued, soon grew incompatible with and larger than the religious, and so the latter were eventually discarded. Andrew J. Weigert, Mixed Emotions: Certain Steps Toward Understanding Ambivalence, SUNY Press, 1991, ISBN 0-7914-0600-8, Google Print, p.110 Weber continued his investigation into this matter in later works, notably in his studies on bureaucracy and on the classifications of authority into three types--legitimate, traditional, and charismatic. In these works Weber described what he saw as society's movement towards rationalization. It should be noted that many of Weber's works famous today were collected, revised, and published posthumously. Significant interpretations of Weber's writings were produced by such sociological luminaries as Talcott Parsons of Harvard, who imparted to Weber's works a functionalist and teleological perspective (although Weber himself claimed his works were merely descriptive of the phenomena he was studying), and C. Wright Mills. Sociology of religion Weber's work on the sociology of religion started with the essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which grew out of heavy "field work" among Protestant sects in America, and continued with the analysis of The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism, The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism, and Ancient Judaism. His work on other religions was interrupted by his sudden death in 1920, which prevented him from following Ancient Judaism with studies of Psalms, Book of Jacob, Talmudic Jewry, early Christianity and Islam. His three main themes were the effect of religious ideas on economic activities, the relation between social stratification and religious ideas, and the distinguishable characteristics of Western civilization. His goal was to find reasons for the different development paths of the cultures of the Occident and the Orient, although without judging or valuing them, like some of the contemporary thinkers who followed the social Darwinist paradigm; Weber wanted primarily to explain the distinctive elements of the Western civilization. In the analysis of his findings, Weber maintained that Calvinist (and more widely, Protestant) religious ideas had had a major impact on the social innovation and development of the economic system of Europe and the United States, but noted that they were not the only factors in this development. Other notable factors mentioned by Weber included the rationalism of scientific pursuit, merging observation with mathematics, science of scholarship and jurisprudence, rational systematisation of government administration, and economic enterprise. In the end, the study of the sociology of religion, according to Weber, merely explored one phase of the freedom from magic, that "disenchantment of the world" that he regarded as an important distinguishing aspect of Western culture. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Cover of the original German edition of The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber's essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus) is his most famous work. It is argued that this work should not be viewed as a detailed study of Protestantism, but rather as an introduction into Weber's later works, especially his studies of interaction between various religious ideas and economic behaviour. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber put forward the thesis that Calvinist ethic and ideas influenced the development of capitalism. In this work, he relied on a great deal of statistics from the era, which indicated the predominance of Protestants among the wealthy, industrial, and technical classes relative to Catholics. He also noted the shift of Europe's economic center after the Reformation away from Catholic countries such as France, Spain and Italy, and toward Protestant countries such as England, Scotland, Germany and Holland. This theory is often viewed as a reversal of Marx's thesis that the economic "base" of society determines all other aspects of it. Christian religious devotion had historically been accompanied by rejection of mundane affairs, including economic pursuit. Why was that not the case with Protestantism? Weber addressed that paradox in his essay. According to Weber, one of the universal tendencies that Christians had historically fought against, was the desire to profit. After defining the spirit of capitalism, Weber argued that there were many reasons to look for the origins of modern capitalism in the religious ideas of the Reformation. Many observers, such as William Petty, Montesquieu, Henry Thomas Buckle, John Keats, and others had commented on the affinity between Protestantism and the development of the commercial spirit. Weber showed that certain types of Protestantism – notably Calvinism – favored rational pursuit of economic gain and worldly activities which had been given positive spiritual and moral meaning. It was not the goal of those religious ideas, but rather a byproduct – the inherent logic of those doctrines and the advice based upon them both directly and indirectly encouraged planning and self-denial in the pursuit of economic gain. A common illustration is in the cobbler, hunched over his work, who devotes his entire effort to the praise of God. In addition, the Reformation view "calling" dignified even the most mundane professions as being those that added to the common good and were blessed by God, as much as any "sacred" calling could. This Reformation view, that all the spheres of life were sacred when dedicated to God and His purposes of nurturing and furthering life, profoundly affected the view of work. To illustrate and provide an example, Weber quoted the ethical writings of Benjamin Franklin: Remember, that time is money. He that can earn ten shillings a day by his labor, and goes abroad, or sits idle, one half of that day, though he spends but sixpence during his diversion or idleness, ought not to reckon that the only expense; he has really spent, or rather thrown away, five shillings besides. ... Remember, that money is the prolific, generating nature. Money can beget money, and its offspring can beget more, and so on. Five shillings turned is six, turned again is seven and threepence, and so on, till it becomes a hundred pounds. The more there is of it, the more it produces every turning, so that the profits rise quicker and quicker. He that kills a breeding sow, destroys all her offspring to the thousandth generation. He that murders a crown, destroys all that it might have produced, even scores of pounds.(Italics in the original) Weber noted that this is not a philosophy of mere greed, but a statement laden with moral language. Indeed, Franklin claimed that God revealed to him the usefulness of virtue.<ref>Weber, Max The Protestant Ethic and "The Spirit of Capitalism" (Penguin Books, 2002) translated by Peter Baehr and Gordon C. Wells, pp.9-12</ref> To emphasize the work ethic in Protestantism relative to Catholicism, Weber noted a common problem that industrialists faced when employing precapitalist laborers: agricultural entrepreneurs would try to encourage time spent harvesting by offering a higher wage, with the expectation that laborers would see time spent working as more valuable and so engage it longer. However, in precapitalist societies similar attempts often resulted in laborers spending less time harvesting. Laborers judged that they could earn the same amount as previously, while spending less time working and having more leisure. Weber also noted that societies having more Protestants were those that have a more developed capitalist economy. Weber The Protestant Ethic..., pp.15-16 It was particularly advantageous in technical occupations for workers to be extremely devoted to their craft. To view the craft as an end in itself, or as a "calling" would serve this need well. This attitude was well-noted in certain classes which have endured religious education, especially of a Pietist background. Weber The Protestant Ethic..., pp.17 Weber stated that he abandoned research into Protestantism because his colleague Ernst Troeltsch, a professional theologian, had initiated work on the book The Social Teachings of the Christian Churches and Sects. Another reason for Weber's decision was that the essay had already provided the perspective for a broad comparison of religion and society, which he continued in his later works. The phrase "work ethic" used in modern commentary is a derivative of the "Protestant ethic" discussed by Weber. It was adopted when the idea of the Protestant ethic was generalised to apply to the Japanese people, Jews and other non-Christians. The Religion of China: Confucianism and TaoismThe Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism was Weber's second major work on the sociology of religion. Weber focused on those aspects of Chinese society that were different from those of Western Europe and especially contrasted with Puritanism, and posed a question why capitalism did not develop in China. In Hundred Schools of Thought Warring States Period, he concentrated on the early period of Chinese history, during which the major Chinese schools of thoughts (Confucianism and Taoism) came to the fore. By 200 BC, the Chinese state had developed from a loose federation of feudal states into a unified empire with patrimonial rule, as described in the Warring States Period. As in Europe, Chinese cities had been founded as forts or leaders' residences, and were the centres of trade and crafts. However, they never received political autonomy and its citizens had no special political rights or privileges. This is due to the strength of kinship ties, which stems from religious beliefs in ancestral spirits. Also, the guilds competed against each other for the favor of the Emperor, never uniting in order to fight for more rights. Therefore, the residents of Chinese cities never constitute a separate status class like the residents of European cities. Early unification of the state and the establishment of central officialdom meant that the focus of the power struggle changed from the distribution of land to the distribution of offices, which with their fees and taxes were the most prominent source of income for the holder, who often pocketed up to 50% of the revenue. The imperial government depended on the services of those officials, not on the service of the military (knights) as in Europe. Weber emphasised that Confucianism tolerated a great number of popular cults without any effort to systematise them into a religious doctrine. Instead of metaphysical conjectures, it taught adjustment to the world. The "superior" man (literati) should stay away from the pursuit of wealth (though not from wealth itself). Therefore, becoming a civil servant was preferred to becoming a businessman and granted a much higher status. Chinese civilisation had no religious prophecy nor a powerful priestly class. The emperor was the high priest of the state religion and the supreme ruler, but popular cults were also tolerated (however the political ambitions of their priests were curtailed). This forms a sharp contrast with medieval Europe, where the Church curbed the power of secular rulers and the same faith was professed by rulers and common folk alike. According to Confucianism, the worship of great deities is the affair of the state, while ancestral worship is required of all, and the multitude of popular cults is tolerated. Confucianism tolerated magic and mysticism as long as they were useful tools for controlling the masses; it denounced them as heresy and suppressed them when they threatened the established order (hence the opposition to Buddhism). Note that in this context, Confucianism can be referred to as the state cult, and Taoism as the popular religion. Weber argued that while several factors favored the development of a capitalist economy (long periods of peace, improved control of rivers, population growth, freedom to acquire land and move outside of native community, free choice of occupation) they were outweighed by others (mostly stemming from religion): technical inventions were opposed on the basis of religion, in the sense that the disturbance of ancestral spirits was argued to lead to bad luck, and adjusting oneself to the world was preferred to changing it. sale of land was often prohibited or made very difficult. extended kinship groups (based on the religious importance of family ties and ancestry) protected its members against economic adversities, therefore discouraging payment of debts, work discipline, and rationalisation of work processes. those kinship groups prevented the development of an urban status class and hindered developments towards legal institutions, codification of laws, and the rise of a lawyer class. According to Weber, Confucianism and Puritanism represent two comprehensive but mutually exclusive types of rationalisation, each attempting to order human life according to certain ultimate religious beliefs. Both encouraged sobriety and self-control and were compatible with the accumulation of wealth. However, Confucianism aimed at attaining and preserving "a cultured status position" and used as means adjustment to the world, education, self-perfection, politeness and familial piety. Puritanism used those means in order to create a "tool of God", creating a person that would serve the God and master the world. Such intensity of belief and enthusiasm for action were alien to the aesthetic values of Confucianism. Therefore, Weber states that it was the difference in prevailing mentality that contributed to the development of capitalism in the West and the absence of it in China. The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and BuddhismThe Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism was Weber's third major work on the sociology of religion. In this work he deals with the structure of Indian society, with the orthodox doctrines of Hinduism and the heterodox doctrines of Buddhism, with modifications brought by the influence of popular religiosity, and finally with the impact of religious beliefs on the secular ethic of Indian society. The ancient Indian social system was shaped by the concept of caste. It directly linked religious belief and the segregation of society into status groups. Weber describes the caste system, consisting of the Brahmins (priests), the Kshatriyas (warriors), the Vaisyas (merchants) and the Shudras (labourers). Then he describes the spread of the caste system in India due to conquests, the marginalisation of certain tribes and the subdivision of castes. Weber pays special attention to Brahmins and analyzes why they occupied the highest place in Indian society for so many centuries. With regard to the concept of dharma he concludes that the Indian ethical pluralism is very different both from the universal ethic of Confucianism and Christianity. He notes that the caste system prevented the development of urban status groups. Next, Weber analyses the Hindu religious beliefs, including asceticism and the Hindu world view, the Brahman orthodox doctrines, the rise and fall of Buddhism in India, the Hindu restoration, and the evolution of the guru. Weber asks the question whether religion had any influence upon the daily round of mundane activities, and if so, how it impacted economic conduct. He notes the idea of an immutable world order consisting of the eternal cycles of rebirth and the deprecation of the mundane world, and finds that the traditional caste system, supported by the religion, slowed economic development; in other words, the "spirit" of the caste system militated against an indigenous development of capitalism. Weber concludes his study of society and religion in India by combining his findings with his previous work on China. He notes that the beliefs tended to interpret the meaning of life as otherworldly or mystical experience, that the intellectuals tended to be apolitical in their orientation, and that the social world was fundamentally divided between the educated, whose lives were oriented toward the exemplary conduct of a prophet or wise man, and the uneducated masses who remained caught in their daily rounds and believed in magic. In Asia, no Messianic prophecy appeared that could have given "plan and meaning to the everyday life of educated and uneducated alike." He argues that it was the Messianic prophecies in the countries of the Near East, as distinguished from the prophecy of the Asiatic mainland, that prevented Western countries from following the paths of China and India, and his next work, Ancient Judaism was an attempt to prove this theory. Ancient Judaism In Ancient Judaism, his fourth major work on the sociology of religion, Weber attempted to explain the "combination of circumstances" which resulted in the early differences between Oriental and Occidental religiosity. It is especially visible when the innerworldly asceticism developed by Western Christianity is contrasted with mystical contemplation of the kind developed in India. Weber noted that some aspects of Christianity sought to conquer and change the world, rather than withdraw from its imperfections. This fundamental characteristic of Christianity (when compared to Far Eastern religions) stems originally from ancient Jewish prophecy. Stating his reasons for investigating ancient Judaism, Weber wrote that Anyone who is heir to the traditions of modern European civilization will approach the problems of universal history with a set of questions, which to him appear both inevitable and legitimate. These questions will turn on the combination of circumstances which has brought about the cultural phenomena that are uniquely Western and that have at the same time (…) a universal cultural significance. Further on he adds: "For the Jew (…) the social order of the world was conceived to have been turned into the opposite of that promised for the future, but in the future it was to be overturned so that Jewry could be once again dominant. The world was conceived as neither eternal nor unchangeable, but rather as being created. Its present structure was a product of man's actions, above all those of the Jews, and God's reaction to them. Hence the world was a historical product designed to give way to the truly God-ordained order (…). There existed in addition a highly rational religious ethic of social conduct; it was free of magic and all forms of irrational quest for salvation; it was inwardly worlds apart from the path of salvation offered by Asiatic religions. To a large extent this ethic still underlies contemporary Middle Eastern and European ethic. World-historical interest in Jewry rests upon this fact. (…) Thus, in considering the conditions of Jewry's evolution, we stand at a turning point of the whole cultural development of the West and the Middle East". Weber analyzes the interaction between the Bedouins, the cities, the herdsmen and the peasants, including the conflicts between them and the rise and fall of the United Monarchy. The time of the United Monarchy appears as a mere episode, dividing the period of confederacy since the Exodus and the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan from the period of political decline following the Division of the Monarchy. This division into periods has major implications for religious history. Since the basic tenets of Judaism were formulated during the time of Israelite confederacy and after the fall of the United Monarchy, they became the basis of the prophetic movement that left a lasting impression on the Western civilization. Weber discusses the organization of the early confederacy, the unique qualities of the Israelites' relations to Yahweh, the influence of foreign cults, types of religious ecstasy, and the struggle of the priests against ecstasy and idol worship. He goes on to describe the times of the Division of the Monarchy, social aspects of Biblical prophecy, the social orientation of the prophets, demagogues and pamphleteers, ecstasy and politics, and the ethic and theodicity of the prophets. Weber notes that Judaism not only fathered Christianity and Islam, but was crucial to the rise of modern Occident state, as its influence were as important to those of Hellenistic and Roman cultures. Reinhard Bendix, summarizing Ancient Judaism, writes that free of magic and esoteric speculations, devoted to the study of law, vigilant in the effort to do what was right in the eyes of the Lord in the hope of a better future, the prophets established a religion of faith that subjected man's daily life to the imperatives of a divinely ordained moral law. In this way, ancient Judaism helped create the moral rationalism of Western civilisation. Sociology of politics and government In the sociology of politics and government, one of Weber's most significant contributions is his Politics as a Vocation essay. Therein, Weber unveils the definition of the state that has become so pivotal to Western social thought: that the state is that entity which possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force, Daniel Warner, An Ethic of Responsibility in International Relations, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1991, ISBN 1-55587-266-2, Google Print, p.9 which it may nonetheless elect to delegate as it sees fit. In this essay, Weber wrote that politics is to be understood as any activity in which the state might engage itself in order to influence the relative distribution of force. Politics thus comes to be understood as deriving from power. A politician must not be a man of the "true Christian ethic", understood by Weber as being the ethic of the Sermon on the Mount, that is to say, the injunction to turn the other cheek. An adherent of such an ethic ought rather to be understood to be a saint, for it is only saints, according to Weber, that can appropriately follow it. The political realm is no realm for saints. A politician ought to marry the ethic of ultimate ends and the ethic of responsibility, and must possess both a passion for his vocation and the capacity to distance himself from the subject of his exertions (the governed). Randal Marlin, Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion, Broadview Press, 2002, ISBN 1-55111-376-7, Google Print.p155 Weber distinguished three pure types of political leadership, domination and authority: charismatic domination (familial and religious), traditional domination (patriarchs, patrimonalism, feudalism), and legal domination (modern law and state, bureaucracy). Wolfgang J. Mommsen, The Political and Social Theory of Max Weber: Collected Essays, University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0-226-53400-6, Google Print, p.46 In his view, every historical relation between rulers and ruled contained such elements and they can be analysed on the basis of this tripartite distinction. He also notes that the instability of charismatic authority inevitably forces it to "routinize" into a more structured form of authority. Likewise he notes that in a pure type of traditional rule, sufficient resistance to a master can lead to a "traditional revolution". Thus he alludes to an inevitable move towards a rational-legal structure of authority, utilising a bureaucratic structure. Thus this theory can be sometimes viewed as part of the social evolutionism theory. This ties to his broader concept of rationalisation by suggesting the inevitability of a move in this direction. Weber is also well-known for his critical study of the bureaucratisation of society, the rational ways in which formal social organizations apply the ideal type characteristics of a bureaucracy. It was Weber who began the studies of bureaucracy and whose works led to the popularization of this term. Marshall Sashkin, Leadership That Matters, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2002, ISBN 1-57675-193-7, Google Print, p.52 Many aspects of modern public administration go back to him, and a classic, hierarchically organised civil service of the Continental type is called "Weberian civil service", although this is only one ideal type of public administration and government described in his magnum opus Economy and Society (1922), and one that he did not particularly like himself – he only thought it particularly efficient and successful. In this work, Weber outlines a description, which has become famous, of rationalization (of which bureaucratization is a part) as a shift from a value-oriented organisation and action (traditional authority and charismatic authority) to a goal-oriented organization and action (legal-rational authority). The result, according to Weber, is a "polar night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in an "iron cage" of rule-based, rational control. George Ritzer, Enchanting a Disenchanted World: Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption, Pine Forge Press, 2004, ISBN 0-7619-8819-X, Google Print, p.55 Weber's bureaucracy studies also led him to his analysis – correct, as it would turn out, after Stalin's takeover – that socialism in Russia would lead to over-bureaucratization rather than to the "withering away of the state" (as Karl Marx had predicted would happen in communist society). Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society, W. W. Norton & Company, 1963, p. 401. ISBN 039331068X. Economics While Weber is best known and recognised today as one of the leading scholars and founders of modern sociology, he also accomplished much in other fields, notably economics, although this is largely forgotten today among orthodox economists, who pay very little attention to his works. The view that Weber is at all influential to modern economists comes largely from non-economists and economic critics with sociology backgrounds. During his life distinctions between the social sciences were less clear than they are now, and Weber considered himself a historian and an economist first, sociologist distant second. From the point of view of the economists, he is a representative of the "Youngest" German historical school of economics. Max Weber, 1864–1920 at the New School for Social Research His most valued contributions to the field of economics is his famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. This is a seminal essay on the differences between religions and the relative wealth of their followers. Weber's work is parallel to Sombart's treatise of the same phenomenon, which however located the rise of Capitalism in Judaism. Weber's other main contribution to economics (as well as to social sciences in general) is his work on methodology: his theories of "Verstehen" (known as understanding or Interpretative Sociology) and of antipositivism (known as humanistic sociology). The doctrine of Interpretative Sociology is one of the main sociological paradigms, with many supporters as well as critics. This thesis states that social, economic and historical research can never be fully inductive or descriptive as one must always approach it with a conceptual apparatus, which Weber termed "Ideal Type". The idea can be summarised as follows: an ideal type is formed from characteristics and elements of the given phenomena but it is not meant to correspond to all of the characteristics of any one particular case. Weber's Ideal Type became one of the most important concepts in social sciences, and led to the creation of such concepts as Ferdinand Tönnies' "Normal Type". Weber conceded that employing "Ideal Types" was an abstraction but claimed that it was nonetheless essential if one were to understand any particular social phenomena because, unlike physical phenomena, they involve human behaviour which must be interpreted by ideal types. This, together with his antipositivistic argumentation can be viewed as the methodological justification for the assumption of the "rational economic man" (homo economicus). Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, with Social class, Social status and party (or politicals) as conceptually distinct elements. Social class is based on economically determined relationship to the market (owner, renter, employee etc.). Status is based on non-economical qualities like honour, prestige and religion. Party refers to affiliations in the political domain. All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life chances". Weber's other contributions to economics were several: these include a (seriously researched) economic history of Roman agrarian society, his work on the dual roles of idealism and materialism in the history of capitalism in his Economy and Society (1914) which present Weber's criticisms (or according to some, revisions) of some aspects of Marxism. Finally, his thoroughly researched General Economic History (1923) can be considered the Historical School at its empirical best. Weber as critic of socialism In the final years of his career Weber became vocal critic of socialism, both in European and Bolshevik variants. He saw Lenin's ideal of applying hierarchical mode of organization in the firm on society at large as an attempt to universalize serfdom. He believed that workers in socialist society still would work in hierarchy, but this time in much worse form of it, fused with government power. Weber developed independently from Ludwig von Mises critique of socialism as economically impossible system. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), vol. I, pp. 100–03. Weber stated that when socialism abolishes private property in the means of production, it would at the same time abolish market prices and monetary calculation of cost and profit, and that way make rational economic planning impossible. Socialist central planner can resort to calculation in-kind, but this type of economic coordination is grossly inefficient. According to Weber, main reason why socialist in-kind mode of economic calculation cannot work is because it is unable to solve the problem of imputation, i.e. to determine relative price of capital goods: In order to make possible a rational utilization of the means of production, a system of in-kind accounting would have to determine “value”-indicators of some kind for the individual capital goods which could take over the role of the “prices” used in book valuation in modern business accounting. But it is not at all clear how such indicators could be established, and in particular, verified; whether, for instance, they should vary from one production unit to the next (on the basis of economic location), or whether they should be uniform for the entire economy, on the basis of “social utility,” that is, of (present and future) consumption requirements?...Nothing is gained by assuming that, if only the problem of a non-monetary economy were seriously enough attacked, a suitable accounting method would be discovered or invented. The problem is fundamental to any kind of complete socialization. We cannot speak of a rational “planned economy” so long as in this decisive respect we have no instrument for elaborating a rational “plan.” Critical Responses to Weber Influence from and on the Austrian school During his own lifetime, Weber was critical of the neoclassical economic approaches of authors such as Carl Menger and Friedrich von Wieser, whose formal approach was quite different from his own historical sociology. The work of these authors eventually led to the creation of the Austrian School of economics. This includes followers of Friedrich von Hayek and, more recently, authors Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw. In their pro-globalization book Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy, they attack Weber for claiming that only Protestantism could lead to a work ethic, pointing to the "Tiger Economies" of Southeastern Asia. (Likewise, Weber's blending of economics with Calvinism has been satirized by such works as "America's Keenest City" by Mongo.) However, in these debates, it is easy to overlook that the methods advocated by these later generations of the Austrian School are heavily indebted to the work of Weber. His "action sociology", as they called it, was a frequent topic in the "Mises Circle", an influential group headed by Ludwig von Mises, a key figure in the Austrian School. Among the attendees was a student of Mises, the philosopher of sociology Alfred Schutz, who sought to clarify Weber's interpretive approach in terms of the analytic phenomenology of Edmund Husserl. Hence, although Schutz's work, especially The Phenomenology of the Social World (1932), is in effect a profound critique of Weber's method, it is nevertheless an attempt to further it. Hayek also frequently attended these discussions, and the subjective method advanced in his The Counter-Revolution of Science: Studies in the Abuse of Reason (1952) reflects these influences. Ludwig Lachmann, a later member of the Austrian School, made explicit the Austrian School's indebtedness to the Weberian method. Interestingly, given their methodological and sociological differences, Weber and Mises were not only acquainted, they shared an admiration for each other’s work. Mises considered Weber a "great genius" and his death a blow to Germany. Likewise, Weber comments that Mises’s Theory of Money and Credit is the monetary theory most acceptable to him. Weber accepted Ludwig von Mises's criticism of socialist economic planning and added his own argument. He believed that under socialism workers would still work in a hierarchy, but that now the hierarchy would be fused with government. Instead of dictatorship of the worker, he foresaw dictatorship of the official. Historical critiques The economist Joseph Schumpeter argued that capitalism did not begin with the Industrial Revolution but in 14th century Italy. Schumpeter, Joseph: "History of Economic Analysis", Oxford University Press, 1954 In Milan, Venice, and Florence the small city-state governments lead to the development of the earliest forms of capitalism. Rothbard, Muarry N.: "Economic Thought Before Adam Smith", Ludwig von Mises Press, 1995, pp. 142 In the 16th century Antwerp was a commercial center of Europe. It was also noted that the predominantly Calvinist country of Scotland did not enjoy the same economic growth as Holland, England, and New England. In addition, it has been pointed out that Holland, which was heavily Calvinist, industrialized much later in the 19th century than predominantly Catholic Belgium, which was one of the centres of the Industrial Revolution on the European mainland. Evans, Eric J.: "The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783-1870", Longman, 1983, pp. 114, ISBN 0-5824-8969-5. Emil Kauder expanded Schumpeter's argument by arguing the hypothesis that Calvinism hurt the development of capitalism by leading to the development of the labor theory of value. Kauder writes "Any social philosopher or economist exposed to Calvinism will be tempted to give labor an exalted position in his social or economic treatise, and no better way of extolling labor can be found than by combining work with value theory, traditionally the very basis of an economic system." Kauder, Emil: "The Retarded Acceptance of the Marginal Utility Theory", Quarterly Journal of Economics 67(4), 1953 In contrast, Catholic areas that were influenced by the late scholastics were more likely to adhere to the subjective theory of value. Weberians' rebuttal of such criticisms follow along the lines of looking not at small areas such as Holland and Belgium or between the Mercantilist capitalism of Venice and industrial capitalism proper, but at the larger "blooms" of capitalism, where its beginnings had also taken permanent and decisive hold. See also Interpretations of Weber's liberalism List of charismatic leaders as defined by Max Weber's classification of authority List of Max Weber works Sociology of law Speeches of Weber The Rejection and the Meaning of the World (book) Weber and German politics References Further reading Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. Introduction to Social Macrodynamics. Moscow: URSS, 2006. ISBN 5-484-00414-4 (Chapter 6: Reconsidering Weber: Literacy and "the Spirit of Capitalism"). Bernhard K. Quensel (2007), Max Webers Konstruktionslogik. Sozialökonomik zwischen Geschichte und Theorie. Nomos. ISBN 9783832925178 [Revisiting Weber's concept of sociology against the background of his juristic and economic provenance within the framework of "social economics"] Roth, Guenther (2001). Max Webers deutsch-englische Familiengeschichte. J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck). ISBN 3-16-147557-7 Radkau, Joachim (2005). Max Weber The most important Weber-biography on Max Weber's life and torments since Marianne Weber. Richard Swedberg "Max Weber as an Economist and as a Sociologist", American Journal of Economics and SociologyWilliam H. Swatos, ed. (1990), Time, Place, and Circumstance: Neo-Weberian Studies in Comparative Religious History. New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-26892-4 Richard Swedberg, Max Weber and the Idea of Economic Sociology. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-07013-X Weber, Marianne (1926/1988). Max Weber: A Biography''. New Brunswick: Transaction Books. ISBN 0-471-92333-8 Problems in European Civilization, Protestantism and Capitalism: The Weber Thesis and Its Critics, ed: Robert Green, D.C. Heath and Company, 1959. External links Texts of his works: Large collection of the German original texts Large collection of the German original texts Large collection of English translations Another collection of English translations A comprehensive collection of English translations and secondary literature Notes on several of Weber's works, merged into one text file Max Weber Reference Archive About Weber: Biography entry and link section Review materials for studying Max Weber Weber on Ideal Types Max Weber – The person More of Weber on Ideal Types An essay on Max Weber's View of Objectivity in Social Science Max Weber: On Capitalism As above, but on capitalism Some of Weber concepts in the form of a list Max Weber's HomePage "A site for undergraduates" Mises versus Weber on Bureaucracy and Sociological Method by William P. 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6,041	Aaliyah	Aaliyah Dana Haughton (January 16, 1979 – August 25, 2001), who performed under the mononym Aaliyah (), was an American recording artist, actress and model. She was born in Brooklyn, New York, and was raised in Detroit, Michigan. At an early age, she appeared on Star Search and performed in concert alongside Gladys Knight. At age 12, Aaliyah was signed to Jive Records and Blackground Records by her uncle, Barry Hankerson. He introduced her to R. Kelly, who became her mentor, as well as lead songwriter and producer of her debut album. Age Ain't Nothing But a Number sold two million copies in the United States and was certified double Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). After facing allegations of an illegal marriage with Kelly, Aaliyah ended her contract with Jive and signed to Atlantic Records. She followed by two additional albums: One in a Million and the eponymous Aaliyah. In addition to Aaliyah's commercial success, collaborations with Timbaland helped shape the sound of R&B in the later half of the 1990s. She also modeled for Tommy Hilfiger, appeared in a Victoria Secret ad and starred in two films, Romeo Must Die and Queen of the Damned, before she and eight others died in a plane crash in the Bahamas on August 25, 2001 after filming the music video for the single "Rock the Boat". Since then, Aaliyah has achieved commercial success with the singles "Miss You" and "I Care 4 U". She became the first artist to top the Billboard Hot 100 based solely on airplay with "Try Again". Early life Aaliyah Dana Haughton was born on January 16, 1979, in Brooklyn, New York City, New York. Born of African and Native American descent, she was the second and youngest child of Diane and Michael Haughton. Her first name means "highest, most exalted one" in Swahili. At a young age, Aaliyah was enrolled in voice lessons by her mother. When she was five years old, her family moved to Detroit, Michigan, where she was raised along with her older brother, Rashad. She attended a Catholic school, Gesu Elementary, where she received a part in the stage play Annie in first grade; from then on, she was determined to be an entertainer. Aaliyah's mother was a vocalist, and her uncle, Barry Hankerson, was an entertainment lawyer who was previously married to Gladys Knight. As a child, Aaliyah traveled with Knight and worked with an agent in New York to audition for commercials and television programs, including Family Matters; she went on to appear appeared on Star Search at the age of nine. She then auditioned for several record labels and appeared in concert alongside Knight at age 11. Career 1992–1995: Age Ain't Nothing But a Number After Barry Hankerson signed a distribution deal with Jive Records, he signed Aaliyah to his Blackground Records label at the age of 12. Aaliyah began recording her debut album, Age Ain't Nothing But a Number, when she was 14. Hankerson later introduced her to recording artist and producer R. Kelly. He became Aaliyah's mentor, as well as lead songwriter and producer of the album. The album was released in June 1994 and peaked number 18 on the Billboard 200; it went on to sell two million copies in the United States and over two million copies worldwide. Aaliyah's debut single, "Back and Forth", topped the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart for three weeks and was certified Gold by the RIAA. The second single, "At Your Best (You Are Love)", peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100. With the release of Age Ain't Nothing But a Number, rumors began to circulate of a relationship between Aaliyah and Kelly. Shortly after, rumors of a secret marriage began with the title track "Age Ain't Nothing But a Number" and the adult content that Kelly had written for Aaliyah. Vibe magazine later revealed a marriage certificate that listed the couple, where they were allegedly married on August 31, 1994, in Sheraton Gateway Suites in Rosemont, Illinois. Aaliyah, who was 15 at the time, was listed as 18 on the certificate; the illegal marriage was reportedly annulled by her parents. The pair continued to deny marriage allegations, stating that neither were married. 1996–2000: One in a Million and Romeo Must Die In 1996, Aaliyah left Jive Records and signed to Atlantic Records. She worked with record producers Timbaland and Missy Elliott, who contributed to her second studio album, One in a Million. Timbaland and Elliott co-wrote and produced majority of the album, which yielded her second chart-topping song on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, "If Your Girl Only Knew", where it remained for two weeks. It eventually garnered the pair a World Music Award for World's Best Selling Female R&B Artist. The album was a landmark in Aaliyah's career, garnering her mass critical acclaim and introducing the singer more mature side. It embarked on the newfound chemistry of Aaliyah and Timbaland. The album's success was equally widespread, and following extensive airplay of the single overseas, the label released it globally following it success. One in a Million sold over two million copies in the United States and over eight million copies worldwide. After attending Detroit High School for the Performing Arts, Aaliyah graduated in 1997 with a 4.0 GPA. Aaliyah began her acting career that same year; she played herself in the police drama television series New York Undercover. Aaliyah teamed up with Kelly again for the A Low Down Dirty Shame, "The Thing I Like" was released overseas; it peaked at number 33 on the UK Singles Chart. Aaliyah appeared on the soundtrack album for the Fox Animation Studios animated feature Anastasia, singing the pop version of "Journey to the Past". The song was nominated for an Academy Award, where she performed the song at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony, becoming the youngest singer to perform at the ceremony. In 2000, Aaliyah landed her first major movie role in Romeo Must Die. A loose adaptation of William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Aaliyah starred opposite martial artist Jet Li, playing a couple who fall in love amid their warring families. It grossed $18.6 million in its first weekend, ranking number two at the box office. In addition to acting, Aaliyah served as an executive producer of the Romeo Must Die soundtrack, where she contributed four songs. "Try Again" was released as a single from the soundtrack; the song topped the Billboard Hot 100, making Aaliyah the first artist to top the chart based solely on radio airplay; this led the song to be released in a 12" vinyl and 7" single. The video for the song earned Aaliyah Best Female Video and Best Video from a Film at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards. It also earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female R&B Vocalist. The soundtrack went on to sell 1.5 million copies in the United States. 2001: Eponymous album and death After a five-year gap, Aaliyah release her eponymous album, Aaliyah, in July 2001. It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling 187,000 copies in its first week. The first single from the album, "We Need a Resolution", peaked at number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100. On August 25, 2001, at 6:45 pm (EST), Aaliyah and various members of her record company boarded a twin engine Cessna 402B (N8097W) at Marsh Harbour, Abaco Island, Bahamas, to travel to an airport in Opa-locka, Florida near Miami, after they finished filming the music video to "Rock the Boat". The crew had a flight scheduled the following day, but Aaliyah and her entourage were eager to return to the United States due to the video filming finishing early, so they demanded that their heavy equipment to be on the plane rather than leave it behind. It resulted in the aircraft being well beyond the standard weight and balance tolerance provided by Cessna. The plane crashed shortly after takeoff, about from the runway. Aaliyah, pilot Luis Morales III and the seven other passengers, including her hair stylist Eric Forman, Anthony Dodd, her security guard Scott Gallin, Douglas Kratz (a director of video production for Virgin Records), stylist Christopher Maldonado, Keith Wallace and Gina Smith (both employees of the Blackground label) were killed. According to findings from an inquest conducted by the coroner's office in the Bahamas, Aaliyah suffered from "severe burns and a blow to the head", in addition to severe shock. The coroner theorized that, even if Aaliyah had survived the crash, her recovery would have been virtually impossible given the severity of her injuries. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) report stated that "the airplane was seen lifting off the runway, and then nose down, impacting in a marsh on the south side of the departure end of runway 27." http://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/brief.asp?ev_id=20010907X01905&key=1 NTSB report It also indicated that the pilot, Luis Morales III, was not approved to pilot the plane he was attempting to fly. Morales falsely obtained his Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) license by showing hundreds of hours never flown, and he may also have falsified how many hours he had flown in order to get a job with his employer, Blackhawk International Airways. Additionally, an autopsy performed on Morales revealed traces of cocaine and alcohol in his blood. Further investigations determined the plane was over its total gross weight by several hundred pounds. Eddie Golson, president of Pro Freight Cargo Services at Opa-locka Airport, said workers carted "a pickup truck of freight" from the crash site. Two of the passengers weighed in the region of 300 pounds and sat in the rear of the plane, where the baggage was also stored. The NTSB report stated that "the total gross weight of the airplane was substantially exceeded." In addition, with heavy passengers and cargo in the back, the center of gravity was pushed too far aft. This caused an uncontrollable nose-up attitude, leading to a stall. Aaliyah's funeral was held on August 31, 2001, at the Saint Ignatius Loyola Church in New York, which was attended by over 800 mourners. With the death of Aaliyah, her eponymous album, Aaliyah, went from number 19 to number one on the Billboard 200. The album was certified double Platinum by the RIAA and sold 2.5 million copies in the United States. 2002–2005: Posthumous recognition and wrongful death lawsuit Aaliyah went on to win two posthumous awards at the American Music Awards of 2002; Favorite Female R&B Artist and Favorite R&B/Soul Album for Aaliyah. Her second and final film, Queen of the Damned, was released in February 2002. Before its release, Aaliyah's brother, Rashad, re-dubbed part of his sister's lines during post-production. It grossed $15.2 million in its first weekend, ranking number one at the box office. In December 2002, a collection of previously unreleased material was released as Aaliyah's first posthumous album, I Care 4 U. A portion of proceeds was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund, a program that benefits the Revlon UCLA Women Cancer Research Program and Harlem's Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. It debuted at number three on the Billboard 200, selling 280,000 copies in its first week. In August of the following year, clothing retailer Christian Dior donated profits from sales in honor of Aaliyah. Aaliyah was signed to appear in future films Honey (recast to Jessica Alba), State Property 2 (recast to Mariah Carey), a Whitney Houston-produced remake of the 1976 film Sparkle and Some Kind of Blue, which were later cancelled due to Aaliyah's death. Aaliyah was also offered a role in Ice Cube's film Next Friday but due to a busy schedule and promotion of her debut film Romeo Must Die, she could not commit to the role and was later scrapped. Looking ahead, Aaliyah had a supporting role in the two sequels of The Matrix as Zee, the wife of Harold Perrineau Jr.'s character, Link. The directors initially tried to find a way to incorporate her footage into the movies but decided against it due to lack of material available. The role was recast with Nona Gaye playing the role. In 2004, The Matrix was released to DVD, tributes and footage of Aaliyah were found inside the special features. She was also set to work with musician Trent Reznor but their schedules (Post production of Aaliyah's sophomore movie Queen of the Damned and Nine Inch Nails' The Fragility Tour) conflicted with each other and the collaboration never scheduled. The day of the crash was Morales' first official day with Blackhawk International Airways, an FAA Part 135 single-pilot operation. In addition, Luis Morales III was not registered with the FAA to fly for Blackhawk. As a result of the accident, a wrongful death lawsuit was filed by Aaliyah's parents and was later settled out of court for an undisclosed amount. Barry & Sons, Inc., a corporation formed in 1992 to develop, promote and capitalize on the musical talents of Aaliyah and to oversee the production and distribution of her records, tapes and music videos, brought an unsuccessful lawsuit in the Supreme Court of the State of New York against Instinct Productions LLC, (a company hired by Barry & Sons, Inc. in August 2001 to produce the "Rock the Boat" music video). The case was dismissed since New York State's wrongful death statute only permits certain people to recover damages for wrongful death. http://www.courts.state.ny.us/reporter/3dseries/2005/2005_00096.htm Text of appellate division decision dismissing the case. Artistry Musical style Aaliyah had a vocal range of a soprano. With the release of her debut single "Back and Forth", Dimitri Ehrlich of Entertainment Weekly expressed Aaliyah's "silky vocals are more agile than those of self-proclaimed queen of hip-hop soul Mary J. Blige." Aaliyah described her sound as "street but sweet", which featured her "gentle" vocals over a "hard" beat. Though Aaliyah did not write any of her own material, her lyrics have been said to contain much substance. Her songs were often uptempo and melancholy, revolving around matters of the heart. She incorporates R&B, pop and hip hop into her music, supplemented by guitars and synthesizers. Her songs have been said to have "crisp production" and "staccato arrangements" that extend genre boundaries while containing "old-school" soul music. When experimenting with other genres, such as Latin pop and heavy metal, writers panned the attempt. As her albums progressed, writers felt that Aaliyah matured, calling her progress a "declaration of strength and independence". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described her eponymous album, Aaliyah, as not only "a statement of maturity and a stunning artistic leap forward", but was also one of the strongest urban soul records of its time. She portrayed "unfamiliar sounds, styles and emotions", but managed to please critics with the contemporary sound it contained. Ernest Hardy of Rolling Stone felt that Aaliyah reflected a stronger technique, where she gave her best vocal performance. Others felt that she was "satisfying rather than extraordinary", claiming that she added little to modern R&B. Public image Since her career began, Aaliyah focused on her public image; she often wore baggy clothes and sunglasses, stating that she "wanted to be me". She described her image as being "important… to differentiate yourself from the rest of the pack". She often wore black clothing, which led women in the United States to adopt her style. Aaliyah participated in fashion designer Tommy Hilfiger's All America Tour and was featured in Tommy Jean ads, which depicted her in boxer shorts, baggy jeans and a tube top. Hilfiger's brother, Andy, called it "a whole new look" that was "classy but sexy". When she changed her hairstyle, Aaliyah took her mother's advice to cover her left eye, much like Veronica Lake. In 1998, Aaliyah hired a personal trainer to keep in shape; she exercised five days a week and ate diet foods. Aaliyah was praised for her "clean-cut image" and "moral values". Legacy In 2001, the United States Social Security Administration ranked the name Aaliyah one of the 100 most popular names for newborn girls. Aaliyah has been credited for helping redefine R&B and hip hop in the 1990s. Her second studio album, One in a Million, became one of the most influential R&B albums of the decade. Ernest Hardy of Rolling Stone dubbed her as the "undisputed queen of the midtempo come-on". "Rock the Boat" went on to become a posthumous hit on radio (reaching number two on Billboard's Hot R&B Singles charts, number 14 on the Hot 100 and number 12 in the UK). The album produced two other singles: "More than a Woman" reached number seven on Billboard's Hot R&B singles chart, number 25 on Hot 100 and number one in the UK. "I Care 4 U" reached number three on Billboard's Hot R&B singles chart and number sixteen on the Hot 100, the latter attaining success even without the promotional push of a music video. Aaliyah's "More than a Woman", released on January 7 and topped the chart on January 13, was followed by Harrison's "My Sweet Lord", re-released on January 14 and topped the chart on January 20. Aaliyah was voted one of "The Top 40 Women of the Video Era" in VH1's The Greatest, also ranked number 36 on their list of the 100 Sexiest Artists. Aaliyah also made E!'s list on the 101 Most Shocking Moments in Entertainment, Juiciest Hollywood Hookups, and Best Kept Hollywood Secrets. Aaliyah recently ranked at number 18 on BET's "Top 25 Dancers of All Time" and ranked at number four on BET's "Top 25 Sexiest Women of all Time". Her family created The Aaliyah Memorial Fund Aaliyah.com which will donate money raised to charities Aaliyah supported. Aaliyah's Cancer Awareness Angels participate in a Revlon Run Walk in which Aaliyah herself once participated. In May 2008, it was announced that The Detroit School of Arts (Aaliyah's Alma Mater) had named a Recital Hall in honor of the late songtress. Aaliyah has sold 8.1 million albums in the United States and over 24 million albums worldwide. Discography Studio albums Age Ain't Nothing But a Number (1994) One in a Million (1996) Aaliyah (2001) Compilations I Care 4 U (2002) Hits & Unreleased: The Ultimate Collection (2002) Ultimate Aaliyah (2005) Filmography !Year !Title !Role \|- \|2000 \|Romeo Must Die \|Trish O'Day \|- \|2002 \|Queen of the Damned \|Queen Akasha \|} See also List of artists who reached number one in the United States List of awards and nominations received by Aaliyah List of fatalities from aviation incidents List of honorific titles in popular music List of works published posthumously Notes References External links Official website	Aaliyah \|@lemmatized aaliyah:82 dana:2 haughton:3 january:6 august:7 perform:5 mononym:1 american:3 recording:2 artist:9 actress:1 model:2 bear:3 brooklyn:2 new:9 york:8 raise:3 detroit:4 michigan:2 early:3 age:12 appear:7 star:4 search:2 concert:2 alongside:2 gladys:2 knight:4 sign:6 jive:4 record:15 blackground:3 uncle:2 barry:5 hankerson:4 introduce:3 r:16 kelly:6 become:6 mentor:2 well:3 lead:5 songwriter:2 producer:5 debut:7 album:25 nothing:6 number:28 sell:9 two:14 million:17 copy:9 united:10 state:18 certify:3 double:2 platinum:2 industry:1 association:1 america:2 riaa:3 face:1 allegation:2 illegal:2 marriage:5 end:2 contract:1 atlantic:2 follow:4 additional:1 one:15 eponymous:5 addition:5 commercial:3 success:5 collaboration:2 timbaland:4 help:2 shape:2 sound:4 b:14 late:2 half:1 also:11 tommy:3 hilfiger:3 victoria:1 secret:3 ad:2 film:10 romeo:7 must:6 die:7 queen:7 damn:1 eight:2 others:2 plane:6 crash:5 bahamas:3 music:11 video:12 single:15 rock:4 boat:4 since:3 achieve:1 miss:1 care:4 u:5 first:12 top:10 billboard:13 hot:12 base:2 solely:2 airplay:3 try:3 life:1 city:1 african:1 native:1 descent:1 second:6 young:3 child:2 diane:1 michael:1 name:4 mean:1 high:2 exalted:1 swahili:1 enrol:1 voice:1 lesson:1 mother:3 five:3 year:5 old:3 family:4 move:1 along:1 brother:3 rashad:2 attend:3 catholic:1 school:4 gesu:1 elementary:1 receive:2 part:3 stage:1 play:4 annie:1 grade:1 determine:2 entertainer:1 vocalist:2 entertainment:3 lawyer:1 previously:2 marry:3 travel:2 work:4 agent:1 audition:2 television:2 program:3 include:2 matter:2 go:6 nine:2 several:2 label:4 career:4 distribution:2 deal:1 begin:5 later:5 release:14 june:1 peak:4 worldwide:3 back:3 forth:2 hip:5 hop:5 song:11 chart:9 three:3 week:5 gold:1 best:7 love:2 six:1 rumor:2 circulate:1 relationship:1 shortly:2 title:3 track:1 adult:1 content:1 write:3 vibe:1 magazine:1 reveal:2 certificate:2 list:9 couple:2 allegedly:1 sheraton:1 gateway:1 suite:1 rosemont:1 illinois:1 time:4 reportedly:1 annul:1 parent:2 pair:2 continue:1 deny:1 neither:1 leave:2 missy:1 elliott:2 contribute:2 studio:4 co:1 produce:4 majority:1 yield:1 topping:1 girl:2 know:1 remain:1 eventually:1 garner:2 world:2 award:8 female:4 landmark:1 mass:1 critical:1 acclaim:1 singer:2 mature:2 side:2 embark:1 newfound:1 chemistry:1 equally:1 widespread:1 extensive:1 overseas:2 globally:1 performing:1 art:2 graduate:1 gpa:1 acting:1 police:1 drama:1 series:1 undercover:1 team:1 low:1 dirty:1 shame:1 thing:1 like:2 uk:3 soundtrack:4 fox:1 animation:1 animate:1 feature:4 anastasia:1 sing:1 pop:3 version:1 journey:1 past:1 nominate:1 academy:2 ceremony:2 land:1 major:1 movie:3 role:7 loose:1 adaptation:1 william:1 shakespeare:1 juliet:1 opposite:1 martial:1 jet:1 li:1 fall:1 amid:1 warring:1 gross:4 weekend:2 rank:6 box:2 office:3 act:1 serve:1 executive:1 four:2 make:2 radio:2 vinyl:1 earn:2 mtv:1 grammy:1 nomination:2 death:7 gap:1 july:1 need:1 resolution:1 pm:1 est:1 various:1 member:1 company:2 board:2 twin:1 engine:1 cessna:2 marsh:2 harbour:1 abaco:1 island:1 airport:2 opa:2 locka:2 florida:1 near:1 miami:1 finish:2 crew:1 flight:1 schedule:4 following:2 day:5 entourage:1 eager:1 return:1 due:4 demand:1 heavy:3 equipment:1 rather:2 behind:1 result:2 aircraft:1 beyond:1 standard:1 weight:3 balance:1 tolerance:1 provide:1 takeoff:1 runway:3 pilot:4 luis:3 morale:6 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6,042	Cello	The violoncello (abbreviated to cello, or 'cello, plural cellos or celli—the c is , as in the ch in "check", thus "chel-lo") is a bowed string instrument. A person who plays a cello is called a cellist. The cello is used as a solo instrument, in chamber music, and as a member of the string section of an orchestra. It is the second physically largest member of the violin family of musical instruments, next to the double bass. Description A Cello The name Cello is an abbreviation of the Italian violoncello, which means "little violone", referring to the violone ("big viol"), the lowest-pitched instrument of the viol family, the group of string instruments that were superseded by the violin family. Thus, the name carries both an augmentative "-one" ("big") and a diminutive "-cello" ("little"). By the turn of the twentieth century, it had grown customary to abbreviate the name violoncello to 'cello, with the apostrophe indicating the six missing prefix letters. Delbanco, Nicholas. (January 1, 2001) Harper's Bazaar. The Countess of Stanlein Restored. (Violoncello owned by Bernard Greenhouse is restored). Volume 302; Issue 1808; Page 39. It now is acceptable to use the name "cello" without the apostrophe and as a full designation. Cellos are tuned in fifths, starting with C2 (two octaves below middle C) as the lowest string, followed by G2, D3, and A3. It is tuned the same way as the viola, only an octave lower. The cello is most closely associated with European classical music, and has been described as the closest sounding instrument to the human voice. Welcome::. to Academic Journals Inc The instrument is a part of the standard orchestra and is the bass voice of the string quartet, as well as being part of many other chamber groups. A large number of concertos and sonatas have been written for the cello. The instrument is less common in popular music, but is sometimes featured in pop and rock recordings. The cello has also recently appeared in major hip-hop and R & B performances, such as singers Rihanna and Ne-Yo's performance at the American Music Awards. The instrument has also been modified for Indian classical music by Nancy Lesh and Saskia Rao-de Haas. Among the most well-known Baroque works for the cello are J. S. Bach's six unaccompanied Suites. From the Classical era, the two concertos by Joseph Haydn in C major and D major stand out, as do the five sonatas for cello and pianoforte of Beethoven which span the important three periods of his compositional evolution. Romantic era repertoire includes the Schumann Concerto, the Dvořák Concerto as well as the two sonatas and the Double Concerto by Brahms. Compositions from the early 20th century include Elgar's Cello Concerto in E minor, Debussy's Sonata for Cello and Piano and unaccompanied cello sonatas by Zoltán Kodály and Paul Hindemith. The cello's versatility made it popular with composers in the mid- to late twentieth century such as Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Britten, Ligeti and Dutilleux, encouraged by soloists who specialized in contemporary music (such as Siegfried Palm and Mstislav Rostropovich) commissioning from and collaborating with composers. History The history of bowed string musical instruments in Europe dates back to the 9th century with the lira (Greek: λύρα, Latin: lūrā) of the Byzantine Empire, a bowed instrument closely related to the Arab rabāb. The Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 911) of the 9th century, in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the Byzantine lira as a typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the salandj Margaret J. Kartomi: On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments. Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology, University of Chicago Press, 1990 . The Byzantine lira spread through Europe westward and in the 11th and 12th centuries European writers use the terms fiddle and lira interchangeably when referring to bowed instruments (Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009). In the meantime the Arab rabāb was introduced to the Western Europe possibly through the Iberian Peninsula and both bowed instruments spread widely throughout Europe giving birth to various European bowed instruments. Over the centuries that followed, Europe continued to have two distinct types of bowed instruments: one, relatively square-shaped, held in the arms, known with the Italian term Lira da braccio (or Viola da braccio, meaning viol for the arm), family of the modern violin; the other, with sloping shoulders and held between the knees, known with the Italian term Lira da gamba (or viola da gamba, meaning viol for the leg), family of the Byzantine lyra and the modern Cello stringed instrument. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 14, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/569200/stringed-instrument (Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009) . During the Renaissance the gambas, were important and elegant instruments; they eventually lost ground to the louder (and originally less aristocratic) lira da braccio. However, the a gamba playing position remained popular to larger instruments that could not be played with a braccio position. Violoncello da spalla The violoncello da spalla (sometimes "violoncello piccolo da spalla" or "violoncello da span") was the first cello referred to in print (by Jambe de Fer in 1556). "Violone" means a larger "viola" (viol), while "-cello" in Italian is a diminutive and spalla means "shoulder" in Italian so that violoncello da spalla suggest a "little big violin" that may be held on the shoulder so that the player could perform while walking or that the early, short-necked instrument was hung across the shoulder by a strap. Sigiswald Kuijken has performed and recorded works by Bach and Vivaldi on the violoncello da spalla http://www.earlymusicworld.com/id19.html http://www.lapetitebande.be/en/biografie/bio.htm . Ryo Terakado has also recorded Bach on this instrument http://violoncellodaspalla.blogspot.com/ . Construction The cello is typically made from wood, although other materials such as carbon fiber or aluminum may be used. A traditional cello has a spruce top, with maple for the back, sides, and neck. Other woods, such as poplar willow, are sometimes used for the back and sides. Less expensive cellos frequently have tops and backs made of laminated wood. The top and back are traditionally hand-carved, though less expensive cellos are often machine-produced. The sides, or ribs, are made by heating the wood and bending it around forms. The cello body has a wide top bout, narrow middle formed by two C-bouts, and wide bottom bout, with the bridge and sound holes just below the middle. The top and back of the cello has decorative border inlay known as purfling. Purfling looks attractive, but is not just for decoration. If a cello is dropped or bumped against something so that damage occurs, the purfling can stop cracks from forming. A crack may form at the rim of the instrument, but will spread no further. Without purfling, cracks can spread up or down the top or back. Playing, traveling and the weather all affect the cello and can increase a crack if purfling is not in place. Less expensive instruments typically have the purfling painted on. Cello manufacturer Luis & Clark constructs cellos from carbon fiber. Carbon fiber instruments are particularly suitable for outdoor playing because of the strength of the material and its resistance to humidity and temperature fluctuations. Luis & Clark has produced over 600 such cellos, one of which is owned by Yo-Yo Ma and was played at the 2009 Presidential Inauguration stringed instrument. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 23, 2009, from The New York Times Online: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/19/arts/music/19carb.html (NY Times. Jan. 18, 2009 "The Sound of Carbon for Yo-Yo Ma?" by Chris Museler) . In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) as well as German luthier G.A. Pfretzschner produced an untold number of aluminum cellos (in addition to aluminum double basses and violins). An advertisement published in N.Y. Music Service catalogue (1930) reads: "...made entirely of aluminum with the exception of the fingerboard. They have many advantages over the wood basses and violoncellos, as they cannot crack, split or warp and are made to last forever ... possessing a tone quality that is deep, resonant and responsive to the utmost degree. Violoncello $150." Neck, pegbox, and scroll Above the main body is the carved neck, which leads to a pegbox and the scroll. The neck, pegbox, and scroll are normally carved out of a single piece of wood. Attached to the neck and extending over the body of the instrument is the fingerboard. The nut is a raised piece of wood, where the fingerboard meets the pegbox, which the strings rest on. The pegbox houses four tuning pegs, one for each string. The pegs are used to tune the cello by either tightening or loosening the string. The scroll is a traditional part of the cello and all other members of the violin family. Ebony is usually used for the tuning pegs, fingerboard, and nut, but other hard woods, such as boxwood or rosewood, can be used. Strings Strings on a cello have cores made out of gut, metal, or synthetic materials, such as Perlon. Most modern strings used today are also wound with metallic materials like aluminum, titanium and chromium. Cellists may mix different types of strings on their instruments. The pitches of the open strings are C G D A (quarter notes in the figure above). Tailpiece and endpin The tailpiece and endpin are found in the lower part of the cello. The tailpiece is traditionally made of ebony or another hard wood, but can also be made of plastic or steel. It attaches the strings to the lower end of the cello, and can have one or more fine tuners. The endpin or spike is made of wood, metal or rigid carbon fiber and supports the cello in playing position. In the Baroque period the cello was held between the calves. Around the 1830s, the Belgian cellist Auguste Adrien Servais introduced the endpin and propagated its use. Modern endpins are retractable and adjustable; older ones were removed when not in use. (The word "endpin" sometimes also refers to the button of wood located at this place in all instruments in the violin family, but this is usually called "tailpin".) The sharp tip of the cello's endpin is sometimes capped with a rubber tip that protects the tip from dulling and prevents the cello from slipping on the floor. Bridge and f-holes The bridge of a cello, with a mute (the mute is not in use) The bridge holds the strings above the cello and transfers their vibrations to the top of the instrument and the soundpost inside (see below). The bridge is not glued, but rather held in place by the tension of the strings. The f-holes, named for their shape, are located on either side of the bridge, and allow air to move in and out of the instrument as part of the sound-production process. The f-holes also act as access points to the interior of the cello for repairs or maintenance. Sometimes a small hose containing a water-soaked sponge, called a Dampit, is inserted through the f-holes, and serves as a humidifier. Internal features Internally, the cello has two important features: a bass bar, which is glued to the underside of the top of the instrument, and a round wooden sound post, which is wedged between the top and bottom plates. The bass bar, found under the bass foot of the bridge, serves to support the cello's top and distribute the vibrations. The sound post, found under the treble side of the bridge, connects the back and front of the cello. Like the bridge, the sound post is not glued, but is kept in place by the tensions of the bridge and strings. Together, the bass bar and sound post transfer the strings' vibrations to the top (front) of the instrument (and to a lesser extent the back), acting as a diaphragm to produce the instrument's sound. Glue Cellos are constructed and repaired using hide glue, which is strong but reversible, allowing for disassembly when needed. Tops may be glued on with diluted glue, since some repairs call for the removal of the top. Theoretically, hide glue is weaker than the body's wood, so as the top or back shrinks side-to-side, the glue holding it will let go, avoiding a crack in the plate. Bow A cello French bow held with the palm facing down as opposed to the German bow popular in baroque era, held underhand (see Viol) used commonly today with the double bass Traditionally, bows are made from pernambuco or brazilwood. Both come from the same species of tree (Caesalpina echinata), but pernambuco, used for higher-quality bows, is the heartwood of the tree and is darker in color than brazilwood (which is sometimes stained to compensate). Pernambuco is a heavy, resinous wood with great elasticity which makes it an ideal wood for instrument bows. Bows are also made from other materials, such as carbon-fiber --stronger than wood-- and fiberglass (often used to make inexpensive, low-quality student bows). An average cello bow is 73 cm long (shorter than a violin or viola bow) 3 cm high (from the frog to the stick) and 1.5 cm wide. The frog of a cello bow typically has a rounded corner like that of a viola bow, but is wider. A cello bow is roughly 10 grams heavier than a viola bow, which in turn is roughly 10 grams heavier than a violin bow. Bow hair is traditionally horsehair, though synthetic hair, in varying colors, is also used. Prior to playing, the musician tightens the bow by turning a screw to pull the frog (the part of the bow under the hand) back, and increase the tension of the hair. Rosin is applied by the player to make the hairs sticky. Bows need to be re-haired periodically. Ideally a bow should be re-haired every year, but this is not in great practice because of cost. History The cello developed from the bass violin, first referred to by Jambe de Fer in 1556, which was originally a three-string instrument. The first instance of a composer specifying the bass violin may have been Gabrieli in Sacrae symphoniae, 1597. Monteverdi referred to the instrument as "basso de viola da braccio" in Orfeo (1607). Although the first bass violin, possibly invented by Amati as early as 1538, was most likely inspired by the viol, it was created to be used in consorts with the violin. The bass violin was actually often referred to as a "violone," or "large viola," as were the viols of the same period. Instruments that share features with both the bass violin and the viola de gamba appear in Italian art of the early 1500s... The invention of wire-wound strings (fine wire around a thin gut core), around 1660 in Bologna, allowed for a finer bass sound than was possible with purely gut strings on such a short body. Bolognese makers exploited this new technology to create the cello, a somewhat smaller instrument suitable for solo repertoire due to both the timbre of the instrument and the fact that the smaller size made it easier to play virtuosic passages. This instrument had disadvantages as well, however. The cello's light sound was not as suitable for church and ensemble playing, so it had to be doubled by basses or violones. Around 1700, Italian players popularized the cello in northern Europe, although the bass violin (basse de violon) continued to be used for another two decades in France. Many existing bass violins were literally cut down in size in order to convert them into cellos according to the smaller pattern cello as developed by Stradivarius, who also made a number of old pattern large cellos (the 'Servais'). Cyr 1982 The bass violin remained the "most used" instrument in England as late as 1740, where the violoncello was still "not common." Grassineau 1740 The sizes, names, and tunings of the cello varied widely by geography and time. The size was not standardized until around 1750. Despite similarities to the viola da gamba, the cello is actually part of the viola da braccio family, meaning "viol of the arm", which includes, among others, the violin and viola. Though paintings like Bruegel's "The Rustic Wedding" and de Fer in his Epitome Musical suggest that the bass violin had alternate playing positions, these were short-lived and the more practical and ergonomic a gamba position eventually replaced them entirely. A cello strung with gut strings. Note the absence of fine-tuning pins on the tailpiece. Baroque era cellos differed from the modern instrument in several ways. The neck has a different form and angle which matches the baroque bass-bar and stringing. Modern cellos have an endpin at the bottom to support the instrument (and transmit some of the sound through the floor), while Baroque cellos are held only by the calves of the player. Modern bows curve in and are held at the frog; Baroque bows curve out and are held closer to the bow's point of balance. Modern strings normally have a metal core, although some use a synthetic core; Baroque strings are made of gut, with the G and C strings wire-wound. Modern cellos often have fine-tuners connecting the strings to the tailpiece, which make it much easier to tune the instrument, but such pins are rendered ineffective by the flexibility of the gut strings used on Baroque cellos. Overall, the modern instrument has much higher string tension than the Baroque cello, resulting in a louder, more projecting tone, with fewer overtones. No educational works specifically devoted to the cello existed before the 18th century, and those that do exist contain little value to the performer beyond simple accounts of instrumental technique. The earliest cello manual is Michel Corrette's Méthode, thèorique et pratique pour apprendre en peu de temps le violoncelle dans sa perfection (Paris, 1741). Playing technique Seated Cellist Body position The cello is usually played while seated. Its weight is supported mainly by its endpin or spike, which rests on the floor. Sometimes, an endpin support is needed to prevent the endpin from slipping on smooth surfaces. The cello is steadied on the lower bout between the knees of the seated player, and on the upper bout against the upper chest. The neck of the cello is above the player's left shoulder, and the C-String tuning peg is just behind the left ear. The bow is drawn horizontally across the strings. In early times, female cellists sometimes played side-saddle, since it was considered improper for a lady to part her knees in public. A player's handedness does not alter the way the cello is held or used. In exceedingly rare cases the cello has been played in a mirror-image posture: this is usually because of a physical disability of one of the player's arms or hands which makes the required technique impossible for that side of the body. In such a situation, the player must decide whether or not to reverse the set-up of the cello (the string positions, bass-bar, sound post, fingerboard shape, and bridge carving are all asymmetrical). Left hand technique The position of the left hand fingers along the strings determine the pitch of the note. The closer to the bridge that the string is depressed, the higher in pitch will be the resulting sound, because the vibrating string length has been shortened. In the neck positions (which use just less than half of the fingerboard, nearest the top of the instrument), the thumb rests on the back of the neck; in thumb position (a general name for notes on the remainder of the fingerboard) the thumb usually rests alongside the fingers on the string and the side of the thumb is used to play notes. The fingers are normally held curved with each knuckle bent, with the fingertips in contact with the string. If a finger is required on two (or more) strings at once to play perfect fifths (in double stops or chords) it is used flat. In slower, or more expressive playing, the contact point can move slightly away from the nail to the pad of the finger, allowing a fuller vibrato. Vibrato Vibrato is a small oscillation in the pitch of a note, usually considered expressive. It is created by a partial rotation of the upper arm at the shoulder joint, which translates into a linear oscillation of the lower arm. The fixed point of contact of the fingertip on the string absorbs this motion by rocking back and forth. It is this change in the attitude of the fingertip to the string which causes the pitch to vary. Vibrato is a key expressive device, and a well-developed vibrato technique is an essential element of a modern cellist's skill. In some styles of music, such as that of the Romantic period, vibrato may be used on almost every note. However, in other styles, such as Baroque repertoire, vibrato is used only rarely, as an ornament. In any case, the choice of whether to use vibrato, and how much, is normally a stylistic decision on the part of the player. Typically, the lower the pitch of the note played, the wider and slower the vibrato. Harmonics Harmonics played on the cello fall into two classes; natural and artificial. Natural harmonics are produced by lightly touching (but not depressing) the string with the finger at certain places, and then bowing (or, rarely, plucking) the string. For example, the halfway point of the string will produce a harmonic that is one octave above the unfingered (open) string. Natural harmonics only produce notes that are part of the harmonic series for the string on which they occur. Artificial harmonics (also called False harmonics), in which the player depresses the string fully with one finger while touching the same string lightly with another finger, can produce any notes above middle C. They usually appear with the touching note a perfect fourth above the stopped note, which produces a sound two octaves above the stopped note, although other intervals are available. All harmonics produce a distinctive flute-like sound, and are usually performed without vibrato. Glissando Glissando ("sliding", in Italian) is an effect played by sliding the finger up or down the fingerboard without releasing the string. This causes the pitch to rise and fall smoothly, without separate, discernible steps. Right hand technique In cello playing, the bow is much like the breath of a wind instrument player. Arguably, it is the major determinant in the expressiveness of the playing. The right hand holds the bow and controls the duration and character of the notes. The bow is drawn across the strings roughly halfway between the end of the fingerboard and the bridge, in a direction perpendicular to the strings. The bow is held with all five fingers of the right hand, the thumb opposite the fingers and closer to the cellist's body. The shape of the hand should resemble that of its relaxed state, with all fingers curved, including the thumb. The transmission of weight from the arm to the bow happens through the pronation (inward rotation) of the forearm, which pushes the index finger and to a lesser degree the middle finger onto the bow. The necessary counterforce is provided by the thumb. Depending upon the school of training, the other two fingers are used in various degrees to help maintain the angle of the bow to the string and are critical to controlling the bow when it is off the string. (See also spiccato). In English, the terminology for bow direction (down and up) can be misleading. A downbow is drawn to the right of the player, and an upbow to the left. A downbow is drawn by first using the upper arm, then the forearm, then the wrist (turning slightly inward) in order to maintain a straight stroke. An upbow is drawn by moving first the forearm, then the upper arm, then the wrist (pushing slightly upward). The bow is mostly used perpendicular to the string being played. In order to perform string changes the whole arm is either lowered or lifted, with as little wrist movement as possible in order to maintain the angle to the string. However, flexibility of the wrist is necessary when changing the bow direction from up-bow to down-bow and vice versa. For very fast bow movements, the wrist is used to accomplish the horizontal movement of bow. For longer strokes, the arm is used as well as the wrist. Tone production and volume of sound depend on a combination of several factors. The three most important ones are: bow speed, weight applied to the string, and point of contact of the bow hair with the string. A good player will be capable of a very even tone, and will counter the natural tendency to play with the most force with the part of the bow nearest to the frog or heel, and the least force near the tip. The closer to the bridge the string is bowed, the more projecting and brighter the tone, with the extreme (sul ponticello) producing a metallic, shimmery sound. If bowing closer to the fingerboard (sul tasto), the sound produced will be softer, more mellow, and less defined. Double stops Double stops involve the playing of two notes at the same time. Two strings are fingered simultaneously, and the bow is drawn so as to sound them both at once. Triple and quadruple stops may also be played (in a "broken" fashion), but are difficult to sustain because of the change in slope of the bridge. To extend the technique in this area, Frances-Marie Uitti has invented a two-bow system: one bow plays above the strings and one below, allowing for sustained triple and quadruple stops. However, this technique is very rarely seen or used. Pizzicato In pizzicato playing, the string is plucked directly with the fingers or thumb. Usually this is done with the right hand, while the bow is held away from the strings by the rest of the hand or (for extended passages) set down. A single string can be played pizzicato, or double, triple, or quadruple stops can be played. Occasionally, a player must bow one string with the right hand and simultaneously pluck another with the left. This is marked by a "+" above the note. Strumming of chords is also possible, in guitar fashion. Col legno Col legno is the technique in which the player uses the wood rather than the hair of the bow on the strings; it takes two different forms, col legno battuto and col legno tratto. Col legno battuto is performed as a percussive technique with no sustaining of the sound. The much less common alternative is col legno tratto, wherein the wood is drawn across the string as the hair is in a normal bow stroke. Some players refuse to use this technique because of potential damage to the bow. Spiccato In spiccato playing, the strings are not "drawn" by the bow hair but struck by it, while still retaining some horizontal motion, to generate a more percussive, crisp sound. It may be performed by using the wrist to "dip" the bow into the strings. Spiccato is usually associated with lively playing. On a violin, spiccato bowing comes off the string, but on a cello, the wood of the bow may rise briskly up without the hair actually leaving the string. While playing spiccato, the bow is literally bouncing off the string. Cello players simply "dip" the bow into the string, and touch it very fast, and then lift the bow off the string. Staccato In staccato, the player moves the bow a small distance and stops it on the string, making a short sound, the rest of the written duration being taken up by silence. Legato Legato is a technique where the notes are smoothly connected without accents or breaks. Sul ponticello/sul tasto Sul ponticello "on the bridge" refers to bowing closer to the bridge, while sul tasto "on the fingerboard" calls for bowing nearer the end of the fingerboard. Ponticello calls for more bow weight and slower bow speed, and produces a "harder" sound, with strong overtone content. Sul tasto, in extreme cases called "flautando," produces a more flute-like sound, with more emphasis on the fundamental frequency of the note, and softer overtones. Sizes 1/8 size cello with full size cello Standard-sized cellos are referred to as "full-size". However, cellos come in smaller (fractional) sizes, from "7/8" and "3/4" down to "1/16" sized cellos (e.g. 7/8, 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/10, 1/16). The smaller-sized cellos are identical to standard cellos in construction, range, and usage, but are simply 'scaled-down' for the benefit of children and shorter adults. A "half-size" cello is not actually half the size of a "full-size", but only slightly smaller. Many smaller cellists prefer to play a "7/8" cello as the hand stretches in the lower positions are less demanding. Although rare, cellos in sizes larger than 4/4 do exist. Cellists with unusually large hands may play a slightly larger than full-sized cello. Cellos made before approximately 1700 tended to be considerably larger than those made and commonly played today. Around 1680, string-making technology made lower pitches on shorter strings possible. The cellos of Stradivari, for example, can be clearly divided into 2 models, with the style made before 1702 characterized by larger instruments (of which only 3 examples are extant in their original size and configuration), and the style made during and after 1702, when Stradivari, presumably in response to the "new" type of strings, began making cellos of a smaller size. This later model is the one most commonly used by modern luthiers. Approximate dimensions for 4/4 size cello Average size (cm) Average size (in) Approximate width horizontally from A peg to C peg ends 16 6 - 5/16 Back length excluding half round where neck joins 75.5 29 - 3/4 Upper bouts (shoulders) 34 13 - 3/8 Lower bouts (hips) 44 17 - 3/8 Bridge height 9 3 - 9/16 Rib depth at shoulders including edges of front and back 12.5 4 - 15/16 Rib depth at hips including edges 12.8 5 - 1/16 Distance beneath fingerboard to surface of belly at neck join 2.2 7/8 Bridge to back total depth 26.7 10 - 1/2 Overall height excluding end pin 121 47 - 10/16 End pin unit and spike 5.5 2 - 5/8 Accessories There are many accessories for the cello. Cases are used to protect the cello and bow (or multiple bows) when traveling and for safe storage. They are often made of carbon fiber, fiber-glass, and less commonly wood. Rosin, made from conifer resin, is applied to the bow hairs to increase the effectiveness of the friction, grip or bite, and allow proper sound production. Rosin may have additives to modify the friction such as beeswax, gold, silver or tin. Endpin stops or straps (tradenames include Rockstop and Black Hole) keep the cello from sliding if the end pin does not have a rubber piece on the end (used on wood floors) though in many cases a rubber piece will not suffice on even a wood floor. Many Cellists often use a square or rectangle of carpet that can be secured under the front two legs of the chair as an endpin stop. This is however less likely to be seen in a professional arena and more used in rehearsal or in private.Players might even use their shoe to keep the endpin in place Wolf tone eliminators are sometimes placed on cello strings between the tailpiece and the bridge in order to eliminate acoustic anomalies known as wolf tones or "wolfs". Mutes are used to change the sound of the cello by reducing overtones. Practice mutes (made of metal) significantly reduce the instrument's volume (they are also referred to as "hotel mutes"). The most common mute is a rubber disc with two holes to fit the two middle strings. It sits just after the bridge and has a flap that can be placed over the top of the bridge to mute the vibrations travelling down it to the sound post inside the cello. These are especially used due to their simplicity and can be taken off or put on very quickly due to the fact that they can be stored on the strings past the bridge. Metronomes provide a steady tempo by sounding out a certain number of beats per minute. They are adjustable to fit the tempo of the piece. Many models can also produce a tuning pitch of A4 (440 Hz), among others. These can, of course, be used for all instruments. Humidifiers are used to control and stabilize the humidity around and inside the cello and are popular with traveling cellists. Often placed inside the cello itself or inside the case. Some players will not use humidifiers inside their cellos because they have the potential to drip, which may cause damage to the cello Tuners are sometimes used to tune the instrument. A tuner indicates if a played note is sharp or flat. Tuners are used by musicians who cannot memorize pitches, or students. Current use Orchestral Cellos are part of the standard symphony orchestra. Usually, the orchestra includes eight to twelve cellists. The cello section, in standard orchestral seating, is located on stage left (the audience's right) in the front, opposite the first violin section. However, some orchestras and conductors prefer switching the positioning of the viola and cello sections. The principal, or "first chair" cellist is the section leader, determining bowings for the section in conjunction with other string principals, and playing solos. Principal players always sit closest to the audience. The cellos are a critical part of orchestral music; all symphonic works involve the cello section, and many pieces require cello soli or solos. Much of the time, cellos provide part of the harmony for the orchestra. On many occasions, the cello section will play the melody for a brief period of time, before returning to the harmony. There are also cello concertos, which are orchestral pieces in which a featured, solo cellist is accompanied by an entire orchestra. Solo There are numerous cello concertos - where a solo cello is accompanied by an orchestra - notably 25 by Vivaldi, 12 by Boccherini, 3 by C.P.E. Bach, 2 by Haydn, 2 by Saint-Saëns, 2 by Dvořák, and one each by Schumann, Lalo and Elgar. Beethoven's Triple Concerto for Cello, Violin and Piano and Brahms' Double Concerto for Cello and Violin are also part of the concertante repertoire although in both cases the cello shares solo duties with at least one other instrument. Moreover, several composers wrote large-scale pieces for cello and orchestra, which are concertos in all but name. Some familiar "concertos" are Strauss' tone poem Don Quixote, Tchaikovsky's Variations on a Rococo Theme, Bloch's Schelomo and Bruch's Kol Nidrei. In the 20th century, the cello repertoire grew immensely. This was due to the influence of virtuoso cellist Mstislav Rostropovich who inspired, commissioned and/or premiered dozens of new works. Among these, Prokofiev's Symphonia Concertante, Britten's Cello Symphony and the concertos of Shostakovich, Lutosławski and Dutilleux have already become part of the standard repertoire. In addition, Hindemith, Barber, Honegger, Villa-Lobos, Myaskovsky, Walton, Glass, Rodrigo, Arnold, Penderecki and Ligeti also wrote major concertos for other cellists (notably Gregor Piatigorsky, Siegfried Palm and Julian Lloyd Webber). Cellists Julian Lloyd Webber (left) and Mstislav Rostropovich There are also many sonatas for cello and piano. Those written by Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Brahms, Grieg, Rachmaninoff, Debussy, Fauré, Shostakovich, Prokofiev, Carter and Britten are the most famous. Finally, there are several unaccompanied pieces for cello, most importantly J.S. Bach's six Unaccompanied Suites for Cello (arguably the most important cello pieces), Zoltán Kodály's Sonata for Solo Cello and Britten's three Unaccompanied Suites for Cello. Other notable examples include Dutilleux' Trois Strophes sur le Nom de Sacher, Berio's Les Mots Sont Allés (both part of a series of twelve compositions for solo cello commissioned by Rostropovich for Swiss conductor Paul Sacher's 70th birthday), Ligeti's Sonata, Carter's two Figments and Xenakis' Nomos Alpha and Kottos. Quartets and other ensembles The cello is a member of the traditional string quartet as well as string quintets, sextet or trios and other mixed ensembles. There are also pieces written for two, three, four or more cellos; this type of ensemble is also called a "cello choir" and its sound is familiar from the introduction to Rossini's William Tell Overture as well as Zaccharias' prayer scene in Verdi's Nabucco. As a self-sufficient ensemble, its most famous repertoire is Villa-Lobos' first of his Bachianas Brasileiras for cello ensemble (the fifth is for soprano and 8 cellos). Another example is Boulez' Messagesquisse for 7 cellos. The Twelve Cellists of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra (or "the Twelve" as they have since taken to being called) specialize in this repertoire and have commissioned many works, including arrangements of well-known popular songs. Popular music, Jazz and Neoclassical Though the cello is less common in popular music than in classical music, it is sometimes featured in pop and rock recordings. The cello is rarely part of a group's standard lineup (though like its cousin the violin it is becoming more common in mainstream pop). In the 1960s, artists such as the Beatles and Cher used the cello in popular music, in songs such as "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)," "Eleanor Rigby" and "Strawberry Fields Forever". Jack Bruce, who had originally studied music on a performance scholarship for cello, played a prominent cello part in "As You Said" on the Wheels of Fire studio album (1968). In the 1970s, the Electric Light Orchestra enjoyed great commercial success taking inspiration from so-called "Beatlesque" arrangements, adding the cello (and violin) to the standard rock combo line-up and in 1978 the UK based rock band, Colosseum II, collaborated with cellist Julian Lloyd Webber on the recording Variations. Most notably, Pink Floyd included a cello solo in their 1970 epic instrumental Atom Heart Mother. Bass guitarist Mike Rutherford of Genesis was originally a cellist and included some cello parts in their Foxtrot album. Established non-traditional cello groups include Apocalyptica, a group of Finnish cellists best known for their versions of Metallica songs, Rasputina, a group of two female cellists committed to an intricate cello style intermingled with Gothic music, Von Cello, a cello fronted rock power trio, Break of Reality who mix elements of classical music with the more modern rock and metal genre, and Jelloslave () a Minneapolis based Cello duo with two percussionists. These groups are examples of a style that has become known as cello rock. The crossover string quartet bond also includes a cellist. Silenzium and Vivacello are Russian (Novosibirsk) groups playing rock and metal and having more and more popularity in Siberia. More recent bands using the cello are Aerosmith, Nirvana, Oasis, Murder by Death, Cursive, and OneRepublic. So-called "chamber pop" artists like Kronos Quartet, The Vitamin String Quartet and Margot and the Nuclear So and So's have also recently made cello common in modern alternative rock. Heavy metal band System of a Down has also made use of the cello's rich sound. The indie rock band The Stiletto Formal are known for using a cello as a major staple of their sound, similarly, the indie rock band Canada employs two cello players in their lineup. The orch-rock group,The Polyphonic Spree, which has pioneered the use of stringed and symphonic instruments, employs the cello in very creative ways for many of their "psychedelic-esque" melodies. Reggae band Third World used a cello during some live performances. Pop star Richard Marx uses a cello in some of his studio recordings, such as "One Thing Left" and "In This All Alone." Harry Chapin for most of his life included a cello in his music and used a series of different cellists in nearly all his touring bands. Post-rock bands and other avant-garde groups commonly feature strings; cellos and violins over violas and contrabasses. Modern musical theatre pieces like Jason Robert Brown's The Last Five Years, Duncan Sheik's Spring Awakening, Adam Guettel's Floyd Collins, and Ricky Ian Gordon's My Life with Albertine use small string ensembles (including solo cellos) to a prominent extent. The cello can also be used in bluegrass and folk music, with notable players including Ben Sollee of the Sparrow Quartet and the "Cajun cellist" Sean Grissom as well as Damien Rice. The cello and the double bass are now also used in some modern Chinese orchestras. In jazz, bassists Oscar Pettiford and Harry Babasin were among the first to use the cello as a solo instrument; both tuned their instrument in fourths, an octave above the double bass. Fred Katz (who was not a bassist) was one of the first notable jazz cellists to use the instrument's standard tuning and arco technique. Contemporary jazz cellists include Abdul Wadud, Diedre Murray, Ron Carter, Dave Holland, David Darling, Lucio Amanti, Akua Dixon, Ernst Reijseger, Fred Lonberg-Holm, Vincent Courtois, Jean-Charles Capon, and Erik Friedlander. In the Neoclassical movement, Kanon Wakeshima is a solo cellist and singer. She plays her cello as an accompaniment to her singing. She is also regarded as an instrumentalist in some parts of Japan. Instrument makers Cellos are made by luthiers, specialists in building and repairing stringed instruments, ranging from guitars to violins. The following luthiers are notable for the cellos they have produced: Nicolò Amati and others in the Amati family William Forster Nicolò Gagliano Matteo Goffriller Giovanni Battista Guadagnini Giuseppe Guarneri Domenico Montagnana Giovanni Battista Rogeri Francesco Ruggieri Stefano Scarampella Antonio Stradivari David Tecchler Carlo Giuseppe Testore Jean Baptiste Vuillaume Cellists A person who plays the cello is called a cellist. For a list of notable cellists, see the list of cellists and :Category:Cellists. Famous cellos Specific instruments are, or become, famous, for a variety of reasons. An instrument's notability may arise from its age, the fame of its maker, its physical appearance, its acoustic properties, and its use by notable performers. The most famous instruments are generally known for all of these things. The most highly prized instruments are now collector's items, and are priced beyond the reach of most musicians. These instruments are typically owned by some kind of organization or investment group, which loans the instrument to a performer for his or her use. (For example, the Davidov Stradivarius, which is currently in the possession of one of the most widely-known living cellists, Yo-Yo Ma, is actually owned by the Vuitton Foundation. ) Some notable cellos: the "King", by Andrea Amati, is one of the oldest known cellos, built between 1538 and 1560. It is in the collection of the National Music Museum in South Dakota. National Music Museum page Servais Stradivarius is in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC Davidov Stradivarius, played by Jacqueline du Pré, currently played by Yo-Yo Ma Barjansky Stradivarius, played by Julian Lloyd Webber Bonjour Stradivarius, played by Soo Bae Paganini-Ladenburg Stradivarius, played by Clive Greensmith of the Tokyo String Quartet Duport Stradivarius, played by Mstislav Rostropovich Piatti Stradivarius, 1720, played by Carlos Prieto Media See also Brahms guitar Electric cello List of solo cello pieces List of compositions for cello and piano List of compositions for cello and orchestra Double Concerto for Violin and Cello Triple concerto for violin, cello, and piano String instrument repertoire :Category:Composers for cello Apocalyptica Notes References Stephen Bonta. "Violoncello", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed January 28 2006), grovemusic.com (subscription access). Further reading Machover, Tod, "My Cello" in Turkle, Sherry (editor), Evocative objects : things we think with, Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, 2007. ISBN 9780262201681 External links The Internet Cello Society: an online community of cellists; includes several forums. Sources for the prescribed sheet music for the ABRSM practical Cello exams. Cello Teacher's Friend : A place for cellists to share ideas. cellist.nl: An international register of professional cellists, teachers, and students. 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6,043	Kickboxing	refers to the sport of using martial-arts-style kicks and boxing-style punches to defeat an opponent in a similar way to that of standard boxing. Kickboxing is a standing sport and does not allow continuation of the fight once a combatant has reached the ground. Kickboxing is often practiced for self-defense, general fitness, or as a full-contact sport. In the full-contact sport the male boxers are bare-chested wearing shorts and protective gear including: mouth-guard, hand-wraps, 10-oz. boxing gloves, groin-guard, shin-pads, kick-boots, and optional protective helmet (usually for those under 16). The female boxers will wear a tank top and chest protection in addition to the male clothing/protective gear. In European kickboxing, where kicks to the thigh are allowed using special low-kick rules, use of boxing shorts instead of long trousers is possible. In addition, amateur rules often allow less experienced competitors to use light or semi-contact rules, where the intention is to score points by executing successful strikes past the opponent's guard, and use of force is regulated. The equipment for semi-contact is similar to full-contact matches, usually with addition of head gear. Competitors usually dress in a t-shirt for semi-contact matches, to separate them from the bare-chested full-contact participants. Kickboxing is often confused with Muay Thai, also known as Thai Boxing. The two sports are similar, however, in Thai Boxing, kicks below the belt are allowed, as are strikes with knees and elbows. There are many arts labelled kickboxing including Japanese kickboxing, American kickboxing, Indian, Burmese boxing, as well as French savate. The term kickboxing is disputed and has become more associated with the Japanese and American variants. Many of the other styles do not consider themselves to be 'kickboxing', although the public often uses the term generically to refer to all these martial arts. The term kickboxing was created by the Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a variant of Muay Thai and Karate that he created in the 1950s. The term was later used by the American variant. When used by the practitioners of those two styles, it usually refers to those styles specifically. Low kick (Roundhouse kick) By area Japan Tatsuo Yamada(left) and his master, Choki Motobu(right) On December 20, 1959, a Muay Thai among Thai fighters was held at Tokyo Asakusa town hall in Japan.Tatsuo Yamada, who established "Nihon Kempo Karate-do", was interested in Muay Thai because he wanted to perform Karate matches with full-contact rules since practitioners are not allowed to hit each other directly in karate matches. At this time, it was unimaginable to hit each other in karate matches in Japan. He had already announced his plan which was named "The draft principles of project of establishment of a new sport and its industrialization" in November, 1959, and he proposed the tentative name of "Karate-boxing" for this new sport. It is still unknown whether Thai fighters were invited by Yamada, but it is clear that Yamada was the only karateka who was really interested in Muay Thai. Yamada invited a Thai fighter who was the champion of Muay Thai (and formerly his son Kan Yamada's sparring partner), and started studying Muay Thai. At this time, the Thai fighter was taken by Osamu Noguchi who was a promoter of boxing and was also interested in Muay Thai. The Thai fighter's photo was on the magazine "The Primer of Nihon Kempo Karate-do, the first number" which was published by Yamada. There were "Karate vs. Muay Thai fights" February 12, 1963. The three karate fighters from Oyama dojo (Kyokushin later) went to the Lumpinee Boxing Stadium in Thailand, and fought against 3 Muay Thai fighters. The 3 karate fighters' names are Tadashi Nakamura, Kenji Kurosaki and Akio Fujihira (as known as Noboru Osawa). Japan won by 2-1 then. Noguchi studied Muay thai and developed a combined martial art which Noguchi named kick boxing. However, throwing and butting were allowed in the beginning to distinguish it from Muay Thai style. This was later repealed. The Kickboxing Association, the first kickboxing sanctioning body, was founded by Osamu Noguchi in 1966 soon after that. Then the first kickboxing event was held in Osaka, April 11, 1966. Tatsu Yamada died in 1967, but his dojo changed its name to Suginami Gym, and kept sending kickboxers off to support kickboxing. Kickboxing boomed and became popular in Japan as it began to be broadcast on TV. Tadashi Sawamura was an especially popular early kickboxer. However, the boom was suddenly finished and became unpopular after Sawamura was retired. Kickboxing had not been seen on TV until K-1 was founded in 1993. In 1993, as Kazuyoshi Ishii (founder of Seidokan karate) produced K-1 under special kickboxing rules (No elbow and neck wrestling) in 1993, kickboxing became famous again. The sport has spread through Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand. North America Hook-punch The Count Dante, Ray Scarica and Maung Gyi are the real pioneers of American Kickboxing. Had tournaments back in 1962. Between 1970 and 1973 (in federation PKA) a handful of kickboxing promotions were staged across the USA. In the early days the rules were never clear, one of the first tournaments had no weight divisions and all the competitors fought off until one was left. A very young Benny Urquidez reached the final. Unfortunately at world level there was no infrastructure, no set format of rules, the elements of danger were still included in the combat forms. As the martial arts disciplines grew in popularity mans urge to meet his/her peers on the competition floor demanded conformity, a universal rules system, and a method that would ensure the practitioners safety whilst competing at sporting level. Various groups came forward in an attempt to unite all these Eastern martial disciplines under one set of rules that would cover the many and various forms of combat all under one umbrella. After many many failures, petty squabbles and political in fighting an organization was formed and termed the World Kickboxing Association (WKA). The impetus of the WKA on world martial arts as a whole was revolutionary. They were the first organised body of martial arts on a global scale to sanction fights, create ranking systems, and institute a development programme. Whereby at grass roots level children of all ages under a strict code of ethics and safety could learn via satellite WKA clubs in every City, Town, and village, a martial arts discipline thus ensuring for future years the growth of the sport. Today, the International Kickboxing Federation (IKF) is the most active kickboxing sanctioning body in North America and one of the top 3 worldwide organizations. The IKF also hosts the Largest All Amateur - Full Contact & Muay Thai - Kickboxing Tournament in the World, the IKF World Classic. Europe, Australia, New Zealand and South America Jan Plas, the Dutch kickboxer, founded Mejiro Gym with some Muay Thai pioneers in the Netherlands in 1978, after he learned kickboxing from Kenji Kurosaki in Japan. Plas also founded NKBB (The Dutch Kickboxing Association), which was the first kickboxing organization in Netherlands, in 1978. The sport took off in the U.S. with the popularity and success of Kev Kelsey in the 1970s. In South America the kickboxing was introduced by martial artist and kickboxing champion, Hector Echavarria, who brought the famous Joe Corley's Professional Karate Association, the International Sports Karate Association, and the United States Karate Association to Latin America. Styles Blocage sur un high-kick) Arts labelled as kickboxing include: A History of Kickboxing - North America's surprisingly taboo 'kickboxing' history! (mikemiles.com) Part 1 Part 2 3 Part 4 Part 5 Part 6 Adithada (Indian kickboxing) – A form of kickboxing that uses knee, elbow and forehead strikes. Lethwei (Burmese kickboxing) – Traditional Burmese martial arts of which has now grown into a popular kickboxing event with strong emphasis on knee, elbow strikes and headbutt. Any part of the body may be used to strike and be struck. It is also known as Bando kickboxing. Pradal Serey (Khmer "Cambodian" kickboxing) – Possible predecessor of Muay Thai with an emphasis on elbow techniques. Gwon-gyokdo (Korean kickboxing) that is a mix between Muay Thai and Tae Kwon Do. This art is also known as 'Kyuk Too Ki' in some parts of Korea. Muay Thai (Thai boxing) – Traditional Thai martial art of which has now grown into a popular kickboxing event with strong emphasis on knee and elbow strikes. Muay Boran (Ancient Boxing) – Predecessor of Muay Thai, allows the use of headbutts. Japanese kickboxing – Similar to Muay Thai, but different point system is taken. The first fighting style to adopt the name of "Kickboxing". American kickboxing – Not allowed to kick below the waist. Savate (French kickboxing) – Allows the use of shoes. Sanshou/Sanda (Chinese kickboxing) – The applicable component of wushu/kung fu of which takedowns and throws are legal in competition as well as all other sorts of striking (use of arms and legs). Shoot boxing – A Japanese form of kickboxing which allows throwing and submission while standing, similar to Sanshou. Yaw-Yan (Filipino kickboxing) – Sayaw ng Kamatayan (Dance of Death) is the proper name for Yaw-Yan, a Filipino martial art developed by Napoleon Fernandez. The art resembles Muay Thai in a sense, but differs in the hip torquing motion as well as downward-cutting of its kicks. Draka (Russian kickboxing) similar to shootboxing ,using kickboxing techniques with sambo throws and takedowns. There are many additional derivatives of these forms, as well as combined styles which have been used in specific competitions (e.g. K-1). In other combat sports Kickboxing is popular in mixed martial arts and professional wrestling competition. Rules Japanese These rules are almost same as Muay Thai rules: Similarities Time: three minutes × five rounds Allowed to attack with elbow Allowed to attack with knee Allowed to kick the lower half of the body except crotch Allowed to do neck-wrestling (folding opponent's head with arms and elbows to attack the opponent's body or head with knee-strikes) Head butts and throws were banned in 1966 for boxers' safety. Differences No ram muay before match No Thai music during the match Interval takes one minute only as same as boxing Point system: In Muay Thai, kicking to mid-body and head are scored highly generating a large number of points on judges' scorecards. Moreover, kicking is still judged highly even if the kick was blocked. In contrast, punching is worth fewer points. In kickboxing punches and kicks are held in closer esteem. American These are the rules used in American and Australian Full Contact Karate. Opponents are allowed to hit each other with fists and feet, striking above the hip Using elbows or knees is forbidden and the use of the shins is seldom allowed. Bouts are usually 3 to 12 rounds (lasting 2 - 3 minutes each) for amateur and professional contests with a 1-minute rest in between rounds. This is in contrast to Muay Thai, where the use of elbows and knees are allowed. In fact, some Muay Thai practitioners consider kickboxing a "watered down" version of Muay Thai. Fighters and promoters can agree to various rules including kicks only above the waist, kicks anywhere, no knee strikes, knees only to the body, and so on. American Kickboxing is essentially much a mixture of Western Boxing and Karate. The round durations and the number of rounds can vary depending on the stipulations agreed to before hand by each fighter or manager. A winner is declared during the bout if there is a submission (fighter quits or fighter's corner throws in the towel), knockout (KO), or referee stoppage (Technical Knock Out, or TKO). If all of the rounds expire with no knockout then the fight is scored by a team of 3 judges. The judges determine a winner based on their scoring of each round. A split decision indicates a disagreement between the judges, while a unanimous decision indicates that all judges saw the fight the same way and all have declared the same winner. European European-style kickboxing was formed with a combination of Muay Thai and Japanese kickboxing rules and it has evolved into three different disciplines. Semi Contact: Semi-contact is a fighting discipline where two fighters fight with the primary goal of scoring greater points using controlled legal techniques with speed and focus. The main characteristics of semi-contact are delivery, technique and speed. The competition in semi-contact should be executed in its true sense with light and well-controlled contact. It is a technical discipline with equal emphasis put on hand and foot techniques from an athletic viewpoint. Techniques (punches and kicks) are strictly controlled. At each valid point (a point that is awarded, with a legal part of hand or foot to legal targets and with legal technique), the central referee halts the fight and at the same time as the two judges, shows with his/her fingers the number of points in the direction of the fighter who is being awarded points. Fighters will enter the tatami and touch gloves. They will then step back and assume a fighting stance and wait for the command FIGHT from the referee. The time will only be stopped on the command of the referee, by calling TIME toward the area control table. Time is not stopped to award points or penalties unless the referee feels it is necessary. A fighter may have one coach and one second in his corner during the match. Light Contact (or medium-contact) Competition in Light Contact kickboxing should be executed as its name implies, with well-controlled techniques. In light contact competitors fight continuously until the central referee commands STOP or BREAK. They use techniques from full contact, but these techniques must be well controlled when they land on legal targets. Equal emphasis must be placed on both punching and kicking techniques. Light contact has been created as an intermediate stage between semi and full contact kickboxing. It is carried out with running time. The central referee doesn't judge the fighters, but only makes sure they respect the rules. The fight could be held in a tatami or in a ring. Full Contact: Full contact is a discipline of kickboxing where the intention of a fighter is to beat his opponent with full power and strength. Punches and kicks must be delivered to legal targets with focus, speed and determination, creating solid contact. Punches and kicks are allowed to the front and side of the head, the front and side of the body (above waist) and sweeping is also allowed. The fight is held in a ring. The referee is responsible for fighter safety and keeping to the rules. Judges count legal techniques and note the points on scoring card. Amateur fights have 3 x 2 minute rounds with a minute break between each round in all IKF and WAKO tournaments. Outside a tournament, a single amateur fight can have up to 5 x 2 minute rounds with a minute break between each round. The use of more than 3 rounds must be due to an agreement between the fighters. Techniques Punching Common Jab - straight punch from the front hand, to either the head or the body, often used in conjunction with the cross Cross (Straight punch) - The straight punching whirl by feeling it out-without using target Hook - rounded punch to either the head or body in an arching motion, usually not scored in points scoring Uppercut - rising punch striking to the chin. Special Short straight-punch usually striking to the chin Backfist usually from the front hand, reverse-back fist and spinning back-fist both usually from the back hand - are strikes to the head, raising the arm and bending the arm at the elbow and then straightening the arm quickly to strike to the side of the head with the rear of the knuckles, common in “light contact”. That's perfectly the right way to do it. Flying-punch. Other Cross-counter – a cross-counter is a counterpunch begun immediately after an opponent throws a jab, exploiting the opening in the opponent's position Overhand (overcut or drop) - a semi-circular and vertical punch thrown with the rear hand. It is usually when the opponent bobbing or slipping. The strategic utility of the drop relying on body weight can deliver a great deal of power Bolo punch - a combination of a wide uppercut/right cross/swing that was delivered seemingly from the floor. Half-swing - a combination of a wide cross/swing Kicking Common Front Kick or push Kick - Striking face on with the heel of the foot Side Kick - Striking with the side or heel of the foot with leg parallel to the ground, can be performed to either the head or body Semi-circular Kick or forty five degree roundhouse kick Roundhouse Kick or circle kick - Striking with the front of the foot or the lower shin to the head or the body in a chopping motion Spinning and flying kick Spinning hook-kick Spinning side-kick Spinning back-kick Jumping front-kick Jumping roundhouse-kick Jumping side-kick Jumping back-kick Other Hook Kick (heel kick) - Extending the leg out to the side of the body, and hooking the leg back to strike the head with eiher the heel or sole Crescent Kick and forward crescent kick Axe Kick – is a stomp kick or hammer kick. The stomp kick normally travel downward, striking with the side or base heel. Back Kick – is delivered with the base heel of the foot. Sweeping – One foot or both feet of an opponent may be swept depending upon their position, balance and strength. Spinning versions of the back, side, hook and axe kicks can also be performed along with jumping versions of all kicks Kneeing Basic Straight Knee Thrust (Long-range knee kick or front heel kick). This knee strike is delivered with the back or reverse foot against an opponent’s stomach, groin, hip or spine an opponent forward by the neck, shoulder or arm Rising Knee Strike – can be delivered with the front or back foot. It makes an explosive snap upwards to strike an opponent’s face, chin, throat or chest. Hooking Knee Strike – can be delivered with the front or back foot. It makes a half circle spin and strikes the sides of an opponent Side Knee Snap Strike – is a highly-deceptive knee technique used in close-range fighting. The knee is lifted o the toes or lifted up, and is snapped to left and right, striking an opponent’s sensitive knee joints, insides of thighs, groin Other Jumping Knee Kick or flying knee kick Double Knee Kick... Defense Slip - Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to "slip" past. Muhammed Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips. Bob and weave - bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer "weaves" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the outside". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the inside". Parry/Block - Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's hands as defensive tools to deflect incoming attacks. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer delivers a sharp, lateral, open-handed blow to the opponent's wrist or forearm, redirecting the punch. The Cover-Up - Covering up is the last opportunity to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches "roll" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below. The Clinch - Clinching is a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or "tie up" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Guards There are three main defensive positions (guards or styles) used in boxing. Within each style, there is considerable variation among fighters, as some fighters may have their guard higher for more head protection while others have their guard lower to provide better protection against body punches. Many fighters vary their defensive style throughout a bout in order to adapt to the situation of the moment, choosing the position best suited to protect them. Governing Bodies Both professional and amateur kickboxing, like boxing, have many governing bodies around the world. Many claim to be the largest or the best but the best thing for anyone to do is contact each one and work with them directly. See what each has to offer. Just because one is recognized by another organization, association etc, does not make them the best. Your own personal research and what you are told by those in the sport will help you determine which sanctioning body is right or best for you. Governing BodyWebsiteWorld Kickboxing & Karate Association (W.K.A) - Prof & Amateurhttp://www.kickboxing-wka.co.uk/International Sports Kickboxing Association (I.S.K.A) - Prof & Amateurhttp://www.iska.comWorld Federation of Kickboxing (W.F.K) - Prof & Amateurhttp://www.wfk-gov.comWorld Association of Kickboxing Organizations (W.A.K.O) - Amateur - (Officially recognised by G.A.I.S.F. as the Worlds Amateur Kickboxing body).http://www.wakoweb.comWorld Association of Kickboxing Organizations (W.A.K.O-PRO) - Professionalhttp://www.wakopro.orgWorld Martial Arts Federation (W.M.A.F)http://www.wmaf.azbuz.com/World Martial Arts Sport Federation (W.M.S.F)http://www.savunmasanatlari.tr.gg/Turkiye Association Kickboxing Organizations (T.A.K.O) http://turkiyekickboxing.azbuz.comInternational Kickboxing Federation (IKF) - Pro & Amateurhttp://www.ikfkickboxing.comInternational Kickboxing Federation (I.K.F - P.K.B) - Point Kickboxinghttp://www.ikfpkb.comInternational Kickboaxing Board of Control (I.K.B.C) http://www.ikbc.org/World Kickboxing Network (W.K.N) - Professionalhttp://www.worldkickboxingnetwork.com/World Kickboxing Union (W.K.U)http://www.wku-kickboxing.com/World Kickboxing Federation (W.K.F)http://www.wkfkickboxing.comWK-1 International kickboxing league (I.K.L) http://www.yakinsavunma.com/Professional Kickboxing Association (P.K.A)http://www.pkakickboxing.com/International Amateur Kickboxing Sport Association (I.A.K.S.A) - Amateurhttp://www.kickboxing.ruWorld Asoociation Of all styles kickboxing organizations (W.A.S.K.O) - Prof & Amateurhttp://www.dovuscu.com/International kickboxing League (I.K.L) - Prof & Amateurhttp://www.dovuscu.com/ See also List of male kickboxers List of female kickboxers List of kickboxing organizations Footnotes "A History of Kickboxing" - Mikes Miles Sources Muay Thai Kickboxing - The Ultimate Guide to Conditioning, Training and Fighting, Chad Boykin, 2002, Paladin Press, Boulder, Colorado. ISBN 1-58160-320-7 Thai Kickboxing For Beginners, Peter Belmar, 2006, Lulu Press. ISBN 978-1-4116-9983-0 Books and articles Willem Brunekreef, The Golden Kyokushin and K-1 Encyclopedia, ISBN 978-90-8123-79-1-8 "A History of Full Contact Karate "A History of kickboxing" - « black-belt » Delmas Alain, Callière Jean-Roger, Histoire du Kick-boxing, FFKBDA, France, 1998 Delmas Alain, Définition du Kick-boxing, FFKBDA, France, 1999 Miles Mikes, site An interview with Joe Lewis, 1998 External links The Best Kickboxing Knockouts and The Best Knockout Artists.	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6,044	Bill_Gates	William Henry "Bill" Gates III (born October 28, 1955) is an American business magnate, philanthropist, author, and chairman of Microsoft, the software company he founded with Paul Allen. He is ranked consistently one of the world's wealthiest people and the wealthiest overall as of 2009. During his career at Microsoft, Gates held the positions of CEO and chief software architect, and remains the largest individual shareholder with more than 8 percent of the common stock. Gates regularly documents his share ownership through public SEC form 4 filings. He has also authored or co-authored several books. Gates is one of the best-known entrepreneurs of the personal computer revolution. Although he is admired by many, a number of industry insiders criticize his business tactics, which they consider anti-competitive, an opinion which has in some cases been upheld by the courts. In the later stages of his career, Gates has pursued a number of philanthropic endeavors, donating large amounts of money to various charitable organizations and scientific research programs through the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, established in 2000. Bill Gates stepped down as chief executive officer of Microsoft in January, 2000. He remained as chairman and created the position of chief software architect. In June, 2006, Gates announced that he would be transitioning from full-time work at Microsoft to part-time work and full-time work at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. He gradually transferred his duties to Ray Ozzie, chief software architect and Craig Mundie, chief research and strategy officer. Gates' last full-time day at Microsoft was June 27, 2008. He remains at Microsoft as non-executive chairman. Early life Gates was born in Seattle, Washington, to William H. Gates, Sr. and Mary Maxwell Gates, who was of Scottish descent. His family was upper middle class; his father was a prominent lawyer, his mother served on the board of directors for First Interstate BancSystem and the United Way, and her father, J. W. Maxwell, was a national bank president. Gates has one elder sister, Kristi (Kristianne), and one younger sister, Libby. He was the fourth of his name in his family, but was known as William Gates III or "Trey" because his father had dropped his own "III" suffix. Early on in his life, Gates' parents had a law career in mind for him. At 13 he enrolled in the Lakeside School, an exclusive preparatory school. When he was in the eighth grade, the Mothers Club at the school used proceeds from Lakeside School's rummage sale to buy an ASR-33 teletype terminal and a block of computer time on a General Electric (GE) computer for the school's students. Gates took an interest in programming the GE system in BASIC and was excused from math classes to pursue his interest. He wrote his first computer program on this machine: an implementation of tic-tac-toe that allowed users to play games against the computer. Gates was fascinated by the machine and how it would always execute software code perfectly. When he reflected back on that moment, he commented on it and said, "There was just something neat about the machine." After the Mothers Club donation was exhausted, he and other students sought time on systems including DEC PDP minicomputers. One of these systems was a PDP-10 belonging to Computer Center Corporation (CCC), which banned four Lakeside students—Gates, Paul Allen, Ric Weiland, and Kent Evans—for the summer after it caught them exploiting bugs in the operating system to obtain free computer time. At the end of the ban, the four students offered to find bugs in CCC's software in exchange for computer time. Rather than use the system via teletype, Gates went to CCC's offices and studied source code for various programs that ran on the system, including programs in FORTRAN, LISP, and machine language. The arrangement with CCC continued until 1970, when the company went out of business. The following year, Information Sciences Inc. hired the four Lakeside students to write a payroll program in COBOL, providing them computer time and royalties. After his administrators became aware of his programming abilities, Gates wrote the school's computer program to schedule students in classes. He modified the code so that he was placed in classes with mostly female students. He later stated that "it was hard to tear myself away from a machine at which I could so unambiguously demonstrate success." At age 17, Gates formed a venture with Allen, called Traf-O-Data, to make traffic counters based on the Intel 8008 processor. In early 1973, Bill Gates served as a congressional page in the U.S. House of Representatives. "Congressional Page History", The United States House Page Association of America. "The Page Program has produced many politicians, Members of Congress, as well as other famous men and women. Some of these include: the Honorable John Dingell, the longest serving Member of Congress, Bill Gates, founder and CEO of the Microsoft Corporation, and Donnald K. Anderson, former Clerk of the House." Gates graduated from Lakeside School in 1973. He scored 1590 out of 1600 on the and subsequently enrolled at Harvard College in the fall of 1973. Prior to the mid-1990s, an SAT score of 1590 corresponded roughly to an IQ of 170, http://www.eskimo.com/~miyaguch/MCReport/mcreport.html a figure that has been cited frequently by the press. http://www.forbes.com/forbes/1997/1013/6008040a_2.html While at Harvard, he met his future business partner, Steve Ballmer, whom he later appointed as CEO of Microsoft. He also met computer scientist Christos Papadimitriou at Harvard, with whom he collaborated on a paper about pancake sorting. He did not have a definite study plan while a student at Harvard and spent a lot of time using the school's computers. Gates also took the infamously difficult Math 55 class, which he said taught him that there were people smarter than he. He remained in contact with Paul Allen, joining him at Honeywell during the summer of 1974. The following year saw the release of the MITS Altair 8800 based on the Intel 8080 CPU, and Gates and Allen saw this as the opportunity to start their own computer software company. He had talked this decision over with his parents, who were supportive of him after seeing how much Gates wanted to start a company. Microsoft BASIC MITS Altair 8800 Computer with floppy disk system After reading the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics that demonstrated the Altair 8800, Gates contacted Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), the creators of the new microcomputer, to inform them that he and others were working on a BASIC interpreter for the platform. In reality, Gates and Allen did not have an Altair and had not written code for it; they merely wanted to gauge MITS's interest. MITS president Ed Roberts agreed to meet them for a demo, and over the course of a few weeks they developed an Altair emulator that ran on a minicomputer, and then the BASIC interpreter. The demonstration, held at MITS's offices in Albuquerque, was a success and resulted in a deal with MITS to distribute the interpreter as Altair BASIC. Paul Allen was hired into MITS, and Gates took a leave of absence from Harvard to work with Allen at MITS in Albuquerque in November 1975. They named their partnership "Micro-Soft" and had their first office located in Albuquerque. Within a year, the hyphen was dropped, and on November 26, 1976, the trade name "Microsoft" was registered with the Office of the Secretary of the State of New Mexico. Microsoft's BASIC was popular with computer hobbyists, but Gates discovered that a pre-market copy had leaked into the community and was being widely copied and distributed. In February 1976, Gates wrote an Open Letter to Hobbyists in the MITS newsletter saying that MITS could not continue to produce, distribute, and maintain high-quality software without payment. This letter was unpopular with many computer hobbyists, but Gates persisted in his belief that software developers should be able to demand payment. Microsoft became independent of MITS in late 1976, and it continued to develop programming language software for various systems. The company moved from Albuquerque to its new home in Bellevue, Washington on January 1, 1979. During Microsoft's early years, all employees had broad responsibility for the company's business. Gates oversaw the business details, but continued to write code as well. In the first five years, he personally reviewed every line of code the company shipped, and often rewrote parts of it as he saw fit. (META redirects to ) IBM partnership In 1980, IBM approached Microsoft to write the BASIC interpreter for its upcoming personal computer, the IBM PC. When IBM's representatives mentioned that they needed an operating system, Gates referred them to Digital Research (DRI), makers of the widely used CP/M operating system. IBM's discussions with Digital Research went poorly, and they did not reach a licensing agreement. IBM representative Jack Sams mentioned the licensing difficulties during a subsequent meeting with Gates and told him to get an acceptable operating system. A few weeks later Gates proposed using 86-DOS (QDOS), an operating system similar to CP/M that Tim Paterson of Seattle Computer Products (SCP) had made for hardware similar to the PC. Microsoft made a deal with SCP to become the exclusive licensing agent, and later the full owner, of 86-DOS. After adapting the operating system for the PC, Microsoft delivered it to IBM as PC-DOS in exchange for a one-time fee of $50,000. Gates did not offer to transfer the copyright on the operating system, because he believed that other hardware vendors would clone IBM's system. They did, and the sales of MS-DOS made Microsoft a major player in the industry. Windows Gates oversaw Microsoft's company restructuring on June 25, 1981, which re-incorporated the company in Washington and made Gates President of Microsoft and the Chairman of the Board. Microsoft launched its first retail version of Microsoft Windows on November 20, 1985, and in August, the company struck a deal with IBM to develop a separate operating system called OS/2. Although the two companies successfully developed the first version of the new system, mounting creative differences undermined the partnership. Gates distributed an internal memo on May 16, 1991 announcing that the OS/2 partnership was over and Microsoft would shift its efforts to the Windows NT kernel development. Management style From Microsoft's founding in 1975 until 2006, Gates had primary responsibility for the company's product strategy. He aggressively broadened the company's range of products, and wherever Microsoft achieved a dominant position he vigorously defended it. As an executive, Gates met regularly with Microsoft's senior managers and program managers. Firsthand accounts of these meetings describe him as verbally combative, berating managers for perceived holes in their business strategies or proposals that placed the company's long-term interests at risk. He often interrupted presentations with such comments as, "That's the stupidest thing I've ever heard!" and, "Why don't you just give up your options and join the Peace Corps?" The target of his outburst then had to defend the proposal in detail until, hopefully, Gates was fully convinced. When subordinates appeared to be procrastinating, he was known to remark sarcastically, "I'll do it over the weekend." Gates's role at Microsoft for most of its history was primarily a management and executive role. However, he was an active software developer in the early years, particularly on the company's programming language products. He has not officially been on a development team since working on the TRS-80 Model 100 line, but wrote code as late as 1989 that shipped in the company's products. On June 15, 2006, Gates announced that he would transition out of his day-to-day role over the next two years to dedicate more time to philanthropy. He divided his responsibilities between two successors, placing Ray Ozzie in charge of day-to-day management and Craig Mundie in charge of long-term product strategy. Antitrust litigation Bill Gates giving his deposition at Microsoft on August 27, 1998 Many decisions that led to antitrust litigation over Microsoft's business practices have had Gates's approval. In the 1998 United States v. Microsoft case, Gates gave deposition testimony that several journalists characterized as evasive. He argued with examiner David Boies over the contextual meaning of words like "compete," "concerned," and "we." BusinessWeek reported: Gates later said that he had simply resisted attempts by Boies to mischaracterize his words and actions. As to his demeanor during the deposition, he said, "Did I fence with Boies? ... I plead guilty. Whatever that penalty is should be levied against me: rudeness to Boies in the first degree." Despite Gates's denials, the judge ruled that Microsoft had committed monopolization and tying, blocking competition, in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. Appearance in ads Bill Gates decided in 2008 to appear in at least one commercial in a series of ads to promote Microsoft. This commercial, co-starring Jerry Seinfeld, is a 90-second talk between strangers as Seinfeld walks up on a discount shoe store (Shoe Circus) in a mall and notices Bill Gates buying shoes inside. The salesman is trying to sell Mr. Gates shoes that are a size too big. Mr. Seinfeld begins to inform him about a pair of shoes called Conquistadors that run "a little tight" and sells him on them in a size 10 (whereas the store clerk was attempting an 11). As Mr. Gates is buying the shoes he holds up his discount card, this card uses a slightly altered version of his own mugshot of his arrest in New Mexico in 1977 for a traffic violation. http://www.thesmokinggun.com/mugshots/gatesmug1.html As they are walking out of the mall, Jerry Seinfeld asks Bill Gates if he has melded his mind to other developers, after getting a yes, he then asks if they are working on a way to make computers edible, again getting a yes. Some say that this is an homage to Mr. Seinfeld's own show about "nothing" (Seinfeld). http://adblog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/09/08/1362333.aspx In a second commercial in the series, Bill Gates and Jerry Seinfeld are at the home of an average family trying to fit in with normal people. All is going well untill they are accused by the family of stealing their leather giraffe from Cabo San Lucas, which was found in Bill Gate's backpack. In the end, they find out that the teenage girl in the family set them up so she could have her room back, and in the end they leave the house and Jerry Seinfeld tells Bill Gates to do the robot if an Amoeba will someday have a blog and if goldfish will someday have an e-mail address. After Bill Gates does the robot, they look for other houses to go to. Personal life Gates married Melinda French from Dallas, Texas on January 1, 1994. They have three children: Jennifer Katharine (1996), Rory John (1999) and Phoebe Adele (2002). The Gateses' home is an earth-sheltered house in the side of a hill overlooking Lake Washington in Medina, Washington. According to King County public records, as of 2006 the total assessed value of the property (land and house) is $125 million, and the annual property tax is $991,000. His 66,000 sq. ft. estate has a 60-foot swimming pool with an underwater music system, as well as a 2500 sq. ft. gym and a 1000 sq. ft. dining room. . Also among Gates's private acquisitions is the Codex Leicester, a collection of writings by Leonardo da Vinci, which Gates bought for $30.8 million at an auction in 1994. Gates is also known as an avid reader, and the ceiling of his large home library is engraved with a quotation from The Great Gatsby. He also enjoys playing bridge, tennis, and golf. Gates was number one on the "Forbes 400" list from 1993 through to 2007 and number one on Forbes list of "The World's Richest People" from 1995 to 2007 and 2009. In 1999, Gates's wealth briefly surpassed $101 billion, causing the media to call him a "centibillionaire". Since 2000, the nominal value of his Microsoft holdings has declined due to a fall in Microsoft's stock price after the dot-com bubble burst and the multi-billion dollar donations he has made to his charitable foundations. In a May 2006 interview, Gates commented that he wished that he were not the richest man in the world because he disliked the attention it brought. Gates has several investments outside Microsoft, which in 2006 paid him a salary of $616,667, and $350,000 bonus totalling $966,667. He founded Corbis, a digital imaging company, in 1989. In 2004 he became a director of Berkshire Hathaway, the investment company headed by long-time friend Warren Buffett. Philanthropy Gates (second from right) with Bono, Queen Rania of Jordan, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, President Yar Adua of Nigeria and other participants in a 'Call to Action on the Millenium Development Goals' during the Annual Meeting 2008 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland. Gates began to realize the expectations others had of him when public opinion mounted that he could give more of his wealth to charity. Gates studied the work of Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller and in 1994 sold some of his Microsoft stock to create the William H. Gates Foundation. In 2000, Gates and his wife combined three family foundations into one to create the charitable Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which is the largest transparently operated charitable foundation in the world. The foundation is set up to allow benefactors access to how its money is being spent, unlike other major charitable organizations such as the Wellcome Trust. The generosity and extensive philanthropy of David Rockefeller has been credited as a major influence. Gates and his father have met with Rockefeller several times and have modeled their giving in part on the Rockefeller family's philanthropic focus, namely those global problems that are ignored by governments and other organizations. As of 2007 Bill and Melinda Gates were the second most generous philanthropists in America, having given over $28 billion to charity. The 50 most generous Americans. The foundation has also received criticism because it invests the assets that it has not yet distributed, with the exclusive goal of maximizing the return on investment. As a result, its investments include companies that have been criticized for worsening poverty in the same developing countries where the Foundation is attempting to relieve poverty. These include companies that pollute heavily and pharmaceutical companies that do not sell into the developing world. Dark cloud over good works of Gates Foundation, Los Angeles Times, 7 January 2006. In response to press criticism, the foundation announced in 2007 a review of its investments to assess social responsibility. Gates Foundation to review investments, The Seattle Times, 10 January 2007. It subsequently cancelled the review and stood by its policy of investing for maximum return, while using voting rights to influence company practices. Gates Foundation to maintain its investment plan, The Austin Statesman, 14 January 2007. Recognition Time magazine named Gates one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th century, as well as one of the 100 most influential people of 2004, 2005, and 2006. Time also collectively named Gates, his wife Melinda and rock band U2's lead singer Bono as the 2005 Persons of the Year for their humanitarian efforts. In 2006, he was voted eighth in the list of "Heroes of our time". Gates was listed in the Sunday Times power list in 1999, named CEO of the year by Chief Executive Officers magazine in 1994, ranked number one in the "Top 50 Cyber Elite" by Time in 1998, ranked number two in the Upside Elite 100 in 1999 and was included in The Guardian as one of the "Top 100 influential people in media" in 2001. Gates has received honorary doctorates from Nyenrode Business Universiteit, Breukelen, The Netherlands in 2000, the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden in 2002, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan in 2005, Harvard University in June 2007, and from Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, in January 2008. Gates was also made an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in 2005, in addition to having entomologists name the Bill Gates flower fly, Eristalis gatesi, in his honor. In November 2006, he and his wife were awarded the Order of the Aztec Eagle for their philanthropic work around the world in the areas of health and education, particularly in Mexico, and specifically in the program "Un país de lectores". Investments Cascade Investments LLC, a private investment and holding company, incorporated in United States, is controlled by Bill Gates, and is headquartered in the city of Kirkland, WA. bgC3, a new think-tank company founded by Bill Gates. Corbis, a digital image licensing and rights services company. Bibliography Gates has authored two books: The Road Ahead (1995) Business @ the Speed of Thought (1999) Notes References Further reading "The Meaning of Bill Gates: As his reign at Microsoft comes to an end, so does the era he dominated", The Economist, June 28, 2008. External links Biography of Bill Gates at Microsoft.com Forbes: World's Richest People Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation How I Work: Bill Gates TED Talks: Bill Gates trying to change the world now at TED in 2009 Creativity devoted to Bill Gates and his achievements be-x-old:Біл Гэйтс	Bill_Gates \|@lemmatized william:4 henry:1 bill:25 gate:95 iii:3 born:1 october:1 american:2 business:10 magnate:1 philanthropist:2 author:3 chairman:4 microsoft:37 software:11 company:25 found:3 paul:4 allen:8 rank:3 consistently:1 one:14 world:9 wealthy:2 people:8 overall:1 career:3 hold:4 position:3 ceo:4 chief:6 architect:3 remain:4 large:4 individual:1 shareholder:1 percent:1 common:1 stock:3 regularly:2 document:1 share:1 ownership:1 public:3 sec:1 form:2 filing:1 also:9 co:2 authored:1 several:4 book:2 best:1 know:4 entrepreneur:1 personal:3 computer:19 revolution:1 although:2 admire:1 many:4 number:6 industry:2 insider:1 criticize:2 tactic:1 consider:1 anti:1 competitive:1 opinion:2 case:2 uphold:1 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6,045	Abhidharma	Abhidharma (Sanskrit) or Abhidhamma (Pāli) are ancient (3rd century BCE and later) Buddhist works which contain detailed scholastic reworkings of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist Sutras, according to schematic classifications. The Abhidhamma works do not contain systematic philosophical treatises, but summaries or abstract and systematic lists. "Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. According to the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Abhidhamma started as an elaboration of the teachings of the suttas, but later developed independent doctrines. According to L. S. Cousins, the suttas deal with sequences and processes, Abhidhamma deals with occasions and events. "Pali oral literature", in Buddhist Studies, ed Denwood and Piatigorski, Curzon, London, 1982/3 The literal translation of the term Abhidharma is unclear. Two possibilities are most commonly given: abhi - higher or special + dharma- teaching, philosophy, thus making Abhidharma the 'higher teachings' abhi - about + dharma of the teaching, translating it instead as 'about the teaching' or even 'meta-teaching'. In the West, the Abhidhamma has generally been considered the core of what is referred to as 'Buddhist Psychology'. See, for instance, Rhys Davids (1900), Trungpa (1975) and Goleman (2004). Origins According to the commentarial tradition In the commentaries of Theravada Buddhism it was held that the Abhidhamma was not a later addition to the tradition, but rather represented the first, original understanding of the teachings by the Buddha. According to legend, shortly after his awakening the Buddha spent several days in meditation, during which he formulated the Abhidhamma. Later, he traveled to the heavenly realm and taught the Abhidhamma to the divine beings that dwelled there, including his deceased mother Mahāmāyā, who had rearisen as a celestial being. The tradition holds that the Buddha gave daily summaries of the teachings given in the heavenly realm to the monk Śāriputra, who passed them on. Pine 2004, pg. 12 The Abhidhamma is thus presented as a pure and undiluted form of the teaching that was too difficult for most practitioners of the Buddha's time to grasp. Instead, the Buddha taught by the method related in the various suttas, giving appropriate, immediately applicable teachings as each situation arose, rather than attempting to set forth the Abhidhamma in all its complexity and completeness. Thus, there is a similarity between the traditions of the Adhidhamma and that of the Mahayana, which also claimed to be too difficult for the people living in the Buddha's time. According to scholars Many scholars generally believe that the Abhidharma emerged after the time of the Buddha, to around the third century BCE. Therefore the seven Abhidhamma works are generally claimed by scholars not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of disciples and great scholars. "Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. Factors contributing to its development could have been the growth of monastic centers, the growing support for the Buddhist sangha, outside influences from other religious groups, and a tendency for monks to become more theoretical and less practical after the passing away of the Buddha. Some scholars believe that the Abhidhamma represents an expansion of a set of teachings and categorisations that were employed during the earliest period of Buddhism and were then later developed and elaborated upon. As the last major division of the canon, the Abhidhamma works have had a checkered history. They were not accepted as canonical by the Mahasanghika school "Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. Buddhist Sects in india, Nalinaksha Dutt, 1978, page 58 and several other schools. several schools rejected the authority of abhidharma and claimed that abhidharma treatises were composed by fallible, human teachers. in: Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004), page 2. (A similar statement can be found on pages 112 and 756.) Another school included most of the Khuddaka Nikaya within the Abhidhamma Pitaka. "Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. Also, the Pali version of the Abhidhamma is a strictly Theravada collection, and has little in common with the Abhidhamma works recognized by other Buddhist schools. "Buddhism." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. The Theravadin Abhidhamma is in some respects rather skeletal, with the details not entirely fleshed out. According to Rupert Gethin however, obvious care and ingenuity have gone into its development. Rupert Gethin in Paul Williams ed., "Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies." Taylor and Francis 2005, page 171. The various Abhidhamma philosophies of the various early schools have no agreement on doctrine Kanai Lal Hazra, Pali Language and Literature - A Systematic Survey and Historical Survey, 1994, Vol. 1, page 415 and belong to the period of 'Divided Buddhism' (as opposed to Undivided Buddhism). The earliest texts of the Pali Canon (the Sutta Nipata, parts of the Jatakas, and the first four Nikayas of the Suttapitaka) have no mention of (the texts of) the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Kanai Lal Hazra, Pali Language and Literature - A Systematic Survey and Historical Survey, 1994, Vol. 1, page 412 The Abhidhamma is also not mentioned at the report of the First Buddhist Council, directly after the death of the Buddha. This report of the first council does mention the existence of the Vinaya and the five Nikayas (of the Suttapitaka). I.B. Horner, Book of the Discipline, Volume 5, page 398 The Mahisasaka Account of the First Council mentions the four agamas here. see http://santifm1.0.googlepages.com/thefirstcouncil(mahisasakaversion) Variety of Abhidhammic teachings and books Numerous apparently independent and unrelated Abhidharma traditions arose in India, roughly during the period from the 2nd or 3rd Century BCE to the 5th Century CE. The 7th century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang reportedly collected Abhidharma texts from seven different traditions. The various Abhidhammic traditions have very fundamental disagreements with each other. These various Abhidhammic theories were (together with differences in Vinaya) the major cause for the majority of splits in the monastic Sangha, which resulted in the fragmented early Buddhist landscape of the 18 Early Buddhist Schools. In the modern era, only the Abhidharmas of the Sarvastivadins and the Theravadins have survived intact, each consisting of seven books, with the addition of the Sariputra Abhidharma. The Theravāda Abhidharma, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (discussed below), is preserved in Pāli, while the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma is mostly preserved only in Chinese - the (likely Sanskrit) original texts having been lost, though some Tibetan texts are still extant. A small number of other Abhidharma texts of unknown origin are preserved in translation in the Chinese canon. These different traditions have some similarities, suggesting either interaction between groups or some common ground antedating the separation of the schools. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 2 Theravada Abhidhamma The Abhidhamma Pitaka is the third pitaka, or basket, of the Tipitaka (Sanskrit: ), the canon of the Theravada school of Buddhism. It consists of seven sections or books: Dhammasangani ('Enumeration of Factors') - Attempts to describe the fundamental phenomena (dhamma) which are supposed to constitute human experience. Vibhanga ('Analysis') - An analysis of various topics by a variety of methods, including catechism, using material from the Dhammasangani. Dhatukatha ('Discussion of Elements') - Some interrelations between various items from the first two books, formulated as sets of questions and answers. Puggalapannatti ('Descriptions of Individuals') - An enumeration of the qualities of certain different 'personality types'. These types were believed to be useful in formulating teachings that an individual would respond to positively. Kathavatthu ('Points of Controversy') - A collection of debates on points of doctrine, traditionally said to have been compiled by Moggaliputta Tissa at the Buddhist Council sponsored by King Ashoka, which took place in the 3rd Century BCE. Yamaka ('The Pairs') - Deals with various questions relating to interrelations within various lists of items; here the items belong to the same list, whereas in the Dhātukathā they are in different lists. Patthana ('Foundational Conditions' or 'Relations') - The laws of interaction by which the dhammas described in the Dhammasangani operate. The Theravada Abhidhamma, like the rest of the Tipitaka, was orally transmitted until the last century BC. Due to famines and constant wars, the monks responsible for recording the oral tradition felt that there was a risk of portions of the canon being lost. With the rest of the Canon the Abhidharma pitaka was written down for the first time. These have all been published in romanized Pali by the Pali Text Society, and most have been translated into English as well. Some scholars date the seven Pali Abhidhamma books from about 400 BCE to about 250 BCE, the first book being the oldest and the fifth book the latest of the seven. Additional post-canonical texts composed in the following centuries attempted to further clarify the analysis presented in the Abhidhamma texts. The best known of such texts are the Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa and the Abhidhammatthasangaha of Anuruddha. Early Western translators of the Pāli canon found the Abhidhamma Pitaka the least interesting of the three sections of the Tipiṭaka. Caroline Rhys Davids, a Pāli scholar and the wife of Pali Text Society founder T. W. Rhys Davids, famously described the ten chapters of the Yamaka as "ten valleys of dry bones". Rhys Davids (1914). As a result this Abhidhammic aspect of Buddhism was little studied in the West until the latter half of the 20th Century. Interest in the Abhidhamma has grown in the West as better scholarship on Buddhist philosophy has gradually revealed more information about its origins and significance. Within the Theravada tradition, the prominence of the Abhidhamma has varied considerably from country to country, with Burma (Myanmar) placing the most emphasis on the study of the Abhidhamma. Sarvastivada Abhidharma The Sarvastivada Abhidharma also consists of seven texts. However, comparison of the content of the Sarvastivada texts with that of the Theravada Abhidhamma reveals that it is unlikely that this indicates that one textual tradition originated from the other. In particular, the Theravada Abhidharma contains two texts (the Katha Vatthu and Puggala Pannatti) that some consider entirely out of place in an Abhidharma collection. The texts of the Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma are: Sangitiparyaya ('Discourses on Gathering Together') Dharmaskandha ('Aggregation of Dharmas') Prajnaptisastra ('Treatise on Designations') Dhatukaya ('Body of Elements') Vijnanakaya ('Body of Consciousness') Prakaranapada ('Exposition') Jnanaprasthana ('Foundation of Knowledge') Following these, are the texts that became the authority of the Vaibhasikas, the Kasmiri Sarvastivada Orthodoxy: Mahavibhasa ("Great Commentary", on the Jnanaprasthana) Little research in English has been made in these texts. East Asian and Tibetan Abhidharma In the traditions derived from Sanskrit Buddhism, such as the Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese, the two main Abhidharma texts are Asanga's Abhidharma Samuccaya (Compendium of Higher Knowledge) - which is an early Yogacara work, and Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosha (Treasury of Higher Knowledge) - which is a synopsis on the Mahavibhasa of the Sarvastivada tradition, with the addition of various Sautrantika and Vaibhajyavada perspectives. Goleman (2004), pp. 382-383, n. 12. These are both works from approximately 4 - 5 th century India, and are extant in Chinese, Japanese and Tibetan translations, as well as the Sanskrit. The Abhidharmakosha is considered Vaibhasika / Sautrantika. The Abhidharma Samuccaya is Mahayana Yogacara. See also Buddhist texts: Tipitaka Sutta Pitaka Vinaya Pitaka Buddhist concepts: Pratitya-samutpada Skandha Notes References Cox, Collett (2004). "Abhidhamma," in Robert E. Buswell (ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism. NY: McMillan. ISBN 0-02-865910-4. Goleman, Daniel (2004). Destructive Emotions: A Scientific Dialogue with the Dalai Lama. NY: Bantam Dell. ISBN 0-553-38105-9. Red Pine. The Heart Sutra: The Womb of the Buddhas (2004) Shoemaker 7 Hoard. ISBN 1-59376-009-4 Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F. ([1900], 2003). Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics, of the Fourth Century B.C., Being a Translation, now made for the First Time, from the Original Pāli, of the First Book of the , entitled (Compendium of States or Phenomena). Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-4702-9. Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F. (1914). Buddhist Psychology: An Inquiry into the Analysis and Theory of Mind in Pali Literature. Takakusu (1905). "On the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivadins", in Journal of the Pali Text Society (1905). Trungpa, Chogyam (1975, 2001). Glimpses of Abhidharma: From a Seminar on Buddhist Psychology. Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 1-57062-764-9. External links www.abhidhamma.org - Numerous books and articles on Abhidhamma by Sujin Boriharnwanaket and others www.abhidhamma.com - Abhidhamma the Buddhist Philosophy and Psychology BuddhaNet - description of the Abhidhamma BuddhaNet - Abhidhamma articles Access to Insight - description of the Abhidhamma Online excerpt of a well-known book about the Abhidhamma	Abhidharma \|@lemmatized abhidharma:23 sanskrit:5 abhidhamma:45 pāli:5 ancient:1 century:11 bce:6 later:4 buddhist:18 work:7 contain:3 detailed:1 scholastic:1 reworkings:1 doctrinal:1 material:2 appear:1 sutra:2 accord:7 schematic:1 classification:1 systematic:4 philosophical:1 treatise:3 summary:2 abstract:1 list:4 pitaka:13 encyclopædia:10 britannica:10 ultimate:5 reference:6 suite:5 chicago:5 macmillan:3 encyclopedia:4 buddhism:13 start:1 elaboration:1 teaching:12 suttas:3 develop:2 independent:2 doctrine:3 l:1 cousin:1 deal:3 sequence:1 process:1 occasion:1 event:1 pali:11 oral:2 literature:4 study:3 ed:3 denwood:1 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6,046	Allegiance	An allegiance is a duty of fidelity said to be owed by a subject or a citizen to his/her state or sovereign. Origin of the word Mid. English ligeaunce; med. Latin ligeantia("a liegance"); the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the French allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from "liege," of which the derivation is given under that heading; the connection with Latin ligare, to bind, is erroneous. Usage The term allegiance is often used by English legal commentators in a larger sense, divided by them into natural and local, the latter applying to the deference which even a foreigner must pay to the institutions of the country in which he happens to live; but it is in its proper sense. In which it indicates national character and the subjection due to that character, that the word is important. In that sense it represents the feudal liege homage, which could be due only to one lord, while simple homage might be due to every lord under, whom the person in question held land. United Kingdom The English doctrine, which was at one time adopted in the United States, asserted that allegiance was indelible: "Nemo potest exuere patriam". Accordingly, as the law stood before 1870, every person who by birth or naturalization satisfied the conditions set forth, though he should be removed in infancy to another country where his family resided, owed an allegiance to the British crown which he could never resign or lose, except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of British territory in which he resided. Allegiance is the tie which binds the subject to the Sovereign in return for that protection which the Sovereign affords the subject. It was the mutual bond and obligation between monarch and subjects, whereby subjects are called his liege subjects, because they are bound to obey and serve him; and he is called their liege lord, because he should maintain and defend them (Ex parte Anderson (1861) 3 El & El 487; 121 ER 525; China Navigation Co v Attorney-General (1932) 48 TLR 375; Attorney-General v Nissan [1969] 1 All ER 629; Oppenheimer v Cattermole [1972] 3 All ER 1106). The duty of the Crown towards its subjects is to govern and protect. The reciprocal duty of the subject towards the Crown is that of allegiance. At common law allegiance is a true and faithful obedience of the subject due to his Sovereign. As the subject owes to his king his true and faithful allegiance and obedience, so the Sovereign is to govern and protect his subjects, regere et protegere subdititos suos, so as between the Sovereign and subject there is: duplex et reciprocum ligamen; quia sicut subditus regi tenetur ad obedientiam, ita rex subdito tenetur ad protectionem; merito igitur ligeantia dicitur a ligando, quia continet in se duplex ligamen (Calvin's Case (1608) 7 Co Rep 1a; Jenk 306; 2 State Tr 559; 77 ER 377). Natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject, for as soon as the Sovereign is born, they owe allegiance and obedience (Ex parte Anderson (1861) 3 El & El 487; 121 ER 525). Natural-born subjects owe allegiance wherever they may be. Where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (R v Vermaak (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)). Allegiance is owed both to the Sovereign as a natural person and to the Sovereign in the political capacity (Re Stepney Election Petition, Isaacson v Durant (1886) 17 QBD 54 (per Lord Coleridge CJ)). Attachment to the person of the reigning Sovereign is not sufficient. Loyalty requires affection also to the office of the Sovereign, attachment to royalty, attachment to the law and to the constitution of the realm, and he who would, by force or by fraud, endeavour to prostrate that law and constitution, though he may retain his affection for its head, can boast but an imperfect and spurious species of loyalty (R v O'Connell (1844) 7 ILR 261). There were four kinds of allegiances (Rittson v Stordy (1855) 3 Sm & G 230; De Geer v Stone (1882) 22 Ch D 243; Isaacson v Durant (1886) 54 LT 684; Gibson, Gavin v Gibson [1913] 3 KB 379; Joyce v DPP [1946] AC 347; Collingwood v Pace (1661) O Bridg 410; Lane v Bennett (1836) 1 M & W 70; Lyons Corp v East India Co (1836) 1 Moo PCC 175; Birtwhistle v Vardill (1840) 7 Cl & Fin 895; R v Lopez, R v Sattler (1858) Dears & B 525; Ex p Brown (1864) 5 B & S 280); (a) Ligeantia naturalis, absoluta, pura et indefinita, and this originally is due by nature and birthright, and is called alta ligeantia, and those that owe this are called subditus natus; (b) Ligeantia acquisita, not by nature but by acquisition or denization, being called a denizen, or rather denizon, because they are subditus datus; (c) Ligeantia localis, by operation of law, when a friendly alien enters the country, because so long as they are in the country they are within the Sovereign's protection, therefore they owe the Sovereign a local obedience or allegiance (R v Cowle (1759) 2 Burr 834; Low v Routledge (1865) 1 Ch App 42; Re Johnson, Roberts v Attorney-General [1903] 1 Ch 821; Tingley v Muller [1917] 2 Ch 144; Rodriguez v Speyer [1919] AC 59; Johnstone v Pedlar [1921] 2 AC 262; R v Tucker (1694) Show Parl Cas 186; R v Keyn (1876) 2 Ex D 63; Re Stepney Election Petn, Isaacson v Durant (1886) 17 QBD 54); (d) A legal obedience, where a particular law requires the taking of an oath of allegiance by subject or alien alike. Natural allegiance was acquired by birth within the Sovereign's dominions (except for the issue of diplomats or of invading forces or of an alien in enemy occupied territory). The natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject, for as soon as they are born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to the Sovereign (Ex p. Anderson (1861) 3 E & E 487). A natural-born subject owes allegiance wherever they may be, so that where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (R v Vermaak (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)). Acquired allegiance was acquired by naturalisation or denization. Denization, or ligeantia acquisita, appears to be threefold (Thomas v Sorrel (1673) 3 Keb 143); (a) absolute, as the common denization, without any limitation or restraint; (b) limited, as when the Sovereign grants letters of denization to an alien, and the alien's male heirs, or to an alien for the term of their life; (c) It may be granted upon condition, cujus est dare, ejus est disponere, and this denization of an alien may come about three ways: by Parliament; by letters patent, which was the usual manner; and by conquest. Local allegiance was due by an alien while in the protection of the Crown. All friendly resident aliens incurred all the obligations of subjects (The Angelique (1801) 3 Ch Rob App 7). An alien, coming into a colony also became, temporarily a subject of the Crown, and acquired rights both within and beyond the colony, and these latter rights could not be affected by the laws of that colony (Routledge v Low (1868) LR 3 HL 100; 37 LJ Ch 454; 18 LT 874; 16 WR 1081, HL; Reid v Maxwell (1886) 2 TLR 790; Falcon v Famous Players Film Co [1926] 2 KB 474). A resident alien owed allegiance even when the protection of the Crown was withdrawn owing to the occupation of an enemy, because the absence of the Crown's protection was temporary and involuntary (de Jager v Attorney-Geneneral of Natal [1907] AC 326). Legal allegiance was due when an alien took an oath of allegiance required for a particular office under the Crown. By the Naturalization Act 1870, it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined. So British subjects voluntarily naturalized in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized before the passing of the act, they have declared their desire to remain British subjects within two years from the passing of the act. Persons who from having been born within British territory are British subjects, but who at birth became under the law of any foreign state subjects of such state, and also persons who though born abroad are British subjects by reason of parentage, may by declarations of alienage get rid of British nationality. Emigration to an uncivilized country leaves British nationality unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating is one of the usual and recognized means of colonial expansion. United States The doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the United States, and on July 27, 1868, the day before the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted, U.S. Congress declared in the preamble of the Expatriation Act that "the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness," and (Section I) one of "the fundamental principles of this government" (United States Revised Statutes, sec. 1999). Every citizen of a foreign state in America owes a double allegiance, one to it and one to the United States. He may be guilty of treason against one or both. If the demands of these two sovereigns upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the United States have the paramount authority in American law. Oath of allegiance The oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding important public office and as a condition of naturalization. By ancient common law it might be required of all persons above the age of twelve, and it was repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected. In England it was first imposed by statute in the reign of Elizabeth I of England (1558) and its form has more than once been altered since. Up to the time of the revolution the promise was, "to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him therefrom." This was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non-resistance, and accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has been in use since that time - "I do sincerely promise and swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty ..." See also Pledge of Allegiance Treason Allegiance (computer game) Enterprise Feedback Management References See also Salmond on "Citizenship and Allegiance," in the Law Quarterly Review (July 1901, January 1902).	Allegiance \|@lemmatized allegiance:36 duty:4 fidelity:2 say:1 owe:13 subject:26 citizen:4 state:13 sovereign:19 origin:1 word:3 mid:1 english:4 ligeaunce:1 med:1 latin:2 ligeantia:7 liegance:1 al:1 probably:1 add:1 confusion:1 another:2 legal:4 term:3 allegeance:2 allegation:1 french:1 come:4 form:3 liege:4 derivation:1 give:1 heading:1 connection:1 ligare:1 bind:3 erroneous:1 usage:1 often:1 use:3 commentator:1 large:1 sense:3 divide:1 natural:8 local:3 latter:2 applying:1 deference:1 even:4 foreigner:1 must:1 pay:1 institution:1 country:9 happen:1 live:1 proper:1 indicate:1 national:1 character:2 subjection:1 due:7 important:2 represent:1 feudal:1 homage:2 could:3 one:7 lord:4 simple:1 might:2 every:5 person:9 question:1 hold:2 land:1 united:7 kingdom:1 doctrine:3 time:4 adopt:2 assert:1 indelible:1 nemo:1 potest:1 exuere:1 patriam:1 accordingly:2 law:11 stand:1 birth:3 naturalization:4 satisfy:1 condition:3 set:1 forth:1 though:3 remove:1 infancy:1 family:1 reside:2 british:10 crown:8 never:1 resign:1 lose:2 except:2 act:5 parliament:3 recognition:1 independence:1 cession:1 portion:1 territory:5 tie:1 return:1 protection:5 afford:1 mutual:1 bond:1 obligation:2 monarch:1 whereby:1 call:5 obey:1 serve:1 maintain:1 defend:2 ex:5 parte:2 anderson:3 el:4 er:5 china:1 navigation:1 co:4 v:32 attorney:4 general:3 tlr:2 nissan:1 oppenheimer:1 cattermole:1 towards:2 govern:2 protect:2 reciprocal:1 common:3 true:4 faithful:4 obedience:8 king:2 regere:1 et:3 protegere:1 subdititos:1 suos:1 duplex:2 reciprocum:1 ligamen:2 quia:2 sicut:1 subditus:3 regi:1 tenetur:2 ad:2 obedientiam:1 ita:1 rex:1 subdito:1 protectionem:1 merito:1 igitur:1 dicitur:1 ligando:1 continet:1 se:1 calvin:1 case:2 rep:1 jenk:1 tr:1 incident:2 inseparable:2 soon:2 bear:6 born:2 wherever:2 may:7 occupy:2 course:2 hostility:4 enemy:6 force:4 annexation:2 occupied:5 proclaim:2 change:2 progress:2 part:2 r:8 vermaak:2 nlr:2 south:2 africa:2 political:1 capacity:1 stepney:2 election:2 petition:1 isaacson:3 durant:3 qbd:2 per:1 coleridge:1 cj:1 attachment:3 reign:2 sufficient:1 loyalty:2 require:4 affection:2 also:5 office:3 royalty:1 constitution:2 realm:1 would:1 fraud:1 endeavour:1 prostrate:1 retain:1 head:1 boast:1 imperfect:1 spurious:1 specie:1 connell:1 ilr:1 four:1 kind:1 rittson:1 stordy:1 sm:1 g:1 de:2 geer:1 stone:1 ch:6 lt:2 gibson:2 gavin:1 kb:2 joyce:1 dpp:1 ac:4 collingwood:1 pace:1 bridg:1 lane:1 bennett:1 w:1 lyon:1 corp:1 east:1 india:1 moo:1 pcc:1 birtwhistle:1 vardill:1 cl:1 fin:1 lopez:1 sattler:1 dears:1 b:4 p:2 brown:1 naturalis:1 absoluta:1 pura:1 indefinita:1 originally:1 nature:2 birthright:2 alta:1 natus:1 acquisita:2 acquisition:1 denization:6 denizen:1 rather:1 denizon:1 datus:1 c:2 localis:1 operation:1 friendly:2 alien:13 enters:1 long:1 within:5 therefore:1 cowle:1 burr:1 low:2 routledge:2 app:2 johnson:1 roberts:1 tingley:1 muller:1 rodriguez:1 speyer:1 johnstone:1 pedlar:1 tucker:1 show:1 parl:1 ca:1 keyn:1 petn:1 particular:2 taking:1 oath:5 alike:1 acquire:4 dominion:1 issue:1 diplomat:1 invading:1 e:2 naturalisation:1 appear:1 threefold:1 thomas:1 sorrel:1 keb:1 absolute:2 without:3 limitation:1 restraint:1 limit:1 grant:2 letter:2 male:1 heir:2 life:3 upon:2 cujus:1 est:2 dare:1 ejus:1 disponere:1 three:1 way:2 patent:1 usual:2 manner:1 conquest:1 resident:2 incur:1 angelique:1 rob:1 colony:3 become:2 temporarily:1 right:6 beyond:1 affect:1 lr:1 hl:2 lj:1 wr:1 reid:1 maxwell:1 falcon:1 famous:1 player:1 film:1 withdraw:1 occupation:1 absence:1 temporary:1 involuntary:1 jager:1 geneneral:1 natal:1 take:2 make:1 possible:1 renounce:1 nationality:4 define:1 voluntarily:1 naturalize:2 foreign:3 deem:1 unless:1 passing:2 declare:2 desire:1 remain:1 two:2 year:1 abroad:1 reason:1 parentage:1 declaration:1 alienage:1 get:1 rid:1 emigration:1 uncivilized:1 leave:1 unaffected:1 indeed:1 claim:1 follow:1 authority:2 emigrate:1 recognize:1 mean:1 colonial:1 expansion:1 man:1 cast:1 native:1 consent:1 early:1 abandon:1 july:2 day:1 fourteenth:1 amendment:1 u:1 congress:1 preamble:1 expatriation:2 inherent:1 people:1 indispensable:1 enjoyment:1 liberty:1 pursuit:1 happiness:1 section:1 fundamental:1 principle:1 government:1 revise:1 statute:2 sec:1 america:1 double:1 guilty:1 treason:2 demand:1 conflict:1 paramount:1 american:1 public:1 ancient:1 age:1 twelve:1 repeatedly:1 test:1 disaffect:1 england:2 first:1 impose:1 elizabeth:1 alter:1 since:2 revolution:1 promise:2 truth:1 faith:1 limb:1 terrene:1 honour:1 know:1 hear:1 ill:1 damage:1 intend:1 therefrom:1 think:1 favour:1 non:1 resistance:1 convention:1 enact:1 sincerely:1 swear:1 majesty:1 see:2 pledge:1 computer:1 game:1 enterprise:1 feedback:1 management:1 reference:1 salmond:1 citizenship:1 quarterly:1 review:1 january:1 \|@bigram owe_allegiance:5 ex_parte:2 allegiance_obedience:5 oath_allegiance:4 occupied_territory:1 fourteenth_amendment:1 pursuit_happiness:1 guilty_treason:1 swear_faithful:1 pledge_allegiance:1
6,047	Calista_Flockhart	Calista Kay Flockhart (born November 11, 1964) is an American actress, primarily on television. She is best known for playing the title character of Ally McBeal (1997–2002). She currently stars as Sally Field's daughter, Kitty Walker, on the ABC drama, Brothers & Sisters. Early life Flockhart was born in Freeport, Illinois, the daughter of Kay, a teacher of English, and Ronald Flockhart, an executive for Kraft Foods. She has one older brother, Gary. Her mother, Kay Calista, reversed her own first and middle names in naming her Calista Kay. Calista also had a great-grandmother named "Calista". Because her father's job required the family to move often, Flockhart and her brother grew up in Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, New York, and New Jersey. As a child, she wrote a play called Toyland in which she performed to a small audience at a dinner party. Flockhart attended Shawnee High School in Medford Township, New Jersey. Following her graduation in 1983, Flockhart attended the Mason Gross School of the Arts at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. While there, she attended a specialized and competitive class, lasting from 6:00 AM to 6:00 PM. In her sophomore year at Rutgers, Flockhart met aspiring actress Jane Krakowski, the best friend of her roommate. Later they would both work together on Ally McBeal. Flockhart's acting ability was recognized when William Esper (Mason Gross' theatre director and Flockhart's acting teacher) made an exception to policy by allowing Flockhart to perform on the main stage. Though this venue is usually reserved for juniors and seniors, Harold Scott insisted that Flockhart perform there in his production of William Inge's Picnic. Flockhart graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in theatre in 1988, as one of only a few students who successfully completed the course. She was inducted into the Rutgers Hall of Distinguished Alumni on May 3, 2003. After receiving her degree, Flockhart moved to New York City in 1989, where she remained until 1997, living with three other women in a two-bedroom apartment and working as a waitress and aerobics instructor, while she simultaneously sought auditions. Career Early career In spring 1989, Flockhart made her first television appearance in a minor role in an episode of Guiding Light as a babysitter. She made her professional debut on the New York stage, appearing in Beside Herself alongside Melissa Joan Hart, at the Circle Repertory Theatre. Two years later, Flockhart appeared in the television movie Darrow. Though she later appeared in films Naked in New York (1993) and Getting In (1994), her first substantial speaking part in a film was in Quiz Show, directed by Robert Redford. Flockhart debuted on Broadway in 1994, as Laura in The Glass Menagerie. Actor Julie Harris felt Flockhart should be hired without further auditions, claiming that she seemed ideal for the part. Flockhart received a Clarence Derwent Award for her performance. In 1995, Flockhart became acquainted with actors such as Dianne Wiest and Faye Dunaway when she appeared in the movie Drunks. Later that year, Flockhart starred in Jane Doe as a drug addict. In 1996, Flockhart appeared as the daughter of Dianne Wiest and Gene Hackman's characters in The Birdcage. Throughout that year, she continued to work on Broadway, playing the role of Natasha in Anton Chekhov's Three Sisters. Ally McBeal In 1997 Flockhart was requested to audition for the starring role in David E. Kelley's FOX television series, Ally McBeal. Kelley, having heard of Flockhart, wanted her to audition for the contract part. Though Flockhart at first hesitated due to the necessary commitment to the show in a negotiable contract, she was swayed by the script and travelled to Los Angeles to audition for the part, which she won. She earned a Golden Globe Award for the role in 1998. Flockhart also appeared on the June 29, 1998, cover of Time magazine, placed as the newest iteration in the evolution of feminism, relating to the ongoing debate about the role depicted by her character. Throughout her professional career, Flockhart has maintained her natural thin figure. However, many have commented that Flockhart had become dangerously too thin, particularly when the actress made red carpet appearances in clothing that showed her excessively thin build. She had maintained throughout the show's run that she has never been diagnosed with either anorexia or bulimia, nor has she been a user of illegal drugs. She did remark, however, that while starring in the show she refrained from eating sweets, retaining her slim figure by working out. In 2006, she admitted that she had a problem at the time, and was "exercising too much" and "eating too little". Other work Flockhart played the role of Helena in the 1999 film version of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. In 2000, she appeared in Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her and Bash: Latter-Day Plays, later accompanying Eve Ensler to Kenya in order to protest violence against women, particularly female genital mutilation. Flockhart also starred in the off-Broadway production of Ensler's The Vagina Monologues. In 2004, Flockhart appeared as Matthew Broderick's deranged girlfriend in The Last Shot. In the same year, Flockhart travelled to Spain for the filming of Fragile, which premiered in September 2005 at the Venice Film Festival. She was offered the role of Susan Mayer on Desperate Housewives, but declined. The role went to Teri Hatcher. Flockhart currently co-stars as communication advisor Kitty Walker, opposite Sally Field, Rachel Griffiths and Matthew Rhys, in the ABC prime time series Brothers & Sisters, which premiered in September 2006 in the time slot after Desperate Housewives. Personal life Flockhart is currently the national spokesperson for Peace Over Violence. She is the longtime partner of Harrison Ford and has a son, Liam, whom she adopted as a newborn in 2001. In March 2009 it was reported that the couple is engaged after more than 7 years together. Filmography Film Year Film Role Notes 1991 Darrow Lillian Anderson Television movie 1993 Naked in New York Acting student 1994 Clear Cut Gettin In Amanda Morel Quiz Show Barnard Girl 1995 Pictures of Baby Jane Doe Jane Drunks Helen 1996 The Birdcage Barbara Keeley Milk & Money Christine 1997 Telling Lies in America Diney Majeski 1999 A Midsummer Night's Dream Helena 2000 Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her Christine Taylor 2001 Bash: Latter-Day Plays Television movie 2004 The Last Shot Valerie Weston 2005 Fragile Amy Nicholls Television Year Title Role Notes 1989 Guiding Light Elise 1992 Lifestories: Families in Crisis Mary-Margaret Carter Episode: "The Secret Life of Mary Margaret: Portrait of a Bulimic" 1997–2002 Ally McBeal Ally McBeal 112 episodes 1998 The Practice Ally McBeal Episode: "Axe Murderer" 1999 Ally Ally McBeal 2000 Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child Vanna Van Episode: "Rip Van Winkle" 2006–present Brothers & Sisters Kitty Walker 64 episodes References External links \|- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" \| Golden Globe Award \|- \|- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" \| Theatre World Award \|- \|- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" \| Screen Actors Guild Awards \|-	Calista_Flockhart \|@lemmatized calista:5 kay:4 flockhart:33 born:1 november:1 american:1 actress:3 primarily:1 television:7 best:2 know:1 play:6 title:2 character:3 ally:9 mcbeal:8 currently:3 star:6 sally:2 field:2 daughter:3 kitty:3 walker:3 abc:2 drama:1 brother:5 sister:4 early:2 life:3 bear:1 freeport:1 illinois:2 teacher:2 english:1 ronald:1 executive:1 kraft:1 food:1 one:2 old:1 gary:1 mother:1 reverse:1 first:4 middle:1 name:3 also:3 great:1 grandmother:1 father:1 job:1 require:1 family:2 move:2 often:1 grow:1 iowa:1 minnesota:1 new:10 york:5 jersey:3 child:2 write:1 call:1 toyland:1 perform:3 small:1 audience:1 dinner:1 party:1 attend:3 shawnee:1 high:1 school:2 medford:1 township:1 follow:1 graduation:1 mason:2 gross:2 art:2 rutgers:3 university:1 brunswick:1 specialized:1 competitive:1 class:1 last:3 pm:1 sophomore:1 year:8 meet:1 aspire:1 jane:4 krakowski:1 friend:1 roommate:1 later:5 would:1 work:4 together:2 act:3 ability:1 recognize:1 william:2 esper:1 theatre:4 director:1 make:4 exception:1 policy:1 allow:1 main:1 stage:2 though:3 venue:1 usually:1 reserve:1 junior:1 senior:1 harold:1 scott:1 insist:1 production:2 inge:1 picnic:1 graduate:1 bachelor:1 fine:1 degree:2 student:2 successfully:1 complete:1 course:1 induct:1 hall:1 distinguished:1 alumnus:1 may:1 receive:2 city:1 remain:1 live:1 three:2 woman:2 two:2 bedroom:1 apartment:1 working:1 waitress:1 aerobics:1 instructor:1 simultaneously:1 seek:1 audition:5 career:3 spring:1 appearance:2 minor:1 role:10 episode:6 guide:2 light:2 babysitter:1 professional:2 debut:2 appear:8 beside:1 alongside:1 melissa:1 joan:1 hart:1 circle:1 repertory:1 movie:4 darrow:2 film:6 naked:2 get:1 substantial:1 speak:1 part:4 quiz:2 show:6 direct:1 robert:1 redford:1 broadway:3 laura:1 glass:1 menagerie:1 actor:3 julie:1 harris:1 felt:1 hire:1 without:1 claim:1 seem:1 ideal:1 clarence:1 derwent:1 award:5 performance:1 become:2 acquaint:1 dianne:2 wiest:2 faye:1 dunaway:1 drunk:2 doe:2 drug:2 addict:1 gene:1 hackman:1 birdcage:2 throughout:3 continue:1 natasha:1 anton:1 chekhov:1 request:1 david:1 e:1 kelley:2 fox:1 series:2 heard:1 want:1 contract:2 hesitate:1 due:1 necessary:1 commitment:1 negotiable:1 sway:1 script:1 travel:2 los:1 angeles:1 win:1 earn:1 golden:2 globe:2 june:1 cover:1 time:4 magazine:1 place:1 iteration:1 evolution:1 feminism:1 relate:1 ongoing:1 debate:1 depict:1 maintain:2 natural:1 thin:3 figure:2 however:2 many:1 comment:1 dangerously:1 particularly:2 red:1 carpet:1 clothing:1 excessively:1 build:1 run:1 never:1 diagnose:1 either:1 anorexia:1 bulimia:1 user:1 illegal:1 remark:1 refrain:1 eat:2 sweet:1 retain:1 slim:1 admit:1 problem:1 exercise:1 much:1 little:1 helena:2 version:1 shakespeare:1 midsummer:2 night:2 dream:2 thing:2 tell:3 look:2 bash:2 latter:2 day:2 accompany:1 eve:1 ensler:2 kenya:1 order:1 protest:1 violence:2 female:1 genital:1 mutilation:1 vagina:1 monologue:1 matthew:2 broderick:1 derange:1 girlfriend:1 shot:2 spain:1 filming:1 fragile:2 premier:2 september:2 venice:1 festival:1 offer:1 susan:1 mayer:1 desperate:2 housewife:2 decline:1 go:1 teri:1 hatcher:1 co:1 communication:1 advisor:1 opposite:1 rachel:1 griffith:1 rhys:1 prime:1 slot:1 personal:1 national:1 spokesperson:1 peace:1 longtime:1 partner:1 harrison:1 ford:1 son:1 liam:1 adopt:1 newborn:1 march:1 report:1 couple:1 engage:1 filmography:1 note:2 lillian:1 anderson:1 clear:1 cut:1 gettin:1 amanda:1 morel:1 barnard:1 girl:1 picture:1 baby:1 helen:1 barbara:1 keeley:1 milk:1 money:1 christine:2 lie:1 america:1 diney:1 majeski:1 taylor:1 valerie:1 weston:1 amy:1 nicholls:1 elise:1 lifestories:1 crisis:1 mary:2 margaret:2 carter:1 secret:1 portrait:1 bulimic:1 practice:1 axe:1 murderer:1 happily:1 ever:1 fairy:1 tale:1 every:1 vanna:1 van:2 rip:1 winkle:1 present:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 colspan:3 style:3 background:3 world:1 screen:1 guild:1 \|@bigram ally_mcbeal:8 repertory_theatre:1 robert_redford:1 faye_dunaway:1 drug_addict:1 gene_hackman:1 anton_chekhov:1 los_angeles:1 golden_globe:2 shakespeare_midsummer:1 midsummer_night:2 female_genital:1 genital_mutilation:1 desperate_housewife:2 teri_hatcher:1 fairy_tale:1 external_link:1 actor_guild:1
6,048	MultiMate	MultiMate was a word processor developed by Softword Systems Inc. (later renamed Multimate International) for IBM PC MS-DOS computers in the early 1980s. Wilton H. Jones, a programmer turned entrepreneur (W.H. Jones & Associates), brought on board ten young programmers to write the software after winning a contract to develop a word processor for the Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance company. He negotiated the right to sell the program elsewhere. By 1984, with the success of the PC, MultiMate had more than $1 million in orders a month and the company had more than 150 employees. Jones sold the company to Ashton-Tate for more than $20 million a few years later (with yearly revenues of approximately $50 million, the purchase price looks shockingly low today – but back then the industry did not know how to value software companies). MultiMate was not marketed heavily to end-users, but was quickly popular with insurance companies, law firms and other business computer users. MultiMate's greatest advantage — and its mandate from Connecticut Mutual — was that it allowed companies to easily replace dedicated Wang Word Processor workstations with PCs, with an order of magnitude reduction in cost. The user interface, although different from Wang's, was close enough to allow a Wang user to rapidly switch over without much retraining. While the Wang WP keyboard was different from the original PC keyboard, MultiMate compensated by providing a large plastic template that clipped on the PC keyboard, and stick-on labels for the fronts of the PC keys. The template and labels color-coded the combination keystrokes using the SHIFT, ALT and CTRL keys with all 10 of the PC's function keys and many of the character keys. Like Wang systems, MultiMate controlled most editing operations with function keys, assigning four functions to each of the 10 function keys, which IBM initially located at the left side of the keyboard in two vertical rows. It also included a "document summary" screen for each document, another Wang feature, which allowed more sophisticated document-management than the brief file names allowed by MS-DOS and PC-DOS. As drop-down menus were popularized by other programs, they became a later addition to MultiMate. Multimate International briefly manufactured its own keyboard with an additional horizontal row of function keys, and with the MultiMate key commands printed on the keys. Other products included foreign language versions of the software (i.e., "MultiTexto" in Spanish), a hardware interface card for file-transfer with Wang systems and versions of MultiMate for different PC clone MS-DOS computers, and for use on Novell, 3COM and IBM's PC Token Ring networks. Early attempts to create a MultiMate Data Manager and List Manager in-house never reached the market. Multimate International developed the core word processing software and utilities (file conversion, printer drivers), but purchased and adapted sub-programs for spelling and grammar checking, list management, outlining and print-time incorporation of graphics in word processing documents (MultiMate GraphLink). In addition to rebranding such externally-developed programs, Multimate rewrote the documentation for each program and adapted the program interfaces to more closely resemble the word processor. The last version of MultiMate was packaged with many of these add-on programs under the product name "MultiMate Advantage" to compete with other word processor software of the day, especially IBM Display Write for DOS, which Multimate International developers saw as their main competition in the business market, and to a lesser extent WordPerfect, the DOS incarnation of Microsoft Word and the Samna word processor, which had its roots in another office word processing computer. One of the first "clone" versions of MultiMate was bundled with an early portable PC made by Corona. Other versions were written to match PCs by Radio Shack, Texas Instruments, Toshiba, the early Grid laptop and the IBM PC Junior. The detailed MultiMate word processor documentation, which quickly grew to three volumes, gave the product a solid "office production" feel, using high-quality paper with its main reference section presented in a padded binder with fold-out easel. (A company legend was that the MultiMate user manual was written first, by an experienced Wang WP manager, then the programmers were told to write software to match it, which is how the Wang WP was created.) Early versions of the program came with both color-coded key stickers and a plastic full-keyboard template to make Wang operators more comfortable with the smaller IBM PC keyboard. MultiMate eventually sold a hardware keyboard with dedicated function keys and issued versions of its software for networked PCs. It adapted list-management, graphics and outlining software from other vendors to the look-and-feel of MultiMate, shipping the expanded version as MultiMate Advantage, with additional volumes of MultiMate-style documentation for the add-on programs. Early releases of MultiMate also gave users unlimited access to a toll-free support number and a promise of low-cost upgrades, which contributed to its dedicated user population. Support policies later were brought in line with Ashton-Tate's standard practices. MultiMate was especially good at supporting a variety of PC clones and hundreds of computer printers, each of which required its own printer driver. Such printer support was very strong with daisy-wheel and dot-matrix printers, but did not take much advantage the development of Postscript fonts and laser printers. Ashton-Tate never released a Windows version. It discontinued MultiMate's development efforts on VMS and Unix platforms and closed a development group in Dublin, Ireland. The product was dropped after the company was purchased by Borland. See also List of word processors	MultiMate \|@lemmatized multimate:28 word:12 processor:8 develop:3 softword:1 system:3 inc:1 later:3 rename:1 international:4 ibm:6 pc:16 computer:5 early:6 wilton:1 h:2 jones:3 programmer:3 turn:1 entrepreneur:1 w:1 associate:1 bring:2 board:1 ten:1 young:1 write:5 software:8 win:1 contract:1 connecticut:2 mutual:2 life:1 insurance:2 company:8 negotiate:1 right:1 sell:3 program:9 elsewhere:1 success:1 million:3 order:2 month:1 employee:1 ashton:3 tate:3 year:1 yearly:1 revenue:1 approximately:1 purchase:3 price:1 look:2 shockingly:1 low:2 today:1 back:1 industry:1 know:1 value:1 market:3 heavily:1 end:1 user:7 quickly:2 popular:1 law:1 firm:1 business:2 great:1 advantage:4 mandate:1 allow:4 easily:1 replace:1 dedicated:2 wang:10 workstation:1 magnitude:1 reduction:1 cost:2 interface:3 although:1 different:3 close:2 enough:1 rapidly:1 switch:1 without:1 much:2 retraining:1 wp:3 keyboard:8 original:1 compensate:1 provide:1 large:1 plastic:2 template:3 clip:1 stick:1 label:2 front:1 key:11 color:2 cod:2 combination:1 keystrokes:1 use:3 shift:1 alt:1 ctrl:1 function:6 many:2 character:1 like:1 control:1 editing:1 operation:1 assign:1 four:1 initially:1 locate:1 left:1 side:1 two:1 vertical:1 row:2 also:3 include:2 document:4 summary:1 screen:1 another:2 feature:1 sophisticated:1 management:3 brief:1 file:3 name:2 drop:2 menu:1 popularize:1 become:1 late:1 addition:2 briefly:1 manufacture:1 additional:2 horizontal:1 command:1 print:2 product:4 foreign:1 language:1 version:9 e:1 multitexto:1 spanish:1 hardware:2 card:1 transfer:1 clone:3 novell:1 token:1 ring:1 network:1 attempt:1 create:2 data:1 manager:3 list:4 house:1 never:2 reach:1 core:1 processing:3 utility:1 conversion:1 printer:6 driver:2 adapt:3 sub:1 spell:1 grammar:1 checking:1 outline:2 time:1 incorporation:1 graphic:2 graphlink:1 rebranding:1 externally:1 developed:1 rewrite:1 documentation:3 closely:1 resemble:1 last:1 package:1 add:2 compete:1 day:1 especially:2 display:1 developer:1 saw:1 main:2 competition:1 less:1 extent:1 wordperfect:1 dos:1 incarnation:1 microsoft:1 samna:1 root:1 office:2 one:1 first:2 bundle:1 portable:1 make:2 corona:1 match:2 radio:1 shack:1 texas:1 instrument:1 toshiba:1 grid:1 laptop:1 junior:1 detailed:1 grow:1 three:1 volume:2 give:2 solid:1 production:1 feel:2 high:1 quality:1 paper:1 reference:1 section:1 present:1 padded:1 binder:1 fold:1 easel:1 legend:1 manual:1 experienced:1 tell:1 come:1 sticker:1 full:1 operator:1 comfortable:1 small:1 eventually:1 issued:1 networked:1 vendor:1 ship:1 expanded:1 style:1 release:2 unlimited:1 access:1 toll:1 free:1 support:4 number:1 promise:1 upgrade:1 contribute:1 dedicate:1 population:1 policy:1 line:1 standard:1 practice:1 good:1 variety:1 hundred:1 require:1 strong:1 daisy:1 wheel:1 dot:1 matrix:1 take:1 development:3 postscript:1 font:1 laser:1 windows:1 discontinue:1 effort:1 vms:1 unix:1 platform:1 group:1 dublin:1 ireland:1 borland:1 see:1 \|@bigram ibm_pc:4 ashton_tate:3 user_interface:1 token_ring:1 closely_resemble:1 radio_shack:1 matrix_printer:1 laser_printer:1
6,049	Glasnost	(, ) was the policy of maximal publicity, openness, and transparency in the activities of all government institutions in the Soviet Union, together with freedom of information, introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the second half of 1980s. The word is a transliteration of the Russian word Гласность and was frequently used by Gorbachev to specify the policies he believed might help reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and the Soviet government, and moderate the abuse of administrative power in the Central Committee. Russian Humane Rights activist and Dissident Lyumila Alexeyeva explains glasnost as a word that "had been in the Russian language for centuries. It was in the dictionaries and lawbooks as long as there had been dictionaries and lawbooks. It was an ordinary, hardworking, nondescript word that was used to refer to a process, any process of justice of governance, being conducted in the open.". Alexeyeva, Lyumila and Paul Goldberg "The Thaw Generation: Coming of Age in the Post-Stalin Era" Pennsylvania: University of PIttsburg Press, 1990. Glasnost can also refer to the specific period in the history of the USSR during the 1980s when there was less censorship and greater freedom of information. Areas of concern While "glasnost" is associated with freedom of speech, the main goal of this policy was to make the country's management transparent and open to debate, thus circumventing the narrow circle of apparatchiks who previously exercised complete control of the economy. Through reviewing the past or current mistakes being made, it was hoped that the Soviet people would back reforms such as perestroika. A 1988 Soviet postage stamp: (1) Perestroika continues the cause of the October Revolution; (2) Acceleration, Democratization, Glasnost Glasnost gave new freedoms to the people, such as a greater freedom of information by opening the secret parts for unallowed literature in the libraries Glasnost im sowjetischen Bibliothekswesen (by Peter Bruhn) А.П. Шикман: Совершенно несекретно in: Советская библиография, 1988,6 (231), P.3-12 and a greater freedom of speech — a radical change, as control of speech and suppression of government criticism had previously been a central part of the Soviet system. There was also a greater degree of freedom within the media. In the late 1980s, the Soviet government came under increased criticism, as did Leninist ideology (which Gorbachev had attempted to preserve as the foundation for reform), and members of the Soviet population were more outspoken in their view that the Soviet government had become a failure. Glasnost did indeed provide freedom of expression, far beyond what Gorbachev had intended, and changed citizens' views towards the government, which played a key role in the collapse of the Soviet Union. Mikhail Gorbachev instituted the idea of glasnost in the 1980's, giving the Soviets a new idea of freedom of speech. Giving the Soviets this freedom of speech led to the reduction of censorship in publishing, radio, television, and other media. Soviet officials didn't agree with glasnost because it threatened their statuses as authority figures and the officials who spoke out were then dismissed and replaced. Gorbachev replaced over half of the party's leadership, because they didn't agree with his ideals of free speech. Gorbachev expressed that glasnost was greatly needed across Western Europe because of the Chernobyl incident of 1986. A nuclear reactor exploded in a nuclear plant, and the plant leaked radioactive material out into the atmosphere. The information was delayed, and the people living near the plant suffered because they were never informed of this catastrophic event. Effects Relaxation of censorship resulted in the Communist Party losing its grip on the media. Before long, much to the embarrassment of the authorities, the media began to expose severe social and economic problems which the Soviet government had long denied and covered up. Long-denied problems such as poor housing, food shortages, alcoholism, widespread pollution, creeping mortality rates and the second-rate position of women were now receiving increased attention. Moreover, under glasnost, the people were able to learn significantly more about the horrors committed by the government when Joseph Stalin was in power. Although Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin's personality cult, information about the true proportions of his atrocities was still suppressed. In all, the very positive view of Soviet life which had long been presented to the public by the official media was being rapidly dismantled, and the negative aspects of life in the Soviet Union were brought into the spotlight. This began to undermine the faith of the public in the Soviet system. Political openness continued to produce unintended consequences. In elections to the regional assemblies of the Soviet Union's constituent republics, nationalists swept the board. As Gorbachev had weakened the system of internal political repression, the ability of the USSR's central Moscow government to impose its will on the USSR's constituent republics had been largely undermined. During the 1980s, calls for greater independence from Moscow's rule grew louder. This was especially marked in the Baltic Republics of Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia, which had been annexed into the Soviet Union by Joseph Stalin in 1940. Nationalist feeling also took hold in other Soviet republics such as Ukraine, Georgia and Azerbaijan. Starting in the mid-1980s, the Baltic states used the reforms provided by glasnost to assert their rights to protect their environment and their historic monuments and, later, their claims to sovereignty and independence. When the Balts withstood outside threats, they exposed an irresolute Kremlin. Bolstering separatism in other Soviet republics, the Balts triggered multiple challenges to the Soviet Union. Supported by Russian leader Boris Yeltsin, the Baltic republics asserted their sovereignty. The rise of nationalism under glasnost also reawakened simmering ethnic tensions throughout the union. For example, in February 1988, Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominantly ethnic Armenian region in the Azerbaijan SSR, passed a resolution calling for unification with the Armenian SSR. Violence against local Azeris was then reported on Soviet television, which provoked massacres of Armenians in the Azerbaijani city of Sumgait. The freedoms generated under glasnost enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly with the United States. Restrictions on travel were loosened, allowing increased business and cultural contact. For example, one key meeting location was in the U.S. at the Dakin Building, then owned by American philanthropist Henry Dakin, who had extensive Russian contacts:During the late 1980s, as glasnost and perestroika led to the liquidation of the Soviet empire, the Dakin building was the location for a series of groups facilitating United States-Russian contacts. They included the Center for U.S.-U.S.S.R. Initiatives, which helped more than 1000 Americans visit the Soviet Union and more than 100 then-Soviet citizens visit the U.S. Cyberspace, San Francisco Chronicle, Page A-14, November 20, 1995 While thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were released in the spirit of glasnost, Gorbachev's original goal of using glasnost and perestroika to reform the Soviet Union was not achieved. In 1991, the Soviet Union was dissolved following a failed coup by conservative elements who were opposed to Gorbachev's reforms. See also Perestroika Demokratizatsiya Glasnost Bowl Notes References External links Glasnost posters from 1987 and 1988.	Glasnost \|@lemmatized policy:3 maximal:1 publicity:1 openness:2 transparency:1 activity:1 government:9 institution:1 soviet:28 union:10 together:1 freedom:11 information:5 introduce:1 mikhail:2 gorbachev:10 second:2 half:2 word:4 transliteration:1 russian:6 гласность:1 frequently:1 use:4 specify:1 believe:1 might:1 help:2 reduce:1 corruption:1 top:1 communist:2 party:3 moderate:1 abuse:1 administrative:1 power:2 central:3 committee:1 humane:1 right:2 activist:1 dissident:2 lyumila:2 alexeyeva:2 explain:1 glasnost:19 language:1 century:1 dictionary:2 lawbooks:2 long:5 ordinary:1 hardworking:1 nondescript:1 refer:2 process:2 justice:1 governance:1 conduct:1 open:3 paul:1 goldberg:1 thaw:1 generation:1 coming:1 age:1 post:1 stalin:4 era:1 pennsylvania:1 university:1 pittsburg:1 press:1 also:5 specific:1 period:1 history:1 ussr:3 less:1 censorship:3 great:5 area:1 concern:1 associate:1 speech:6 main:1 goal:2 make:2 country:1 management:1 transparent:1 debate:1 thus:1 circumvent:1 narrow:1 circle:1 apparatchik:1 previously:2 exercise:1 complete:1 control:2 economy:1 review:1 past:1 current:1 mistake:1 hop:1 people:4 would:1 back:1 reform:5 perestroika:5 postage:1 stamp:1 continue:2 cause:1 october:1 revolution:1 acceleration:1 democratization:1 give:3 new:2 secret:1 part:2 unallowed:1 literature:1 library:1 im:1 sowjetischen:1 bibliothekswesen:1 peter:1 bruhn:1 а:1 п:1 шикман:1 совершенно:1 несекретно:1 советская:1 библиография:1 p:1 radical:1 change:2 suppression:1 criticism:2 system:3 degree:1 within:1 medium:5 late:2 come:1 increase:3 leninist:1 ideology:1 attempt:1 preserve:1 foundation:1 member:1 population:1 outspoken:1 view:3 become:1 failure:1 indeed:1 provide:2 expression:1 far:1 beyond:1 intend:1 citizen:3 towards:1 play:1 key:2 role:1 collapse:1 institute:1 idea:2 lead:2 reduction:1 publishing:1 radio:1 television:2 official:3 agree:2 threaten:1 status:1 authority:2 figure:1 speak:1 dismiss:1 replace:2 leadership:1 ideal:1 free:1 express:1 greatly:1 need:1 across:1 western:2 europe:1 chernobyl:1 incident:1 nuclear:2 reactor:1 explode:1 plant:3 leak:1 radioactive:1 material:1 atmosphere:1 delay:1 live:1 near:1 suffer:1 never:1 inform:1 catastrophic:1 event:1 effect:1 relaxation:1 result:1 lose:1 grip:1 much:1 embarrassment:1 begin:2 expose:2 severe:1 social:1 economic:1 problem:2 deny:2 cover:1 poor:1 housing:1 food:1 shortage:1 alcoholism:1 widespread:1 pollution:1 creep:1 mortality:1 rate:2 position:1 woman:1 receive:1 attention:1 moreover:1 able:1 learn:1 significantly:1 horror:1 commit:1 joseph:2 although:1 nikita:1 khrushchev:1 denounce:1 personality:1 cult:1 true:1 proportion:1 atrocity:1 still:1 suppress:1 positive:1 life:2 present:1 public:2 rapidly:1 dismantle:1 negative:1 aspect:1 bring:1 spotlight:1 undermine:1 faith:1 political:3 produce:1 unintended:1 consequence:1 election:1 regional:1 assembly:1 constituent:2 republic:6 nationalist:2 sweep:1 board:1 weaken:1 internal:1 repression:1 ability:1 moscow:2 impose:1 largely:1 undermined:1 call:2 independence:2 rule:1 grow:1 loud:1 especially:1 mark:1 baltic:3 estonia:1 lithuania:1 latvia:1 annex:1 feeling:1 take:1 hold:1 ukraine:1 georgia:1 azerbaijan:2 start:1 mid:1 state:3 assert:2 protect:1 environment:1 historic:1 monument:1 later:1 claim:1 sovereignty:2 balts:2 withstand:1 outside:1 threat:1 irresolute:1 kremlin:1 bolster:1 separatism:1 trigger:1 multiple:1 challenge:1 support:1 leader:1 boris:1 yeltsin:1 rise:1 nationalism:1 reawaken:1 simmer:1 ethnic:2 tension:1 throughout:1 example:2 february:1 nagorno:1 karabakh:1 predominantly:1 armenian:3 region:1 ssr:2 pass:1 resolution:1 unification:1 violence:1 local:1 azeri:1 report:1 provoke:1 massacre:1 azerbaijani:1 city:1 sumgait:1 generate:1 enable:1 contact:4 world:1 particularly:1 united:2 restriction:1 travel:1 loosen:1 allow:1 increased:1 business:1 cultural:1 one:1 meeting:1 location:2 u:4 dakin:3 building:2 american:2 philanthropist:1 henry:1 extensive:1 liquidation:1 empire:1 series:1 group:1 facilitate:1 include:1 center:1 r:1 initiative:1 visit:2 cyberspace:1 san:1 francisco:1 chronicle:1 page:1 november:1 thousand:1 prisoner:1 many:1 release:1 spirit:1 original:1 achieve:1 dissolve:1 follow:1 fail:1 coup:1 conservative:1 element:1 oppose:1 see:1 demokratizatsiya:1 bowl:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 poster:1 \|@bigram soviet_union:9 mikhail_gorbachev:2 postage_stamp:1 nuclear_reactor:1 mortality_rate:1 nikita_khrushchev:1 unintended_consequence:1 lithuania_latvia:1 boris_yeltsin:1 nagorno_karabakh:1 azerbaijan_ssr:1 glasnost_perestroika:2 san_francisco:1 external_link:1
6,050	Complementary_DNA	Output from a cDNA microarray used in testing In genetics, complementary DNA (cDNA) is DNA synthesized from a mature mRNA template in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme reverse transcriptase. cDNA is often used to clone eukaryotic genes in prokaryotes. When scientists want to express a specific protein in a cell that does not normally express that protein (i.e., heterologous expression), they will transfer the cDNA that codes for the protein to the recipient cell. cDNA is also produced by retroviruses (such as HIV-1, HIV-2, Simian Immunodeficiency Virus, etc.) which is integrated into its host to create a provirus. Overview The central dogma of molecular biology outlines that in synthesizing proteins, DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is translated into protein. One difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic genes is that eukaryotic genes can contain introns (intervening sequences), which are not coding sequences, and must be spliced out of the RNA primary transcript before it becomes mRNA and can be translated into protein. Prokaryotic genes have no introns, so their RNA is not subject to splicing. Often it is desirable to express eukaryotic genes in prokaryotic cells. A simplified method of doing so would include the addition of eukaryotic DNA to a prokaryotic host, which would transcribe the DNA to mRNA and then translate it to protein. However, as eukaryotic DNA has introns, and since prokaryotes lack the machinery to splice them, the splicing of eukaryotic DNA must be done prior to adding the eukaryotic DNA into the host. This DNA which was made as a complementary to the RNA is called complementary DNA (cDNA). To obtain expression of the protein encoded by the eukaryotic cDNA, prokaryotic regulatory sequences would also be required (e.g. a promoter). Synthesis Though there are several methods for doing so, cDNA is most often synthesized from mature (fully spliced) mRNA using the enzyme reverse transcriptase. This enzyme operates on a single strand of mRNA, generating its complementary DNA based on the pairing of RNA base pairs (A, U, G and C) to their DNA complements (T, A, C and G respectively). To obtain eukaryotic cDNA whose introns have been spliced: A eukaryotic cell transcribes the DNA (from genes) into RNA (pre-mRNA). The same cell processes the pre-mRNA strands by splicing out introns, and adding a poly-A tail and 5’ Methyl-Guanine cap. This mixture of mature mRNA strands is extracted from the cell. A poly-T oligonucleotide primer is hybridized onto the poly-A tail of the mature mRNA template, or random hexamer primers can be added which contain every possible 6 base single strand of DNA and can therefore hybridize anywhere on the RNA (Reverse transcriptase requires this double-stranded segment as a primer to start its operation.) Reverse transcriptase is added, along with deoxynucleoside triphosphates (A, T, G, C). The reverse transcriptase scans the mature mRNA and synthesizes a sequence of DNA that complements the mRNA template. This strand of DNA is complementary DNA. Note that the central dogma of molecular biology is not broken in this process. Applications Complementary DNA is often used in gene cloning or as gene probes or in the creation of a cDNA library. When scientists transfer a gene from one cell into another cell in order to express the new genetic material as a protein in the recipient cell , the cDNA will be added to the recipient (rather than the entire gene), because the DNA for an entire gene may include DNA that does not code for the protein or that interrupts the coding sequence of the protein (e.g., introns). Partial sequences of cDNAs are often obtained as expressed sequence tags. Viruses Some viruses also use cDNA to turn their viral RNA into mRNA (viral RNA → cDNA → mRNA). The mRNA is used to make viral proteins to take over the host cell. References External links H-Invitational Database Functional Annotation of the Mouse database cDNA Animation (Flash)	Complementary_DNA \|@lemmatized output:1 cdna:15 microarray:1 use:6 test:1 genetics:1 complementary:6 dna:20 synthesize:4 mature:5 mrna:15 template:3 reaction:1 catalyze:1 enzyme:3 reverse:5 transcriptase:5 often:5 clone:1 eukaryotic:11 gene:11 prokaryote:2 scientist:2 want:1 express:4 specific:1 protein:12 cell:10 normally:1 e:3 heterologous:1 expression:2 transfer:2 cod:3 recipient:3 also:3 produce:1 retrovirus:1 hiv:2 simian:1 immunodeficiency:1 virus:2 etc:1 integrate:1 host:4 create:1 provirus:1 overview:1 central:2 dogma:2 molecular:2 biology:2 outline:1 transcribe:3 translate:3 one:2 difference:1 prokaryotic:5 contain:2 intron:6 intervene:1 sequence:7 must:2 splice:6 rna:8 primary:1 transcript:1 become:1 subject:1 desirable:1 simplified:1 method:2 would:3 include:2 addition:1 however:1 since:1 lack:1 machinery:1 splicing:1 prior:1 add:5 make:2 call:1 obtain:3 encode:1 regulatory:1 require:2 g:5 promoter:1 synthesis:1 though:1 several:1 fully:1 operate:1 single:2 strand:6 generate:1 base:3 pairing:1 pair:1 u:1 c:3 complement:2 respectively:1 whose:1 pre:2 process:2 poly:3 tail:2 methyl:1 guanine:1 cap:1 mixture:1 extract:1 oligonucleotide:1 primer:3 hybridize:2 onto:1 random:1 hexamer:1 every:1 possible:1 therefore:1 anywhere:1 double:1 segment:1 start:1 operation:1 along:1 deoxynucleoside:1 triphosphates:1 scan:1 note:1 break:1 application:1 cloning:1 probe:1 creation:1 library:1 another:1 order:1 new:1 genetic:1 material:1 rather:1 entire:2 may:1 code:1 interrupt:1 partial:1 expressed:1 tag:1 viruses:1 turn:1 viral:3 take:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 h:1 invitational:1 database:2 functional:1 annotation:1 mouse:1 animation:1 flash:1 \|@bigram mature_mrna:4 reaction_catalyze:1 catalyze_enzyme:1 reverse_transcriptase:5 simian_immunodeficiency:1 immunodeficiency_virus:1 dogma_molecular:2 molecular_biology:2 transcribe_mrna:1 eukaryotic_prokaryotic:1 prokaryotic_cell:1 eukaryotic_cell:1 pre_mrna:2 poly_tail:2 strand_dna:2 viral_rna:2 rna_mrna:1 external_link:1
6,051	Fibonacci	Statue of Fibonacci. Camposanto, Pisa. Leonardo of Pisa (c. 1170 – c. 1250), also known as Leonardo Pisano, Leonardo Bonacci, Leonardo Fibonacci, or, most commonly, simply Fibonacci, was an Italian mathematician, considered by some "the most talented mathematician of the Middle Ages". Howard Eves. An Introduction to the History of Mathematics. Brooks Cole, 1990: ISBN 0-03-029558-0 (6th ed.), p 261. Fibonacci is best known to the modern world for: Leonardo Pisano - page 3: "Contributions to number theory". Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2006. Accessed 18 September 2006. The spreading of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Europe, primarily through the publication in the early 13th century of his Book of Calculation, the Liber Abaci. A number sequence named after him known as the Fibonacci numbers, which he did not discover but used as an example in the Liber Abaci. Parmanand Singh. "Acharya Hemachandra and the (so called) Fibonacci Numbers". Math. Ed. Siwan , 20(1):28-30, 1986. ISSN 0047-6269] Biography Leonardo was born in Pisa, Italy in about 1170 to 1250. His father Guglielmo was nicknamed Bonacio ("good natured" or "simple"). Leonardo's mother, Alessandra, died when he was nine years old. Leonardo was posthumously given the nickname Fibonacci (derived from filius Bonacci, meaning son of Bonaccio). See the incipit of the Liber Abaci: "Incipit liber Abaci Compositus a leonardo filio Bonacij Pisano" (copied from the "Prologus" of the Liber Ab(b)aci at Latin Wikisource - emphasis added), in English: "Here starts the book of Calculation Written by Leonardo son of Bonaccio, from Pisa" Guglielmo directed a trading post (by some accounts he was the consultant for Pisa) in Bugia, a port east of Algiers in the Almohad dynasty's sultanate in North Africa (now Bejaia, Algeria). As a young boy, Leonardo traveled to the Middle East where he learned Hindu Arabic numerals. This is where he learned about the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. Recognizing that arithmetic with Hindu-Arabic numerals is simpler and more efficient than with Roman numerals, Fibonacci traveled throughout the Mediterranean world to study under the leading Arab mathematicians of the time. Leonardo returned from his travels around 1200. In 1202, at age 32, he published what he had learned in Liber Abaci (Book of Abacus or Book of Calculation), and thereby introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe. Leonardo became an amicable guest of the Emperor Frederick II, who enjoyed mathematics and science. In 1240 the Republic of Pisa honored Leonardo, referred to as Leonardo Bigollo, See the incipit of Flos: "Incipit flos Leonardi bigolli pisani..." (quoted in the MS Word document Sources in Recreational Mathematics: An Annotated Bibliography by David Singmaster, 18 March 2004 - emphasis added), in English: "Here starts 'the flower' by Leonardo the wanderer of Pisa..."The basic meanings of "bigollo" appear to be "good-for-nothing" and "traveler" (so it could be translated by "vagrant", "vagabond" or "tramp"). A. F. Horadam contends a connotation of "bigollo" is "absent-minded" (see first footnote of "Eight hundred years young"), which is also one of the connotations of the English word "wandering". The translation "the wanderer" in the quote above tries to combine the various connotations of the word "bigollo" in a single English word. by granting him a salary. In the 19th century, a statue of Fibonacci was constructed and erected in Pisa. Today it is located in the western gallery of the Camposanto, historical cemetery on the Piazza dei Miracoli. Fibonacci's Statue in Pisa Liber Abaci In the Liber Abaci (1202), Fibonacci introduces the so-called modus Indorum (method of the Indians), today known as Arabic numerals (Sigler 2003; Grimm 1973). The book advocated numeration with the digits 0–9 and place value. The book showed the practical importance of the new numeral system, using lattice multiplication and Egyptian fractions, by applying it to commercial bookkeeping, conversion of weights and measures, the calculation of interest, money-changing, and other applications. The book was well received throughout educated Europe and had a profound impact on European thought. Liber Abaci also posed, and solved, a problem involving the growth of a hypothetical population of rabbits based on idealized assumptions. The solution, generation by generation, was a sequence of numbers later known as Fibonacci numbers. The number sequence was known to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century, but it was Fibonacci's Liber Abaci that introduced it to the West. Fibonacci sequence In the Fibonacci sequence of numbers, each number is the sum of the previous two numbers, starting with 0 and 1. Thus the sequence begins 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610 etc. The higher up in the sequence, the closer two consecutive "Fibonacci numbers" of the sequence divided by each other will approach the golden ratio (approximately 1 : 1.618 or 0.618 : 1). The golden ratio was used widely in the Renaissance in paintings. In popular culture Fibonacci's name was adopted by a Los Angeles-based art rock group, The Fibonaccis, that recorded from 1982-1987. Fibonacci and the Fibonacci numbers are mentioned as a code to unlock a vessel in Dan Brown's best selling novel, The Da Vinci Code, and its movie adaptation. A youthful Fibonacci is one of the main characters in the novel Crusade in Jeans (1973). He was left out of the 2006 movie version, however. Books written by Fibonacci Liber Abaci (1202), a book on calculations (English translation by Laurence Sigler, Springer, 2002) Practica Geometriae (1220), a compendium on geometry and trigonometry. Flos (1225), solutions to problems posed by Johannes of Palermo Liber quadratorum, ("The Book of Squares") on Diophantine equations, dedicated to Emperor Frederick II. See in particular Fibonacci's identity. Di minor guisa (on commercial arithmetic; lost) Commentary on Book X of Euclid's Elements (lost) See also Acharya Hemachandra Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity Carmichael's theorem Casey Mongoven Egyptian fraction Elliott wave principle Engel expansion Fibonacci coding Fibonacci heap Fibonacci prime Fibonacci search technique Golden ratio Hylomorphism (computer science) Lagged Fibonacci generator Lucas number Negafibonacci NegaFibonacci coding Pisano period Practical number Primefree sequence Reciprocal Fibonacci constant Verner Emil Hoggatt, Jr. Virahanka Viswanath's constant Zeckendorf's theorem Notes References Goetzmann, William N. and Rouwenhorst, K.Geert, The Origins of Value: The Financial Innovations That Created Modern Capital Markets (2005, Oxford University Press Inc, USA), ISBN 0195175719. Grimm, R. E., "The Autobiography of Leonardo Pisano", Fibonacci Quarterly, Vol. 11, No. 1, February 1973, pp. 99-104. A. F. Horadam, "Eight hundred years young," The Australian Mathematics Teacher 31 (1975) 123-134. External links Who was Fibonacci? by Ron Knott. Goetzmann, William N., Fibonacci and the Financial Revolution (October 23, 2003), Yale School of Management International Center for Finance Working Paper No. 03-28 Charles Burnett, Leonard of Pisa (Fibonacci) and Arabic Arithmetic - the Medieval background to Fibonacci's work Fibonacci at Convergence wallstreetcosmos.com, Fibonacci numbers and stock market analysis, (2008). O'Connor, John J and Robertson, Edmund F. "Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci – 1170 - 1250" in The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews website, Scotland, 1998. 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6,052	Cruise_missile	United States/UK Tomahawk cruise missile A modern Taurus KEPD 350 cruise missile of the German Luftwaffe A cruise missile is a guided missile that carries an explosive payload and uses a lifting wing and a propulsion system, usually a jet engine, to allow sustained flight; it is essentially a flying bomb. Cruise missiles are generally designed to carry a large conventional or nuclear warhead many hundreds of miles with high accuracy. Modern cruise missiles can travel at supersonic or high subsonic speeds, are self-navigating, and fly on a non-ballistic very low altitude trajectory in order to avoid radar detection. In general (and for the purposes of this article), cruise missiles are distinct from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) in that they are used only as weapons and not for reconnaissance, the warhead is integrated into the vehicle, and the vehicle is always sacrificed in the mission. Concise history In the period between the World Wars Great Britain developed the Larynx (Long Range Gun with Lynx Engine) which underwent a few flight tests in the 1920s. In the Soviet Union Sergey Korolev headed the GIRD-06 cruise missile project from 1932-1939, which used a rocket-powered boost-glide design. The 06/III (RP-216) and 06/IV (RP-212) contained gyroscopic guidance systems. Germany first deployed cruise style missiles, during World War II. The V-1 contained a gyroscopic guidance system and was propelled by a simple pulse-jet engine, the sound of which gave the V-1 its nickname of "doodlebug". Accuracy was sufficient only for use against very large targets (the general area of a city). The V-1 and similar early weapons are often referred to as flying bombs. Also in World War II the Imperial Japanese forces used piloted aircraft with an explosive payload known as kamikazes, and the purpose-built and piloted rocket engined Ohka. Immediately after the war the United States Air Force had 21 different guided missile projects including would-be cruise missiles. All were cancelled by 1948 except four: the Air Material Command BANSHEE, the SM-62 Snark, the SM-64 Navaho, and the MGM-1 Matador. The BANSHEE design was similar to Operation Aphrodite; like Aphrodite it failed, and was canceled in April 1949. The Evolution of the Cruise Missile by Werrell, Kenneth P. see PDF page 92 During the Cold War period both the United States and the Soviet Union experimented further with the concept, deploying early cruise missiles from land, submarines and aircraft. The main outcome of the U.S. Navy submarine missile project was the SSM-N-8 Regulus missile, based upon the V-1. The U.S. Air Force's first operational surface-to-surface missile was the winged, mobile, nuclear-capable MGM-1 Matador, also similar in concept to the V-1. Deployment overseas began in 1954, first to West Germany and later to the Republic of China (Taiwan) and South Korea. On November 7, 1956 U. S. Air Force Matador units in West Germany, whose missiles were capable of striking targets in the Warsaw Pact, deployed from their fixed day-to-day sites to unannounced dispersed launch locations. This alert was in response to the crisis posed by the Soviet attack on Hungary which suppressed the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. Between 1957 and 1961 the United States followed an ambitious and well-funded program to develop a nuclear-powered cruise missile, Project Pluto. It was designed to fly below the enemy's radar at speeds above Mach 3 and carry a number of hydrogen bombs that it would drop on its path over enemy territory. Although the concept was proven sound and the 500 megawatt engine finished a successful test run in 1961, no airworthy device was ever completed. The project was finally abandoned in favor of ICBM development. While ballistic missiles were the preferred weapons for land targets, heavy nuclear and conventional tipped cruise missiles were seen by the USSR as a primary weapon to destroy U.S. naval carrier battle groups. Large submarines (e.g. Echo and Oscar classes) were developed to carry these weapons and shadow U.S. battle groups at sea, and large bombers (e.g. Backfire, Bear, and Blackjack models) were equipped with the weapons in their air-launched cruise missile (ALCM) configuration. Babur cruise missile General design Cruise missiles generally consist of a guidance system, payload, and propulsion system, housed in an airframe with small wings and empennage for flight control. Payloads usually consist of a conventional warhead or a nuclear warhead. Cruise missiles tend to be propelled by a jet engine, turbofan engines being preferred due to their greater efficiency at low altitude and sub-sonic speed. Guidance systems also vary greatly. Low-cost systems use a radar altimeter, barometric altimeter and clock to navigate a digital strip map. More advanced systems use inertial guidance, satellite navigation and terrain contour matching (TERCOM). Use of an automatic target recognition (ATR) algorithm/device in the guidance system increases accuracy of the missile. The Standoff Land Attack Missile features an ATR unit from General Electric. Categories Cruise missiles can be categorized by size, speed (subsonic or supersonic), and range, and whether launched from land, air, surface ship, or submarine. Often versions of the same missile are produced for different launch platforms; sometimes air- and submarine-launched versions are a little lighter and smaller than land- and ship-launched versions. Guidance systems can vary across missiles. Some missiles can be fitted with any of a variety of navigation systems (Inertial navigation, TERCOM, or satellite navigation). Larger cruise missiles can carry either a conventional or a nuclear warhead, while smaller ones carry only conventional warheads. Hypersonic A Hypersonic variant of the BrahMos cruise missile called the BrahMos-II http://www.domain-b.com/aero/mil_avi/miss_muni/20080513_hypersonic_version.html is being jointly developed by India and Russia. The development of missile has already started and has been Lab Tested with speeds of Mach 5.26 Once developed it will be the first Hypersonic cruise missile and the fastest cruise missile in the world. BrahMos-II Hypersonic (India) (Lab Tested with speeds of Mach 5.26) http://www.domain-b.com/aero/mil_avi/miss_muni/20080513_hypersonic_version.html Supersonic These missiles travel faster than the speed of sound, usually using ramjet engines. The range is typically 100-500 km, but can be greater. Guidance systems vary. BrahMos at the Indian Republic Day Parade Examples: Supersonic Low Altitude Missile (SLAM) (not to be confused with the similarly named subsonic Standoff Land Attack Missile) and SM-64 Navaho were U.S. early-cold-war era projects for strategic long-range cruise missiles. Neither was accepted into service. P-500 Bazalt (Soviet Union/Russia) P-270 Moskit "Sunburn" (Soviet Union/Russia) P-800 Oniks (Soviet Union) P-700 Granit (Soviet Union/Russia) 3M-54 Klub (Russia) supersonic terminal stage only C-101 (China) C-301 (China) C-803 (China/Pakistan) supersonic terminal stage only C-805 (China) KD-88 (China) YJ-91 (China) BrahMos (India/Russia) Long-range subsonic Both the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. developed several long-range subsonic cruise missiles. These missiles have a range of over 1,000 km and fly at about 800 km/h. They typically have a launch weight of about 1,500 kg, and can carry either a conventional or a nuclear warhead. Earlier versions of these missiles used inertial navigation; later versions use much more accurate TERCOM and DSMAC systems. Most recent versions can use satellite navigation. Examples: AGM-86B (United states) BGM-109 Tomahawk (United States/United Kingdom) Kh-55 Granat (U.S.S.R.) DH-10 (China) HN-I (China) HN-II (China) HN-III (China) Hyunmoo IIIC (South Korea) Babur 2 (Pakistan, Under Development) Nirbhay (India, Under Development) Medium-range subsonic These missiles are about the same size and weight and fly at similar speeds to the above category, but the range is (officially) less than 1,000 km. Guidance systems vary. Examples: KD-63 (China) Taurus KEPD 350 (Germany/Sweden) Storm Shadow/SCALP (UK/France) Babur (Pakistan) Ra'ad ALCM (Pakistan) Hyunmoo IIIA/B (South Korea) Short-range These are subsonic missiles which weigh around 500 kg (1,100 lb) and have a range of 70-300 km (40-200 mi). Navigation systems are usually simpler than those of larger missiles. They are not always called "cruise" missiles. Examples: Exocet (France) AGM-84 Harpoon (United States) Naval Strike Missile (Norway) RBS 15 (Sweden/Germany) Silkworm (China) C-801 (China) C-802 (China) C-602 (China) Sea Eagle (UK) Deployment The most common mission for cruise missiles is to attack relatively high value targets such as ships, command bunkers, bridges and dams. Modern guidance system permit precise attacks. (As of 2001) the BGM-109 Tomahawk missile model has become a significant part of the U.S. naval arsenal. It gives ships and submarines an extremely accurate, long-range, conventional land attack weapon. Each costs about $600,000 U.S.D. The US Navy - Fact File The US Air Force deploys an air launched cruise missile, the AGM-86. It can be launched from bombers like the B-52 Stratofortress. Both the Tomahawk and the AGM-86 were used extensively during Operation Desert Storm. Both Tomahawk (as AGM-109) and ALCM (AGM-86) were competing designs for the U.S.A.F. ALCM nuclear tipped cruise missile to be carried by the B-52 heavy bomber. The U.S.AF adopted the AGM-86 for its bomber fleet while AGM-109 was adapted to launch from trucks and ships and adopted by the U.S.AF and Navy. The truck-launched versions, and also the Pershing II and SS-20 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles, were later destroyed under the bilateral INF (Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces) treaty with the U.S.S.R. The British Royal Navy (RN) also operates cruise missiles, specifically the U.S.-made Tomahawk, used by the RN's nuclear submarine fleet. Conventional warhead versions were first fired in combat by the RN in 1999, during the Kosovo War. The Royal Air Force uses the Storm Shadow cruise missile on its Tornado GR4 aircraft. It is also used by France, where it is known as SCALP EG, and carried by the Armée de l'Air's Mirage 2000 and Rafale aircraft. India and Russia have jointly developed the supersonic cruise missile BrahMos. There are three versions of the Brahmos: ship/land-launched, air-launched and sub-launched. The ship/land-launched version were operational as of late 2007. The Brahmos has the capability to attack targets on land. Russia also continues to operate other cruise missiles: the SS-N-12 Sandbox, SS-N-19 Shipwreck, SS-N-22 Sunburn and SS-N-25 Switchblade. Germany and Spain operate the Taurus missile while Pakistan has developed its own cruise missile somewhat similar to Tomahawk cruise missile, named the Babur missile. Both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) have designed several cruise missile variants, such as the well-known C-802, some of which are capable of carrying biological, chemical, nuclear, and conventional warheads. Nuclear warhead versions SSM-N-8 Regulus The U.S. has 460 AGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missiles (ACMs) with a W80 nuclear warhead (5 kt or 150 kt selectable yield) for B-52 Stratofortress (B-52H) external carriage. Also there are ca. 350 sea-launched cruise missiles with the same nuclear warhead. The range of the missile is 3000 km. These missiles have been "mothballed" and placed in storage. The SSM-N-8 Regulus was also designed for a nuclear warhead. See also: The United States and weapons of mass destruction Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty Woensdrecht Russia has Kh-55SM cruise missiles, with similar to U.S. AGM-129 range of 3000 km, but are able to carry more powerful warhead of 200 kt. India is developing a cruise missile capable of carrying a 300 kt nuclear warhead to a distance of 1,200 km.[citation needed] Efficiency in modern warfare Cruise missiles are among the most expensive of single-use weapons, up to several million dollars apiece. One consequence of this is that its users face difficult choices in targeting, to avoid expending the missiles on targets of low value. For instance during Operation Enduring Freedom the United States attacked targets of very low monetary value with cruise missiles, which led many to question the efficiency of the weapon. However, proponents of the cruise missile counter that the same counterargument applies to cruise missiles as to other types of UAVs: they are cheaper than human pilots when total training and infrastructure costs are taken into account, not to mention the risk of loss of personnel. References See also List of missiles by country External links Cruise Missiles in the UK During the Cold War The Evolution of the Cruise Missile by Werrell, Kenneth P. The Cruise Missile: Precursors and Problems by Werrell, Kenneth P. An introduction to cruise missiles From the website of the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) Feasibility of Third World Advanced Ballistic & Cruise Missile Threat NDIA 155 slide presentation from 1999 The DIY cruise missile The W80 Warhead Cruise Missile Fundamentals Tomahawk Variants Bypassing the NMD: China and the Cruise Missile Proliferation Problem (Kh-55) Video of cruise missile formation over Iraq A commercial terrain matching image-based navigation system (with video)	Cruise_missile \|@lemmatized united:10 state:9 uk:4 tomahawk:8 cruise:52 missile:82 modern:4 taurus:3 kepd:2 german:1 luftwaffe:1 guided:1 carry:12 explosive:2 payload:4 use:17 lifting:1 wing:2 propulsion:2 system:17 usually:4 jet:3 engine:7 allow:1 sustained:1 flight:3 essentially:1 fly:6 bomb:3 generally:2 design:8 large:6 conventional:9 nuclear:17 warhead:16 many:2 hundred:1 mile:1 high:3 accuracy:3 travel:2 supersonic:7 subsonic:7 speed:8 self:1 navigating:1 non:1 ballistic:4 low:6 altitude:3 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6,053	Doctor_Syn	The Reverend Doctor Christopher Syn is the smuggler hero of a series of novels by Russell Thorndike. The first book, Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh was published in 1915. The story idea came from smuggling in the 18th century Romney Marsh, where brandy and tobacco were brought in at night by boat from France to avoid high tax. Minor battles were fought, sometimes at night, between gangs of smugglers, such as the Hawkhurst Gang and the Revenue, supported by the army and local militias in the South, Kent and the West, Sussex. Character biography Christopher Syn is portrayed as a brilliant scholar from Queen's College, Oxford, possessing swashbuckling skills such as riding, fencing, and seamanship. He was content to live the quiet life of a country vicar in Dymchurch-under-the-Wall under the patronage of Sir Charles Cobtree, the father of his best friend Anthony Cobtree, until his beautiful young Spanish wife Imogene was seduced by and eloped with Nicholas Tappitt, whom Dr. Syn had considered a close friend. Christopher Syn set out on a quest for revenge, always managing to reach the eloped pair's destinations ahead of them just in time to terrify them against landing and facing him in a deliberate campaign of terror. While sailing from Spain to America in pursuit, his ship was captured by the pirate ship The Sulphur Pit, commanded by the Negro Captain Satan. In a one-on-one fight, Syn defeated and killed Captain Satan to take command of his ship and crew; among them was Mr. Mipps, a former Royal Navy carpenter with whom Syn had become friends in England after rescuing him from the Customs men. Mipps swore loyalty to Syn from that time onward. With Mipps at his side, Syn turned to piracy and became a great success. Later, when his crew refused to let Syn leave, Syn and Mipps slipped away in one of the ship's boats; unknown to Syn, Mipps had arranged a convenient "accident" in the ship's powder hold with an exploding barrel of gunpowder, eliminating witnesses of Syn's piratic acts. Mipps then joined Syn in his quest for revenge, pursuing Tappitt and Imogene throughout the thirteen American colonies (supposedly preaching the gospel to the Indians) and around the world (as part of a whaling voyage) afterwards, and was with him in the Caribbean when Dr. Syn turned again to piracy, assuming the name of Captain Clegg (taking the name "Clegg" from a certain vicious biting fly he had encountered in America), hijacking his enemy Tappitt's own ship and crew and sailing off with them (renaming the ship the Imogene) to become the most infamous pirate of the day. However, a mulatto who escaped the destruction of Syn's previous ship stowed away in Clegg's ship and accused him before the crew; Clegg quelled the potential mutiny by having the mulatto's tongue cut out, marooning him on a coral reef and violently killing Yellow Pete, the ship's Chinese cook, who represented the crew in their wish to rescue the mulatto. Afterwards, realizing that Clegg had become too notorious, Syn decided to abandon his quest and return to England, and Mipps set up a second "accidental" explosion to destroy the Imogene and her crew. Syn returned to England on the night of a storm that wrecked his brig off the English coast in sight of Dymchurch. That night he went to the house of his old friend (and now squire) Anthony Cobtree. When news came that that the local vicar had drowned while trying to save victims of the shipwreck, Squire Cobtree offered the post to Christopher Syn. Syn accepted and settled down to a more respectable life as the vicar of Dymchurch and Dean of Peculiars in Romney Marsh, Kent, resuming his original name. Mipps arrived in Dymchurch with the intent of settling down. Syn made him the village sexton upon condition that Mipps "remember to forget" (that Syn had been Clegg and that they had known each other before), and that Mipps never get involved with the local smugglers. Syn soon became aware that his parishioners were smuggling goods from France to avoid the extravagant customs duties the government charged. Learning from Mipps (who, contrary to Syn's orders, had become a leader of the smugglers) that certain townsfolk had been ambushed and captured during a smuggling run, Syn purchased the great black stallion Gehenna from gypsies and raced to their rescue. A suit of clothing borrowed from a scarecrow made an improvised disguise, and Syn and Mipps were able to rescue the townsfolk from the Dragoons. After this, Syn decided that he could only protect his people by becoming their leader. He created a more elaborate scarecrow costume, with eerie luminous paint. At night riding Gehenna, the respectable Dr. Christopher Syn became the "Scarecrow", the feared head of the smugglers. Together with Mipps, he organized the smugglers into a well-organized band of "night riders", called "The Devil Riders" with macabre disguises and code-names. Syn's cunning was so great that the smugglers outwitted the government forces for many years. A hidden stable watched over by Mother Handaway, the local "witch" (who believed the Scarecrow to be The Devil in living form), was the hiding place for the horses of the Scarecrow and his lieutenants, Mipps and the local highwayman Jimmie Bone (who, being as good a horseman as Syn, was sometimes called upon to impersonate the Scarecrow when Syn either had to be elsewhere or seen in the same place as him). Shortly after the first appearances of the Scarecrow, Nicholas Tappitt (using the name "Colonel Delacourt") and the ailing Imogene returned to England, ending up in Dymchurch. Recognizing Syn as Clegg, Tappitt realized that Syn and the Scarecrow were the same and helped the authorities set a trap for him, hoping to both rid himself of his enemy and claim the reward for his capture. The trap was sprung, but Squire Cobtree's daughter Charlotte, who had fallen in love with Syn and also learned his secret identities as both Clegg and the Scarecrow, was the tragic victim when she dressed in the Scarecrow's disguise and was fatally wounded as a result. Tappitt was then suspected of being the Scarecrow, and a Customs officer and three constables came to arrest him. In the ensuing fight, Tappitt killed the Customs man and the constables subdued and arrested Tappitt for murdering the Customs officer. After Imogene's death in Syn's arms (during which she revealed to him that he had a son by her who was missing somewhere in America), Syn fought a final duel with Tappitt in his jail cell, defeating him. Syn then struck a bargain with Tappitt: If Tappitt confessed to being the notorious pirate Clegg, then Syn would look after and care for Tappitt and Imogene's new-born infant daughter (also named Imogene). Tappitt agreed, and "Captain Clegg" was hanged and later "buried without benefit of clergy at a cross-roads hard by the Kent Ditch." Many years later, Captain Collyer, a Royal Navy officer assigned to smash the local smuggling ring, uncovered the deception and Dr. Syn's true identity, thanks in part to the tongueless mulatto (who had been rescued by Collyer years before and who had been serving Collyer as a "ferret" seeking out hidden contraband) who recognized Syn as Clegg. Syn evaded capture while at the same time making sure that Imogene and Squire Cobtree's son Dennis (who had fallen in love with Imogene) would have a happy life together (they were eventually married), but was murdered in revenge by the mulatto, who then mysteriously managed to escape, leaving Syn harpooned through the neck. As a last mark of respect, Collyer ordered that Syn be buried at sea, rather than have his body hung in chains. Mipps escaped in the confusion of Syn's death and disappeared from England, but it is said that a little man very much like him is living out his days in a Buddhist Monastery somewhere in the Malay Peninsula, delighting the monks with recounting the adventures of Doctor Syn and the eerie stories of the Romney Marsh and the mysterious Scarecrow and his night riders. Publication history The Dr. Syn books detail his adventures and attempts to evade the Excise tax. There are: Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh (1915) Doctor Syn on the High Seas (1935) Doctor Syn Returns (1936) Further Adventures of Doctor Syn (1936) Courageous Exploits of Doctor Syn (1938) Amazing Quest of Doctor Syn (1939) Shadow of Doctor Syn (1944) An expanded version of Doctor Syn Returns titled The Scarecrow Rides was published by The Dial Press in 1935. In 1960 American author William Buchanan used the character in his novel Christopher Syn. This is essentially a reworking of Further Adventures of Doctor Syn with a different conclusion and some conflation and renaming of the supporting characters. Christopher Syn became the basis for the 1962 Disney production (see below). There was also a book adaptation of the Disney theatrical version, titled Doctor Syn, Alias the Scarecrow and written by Vic Crume. In other media Movies Three film adaptations have been made of Dr. Syn's exploits. Doctor Syn The first, Doctor Syn (1937), featured noted actor George Arliss in the title role and was its star's last film. The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh Another version, The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh, was produced as a three-part television miniseries by Walt Disney in 1963 and starred Patrick McGoohan of Danger Man/Secret Agent and The Prisoner fame in the title role. While originally conceived and edited for American television (and announced in an advertisement by NBC in the Tuesday, July 9, 1963 issue of The Hollywood Reporter), the production was re-edited for a British theatrical run before the American television debut. Titled Dr. Syn Alias The Scarecrow, the British theatrical version was released on a double bill with The Sword In The Stone, and ran during the 1963 Christmas season (advertised in the January 1964 issue of Photoplay). This version was shown in Europe as well as Central and South America through 1966. In the 1970s, the production was re-edited again for its first American theatrical release, on double bills with both Snow White and Treasure Island. (This was also the VHS version of the 1980s, easily identifiable by the Scarecrow's laugh having been removed from Terry Gilkyson's title song.) It was re-edited yet again for a two-part presentation on Disney's 1970s television series. The original three-part miniseries version was shown on Disney's Wonderful World Of Color, February 9, 16 and 23, 1964, and shown again, unedited, in the 1990's on the Disney Channel. This version generally followed the storyline of The Further Adventures of Dr. Syn and made it clear that Syn did not die: At film's end, he is waving goodbye to Britishers fleeing to the American colonies. He does not stage his own death. On November 11, 2008 the Walt Disney company released a limited pressing of 39,500 issues of The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh in DVD format for the first time as a part of the "Disney Treasures" collection, and was now called Dr. Syn: The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh. The issue sold out in three weeks, but as of February 17, 2009 the DVD was made available for members of the Disney movie club for $29.95. The film had only been available on VHS for a short time. The two-disc set includes the American television version and the theatrical version Dr. Syn Alias The Scarecrow in widescreen format. It also includes the original introductions by Walt Disney and a documentary on Disney's interest in Dr. Syn. The Disney versions were shot on location in England. The church in the movie is St. Clement's Church in the village of Old Romney. Captain Clegg In 1962, Captain Clegg (released as Night Creatures in the U.S.) was produced by Hammer Film Productions with horror movie actor Peter Cushing in the lead role, directed by Peter Graham Scott. In the screenplay by Anthony Hinds, the main character's name was changed from Doctor Syn to Parson Blyss to avoid rights problems with Disney's upcoming film version, and Captain Cleggs screenplay follows the novel Doctor Syn and the screenplay of the 1937 film closely with the exception of a tightening of the plot. In the Arliss movie Doctor Syn, Syn escapes to sea with Mipps and the rest of the Dymchurch smugglers, whereas Captain Clegg ends more faithfully to the novel, with Parson Blyss being killed by the mulatto (who is then killed by Mipps) and then being carried to and buried in Captain Clegg's empty grave by Mipps. Night Creatures was never released on videotape in the United States, but is included in the two-disc DVD collection, The Hammer Horror Series.Carry On DickMade in 1974, "Carry On Dick", of the celebrated Carry On series of films, followed the same premise of a country vicar (Sid James) who is secretly an outlaw, in this case the highwayman Dick Turpin. TheatreDoctor Syn In 2001 the first stage adaptation was performed at churches throughout the Romney Marsh, the final night being performed in Dymchurch itself. The cast combined professional actors such as Daniel Thorndike (the author's son), Michael Fields, Steven Povey and Ben Barton, along with various amateurs from the marshes. Although filmed, and covered heavily by the press, pressure from Disney (which owns parts of the concept) prevented further distribution. Audio adaptationsDoctor Syn Rufus Sewell read a 10-part audio adaptation combining and abridging Doctor Syn on the High Seas and Doctor Syn Returns for BBC Radio, broadcast on BBC Radio 7 in December 2006 and repeated in June 2007.The Further Adventures of Doctor Syn A 10-part audio adaptation of The Further Adventures of Doctor Syn (combining and abridging The Further Adventures of Doctor Syn and The Shadow of Doctor Syn) read by Rufus Sewell was performed on BBC Radio 7 in December 2007. In April 2009 a third series was announced for broadcast later in 2009.No Quarter''' John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin reinterpreted elements of the Doctor Syn story as his "No Quarter" fantasy sequence in Led Zeppelin's concert film The Song Remains the Same. Comic Books A much abridged revision of the adventures of Dr. Syn appeared as a short comic serialized in the monthly publication Disney Adventures. The new story features the heroic Doctor and his young sidekick protecting innocent villagers from corrupt government officials and soldiers. Doctor Syn appears in the League of Extraordinary Gentlemen series as a member of the league gathered by Lemuel Gulliver. His alter ego, Captain Clegg, also makes appearances, where he is mentioned to have had a brief romantic liaison with future teammate Fanny Hill Cultural legacy A "Days of Syn" festival is held even-numbered years by Dymchurch residents for fund-raising. The 2006 "Days of Syn" was on 26–28 August (UK August Bank Holiday weekend) and featured a talk on Dr. Syn at the Anglican church at 6:30 p.m. On Sunday at 3 p.m. there was a church service where Dr. Syn and the cast appeared in period costume. On Monday, starting at the Bowery Hall, scenes were reenacted from Doctor Syn'', and again during the day along the Dymchurch shoreline and in the Ocean pub. External links The Life and Times of the Rev. Doctor Christopher Syn Dymchurch Online Information about the character, novels and movies, with contact information for the Days of Syn Committee. "Days of Syn" 2006 Information on the 2006 Doctor Syn Festival. Information on Dr. Syn and photos of the 2006 Days of Syn Dr. Syn Website Comprehensive Dr. Syn website with history, picture & book information about Russell Thorndike's infamous character	Doctor_Syn \|@lemmatized reverend:1 doctor:30 christopher:8 syn:95 smuggler:8 hero:1 series:6 novel:5 russell:2 thorndike:3 first:6 book:5 tale:2 romney:11 marsh:11 publish:2 story:4 idea:1 come:3 smuggle:2 century:1 brandy:1 tobacco:1 bring:1 night:10 boat:2 france:2 avoid:3 high:3 tax:2 minor:1 battle:1 fight:4 sometimes:2 gang:2 hawkhurst:1 revenue:1 support:2 army:1 local:6 militia:1 south:2 kent:3 west:1 sussex:1 character:6 biography:1 portray:1 brilliant:1 scholar:1 queen:1 college:1 oxford:1 possess:1 swashbuckling:1 skill:1 riding:1 fencing:1 seamanship:1 content:1 live:3 quiet:1 life:4 country:2 vicar:4 dymchurch:10 wall:1 patronage:1 sir:1 charles:1 cobtree:6 father:1 best:1 friend:4 anthony:3 beautiful:1 young:2 spanish:1 wife:1 imogene:10 seduce:1 elope:1 nicholas:2 tappitt:13 dr:17 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6,054	Believer's_baptism	Believer’s baptism (occasionally called credobaptism, from the Latin word credo) is the Christian practice of baptism as this is understood by many Protestant churches, especially those that descend from the Anabaptist tradition. A person is baptized on the basis of his or her profession of faith in Jesus Christ and as admission into a local community of faith. It may be contrasted to infant baptism (pedobaptism or paedobaptism, from the Greek paido meaning “child”), in which children may be baptized upon request of a parent who professes faith. Such baptisms are performed in various manners: believer's baptism by immersion is more common than by aspersion. A minister prepares to baptize a new believer. Theology Christians who practice believer's baptism believe that saving grace and church membership are gifts from God by the recipient's faith alone and cannot be imparted or transferred from one person to another (such as from parent to child) by sacraments such as baptism. These tenets render infant baptism meaningless within their belief system. Because infants cannot hear or believe the gospel message, neither can they repent or profess Christ as the Son of God. Credobaptists have differing views concerning the status of children who are too young to profess faith (Matthew 19:14, Mark 10:14, Luke 18:16). Believer’s baptism is held by some Baptists Evangelicals to have no saving effect, but to be a public expression of faith, symbolically representative of the baptisand’s own conversion. Other Christian groups hold baptism to have salvific value. Churches of Christ for example, teach that baptism by immersion is a necessary part of salvation without which one cannot enter into the kingdom of God, John 3:3–5; 1 Peter 3:21. The church, set up by Christ with the keys given to the Apostles (Matthew 16:16–18, 18:18) was established on the Day of Pentecost in Acts 2 and required baptism for “remission of sins” amongst the penitent believers and promised the “gift of the Holy Spirit” (Acts 2:38). Without the indwelling Holy Spirit obtained at the time of immersion, there is no salvation, Acts 5:32, Romans 8:9–11, 16. Arguments for Credobaptism Scripture Advocates of believer’s baptism argue that the New Testament does not describe instances of infant baptism, and that during the New Testament era, the early church required converts to have conscious, deliberate faith in Jesus Christ. Defenders of infant baptism counter that the book of Acts records instances of the baptism of entire households, and that these baptisms likely included children. However, none of the passages cited by defenders of infant baptism expressly state that the household included young children who were not capable of conscious belief, while some of the stories about household baptisms explicitly state that all members of the household believed prior to baptism. Defenders of infant baptism sometimes claim that baptism replaces the Jewish practice of circumcision, and is therefore appropriate for infants. Advocates of believer’s baptism counter that no New Testament passages state that baptism replaces circumcision. On the contrary, the Jerusalem council in Acts 15 was called to clarify circumcision, long after the practice of baptism was established. In the old Covenant, males were circumcised. In the new, all — male and female, Jew and Greek, bond and free — may join the family of God. Many Reformed Baptists, however, agree with the principles of Covenant Theology and agree that Baptism has, in a sense, replaced circumcision as the sign of covenant. They disagree with the typical Reformed argument that, as the sign of the covenant in the Old Testament (namely circumcision) was administered to infants, so should the sign of the covenant in the New Testament church (namely baptism) be ministered to infants. They (Reformed Baptists) argue that the covenant community in the Old Testament constituted the physical sons of Abraham and made up physical Israel whereas the covenant community in the New Testament constitutes the spiritual sons of Abraham and thus form the spiritual Israel. Thus, they argue, the sign of the covenant should only be administered to spiritual sons. From Galatians 3:7, they (Reformed Baptists) argue that it is “people of faith who are the sons of Abraham” and baptism should be administered only to confessing believers and not infants, who are incapable of producing the requisite faith. A Celebration of Baptism, http://www.desiringgod.org/ResourceLibrary/sermons/bydate/1982/342_A_Celebration_of_Baptism/. Theologians from churches that teach that baptism is required for salvation sometimes point to Jesus' statement that children should be allowed to come to him. Advocates of believer's baptism counter that Jesus blessed the children and did not baptize them. History Defenders of infant baptism have attempted to trace the practice to the New Testament era, but generally acknowledge that no unambiguous evidence exists that the practice existed prior to the second century. Catechism of the Catholic Church, http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/baptism.html. The oldest surviving manual of church discipline, the Didache, envisions the baptism of adults. Advocates of believer's baptism contend that non-Biblical sources are not authoritative, and that no evidence exists from the Bible or early Christian literature that infant baptism was practiced by the apostles. Another argument posed by some advocates of believer's baptism concerns the fact that most churches that practice infant baptism were churches that were heavily intertwined with the state in medieval and Reformation-era Europe. In many instances, citizens of a nation were required under penalty of law to belong to the state church. Infant baptism marked the infant as a citizen of the nation and a loyal subject of the reigning political order as much as it marked the infant as a Christian. To denominations like the Baptists, which have historically stressed religious liberty, toleration, and separation of church and state, this practice is an unacceptable violation of the basic human right to self-determination in matters of spirituality and religion. Patristics Examples Other advocates of credobaptism point to patristics to establish that the apostolical tradition was for children to become catechumens and baptized only after being trained and discipled in the basics of Christian doctrine. For examples, they point to St. John Chrysostom, St. Basil, St. Gregory of Nazianus, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, Origen and others who were each baptized at adult age (sometimes 30 years or older), despite the fact of them growing up in Christian households / families. Instructions For further patristics, they point to St. Cyril of Jerusalem, St. Gregory of Nyssa, St. John Chrysostom, St. Augustine and others who wrote procedures for catechumenical instruction (contrasted to writing procedures for the baptizing of infants.) In addition, earlier patristical writings such as Didache and Tertullian Tertuallian, "On Baptism", chapters 18-20. prescribe baptismal candidates to fasting, prayer, confessions, etc. before being allowed to be baptized. Tertullian (son of a priest) writes, "Christians are made, not born." Tertullian, Apology, xviii Histories Finally, several ecclesiastical histories seem to omit any discussion of infant baptism. Eusebius of Caesarea (describing 0 - 320 AD) gives ample discussion of baptisms, but makes no reference to the baptism of infants. http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2501.htm Instead, Eusebius discusses the various positions, particularly during the time of Cyprian, wherein it was discussed whether those who were baptized by heretics] needed to be re-baptized. (This should seem irrelevant if the individuals involved in heresy were baptized as infants.) Likewise, the church history of Socrates Scholasticus (305 - 438 AD) mentions a handful of examples of baptisms, none of which describe the baptizing of infants. http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2601.htm Similarly, the church history written by Evagrius Scholasticus (431 - 594 AD) also provides descriptions of baptisms, none of which communicate the baptism of infants. http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Evagrius_Scholasticus Age of accountability Believer's baptism is administered only to persons who have passed the age of accountability or reason, which is based upon a reading of the New Testament that only believers should be baptized. Some claim that it is also based upon the Jewish tradition of Bar Mitzvah at the age of 12 or 13, at which point Jewish children become responsible for their actions and "one to whom the commandments apply." This analogy is not very helpful since a Jew who is not Bar Mitzvah is nonetheless considered to be fully a Jew -- whereas the notion of an "unbaptised Christian" is more problematic. Many Christian theologians regard baptism as analogous to the Jewish practice of circumcision, rather than analogous to the Bar Mitzvah ceremony, although there are no explicit sections of the New Testament that support this idea. Among credobaptists, differences in denominational practice (and in psychological development among children) can cause the "age of accountability" to be set higher or lower. Many developmentally challenged individuals never reach this stage regardless of age. Sometimes the pastor or church leader will determine the believer's understanding and conviction through personal interviews. In the case of a minor, parents' permission will also often be sought. However it is a major assumption that all credobaptists believe in an "age of accountability." Not all denominations or assemblies who practice credobaptism believe in this doctrine. Many believe in predestination, and that God will prolong a person's life until they are capable of receiving baptism of their own free will. Furthermore, not all credobaptists believe in the doctrine of original sin. Many credobaptists believe that we are only held responsible for our personal sins, and that Jesus addressed the sins of Adam on the cross. As a result, according to some credobaptists, an infant does not need to repent and baptize away sins they have never personally committed. Comparison to liturgical tradition Some suggest that believer's baptism combines two rites from the liturgical churches (the Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Orthodox, and Anglican Churches): confirmation and (infant) baptism. In the liturgical churches, it is generally held that (infant) baptism is the initiatory rite that believer's baptism also marks. Infant baptism differs from believer's baptism in that the baptisand is not making a profession of the faith for themselves. The liturgical traditions transfer this aspect of Christian life to confirmation, where the one-time infant baptisand publicly assumes the responsibilities of his baptismal covenant and makes his own profession of faith (usually using the words of the Apostles' Creed). Practice In areas where those who practice believer's baptism are the physical or cultural majority, the ritual may function as a rite of passage, by which the child is granted the status of an adult. Most denominations who practice believer's baptism also specify the mode of baptism, generally preferring immersion (in which the baptisand is lowered completely beneath the surface of a body of water) over affusion (in which water is sprinkled or poured over the baptisand). In the case of physical disability or inability to be totally submerged under water, as with the elderly, bedridden, and nearly dead, the pouring of water upon the baptismal candidate is acceptable to some. In some denominations, believer's baptism is a prerequisite to full church membership. This is generally the case with churches with a congregational form of church government. Persons who wish to become part of the church must undergo believer's baptism in that local body, or another body whose baptism the local body honors. Typically, local churches will honor the baptism of another church, if that tradition is of similar faith and practice, or if not, then if the person was baptized (usually by immersion) subsequent to conversion. Denominational connections Believer's baptism is one of several distinctive doctrines associated closely with the Baptist and Anabaptist (literally, rebaptizer) traditions, and their theological relatives. Among these are the members of the American Restoration Movement. All churches associated with Pentecostalism also practice believer's baptism. In Holiness, many Baptist, and some other churches, a ritual known as Dedication or Infant Dedication supplements or replaces infant baptism. However, unlike baptism, the rite is centered upon the parents, who dedicate the child to God and vow to raise him/her in a God-fearing home. Although Dedication often occurs at the same age as infant baptism, it is not considered a replacement for baptism nor is it considered salvific for the child. Believer's baptism is more prevalent in Christian traditions that maintain that there is a state of innocency from birth to the age of accountability (if the believer, due to mental or emotional disability, is not likely to gain the ability to judge the morality of his or her actions, this state of innocency persists for life). Credobaptism is less prevalent in traditions that maintain that the corruption of original sin is present at birth and is sufficient guilt in the eyes of God to cause the child to be damned or be in limbo, should it die before baptism. Many churches that baptize infants, such as the Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, Anglican, and Eastern Orthodox denominations, have functioned as national, state-established churches in various European and Latin American countries. During the Reformation, the relationship of the church to the state was a contentious issue, and infant baptism was seen as a way to ensure that society remained religiously homogeneous. As a result, groups that rejected infant baptism were seen as subversive and were often persecuted. Eerdman's Handbook to Christian Belief, p. 443. Lion Publishing. 1982. Prevalence Statistics based on membership totals reported by various denominations state that churches that practice infant baptism represent about 80% of Christians. Major Branches of Religions Ranked by Number of Adherents However, these statistics do not reflect the fact that different denominations use different criteria for counting members, and that infant-baptizing churches count young children as members, while denominations that practice believer's baptism do not. Churches that practice believer's baptism generally do not consider individuals with formal church membership who do not actively practice Christian spirituality (for example, see Cultural Catholic) as true Christians. Many churches that practice believer's baptism also practice congregational self-government, which makes it difficult for statisticians to collect complete data. These and other factors make comparisons of church membership statistics suspect. For example, the Roman Catholic Church does not purge ex-members from its membership rolls unless they formally renounce their faith using the procedure laid out in Catholic canon law, while many Protestant churches routinely purge lapsed members from their rolls. The fastest growing branches of Christianity are evangelical and Pentecostal churches, which nearly always practice credobaptism. Theological Objections One standard theological argument leveled against believer's baptism is that it makes the efficacy of the sacrament dependent upon the understanding of the baptism; that is, it depends upon what the baptised knows. This runs counter to the Calvinistic belief that God saves whomever he wills, regardless of any worthiness or knowledge on the part of the saved. Reformed Baptist theologians counter that believer's baptism is fully consistent with Calvin's doctrine of unconditional election, and that when properly understood it is also the most appropriate expression of Covenant theology. Even in theological circles where some response to God's call is considered necessary for the convert (such as belief, confession, repentance, and prayer), a believer's baptism is usually categorized as a work instead of a response of faith, though not always (see Churches of Christ). See also Confirmation (sacrament) Infant baptism References Malone, Fred (2003). The baptism of disciples alone: A covenantal argument for credobaptism versus paedobaptism. Founders Press, ISBN 0-9713361-3-X Stander, Hendick F. and Louw, Johannes P. (2004). Baptism in the Early Church, Carey Publications, ISBN 0-9527913-1-5 Schreiner, Thomas R. and Wright, Shawn (ed.), Believer's Baptism: The Covenant Sign of the New Age in Christ, B&H Publishing Group (2007), ISBN 0805432493 Footnotes External links Lots of articles about Infant Baptism and Believer's Baptism from a Reformed and Protestant Perspective Adult Baptism in the Early Church: Some evidence from Ireland	Believer's_baptism \|@lemmatized believer:34 baptism:87 occasionally:1 call:3 credobaptism:7 latin:2 word:2 credo:1 christian:16 practice:24 understood:2 many:11 protestant:3 church:42 especially:1 descend:1 anabaptist:2 tradition:9 person:6 baptize:14 basis:1 profession:3 faith:14 jesus:5 christ:7 admission:1 local:4 community:3 may:4 contrast:2 infant:38 pedobaptism:1 paedobaptism:2 greek:2 paido:1 meaning:1 child:16 upon:7 request:1 parent:4 profess:3 perform:1 various:4 manner:1 immersion:5 common:1 aspersion:1 minister:2 prepare:1 new:11 theology:3 believe:8 save:4 grace:1 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stander:1 hendick:1 f:1 louw:1 johannes:1 carey:1 publication:1 schreiner:1 thomas:1 r:1 wright:1 shawn:1 ed:1 b:1 h:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 lot:1 article:1 perspective:1 ireland:1 \|@bigram believer_baptism:28 jesus_christ:2 infant_baptism:21 baptism_immersion:2 sacrament_baptism:1 remission_sin:1 holy_spirit:2 male_female:1 http_www:5 catechism_catholic:1 self_determination:1 john_chrysostom:2 gregory_nyssa:1 baptismal_candidate:2 eusebius_caesarea:1 www_newadvent:2 newadvent_org:2 socrates_scholasticus:1 bar_mitzvah:3 apostle_creed:1 sprinkle_pour:1 eastern_orthodox:1 external_link:1
6,055	Lunar_phase	Animation of lunar phases (in the northern hemisphere) Lunar phase (or Moon phase) refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer, usually on Earth. The lunar phases vary cyclically as the Moon orbits the Earth, according to the changing relative positions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. One half of the lunar surface is always illuminated by the Sun (except during lunar eclipses), and is hence bright, but the portion of the illuminated hemisphere that is visible to an observer can vary from 100% (full moon) to 0% (new moon). The boundary between the illuminated and unilluminated hemispheres is called the terminator. Overview The lunar phase depends on the Moon's position in orbit around the Earth, and the Earth's position in orbit around the sun. This diagram looks down on Earth from north. Earth's rotation and the Moon's orbit are both counter-clockwise here. Sunlight is coming in from the right, as indicated by the yellow arrows. From this diagram we can see, for example, that the full moon will always rise at sunset, and that the waning crescent moon is high overhead around 9:00 AM local time. Lunar phases are the result of looking at the illuminated half of the Moon from different viewing geometries; they are not caused by shadows of the Earth on the Moon that occur during a lunar eclipse. The Moon exhibits different phases as the relative geometry of the Sun, Earth, and Moon change, appearing as a full moon when the Sun and Moon are on opposite sides of the Earth, and as a new moon (also named dark moon, as it is not visible at night) when they are on the same side. The phases of full moon and new moon are examples of syzygies, which occur when the Earth, Moon, and Sun lie (approximately) in a straight line. The time between two full moons (and between successive occurrences of the same phase) is about 29.53 days (29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes) on average (hence, the concept of a timeframe of a period of time of an approximated month was derived). This synodic month is longer than the time it takes the Moon to make one orbit about the Earth with respect to the fixed stars (the sidereal month), which is about 27.32 days. This difference is caused by the fact that the Earth-Moon system is orbiting about the Sun at the same time the Moon is orbiting about the Earth. The actual time between two syzygies is variable because the orbit of the Moon is elliptic and subject to various periodic perturbations, which change the velocity of the Moon. It might be expected that once every month when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun during a new moon, its shadow would fall on Earth causing a solar eclipse. Likewise, during every full moon, we might expect the Earth's shadow to fall on the Moon, causing a lunar eclipse. We do not observe a solar and lunar eclipse every month because the plane of the Moon's orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5 degrees with respect to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Thus, when new and full moons occur, the Moon usually lies to the north or south of a direct line through the Earth and Sun. Although an eclipse can only occur when the Moon is either new or full, it must also be positioned very near the intersection of Earth's orbit plane about the Sun and the Moon's orbit plane about the Earth (that is, at one of its nodes). This happens about twice per year, and so there are between 4 and 7 eclipses in a calendar year. Most of these are quite insignificant; major eclipses of the Moon or Sun are relatively rare. Names of lunar phases The phases of the Moon have been given the following names, which are listed in sequential order: Phase Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere Darkened moon Not visible Not visible New moon Not visible, or traditionally, the first visible crescent of the Moon Waxing Crescent moon . Right 1-49% visible Left 1-49% visible First Quarter moon Right 50% visible Left 50% visible Waxing gibbous moon Right 51-99% visible Left 51-99% visible Full Moon Fully visible Fully visible Waning gibbous Moon Left 51-99% visible Right 51-99% visible Last Quarter Moon Left 50% visible Right 50% visible Waning Crescent Moon Left 1-49% visible Right 1-49% visible nofloat\|Phases of the Moon, as seen from the Northern Hemisphere. Animation of the Moon as it cycles through its phases, as seen from the Northern Hemisphere. The apparent wobbling of the Moon is known as libration. When the Sun and Moon are aligned on the same side of the Earth, the Moon is "new", and the side of the Moon visible from Earth is not illuminated by the Sun. As the Moon waxes (the amount of illuminated surface as seen from Earth is increasing), the lunar phases progress from new moon, crescent moon, first-quarter moon, gibbous moon and full moon phases, before returning through the gibbous moon, third-quarter moon, crescent moon and new moon phases. The terms old moon and new moon are interchangeable, although new moon is more common. Half moon is often used to mean the first- and third-quarter moons. Gibbous (red) and crescent (blue) shapes. When a sphere is illuminated on one hemisphere and viewed from a different angle, the portion of the illuminated area that is visible will have a two-dimensional shape defined by the intersection of an ellipse and circle (where the major axis of the ellipse coincides with a diameter of the circle). If the half-ellipse is convex with respect to the half-circle, then the shape will be gibbous (bulging outwards), whereas if the half-ellipse is concave with respect to the half-circle, then the shape will be a crescent. In the northern hemisphere, if the left side of the Moon is dark then the light part is growing, and the Moon is referred to as waxing (moving towards a full moon). If the right side of the Moon is dark then the light part is shrinking, and the Moon is referred to as waning (moving towards a new moon). Assuming that one is in the northern hemisphere, the right portion of the Moon is the part that is always growing. A waxing crescent moon if viewed in the northern hemisphere or a waning crescent moon if viewed in the southern hemisphere. Calendar The average calendrical month, which is 1/12 of a year, is about 30.4 days, while the Moon's phase (synodic) cycle repeats every 29.53 days. Therefore the timing of the Moon's phases shifts by an average of about one day for each successive month. If you photographed the Moon's phase every day for a month, starting in the evening after sunset, and repeating approximately 25 minutes later each successive day, ending in the morning before sunrise, you could create a composite image like the example calendar from May 8, 2005 to June 6, 2005. Note that there is no picture on May 20 since a picture would be taken before midnight on May 19, and after midnight on May 21. Similarly, if you look at a calendar listing moon rise or set times, some days will appear to be skipped. When the Moon rises just before midnight one night it will rise just after midnight the next (so too with setting). The 'skipped day' is just a calendar artifact and not the Moon behaving oddly. See also Blue moon Full moon Month New moon Orbit of the Moon Planetshine Table of lunar phases External links Virtual Reality Moon Phase US Naval Service on Moon Phase Full Moon Names Telescopic moon photos through the phases by Michael Myers The Moon Below the Equator Current Moon Phase The Length of the Lunar Cycle (numerical integration analysis) Educational aids Starchild: Moonlight Madness Lunar Phases Game Quia 3rd Grade SOL 3.8 - Put the Moon's Phases in the Correct Order Game Astrophysics Science Project Integrating Research & Education: Lunar Phases Quiz	Lunar_phase \|@lemmatized animation:2 lunar:16 phase:28 northern:7 hemisphere:12 moon:95 refers:1 appearance:1 illuminated:5 portion:4 see:6 observer:2 usually:2 earth:25 vary:2 cyclically:1 orbit:13 accord:1 change:3 relative:2 position:4 sun:14 one:7 half:7 surface:2 always:3 illuminate:4 except:1 eclipse:8 hence:2 bright:1 visible:22 full:13 new:14 boundary:1 unilluminated:1 call:1 terminator:1 overview:1 depend:1 around:5 diagram:2 look:3 north:2 rotation:1 counter:1 clockwise:1 sunlight:1 come:1 right:9 indicate:1 yellow:1 arrow:1 example:3 rise:4 sunset:2 waning:4 crescent:10 high:1 overhead:1 local:1 time:7 result:1 different:3 view:4 geometry:2 cause:4 shadow:3 occur:4 exhibit:1 appear:2 opposite:1 side:6 also:3 name:4 dark:3 night:2 syzygy:2 lie:2 approximately:2 straight:1 line:2 two:3 successive:3 occurrence:1 day:10 hour:1 minute:2 average:3 concept:1 timeframe:1 period:1 approximated:1 month:9 derive:1 synodic:2 long:1 take:2 make:1 respect:4 fixed:1 star:1 sidereal:1 difference:1 fact:1 system:1 actual:1 variable:1 elliptic:1 subject:1 various:1 periodic:1 perturbation:1 velocity:1 might:2 expect:2 every:5 pass:1 would:2 fall:2 solar:2 likewise:1 observe:1 plane:4 tilt:1 degree:1 thus:1 south:1 direct:1 although:2 either:1 must:1 near:1 intersection:2 node:1 happen:1 twice:1 per:1 year:3 calendar:5 quite:1 insignificant:1 major:2 relatively:1 rare:1 give:1 following:1 list:1 sequential:1 order:2 southern:2 darken:1 traditionally:1 first:4 wax:3 leave:6 quarter:5 gibbous:6 fully:2 wan:1 last:1 nofloat:1 cycle:3 apparent:1 wobbling:1 know:1 libration:1 align:1 amount:1 increase:1 progress:1 return:1 third:2 term:1 old:1 interchangeable:1 common:1 often:1 use:1 mean:1 red:1 blue:2 shape:4 sphere:1 angle:1 area:1 dimensional:1 define:1 ellipse:4 circle:4 axis:1 coincide:1 diameter:1 convex:1 bulge:1 outwards:1 whereas:1 concave:1 left:1 light:2 part:3 grow:2 refer:2 waxing:2 move:2 towards:2 shrink:1 assume:1 calendrical:1 repeat:2 therefore:1 timing:1 shift:1 photograph:1 start:1 evening:1 later:1 end:1 morning:1 sunrise:1 could:1 create:1 composite:1 image:1 like:1 may:4 june:1 note:1 picture:2 since:1 midnight:4 similarly:1 listing:1 set:2 skip:2 next:1 artifact:1 behave:1 oddly:1 planetshine:1 table:1 external:1 link:1 virtual:1 reality:1 u:1 naval:1 service:1 telescopic:1 photo:1 michael:1 myers:1 equator:1 current:1 length:1 numerical:1 integration:1 analysis:1 educational:1 aid:1 starchild:1 moonlight:1 madness:1 game:2 quia:1 grade:1 sol:1 put:1 correct:1 astrophysics:1 science:1 project:1 integrate:1 research:1 education:1 quiz:1 \|@bigram northern_hemisphere:7 lunar_eclipse:4 counter_clockwise:1 crescent_moon:8 synodic_month:1 solar_eclipse:1 southern_hemisphere:2 external_link:1
6,056	Commodore_1581	Commodore 1581 The Commodore 1581 is a 3½ inch double sided double density floppy disk drive made by Commodore Business Machines (CBM) primarily for its C64 and C128 home/personal computers. The drive stores 800 kilobytes using an MFM format different from both MS-DOS (720 KB), and the Amiga (880 KB) formats. It was released in the summer of 1987 and quickly became popular with bulletin board system (BBS) operators and other users. Like the 1541 and 1571, the 1581 has an on board MOS Technology 6502 CPU with its own ROM and RAM, and uses a serial version of the IEEE-488 interface. Inexplicably, the drive's ROM contains commands for parallel use, although no parallel interface was available. Like the 1571, it can read various other disk formats using special software. This capability was most frequently used to read MS-DOS disks. However, unlike the 1571, which is nearly 100% backward-compatible with the 1541, the 1581 has limited compatibility with Commodore's earlier drives. Although it responds to the same DOS commands, most disk utilities written prior to 1987, most notably fast loaders, are so 1541-specific that they do not work with the 1581. The version of Commodore DOS built into the 1581 added support for partitions, which could also function as fixed-allocation subdirectories. PC style subdirectories were rejected as being too difficult to work with in terms of Block Allocation Maps, then still much in vogue, and which for some time had been the traditional way of inquiring into block availability. When used together with the C128, it implements faster burst mode access than the Commodore 1571 5¼" drive. When using the 1581 together with the older C64, however, it is almost as slow as the older 1541 drive, due to limitations of the C64's ROM code. The 1581 provides a total of 3160 blocks free when formatted (a block being equal to 256 bytes). The number of permitted directory entries was also increased, to 288 entries. With a storage capacity of 800 KB, the 1581 was the highest capacity serial bus drive ever made by Commodore (the 1 MB SFD-1001 used the parallel IEEE-488), and the only 3½" one. However, starting in 1991, Creative Micro Designs (CMD) made the FD-2000 high density (1.6MB) and FD-4000 extended density (3.2MB) 3½" drives, both of which offered not only a 1581 emulation mode but also 1541 and 1571 compatibility modes. Unlike the case of the 1541 and 1571, the low-level disk format used by the 1581 is similar enough to the MS-DOS format as the 1581 is built around a WD1770 FM/MFM floppy controller chip. PC Floppy controllers (ISA or onboard, but not USB floppy drives) are able to deal with the 1581 format without need for any special tricks. Thus, utilities to format, read, and write 1581-format disks in standard PC floppy drives under Linux or Microsoft Windows exist. This controller chip, however, was the seat of some early problems with 1581 drives when the first production runs were recalled due to a high failure rate; the problem was quickly corrected. Later versions of the 1581 drive had a smaller, more streamlined looking external power supply provided with them. Specifications Onboard CPU: MOS Technology 6502 @ 2 MHz RAM: 8 KB ROM: 32 KB Transfer protocols: standard and fast serial; burst mode; and commands for parallel interface (the latter not used) Disk type: 3½ inch Storage format: MFM, double density, double-sided Interface: CBM's proprietary 'serial IEEE-488'	Commodore_1581 \|@lemmatized commodore:7 inch:2 double:4 side:2 density:4 floppy:5 disk:7 drive:12 make:3 business:1 machine:1 cbm:2 primarily:1 home:1 personal:1 computer:1 store:1 kilobyte:1 use:10 mfm:3 format:10 different:1 kb:5 amiga:1 release:1 summer:1 quickly:2 become:1 popular:1 bulletin:1 board:2 system:1 bb:1 operator:1 user:1 like:2 mo:2 technology:2 cpu:2 rom:4 ram:2 serial:4 version:3 ieee:3 interface:4 inexplicably:1 contain:1 command:3 parallel:4 although:2 available:1 read:3 various:1 special:2 software:1 capability:1 frequently:1 however:4 unlike:2 nearly:1 backward:1 compatible:1 limit:1 compatibility:2 earlier:1 respond:1 utility:2 write:2 prior:1 notably:1 fast:2 loader:1 specific:1 work:2 build:2 add:1 support:1 partition:1 could:1 also:3 function:1 fixed:1 allocation:2 subdirectory:2 pc:3 style:1 reject:1 difficult:1 term:1 block:4 map:1 still:1 much:1 vogue:1 time:1 traditional:1 way:1 inquire:1 availability:1 together:2 implement:1 faster:1 burst:2 mode:4 access:1 old:2 almost:1 slow:1 due:2 limitation:1 code:1 provide:2 total:1 free:1 equal:1 byte:1 number:1 permitted:1 directory:1 entry:2 increase:1 storage:2 capacity:2 high:3 bus:1 ever:1 mb:1 sfd:1 one:1 start:1 creative:1 micro:1 design:1 cmd:1 fd:2 extended:1 offer:1 emulation:1 case:1 low:1 level:1 similar:1 enough:1 around:1 fm:1 controller:3 chip:2 isa:1 onboard:2 usb:1 able:1 deal:1 without:1 need:1 trick:1 thus:1 standard:2 linux:1 microsoft:1 window:1 exist:1 seat:1 early:1 problem:2 first:1 production:1 run:1 recall:1 failure:1 rate:1 correct:1 late:1 small:1 streamlined:1 look:1 external:1 power:1 supply:1 specification:1 mhz:1 transfer:1 protocol:1 latter:1 type:1 proprietary:1 \|@bigram floppy_disk:1 bulletin_board:1 mo_technology:2 backward_compatible:1 floppy_drive:2 microsoft_window:1 ram_kb:1
6,057	Arcadia_2001	The Arcadia 2001 is a second-generation 8-bit console released by Emerson Radio Corp. The game library was composed of 51 unique games and about 10 variations. The graphic quality is similar to that of the Intellivision and the Odyssey². The Arcadia was not named after the company of the same name. Arcadia Corporation, manufacturer of the 2600 supercharger, was sued by Emerson for trademark infringement. Arcadia Corporation then changed its name to Starpath. The Dot Eaters - Player4 Stage3 - Classic Video Game History . Emerson licensed the Arcadia 2001 worldwide, and over 30 Arcadia clones exist. Description The Arcadia is much smaller than its contemporary competitors and is powered by a standard 12-volt power supply so it can be used in a boat or a vehicle. This portability feature, however, requires a portable television, which was extremely rare in the early 1980s. It also has two outputs (or inputs) headphone jacks on the back of the unit, on the far left and far right sides. The system came with two Intellivision-style control pads, but with a lighter touch on the side 'fire' buttons. The control pads have screw holes in their centers, so that one could transform them into a joystick, as with the later Sega Master System's controller. Most games came with mylar overlays which could be applied to the controllers. The console itself had five buttons: power, start, reset, option, and select. There are at least three different types of cartridge case styles and artwork, with variations on each. Emerson-family carts come in two different lengths of black plastic cases; the short style is similar to Atari 2600 carts in overall size. This family uses a unique "sketch" type of picture label. MPT-03 family cart cases (see below) resemble Super NES carts in size and shape, except that they are molded in brown plastic. Their labels look much more modern and stylized, with only a minimal picture on each. There is also a family of what seems pirate carts, that look nothing like the others in shape, size or label artwork. The different labeled versions, however, all used the same cartridges. Market Failure The Emerson version of the console was essentially considered dead on arrival in the USA. The system came out at nearly the same time as the Atari 5200 and the ColecoVision were released. In addition, Atari's use of exclusive rights to many games made it virtually impossible for Emerson to get popular games to the console. Emerson actually created many popular arcade titles including Pac-Man, Galaxian and Defender for the Arcadia and had them manufactured. However, Atari started to sue its competitor companies for releasing games to which it had exclusive-rights agreements and Emerson was left with thousands of manufactured games that could no longer be sold. Variants The Arcadia 2001 was licensed to many different companies and sold under different names. However, not all consoles are compatible due to differences in cart slots and cases. Name Manufacturer Country Compatibility familyAdvision Home ArcadeAdvisionFranceEmerson consoleArcadiaBandaiJapanEmerson consoleArcadia 2001EmersonU.S.A.Emerson consoleCosmosTele-ComputerSpainEmerson consoleDynavisionMorning-Sun CommerceJapanMPT-03 consoleEkuseraP.I.C.JapanMPT-03 consoleHanimex MPT-03HanimexFranceMPT-03 consoleHMG-2650HanimexGermanyEmerson consoleHome Arcade CentreHanimexFranceEmerson consoleIntelligent Game MPT-03Intelligent GameU.S.AMPT-03 consoleIntercord XL 2000 SystemIntercordGermanyEmerson consoleIntervision 2001IntervisionSwitzerlandOrmatu consoleITMC MPT-03ITMCFranceMPT-03 consoleLeisure-VisionLeisure-DynamicsCanadaEmerson consoleLeonardoGiG ElectronicsItalyEmerson consoleOrmatu 2001Ormatu Electronics BVNetherlandsOrmatu consolePalladium Video Computer GameNeckermannGermanyPalladium consolePolybrain Video Computer GamePolybrainGermanyPalladium consolePoppy MPT-03 Tele Computer SpielPoppyGermanyMPT-03 consolePrestige Video Computer Game MPT-03PrestigeFranceMPT-03 consoleRowtron 2000RowtronUKMPT-03 consoleSchmid TVG-2000SchmidGermanyEmerson consoleSheen Home Video Centre 2001SheenAustraliaOrmatu consoleSoundic MPT-03SoundicFinlandMPT-03 consoleTele BrainMr. AltusGermanyPalladium consoleTele-FeverTchiboGermanyEmerson consoleTempest MPT-03TempestAustraliaMPT-03 consoleTobby MPT-03TobbyTobbyMPT-03 consoleTrakton Computer Video GameTraktonAustraliaPalladium consoleTryom Video Game CenterTryomU.S.AMPT-03 consoleTunix Home ArcadeMonaco LeisureNew ZealandEmerson consoleUVI Compu-GameOrbit ElectronicsNew ZealandOrbit consoleVideo MasterGrandstandNew ZealandOrbit console Technical specifications Main Processor: Signetics 2650 CPU running @ 3.58 MHz Some variants run a Signetics 2650A RAM: 512 bytes ROM: None Video Display: 128 × 208 / 128 × 104, 8 Colours Video Display Controller: Signetics 2637 UVI Sound: Single Channel "Beeper" + Single Channel "Noise" Hardware Sprites: 4 independent, single color Controllers: 2 × 2 way Keypads: 2 × 12 button (more buttons on some variants) Games Many of the games for the Arcadia 2001 are ports of lesser-known arcade games such as Route 16 and Jungler. 3-D Bowling 3-D Raceway 3-D Soccer Alien Invaders Astro Invader American Football Baseball Brain Quiz Breakaway Capture Cat Trax Crazy Gobbler Crazy Climber (unreleased) Escape Funky Fish Galaxian Grand Prix 3-D Grand Slam Tennis Hobo Home Squadron Jump Bug Jungler Kidou Senshi Gundamu (only in Japan) Math Logic Missile War Ocean Battle Pleiades RD2 Tank Red Clash Robot Killer (clone of Berzerk) Route 16 Soccer Space Attack Space Chess Space Mission Space Raiders Space Squadron Space Vultures Spiders Star Chess Super Bug Super Gobbler Tanks A Lot The End Turtles/Turpin Emulation WinArcadia and AmiArcadia emulators. The Emerson Arcadia 2001 Emulator The first (DOS) emulator. MESS: Multiple Emulator Super System. References External links Emerson Arcadia 2001 Central. Emerson Arcadia 2001 Gaming Guide. The Dot Eaters entry on the Arcadia 2001. www.old-computers.com Emerson Arcadia 2001 museum entry. www.old-computers.com Article about Arcadia 2001 and "clones".	Arcadia_2001 \|@lemmatized arcadia:16 second:1 generation:1 bit:1 console:6 release:3 emerson:13 radio:1 corp:1 game:15 library:1 compose:1 unique:2 variation:2 graphic:1 quality:1 similar:2 intellivision:2 name:5 company:3 corporation:2 manufacturer:2 supercharger:1 sue:2 trademark:1 infringement:1 change:1 starpath:1 dot:2 eaters:1 classic:1 video:9 history:1 license:2 worldwide:1 clone:3 exist:1 description:1 much:2 small:1 contemporary:1 competitor:2 power:3 standard:1 volt:1 supply:1 use:4 boat:1 vehicle:1 portability:1 feature:1 however:4 require:1 portable:1 television:1 extremely:1 rare:1 early:1 also:2 two:3 output:1 input:1 headphone:1 jack:1 back:1 unit:1 far:2 left:1 right:3 side:2 system:4 come:4 style:3 control:2 pad:2 light:1 touch:1 fire:1 button:4 screw:1 hole:1 center:1 one:1 could:3 transform:1 joystick:1 late:1 sega:1 master:1 controller:4 mylar:1 overlay:1 apply:1 five:1 start:2 reset:1 option:1 select:1 least:1 three:1 different:5 type:2 cartridge:2 case:4 artwork:2 family:4 cart:6 length:1 black:1 plastic:2 short:1 atari:4 overall:1 size:3 sketch:1 picture:2 label:3 mpt:9 see:1 resemble:1 super:4 ne:1 shape:2 except:1 mold:1 brown:1 look:2 modern:1 stylize:1 minimal:1 seem:1 pirate:1 nothing:1 like:1 others:1 labeled:1 version:2 market:1 failure:1 essentially:1 consider:1 dead:1 arrival:1 usa:1 nearly:1 time:1 colecovision:1 addition:1 exclusive:2 many:4 make:1 virtually:1 impossible:1 get:1 popular:2 actually:1 create:1 arcade:3 title:1 include:1 pac:1 man:1 galaxian:2 defender:1 manufacture:1 agreement:1 leave:1 thousand:1 manufactured:1 longer:1 sell:2 variant:3 compatible:1 due:1 difference:1 slot:1 country:1 compatibility:1 familyadvision:1 home:4 arcadeadvisionfranceemerson:1 consolearcadiabandaijapanemerson:1 consolearcadia:1 consolecosmostele:1 computerspainemerson:1 consoledynavisionmorning:1 sun:1 commercejapanmpt:1 consoleekuserap:1 c:1 japanmpt:1 consolehanimex:1 consolehmg:1 consolehome:1 centrehanimexfranceemerson:1 consoleintelligent:1 gameu:1 ampt:2 consoleintercord:1 xl:1 systemintercordgermanyemerson:1 consoleintervision:1 consoleitmc:1 consoleleisure:1 visionleisure:1 dynamicscanadaemerson:1 consoleleonardogig:1 electronicsitalyemerson:1 consoleormatu:1 electronics:1 bvnetherlandsormatu:1 consolepalladium:1 computer:7 gameneckermanngermanypalladium:1 consolepolybrain:1 gamepolybraingermanypalladium:1 consolepoppy:1 tele:1 spielpoppygermanympt:1 consoleprestige:1 consolerowtron:1 consoleschmid:1 tvg:1 consolesheen:1 centre:1 consolesoundic:1 consoletele:2 brainmr:1 altusgermanypalladium:1 fevertchibogermanyemerson:1 consoletempest:1 consoletobby:1 consoletrakton:1 gametraktonaustraliapalladium:1 consoletryom:1 centertryomu:1 consoletunix:1 arcademonaco:1 leisurenew:1 zealandemerson:1 consoleuvi:1 compu:1 gameorbit:1 electronicsnew:1 zealandorbit:2 consolevideo:1 mastergrandstandnew:1 technical:1 specification:1 main:1 processor:1 signetics:3 cpu:1 run:2 mhz:1 ram:1 byte:1 rom:1 none:1 display:2 colour:1 uvi:1 sound:1 single:3 channel:2 beeper:1 noise:1 hardware:1 sprite:1 independent:1 color:1 way:1 keypad:1 port:1 less:1 know:1 route:2 jungler:2 bowl:1 raceway:1 soccer:2 alien:1 invader:2 astro:1 american:1 football:1 baseball:1 brain:1 quiz:1 breakaway:1 capture:1 cat:1 trax:1 crazy:2 gobbler:2 climber:1 unreleased:1 escape:1 funky:1 fish:1 grand:2 prix:1 slam:1 tennis:1 hobo:1 squadron:2 jump:1 bug:2 kidou:1 senshi:1 gundamu:1 japan:1 math:1 logic:1 missile:1 war:1 ocean:1 battle:1 pleiades:1 tank:2 red:1 clash:1 robot:1 killer:1 berzerk:1 space:6 attack:1 chess:2 mission:1 raider:1 vultures:1 spider:1 star:1 lot:1 end:1 turtle:1 turpin:1 emulation:1 winarcadia:1 amiarcadia:1 emulator:4 first:1 mess:1 multiple:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 central:1 guide:1 eater:1 entry:2 www:2 old:2 com:2 museum:1 article:1 \|@bigram trademark_infringement:1 hardware_sprite:1 grand_prix:1 grand_slam:1 emerson_arcadia:4 external_link:1 dot_eater:1
6,058	Philosophy_of_religion	Philosophy of religion is a branch of philosophy that asks questions about religion. As with all philosophies, the topics at hand are generated by those who participate. In the philosophy of religion, these may include but are not limited to the nature and existence of God, religious language, miracles, prayer, the problem of evil, and how religion and other value-systems such as ethics interrelate. Religious philosophy, on the other hand, is the philosophical thinking that is inspired and directed by religion, such as Christian philosophy and Islamic philosophy. As an alternative, philosophy of religion is the philosophical thinking about religion. It is designed such that it can be carried out dispassionately by what are thought of as those in two "camps": adherents or believers, and non-believers. Philosophy of religion as a part of metaphysics Aristotle Philosophy of religion has classically been regarded as a part of metaphysics. In Aristotle's Metaphysics, he described first causes as one of the subjects of his investigation. For Aristotle, the first cause was the unmoved mover, which has been read as God, particularly when Aristotle's work became prevalent again in the Medieval West. This first PO cause argument later came to be called natural theology by rationalist philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In Metaphysics, Aristotle also states that the word that comes closest to describing the meaning of the word God is 'Understanding.' Today, philosophers have adopted the term philosophy of religion for the subject, and typically it is regarded as a separate field of specialization, though it is also still treated by some, particularly Catholic philosophers, as a part of metaphysics. To understand the historical relationship between metaphysics and philosophy of religion, remember that the traditional objects of religious discussion have been very special sorts of entities (such as gods, angels, supernatural forces, and the like) and events, abilities, or processes (the creation of the universe, the ability to do or know anything, interaction between humans and gods, and so forth). Metaphysicians (and ontologists in particular) are characteristically interested in understanding what it is for something to exist--what it is for something to be an entity, event, ability, process, and so forth. Because many members of religious traditions believe in things that exist in profoundly different ways from more everyday things, objects of religious belief both raise special philosophical problems and, as extreme or limiting cases, invite us to clarify central metaphysical concepts. However, the philosophy of religion has concerned itself with more than just metaphysical questions. In fact the subject has long involved important questions in areas such as epistemology, philosophy of language, philosophical logic, and moral philosophy. See also world view. Questions asked in philosophy of religion Kierkegaard One way to understand the tasks at hand for philosophers of religion is to contrast them with theologians. Theologians sometimes consider the existence of God as axiomatic, or self-evident. Most theological treatises seek to justify or support religious claims by two primary epistemic means: rationalization or intuitive metaphors. A philosopher of religion examines and critiques the epistemological, logical, aesthetic and ethical foundations inherent in the claims of a religion. Whereas a theologian could elaborate metaphysically on the nature of God either rationally or experientially, a philosopher of religion is more interested in asking what may be knowable and opinable with regards to religions' claims. A philosopher of religion does not ask "What is God?", for such is a complex question in that it assumes the existence of God and that God has a knowable nature. Instead, a philosopher of religion asks whether there are sound reasons to think that God does or does not exist. Still, there are other questions studied in the philosophy of religion. For example: What, if anything, would give us good reason to believe that a miracle has occurred? What is the relationship between faith and reason? What is the relationship between morality and religion? What is the status of religious language? Does petitionary prayer (sometimes still called impetratory prayer) make sense? Are salvo-lobotomies (lobotomies performed to keep believers from sinning) moral actions? What is God? The question "What is God?" is sometimes also phrased as "What is the meaning of the word God?" Most philosophers expect some sort of definition as an answer to this question, but they are not content simply to describe the way the word is used: they want to know the essence of what it means to be God. Western philosophers typically concern themselves with the God of monotheistic religions (see the nature of God in Western theology), but discussions also concern themselves with other conceptions of the divine. Indeed, before attempting a definition of a term it is essential to know what sense of the term is to be defined. In this case, this is particularly important because there are a number of widely different senses of the word 'God.' So before we try to answer the question "What is God?" by giving a definition, first we must get clear on which conception of God we are trying to define. Since this article is on "philosophy of religion" it is important to keep to the canon of this area of philosophy. For whatever reasons, the Western, monotheistic conception of God (discussed below) has been the primary source of investigation in philosophy of religion. (One likely reason as to why the Western conception of God is dominant in the canon of philosophy of religion is that philosophy of religion is primarily an area of analytic philosophy, which is primarily Western.) Among those people who believe in supernatural beings, some believe there is just one God (monotheism; see also monotheistic religion), while others, such as Hindus, believe in many different deities (polytheism; see also polytheistic religion) while maintaining that all are manifestations of one God. Hindus also have a widely followed monistic philosophy that can be said to be neither monotheistic nor polytheistic (see Advaita Vedanta). Since Buddhism tends to deal less with metaphysics and more with ontological (see Ontology) questions, Buddhists generally do not believe in the existence of a creator God similar to that of the Abrahamic religions, but direct attention to a state called Nirvana (See also Mu). Within these two broad categories (monotheism and polytheism) there is a wide variety of possible beliefs, although there are relatively few popular ways of believing. For example, among the monotheists there have been those who believe that the one God is like a watchmaker who wound up the universe and now does not intervene in the universe at all; this view is deism. By contrast, the view that God continues to be active in the universe is called theism. (Note that 'theism' is here used as a narrow and rather technical term, not as a broader term as it is below. For full discussion of these distinct meanings, refer to the article Theism.) Monotheistic definitions Augustine Monotheism is the view that only one God exists (as opposed to multiple gods). In Western thought, God is traditionally described as a being that possesses at least three necessary properties: omniscience (all-knowing), omnipotence (all-powerful), and omnibenevolence (supremely good). In other words, God knows everything, has the power to do anything, and is perfectly good. Many other properties (e.g., omnipresence) have been alleged to be necessary properties of a god; however, these are the three most uncontroversial and dominant in Christian tradition. By contrast, Monism is the view that all is of one essential essence, substance or energy. Monistic theism, a variant of both monism and monotheism, views God as both immanent and transcendent. Both are dominant themes in Hinduism. Even once the word "God" is defined in a monotheistic sense, there are still many difficult questions to be asked about what this means. For example, what does it mean for something to be created? How can something be "all-powerful"? Polytheistic definitions The distinguishing characteristic of polytheism is its belief in more than one god(dess). There can be as few as two (such as a classical Western understanding of Zoroastrian dualism) or an innumerably large amount, as in Hinduism (as the Western world perceives it). There are many varieties of polytheism; they all accept that many gods exist, but differ in their responses to that belief. Henotheists for example, worship only one of the many gods, either because it is held to be more powerful or worthy of worship than the others (some pseudo-Christian sects take this view of the Trinity, holding that only God the Father should be worshipped, Jesus and the Holy Spirit being distinct and lesser gods), or because it is associated with their own group, culture, state, etc. The distinction isn't a clear one, of course, as most people consider their own culture superior to others, and this will also apply to their culture's God. Kathenotheists have similar beliefs, but worship a different god at different times or places. In Kali Yukam all gets unified into Ayya Vaikundar for destroying the Kaliyan. Pantheistic definitions Pantheists assert that God is itself the natural universe. The most famous Western pantheist is Baruch Spinoza. Panentheism holds that the physical universe is part of God, but that God is more than this. While pantheism can be summed up by "God is the world and the world is God", panentheism can be summed up as "The world is in God and God is in the world, but God is more than the world and is not synonymous with the world". However, this might be a result of a misinterpretation of what is meant by world in pantheism, as many pantheists use "universe" rather than "world" and point out the utter vastness of the universe and how much of it (temporal causality, alternate dimensions, superstring theory) remains unknown to humanity. By expressing pantheism in this way and including such elements, rather than limiting it to this particular planet, and specifically limiting it to human experience, the theory is somewhat nearer to the view of panentheists while still maintaining the distinct characteristics of pantheism. Rationality of belief Aquinas Positions The second question, "Do we have any good reason to think that God does (or does not) exist?", is equally important in the philosophy of religion. There are several main positions with regard to the existence of God that one might take: Theism - the belief in the existence of one or more divinities or deities. Pantheism - the belief that God exists as all things of the cosmos, that God is one and all is God; God is immanent. Panentheism - the belief that God encompasses all things of the cosmos but that God is greater than the cosmos; God is both immanent and transcendent. Deism - the belief that God does exist but does not interfere with human life and the laws of the universe; God is transcendent. Agnosticism - the belief that the existence or non-existence of deities is currently unknown or unknowable, or that the existence of a God or of gods cannot be proven. Atheism - the rejection of belief, or absence of belief, in deities. Retreism - The belief in the ending or previous existence of god or gods It is important to note that some of these positions are not mutually exclusive. For example, agnostic theists choose to believe God exists while asserting that knowledge of God's existence is inherently unknowable. Similarly, agnostic atheists lack belief in God or choose to believe God does not exist while also asserting that knowledge of God's existence is inherently unknowable. Natural theology The attempt to provide proofs or arguments for the existence of God is one aspect of what is known as natural theology or the natural theistic project. This strand of Natural theology attempts to justify belief in God by independent grounds. There is plenty of philosophical literature on faith (especially fideism) and other subjects generally considered to be outside the realm of natural theology. Perhaps most of philosophy of religion is predicated on natural theology's assumption that the existence of God can be justified or warranted on rational grounds. There has been considerable philosophical and theological debate about the kinds of proofs, justifications and arguments that are appropriate for this discourse. see eg Antony Flew, John Polkinghorne, Keith Ward and Richard Swinburne The philosopher Alvin Plantinga has shifted his focus to justifying belief in God (that is, those who believe in God, for whatever reasons, are rational in doing so) through reformed epistemology, in the context of a theory of warrant and proper function. Other reactions to natural theology are those of Wittgensteinian philosophers of religion, most notably D. Z. Phillips who died in 2006. Phillips rejects "natural theology" and its evidentialist approach as confused, in favor of a grammatical approach which investigates the meaning of belief in God. For Phillips, belief in God is not a proposition with a particular truth value, but a form of life. Consequently, the question of whether God exists confuses the logical categories which govern theistic language with those that govern other forms of discourse (most notably, scientific discourse). According to Phillips, the question of whether or not God exists cannot be "objectively" answered by philosophy because the categories of truth and falsity, which are necessary for asking the question, have no application in the religious contexts wherein religious belief has its sense and meaning. In other words, the question cannot be answered because it cannot be asked without entering into confusion. As Phillips sees things, the job of the philosopher is not to investigate the "rationality" of belief in God but to elucidate its meaning. Major philosophers of religion {\|width=100% \|-valign=top \|width=33%\| Abhinavagupta Adi Shankara Avicenna (also known as Ibn Sina) Ramanuja Madhvacharya Marilyn McCord Adams Robert Adams William Alston Anselm of Canterbury Averroes (also known as Ibn Rushd) Thomas Aquinas Augustine of Hippo Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius Giordano Bruno Joseph Butler Samuel Clarke Anne Conway William Lane Craig René Descartes Pseudo-Dionysius Herman Dooyeweerd Paul Draper Mircea Eliade Desiderius Erasmus Al-Farabi (also known as Alpharabius) Siddartha Gautama Al Ghazali (also known as Algazel) Yehuda Halevi Charles Hartshorne Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhazen) Heraclitus John Hick Professor. Dr. Mohamed Osman Elkhosht David Hume \|width=33%\| Peter van Inwagen Allama Iqbal William James Immanuel Kant Ibn Khaldun Søren Kierkegaard Al-Kindi (also known as Alkindus) Nishida Kitaro Ruhollah Khomeini Nishitani Keiji Harold Kushner C. S. Lewis Gottfried Leibniz Knud Ejler Løgstrup J. L. Mackie Maimonides Nicolas Malebranche Jean-Luc Marion Michael Martin Herbert McCabe Alister E. McGrath Thomas V. Morris Nagarjuna Milarepa Dogen Zenji Ibn al-Nafis Friedrich Nietzsche William of Ockham Rudolph Otto William Paley Blaise Pascal D. Z. Phillips \|width=33%\| Philo of Alexandria Alvin Plantinga Plotinus John Polkinghorne Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Ayn Rand Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (also known as Rhazes) Bertrand Russell Mulla Sadra Duns Scotus Ninian Smart Abdolkarim Soroush Baruch Spinoza Melville Y. Stewart Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi Richard Swinburne Denys Turner Peter Vardy Vasubandhu Keith Ward William Whewell Nicholas Wolterstorff Keith Yandell Ramakrishna Vivekananda René Guénon Frithjof Schuon Seyyed Hossein Nasr F.W.J. Schelling Paul Tillich Gordon Clark Ahmad Rafique Dr. Zakir Naik See also Evolutionary origin of religions Evolutionary psychology of religion Issues in Science and Religion Major world religions Natural theology Psychology of religion Religion Theodicy Theology Theories of religion References Further reading The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Philosophy of Religion William L. Rowe, William J. Wainwright, Philosophy of Religion: Selected Readings, Third Ed. (Florida: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998) Religious Studies is an international journal for the philosophy of religion. It is available online and in print and has a fully searchable online archive dating back to Issue 1 in 1965. It currently publishes four issues per year. External links Philosophy of Religion links Massive list, which includes religion, theology, and general philosophy links as well. Maintained by philosophy professor Dale Tuggy. An introduction to the Philosophy of Religion by Paul Newall. Philosophy of Religion Useful annotated index of religious philosophy topics. Islamic Philosophy Online Comprehensive resource on Islamic philosophy Christian CADRE Philosophy Page Philosophy and research from a Christian perspective. Philosophy of Religion .Info Introductory articles on philosophical arguments for and against theism. Aroumah - Journal for literary philosophy of ReligionGerman and English e-journal. 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6,059	Books_of_Kings	The Books of Kings () are books included in the Hebrew Bible. They were originally written in Hebrew and are recognised as scripture by Judaism and Christianity (as part of the Old Testament). According to Biblical chronology, the events in the Books of Kings occurred between the 10th and 6th centuries BC. The books contain accounts of the kings of the ancient Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. They contain the annals of the Jewish commonwealth from the accession of Solomon until the subjugation of the kingdom by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians (apparently a period of about four hundred and fifty-three years). The Books of Kings synchronize with 1 Chronicles 28 – 2 Chronicles 36:21. While in the Chronicles greater prominence is given to the priestly or Levitical office, in the Kings greater prominence is given to the royal and prophetic offices. Kings appears to have been written considerably earlier than Chronicles and as such is generally considered a more reliable historical source. Contents David and Solomon Accession of Solomon During his old age, David spends his nights with Abishag, a woman appointed for the purpose of keeping him warm. Adonijah, a son of David, gathers attendants and persuades Joab and Abiathar to support his claim to be David's heir. Opposed to this are Zadok, Benaiah, Nathan, and Shimei, as well as the army generals, who favour Solomon, another son of David. Adonijah invites his supporters, neutral court officials, and his other brothers excepting Solomon, to the Zoheleth stone. Nathan persuades Bathsheba, the mother of Solomon, to trick David into announcing that Solomon is his heir. After having done this, David has Solomon anointed as the next king. When Adonijah is told, he and his guests flee, and Adonijah seeks sanctuary at the Jerusalem altar. Begging not to be harmed by Solomon, Adonijah is only told that he will not be harmed if he is guiltless. Dying, David instructs Solomon to take revenge on Joab, a supporter of Adonijah, and Shimei, and to be kind to the sons of Barzillai. Adonijah approaches Bathsheba asking for a conciliatory gesture from Solomon, namely he asks for Abishag, but when Bathsheba asks Solomon about this, Solomon has Benaiah slaughter Adonijah. Abiathar, who had supported Adonijah, is then deposed from being head priest of the Jerusalem altar and exiled to his homeland, and he is replaced by Zadok. Joab, another of Adonijah's supporters, seeks sanctuary at the Jerusalem altar, but Solomon has Benaiah slaughter Joab at the altar. As for Shimei, Solomon orders him to remain in Jerusalem, but when Shimei later retrieves his servants who had fled to Gath, Solomon has Benaiah slaughter Shimei for leaving. After having cemented an alliance with Egypt by marrying the daughter of Pharaoh, Solomon goes to Gibeon, to make sacrifices, since it was the most prominent of the high places at the time. Once Solomon has made the sacrifices, in a dream God appears to Solomon and grants him a wish, so Solomon asks for wisdom. Since Solomon asks wisely rather than asking for riches, his wish for wisdom is granted, and Solomon surpassed the Egyptians and Cedemites in wisdom, his fame spreading among the neighbouring nations. Solomon also uttered thousands of songs and proverbs. Two prostitutes come to Solomon and ask him to settle an argument between them as to who is the mother of a particular baby. Solomon asks for a sword to cut the baby in half to be split between the two women. When the first prostitute tells him to give the baby to the other rather than kill it she proves herself to be the mother with her love for the child. Solomon gives her the baby. Temple of Solomon Hiram of Tyre, a "friend" (that is, political ally) of David's, sends an embassy to Solomon, causing Solomon to propose to build a temple. Solomon and Hiram enter into a trade agreement so that Solomon can obtain the necessary raw materials. Solomon enlists several workers via conscription, and Solomon's men, those of Hiram, and the Gebalites (that is, from Biblos), prepare the temple, of which an extensive description is given. Solomon also builds a palace for himself, which is described as well. A bronze worker, also called Hiram (named Hiram-abi by Chronicles, i.e. Hiram is my father), is brought from Tyre to do Solomon's metal work. Two columns — named Jachin and Boaz — are built next to the temple door, and the temple is generally designed like those of Hadad in Tyre's vassal states. The elders of Israel and the Israelite princes come to Solomon for the moving of Ark of the Covenant from Zion. While the priests move the ark, a sacrifice is made which is so substantial that it cannot be counted. Finally, when the ark arrives in the Temple and the priests that had been carrying it return outside, a dark cloud fills the temple, which Solomon says is where Yahweh intends to dwell forever. Solomon then extracts a promise from Yahweh to uphold the Davidic covenant and to return to the aid of the people if they sin but later repent. After twenty years of giving Solomon the supplies that he wished for, Hiram is given twenty cities in Galilee by Solomon, which became known as Cabul. Solomon uses slave labour to build several cities for storing supplies. Amongst these is Gezer, which had previously existed but was burnt to the ground by Pharaoh, who returned it to Solomon's ownership as a dowry. For this building program, Solomon enslaves every Canaanite still living in the land. Solomon also builds Millo as soon as Pharaoh's daughter moves from Zion to her newly built palace. 1 Kings 6:1 specifies that the temple of Solomon began in the four hundred and eightieth year from the departure of the Israelites from the land of Egypt. The specification of four hundred and eightieth year has been shown to be in error by 170 to 450 years. Is 1 Kings 6:1 in Error?; Stanley R. Stasko; AuthorHouse; ISBN 978-1-4343-3203-5 Empire of Solomon The Queen of Sheba visits Solomon and tests his wisdom, bringing with her a large retinue and precious expensive things. Solomon's replies leave her breathless at his wisdom, and she is further impressed by his waiters and banquet, and therefore gives Solomon some of her precious things. Before she returns to her homeland, Solomon gives her everything that she asks for and other presents. Solomon's empire stretched all the way from the Euphrates River to Egypt (though how it got this large is not explained), and the many vassal states paid him tribute. He also has extravagant banquets every day, and he owned thousands of horses. Solomon builds a fleet in Ezion-geber, near Elath, and Hiram staffs him with seamen, who collect a large amount of gold from Ophir and bring it to Solomon. Solomon uses the gold to make goblets and utensils and so forth, even creating a throne made from ivory and inlaid with gold. Hiram's fleet brings further expensive materials from Ophir besides the gold, such as ivory, silver (which, according to the text, at the time was worthless), and monkeys. In addition to the gold from Hiram's fleet, from merchants, and from the Arab kings, all the visitors to Solomon's court bring with them expensive tributes, hence Solomon grew richer than anyone else on earth. Apart from his Egyptian wife, Solomon also had over 700 wives and 300 concubines from nations that the Mizvot forbid intermarriage with. The wives make Solomon polytheistic, worshipping the gods of his wives, such as Astarte, Milcom, and Chemosh, even building high places to them opposite Jerusalem. So Yahweh promises Solomon that a part of the kingdom will be removed and given to another during the reign of Solomon's descendants. Division of the Kingdom Judah The genealogy of the Books of Kings (based on a literal interpretation) When Solomon dies, his son Rehoboam goes to Shechem to be acclaimed king by the leaders of the northern tribes. They appeal to Rehoboam to have their servitude lightened, and so he seeks the advice first of the elders and then of the youths. The elders suggest agreeing with the people's wishes, but Rehoboam decides to go with the advice of the youths, namely to enforce even heavier servitude. This results in rebellion, and when Rehoboam sends out Adoram, the man in charge of forced labour, the people stone Adoram to death. Rehoboam is forced to flee to Jerusalem because only Judah remains loyal to him, and there he plans an attack using the army of Benjamin and Judah against the forces of Israel. However, a man of God, named Shemaiah, is told by God to tell Rehoboam not to fight, and when Rehoboam is told this, he complies. Later in his reign, Shishak, the Pharaoh, attacks, looting the temple and palace, leaving Rehoboam compelled to use bronze to replace the golden shields of Solomon that Shishak had taken. After Rehoboam dies, Abijah (named as Abijam in Kings but Abijah in Chronicles), his son, succeeds him as king of Judah. Abijam appears to be the grandson (or otherwise a descendant) of Absalom by his mother's side. Abijam continues the war against Jeroboam to conquer Israel. A fuller account of the war is given in Chronicles. Abijah's son, Asa, succeeds him as king of Judah, and he quickly deposes Maacah, his grandmother, from having any authority, because she supports the Canaanite religious practices. Asa also burns his grandmother's asherah. During Asa's reign there is a perpetual war between him and King Baasha of Israel, who had support from Ben-hadad, king of Aram. Asa buys Ben-hadad's loyalty by sending him what remained of the treasures of the temple and his palace, so Ben-hadad changes sides and attacks several cities in the regions of the tribes of Dan and Naphtali. Baasha retreats to his capital rather than continue fortifying Raamah, so Asa dismantles the fortifications and uses them to build Geba. Jehosaphat succeeds his father, Asa, as king of Judah. Although Jehoshaphat worships Yahweh, he permits the high places to continue existing. Like Solomon, Jehoshaphat sends ships to Ophir for gold, but this time they are wrecked at Ezion-gezer. Israel Jeroboam, the man in charge of the work force from the house of Joseph, meets Ahijah, a prophet from Shiloh. Ahijah spontaneously tears his cloak into twelve parts and gives ten pieces to Jeroboam as a symbol of God's will, explaining that the division is owing to Solomon turning to heathen practices. Solomon subsequently tries to have Jeroboam killed for treason, but he escapes to the protection of the Egyptian Pharaoh, only returning when he hears that Solomon's son has succeeded him as king. When Israel rebels against Rehoboam, they appoint Jeroboam as their new king, and Jeroboam establishes Shechem as his capital and then moves to Penuel. However, Jeroboam perceives that a religion centralised at Jerusalem, particularly the annual pilgrimage to there, is a threat to independence, and so he establishes cult centres at the very edges of his own kingdom, putting up golden calves at Bethel and at Dan, saying "here is your God". Jeroboam also appoints non-Levites to the priesthood. When Jeroboam died, his son, Nadab, took over as king of Israel. However, Baasha, the son of Ahijah, plots against Nadab. Becoming king in Nadab's stead, Baasha then slaughters all the remaining relatives of Jeroboam. After the death of Baasa, he is succeeded by his son, Elah. However, one of his leading commanders, Zimri, plots against him, and while Elah is getting drunk, Zimri strikes him dead. Zimri then slaughters all the remaining relatives of Baasa and takes over the throne of Israel. The army, however, proclaim Omri, their general, as the king and lay siege to Tirzah, where Zimri is located. Zimri decides to burn his palace to the ground, killing himself. Subsequently, only half of Israel support Omri, the other half support a man named Tibni. The civil war ends with Omri and his supporters as victor. Omri later constructs a new capital at Samaria and moves there. Elijah God ordains that no rain shall fall while he is served by a man from Tishbe, named Elijah. Elijah is sent to a stream and is fed by ravens, day and night, but when the stream dries up, he is sent on to a widow who waits on him. Demanding from the widow water and bread, Elijah is met with the response that there is not enough flour or oil. Elijah, however, promises that the flour and oil will last until the rains return, which comes true. The widow's son later grows sick and stops breathing, so she accuses Elijah of making this happen. Elijah responds by laying out the son's body on his own bed, stretching himself over on the body three times, and then praying, whereupon the son comes back to life. After the death of Omri, his son, Ahab, becomes the king. Ahab marries Jezebel and worships Hadad (often referred to by the epithet Ba'al — meaning lord), building a totem and temple to his worship. Jezebel slaughters the prophets of Yahweh, though some are rescued by Obadiah, Ahab's vizier. Meanwhile, the famine grows bitter, and Elijah is sent by God to Ahab, with Obadiah joining him on his way. When Elijah and Ahab meet, they trade insults, with Elijah calling Ahab a sinner because of his religious practices, and Ahab calling Elijah the disturber of Israel. Elijah then challenges Hadad worship, demanding all of Israel to attend at Mount Carmel. At Carmel, Elijah announces he will sacrifice a bull to Yahweh, and he expects that the worshippers of Hadad will sacrifice a bull to Hadad, stating that the real god will respond. When there is no response from the sacrifice to Baal, which Elijah mercilessly mocks, he rebuilds the older altar to Yahweh, makes the sacrifice, and a fire appears from heaven and consumes it. The people convert from worship of Hadad to that of Yahweh en-masse, and Elijah has the throats of the prophets of Hadad slit at a river. A storm subsequently gathers, and Elijah and Ahab race to Jezreel, Elijah on foot and Ahab in a chariot. After Ahab tells Jezebel what has happened, she seeks revenge against Elijah, who flees Beer-sheba and goes into the desert. Elijah prays for death but is ordered by an angel to eat and drink, so he walks for 40 days and nights to Horeb. On the mountain, there are a series of phenomena (that could be a dramatic description of a volcano), and then a faint whisper asking Elijah why he is present. After Elijah explains, he is ordered to go to anoint Hazael as the next king of Aram (Elisha does this as well), Jehu as king of Israel (Elisha does this as well), and Elisha as his own successor, and to demand that they slaughter everyone except those who devoutly worship Yahweh. Elisha, a plowman, readily follows Elijah, even killing his oxen and burning them as a sacrifice, having broken up his plowing equipment to use as fuel. A vineyard by the palace of Ahab is owned by a man named Naboth, but Ahab tries to buy it for a reasonable price and exchange of land, so that he can turn it into a vegetable garden. Naboth, however, refuses to give up his ancestral land, which angers Ahab and causes Jezebel to arranges for Naboth to be falsely accused of blasphemy and treason. Naboth is stoned to death. Once Naboth has been killed, Jezebel tells Ahab, and he sets off for Naboth's vineyard but meets Elijah there. Elijah prophecies that Ahab's dynasty will be eaten by dogs and by the birds. Ahab then tears his clothes, so Elijah is told by Yahweh that Ahab's penitence has bought him time. After a period of peace between Aram and Israel, Jehoshaphat of Judah approaches Ahab and enters a pact to help take back Ramoth-gilead from Aram. Jehoshaphat asks for consultation with a prophet that is not one of the yes-men, the only one meeting this requirement being Micaiah (son of Imlah), who Ahab hates. Zedekiah (son of Chenaanah) makes horns of iron to kill the king of Aram with. Despite the other prophets predicting success, Micaiah predicts total failure, so Zedekiah slaps him. The king of Israel orders Micaiah to be seized and put in prison until the king returns from the war and then disguises himself to enter the battle. Conversely, the king of Aram orders his men to only attack the king of Israel, and though some mistake Jehoshaphat for the king, his battle cry makes them realise he is not. A randomly fired arrow hits the disguised king of Israel, and he eventually dies from blood loss as the battle rages around him. The king's body is washed at the pool of Samaria, and the blood on his chariot is licked up by the dogs, fulfilling Elijah's prophecy about Ahab. Ahaziah, Ahab's son, succeeds him as King of Israel. Ahaziah falls through the lattice of his roof terrace, and so sends messengers to ask the god Hadad if he would recover from the injury. Elijah is sent by an angel to intercept the messengers and to tell them that Ahaziah is doomed. After hearing the message from Elijah, Ahaziah sends men to ask Elijah to visit him. Elijah then prophecies that the men will be killed by divine fire, and this duly occurs. Ahaziah again sends men to Elijah, and again Elijah prophecies, and the men are immediately killed by divine fire. The third time men are sent, their leader begs Elijah to listen, and an angel tells Elijah to go with them. He tells Ahaziah that he will die, which comes true. As Elisha and Elijah are on their way to Gilgal, Elijah tells Elisha to remain, but Elisha insists on going with him. On reaching Bethel, the prophets there tell Elisha that God is to take Elijah on that day, but Elisha insists he already knows. Elijah tells Elisha to remain, but Elisha again insists on going with him. They go to Jericho, where the same events occur. At the Jordan River, Elijah rolls up his mantle and touches the waters, which duly part, and the two cross on dry land. A flaming chariot and horses then come to distract(test) Elisha from witnessing the whirlwind collect Elijah and take him to heaven. Elisha undeterred, then picks up Elijah's mantle, which had fallen, strikes the waters of the Jordan, which part, and then crosses back over. (test his focus and prove his worthiness of his request to have a double portion of Elijah's spirit, thus revealing to others that he was continuing Elijah's work as a prophet) Elisha Miracles The inhabitants of a city (not explicitly identified, but implicitly assumable to be Jericho) complain to Elisha about the poor state of the water and the land, so Elisha sprinkles salt on a spring to purify it, as it is "to this day". Elisha goes to Bethel, where a large number of small boys shout "baldy" at him, so Elisha curses them. Because of this insult, God sends two bears to come out of the forest to tear 42 of the boys to pieces, killing them. A widow of a member of the prophet's guild complains to Elisha that her husband's creditors want to enslave her children to pay his debts, so Elisha tells her to fill as many vessels as possible with the oil that she owns, and to sell it, and miraculously the small amount of oil fills all the containers that she is able to find. During a famine, Elisha has his servants make vegetable stew for the guild of prophets at Gilgal, but one of them adds wild gourds to the stew. When realising that they have been poisoned, the guild complains to Elisha, who adds grain to the pot, and serves it to the people instead, who suffer no ills. A man from Baal-shalishah brings Elisha twenty loaves, and Elisha manages to feed a hundred people with them, miraculously dividing each loaf between five people, and there are some left-overs. The guild of prophets move to the Jordan to build themselves a larger home, and while doing so the head slips off an axe into the river, but Elisha throws a stick in and the iron axe head floats to the surface. Because Ahaziah (king of Israel) is childless, upon his death, his brother Jehoram succeeds him as king of Israel. Moab stops sending tribute to Israel once Jehoram takes over and raises its army against Israel. Jehoram responds by making a pact with Judah, and the combined forces of Israel, Judah, and Edom (a vassal of Judah), set out to attack Moab. However, the water supply dries up, and they consult Elisha for help. Elisha reluctantly agrees to assist them and prophecies water and victory. Vast quantities of water then come from the direction of Edom, filling the wells and covering the ground. From a distance, the Moabites, mistaking the water for blood, think that Israel, Judah, and Edom have attacked each other, so the Moabites seek out the spoils. When the Moabites reach the camp of Israel, the Israelites launch a surprise attack, vanquish the Moabites, and cast stones on their fields and block their springs. The Moabites are entrapped in a city, so the king, having failed to escape to get reinforcements, sacrifices his son to Chemosh. The sacrifice results in Israel being defeated. Jehoram later joins Ahaziah in battle against Aram, but while recovering from the wounds inflicted in the battle he is killed in a conspiracy, in which Ahaziah is also killed. When Elisha visits Shunem, an influential woman asks him to dine with her, and consequently he dined with her each time he was in Shunem. The woman decides to prepare a room for him so that he can stay overnight, and so Elisha asks his servant how he can repay the woman. The servant tells Elisha that the woman is childless and her husband is old, so Elisha tells the woman that she will become pregnant, which comes true. Years later, while reaping the fields, the child, a boy, complains that his head hurts, and then abruptly dies. The mother sets off to find Elisha to tell him, and when Elisha is informed, he sends his servant to put the staff of Elisha on top of the boy. The boy remains dead, so Elisha goes to the boy and twice lies on top of him, placing his hands in the boy's hands and his lips on the boy's lips, and the boy's body becomes warm. The third time he lies on the boy, the boy sneezes and awakens. Elisha later warns the woman, who has become a widow, of an approaching seven-year famine, so she leaves the land. After the famine is over, the woman returns and happens to pass the king at exactly the same moment that Elisha's servant is telling the king about the resurrection of the woman's son. The king consequently assigns an official to her and orders that the woman's land be restored to her. Naaman, commander of Aram's forces, captures a girl from Israel during one of his campaigns. The girl tells Naaman, who suffers from leprosy, that Elisha can heal him. Elisha orders Naaman to wash in the Jordan sevenfold, which angers Naaman, since there were closer rivers, but he is persuaded to wash in the Jordan anyway and is cured. Naaman asks Elisha how he can be repaid, but all Elisha will accept is dedication to Yahweh alone, which Naaman agrees to. Battles The (unidentified) king of Aram was at war with the (unidentified) king of Israel, but Elisha told the king of Israel all of the secret plans that the king of Aram had made, so undermining his tactics. The king of Aram is angered by this and so sends an army to kill Elisha at Dothan. Elisha is not worried by this turn of events and shows his servant that he is defended by a mountainside full of chariots of fire and horses that were hidden from the servant's view. Elisha, by a prayer, strikes the army of Aram blind, then leads them to Samaria, where he restores their sight. At Samaria, Elisha orders the king of Israel to be hospitable to the Aramaean army and not to harm them. After a feast, the Aramaeans leave, and their raiding parties cease harassing Israel. Ben-hadad, king of Aram, lays siege to Samaria, (with an army, not raiding parties). The siege causes hyperinflation and a famine that is so severe that some people have started eating other people's children. The (unnamed) king of Israel blames Yahweh for the tragedy and refuses to trust Yahweh anymore, but Elisha prophecies that the famine will end and the inflation reverse. Four lepers realise that staying neutral or entering the famished Israelite city is a no-win situation for them, so they decide to go to the king of Aram, since there is at least a chance of survival. The lepers discover that the Aramaeans had fled, (having mistaken some sounds for a large army and fearing that Israel had hired Hittite and borderland mercenaries). After helping themselves to the food and treasure, the lepers decide to tell the people of Samaria that the Aramaeans have gone. Although the king of Israel does not believe them, his servants check for themselves, and when it becomes known to the rest of the population, the Aramaean camp is plundered, ending the famine. Accession of kings When Ben-hadad, king of Aram, lies sick, Elisha is visiting Aram. The king therefore sends Hazael to consult Elisha about the king's illness. Elisha is uneasy, prophesying that the king will not survive and that Hazael will become the new king and slaughter the Israelites. Hazael is shocked and questions how he could become king (despite Elijah already having anointed him as the next king of Aram, some while ago), but when he returns, he lies to Ben-hadad and says that Elisha had prophesied a recovery. The next day, Hazael smothers the king to death with a water soaked cloth and becomes king in his place. Jehoram, the son of Jehoshaphat, succeeds him as king of Judah. Jehoram makes a pact with Israel, marrying into their royal family, though this results in him following their religious practices rather than the more Yahwistic ones of his own father. Edom, previously on Judah's side, revolts, and so Jehoram battles them but is surrounded. Jehoram manages to escape, but his army flees and Edom gains its independence. The town of Libnah also revolts against Jehoram. When Jehoram (king of Judah) dies, his son, named as "Ahaziah" in Kings and as Jehoahaz in Chronicles (both names are equivalent; they are the same theophory as suffix and prefix respectively), rules over Judah in his place. Because of their family connection, Ahaziah supports Jehoram (king of Israel) at the battle of Ramoth-Gilead against Hazael and later visits Jehoram while he is convalescing from his battle wounds. While visiting the convalescent, the forces of Jehu attack him, and he flees but is fatally wounded and dies at Megiddo. House of Jehu Elisha sends a prophet to anoint Jehu, a son of Jehoshaphat, as the king (despite Elijah already having done this). Once the prophet does this, Jehu organises a conspiracy against Jehoram (king of Israel). Jehoram is shot dead by Jehu with an arrow, and his body is taken to the field of Naboth in order to fulfil a prophecy. Ahaziah, the king of Judah, sees this and flees but is mortally wounded by Jehu and dies at Meggido. Jehu heads to Jezreel, and when she learns of this, Jezebel puts on makeup and calls down accusing him of murder and asking if all is well. Jehu shouts out and persuades the palace eunuchs to defenestrate Jezebel, sending her to a gory death. Jehu challenges Israel to oppose him, but frightened by him they submit and in accordance with his wishes, they decapitate all the descendants of Ahab, sending Jehu the heads. Jehu also slaughters every descendant in Jezreel and kills the kinsmen of Ahaziah (king of Judah) in a pit. During Jehu's reign, Hazael conquers Gilead. After Jehu dies, his son Jehoahaz becomes the new king of the much reduced Israel. Athaliah, the mother of Ahaziah, on discovering the death of her son, sets out to kill the entire remaining royal family and take the throne. However, her sister manages to hide Jehoash (sometimes abbreviated as Joash) the son of Ahaziah in the temple of Yahweh. Six years later, the priest summons the captain of the guards and Carian mercenaries and shows them Jehoash. The priest has the guards and mercenaries surround the temple and defend it, while he publicly anoints Jehoash as king. Although Athaliah discovers this and shouts that this is treason, the priest has Athaliah taken away and killed. The people then go and obliterate the temple of Hadad and slaughter its priest. Jehoash of Israel succeeds Jehoahaz, his father, as king of Israel. Jehoash goes to Elisha, who is dying, for help against Hazael. Elisha forces Jehoash to shoot an arrow through the window and then prophecies that his doing so has ensured victory against Hazael. Elisha also makes Jehoash strike the ground with some arrows, and so Jehoash does so three times. Elisha states that this will ensure three victories, but by not striking the ground five or six times, has denied himself total outright victory. Elisha then dies and is buried. While another funeral is taking place, Moabite raiders attack, so the mourners drop the body into Elisha's grave and flee, but when the body touches Elisha's, the man comes back to life. Hazael dies and is succeeded by the weaker Ben-hadad, who is defeated thrice by Jehoash, fulfilling Elisha's promise. Jehoash is later forced to fight the aggressive king of Judah, but he succeeds and captures him. Amaziah, the son of Jehoash, succeeds his father as king of Judah. Amaziah slaughters those who killed his father though is merciful enough to spare their descendants. Amaziah then goes on military campaigns, conquering the Edomites. Amaziah challenges Jehoash (the king of Israel), but Jehoash responds with a parable about the Thistle of Lebanon. Amaziah attacks anyway, and the two sides meet in battle, but Judah is defeated and Amaziah captured. Later, Amaziah is freed (without explanation), hears of a conspiracy against him, and flees to Lachish but is pursued there and killed. Jeroboam II becomes king of Israel. Despite following Canaanite religion (for which the books of Kings, Chronicles, Hosea, Joel, Amos, and Jonah, condemn him), Jeroboam is otherwise a hero because he manages to expand the boundaries of Israel as far as the Arabah. Uzziah (Kings mistakenly names him Azariah, which in Chronicles is instead the name of his high priest), succeeds Jeroboam as king of Judah and rebuilds Elath. However, Uzziah suffers from leprosy, so his son Jotham reigns as regent (Chronicles states that Uzziah was deposed by a rebellion of the priesthood and was cursed with leprosy as a result and was sent to live with the lepers). The construction of a gate of the temple is attributed to Jotham's mother. Jotham formally becomes king when Uzziah dies. End of the Northern Kingdom Zechariah succeeds his father Jeroboam as king of Israel but is soon killed by Shallum, who reigns in his place. Menahem hears about Zechariah's assassination and sets off to kill Shallum but is held up by the people of Tappuah. After finally reaching Shallum and killing him, Menahem exacts revenge on the people of Tappuah by slaughtering their entire population. Now that Menahem has become king, the king of Assyria, Tiglath-pileser (referred to in 15:16–22a as if a different individual named Pul, though this is actually just the throne name of Tiglath-pileser) invades, and Menahem gives him money to employ him to strengthen Menahem's own reign over Israel, but Tiglath-pileser just leaves with the money. When Menahem dies, his son, Pekahiah, succeeds him as king. However, Pekah, the adjutant to Pekahiah, conspires with the people from the eastern half of Israel, Gilead, and kills Pekahiah, becoming king in his place. Pekah enters into an alliance with Rezin, the king of Aram, to attack Judah. Supporting Judah, which has become a vassal of Assyria, Tiglath-pileser invades Israel, capturing several cities and deporting their populations. Hoshea conspires against Pekah, killing him and becoming king in his place (though an inscription by Tiglath-pileser states that he killed Pekah and placed Hoshea on the throne). Ahaz becomes king of Judah when Jotham, his father, dies. The alliance between Aram and Israel besiege Ahaz, and Edom is able to recover Elath, so Ahaz responds by becoming a vassal of Tiglath-pileser, who is subjugating Israel. Tiglath-pileser then attacks Damascus (capital of Aram), killing Rezin and deporting the inhabitants to another part of Assyria. Ahaz follows Canaanite religious practices, sacrificing at the high places and Asherah groves and even immolating his son through the fire to Moloch. As a consequence, when Ahaz goes to Damascus to meet Tiglath-pileser, he is so impressed by the altar that he has a new altar made to the same design and replaces the altar at the Jerusalem temple with it. Ahaz makes further alterations to the temple layout, even removing the throne emplacement, in deference to the Assyrian king. After taking control of what remained of Israel, Hoshea is forced to become a vassal of the Assyrians, because of aggressive behaviour by Shalmaneser. However, Hoshea resents this and not only fails to send the annual tribute to Assyria, but also sends envoys to Sais, the Egyptian king, for help. Shalmaneser occupies Israel and besieges Samaria for three years. Samaria falls to Sargon II (the new king of Assyria after Shalmaneser dies during the siege, though the Bible does not indicate this, and refers to him simply as the king of Assyria without acknowledging that this is not Shalmaneser), and the nine tribes of Israel are completely deported to other regions of the Assyrian empire, becoming the Lost Ten Tribes (tradition considers there to be ten lost tribes, though Israel contained only nine). End of the Southern Kingdom The son of Ahaz, Hezekiah, succeeds him as king of Judah and institutes a far reaching religious reform, centralising the religion to the temple at Jerusalem. In iconoclastic pursuit of the reform, Hezekiah destroys the high places, pillars, and Asherah, as well as the Nehushtan, which Moses is alleged to have created. Hezekiah rebels against Assyria and partially subjugates the land of the Philistines (2 Kings 18:8). However, Sennacherib, the king of Assyria, captures several cities in Judah, and so Hezekiah uses the temple funds, even breaking up the gold plated doors, to pay tribute to Sennacherib. Sennacherib sends messengers to Jerusalem to say that Hezekiah's ally Egypt is weak, that Hezekiah has offended Israel's God, and that Jerusalem could not even muster two thousand men to fight against the oncoming Assyrians. Sennacherib offers the people a life of ease if they will submit, but the people of Judah respond with silence, as Hezekiah has ordered them. Sennacherib is briefly distracted by battling the Ethiopians that have launched an attack upon him and so sends Hezekiah a letter reminding him that other nations' gods have not saved them from him. Apparently by way of preparation for any siege, Hezekiah constructs a conduit and pool providing water to Jerusalem. (This pool is not mentioned in the account of the siege in 2 Kings, but may be referenced in 2 Kings 20:20b and 2 Chronicles 32:3–5.) Hezekiah sends messengers to Isaiah who prophecies that Yahweh will protect Jerusalem for the sake of the promise made to David, and the Assyrians will not be able to besiege Jerusalem. That night an angel kills one hundred eighty-five thousand men of the Assyrian army, and the survivors return to Assyria. Sennacherib is killed by two of his own sons, and a third becomes king in his place. Manasseh, son of Hezekiah, becomes the next king and completely reverts Hezekiah's religious changes, which the writer blames for the later destruction of Judah by Babylon. The story of Manasseh is abridged at this point, though the Book of Chronicles records that Manasseh was taken prisoner by the Babylonians and treated so badly that, when released, he was a reformed man. Many copies of the vulgate translation additionally record a Prayer of Manasseh which records Manasseh's repentance. After his death, his penitence is shown to be in vain when his son, Amon, perpetuates the rejection of Hezekiah's reform and refuses to repent. However, Amon becomes the victim of a conspiracy when he is killed by his own servants. A counter-conspiracy results in Josiah, son of Amon, being placed on the throne of Judah. During his godly reign, Josiah institutes repairs of the temple, during which the chief priest, Hilkiah, discovers a book of the law. This book is verified as genuine by the prophetess Huldah, and the penitent Josiah vows to enact all the mitzvot within it (most scholars, both critical and apologetic, view the book as an early version of Deuteronomy, for which reason Josiah's reform is often referred to as the deuteronomic reform). According to the narrative, no king before Josiah was ever as devout or fulfilled all of the torah, and Josiah is particularly zealous about his iconoclasm. Necho II leads an Egyptian army to join that of Assyria in attacking Babylon, and Josiah rides out and meets Necho at the Battle of Megiddo but is killed. Babylon The people appoint Jehoahaz, a son of Josiah, as the king in place of Josiah, but Necho imprisons Jehoahaz and deports him. Necho appoints another son of Josiah as the new king, who duly changes his name to Jehoiakim. Jehoiakim taxes the land to give tribute to Necho, but the land is soon attacked by Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian king. Easily defeated, Jehoiakim becomes the vassal of Babylon rather than Egypt, and the Babylonian empire reaches to the border of Egypt, so Egypt makes no further attempt to dominate the region. However, three years later, Jehoiakim rebels, and raiders from the surrounding nations are sent by Nebuchadnezzar to attack Judah. Nebuchadnezzar appoints Jeconiah as the new king of Judah. Nebuchadnezzar attacks Jerusalem and besieges it, so Jehoniah and his court surrender and Jehoiachim is taken captive. Many decades later, Evil-merodach, a later king of Babylon, releases Jehoaichin from prison, gives him an allowance, and generally treats him favourably for the rest of his days. Nebuchadnezzar appoints the uncle of Jehoiachim as the new king of Judah, who duly changes his name to Zedekiah. However, Zedekiah rebels, and so Nebuchadnezzar besieges Jerusalem and breaches the city walls. After Zedekiah and his children flee through a tunnel, he is captured and taken to Nebuchadnezzar, who has the sons of Zedekiah killed in front of him and then has Zedekiah's eyes put out so that it is the last thing he has seen. Zedekiah is then bound in chains and taken to Babylon. After Jehoiachim's surrender, Nebuchadnezzar deports everyone of any worth to Babylon, including the army, the people of Jerusalem, nobles, and craftsmen, as well as the treasures of Jerusalem. Once Zedekiah's later rebellion is suppressed, Nebudchadnezzar sends Nebuzaradan to Jerusalem, where he burns down the temple, palace, houses, and walls. He then deports the treasures of the temple and the population (excepting some of the poor) to Babylon. The two highest priests of the temple, a scribe, a courtiers, five personal servants to Zedekiah, and 60 people remaining in Jerusalem are taken to Nebudchadnezzar and killed. The few people remaining in Judah are put under the command of Gedaliah, who promises the commanders of the army of Judah that they will not be harmed as long as they remain loyal to Babylon. However, one of the commanders, of royal descent, conspires against Gedaliah and has him killed, but the people are so afraid of what Nebuchadnezzar's reaction might be that almost the entire population of Judah flee to Egypt. Authorship The authorship, or rather compilation, of these books is uncertain. The date of its composition was perhaps some time between 561 BC, the date of the last chapter (2 Kings 25), when Jehoiachin was released from captivity by Evil-merodach, and 538 BC, the date of the decree of deliverance by Cyrus the Great. There are some portions that are almost identical to the Book of Jeremiah, for example, 2 Kings 24:18-25 and Jeremiah 52; 39:1-10; 40:7-41:10. There are also many undesigned coincidences between Jeremiah and Kings (2 Kings 21-23 and Jer. 7:15; 15:4; 19:3, etc.), and events recorded in Kings of which Jeremiah had personal knowledge. Because of this, traditionally Jeremiah was credited the author of the books of Kings. However, the book(s) plainly acknowledge several source texts in several places, and it is hence self evidently a compilation from earlier sources rather than an original work. A superficial examination of the Books of Kings makes clear the fact that they are a compilation and not an original composition. In the case of Solomon it is the book of the acts of Solomon (1 Kings 11:41); for the Northern Kingdom it is the book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel, which is cited seventeen times; and for the kings of Judah it is the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah, which is cited fifteen times. As well as the text's own admission, the idea of the text being composed from multiple earlier sources is also supported by textual criticism. Whether the editor had access to these chronicles, as they were deposited in the state archives, or simply to a history based upon them, can not with certainty be determined, though it is generally assumed that the latter was the case. An early supposition was that Ezra, after the Babylonian captivity, compiled them from official court chronicles of David, Solomon, Nathan, Gad, and Iddo, and that he arranged them in the order in which they now exist. However, it is more usually said that Ezra was the compiler of the Books of Chronicles, an alternate history of the period of the kings, which was earlier in history treated as a single book together with the Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah. The majority of textual criticism is of the belief that, with the majority of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, and Samuel, these works were originally compiled into a single text, the Deuteronomic history, by a single redactor, the Deuteronomist. The similarities between the text of Deuteronomy and that of the Book of Jeremiah are so strong that many critical scholars view Jeremiah as the Deuteronomist, hence agreeing with the traditional view concerning the authorship of Kings. Object and method of work It was not the purpose of the compiler to give a complete history of the period covered by his work; because he often refers to other sources for additional details. He mentions as a rule a few important events which are sufficient to illustrate the attitude of the king toward the Deuteronomic law, or some feature of it, such as the central sanctuary and the high places, and then proceeds to pronounce judgment upon him accordingly. Each reign is introduced with a regular formula; then follows a short excerpt from one of his sources; after which an estimate of the character of the monarch is given in stereotyped phraseology; and the whole concludes with a statement of the king's death and burial. The standpoint of the judgments passed upon the various kings as well as the vocabulary of the compiler indicates that he lived after the reforms of Josiah (621 BC) had brought the Deuteronomic law into prominence. How much later than this the book in its present form was composed may be inferred from the fact that it concludes with a notice of Jehoiachin's release from prison by Evil-merodach (Amil-Marduk) after the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562. The book must have taken its present form, therefore, during the Exile, and probably in Babylonia. As no mention is made of the hopes of return which are set forth in Isaiah 40-55, the work was probably concluded before 550. Besides the concluding chapters there are allusions in the body of the work which imply an exilic date (e.g. 1 Kings 8:34, 9:39; 2 Kings 17:19-20, 23:26-27). Time of redaction There are indications which imply that the first redaction of Kings must have occurred before the downfall of the Judean monarchy. The phrase unto this day occurs where it seems to have been added by an editor who was condensing material from older annals but described conditions still existing when he was writing. Again, in 1 Kings 9:36, 15:4, and 2 Kings 8:19, which come from the hand of a Deuteronomic editor, David has, and is to have, a lamp burning in Jerusalem; that is, the Davidic dynasty is still reigning. Finally, 1 Kings 8:29-31, 8:33, 8:35, 8:38, 8:42, 8:44, 8:48, 9:3, 11:36 imply that the Temple is still standing. There was accordingly a pre-exilic Book of Kings. The work in this earlier form must have been composed between 621 and 586. As the glamour of Josiah's reforms was strong upon the compiler, perhaps he wrote before 600. To this original work 2 Kings 24:10-25:30 was added in the Exile, and, perhaps, 23:31-24:9. In addition to the supplement which the exilic editor appended, a comparison of the Masoretic text with the Septuagint as represented in codices B and L shows that the Hebrew text was retouched by another hand after the exemplars which underlie the Alexandrine text had been made. Thus in B and L, 1 Kings 5:7 follows on 4:19; 6:12-14 is omitted; 9:26 follows on 9:14, so that the account of Solomon's dealings with Hiram is continuous, most of the omitted portion being inserted after 10:22. 1 Kings 21, the history of Naboth, precedes ch. 20, so that 20 and 22, which are excerpts from the same source, come together. Such discrepancies prove sufficient late editorial work to justify the assumption of two recensions. Sources In brief outline the sources of the books appear to have been these: 1 Kings 1-2 are extracted bodily from the a source now known as the court history of David, which largely also constitutes 2 Samuel 9-20. The redactor has added notes at 1 Kings 2:2-4 and 2:10-12. For the reign of Solomon the text names its source as the book of the acts of Solomon (11:41); but other sources were employed, and much was added by the redactor. 1 Kings 3 is a prophetic narrative of relatively early origin, worked over by the redactor, who added verses 2-3, and 14-15. 1 Kings 4:1-19 is presumably derived from the Chronicle of Solomon. 1 Kings 4:20-5:14, "Solomon's Wealth and Wisdom" (1 Ki 4:20-34 ESB), contains a small kernel of prophetic narrative which has been retouched by many hands, some of them later than the Septuagint. The basis of 5:15-7:51 was apparently a document from the Temple archives; but this was freely expanded by the redactor, and 6:11-14 also by a later annotator. 1 Kings 8:1-13, the account of the dedication of the Temple, is from an old narrative, slightly expanded by later hands under the influence of the Priestly source of the Torah. 1 Kings 8:14-66 is in its present form the work of the redactor slightly retouched in the Exile. 1 Kings 9:1-9 is the work of the redactor, but whether before the Exile or during it is disputed. 1 Kings 9:10-10:29 consists of extracts from an old source, presumably the book of the acts of Solomon, pieced together and expanded by later editors. The order in the Masoretic text differs from that in the Septuagint. 1 Kings 11:1-13 is the work of the redactor; 1 Kings 11:14-22 is a confused account, perhaps based on two older narratives; 1 Kings 11:26-31 and 39-40 probably formed a part of a history of Jeroboam from which 12:1-20 and 14:1-18 were also taken. The extracts in chapter 11 have been set and retouched by later editors. Numbering The numbering of the Bible is usually considered to be fairly consistent throughout translations. However, most Hebrew versions, as well as the New American Bible, differ in the numbering of 1 Kings 4-5 from other translations such as the King James Version. One set of translations regards chapter 4 as ending at verse 20, while the other continues it for 14 verses that are placed at the start of chapter 5 in the first set. Peculiar textual features Problems of dates The chronology of Kings has several problematic areas. The duration of reigns for the kings of Judah does not correspond correctly to their supposed times of accession compared to the reigns of the kings of Israel. Assigning the number of years after Solomon that each king of Judah reigned, by comparing the figure for their predecessor and the length of their predecessor's reign, simply does not equal the figure that you would obtain by comparing the figures for the kings of Israel and which year the king of Judah began to rule compared to the reign of the contemporary king of Israel. The same issue applies to the kings of Israel, and hence there are multiple different chronologies proposed for the period. There are also external difficulties for the dating. The king that the Book of Kings names as Ahaz is claimed within it to reign for only 16 years. However, some of the events during his reign are recorded elsewhere and have an almost absolute consensus as to their dates, requiring Ahaz to have at least ruled between 735BC and 715BC, a period of 20 years. One resolution of this issue is provided based on the knowledge that the Jewish calendrical system counted as one year the period of time from the date of the king's ascension until the beginning of the following month of Nisan; conversely, the final year of a king's reign was counted from the beginning of the month of Nissan until the date of his death. Thus, the calculation of the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah often differ from one another. Problems of names The name Hadad and compounds of it occur at several locations within the text. Hadad is the name of the Canaanite deity that is often who the term Ba'al (which means lord) refers to. Consequently many kings from the region surrounding Israel and Judah would take throne names that were theophory in Hadad (or Ba'al), which has can lead to much confusion in the text, and some difficulty in identifying which people are the same individuals and which are different: Hadadezer (Hadad+ezer) is an Assyrian king Hadad is the name of a king of Edom Ben-hadad is the name of one or more kings of Aram. Although this name simply means son of Hadad it does not necessarily mean that Hadad was the name of the king's father, but simply that the king was a king (i.e. a son of Hadad - the god) King Hadad is the name of a god (according to the text), i.e. Hadad In addition, while Ba'al is usually used to refer to Hadad, the term Baalzebub also appears as the name of a deity. Ba'alzebub, meaning lord of the flies, is most likely to be a deliberate pun, by the anti-Hadad writer, on the term Ba'alzebul, meaning prince Ba'al, i.e. Hadad. Even more confusing is the fact that some passages refer to a single king of Assyria by two different names, whereas others refer simply to the king of Assyria in several places but are actually talking about 2 separate historically attested kings, not the same individual. This problem is compounded in the names of Israelite and Judahite kings, where theophoric suffixes and prefixes exist in El and Yah/Yahweh, namely Ja...., Jeho..., ....iah, ...el, and El..... It was common to drop the theophory in ordinary day to day life, so that, for example, Daniel becomes simply Dan. In some cases double theophory occurred, as for example in the name of the king of Judah that contemporary cuneiform inscriptions record as Jeconiah (Je+Con+Iah), which the Book of Jeremiah drops one of the theophories to make the name simply Choniah (Chon+Iah), while the Book of Kings moves both theophories next to each other making his name Jehoiachin (Jeho+Iah+chon). Similarly theophory was often flexible as to which end of names it occurred at for a single individual, so that the king of Judah which the Book of Kings of names as Ahaziah (Ahaz + iah) is named by the Book of Chronicles as Jehoahaz (Jeho + ahaz) - ultimately this is the same name as had by the later king referred to as Ahaz. Genealogical problems Version of the Omride genealogy using the Masoretic Text only In the region of the Omrides (that is the descendants of Omri), there are remarkable co-incidences between the names of the kings of Judah and those of Israel, in that they are often identical; Jehoram was king of Israel while another Jehoram was king of Judah; Jehoash son of Jehoahaz was king of Israel while another Jehoash son of another Jehoahaz was king of Judah. As a consequence a number of scholars have proposed that this was a period in which Judah and Israel were united under one king, and by combining two different accounts of the same individual from the point of view of Israel and of Judah, the redactor of Kings has split one historic set of individuals into two copies. This feature is compounded by the fact that unlike the masoretic text, on which most English Bible translations are based, the Septuagint version refers to Athaliah as daughter of Omri, rather than as daughter of the house of Omri. A number of scholars have suggested that the Septuagint represents the more original version, and hence that Athaliah was in reality either the sister, half-sister, or wife, of Ahab. Since her character and the manner of her death are described by the Bible to be similar to Jezebel, the possibility that Jezebel is merely a descriptive slur or nickname for Athaliah has been raised. By equating the two, the genealogy can be simplified and a number of name duplications no longer occur. It is also possible that Athaliah was daughter of Jehoshaphat, and it was her marriage to Ahab that formed the Israel-Judah alliance, with the biblical form of the genealogy being later censorship to make Judah appear to have remained fairly religiously pure; this would explain how it was that she became queen over Judah, in contrast to how the Bible portrays her as a biological daughter of the king of Israel. Version of the Omride genealogy using the Septuagint text. The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III also refers to Jehu as son of Omri, rather than son of Jehoshaphat. Jehu destroyed the house of Omri rather than helping perpetuate it. By treating the Black Obelisk as historically accurate, and thus making Jehu a brother or half-brother to Ahab, it becomes much clearer why Jehu, who the Bible portrays as a son of the king of Judah, would become the head of a dynasty of kings over Israel. Jehu would in this situation be the wicked uncle who killed the rightful kings of Israel and Judah, attempting to usurp power, but only managing to hold onto Israel, to which he had an ancestral claim. Organization The two books of Kings comprise the fourth book in the second canonical division of Hebrew Scriptures: in the threefold division of the Tenach, these books are ranked among the Prophets. The present division into two books was first made by the Septuagint, which numbers them as the third and fourth books of "Kingdoms", the two books of Samuel being considered the first and second books of Kingdoms; this numbering was also followed in the Vulgate with 1-4 Kings, but most modern Christian Bibles have two books of Samuel and two of Kings. In Christianity The Books of Kings are frequently quoted or alluded to by (; ; , ; comp. ; ; comp. ; and , etc.). References External links Original text מלכים א Melachim Aleph - Kings A (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) מלכים ב Melachim Bet - Kings B (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Jewish translations 1 Kings at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) 2 Kings at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) Melachim I - Kings I (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Melachim II - Kings II (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations Online Bible at GospelHall.org King James Bible Online - Kings I chapter-indexed English translation. King James Bible Online -Kings II chapter-indexed English translation. Other links Books of Kings article (Jewish Encyclopedia)	Books_of_Kings \|@lemmatized book:45 king:202 include:2 hebrew:7 bible:12 originally:2 write:4 recognise:1 scripture:2 judaism:1 christianity:2 part:7 old:8 testament:1 accord:4 biblical:2 chronology:3 event:6 occur:9 century:1 bc:4 contain:4 account:7 ancient:1 kingdom:11 israel:72 judah:55 annals:2 jewish:6 commonwealth:1 accession:4 solomon:76 subjugation:1 nebuchadnezzar:11 babylonian:5 apparently:3 period:8 four:4 hundred:5 fifty:1 three:6 year:16 synchronize:1 chronicle:20 great:3 prominence:3 give:18 priestly:2 levitical:1 office:2 royal:4 prophetic:3 appear:7 considerably:1 earlier:2 generally:4 consider:3 reliable:1 historical:1 source:14 content:1 david:13 age:1 spend:1 night:4 abishag:2 woman:11 appoint:5 purpose:2 keep:1 warm:2 adonijah:10 son:44 gather:2 attendant:1 persuades:2 joab:4 abiathar:2 support:9 claim:3 heir:2 oppose:2 zadok:2 benaiah:4 nathan:3 shimei:5 well:11 army:14 general:2 favour:1 another:11 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6,060	Hesychasm	Hesychasm (Greek hesychasmos, from hesychia, "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") Parry (1999), p. 230 is an eremitic tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church, and some other Eastern Churches of the Byzantine Rite, practised (Gk: hesychazo: "to keep stillness") by the Hesychast (Gr. hesychastes). Based on Christ's injunction in the Gospel of Matthew to "go into your closet to pray", Matthew 6:5–6 (King James Version) Hesychasm in tradition has been the process of retiring inward by ceasing to register the senses, in order to achieve an experiential knowledge of God (see theoria). History of the term The origin of the term hesychasmos, and of the related terms hesychastes, hesychia and hesychazo, is not entirely certain. According to the entries in Lampe's A Patristic Greek Lexicon, the basic terms hesychia and hesychazo appear as early as the 4th Century in such Fathers as St John Chrysostom and the Cappadocians. The terms also appear in the same period in Evagrius Pontikos (c.345–399), who although he is writing in Egypt is out of the circle of the Cappadocians, and in the Sayings of the Desert Fathers. The term Hesychast is used sparingly in Christian ascetical writings emanating from Egypt from the 4th Century on, although the writings of Evagrius and the Sayings of the Desert Fathers do attest to it. In Egypt, the terms more often used are anchoretism (Gr. , "withdrawal, retreat"), and anchorite (Gr. , "one who withdraws or retreats, i.e. a hermit"). Zograf Monastery, one of the 20 monasteries of Mount Athos. The term Hesychast was used in the 6th Century in Palestine in the Lives of Cyril of Scythopolis, many of which lives treat of Hesychasts who were contemporaries of Cyril. Here, it should be noted that several of the saints about whom Cyril was writing, especially Euthymios and Savas, were in fact from Cappadocia. The laws (novella) of the Emperor Justinian (6th Century) treat Hesychast and anchorite as synonyms, making them interchangeable terms. The terms hesychia and Hesychast are used quite systematically in the Ladder of Divine Ascent of St John of Sinai (523–603) and in Pros Theodoulon by St Hesychios (c.750?), who is ordinarily also considered to be of the School of Sinai. It is not known where either St John of Sinai or St Hesychios were born, nor where they received their monastic formation. It appears that the particularity of the term Hesychast has to do with the integration of the continual repetition of the Jesus Prayer into the practices of mental ascesis already used by hermits in Egypt. Hesychasm itself is not recorded in Lampe, which indicates that it is a later usage. By the 14th Century on Mount Athos the terms Hesychasm and Hesychast refer to the practice and to the practitioner of a method of mental ascesis that involves the use of the Jesus Prayer assisted by certain psychophysical techniques. Most likely, the rise of the term Hesychasm reflects the coming to the fore of this practice as something concrete and specific that can be discussed. Books used by the Hesychast include the Philokalia, a collection of texts on prayer and solitary mental ascesis written from the 4th to the 15th Centuries, this collection existing in a number of independent redactions; the Ladder of Divine Ascent; the collected works of St Symeon the New Theologian (949–1022); and the works of St Isaac the Syrian (7th C.?–8th C.?), as they were selected and translated into Greek at the Monastery of St Savas near Jerusalem about the 10th Century. Hesychastic practice Hesychastic practice bears some formal resemblance to mystical prayer or meditation in Eastern religions (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Sufism, compare with yoga), although this similarity is often over-emphasized in popular accounts and rejected by actual Orthodox practitioners of Hesychasm. , citing The Hidden Man of the Heart: The Cultivation of the Heart in Orthodox Christian Anthropology, by Archimandrite Zacharias (Waymart, PA: Mount Thabor Publishing, 2008), pp. 66-68, The Stavropegic Monastery of St John the Baptist, Essex, UK. The practice may involve specific body postures and be accompanied by very deliberate breathing patterns. However, these bodily postures and breathing patterns are treated as secondary both by modern Athonite practitioners of Hesychasm (e.g. Elder Ephraim of Katounakia, p. 114 [Greek edition]) and by the more ancient texts in the Philokalia (e.g. On the Two Methods of Prayer by St Gregory of Sinai), the emphasis being on the primary role of the uncreated Energies of God. Hesychasts are fully integrated into the Liturgical and sacramental life of the Orthodox Church, including the daily cycle of liturgical prayer of the Divine Office and the Divine Liturgy. However, Hesychasts who are living as hermits might have a very rare attendance at the Divine Liturgy (see the life of Saint Seraphim of Sarov) and might not recite the Divine Office except by means of the Jesus Prayer (attested practice on Mt Athos). In general, the Hesychast restricts his external activities for the sake of his Hesychastic practice. Hesychastic practice involves acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses. In this, Hesychasm shows its roots in Evagrius Pontikos and even in the Greek tradition of asceticism going back to Plato. The Hesychast interprets Christ's injunction in the Gospel of Matthew to "go into your closet to pray" to mean that one should ignore the senses and withdraw inward. Saint John of Sinai writes: "Hesychasm is the enclosing of the bodiless primary Cognitive faculty of the soul (Orthodoxy teaches of two cognitive faculties, the nous and logos) in the bodily house of the body." (Ladder, Step 27, 5, (Step 27, 6 in the Holy Transfiguration edition).) In Step 27, 21 of the Ladder (Step 27, 22–3 of the Holy Transfiguration edition), St John of Sinai describes Hesychast practice as follows: Take up your seat on a high place and watch, if only you know how, and then you will see in what manner, when, whence, how many and what kind of thieves come to enter and steal your clusters of grapes. When the watchman grows weary, he stands up and prays; and then he sits down again and courageously takes up his former task. In this passage, St John of Sinai says that the primary task of the Hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis. This mental ascesis is the rejection of tempting thoughts (the “thieves”) that come to the Hesychast as he watches in sober attention in his hermitage. Much of the literature of Hesychasm is occupied with the psychological analysis of such tempting thoughts (e.g. St Mark the Ascetic). This psychological analysis owes much to the ascetical works of Evagrius Pontikos, with its doctrine of the eight passions. St. John Cassian is not represented in the Philokalia except by two brief extracts, but this is most likely due to his having written in Latin. His works (Coenobitical Institutions and the Conferences) represent a transmittal of Evagrius Pontikos’ ascetical doctrines to the West. These works formed the basis of much of the spirituality of the Order of St Benedict and its offshoots. Hence, the tradition of St John Cassian in the West concerning the spiritual practice of the hermit can be considered to be a tradition parallel to that of Hesychasm in the Orthodox Church. The highest goal of the Hesychast is the experiential knowledge of God. In the 14th Century, the possibility of this experiential knowledge of God was challenged by a Calabrian monk, Barlaam, who although he was formally a member of the Orthodox Church had been trained in Western Scholastic theology. Barlaam asserted that our knowledge of God can only be propositional. The practice of the Hesychasts was defended by St. Gregory Palamas. (See below.) In solitude and retirement the Hesychast repeats the Jesus Prayer, "Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner." The Hesychast prays the Jesus Prayer 'with the heart'—with meaning, with intent, 'for real' (see ontic). He never treats the Jesus Prayer as a string of syllables whose 'surface' or overt verbal meaning is secondary or unimportant. He considers bare repetition of the Jesus Prayer as a mere string of syllables, perhaps with a 'mystical' inner meaning beyond the overt verbal meaning, to be worthless or even dangerous. This emphasis on the actual, real invocation of Jesus Christ marks a divergence from Eastern forms of meditation. There is a very great emphasis on humility in the practice of the Jesus Prayer, great cautions being given in the texts about the disaster that will befall the would-be Hesychast if he proceeds in pride, arrogance or conceit. It is also assumed in the Hesychast texts that the Hesychast is a member of the Orthodox Church in good standing. While he maintains his practice of the Jesus Prayer, which becomes automatic and continues twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, the Hesychast cultivates watchful attention (Gr. nepsis). Sobriety contributes to this mental askesis described above that rejects tempting thoughts; it puts a great emphasis on focus and attention. The Hesychast is to pay extreme attention to the consciousness of his inner world and to the words of the Jesus Prayer, not letting his mind wander in any way at all. The Hesychast is to attach Eros (Gr. eros), that is, "yearning", to his practice of sobriety so as to overcome the temptation to acedia (sloth). He is also to use an extremely directed and controlled anger against the tempting thoughts, although to obliterate them entirely he is to invoke Jesus Christ via the Jesus Prayer. The Great Schema or Megaloschema, worn by seasoned hesychasts The Hesychast is to bring his mind (Gr. nous) into his heart so as to practise both the Jesus Prayer and sobriety with his mind in his heart. The descent of the mind into the heart is taken quite literally by the practitioners of Hesychasm and is not at all considered to be a metaphorical expression. Some of the psychophysical techniques described in the texts are to assist the descent of the mind into the heart at those times that only with difficulty it descends on its own. The goal at this stage is a practice of the Jesus Prayer with the mind in the heart, which practice is free of images (see Pros Theodoulon). What this means is that by the exercise of sobriety (the mental ascesis against tempting thoughts), the Hesychast arrives at a continual practice of the Jesus Prayer with his mind in his heart and where his consciousness is no longer encumbered by the spontaneous inception of images: his mind has a certain stillness and emptiness that is punctuated only by the eternal repetition of the Jesus Prayer. This stage is called the guard of the mind. This is a very advanced stage of ascetical and spiritual practice, and attempting to accomplish this prematurely, especially with psychophysical techniques, can cause very serious spiritual and emotional harm to the would-be Hesychast. St Theophan the Recluse once remarked that bodily postures and breathing techniques were virtually forbidden in his youth, since, instead of gaining the Spirit of God, people succeeded only "in ruining their lungs." The guard of the mind is the practical goal of the Hesychast. It is the condition in which he remains as a matter of course throughout his day, every day until he dies. It is from the guard of the mind that he is raised to contemplation by the Grace of God. The Hesychast usually experiences the contemplation of God as light, the Uncreated Light of the theology of St Gregory Palamas. The Hesychast, when he has by the mercy of God been granted such an experience, does not remain in that experience for a very long time (there are exceptions—see for example the Life of St Savas the Fool for Christ (14th Century), written by St Philotheos Kokkinos (14th Century)), but he returns 'to earth' and continues to practise the guard of the mind. The Uncreated Light that the Hesychast experiences is identified with the Holy Spirit. Experiences of the Uncreated Light are allied to the 'acquisition of the Holy Spirit'. Notable accounts of encounters with the Holy Spirit in this fashion are found in St Symeon the New Theologian's account of the illumination of 'George' (considered a pseudonym of St Symeon himself); in the 'conversation with Motovilov' in the Life of St Seraphim of Sarov (1759 – 1833); and, more recently, in the reminiscences of Elder Porphyrios (Wounded by Love pp. 27 – 31). Orthodox Tradition warns against seeking ecstasy as an end in itself. Hesychasm is a traditional complex of ascetical practices embedded in the doctrine and practice of the Orthodox Church and intended to purify the member of the Orthodox Church and to make him ready for an encounter with God that comes to him when and if God wants, through God's Grace. The goal is to acquire, through purification and Grace, the Holy Spirit and salvation. Any ecstatic states or other unusual phenomena which may occur in the course of Hesychast practice are considered secondary and unimportant, even quite dangerous. Moreover, seeking after unusual 'spiritual' experiences can itself cause great harm, ruining the soul and the mind of the seeker. Such a seeking after 'spiritual' experiences can lead to spiritual delusion (Ru. prelest, Gr. plani)—the antonym of sobriety—in which a person believes himself or herself to be a saint, has hallucinations in which he or she 'sees' angels, Christ, etc. This state of spiritual delusion is in a superficial, egotistical way pleasurable, but can lead to madness and suicide, and, according to the Hesychast fathers, makes salvation impossible. Mount Athos is a centre of the practice of Hesychasm. St Paisius Velichkovsky and his disciples made the practice known in Russia and Romania, although Hesychasm was already previously known in Russia, as is attested by St Seraphim of Sarov's independent practice of it. Gregory Palamas: defender of Hesychasm Gregory Palamas About the year 1337 Hesychasm attracted the attention of a learned member of the Orthodox Church, Barlaam, a Calabrian monk who at that time held the office of abbot in the Monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople and who visited Mount Athos. Mount Athos was then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of Andronicus III Palaeologus and under the 'first-ship' of the Protos Symeon. On Mount Athos, Barlaam encountered Hesychasts and heard descriptions of their practices, also reading the writings of the teacher in Hesychasm of St Gregory Palamas, himself an Athonite monk. Trained in Western Scholastic theology, Barlaam was scandalized by Hesychasm and began to combat it both orally and in his writings. As a private teacher of theology in the Western Scholastic mode, Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the Hesychasts taught. Barlaam took exception to, as heretical and blasphemous, the doctrine entertained by the Hesychasts as to the nature of the light, the experience of which was said to be the goal of Hesychast practice. It was maintained by the Hesychasts to be of divine origin and to be identical to that light which had been manifested to Jesus' disciples on Mount Tabor at the Transfiguration. Parry (1999), p. 231 This Barlaam held to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God. On the Hesychast side, the controversy was taken up by St Gregory Palamas, afterwards Archbishop of Thessalonica, who was asked by his fellow monks on Mt Athos to defend Hesychasm from the attacks of Barlaam. St Gregory himself was well-educated in Greek philosophy. St Gregory defended Hesychasm in the 1340s at three different synods in Constantinople, and he also wrote a number of works in its defense. In these works, St Gregory Palamas uses a distinction, already found in the 4th Century in the works of the Cappadocian Fathers, between the energies or operations (Gr. energeies) of God and the essence of God. St Gregory taught that the energies or operations of God were uncreated. He taught that the essence of God can never be known by his creature even in the next life, but that his uncreated energies or operations can be known both in this life and in the next, and convey to the Hesychast in this life and to the righteous in the next life a true spiritual knowledge of God. In Palamite theology, it is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the Hesychast who has been vouchsafed an experience of the Uncreated Light. In 1341 the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople and presided over by the Emperor Andronicus; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop in the Roman Catholic Church. One of Barlaam's friends, Gregory Akindynos, who originally was also a friend of St Gregory Palamas, took up the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of Barlaam gained a brief victory. But in 1351 at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus, Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church. The contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. Roman Catholic views Up to this day, the Latin Rite Catholic Church has never fully adopted Hesychasm , especially the distinction between the energies or operations of God and the essence of God, and the notion that those energies or operations of God are uncreated. Father Adrian Fortescue was a noted critic of hesychasm. In Latin Rite theology as it has developed since the Scholastic period, the essence of God can be known, but only in the next life; the grace of God is always created; and the essence of God is pure act (Actus and force as Actus et potentia), so that there can be no distinction between the energies or operations and the essence of God (see, e.g., the Summa Theologica of St. Thomas Aquinas). Some of these positions depend on Aristotelian metaphysics. Notes References The Philokalia. The Ladder of Divine Ascent by St John of Sinai. The Ascetical Homilies of St Isaac the Syrian. Works of St Symeon the New Theologian. Coenobitical Institutions and Conferences of St John Cassian. The Way of the Pilgrim. St Silouan the Athonite. (Contains an introduction by Archimandrite Sophrony (Sakharov), immediate disciple of St Silouan, together with the meditations of St Silouan (1866 – 1938).) Works of Archimandrite Sophrony (Sakharov) (1896 – 1993). Elder Joseph the Hesychast. (Life of a very influential Hesychast on Mt Athos who died in 1959.) Monastic Wisdom. The Letters of Elder Joseph the Hesychast. Wounded by Love. The Life and the Wisdom of Elder Porphyrios. (Reminiscences and reflections of Elder Porphyrios (1906 – 1991) of Mt Athos.) Works by Elder Paisios (1924 – 1994) of Mount Athos. (A very well-known Athonite Elder and Hesychast.) Elder Ephraim of Katounakia. Translated by Tessy Vassiliadou-Christodoulou. (Life and teachings of Elder Ephraim (1912–1998) of Katounakia, Mt Athos, a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast.) Hieromonachos Charalampos Dionusiates, O didaskalos tes noeras proseuches (Hieromonk Charalambos of the Monastery of Dionysiou, The Teacher of Mental Prayer). (Life and teachings of Elder Charalambos (1910–2001), sometime Abbot of the Monastery of Dionysiou, Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast. In Greek, available in English.) Works of Archimandrite Aimilianos (1934 – ) of the Monastery of Simonos Petra, Mt Athos, especially Volumes I and II. Counsels from the Holy Mountain. Selected from the Lessons and Homilies of Elder Ephraim. (Archimandrite Ephraim of the Monastery of St Anthony, Florence, Arizona. Formerly Abbot of the Monastery of Philotheou on Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast. Not to be confused with Elder Ephraim of Katounakia.) Paths to the Heart: Sufism and the Christian East - edited by James Cutsinger See also Quietism Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholic Churches Jesus Prayer Imiaslavie Mysticism Philokalia The Way of a Pilgrim Poustinia Meditation Prayer Theosis Caloyers Tabor Light Barlaam of Calabria External links Hesychasm: Library of Books, Articles and Links on Hesychasm Hesychasm: Definitions - by Paul Halsall Medieval Sourcebook: Hesychasm: Selected Readings - Compiled by Paul Halsall Hesychasm: an annotated bibliography - By Sergey S. Horujy The Jesus Prayer, a very straightforward exposition. St Gregory Palamas works in English and Greek, Unceasing Prayer, Select Resources Melkite Greek Catholic Information Centre on St. Gregory Palamas "Hesychasm" article by Adrian Fortescue in Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1910) Pope John Paul II's Angelus Message, August 11, 1996 (The same in Italian) This is a brief modern reflection by a Pope that refers directly to Hesychasm, indicating that its defense was in conflict with certain aspects of Roman Catholic teaching Three foundational aspects of the Theology of St Gregory Palamas Prayer of the Heart Suggested Readings: Prayer of the Heart Study - compiled by S. Munnis, Mercy Center Practice of the Modern Hesychasm - by Vladimir Antonov Hesychasm: Orthodox Spirituality Compared and Constrasted with Other Religious Traditions - by Thomas Mether Symposium on Enlightenment and Hesychasm - by Pr. Couns. Nicolae Dascalu Hesychia: An Orthodox Opening to Esoteric Ecumenism - by James Cutsinger Solovyov and Hesychasm: Two Ways of Joining Mystical and Social Life - by S. S. Horujy To be Transformed by a Vision of Uncreated Light: A Survey on the Influence of the Existential Spirituality of Hesychasm on Eastern Orthodox History - by Gregory K. Hillis Hesychasm: A Christian Path of Transcendence - by Mitchell B. Liester The Hesychast Movement - by Al. Vasilief The Revival of Political Hesychasm in Greek Orthodox Thought - by Daniel Paul Payne Metaphor or Experience? - by Eiji Hisamatsu The Spiritual Heart: God's Channel - interview with Alexander Mumrikov The Way of Inner Silence - by Theodore Nottingham The Psychological Basis of Mental Prayer in the Heart - by Fr. Theophanes (Constantine) An Orthodox Christian Study on Unceasing Prayer - by John K. 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6,061	Antares	Antares (α Scorpii / Alpha Scorpii) is a red supergiant star in the Milky Way galaxy and the sixteenth brightest star in the nighttime sky (sometimes listed as fifteenth brightest, if the two brighter components of the Capella quadruple star system are counted as one star). Along with Aldebaran, Spica, and Regulus it is one of the four brightest stars near the ecliptic. Antares is a variable star, whose apparent magnitude varies from +0.9 to +1.8. Properties Comparison between the red supergiant Antares and the Sun, shown as the tiny dot toward the upper right. The black circle is the size of the orbit of Mars. Arcturus is also included in the picture for size comparison. Antares is a class M supergiant star, with a diameter of approximately 700 times that of the sun; if it were placed in the center of our solar system, its outer surface would lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Antares is approximately from our solar system. Its visual luminosity is about 10,000 times that of the Sun, but because the star radiates a considerable part of its energy in the infrared part of the spectrum, the bolometric luminosity equals roughly 65,000 times that of the Sun. The mass of the star is calculated to be 15 to 18 solar masses. Its large size and relatively small mass give Antares a very low average density. The best time to view Antares is on or around May 31 of each year, when the star is at opposition to the Sun. At this time, Antares rises at dusk and sets at dawn, and is thus in view all night. For approximately two to three weeks on either side of November 30, Antares is not visible at all, being lost in the Sun's glare; this period of invisibility is longer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere, since the star's declination is significantly south of the celestial equator. Companion star Antares has a hot blue companion star, Antares B, of spectral type B2.5 at a separation of about 2.9 arcseconds, or 550 AUs at Antares' estimated distance. At magnitude 5.5, it is only 1/370th as bright visually as Antares A, although it shines with 170 times the Sun's luminosity. It is normally difficult to see in small telescopes due to Antares' glare, but becomes easy in apertures over . The companion is often described as green, but this is probably a contrast effect. Antares B can be observed with a small telescope for a few seconds during lunar occultations while Antares itself is hidden by the Moon; it was discovered during one such occultation on April 13, 1819. The orbit is poorly known, with an estimated period of 878 years. Position on the ecliptic Antares near the Sun, event which occurs on December 2 every year. Image from SOHO. Antares is one of the 4 first magnitude stars which lie within 5° of the ecliptic and therefore can be occulted by the Moon and rarely by the planets. On 17 November 2400 Antares will be occulted by Venus. Every year around December 2 the Sun passes 5° north of Antares. Of the 21 first-magnitude stars, Antares now lies farthest in angular distance from any other first-magnitude star; i.e. it is possible to draw a larger circle centered around Antares without including any other first-magnitude star inside that circle, than around any other first-magnitude star. The nearest first-magnitude star to Antares is Alpha Centauri, lying approximately 39°6.75′ away. The high proper motion of Alpha Centauri is gradually increasing this angle. Before about March 2000, Achernar and Fomalhaut held this distinction of being the most isolated from other first-magnitude stars. Antares in ancient cultures Antares' name derives from the Ancient Greek , meaning "(holds) against Ares (Mars)", due to the similarity of its reddish hue to the appearance of the planet Mars. It is the brightest star in the constellation Scorpius. Its distinctive coloration has made the star an object of interest to many societies throughout history. According to ancient Arab tradition, Antares is the warrior-poet Antar's star. Many of the old Egyptian temples are oriented so that the light of Antares plays a role in the ceremonies performed there. Antares was also known as Satevis in ancient Persia and was one of the four "royal stars" of the Persians around 3000 BC. It was also known as Jyeshtha in ancient India. In the religion of Stregheria, Antares is a fallen angel and quarter guardian of the western gate. In astrology Antares is one of the Behenian fixed stars and has the symbol Image:Agrippa1531 corScorpii.png. Richard Hinckley Allen, Star-names and their meanings (1936), p. 365. An old Arabic name was , the 'Scorpion's heart'. This had been directly translated to the Ancient Greek and Latin . See also Antares in fiction External links A comparison of the size of Antares to other celestial objects Exploring the Full Stellar Population of the upper Scorpius OB Association References	Antares \|@lemmatized antares:32 α:1 scorpii:2 alpha:3 red:2 supergiant:3 star:26 milky:1 way:1 galaxy:1 sixteenth:1 bright:4 nighttime:1 sky:1 sometimes:1 list:1 fifteenth:1 brightest:1 two:2 brighter:1 component:1 capella:1 quadruple:1 system:3 count:1 one:6 along:1 aldebaran:1 spica:1 regulus:1 four:2 near:3 ecliptic:3 variable:1 whose:1 apparent:1 magnitude:9 varies:1 property:1 comparison:3 sun:9 show:1 tiny:1 dot:1 toward:1 upper:2 right:1 black:1 circle:3 size:4 orbit:3 mar:4 arcturus:1 also:4 include:2 picture:1 class:1 diameter:1 approximately:4 time:6 place:1 center:2 solar:3 surface:1 would:1 lie:4 jupiter:1 visual:1 luminosity:3 radiate:1 considerable:1 part:2 energy:1 infrared:1 spectrum:1 bolometric:1 equal:1 roughly:1 mass:3 calculate:1 large:2 relatively:1 small:3 give:1 low:1 average:1 density:1 best:1 view:2 around:5 may:1 year:4 opposition:1 rise:1 dusk:1 set:1 dawn:1 thus:1 night:1 three:1 week:1 either:1 side:1 november:2 visible:1 lose:1 glare:2 period:2 invisibility:1 longer:1 northern:1 hemisphere:2 southern:1 since:1 declination:1 significantly:1 south:1 celestial:2 equator:1 companion:3 hot:1 blue:1 b:2 spectral:1 type:1 separation:1 arcsecond:1 au:1 estimate:1 distance:2 visually:1 although:1 shin:1 normally:1 difficult:1 see:2 telescope:2 due:2 become:1 easy:1 aperture:1 often:1 describe:1 green:1 probably:1 contrast:1 effect:1 observe:1 second:1 lunar:1 occultation:2 hide:1 moon:2 discover:1 april:1 poorly:1 know:3 estimated:1 position:1 event:1 occur:1 december:2 every:2 image:2 soho:1 first:7 within:1 therefore:1 occult:2 rarely:1 planet:2 venus:1 pass:1 north:1 farthest:1 angular:1 e:1 possible:1 draw:1 without:1 inside:1 centauri:2 away:1 high:1 proper:1 motion:1 gradually:1 increase:1 angle:1 march:1 achernar:1 fomalhaut:1 hold:2 distinction:1 isolated:1 ancient:6 culture:1 name:3 derives:1 greek:2 mean:1 similarity:1 reddish:1 hue:1 appearance:1 constellation:1 scorpius:2 distinctive:1 coloration:1 make:1 object:2 interest:1 many:2 society:1 throughout:1 history:1 accord:1 arab:1 tradition:1 warrior:1 poet:1 antar:1 old:2 egyptian:1 temple:1 orient:1 light:1 play:1 role:1 ceremony:1 perform:1 satevis:1 persia:1 royal:1 persian:1 bc:1 jyeshtha:1 india:1 religion:1 stregheria:1 fallen:1 angel:1 quarter:1 guardian:1 western:1 gate:1 astrology:1 behenian:1 fixed:1 symbol:1 corscorpii:1 png:1 richard:1 hinckley:1 allen:1 meaning:1 p:1 arabic:1 scorpion:1 heart:1 directly:1 translate:1 latin:1 fiction:1 external:1 link:1 explore:1 full:1 stellar:1 population:1 ob:1 association:1 reference:1 \|@bigram milky_way:1 apparent_magnitude:1 northern_hemisphere:1 southern_hemisphere:1 celestial_equator:1 alpha_centauri:2 richard_hinckley:1 hinckley_allen:1 external_link:1
6,062	Complex_instruction_set_computing	A complex instruction set computer (CISC, pronounced like "sisk") is a computer instruction set architecture (ISA) in which each instruction can execute several low-level operations, such as a load from memory, an arithmetic operation, and a memory store, all in a single instruction. The term was retroactively coined in contrast to reduced instruction set computer (RISC). Examples of CISC processor families are System/360, PDP-11, VAX, 68000, and x86. Historical design context Incitements and benefits Before the RISC philosophy became prominent, many computer architects tried to bridge the so called semantic gap, i.e. to design instruction sets that directly supported high-level programming constructs such as procedure calls, loop control, and complex addressing modes, allowing data structure and array accesses to be combined into single instructions. Instructions are also typically highly encoded in order to further enhance the code density. The compact nature of such instruction sets results in smaller program sizes and fewer (slow) main memory accesses, which at the time (early 1960s and onwards) resulted in a tremendous savings on the cost of computer memory and disc storage, as well as faster execution. It also meant good programming productivity even in assembly language, as high level languages such as Fortran or Algol were not always available or appropriate (microprocessors in this category are sometimes still programmed in assembly language for certain types of critical applications). Performance In the 70's analysis of high level languages indicated some complex machine language implementations and it was determined that new instructions could improve performance. Some instructions were added that were never intended to be used in assembly language but fit well with compiled high level languages. Compilers were updated to take advantage of these instructions. The benefits of semantically rich instructions with compact encodings can be seen in modern processors as well, particularly in the high performance segment where caches are a central component (as opposed to most embedded systems). This is because these fast, but complex and expensive, memories are inherently limited in size, making compact code beneficial. Of course, the fundamental reason they are needed is that main memories (i.e. dynamic RAM today) remain slow compared to a (high performance) CPU-core. Potential problems While many designs achieved the aim of higher throughput at lower cost and also allowed high-level language constructs to be expressed by fewer instructions, it was observed that this was not always the case. For instance, low-end versions of complex architectures (i.e. using less hardware) could lead to situations where it was possible to improve performance by not using a complex instruction (such as a procedure call or enter instruction), but instead using a sequence of simpler instructions. One reason for this was that architects (microcode writers) sometimes "over-designed" assembler language instructions, i.e. including features which were not possible to implement efficiently on the basic hardware available. This could, for instance, be "side effects" (above conventional flags), such as the setting of a register or memory location that were perhaps seldom used; if this were done via ordinary (non duplicated) internal buses, or even the external bus, it would demand extra cycles every time, and thus be quite inefficient. Even in balanced high performance designs, highly encoded and (relatively) high-level instructions could be complicated to decode and execute efficiently within a limited transistor budget. Such architectures therefore require a great deal of work on the part of the processor designer in cases where a simpler, but (normally) slower, solution based on decode tables and/or microcode sequencing is not appropriate. At the time where transistors were a limited resource, this also left less room on the processor to optimize performance in other ways, which gave room for ideas to return to simpler processor-designs in order to make it feasible to cope without ROMs (or even PLAs) for sequencing and/or decoding. This led to the first RISC-labeled processors in the mid-1970s (IBM 801 - IBMs Watson Research Center). In the 21st Century Transistors for logic, PLAs, and microcode are no longer a scarce resource (with the possible exception of high-speed cache memory). Together with better tools and new technologies, this has led to new implementations of highly encoded and variable length designs without load-store limitations (i.e. non-RISC). This governs re-implementations of older architectures such as the ubiquitous x86 (see below) as well as new designs for microcontrollers for embedded systems, and similar uses. CISC and RISC The terms RISC and CISC have become less meaningful with the continued evolution of both CISC and RISC designs and implementations. The first highly (or tightly) pipelined x86 implementations, the 486 designs from Intel, AMD, Cyrix, and IBM, supported every instruction that their predecessors did, but achieved maximum efficiency only on a fairly simple x86 subset that resembled only a little more than a typical RISC instruction set (i.e. without typical RISC load-store limitations). The Pentium generation was a superscalar version of these principles. However, modern x86 processors also (typically) decode and split instructions into dynamic sequences of internal buffered micro-operations, which not only helps execute a larger subset of instructions in a pipelined (overlapping) fashion, but also facilitates more advanced extraction of parallelism out of the code stream, for even higher performance. See also CPU RISC ZISC VLIW CPU design Computer architecture External links RISC vs. CISC comparison References Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (2006) Structured Computer Organization, Fifth Edition, Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.	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6,063	Abalone	Abalone (from Spanish Abulón) are medium-sized to very large edible sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Haliotidae and the genus Haliotis. Common names for abalones also include ear-shells, sea-ears and Venus's-ears, as well as muttonfish or muttonshells in Australia, ormer in Jersey and Guernsey, perlemoen in South Africa and pāua in New Zealand. There is only the one genus in the family Haliotidae, and about four to seven subgenera. The number of species recognized worldwide is about 100. The shells of abalones have a low and open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of nacre or mother-of-pearl, which in many species is highly iridescent, giving rise to a range of strong and changeable colors, which make the shells attractive to humans as decorative objects, and as a source of colorful mother-of-pearl. The flesh (the adductor muscle) of abalones is widely considered to be a desirable food. Description The iridescent inside surface of a red abalone shell The shell of abalones has a convex, rounded to oval shape, and the shell may be highly arched or very flattened. The shell is slightly spiral, with two to three whorls, the last one aeriform such that the shell resembles an "ear", giving rise to the common name ‘ear-shell’. The body whorl has a series of holes—four to ten depending on the species—near the anterior margin, for the escape of water from the gills. There is no operculum. The color of the shell is very variable from species to species. The iridescent nacre that lines the inside of the shell varies in color from silvery white, to pink, red and green-red, through to Haliotis iris, which shows predominantly deep blues, greens and purples. These snails cling solidly with their broad muscular foot to rocky surfaces at sublittoral depths, although some species such as Haliotis cracherodii used to be common in the intertidal zone. Abalones reach maturity at a relatively small size. Their fecundity is high and increases with their size (from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time). The larvae are lecithotrophic or feed off a yolk sac. The adults are herbivorous and feed with their rhipidoglossan radula on macroalgae, preferring red algae. Sizes vary from 20 mm (Haliotis pulcherrima) to 200 mm (or even more) (Haliotis rufescens). They also have three small holes on top for depositing waste. Distribution The haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except the Atlantic coast of South America, the Caribbean, and the East Coast of the United States. The majority of abalone species are found in cold waters, off the Southern Hemisphere coasts of New Zealand, South Africa and Australia, and Western North America and Japan in the Northern Hemisphere. The species of sea snail which is known in the sea food trade as the "Chilean abalone", Concholepas concholepas, is from another family altogether. It is not a true abalone at all, but a muricid, or rock snail. Structure and properties of abalone shell The shell of the abalone is exceptionally strong. It is made of microscopic calcium carbonate tiles stacked like bricks. Between the layers of shells is a clingy protein substance. When the abalone shell is struck, the tiles slide instead of shattering and the protein stretches to absorb the energy of the blow. Material scientists around the world are studying the tiled structure for insight into stronger ceramic products such as body armor. The dust created through the grinding and cutting of abalone shell is dangerous; appropriate safeguards must be taken to protect people from inhaling these particles. An N95-rated dust respirator, a ventilation system, and wet grinding are requirements to working abaolne shell safely. The calcium carbonate dust is a respiratory irritant and the particles can penetrate into the lower respiratory tree and cause irritant bronchitis and other respiratory irritation responses. The usual symptoms are cough and sputum production, and secondary infections can occur. If there are proteins left in the shell matrix, it is also possible that they can trigger an allergic (asthmatic) attack. In general, the more someone is exposed to something that triggers their asthma reaction, the larger the reaction. Allergic skin reactions can also occur. Diseases Abalones are subject to various diseases. The New South Wales Department of Primary Industries said in 2007 that abalone viral ganglioneuritis, or AVG, killed up to 90% of stock in affected regions. Abalone are also severe hemophiliacs as their fluids will not clot in the case of a laceration or puncture wound. Using abalone as bait or burley is illegal in NSW. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/aboutus/news/recent-news/fishing-and-aquaculture/abalone-gut-bait-ban Sport harvesting Tasmania - Australia Tasmania provides approximately 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest . Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for blacklip and greenlip abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies from between 138 mm for the southern end of the state and 127 mm for the northern end of the state . Greenlip abalone have a minimum size of 145 mm, except for an area around Perkin's Bay in the north of the state where the minimum size is 132 mm. With a recreational abalone licence, there is a bag limit of 10 per day, and a total possession limit of 20. Scuba diving for abalone is allowed and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the state of New South Wales is illegal, where a free diving catch limit of two is permitted). California Two highly endangered White Abalone. Prohibitions on commercial and recreational harvest of this species have been in place since 1996. Sport harvesting of red abalone is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. New in 2008, the abalone card also comes with a set of 24 tags. Legal-size abalone must be tagged immediately. Abalone may only be taken using breath-hold techniques or shorepicking; scuba diving for abalone is strictly prohibited. Taking of abalone is not permitted south of the mouth of the San Francisco Bay. There is a size minimum of seven inches (178 mm) measured across the shell and a quantity limit of three per day and 24 per year. A person may be in possession of only three abalone at any given time. Abalone may only be taken from April to November, not including July. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still attached in the shell. Sale of sport-obtained abalone is illegal, including the shell. Only red abalone may be taken; black, white, pink, and flat abalone are protected by law. An abalone diver is normally equipped with a thick wetsuit, including a hood, booties, and gloves, and usually also a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. Alternatively, the rock picker can feel underneath rocks at low tides for abalone. Abalone are mostly taken in depths from a few inches up to 10 m (33 ft); less common are freedivers who can work deeper than 10 m (33 ft). Abalone are normally found on rocks near food sources (kelp). An abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it can fully clamp down. Divers commonly dive out of boats, kayaks, tube floats or directly off the shore. An eight-inch (203 mm) abalone is considered a good catch, a nine-inch (229 mm) abalone extremely good, and a ten-inch (254 mm) or larger abalone a trophy catch. There has been a trade in diving to catch abalones off parts of the United States coast from before 1939. In World War II, many of these abalone divers were recruited into the United States armed forces and trained as frogmen. The largest abalone recorded in California is , caught by John Pepper somewhere off the coast of Humboldt county. New Zealand There is an extensive global black market in the collection and export of abalone meat. In New Zealand, where abalone is called pāua (from the Māori language), this can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under Māori customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 pāua per diver with a minimum shell length of 125 mm. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry of Fisheries officers with the backing of the police. Pāua 'poaching' is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats, and motor vehicles as well as fines and in rare cases, imprisonment. The Ministry of Fisheries expects in the year 2004/05, nearly 1,000 tons of pāua will be poached, with 75% of that being undersized. http://www.fish.govt.nz/information/corp-docs/soi-04-08/pau2-industry-association.pdf Highly polished New Zealand pāua shells are extremely popular as souvenirs with their striking blue, green, and purple iridescence. South Africa The largest abalone in South Africa, the Perlemoen, Haliotis midae, occurs along approximately two-thirds of the country’s coastline. Perlemoen-diving has been a recreational activity for many years, but stocks are currently being threatened by illegal commercial harvesting. In South Africa all persons harvesting this animal need permits that are issued on a yearly basis, and no abalone may be harvested using scuba gear. For the last few years, however, no permits have been issued for collecting Abalone (Perlemoen), but commercial harvesting still continues as does illegal collection by syndicates. In 2007, because of widespread poaching of abalone, the South African government listed perlemoen as an endangered species according to the CITES section III appendix, which requests member governments to monitor the trade in this species. The abalone meat from South Africa is prohibited for sale in the country to help reduce poaching however, much of the illegally harvested meat is sold in Asian countries. As of early 2008, the wholesale price for abalone meat was approximately US$40.00 per kilogram. There is an active trade in the shells which sell for more than US$1,400 per metric tonne. There is, however, speculation that local criminal gangs barter Abalone illegally with Chinese nationals in exchange for chemicals used in the production of drugs, reducing the need for the use of money and hence avoiding money laundering issues. http://www.capeargus.co.za/?fSectionId=3571&fArticleId=vn20090411065235212C189274 Channel Islands Ormers (Haliotis tuberculata) are considered a delicacy in the British Channel Islands and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and 'ormering' is now strictly regulated in order to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from January 1 to April 30, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under 80 mm in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison . The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers. Farming Abalone farm Farming of abalone began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China. Since the mid-1990s, there have been many increasingly successful endeavors to commercially farm abalone for the purpose of consumption. Over-fishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to such an extent that farmed abalone now supplies most of the abalone meat consumed. The principal abalone farming regions are China's mainland, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea. Abalone is also farmed in Australia, Canada, Chile, Iceland, Ireland, Mexico, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, Thailand, and the United States. Human use Meat of abalones is used for consumption and shells of abalones are used as decorative items. Consumption The raw meat of abalone Braised abalone, with Chinese black mushrooms Abalone has long been a valuable food source for humans in every area of the world where a species is, or used to be, abundant. The various larger species of abalones have been exploited commercially for food to the extent that many populations are now severely threatened. The meat of this mollusk is considered a delicacy in certain parts of Latin America (especially Chile), France, New Zealand, South East Asia, and East Asia (especially in China, Japan, and Korea). In Chinese speaking regions, abalone are commonly known as bao yu, and sometimes forms part of a Chinese banquet. Similar to shark fin soup or birds nest soup, it is considered a symbol of wealth and prestige, and is traditionally reserved for special occasions such as weddings and other celebrations. However, the availability of commercially farmed abalone has allowed more common consumption of this once rare delicacy. In Japan, live and raw abalone is used in awabi sushi, or served steamed, salted, boiled, chopped, or simmered in soy sauce. Salted, fermented abalone entrails are the main component of tottsuru, a local dish from Honshū. Tottsuru is mainly enjoyed with sake. In California abalone receives more relaxed treatment and can be found on pizza, sautéed with caramelized mango or in steak form dusted with cracker meal and flour. The mollusc Concholepas concholepas is often sold in the United States under the name Chilean abalone, even though it is not an abalone but a muricid. Decorative items The highly iridescent inner nacre layer of the shell of abalone has traditionally been used as a decorative item in jewelry, buttons, and as inlay in furniture and in musical instruments such as guitars, etc. The Abalone pearl, with its scarcity and impending extinction prove itself the ultimate prize for the knowledgeable and informed jewelry collector. Abalone pearl jewelry is very popular in New Zealand and Australia, in no minor part due to the marketing and farming efforts of pearl companies. Unlike the Oriental Natural, the Akoya pearl, and the South Sea and Tahitian cultured pearls, abalone pearls are not primarily judged by their roundness. Also, unlike other types of pearls, abalone pearls are not subjected to any type of processing, such as bleaching or buffing. Species White abalone, Haliotis sorenseni Haliotis australis, Australian abalone, Austral abalone Haliotis ancile, Shield abalone Haliotis aquatilis, Japanese abalone Haliotis asinina, Ass’s ear abalone Haliotis barbouri Haliotis brazieri, Brazier’s abalone Haliotis clathrata Haliotis chimcham Chimcham abalone Haliotis coccoradiata, Reddish-rayed abalone Haliotis conicopora, Conical pore abalone, brownlip abalone Haliotis corrugata, Pink abalone Haliotis cracherodii, Black abalone Haliotis crebrisculpta, Close sculptures abalone Haliotis cyclobates, Whirling abalone Haliotis dalli, Dall’s abalone Haliotis discus, Disk abalone Haliotis dissona Haliotis diversicolor supertexta, Taiwan abalone, jiukong Haliotis diversicolor, Variously coloured abalone Haliotis dohrniana, Dhorn’s abalone Haliotis elegans, Elegant abalone Haliotis emmae, Emma’s abalone Haliotis ethologus, Mimic abalone Haliotis exigua Haliotis fatui Haliotis fulgens, Green abalone Haliotis gigantea, Giant abalone, Awabi Haliotis glabra, Glistening abalone Haliotis hargravesi, Hargraves’s abalone Haliotis howensis, Lord Howe abalone Haliotis iris, Blackfoot abalone, Rainbow abalone, Pāua Haliotis jacnensis, Jacna abalone Haliotis kamtschatkana, Pinto abalone Haliotis kamtschatkana assimilis Haliotis kamtschatkana kamtschatkana Haliotis laevigata, Smooth Australian abalone, greenlip abalone Haliotis madaka Haliotis mariae Haliotis melculus, Honey Abalone Haliotis marfaloni, Marfalo Abalone Haliotis midae, Midas ear abalone, perlemoen abalone, South African abalone Haliotis multiperforata, Many-holed abalone Haliotis ovina, Oval abalone, sheep's ear abalone Pink abalone, Haliotis corrugata Haliotis parva, Canaliculate abalone Haliotis patamakanthini Haliotis planata, Planate abalone Haliotis pourtalesii, Pourtale’s abalone Haliotis pulcherrima, Most beautiful abalone Haliotis pustulata Haliotis queketti, Quekett’s abalone Haliotis roberti Haliotis roei, Roe's abalone Haliotis rosacea, Rosy abalone Haliotis rubiginosa Haliotis rubra, Ruber abalone Haliotis rufescens, Red abalone Haliotis rugosa Haliotis scalaris, Staircase abalone, ridged ear abalone Haliotis schmackenmuut, Norweigan Schmackenmuut Bay abalone Haliotis semiplicata, Semiplicate abalone Haliotis sorenseni, White abalone Haliotis spadicea, Blood-spotted abalone Haliotis speciosa, Splendid abalone Haliotis squamata, Scaly Australian abalone Haliotis squamosa, Squamose abalone Haliotis thailandis Haliotis tuberculata, Green ormer, European edible abalone, tube abalone, tuberculate ormer Haliotis unilateralis Haliotis varia, Variable abalone Haliotis venusta, Lovely abalone Haliotis virginea, Virgin abalone Haliotis walallensis, Northern green abalone, flat abalone Haliotis assimilis, Threaded abalone References External links Abalone: Species Diversity Abalone biology Conchology Hardy's Internet Guide to Marine Gastropods : Shell Catalog book on crafting with Abalone Shell Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution Pro abalone diver, Mallacoota, Victoria (1967) Tathra NSW(1961), Abalone (1963)	Abalone \|@lemmatized abalone:164 spanish:1 abulón:1 medium:1 size:9 large:6 edible:2 sea:5 snail:4 marine:2 gastropod:2 mollusk:2 family:4 haliotidae:2 genus:2 haliotis:82 common:5 name:3 also:9 include:4 ear:9 shell:31 venus:1 well:2 muttonfish:1 muttonshells:1 australia:6 ormer:8 jersey:1 guernsey:2 perlemoen:6 south:15 africa:7 pāua:8 new:13 zealand:9 one:2 four:2 seven:2 subgenus:1 number:3 specie:15 recognize:1 worldwide:3 low:3 open:2 spiral:2 structure:3 characterize:1 several:1 respiratory:4 pore:2 row:1 near:3 outer:1 edge:1 thick:2 inner:2 layer:3 compose:1 nacre:3 mother:2 pearl:10 many:7 highly:5 iridescent:4 give:3 rise:2 range:1 strong:3 changeable:1 color:3 make:2 attractive:1 human:3 decorative:4 object:1 source:3 colorful:1 flesh:1 adductor:1 muscle:1 widely:1 consider:5 desirable:1 food:5 description:1 inside:2 surface:2 red:7 convex:1 round:1 oval:2 shape:1 may:8 arched:1 flattened:1 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6,064	Josephus_on_Jesus	This article is part of the Jesus and history series of articles. Jesus is mentioned in two passages of the work The Antiquities of the Jews by the Jewish historian Josephus, written in the late first century AD. One passage, known as the Testimonium Flavianum, discusses the career of Jesus. The authenticity of the Testimonium Flavianum has been disputed since the 17th century, and by the mid 18th century the consensus view was that it had at a minimum been altered by Christian scribes, and possibly was outright forgery. The other passage simply mentions Jesus as the brother of James, also known as James the Just. Most scholars consider this passage genuine, Louis H. Feldman, "Josephus" Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 3, pp. 990-1. but its authenticity has been disputed by Emil Schürer as well by several recent popular writers. Testimonium Flavianum The following passage appears in the Greek version of Antiquities of the Jews 18.63-64, in the translation of William Whiston: The first to cite this passage of Antiquities was Eusebius, writing in about 324, who quotes the passage (From the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II, Vol. 1, edited by Philip Schaff.) in essentially the same form (he has πολλους των Ιουδαιων instead of πολλους Ιουδαιους, and inserts απο before του Ελληνικου). As usual with ancient texts, the surviving sources for The Antiquities of the Jews are Greek manuscripts, all minuscules, the oldest of which dates from the 11th century. Feldman (1989), p. 431 The text of Antiquities appears to have been transmitted in two halves — books 1–10 and books 11–20. But other ad hoc copies of this passage also exist. The topic of the Testimonium's authenticity has attracted much scholarly discussion. Louis Feldman counts 87 articles published during the period of 1937-1980, "the overwhelming majority of which question its authenticity in whole or in part". Feldman (1989), p. 430 Arguments against authenticity Origen The Christian author Origen wrote around the year 240. His writings predate both the earliest known manuscripts of the Testimonium and the earliest quotations of the Testimonium by other writers. In his surviving works Origen fails to mention the Testimonium Flavianum, even though he was clearly familiar with the Antiquities of the Jews, since he mentions the reference by Josephus to Jesus as brother of James, which occurs later in Antiquities of the Jews (xx.9), and also other passages from Antiquities such as the passage about John the Baptist which occurs in the same chapter (xviii) as the Testimonium. Furthermore, Origen states that Josephus was "not believing in Jesus as the Christ" Origen, Against Celsus, i:47 "he did not accept Jesus as Christ" Origen, Commentary on Matthew, x:17 , but the Testimonium declares Jesus to be Christ. Thus it could be inferred that the version of Antiquities available to Origen did not give as positive an endorsement of Jesus as the present-day Testimonium. On the other hand, while the evidence from Origen suggests that Josephus did not read the Testimonium in its current form, it also demonstrates, according to some scholars, that the version of the Antiquities known to Origen must have written something about Jesus, for otherwise Origen would have no reason to make the claim that Josephus "did not accept Jesus as Christ." It is possible, for example, that Origen read the original version of the Testimonium Flavianum, which textual evidence from Jerome and Michael the Syrian (see below) indicates was worded "he was believed to be the Christ" rather than "he was the Christ." This original version was probably what Eusebius also had at his disposal. Josephus on Jesus [(Whealey)] p. 41;190. Alice Whealey has argued that the wording of Michael the Syrian's Testimonium in particular, which employs the word mistabra, meaning "was supposed," has a skeptical connotation, as evidenced in the Syriac New Testament where it is used to translate Greek enomizeto of Luke 3:23. She has argued that Origen's probable exposure to a reading like Greek enomizeto (corresponding to the Syriac mistabra) in the original version of the Testimonium would readily explain Origen's statement that Josephus did not believe in Jesus as the Christ. "Alice Whealey, "The Testimonium Flavianum in Syriac and Arabic" New Testament Studies 54.4 (2008) p. 581 Early Christian writers other than Origen The absence of clear references to the Testimonium is consistent throughout the work of the Christian writers and apologists of the years A.D. 100-300. It is never clearly mentioned by any author of those two centuries, Christian or otherwise, although it is possible that Origen alludes to it indirectly (see above). This has been taken as very strong evidence that the text did not exist before that period. For example, it has been argued that since Justin makes no mention of the Testimonium in his efforts to persuade the rabbi Trypho in the Dialog With Trypho the Jew http://mb-soft.com/believe/txv/martyr3.htm Dialogue of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew , the text must not have existed since it would have been an "extremely effective answer" to Trypho. However, this argument is weak since there is no evidence that the real Justin had even read any of Josephus' works. Some older works mistakenly claim that Justin had read Josephus because a Pseudo-Justin text citing Josephus called 'Cohortatio ad Graecos,' was wrongly attributed to Justin. According to current scholarly consesus this work does not date before the mid-third century 'Josephus as an historical source,'Michael Hardwick, p. 37-46 . Also, this Pseudo-Justin text only alludes vaguely to the fact that Josephus wrote about Moses, and does not show any familiarity with Book 18 of 'Antiquities' where the Testimonium appears. Moreover, it has also been shown that no ante-Nicene Christian is known to have used Josephus' works in apologies directed at Jews, so that the argument that the Testimonium cannot have existed because otherwise it would have been used by Justin or others in anti-Jewish apologies is not convincing. The earliest undisputed citations of the Testimonium by known church fathers—that by Eusebius of Caesarea and that by Jerome--are not made in apologies directed at Jews like 'Dialog with Trypho.' The earliest use of the Testimonium for anti-Jewish disputation appears in an anonymous late fourth century Latin text, known conventionally as Pseudo-Hegesippus's 'De excidio Hierosolymitano.' 'Josephus on Jesus'Whealey p. 11, 14-15, 28-29, 34 . Indeed, although some Christians before Origen had read parts of 'Jewish War' and 'Against Apion' it is not clear that any Christian before Origen had read 'Antiquities' at all Josephus on Jesus Whealey p. 7-11. , and none before Origen makes any clear reference to Book 18 of Antiquities, where the Testimonium appears. Josephus on Jesus Whealey p. 7-8, 11. Against this, Feldman had written that "no fewer than eleven church fathers prior to or contemporary with Eusebius cite various passages from Josephus (including the Antiquities) but not the Testimonium". However, both Michael Hardwick and Alice Whealey have conducted a closer reading of ante-Nicene Christian texts that cite or have been assumed to cite 'Antiquities' than Feldman and other earlier scholars, and both conclude that some prior assumptions that 'Antiquities' is cited are mistaken or debatable. For example, it is has been shown by Michael Hardwick that Tertullian (ca. 193) had read Josephus' 'Against Apion' rather than 'Antiquities', as is sometimes assumed. Tertullian's reference to "antiqitatum Judaicarum" (Apol. 19) is not a reference to 'Antiquities,' but rather a reference to 'Against Apion,' which in ancient times was known as "The antiquity [i.e. ancient-ness] of the Jews." Josephus as an historical source Hardwick p. 49-50. Hardwick has also argued that contrary to the assumption of some older scholars Lost and Hostile Gospels, Rev. Sabine Baring-Gould , not only is it not clear that Tertullian had ever read 'Antiquities' but it is not clear that any other writer of the Western church other than Tertullian was directly acquainted with any of Josephus' works at all. 'Josephus as an historical source' Hardwick p. 112 Whealey expresses even more skepticism about Christians before Origen citing 'Antiquities' than Hardwick. For example, she argues that the authenticity of one catena fragment citing Book 2 of 'Antiquities' attributed to Irenaeus is debatable because catenae were often miscopied. In any case, as she has pointed out, even if the attribution to Irenaeus is accurate, it is clear that Irenaeus was unfamiliar with Book 18 of 'Antiquities' since he wrongly claims that Jesus was executed by Pilate in the reign of Claudius (Dem. ev. ap. 74), while Antiquities 18.89 indicates that Pilate was deposed during the reign of Tiberius, before Claudius. Josephus on Jesus Whealey p.7-8 As for writers of the Eastern church, Clement of Alexandria vaguely refers (Stromata 1.147) to Josephus' historical writings in a way that indicates that he knew directly or indirectly the claim of Jewish War 6.440 that there were 1179 years between David and the second year of Vespasian. Direct familiarity with 'Antiquities' is, however, unclear in this passage. Clement's claim that there were 585 years between Moses and David may be based on Antiquities 8.61, which says that there were 592 years between the Exodus and the Temple, if one assumes that he subtracted the four years of Solomon's reign, and that a copying error was responsible for Clement's text reading 585 instead of 588. But what this conjectural explanation for Clement's claim about 585 years shows (a figure that does not explicitly appear in Antiquities) shows is that it is far from clear that Clement had direct acquaintance with Josephus' Antiquities. Josephus on Jesus Whealey p. 8; Josephus as an historical sourceHardwick p. 31 Vocabulary and style It has been claimed that some of the passage fails a standard test for authenticity, in that it contains vocabulary not otherwise used by Josephus Complete Concordance to Flavius Josephus, edited by K. H. Rengstorff, 2002. ; for example, the Testimonium uses the Greek term poietes with the meaning "doer" (as part of the phrase "doer of wonderful works"), but elsewhere Josephus only uses the term poietes to mean "poet," while it is Eusebius who uses poietes to mean "doer of wonderful works" when referring to Jesus. Eusebius, Demonstration of the Gospels, 3:5 Eusebius, History of the Church, 1:2:23 Ken Olson, Eusebian Fabrication of the Testimonium (2001) . However, it has been argued that Eusebius' use of the term "doer of wonderful works" for Jesus (and in later works for God) is evidence of the influence of the Testimonium's vocabulary on his own vocabulary about Jesus (and by extension about God in later works), rather than evidence of his fabrication of the Testimonium. Alice Whealey notes in particular that Eusebius does not commonly use the word poietes to mean "doer" for anyone except Jesus or God; thus poietes meaning "doer" in general was "not Eusebius' typical mode of expression." Alice Whealey, "Josephus, Eusebius of Caesarea, and the Testimonium Flavianum" in Josephus und das neue Testament (Mohr Siebeck, 2007) p. 83; also pp. 80-83; 115. On the other hand, it has been argued by many modern scholars that much of the vocabulary and grammar of the passage coheres well with Josephus' style and language. John P. Meier, for example, states that the vocabulary and grammar of the [core] passage (after the clearly Christian material is removed) cohere well with Josephus' style and language...almost every word in the core of the "Testimonium" is found elsewhere in Josephus---in fact, most of the vocabulary turns out to be characteristic of Josephus John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the historical Jesus. Volume I. (New York, 1991) 80-83. . C. Guignebert has claimed that Josephus's style is not difficult to imitate, so that vocabulary proves little one way or the other. "It may be admitted that the style of Josephus has been cleverly imitated, a not very difficult matter ...", Jesus by C. Guignebert, University Books, New York, 1956, p. 17. The brief and compact character of the Testimonium stands in stark contrast to Josephus' more voluminous detailing Raphael Patai, The Jewish mind (1996), page 84 of other individuals, even including those of minor importance Marshall Gauvin, Did Jesus Christ Really Live? (1922), preserved in the University of Manitoba Archives (MSS 47, PC 36, box 15, folder 13), and available online ; for example, Josephus' account of John the Baptist and his death, describes his virtues, the theology associated with his baptismal practices, his oratorial skills, that John's influence was so great that Herod was afraid of John's ability to incite the people to rebel against his regime, the circumstances of his death, and the belief that the destruction of Herod's army was a divine punishment for Herod's slaughter of John Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 18:5:2 . Interruption to the text The paragraph before the Testimonium flows naturally into the paragraph after it, which might indicate either that the entire paragraph is a later insertion, or that it was substantially rewritten. As Guiguebert put it, "the short digression, even with the proposed corrections, interrupts the thread of the discourse into which it is introduced". Jesus by C. Guignebert, University Books, New York, 1956, p. 17 On the other hand, this argument has been rejected as inconclusive or unconvincing by some modern scholars, who have argued that Josephus was a "patchwork" writer, who often employed such digressive techniques, inserting passages, sometimes based on barely revised sources, that do not fit smoothly with, and sometimes even contradict, surrounding narratives. John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew (New York, 1991) p. 86, n. 54. Meier cites H. St. John Thackeray, Charles Martin and other scholars who reject the argument that the Testimonium must be an interpolation because it seems to break its surrounding narrative thread. Josephus's faith It is often argued that "He was [the] Christ" can only be read as a profession of faith, and Josephus was almost certainly not a Christian, instead remaining a conventional Jew; Josephus' lack of Christianity was even mentioned by early Christian writers prior to Eusebius, such as Origen Origen, Contra Celsus, 1:47 (as noted above).. For example, John Dominic Crossan has put it this way:The problem here is that Josephus' account is too good to be true, too confessional to be impartial, too Christian to be Jewish John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Peasant . Consequently, some scholars regard at least certain parts of the Testimonium as later interpolations. In particular three passages stood out John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Peasant .: if it be lawful to call him a man …He was [the] Christ …for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning himThe phrase "he was the Christ" has been viewed as particularly problematic because it seems to indicate that the author thought that Jesus was the Jewish Messiah. Some scholars have argued that Josephus thought that Jewish messianic promises were fulfilled in Vespasian John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus, page 199 , and view it as unlikely that Josephus would explain too clearly or underline too sharply the existence of alternative messianic fulfilments before Vespasian. John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus, page 199. In contrast, it has been argued by some that the phrase "he was the Christ" was meant as an identification only, rather than an assertion of Jesus' Messiahship, since the audience for the work were Romans of the late first century, and the earliest extant Roman writers, Tacitus and Pliny the Younger, writing shortly after Josephus in the early second century, identify Jesus as Christus, rather than Jesus, without implying anything about Jesus' Messianic status. In addition, although the standard text says "he was the Christ", a recent recent study by Alice Whealey has argued that a variant Greek text of this sentence existed in the 4th century — He was believed to be the Christ "The Testimonium Flavium Controversy from Antiquity to the Present" Alice Wealey, 2000 ; following Whealey's argument, the standard text would represent a corruption of the original, namely the loss of the main verb and a subsequent scribal "correction" of the prolative infinitive. Alleged Anachronisms A different question whether parts of passage are too confessional or too Christian is the question whether they are anachronistic. It has been argued by some that the passages "if it is right to call him a man," "he was the Christ" and "he appeared to them alive again" seem directly to address Christological debates of the early 4th century. On the other hand, by the early 4th century Christological debate was centered mainly on much narrower (some would say hairsplitting) questions, particularly whether Jesus was of the "same substance" (consubstantial/homoousios) with God or not, which was hotly debated at the First Council of Nicaea and several subsequent church councils. Christological debate by the early 4th century was not centered on the much broader points in the Testimonium: whether Jesus was a man, whether he was the Messiah, or whether he appeared alive to his disciples after death. There are indications in the New Testament that the latter three questions, whether Jesus was a man, whether he was the Messiah, and whether he appeared alive after death to his disciples were contentious issues among various church groups, as well as between Christians and non-Christians, as early as the first century. Thus a text containing these points could certainly date from the first century. Interpolations The entire passage is also found in one Greek manuscript of Josephus' earlier work, The Jewish War. (This Greek manuscript of "Jewish War" with an interpolated Testimonium is known as the "Codex Vossianus.") A passage about Jesus that appears to have been inspired by the Testimonium, but that differs widely from it in content also appears in an Old Russian adaptation of "Jewish War" written c.1250. pgs 470-471, appendix F of The Jewish War, Josephus. (trans. G. A. Williamson; introduction, notes and appendixes E. Mary Smallwood. Penguin Books, Penguin Classics imprint, 1981. ISBN 0-14-044420-3) Interestingly, the passage dealing with Jesus is not the only significant difference between the Old Russian and Greek versions of "Jewish War." Robert Eisler has suggested Iesous Basileus ou Basileusas ("Jesus the King Who Never Reigned"), by Robert Eisler. Published in Heidelberg in 1929. that it was produced from one of Josephus's drafts (noting that the "Slavonic Version" has Josephus escaping his fellow Jews at Jotapata when "he counted the numbers [of the lot cast in the suicide pact] cunningly and so managed to deceive all the others", which is in striking contrast to the conventional version's account: "Without hesitation each man in turn offered his throat for the next man to cut, in the belief that a moment later his commander would die too. Life was sweet, but not so sweet as death if Josephus died with them! But Josephus - shall we put it down to divine providence or just luck - was left with one other man....he used persuasion, they made a pact, and both remained alive." pg 220 The Jewish War, Josephus. (trans. G. A. Williamson; introduction, notes and appendixes E. Mary Smallwood. Penguin Books, Penguin Classics imprint, 1981. ISBN 0-14-044420-3) Other unique passages in the Old Russian version of "Jewish War" include accounts of John the Baptist, Jesus's ministry (along with his death and resurrection), and the activities of the early church. Alleged fabrication by Eusebius Ken Olson has argued that the Testimonium was fabricated by Eusebius of Caesarea, who was the first author to quote it in his Demonstratio Evangelica. "Eusebian fabrications: the Testimonium Flavianum" Ken Olson. July 29, 2000. Olson argues that the specific wording of the Testimonium is suspiciously closely related to the argument Eusebius makes in his Demonstratio, in particular that Jesus is a "wise man" and not a "wizard", as shown by the fact that his followers did not desert him even after he was crucified. Eusebius himself writes that: The argument that Eusebius fabricated the Testimonium is supported by some authors, such as Marshall Gauvin Did Jesus Christ Really Live? and Earl Doherty CritiqueFour-3 . According to Gauvin, "Had the passage been in the works of Josephus which they knew, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Origen and Clement of Alexandria would have been eager to hurl it at their Jewish opponents in their many controversies. But it did not exist." Furthermore, according to Gauvin, Eusebius had written in his Demonstratio Evangelica, (Book III, pg. 124), "Certainly the attestations I have already produced concerning our Savior may be sufficient. However, it may not be amiss, if, over and above, we make use of Josephus the Jew for a further witness." However, Whealey has already shown that Gauvin's assumption that ante-Nicene Christians were "eager to hurl" anything from any of Josephus' works in controversies directed at Jews is unsupported by the extant evidence. Likewise unsupported is Gauvin's assumption that Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria knew Josephus' works generally and "Antiquities" specifically well enough to know of the Testimonium. Whealey, 'Josephus on Jesus' p. 7-11. Regarding Olson's arguments about Eusebian fabrication,Carleton Paget Carleton Paget,'Josephus and Christianity' p. 562, 577-578. and Whealey Whealey,'Josephus, Eusebius of Caesarea, and the Testimonium Flavianum,'in "Josephus und das neue Testament," Tuebingen, 2007, 73-116 have criticized them on stylistic and other grounds. One of the earliest ecclesiastical authorities to condemn the Testimonium Flavianum as a forgery was Bishop Warburton of Gloucester (circa 1770), who condemned it as a particularly "stupid" forgery. On the other hand, because modern stylometric studies, which use a concordance of Josephus' works that did not exist before the twentieth century, has revealed some Josephan vocabulary and phrases (see above), it has more recently been argued that even "some proponents of the forgery thesis would agree that it is a good one" (i.e. good forgery). Josephus and Christianity Carlton Paget p. 575-576 Arguments in favor of partial authenticity Until the 16th century, Christian writers took the position that Josephus wrote the Testimonium in its current form. Today, this position is rare, but many modern scholars do claim that Josephus did write something about Jesus which has been corrupted in the surviving Greek text. See Louis H. Feldman, Josephus: A supplementary bibliography (New York, 1986) 618-619; 677. Arabic version In 1971, Shlomo Pines, a Jewish professor, published a translation of a different version of the Testimonium, quoted in an Arabic manuscript of the tenth century. The manuscript in question appears in the Book of the Title written by Agapius the historian, a 10th-century Arabic Christian and Melkite bishop of Hierapolis Bambyce (Manbij). Agapius' version of the Testimonium reads: For he says in the treatises that he has written in the governance of the Jews: "At this time there was a wise man who was called Jesus, and his conduct was good, and he was known to be virtuous. And many people from among the Jews and the other nations became his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified and to die. And those who had become his disciples did not abandon their loyalty to him. They reported that he had appeared to them three days after his crucifixion, and that he was alive. Accordingly they believed that he was the Messiah, concerning whom the Prophets have recounted wonders" - Shlomo Pines' translation, quoted by J. D. Crossan The text that Pines gives is mainly derived from the quotation of this portion of Agapius in the later Arabic Christian historian, Al-Makin, which contains extra material not found in the Florence manuscript that alone preserves the second half of Agapius. Pines suggests that Agapius' Testimonium may be a more accurate record of what Josephus wrote, lacking as it does the parts which have often been considered to have been added by Christian copyists. He argued that this would add weight to the argument that Josephus did write something about Jesus. However, Pines' theory, that Agapius' text largely reflects what Josephus wrote has not been widely accepted. The fact that even the title of Josephus's work is inaccurate suggests that Agapius is paraphrasing his source, which may explain the discrepancies with the Greek version. Louis Feldman and Gohei Hata, Josephus, the Bible, and History (1989), p. 433. Agapius explicitly claims that he used a lost, older Syriac chronicle by Theophilus of Edessa (d. 785) to write his chronicle. This suggests that his Testimonium is also a paraphrase of a Syriac version of the Testimonium. Alice Whealey, "The Testimonium Flavianum in Syriac and Arabic," New Testament Studies 54.4 (2008) 575-578. Moreover, because of some linguistic parallels between Agapius' Testimonium, the Testimonium of Michael the Syrian (see above and below) and that of the Syriac translation of Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiasica, Alice Whealey has argued that Agapius' passage is a paraphrase of a Testimonium taken from the Syriac translation of Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiastica that differed from the textus receptus in several ways, but most significantly in reading "he was thought to be the Christ." Alice Whealey, "The Testimonium Flavianum in Syriac and Arabic," New Testament Studies 54.4 (2008) pp. 580-587. In addition, it has been suggested that Agapius' statement that Pilate condemned Jesus to be crucified and to die was a response to the Muslim belief that Jesus did not really die on the cross. However, this aspect of Agapius' Testimonium is not unique, since a similarly enhanced reference to Jesus' death independently appears in Michael the Syrian's Testimonium and in one other Syriac Testimonium deriving from the Syriac translation of Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiastica. Alice Whealey, "The Testimonium Flavianum in Syriac and Arabic," New Testament Studies 54.4 (2008) pp.582-585. This parallel is one more piece of evidence indicating that Agapius' text is an Arabic paraphrase of a literal Syriac translation of the Testimonium. Syriac version Pines also refers to the Syriac translation of the Testimonium cited by Michael the Syrian in his World Chronicle. It was left to Alice Whealey to point out that Michael's text in fact is identical with Jerome's translation of the Testimonium at the most contentious point ("He was the Christ" becoming "He was believed to be the Christ"), establishing the existence of a variant that must go back to a Greek manuscript, since Latin and Syriac writers did not read each others' works in late antiquity, but both commonly read and translated Greek Christian texts. Literary connection with the Gospel of Luke In 1995, G. J. Goldberg, using a digital database of ancient literature, identified a possible literary connection between Josephus and the Gospel of Luke. He found a number of coincidences in word choice and word order, though not in exact wording, between the entire Josephus passage on Jesus and a summary of the life of Jesus in Luke 24:19-21, 26-27, called the "Emmaus narrative": And he said to them, "What things?" And they said to him, "Concerning Jesus of Nazareth, a man who was a prophet mighty in deed and word before God and all the people, and how our chief priests and rulers delivered him up to be condemned to death, and crucified him. But we had hoped that he was the one to redeem Israel. Yes, and besides all this, it is now the third day since these things happened. ... Was it not necessary that the Christ should suffer these things and enter into his glory? And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself. English Standard Version translation of Luke 24:16-28 Goldberg points out explicit similarities in the Greek text, including a grammatical form of "the third day" which exists only in these two texts, and nowhere else in Christian literature; an unusual introduction of the first-person plural; as well as other consistent peculiarities of order and style that, he argues, have no parallel in other Jesus descriptions. From these, Goldberg writes that "The conclusion that can therefore be drawn is that Josephus and Luke derived their passages from a common Christian (or Jewish-Christian) source." Goldberg points out that Josephus' phrases "if it be lawful to call him a man," "He was [the] Christ," "he appeared to them," and "And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day," have no parallel in Luke's passage, and takes this to support the position that the first two short phrases are Christian interpolations, while the latter two form the context of the Emmaus text and so were available to be transmitted by Josephus. Luke contains the phrases "but besides all this," four sentences on the women who witnessed the tomb, and "the Christ should suffer," for which there is no counterpart in Josephus' text; unless referred to in the summary "these and countless other marvelous things about him". Goldberg, G. J. The Coincidences of the Emmaus Narrative of Luke and the Testimonium of Josephus. The Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha 13 (1995), pp. 59-77 Reference to Jesus as brother of James The other reference in the works of Josephus often cited to support the historicity of Jesus is also in the Antiquities, in the first paragraph of book 20, chapter 9. It concerns the execution of a man whom traditional scholarship identifies as James the Just. The above quotation from the Antiquities is considered authentic in its entirety by almost all scholars. Louis H. Feldman, "Josephus" Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 3, pp. 990-1. One reason for accepting its authenticity is that unlike the Testimonium, the passage was mentioned in several places by Origen. Emil Schürer was one exceptional scholar who rejected the entire passage, largely on the a priori grounds that Josephus wanted to avoid mentioning Jewish belief in a Messiah to his Roman readers. Whealey, Josephus on Jesus, p. 170. George Albert Wells has conjectured that the words "who was called Christ" were not in the original passage, the words having originated as a marginal note by a Christian copyist, which later became accidentally incorporated into the main body of the text. George Albert Wells, Did Jesus Exist?, (1986) Pemberton Publishing Co., page 11 It has been argued that without the words "who was called Christ" the passage could possibly be referring to Jesus son of Damneus, who is named at the end of the passage. Under this conjectural scenario, the James it refers to is Jesus bar Damneus' brother. Aside from the fact that no textual evidence supports this conjecture, it is puzzling why Josephus would first identify a James as being the brother of a Jesus, and then a Jesus who is son of Damnaeus, without clarifying that the Jesus who is the son of Damnaeus is also the same Jesus who is brother of the earlier mentioned James. Earl Doherty has suggested that the original may have said no more than "and brought before them [a good man] whose name was James, and some others" Earl Doherty, The Jesus Puzzle (1999) ISBN 0-9689259-1-X . A small minority, including Frank Zindler, challenge the passage in its entirety, noting contradictions in both the characterization of Ananus and the chronology of his tenure between the passages in Antiquities and Jewish War.Josephus does not mention the martyrdom of James in his Jewish War. There he connects the fall of Jerusalem to the death of someone else - the very person responsible for the death of James as mentioned in the Antiquities. Josephus writing in Jewish War says: I should not mistake if I said that the death of Ananus was the beginning of the destruction of the city (of Jerusalem), and that from this very day may be dated the overthrow of her wall, and the ruin of her affairs, whereon they saw their high priest, and the procurer of their preservation, slain in the midst of their city. See also Textual criticism Benjamin Urrutia Historicity of Jesus Notes References Carleton Paget, James. "Some Observations on Josephus and Christianity", Journal of Theological Studies 52.2 (2001) pp. 539–624. A survey of all the theories, all the scholars and all the evidence. Eisenman, Robert. James the Brother of Jesus (Viking Penguin) 1997 Hardwick, Michael E. Josephus as an historical source in patristic literature through Eusebius (Scholars Press) 1989. Pines, Shlomo. An Arabic Version of the Testimonium Flavianum and its Implications, (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1971) . . Criticizes the thesis that Eusebius of Caesarea fabricated the Testimonium. Whealey, Alice. "The Testimonium Flavianum in Syriac and Arabic," New Testament Studies 54.4 (2008) pp. 571–590. Zindler, Frank R. The Jesus The Jews Never Knew, Sepher Toldoth Yeshu and the Quest of the historical Jesus in Jewish Sources'' (AAP), 2003. External links Whiston translation of Antiquities of the Jews Interpolated references to Jesus in the Slavonic Wars of the Jews by Josephus Scholarship on the Testimonium Flavianum down the centuries. A paper by Dr. Alice Whealey presented at 2000 SBL Josephus Seminar: expanded into a book subsequently Manuscripts Historicity of Jesus FAQ "Did Josephus Refer to Jesus? A Thorough Review of the Testimonium Flavianum" by Christopher Price "Jewish Light on the Risen Lord", New Oxford Review, by Frederick W. Marks "The New Approach to the Testimonium Flavianum" by G. J. Goldberg.	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6,065	Judge_Dredd	Judge Joe Dredd is a comics character whose strip in the British science fiction anthology 2000 AD is the magazine's longest running (having been featured there since its second issue in 1977). Dredd is a law enforcement officer in a violent city of the future where uniformed Judges combine the powers of police, judge, jury and executioner. Dredd and his fellow Judges are empowered to arrest, sentence and even execute criminals on the spot. He was created by writer John Wagner and artist Carlos Ezquerra, although editor Pat Mills also deserves some credit for his early development. Judge Dredd is amongst Britain's best known home-grown comic characters. So great is the character's reputation that his name is sometimes invoked over similar issues to those explored by the comic series, such as the police state, authoritarianism and the rule of law. 'Judge Dredd' powers for police urged, The Daily Telegraph, September 22, 2005 Judge Dredd was named the seventh greatest comic character by the magazine Empire. Empire: The 50 Greatest Comic Book Characters Publication history When Pat Mills was developing 2000 AD, he brought in his former writing partner, John Wagner, to develop characters. Wagner had written various Dirty Harry-style "tough cop" stories for other titles, and suggested a character who took that concept to its logical extreme, imagining an ultra-violent lawman patrolling a future New York City with the power to administer instant justice. Mills had developed a horror strip called Judge Dread but abandoned the idea as unsuitable for the new comic, but the name, with minor modification, was adopted by Wagner for his ultimate lawman. The task of visualising the character was given to Carlos Ezquerra, a Spanish artist who had worked for Mills before on Battle Picture Weekly. Wagner gave Ezquerra an advertisement for the film Death Race 2000, showing the character Frankenstein clad in black leather on a motorbike, as a suggestion for what the character should look like. Ezquerra elaborated on this greatly, adding body-armour, zips and chains, which Wagner initially thought over the top. Wagner's initial script was rewritten by Mills and drawn up by Ezquerra, but when the art came back a rethink was necessary. The hardware and cityscapes Ezquerra had drawn were far more futuristic than the near-future setting originally intended, but Mills decided to run with it and set the strip further into the future. Judge Dredd: The Mega-History, by Colin M. Jarman and Peter Acton (Lennard Publishing, 1995). By this stage, however, Wagner had quit, disillusioned that a proposed buy-out (which would have given him and Mills a greater financial stake in the comic) had fallen through. Mills was reluctant to lose Judge Dredd and farmed the strip out to a variety of freelance writers, hoping to develop it further. Their scripts were given to a variety of artists as Mills tried to find a strip which would provide a good introduction to the character, all of which meant that Dredd would not be ready for 2000 AD's first issue, launched in February 1977. The original launch story written by Wagner and drawn by Ezquerra was finally published several years later in an annual. The story chosen to introduce the character was submitted by Peter Harris, extensively re-written by Mills, and including an idea suggested by sub-editor Kelvin Gosnell. It was drawn by newcomer Mike McMahon. In it, Dredd brought to justice a criminal who had murdered another Judge and was hiding out in the ruins of the Empire State Building. The story introduced the motifs that would mark out Dredd: novel future crimes are resolved by hi-tech police procedure, with Dredd delivering a severe punishment. In this case, the villain is banished to a penal colony located on a traffic island. The strip debuted in prog 2, but Ezquerra, angry that another artist had drawn the first published strip, quit and returned to work for Battle. Wagner, however, soon swallowed his pride and returned to the character, starting in prog 9. His "Robot Wars" storyline was drawn by a rotating team of artists, including McMahon, Ezquerra, Ron Turner and Ian Gibson, and marked the point where Dredd became the most popular character in the comic, a position he has rarely relinquished. Dredd's city, which now covered most of North America's east coast, became known as Mega-City One. The character has appeared in almost every issue since, the bulk of the stories written by Wagner (between 1980 and 1988, in collaboration with Alan Grant). Other illustrators of the strip have included Brian Bolland, Ron Smith, Steve Dillon and Cam Kennedy. Since 1990 Dredd has also headlined his own title, the Judge Dredd Megazine. With Wagner concentrating his energies there, the Dredd strip in 2000 AD was left to younger writers such as Garth Ennis, Mark Millar, Grant Morrison and John Smith. Their efforts were not popular with fans, and sales fell. Wagner returned to writing the character full-time in 1997. Recently, many strips have been written by Gordon Rennie, and in interviews Rennie and Wagner have indicated that there is a plan for Wagner to retire once Rennie has established himself. Judge Dredd has also been published in a long-running comic strip (1981-1998) in the Daily Star, Judge Dredd in the Daily Star but also in Metro from January 2004-2005. Judge Dredd in Metro These were usually created by the same teams writing and drawing the main strip and the Daily Star strips have been collected into a number of volumes. Character and appearance Judge Dredd from his first published story, as drawn by Mike McMahon in 1977. The character's appearance has remained essentially unchanged ever since. Senior Judge Joe Dredd, one of a number of clones of Chief Judge Eustace Fargo, is the most famous of the elite corps of Judges that run Mega-City One with the power not only to enforce the law, but also to instantly sentence offenders – and (if necessary) execute them. Dredd has a large, computer-driven "Lawmaster" motorbike, which mounts powerful cannons, and has full artificial intelligence, and is capable of responding to orders from the Judge and driving itself. It is equipped with a video communication system, and is also connected to the Justice Department which can receive and transmit information to and from the bike. He also has a "Lawgiver" handgun (DNA-coded to recognize his palm-print alone) that fires six types of bullets; a daystick; a bootknife; and a uniform with a helmet that obscures all of his face except his mouth and jaw. His entire face is never shown properly in the strip (on very rare occasions it has been shown in flashbacks to when he was a child, in pictures lacking in detail). 2000 AD progs 30 and 1187 In an early story, Dredd is forced to remove his helmet and the other characters react as if he is disfigured, but Dredd's face was covered by a faux censorship sticker. In the story 'Dredd Angel' (progs 377-383), the face of Judge Fargo was clearly shown; some readers have speculated that as clones have the same DNA as their sire, Dredd would look like Fargo. Although this has never been acknowledged in the comic - since it was not established that Dredd was Fargo's clone until prog 552 - subsequent stories featuring Fargo have never shown his face. An aborted idea was to have Dredd as a non-white character. Carlos Ezquerra stated in Judge Dredd: The Mega History that in his original design, he "decided to give [Dredd] some large lips - to put a mystery as to his racial background". As a result, according to artist Ron Smith in the same book, early artist Mick McMahon spent "four months drawing Dredd as a black man". As the strip was not in colour, this went unnoticed and the idea was dropped. A frequently used sentence in the series is "I am the Law!" Dredd could be viewed as the personification of Law itself, thus his face cannot be shown because as The Law he transcends any particular form. This is not to say, however, that he is totally inhuman. Throughout the strip he displays emotions (mostly anger) and irony (as evidenced by various one-liners throughout the strip's history). Another Dredd quote is "Democracy is not for the people," a short sentence containing the Judge's very human opinion of other humans, that they need to be very strictly controlled. However it should be noted that Dredd supported a referendum on the reintroduction of democracy in the story The Devil You Know. Ironically, when such a referendum was eventually held, the result came out strongly in favour of the status quo – rule by the Judges – as Dredd had expected it would all along. As the strip occurs in real time, Dredd is currently more than sixty years old. However, his vitality is explained in the context of the stories with allusions to rejuvenation treatments. For some time, characters in the comic have mentioned that Dredd is not as young and fit as he used to be. If Dredd is becoming too old to serve, it is unclear whether there are plans to address this issue (Mega-City One has cloning and brain transplant technology for instance). This remains a major theme of current progs. In prog 1595 Dredd was diagnosed with malignant cancer of the duodenum. Joe is nicknamed "Old Stoneyface", a name he apparently acquired while still a cadet. More recently, he has become known as the "Old Man"; though not confirmed, Joe is likely the oldest judge still on active street duty, with over fifty years of service (2079–2130). Recent stories have confirmed that Dredd is well aware he is living on borrowed time, with his replacements already being lined up. These include clones like Judge Rico and also other judges like Judge Giant. As a result of events in the 2006-07 story Origins, some of Dredd's convictions have been shaken. He has recently come out against Mega-City One's treatment of mutants, attempting to have the laws repealed (which initially failed) and deliberately entering mutant camps to arrest the guards for abuses. He recently talked Chief Judge Hershey into another vote on their repeal. The second vote was a success in early 2130 and during the same story it was revealed that Dredd had reformist cadet America Beeny accelerated through the Academy. Dredd states in a monologue that he is very aware time is running short for him, and that his day as well as that of his generation of Judges is passing. He sees his job now to prepare the way for the new generation made up of cadets like Beeny. Dredd has not given up on the law - far from it. He still believes in instant justice - but what appears to have changed is his trust in the system as it is. Dredd seems to believe in the ideal of the law but that the current system must change to conform to this ideal. Fictional character biography Joseph Dredd and his brother Rico Dredd were cloned from the DNA of Chief Judge Fargo, the first chief judge. Their growth was artificially accelerated so that they emerged in 2066 with an apparent physiological age of 5, with all the appropriate knowledge for their age electronically implanted in their brains by computer during gestation. The name Dredd was chosen by the genetic scientist who created them, Morton Judd, to "instill fear in the population." In 2070 they saw action for the first time during the Atomic Wars, when as cadets they were temporarily assigned the rank of full judge and sent to restore order to the panic-stricken streets. Distinguishing themselves, they were chosen to take part in assaulting the White House when the Justice Department deposed President Booth. They were fast-tracked through the Academy of Law, Joe graduating second in his class in 2079 (Rico came first). Later that year Joe was forced to arrest Rico for murder and corrruption. Joe Dredd excelled as a judge, rapidly gaining promotion to the rank of senior judge. Offered the opportunity to become chief judge in 2101, he declined, preferring to serve on the streets enforcing the law. On several different occasions he saved his city from conquest or complete destruction by powerful enemies, and in 2114 he almost single-handedly saved the world from being destroyed during the Fourth World War. Although Dredd puts his duty to uphold the law above everything, his devotion to duty is not simply blind loyalty, however. On two occasions (in 2099 and 2112) Dredd resigned from the force on points of principle, but both times returned to the fold. In 2113 Dredd insisted that the Justice Department gamble its very existence on a referendum to prove its legitimacy as a form of government. In 2116 he risked 20 years' imprisonment with hard labour when he challenged the policy of a chief judge which he was unable to support. In 2129 he threatened to resign to persuade another chief judge to change the city's harsh anti-mutant laws. After over fifty years of active service, Dredd's career may be drawing to a close; in 2130 he was diagnosed with cancer. 2000 AD prog 1595 Family and Associates Rico Dredd: Soon after becoming a judge, Dredd's brother Rico became corrupt and began breaking the law, forcing Dredd to turn him in. Twenty years later Rico returned from jail, seeking revenge. Dredd was forced to kill him in self-defence. In spite of Rico's status as a criminal, a wounded Dredd chose to carry him out of the apartment where Rico had died, stating "He ain't heavy, he's my brother". 2000 AD prog 30 Vienna: Dredd also has a niece, Vienna, who was fathered by Rico while in jail. They have a close relationship (for Dredd). Dredd has gone out of his way to save her on occasion, and they get on relatively well. Judge Rico: Dredd himself has been cloned. One such clone, who adopted Rico's name (but as a surname), is often mistaken for Dredd. Judge Rico eventually inherited Dredd's apartment at Rowdy Yates Block. Judge Anderson: For years Dredd had a close but uneasy friendship with Cassandra Anderson of Psi Division. This friendship came to an end when Anderson abandoned the law for a short time. Later Dredd denied his friendship with her and claimed that he had merely tolerated her. After battling an alien who claimed to be Satan, Anderson was badly injured. At this point Dredd confirmed to her that they had, indeed, been friends. Judge Hershey: Dredd has known former chief judge Hershey since 2102; like all chief judges since Goodman, he had easy access to her, but they also have a personal relationship based on mutual respect for each other. Dredd believes her to be "the best chief judge we've ever had." 2000 AD #1632 Walter the Wobot and Maria: Dredd used to share his flat with a domestic robot called Walter the Wobot, who performed all his domestic chores. Walter was intensely loyal to Dredd, but Dredd mostly treated him with open disdain. Dredd also had a landlady called Maria, who spoke with a stereotyped Italian accent. Both Walter and his landlady were kidnapped several times by criminals, and Walter was once destroyed and had to be rebuilt. In later years, Dredd parted company with both Walter and Maria, and eventually left his flat, preferring ten minutes on a sleep machine in the Grand Hall of Justice. Maria sank into poverty and eventually died, homeless and alone; at her funeral, it was revealed she wasn't Italian and the accent had been faked. Walter tried to set up his own business, but it was shut down by Dredd. Bitterly, he plotted a second Robot Rebellion and actually shot Dredd. As a free robot, Walter was sentenced by Judge Giant to thirty years of imprisonment rather than destruction. Walter later repented, and petitioned Judge Dredd to release him. Dredd agreed, on condition that Walter resume work as a servo-droid, releasing him into the custody and service of Mrs. Gunderson. Galen DeMarco was a judge who developed an infatuation with Dredd. While Dredd respected her as a judge, he did not reciprocate her feelings, since romantic attachment is prohibited to judges. Her breach of regulations led to her downfall and resignation from the force. Dredd maintained contact with her and tried to help her adjust to civilian life, but when he continued to reject her advances she eventually severed contact. Fargo clan: Recently revealed was the existence of a whole town occupied by the mutated descendants of Ephram Fargo, the twin brother of Chief Judge Eustace Fargo. These mutants, who share the common mutation of an overly large, exaggerated chin, are technically thus genetic relatives of Judge Dredd himself, and consider him a "cousin". This led to Dredd campaigning to have Mega-City One's mutant segregation laws repealed. Dredd's world The strip is set 122 years in the future. The timeline is worth noting, because the strip appears in real time - thus, as the Dredd strip has been published since 1977, Dredd has aged 32 years as of 2009. The Earth has been badly damaged by a series of international conflicts, much of the planet has turned to desert, and so populations have tended to aggregate in enormous conurbations known as 'mega-cities'. The world of Judge Dredd is centred on the megalopolis of Mega-City One. Within Mega-City One, extensive automation (including the creation of a caste of intelligent robots) has rendered the majority of the population jobless. As a consequence, the general population is prone to embracing any fashion that comes along. Much of the remaining world's geography is somewhat vague, although other mega-cities have been referred to and visited in the strip. Mega-City One's population lives in gigantic tower blocks, each holding some fifty thousand or so people. Each is named after some historical person or TV character (Dredd used to live in the Rowdy Yates block); there is usually some joke in the names of the blocks. For instance, Rowdy Yates was a character in the U.S. TV cowboy drama Rawhide, played by a young Clint Eastwood. Eastwood would later play "Dirty Harry" -- one of the thematic influences upon which Judge Dredd was based. A number of stories feature rivalries between different blocks, on many occasions (for example, in the story "Block Mania") breaking into gunfire wars between them. The Judges' possessing such arbitrary and total powers reflect the difficulty of maintaining any order at all in a Mega-City's stifling environment. Despite its frequent disasters, Mega-City One stretches from around Boston to Charlotte; it stretched further before the Apocalypse War, which saw widespread death and devastation - the south of the city being entirely wiped out. At its height, the city contained a population of about 800 million; the current population is less than half of that. The story Origins revealed that Mega-City One was formed due to growing urban sprawl rather than deliberate design, and by 2031 and with the introduction of the Judge system it was recognised as the first mega-city. There are two other major population centres in Dredd's Northern America. The first is Texas City, stretching across several of the southern United States and with a different culture to its northern cousin, based on Wild West frontier values. Further north is Canadia, though the specifics of this settlement are unknown, except that they lack a Judge system. Once, Mega-City Two (centered around Los Angeles and stretching into Baja California) also existed, but was destroyed during the events of Judgement Day. The centre of the continent is a nuclear desert called the Cursed Earth, containing various settlements and minor cities. Nuclear deserts and destruction elsewhere are also extensive. In South America, a new desert extends from Nicaragua, covering Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and pushing far into Amazonas. Cities in South America are Brasília, Ciudad Barranquilla, and on the western side the Pan-Andes Conurb and South-Am City; Brasilia and South-Am were destroyed during Judgement Day. The majority of the Caribbean islands have been destroyed, and the water there and across much of the north Atlantic is severely polluted, and is now known as the Black Atlantic. An underwater settlement known as Atlantis exists in the Atlantic, bridging a Mega-City One/Brit-Cit transport network. Europe has suffered considerable reshaping, especially the south. A desert covers much of western France, extending south into Spain and Portugal and across to cover much of Central Europe. Classical Greece is gone, as are parts of Turkey, and the Mediterranean is now the home of the Mediterranean Free State, a floating conglomerate of various settlements and refugee groups. The Black Sea and the Caspian Sea are now joined. In Europe the major cities are Brit-Cit (covering all of southern England), Cal-Hab (part of Scotland), Euro-City (eastern France and part of Germany), Vatican City (most of Italy) and Ciudad España (eastern Spain). Ireland is split between the megacity of Murphyville and the Emerald Isle, an enormous theme park re-creating a stereotypical view of traditional Irish life. Further east into Asia are more nuclear deserts, the ruins of East-Meg One (destroyed by Dredd in a massive nuclear strike at the climax of the Apocalypse War), and further east the megalopolis of East-Meg Two. Mongolia, lacking a Mega-City or Judge system, has called itself the Mongolian Free State and criminals have flocked there for a safe haven. In Asia, separated from East-Meg Two by an extensive nuclear desert, are Sino-City One (destroyed during Judgement Day) and Sino-City Two in eastern China, with Hong Tong built in the remains of Hong Kong and partitioned between Sino-Cit & Brit-Cit control; Hondo City on the remains of the islands of Japan; Djakarta in Indonesia, before its obliteration during Judgement Day; and Indo City (also called Nu-Delhi) in southern India. Between Hondo and Sino-City lies the Radlands of Ji, a nuclear desert full of chaos magic and many violent outlaw gangs and martial arts schools. Into the Blue Pacific cities survive in south-east Australia (Sydney-Melbourne Conurb), New Zealand (Pacific City), Solomon Islands (Solomon City) and Tonga (Friendly City). Borneo has been covered in mutagens, as have all of Indonesia's islands which are now linked by a network of mutant coral; called "The Web", this network of islands is a lawless hotbed of crime. The Middle East is without major cities, being either nuclear or natural deserts; the Mediterranean coast is heavily damaged by mutagens. In Africa much of the south is nuclear desert, South Africa proper has been shattered and is entirely uninhabitable, and the continent is now known as Pan-Africa. The major cities are Umur (Libya), New Jerusalem (north-east Ethiopia), Luxor City (Egypt), Casablanca (Morocco), and Simba City (Cameroon). Lake Victoria is enlarged and has been renamed the Kenyatta Sea. Nuclear fallout and pollution appear to have missed Antarctica and the Arctic, causing Mega-Cities (Antarctic City and Uranium City respectively) to have been constructed there. The high levels of pollution have created instances of mutation in humans and animals. The Mega-Cities largely operate on a system of genetic normality making expulsion from the cities the worst punishment possible. Earth's moon has been colonised, with a series of large domes forming Luna City; another colony, Puerto Luminae, exists but is a lawless, violent hellhole. In addition many deep space colonies have been established. Some are loyal to various mega cities while many are independent states, and others still face violent insurgencies to gain independence. The multi-national Space Corps battle both insurgencies and external alien threats. The planet Hestia (which is in a polar orbit of the sun that passes near to earth's) has a colony, there are some references to colonies on Mars such as Viking City, the moon Titan has a Judicial penal colony, and MC1 is known to have deep space missile silos on Pluto. Continuity errors have crept into the history at various stages. An example is an early story featuring a mad scientist who experimented with human cloning - despite the fact that it had already been revealed that many Judges, including Dredd himself, were clones. The most glaring one is the reference to the penal colony for rogue Judges on Titan, which is said in the strip at various stages to orbit either Jupiter or Saturn (the latter is correct), seemingly at the whim of the writer at the time. The Judge system In the future the Judicial system has spread throughout the globe with various super-cities besides Mega City One possessing a Judge system of law enforcement and government. As such the Judicial political model has become the most common form of government on earth with only a few small areas practicing traditional civilian rule. Judges, once appointed, can be broadly characterized as 'street Judges' (who patrol the city), and administrative or office based judges (who teach at the Academy, or sit in formal positions). Street Judges act as police, judge, jury and, if necessary, on-the-spot executioner. However, contrary to popular belief, Judges rarely carry out cold-blooded executions, and in general capital punishment in Mega-City One is abolished, though 'deaths while evading capture' are numerous. Numerous writers have used the Judge system to satirize contemporary politics. The judges are, in theory, rendered absolutely incorruptible by the psychological conditioning they receive from a very early age — although this has been subverted on several occasions to various degrees. One of the worst instances was by the insane Judge Cal who manipulated his way to the office of Chief Judge. Once he had absolute power, he proceeded to behave much like his namesake Caligula, even appointing his pet goldfish as his Deputy Chief Judge. Dredd was the leader of the rebel Judges who overthrew Cal; after Cal's death at the hands of Fergee, a dweller of the Mega-City's undercity, Dredd was offered the job of Chief Judge. He refused it, believing that he was needed far more out on the streets. However, following the events in Wilderlands Dredd entered his nomination for Chief Judge as part of an investigation. When the investigation was over he let his nomination stand, eventually losing the vote to Judge Volt. Various versions of the Judge system hold power in all the Mega-Cities of Dredd's world. There is an international charter which countries and city states join upon instituting a Judge system. Major Judge Dredd storylines There have been a number of Judge Dredd storylines that have either significantly developed the Dredd character or the fictional world background, or which have been "epic" in scale (i.e., have been lengthy multi-part stories, usually at least fifteen parts or more, and have had a story of a grand scale). These include: The Robot Wars (2000 AD Progs 10-17; prologue in Prog 9) The Mega-City Judges face an uprising by the city's robot servant workforce, led by carpenter-droid Call-Me-Kenneth. The Return of Rico (Prog 30) Joe Dredd's clone brother Rico Dredd returns from Titan seeking revenge for being apprehended 20 years earlier but instead is shot and killed by the Judge. (This story introduces Rico and the penal colony on Titan.) Luna One (multiple stories; Progs 42-59) Dredd is made Judge Marshall of Luna One, a colony on the moon governed by judges from all three Mega-Cities. (This story introduced Luna One and Judges from East-Meg One and Texas City.) The Cursed Earth (Progs 61-85): Dredd, accompanied by punk biker Spikes Harvey Rotten (and later the alien Tweak), leads a small group of Judges on an epic journey across the Cursed Earth, transporting the vaccine for the deadly 2T-FRU-T virus that is devastating Mega-City Two. (This multi-part epic, often referred to as ‘the first Dredd epic’, was inspired by Roger Zelazny's Damnation Alley.) The Day the Law Died (Progs 89-108; prologues in 86-88) The tyrannical and insane Judge Cal, head of the Special Judicial Squad, arranges the assassination of Chief Judge Goodman and assumes the title himself. By brainwashing the Judges and employing alien mercenaries, Cal’s stranglehold on Mega-City One is almost total. Only Dredd and a few other Judges and Judge-Tutors escape to lead the resistance. (This story introduced the Kleggs and saw Chief Judge Griffin assume the Chief Judgeship after Cal is killed by Fergee.) Judge Death (Progs 149-151) Judge Death, an alien superfiend from another dimension, arrives in Mega-City One. Believing all life is a crime, he embarks on a killing spree before being caught and imprisoned. (The first appearance of both Judge Death, perhaps the Mega-Cities' deadliest foe, and Psi-Judge Anderson.) The Judge Child (Progs 156-181) When the best 'pre-cog' in Psi-Division, Psi-Judge Feyy, predicts a child bearing the mark of the Eagle of Justice will have the power to save the city from an unspecified future disaster, it is up to Dredd to lead the galaxy-spanning search for the child. (An attempt to break away from the restrictive confines of Mega-City One, this story introduced several long-running characters and concepts into the Dredd mythos: Judge Hershey, The Angel Gang (except for Fink Angel, who was introduced later), Murd the Oppressor, and the new head of the SJS, McGruder.) Judge Death Lives! (Progs 224-228) Judge Death's three brothers, Judges Fear, Fire and Mortis arrive in Mega-City One to rescue him. The four Dark Judges seal off Billy Carter Block and begin murdering all the people trapped within. Dredd and Anderson put a stop to the killing spree and follow the quartet as they flee back to their own native dimension (known colloquially as ‘Deadworld’). The Dark Judges’ physical bodies are easily destroyed but their spirits forms are too psychically powerful, even for Anderson. However, the Psi-Judge is assisted by the vengeful souls of all the millions of murdered citizens and the four Dark Judges are seemingly destroyed. (Voted the third best story ever printed in the comic in a 2005 poll on the 2000AD online website, this tale introduced the other three Dark Judges.) Block Mania (Progs 236-244) Contamination of water supplies by Orlok the Assassin leads to all-out war between Mega-City One's many city blocks. (What begins innocently as a story in its own right, soon unexpectedly reveals itself as the prologue to ‘The Apocalypse War’ storyline, a trick the writers would again use later with The Dead Man/Necropolis storylines. This story introduced Orlok and saw the tragic death of Judge Giant.) Apocalypse War (Progs 245-270) Weakened by the effects of Block Mania, Mega-City One is attacked and invaded by the forces of East-Meg One. Almost half the city (400 million people) are killed in nuclear strikes. Many more die from radiation sickness, starvation and cold. The Mega-City Judges are unable to strike back as the Sov city is protected by a dimensional force field. Instead, the Judges fight a guerilla war, eventually culminating in the destruction of East-Meg One when Dredd captures a Sov missile bunker. (This story saw the death of Chief Judge Griffin and McGruder taking on the role.) City of the Damned (Progs 393-406) The Judges develop time travel technology. Dredd and Anderson travel into the future to discover more about the disaster predicted by Psi-Judge Feyy. However they learn that the Judge Child Owen Krysler has in fact caused the events, rather than preventing them from happening. Dredd has his eyes torn out but fights on, even battling an undead future version of himself. He and Anderson flee back to the present (along with the undead Dredd), where his eyes are replaced by bionics, before tracking down the Judge Child and killing him, thus preventing the future they experienced from ever happening. (The undead Dredd would return in a future story. This story was originally intended to be much longer but the creative team tired of it.) Oz (Progs 545-570) When sky-surfer Chopper breaks out of jail and flees to the Sydney-Melbourne Conurb in Australia to take part in the (now-legal) Supersurf 10, Dredd is sent to retrieve him. In addition, however, Dredd’s real mission is to confront the Judda, a religiously zealous army of clones, ruled over by former Council of Five member Morton Judd, who plans to dominate Mega-City One with his followers. Dredd destroys the Judda’s base (Ayers Rock) with a nuke, although some Judda are captured. The Dead Man (Prog 650-662) An unknown man with no memory is found almost dead and badly scarred in the Cursed Earth by a group of settlers. After recovering from his injuries, the man heads back to Mega-City One with a young boy, Yassa Povey as his guide. Along the way, he recovers his memory and recalls that he is Dredd, having lost his memory when he encountered the Sisters of Death. (This was not billed as a 'Judge Dredd' story when it first appeared in 2000 AD and great pains were taken to hide its connection with the series. There was no reference to locations or people from the main series until towards the very end of the storyline. The ‘Judge Dredd’ stories continued alongside this one, to further the illusion.) A Letter to Judge Dredd (Prog 661) Dredd receives a letter written by a child who has been killed as an indirect result of the Judges' suppression of a pro-democracy demonstration, causing him to seriously question the entire ethical basis of the Judge system, and setting in motion the chain of events recounted in the episodes that follow. Tale of the Dead Man (Progs 662-668) Dredd resigns and takes the Long Walk following his assessment of ex-Judda Cadet Judge Kraken, and his crisis of faith in the Law that he had always sworn to uphold. This story acts as a prologue to Necropolis. Necropolis (Progs 669-673 (Countdown to Necropolis) and 674-699 (‘’Necropolis’’)) Manipulating the confused mind of Judge Kraken, the Sisters of Death are able to use the body of Psi-Judge Agee in order to take control of Mega-City One and create a trans-dimensional bridge enabling the Dark Judges to once again manifest themselves. The four Dark Judges take control of the minds of the Judges and begin systematically killing the entire population. Kraken becomes a fifth Dark Judge after blowing his own hand off. Chief Judge Silver is killed. The Devil You Know and Twilight's Last Gleaming (Progs 750-753 and 754-756) The long running tensions between the totalitarian Judge system and the movement for the restoration of democracy in the Mega-City at last come to a head. Finally given a vote, the apathetic population mostly don’t bother and of those that do, the majority favour keeping the Judges in control. A Pro-Democracy protest march of almost two million people heads for Justice Central but violence is averted when Dredd alone convinces the leaders that the referendum was fair. America (Megazine 1.01-1.07) Regarded by many fans as the quintessential Dredd story. In this tale Dredd's philosophy is explored when democracy activists resort to terrorism. This story introduces the tragic characters America Jara and Bennett Beeny, as well as terrorist group Total War. Judgement on Gotham (a 'cross-over' story co-published by DC Comics and Fleetway.) Dredd and Batman reluctantly join forces to defeat Judge Death, who has used dimension-jump technology to breach the DC Universe and attack Gotham City). This issue was also notable for painted artwork by Simon Bisley. Judgement Day (progs 786-799 and Megazine 2.04-2.09) Sabbat the Necromagus re-animates the corpses of the dead and uses them to attack the world's Mega-Cities, leading to the deaths of billions. This story includes the teaming of Dredd with Johnny Alpha, a character from another long running 2000 AD comic strip, Strontium Dog. (Dredd and Alpha had however previously crossed paths in an earlier story.) Mechanismo trilogy (Megazine 2.12-17, 2.22-26 and 2.37-43) After Necropolis and Sabbat's zombies, Mega-City has lost far too many judges. To combat this, the Chief Judge test-runs ten robot judges, with disastrous results. Inferno (progs 842 to 853) Escaped rogue Judges from Titan take over the city, forcing the Judges into exile in the Cursed Earth. Wilderlands storyline (progs 891-894 and 904-918 and Megazine 2.57 to 2.67) Dredd is exposed as falsifying evidence to shut down the Mechanismo project and is arrested, while Chief Judge McGruder attempts to remain in power and see Mechanismo implemented despite her failing mental capacities. When a malfunctioning Mechanismo crashes a space cruiser on an alien world in an attempt to kill McGruder, Dredd is forced to take control of the survivors. The mega-epic ended many long-running subplots including the Mechanismo Program and McGruder's second stint as Chief Judge, as well as bringing in Judge Volt, bringing back the Council of Five and introducing Judge Castillo. The Pit (progs 970-999) Dredd takes the job of Sector Chief at Sector 301, an isolated area of the city that has become a dumping ground for corrupt and incompetent judges. Introduced the popular character Judge Galen DeMarco, the closest thing Dredd has had to a love interest, who would go on to star in her own strip. The Doomsday Scenario (progs 1141-1164 and 1167, and Megazine 3.52-3.59) The first series to run the same story from different viewpoints concurrently from start to finish, one in 2000 AD and the other in the Judge Dredd Megazine. One is told from the viewpoint of Galen DeMarco, now a civilian, as she is caught up in Crime lord Nero Narcos' attempt to take over the city with his army of robots. The other is told from Dredd's viewpoint as he is taken prisoner by Orlok the Assassin and tried by the East Meg One government in exile for his war crimes during the Apocalypse War. Once Dredd escapes (with Anderson's assistance), he secured the help of Brit-Cit in breaking Narcos' control over his robot hordes. The story saw the Judges briefly lose power and Chief Judge Volt committed suicide as a result; Hershey replaced him. Helter Skelter (progs 1250 to 1261) An army of Dredd's greatest foes, from alternate dimensions where they won, band together under an alternate Judge Cal (see The Day the Law Died) and use dimension jump technology to invade Dredd's dimension, unable to stand the idea that there is a universe where he won. Their presence starts a total collapse of all universes, causing characters from other 2000 AD stories to appear in Mega-City One - Cal intends to exploit this chaos. Dredd defeats Cal with the help of dimension technician Darien Kenzie. Blood Cadets (progs 1186-1188) saw the introduction of a new clone of Dredd, who took the name Rico; Blood And Duty (progs 1300-1301) saw the return of Dredd's niece Vienna Pasternak. With Vienna's reintroduction and the new Rico's arrival, Dredd was given a family and several new plot points for future stories, including the Justice Department creating a large number of Dredd clones and Dredd's problems with trying to connect with his niece. Judge Dredd vs. Aliens (Prog 2003 special and 1322-1335) pitted Dredd against the monsters from the Alien movie series, with mutant terrorist Mister Bones breeding an army of xenomorphs in the Undercity and having them assault the Department of Justice. Terror and Total War (progs 1392-1399 and 1408-1419) A pair of stories that deals with the actions of a terrorist cell in Mega-City One. Fanatically dedicated to the democratic cause, Total War smuggles 12 nuclear devices into the vast megalopolis and threaten to detonate them all unless the Judges leave the City. A standard thriller plot made more significant through explorations of Judge Dredd's extended family, including Vienna and a Dredd clone, Nimrod. Blood Trails (progs 1440-1449) Following on from elements of Total War and Gulag (where Dredd led a Judge team to try and free POWs from the Sov block), a clone of Sov judge Kazan tries to attack Dredd by targeting Vienna, sending the face-changing assassin Pasha to gain her trust and abduct her. In the aftermath of the story, the Kazan clone was cut loose by East-Meg 2 and claimed political asylum from Mega-City One; Dredd's long-term ally Guthrie was severely injured, losing both legs and an arm and eventually being turned into a cyborg; and both Judges Giant and Rico were severely injured. Origins (progs 1505-1519 and 1529-1535; prologue in 1500-1504) consists largely of flashbacks and sets out the history of the Judges and of Chief Judge Fargo, as well as scenes from Dredd's childhood during the Third World War. Mutants in Mega-City One (progs 1542-1545) is the first in a series of short stories in which Dredd campaigns to change the apartheid laws prohibiting mutants from entering the city. This results in Chief Judge Hershey being voted out of office and replaced with Judge Francisco. (This story arc is ongoing as of 2009.) Villains Numerous famous criminals ('perps' in the story's argot) have featured over the years including: The Angel Gang Mean Machine Angel Chief Judge Cal Call-Me-Kenneth Chopper The Dark Judges Judge Death Armon Gill (a.k.a. the "Chief Judge's Man") Judge Grice Morton Judd The Judge Child War Marshal Kazan PJ Maybe Nero Narcos Sov Judge Orlok Shojun the Warlord Captain Skank Alternative versions Shortly before the release of the 1995 movie, three new comic book titles were released, followed by a one-off comic version of the film story. Judge Dredd (DC Comics) Judge Dredd (DC Comics) 2000 AD profile DC Comics published an alternative version of Judge Dredd between 1994 and 1995, lasting 18 issues. Continuity and history were different to both the original 2000 AD version and the 1995 film. A major difference was that Chief Judge Fargo, portrayed as incorruptible in the original version, was depicted as evil in the DC version. Most issues were written by Andrew Helfer, but the last issue was written by Gordon Rennie, who has since written Judge Dredd for 2000 AD. (Note: the DC crossover story "Judgement on Gotham" featured the original Dredd, not the version depicted in this title.) Judge Dredd - Legends of the Law Judge Dredd: Legends of the Law 2000 AD profile Another DC Comics title, lasting 13 issues between 1994 and 1995. Although these were intended to feature the same version of Judge Dredd as in the other DC title, the first four issues were written by John Wagner and Alan Grant and were consistent with their original 2000 AD version. Judge Dredd - Lawman of the Future Judge Dredd: Lawman of the Future 2000 AD profile From the same publishers as 2000 AD, this was nevertheless a completely different version of Dredd aimed at younger readers. Editor David Bishop prohibited writers from showing Dredd killing anyone, a reluctance which would be completely unfamiliar to readers acquainted with the original version. It ran fortnightly from 1995 to 1996. Judge Dredd (Dynamite Entertainment) Dynamite Entertainment have acquired the license to produce new material based on 2000 AD characters, the first of which will be a Dredd comic book, to be written by Garth Ennis and John Wagner. WW Chicago: Dynamite nabs "Judge Dredd", June 28, 2008 Parodies Judge Elmer Dwedd Howard the Duck entry in the Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe In Marvel Comics, Judge Dredd was satirized by combining the lawman with Looney Tunes character Elmer Fudd to create Judge Elmer Dwedd. This pastiche of Dredd appeared in a handful of issues of Howard the Duck prior to the release of the Judge Dredd movie, and the character was discontinued afterward. Justice Peace Justice Peace entry at Appendix to the Marvel Universe A former officer of the Time Variance Authority, he rides a flying and (formerly) time traveling Hopsikle, weilds a Peacemaker multipurpose gun, is based in "Brooklynopolis" and is genetically incapable of both lying and humor. Thor #371, September 1986 In other media Film An American film loosely based on the comic strip was released in 1995, starring Sylvester Stallone as Dredd (it was said that Arnold Schwarzenegger was originally requested for the role, but declined because in the original script, Dredd would keep the helmet on during major parts of the film). Fans were highly critical, largely regarding it as an American failure creatively; non-fan viewers reacted negatively, and it was a huge commercial failure as well. In deference to its expensive Hollywood star, Dredd's face was shown. In the comic, he very rarely removes his helmet and even then, his real face is never revealed. Also, in spite of the large production budget and accurate re-creation of the sets and characters' appearances, the writers largely omitted the ironic humour of the comic strip; they also ignored important aspects of the 'Dredd mythology'. For example, in the film a 'love interest' is developed between Dredd and Judge Hershey, something that is strictly forbidden between Judges (or Judges and anyone else for that matter) in the comic strip. In America, the film won several "worst film of the year" awards. Also of interest is the cameo appearance of the ABC Warrior robot, bearing a distinct resemblance to Hammerstein. In December 2008, a new Judge Dredd film was given the green light. It will be produced by 2000AD, Rebellion and DNA Films which will begin shooting in 2009. New Dredd film given green light Video games Judge Dredd: Dredd Vs. Death was produced by Rebellion Developments and released in early 2003 by Sierra Entertainment for the PC, PlayStation 2, Xbox and GameCube. The game sees the return of the Dark Judges when Mega-City One becomes overrun with vampires and the undead. The player takes control of Judge Dredd, with the optional addition of another Human player in Co-operative play; his mission is to bring the Dark Judges to Justice again. The whole game is played in the style of an FPS (first-person shooter) - with key differences from the standard FPS being the requirement to arrest lawbreakers and an SJS death squad which will hunt you down should you kill too many civilians. Weapons include the standard Lawgiver Mark III, the Arbitrator Shotgun, the Lawrod Rifle, the Spit Gun, and a variety of other common FPS weapons. The player can also go up against three friends in the various multiplayer modes which include Deathmatch/Team Deathmatch, Elimination/Team Elimination, Informant, Judges Vs Perps, Runner and more. There have also been several games released across formats such as the PlayStation, SNES/Super Famicom, Sega Mega Drive/Genesis and several home computers, such as the Sinclair ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64, while a high-profile arcade game, or "coin-op," was developed - but never released - by Midway Games, creators of the Mortal Kombat video game franchise. Some of them (more specifically the SNES/Genesis versions) had the film as basis, given that the box artworks for these depict Stallone as he appears in the film poster. Bally also produced a Judge Dredd pinball machine. Judge Dredd is also going to make some sort of appearance in the game LittleBigPlanet, although how he is going to be featured is unclear. A "poster" depicting the game's well-known character, Sackboy, wearing a Judge Dredd costume, is shown on the LittleBigPlanet Workshop, hinting at the date May 28th, 2009. Roleplaying Games Boardgames and CCGs Mongoose Publishing have released a miniatures skirmish game of gang warfare based in Mega City 1 called Gangs of Mega-City One, often referred to as GOMC1. The game features Judges being called in when a gang challenges another gang that is too tough to fight. A wide range of miniatures has been released including box sets for an Ape Gang and an Undercity Gang. A Robot Gang was also produced but was released as two blister packs instead of a box set. Only one rules expansion has been released, called Death on the Streets, which is now out of print. The expansion introduced many new rules including usage of the new gangs and the ability to bring Judge Dredd himself into a fight. Signs and Portents continues to contain articles for this game fairly regularly. There was also a short-lived collectible card game called simply 'Dredd' based on the world of Judge Dredd. In the game players would control a squad of judges and arrest perps. The rules system was innovative and the game was well-received by fans and collectors alike, but various issues unrelated to the game's quality caused its early demise. Games Workshop produced a boardgame based on the comic strip in 1982. In the game players, who represent judges, attempt to arrest perps that have committed crimes in different location in Mega City One. A key feature of the game is the different action cards that are collected during play; generally these cards are used when trying to arrest perps although some cards can also be played against other players to hinder their progress. The winner of the game is the judge who collected the most points arresting perps. Whilst it is a reasonably simple game it is quite amusing especially when players spend time sabotaging each others arrest attempts. Additionally, there were many amusing card combinations such as arresting Judge Death for selling old comics, as the Old Comic Selling crime card featured a 2000 AD cover with Judge Death on it. The game used characters, locations and artwork from the comic but is now out of print. In 1987, Games Workshop published a second Dredd-inspired boardgame, "Block Mania." In this game for two players, players take on the role of rival neighboring blocks at war. This was a heavier game than the earlier Dredd boardgame, focused on tactical combat, in which players control these residents as they use whatever means they can to vandalize and destroy their opponent's block. Later the same year, Games Workshop released the Mega Mania expansion for the game, allowing the game to be played by up to 4 players. Often overlooked in favour of official material, "Drokk City" (2004-2006; a non-profit Judge Dredd RPG) was in some fan circles considered the better adaptation of "Dreddworld" to the roleplaying format, and the most detailed Judge Dredd reference series ever mounted. Published by former Mongoose Publishing freelancer John Caliber as a public apology for what he considered deep flaws with the Mongoose incarnation, "Drokk City" ran for four issues ('progs'), in full colour, and numerous supplements, all distributed as PDFs. Although two more progs (5-6) were scheduled, the series was officially cancelled by the author in June 2006. The Adeptus Arbites created by Games Workshop seemed to be heavily insipred by Judge Dredd. Novels From 1993 to 1995, Virgin published nine Judge Dredd novels. They had hoped the series would be a success in the wake of the feature film, but the series was cancelled after insufficient sales. The books are: Deathmasques (Dave Stone, August, 1993 ISBN 0-352-32873-8) The Savage Amusement (David Bishop, August, 1993 ISBN 0-352-32874-6) Dreddlocked (Stephen Marley, October, 1993 ISBN 0-352-32875-4) Cursed Earth Asylum (David Bishop, December, 1993 ISBN 0-352-32893-2) The Medusa Seed (Dave Stone, January, 1994 ISBN 0-352-32895-9) Dread Dominion (Stephen Marley, May, 1994 ISBN 0-352-32929-7) The Hundredfold Problem (John Grant, August, 1994 ISBN 0-352-32942-4) Silencer (David Bishop, November, 1994 ISBN 0-352-32960-2) Wetworks (Dave Stone, February, 1995 ISBN 0-352-32975-0) (In 2003 The Hundredfold Problem was re-released by BeWrite Books, rewritten as a non-Dredd novel. BeWrite Books ) From 2003 to 2007, Black Flame published official 2000 AD novels, including a new run of Judge Dredd novels. Their nine Judge Dredd books are: Black Flame Dredd vs Death (Gordon Rennie, October 2003 ISBN 1-84416-061-0) Bad Moon Rising (David Bishop, June 2004 ISBN 1-84416-107-2) Black Atlantic (Peter J. Evans & Simon Jowett, June 2004 ISBN 1-84416-108-0) Eclipse (James Swallow, August 2004 ISBN 1-84416-122-6) Kingdom of the Blind (David Bishop, November 2004 ISBN 1-84416-133-1) Swine Fever (Andrew Cartmel, May 2005 ISBN 1-84416-174-9) Final Cut (Matt Smith, January 2005 ISBN 1-84416-135-8) Whiteout (James Swallow, September 2005 ISBN 1-84416-219-2) Psykogeddon (Dave Stone), January 2006 ISBN 1-84416-321-0) Books Best of Judge Dredd (Rebellion Developments, August 2009, ISBN 978-1-85375-718-1) Audio series In recent years Big Finish Productions have produced eighteen audio plays featuring 2000 AD characters. These have mostly featured Judge Dredd although three have also featured Strontium Dog. In these Judge Dredd is played by Toby Longworth and Johnny Alpha, the Strontium Dog is played by Simon Pegg. The current list of 2000 AD audio plays featuring Dredd includes: 1. Judge Dredd - Wanted: Dredd or Alive by David Bishop 2. Judge Dredd - Death Trap! by David Bishop (with Judge Death) 4. Judge Dredd - The Killing Zone by Dave Stone 5. Judge Dredd -The Big Shot! by David Bishop 6. Judge Dredd -Trapped on Titan by Jonathan Clements 7. Judge Dredd - Get Karter! by David Bishop 8. Judge Dredd - I Love Judge Dredd by Jonathan Morris 9. Judge Dredd - Dreddline by James Swallow 11. Judge Dredd - 99 Code Red! by Jonathan Clements 12. Judge Dredd - War Planet by Dave Stone 13. Judge Dredd - Jihad by James Swallow 14. Judge Dredd - War Crimes by David Bishop 15. Judge Dredd - For King and Country by Cavan Scott 16. Judge Dredd - Pre-Emptive Revenge by Jonathan Clements (with Strontium Dog) 17. Judge Dredd - Grud is Dead by James Swallow 18. Judge Dredd - Solo by Jonathan Clements Note: 3 and 10 are Strontium Dog stories that do not feature Dredd. In addition, both "The Day the Law Died" and "The Apocalypse War" stories were featured on Mark Goodier's afternoon show on BBC Radio One, and issued separately on dual cassette and double CD. Both titles have since been deleted. "The Apocalypse War" contains plot elements from "Block Mania" as this story set the scene for the East-Meg One Invasion. In popular culture The metal band Anthrax included a song about Judge Dredd on their third album (Among the Living) entitled "I am the Law". They also released a 12" single and a 7" picture disc, both bearing the image of Dredd. One 12" version featured a fold-out poster of the band dressed as Judges drawn by drummer Charlie Benante. Also, the Cursed Earth tour had Judge Death as the main imagery of the shirts sold during the concerts. The UK ska/Two-Tone band Madness also recorded a tribute single to Dredd under the name of The Fink Brothers, entitled "Mutants in Mega-City One". Released on the Zarjazz label in February 1985, the record featured a cover drawn by 2000 AD Dredd artist Brian Bolland. The UK band The Human League also wrote a song about Judge Dredd. "I am the Law" appeared on the album Dare. The Screaming Blue Messiahs recorded a song entitled "Mega-City One" on their final album Totally Religious. The Manic Street Preachers' song, "Judge Yr'Self" was influenced by the comic, and was intended to appear on the Judge Dredd film soundtrack. It reached the demo stage, but after lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards disappeared, the other members of the band said that a song for a soundtrack was the last thing on their mind. SuperWebhost.Com - Domain Registrar, Domain Transfer, Domain Parking Edwards himself was heavily influenced by the Judge Dredd and 2000 AD comics (the slogan "Be pure. Be vigilant. Behave" from the 2000 AD strip Nemesis the Warlock was included in the song "P.C.P."). A fully produced mix of "Judge Yr'Self" (by long time Manics producer Dave Eringa) was later released on the 2003 double-album of B-sides and rarities, Lipstick Traces. Furthermore, Manic Street Preachers bassist Nicky Wire was the basis for the character Domino in the 2000 AD story Zenith Phase IV Part 2: Blind Justice (prog 795, 8 Aug. 1992). http://www.2000ad.org/zenith/iv/punk.jpg He has said that this annoyed fellow band member Richey, who was a great fan of Judge Dredd and even had one of his drawings published in the comic during his late childhood. Richey himself was later parodied as "Clarence" of the "Crazy Sked Moaners" in the Dredd story Muzak Killer: Live! Part 3 (prog 838, 5 Jun. 1993), in a scene which parodied the infamous 1991 incident of Richey carving 4 REAL into his forearm with a razor (Clarence lasers 4 RALE into his forehead). Simon Pegg is a fan of 2000AD, and Judge Dredd memorabilia (supplied by the comic) appears in the background of several episodes of Spaced. A bar featuring live bands existed in Manila, Philippines, called Club Dredd (1990-1998), as a tribute to Judge Dredd. Owners were known fans of 2000 AD comics. It became known for alternative music and featured a large Anthrax poster of "I am the Law" at the bar's entrance. There is a rapper from Houston, Texas who goes by the name of Judge Dredd. He was featured on two tracks on Chamillionaire's Greatest Hits Mixtape. A sleeve illustration on German metal band Helloween's album Keeper of the Seven Keys Part 1 depicts a pumpkin-headed character (a band trademark) wearing a distinctive Judge's uniform. It's placed next to the lyrics for the song "Future World". Multiple references to the movie are made on the sitcom Scrubs, notably by J.D. at the end of the episode "His Story II", while being wooed by Elliot. Finnish power metal band Sonata Arctica references Judge Dredd in the song Peacemaker. In the Warhammer 40,000 universe, the Imperium's police force, the arbites, were visually based upon Judge Dredd stemming from the time Games Workshop held the rights to Judge Dredd games. The current range is more similar in design to Robocop. See also Judge Anderson 2000 AD crossovers. Judge Dredd's timeline has crossed over with many other 2000 AD stories. List of minor characters in Judge Dredd List of technology in Judge Dredd Notes References The Judge Dredd timeline The A-Z of Judge Dredd: The Complete Encyclopedia from Aaron Aardvark to Zachary Zziiz (by Mike Butcher, St. Martin's Press, March 1999, ISBN 0-312-13733-8) Judge Dredd: The Mega-History (by Colin M. Jarman and Peter Acton, Lennard Publishing, 122 pages, 1995, ISBN 1-85291-128-X) Thrill Power Overload (by David Bishop, Judge Dredd Megazine vol 4 issues 9-18, issues 201-209, 2002-2003, collected and expanded, Rebellion, 260 pages, February 2007, ISBN 1-905437-22-6) Dredd's universe at the International Catalogue of Superheroes External links Judge Dredd, The Guardian, March 5, 2002 Mega City One Walter The Wobot fansite Dredd: The Card game details BBC Cult 2000AD comics page BBC Cult 2000AD audio page Judge Dredd boardgame page at BoardGameGeek Block Mania boardgame page at BoardGameGeek Big Finish Productions 2000AD page	Judge_Dredd \|@lemmatized judge:254 joe:8 dredd:247 comics:1 character:40 whose:1 strip:30 british:1 science:1 fiction:1 anthology:1 ad:32 magazine:2 long:10 running:2 feature:23 since:11 second:6 issue:17 law:27 enforcement:2 officer:2 violent:5 city:102 future:16 uniformed:1 combine:2 power:12 police:6 jury:2 executioner:2 fellow:2 empower:1 arrest:11 sentence:5 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6,066	Nile	The Nile (, , Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. River Encarta (Accessed 3 October 2006) The Nile has two major tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile, the latter being the source of most of the Nile's water and fertile soil, but the former being the longer of the two. The White Nile rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa, with the most distant source in southern Rwanda , and flows north from there through Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda and southern Sudan, while the Blue Nile starts at Lake Tana in Ethiopia , flowing into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet near the Sudanese capital Khartoum. The northern section of the river flows almost entirely through desert, from Sudan into Egypt, a country whose civilization has depended on the river since ancient times. Most of the population of Egypt and all of its cities, with the exception of those near the coast, lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan; and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt are found along the banks of the river. The Nile ends in a large delta that empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Etymology of the word Nile The word "Nile" comes from Greek Neilos (Νεῖλος), of unknown derivation. In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called Ḥ'pī or iteru, meaning "great river", represented by the hieroglyphs shown on the right (literally itrw, and 'waters' determinative). What did the ancient Egyptians call the Nile river? Open Egyptology. (Accessed 17 October 2006 - Login required or enter as Guest) In Coptic, the words piaro (Sahidic) or phiaro (Bohairic) meaning "the river" (lit. p(h).iar-o "the.canal-great") come from the same ancient name. Tributaries and distributaries The drainage basin of the Nile covers , about 10% of the area of Africa. EarthTrends: The Environmental Information Portal There are two great tributaries of the Nile, joining at Khartoum: the White Nile, starting in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile, beginning in Ethiopia. Both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift, the southern part of the Great Rift Valley. Below the Blue and White Nile confluence the only remaining major tributary is the Atbara River, which originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is around long. It flows only while there is rain in Ethiopia and dries very fast. It joins the Nile approximately north of Khartoum. The Nile is unusual in that its last tributary (the Atbara) joins it roughly halfway to the sea. From that point north, the Nile diminishes because of evaporation. The course of the Nile in Sudan is distinctive. It flows over 6 groups of cataracts, from the first at Aswan to the sixth at Sabaloka (just north of Khartoum) and then turns to flow southward for a good portion of its course, before again returning to flow north to the sea. This is called the "Great Bend of the Nile." North of Cairo, the Nile splits into two branches (or distributaries) that feed the Mediterranean: the Rosetta Branch to the west and the Damietta to the east, forming the Nile Delta. White Nile The source of the Nile is sometimes considered to be Lake Victoria, but the lake itself has feeder rivers of considerable size. The most distant stream—and thus the ultimate source of the Nile—emerges from Nyungwe Forest in Rwanda, via the Rukarara, Mwogo, Nyabarongo and Kagera rivers, before flowing into Lake Victoria in Tanzania near the town of Bukoba. The Nile leaves Lake Victoria at Ripon Falls near Jinja, Uganda, as the Victoria Nile. It flows for approximately farther, through Lake Kyoga, until it reaches Lake Albert. After leaving Lake Albert, the river is known as the Albert Nile. It then flows into Sudan, where it becomes known as the Bahr al Jabal ("River of the Mountain"). The Bahr al Ghazal, itself long, joins the Bahr al Jabal at a small lagoon called Lake No, after which the Nile becomes known as the Bahr al Abyad, or the White Nile, from the whitish clay suspended in its waters. When the Nile flooded it left this rich material named silt. The Ancient Egyptians used this soil to farm. From Lake No, the river flows to Khartoum. An anabranch river called Bahr el Zeraf flows out of the Nile's Bahr al Jabal section and rejoins the White Nile. The term "White Nile" is used in both a general sense, referring to the entire river above Khartoum, and a limited sense, the section between Lake No and Khartoum. Blue Nile The Blue Nile (Ge'ez ጥቁር ዓባይ Ṭiqūr ʿĀbbāy (Black Abay) to Ethiopians; Bahr al Azraq to Sudanese) springs from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about to Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form the "Nile proper". 90% of the water and 96% of the transported sediment carried by the Nile Marshall et al., , 2006 originates in Ethiopia, with 59% of the water from the Blue Nile alone (the rest being from the Tekezé, Atbarah, Sobat, and small tributaries). The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian rainy season in the summer, however, when rainfall is especially high on the Ethiopian Plateau; the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile (Sobat, Blue Nile, Tekezé, and Atbarah) flow weakly. Yellow Nile The Yellow Nile is a former tributary that connected the Ouaddaï Highlands of eastern Chad to the Nile River Valley ca. 8000 to ca. 1000 BCE. Keding, B (2000). "New data on the Holocene occupation of the Wadi Howar region (Eastern Sahara/Sudan)." Studies in African Archaeology 7, 89–104. Its remains are known as the Wadi Howar. The wadi passes through Gharb Darfur near the northern border with Chad and meets up with the Nile and near the southern point of the Great Bend. Lost headwaters Formerly Lake Tanganyika drained northwards along the African Rift Valley into the Albert Nile, making the Nile about longer, until blocked in Miocene times by the bulk of the Virunga Volcanoes. See List of rivers by length. Politics The usage of the Nile River has been vastly associated with East and horn of African politics for many decades. Various countries, including Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya have complained about the Egyptian domination of the Nile water resources. The Nile Basin Initiative was one of the most important programs to promote equal usage and peaceful cooperation between the "Nile Basin States." The Nile Basin Initiative Yet many fear, the Egyptian domination of the waters still causes massive economic obstacles in the area. The Nile still supports much of the population living along its banks, with the Egyptians living in otherwise inhospitable regions of the Sahara. The river flooded every summer, depositing fertile silt on the plains. The flow of the river is disturbed at several points by cataracts, which are sections of faster-flowing water with many small islands, shallow water, and rocks, forming an obstacle to navigation by boats. The Sudd wetlands in Sudan also forms a formidable obstacle for navigation and flow of water, to the extent that Sudan had once attempted to dig a canal (the Jonglei Canal) to bypass this stagnant mass of water. ; online at Google Books The Nile was, and still is, used to transport goods to different places along its long path; especially since winter winds in this area blow up river, the ships could travel up with no work by using the sail, and down using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the construction of the Aswan High Dam (finished in 1970) to provide hydroelectricity ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil. Cities on the Nile include Khartoum, Aswan, Luxor (Thebes), and the Giza Cairo conurbation. The first cataract, the closest to the mouth of the river, is at Aswan to the north of the Aswan Dams. The Nile north of Aswan is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as feluccas. In addition, many "floating hotel" cruise boats ply the route between Luxor and Aswan, stopping in at Edfu and Kom Ombo along the way. It used to be possible to sail on these boats all the way from Cairo to Aswan, but security concerns have shut down the northernmost portion for many years. More recently, drought during the 1980s led to widespread starvation in Ethiopia and Sudan but Egypt was protected from drought by water impounded in Lake Nasser. Beginning in the 1980s techniques of analysis using hydrology transport models have been used in the Nile to analyze water quality. Hydrology The flow rate of the Albert Nile at Mongalla is almost constant throughout the year and averages . After Mongalla, the Nile is known as the Bahr El Jebel which enters the enormous swamps of the Sudd region of Sudan. More than half of the Nile’s water is lost in this swamp to evaporation and transpiration. The average flow rate in the Bahr El Jebel at the tails of the swamps is about . From here it soon meets with the Sobat River and forms the White Nile. The Bahr al Ghazal and the Sobat River are the two most important tributaries of the White Nile in terms of drainage area and discharge. The Bahr al Ghazal's drainage basin is the largest of any of the Nile's sub-basins, measuring in size, but it contributes a relatively small amount of water, about annually, due to tremendous volumes of water being lost in the Sudd wetlands. The Sobat River, which joins the Nile a short distance below Lake No, drains about half as much land, , but contributes annually to the Nile. ; online at Google Books When in flood the Sobat carries a large amount of sediment, adding greatly to the White Nile's color. The average flow of the White Nile at Malakal, just below the Sobat River, is , the peak flow is approximately in early March and minimum flow is about in late August. The fluctuation there is due the substantial variation in the flow of the Sobat which has a minimum flow of about in August and a peak flow of over in early March. From here the White Nile flows to Khartoum where it merges with the Blue Nile to form the Nile River. Further downstream the Atbara River, the last significant Nile tributary, merges with the Nile. During the dry season (January to June) the White Nile contributes between 70% and 90% of the total discharge from the Nile. During this period of time the natural discharge of the Blue Nile can be as low as , although upstream dams regulate the flow of the river. During the dry period, there will typically be no flow from the Atbara River. The Blue Nile contributes approximately 80-90% of the Nile River discharge. The flow of the Blue Nile varies considerably over its yearly cycle and is the main contribution to the large natural variation of the Nile flow. During the wet season the peak flow of the Blue Nile will often exceed in latter August (variation by a factor of 50). Before the placement of dams on the river the yearly discharge varied by a factor of 15 at Aswan. Peak flows of over would occur during the later portions of August and early September and minimum flows of about would occur during later April and early May. The Nile basin is complex, and because of this, the discharge at any given point along the mainstem depends on many factors including weather, diversions, evaporation/evapotranspiration, and groundwater flow. History The Nile (iteru in Ancient Egyptian) was the lifeline of the ancient Egyptian civilization, with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt resting along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. The Nile has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since the Stone Age. Climate change, or perhaps overgrazing, desiccated the pastoral lands of Egypt to form the Sahara desert, possibly as long ago as 8000 BC, and the inhabitants then presumably migrated to the river, where they developed a settled agricultural economy and a more centralized society. The Eonile The present Nile is at least the fifth river that has flowed north from the Ethiopian Highlands. Satellite imagery was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. An Eonile canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents an ancestral Nile called the Eonile that flowed during the later Miocene (23–5.3 million years before the present). The Eonile transported clastic sediments to the Mediterranean, where several gas fields have been discovered within these sediments. During the late-Miocene Messinian Salinity Crisis, when the Mediterranean Sea was a closed basin and evaporated empty or nearly so, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred feet below world ocean level at Aswan and below Cairo. This huge canyon is now full of later sediment. Lake Tanganyika drained northwards into the Nile until the Virunga Volcanoes blocked its course in Rwanda. That would have made the Nile much longer, with its longest headwaters in northern Zambia. The integrated Nile There are two theories in relation to the age of the integrated Nile. The first one is that the integrated drainage of the Nile is of young age, that the Nile basin was formerly broken into series of separate basins, only the most northerly (the Proto Nile basin) feeding a river following the present course of the Nile in Egypt and in the far north of the Sudan. Said, R. (1981). The geological evolution of the River Nile. Springer-verleg. Said (1981) stresses the idea that Egypt itself supplied most of the waters of the Nile during the early part of its history. The other theory is that the drainage from Ethiopia via rivers equivalent to the Blue Nile and the Atbara/Takazze flowed to the Mediterranean via the Egyptian Nile since well back into Tertiary times. Williams, M.A.J. and Williams, F. (1980). Evolution of Nile Basin. In M.A.J. Williams and H. Faure (eds), The Sahara and the Nile. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 207–224. Salama (1987) suggested that during the Tertiary there were a series of separate closed continental basins, each basin occupying one of the major Sudanese Rift System: Mellut Rift, White Nile Rift, Blue Nile Rift, Atbara Rift and Sag El Naam Rift. The Mellut Rift Basin is nearly 12 km deep at its central part. This rift is possibly still active, with reported tectonic activity in its northern and southern boundaries. The Sudd swamps which forms the central part of the Basin is possibly still subsiding. The White Nile Rift System, although shallower than Bahr El Arab, is about 9 km deep. Geophysical exploration of the Blue Nile Rift System estimated the depth of the sediments to be 5–9 km. These basins were not interconnected except after their subsidence ceased and the rate of sediment deposition was enough to fill up the basins to such a level that would allow connection to take place. The filling up of the depressions led to the connection of the Egyptian Nile with the Sudanese Nile, which captures the Ethiopian and Equatorial head waters during the latest stages of tectonic activities of Eastern, Central and Sudanese Rift Systems. Salama, R.B. (1997). Rift Basins of Sudan. African Basins, Sedimentary Basins of the World. 3. Edited by R.C. Selley (Series Editor K.J. Hsu) p. 105–149. ElSevier, Amsterdam. The connection of the different Niles occurred during the cyclic wet periods. The River Atbara overflowed its closed basin during the wet periods which occurred about 100,000 to 120,000 years B.P. The Blue Nile was connected to the main Nile during the 70,000–80,000 years B.P. wet period. The White Nile system in Bahr El Arab and White Nile Rifts remained a closed lake until the connection of the Victoria Nile some 12,500 years B.P. Role in the founding of Egyptian civilization The Nile, an unending source of sustenance, provided a crucial role in the development of Egyptian civilization. The Nile made the land surrounding it extremely fertile when it flooded or was inundated annually. The Egyptians were able to cultivate wheat and crops around the Nile, providing food for the general population. Also, the Nile’s water attracted game such as water buffalo; and after the Persians introduced them in the 7th century BC, camels. These animals could be killed for meat, or could be captured, tamed and used for ploughing — or in the camels' case, travelling. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The Nile was also a convenient and efficient way of transportation for people and goods. The structure of Egypt’s society made it one of the most stable in history. In fact, it might easily have surpassed many modern societies. This stability was an immediate result of the Nile’s fertility. The Nile also provided flax for trade. Wheat was also traded, a crucial crop in the Middle East where famine was very common. This trading system secured the diplomatic relationship Egypt had with other countries, and often contributed to Egypt's economic stability. Also, the Nile provided the resources such as food or money, to quickly and efficiently raise an army for offensive or defensive roles. The Nile played a major role in politics and social life. The pharaoh would supposedly flood the Nile, and in return for the life-giving water and crops, the peasants would cultivate the fertile soil and send a portion of the resources they had reaped to the Pharaoh. He or she would in turn use it for the well-being of Egyptian society. The Nile was a source of spiritual dimension. The Nile was so significant to the lifestyle of the Egyptians, that they created a god dedicated to the welfare of the Nile’s annual inundation. The god’s name was Hapy, and both he and the pharaoh were thought to control the flooding of the Nile River. Also, the Nile was considered as a causeway from life to death and afterlife. The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth, and the west was considered the place of death, as the god Ra, the sun, underwent birth, death, and resurrection each time he crossed the sky. Thus, all tombs were located west of the Nile, because the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife, they must be buried on the side that symbolized death. The Greek historian, Herodotus, wrote that ‘Egypt was the gift of the Nile’, and in a sense that is correct. Without the waters of the Nile River for irrigation, Egyptian civilization would probably have been short-lived. The Nile provided the elements that make a vigorous civilization, and contributed much to its lasting three thousand years. That far-reaching trade has been carried on along the Nile since ancient times can be seen from the Ishango bone, possibly the earliest known indication of Ancient Egyptian multiplication, which was discovered along the headwaters of the Nile River (near Lake Edward, in northeastern Congo) and was carbon-dated to 20,000 BC. The search for the source of the Nile Despite the attempts of the Greeks and Romans (who were unable to penetrate the Sudd), the upper reaches of the Nile remained largely unknown. Various expeditions had failed to determine the river's source, thus yielding classical Hellenistic and Roman representations of the river as a male god with his face and head obscured in drapery. Agatharcides records that in the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, a military expedition had penetrated far enough along the course of the Blue Nile to determine that the summer floods were caused by heavy seasonal rainstorms in the Ethiopian highlands, but no European in antiquity is known to have reached Lake Tana. Europeans learned little new information about the origins of the Nile until the 15th and 16th centuries, when travelers to Ethiopia visited not only Lake Tana, but the source of the Blue Nile in the mountains south of the lake. Although James Bruce claimed to have been the first European to have visited the headwaters (Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, 1790), modern writers with better knowledge give the credit to the Jesuit Pedro Páez. Páez’ account of the source of the Nile (History of Ethiopia c. 1622) was not published in full until the early 20th century. The work is a long and vivid account of Ethiopia. The account is however featured in several contemporary works, including Balthazar Telles (Historia geral da Ethiopia a Alta, 1660), Athanasius Kircher (Mundus Subterraneus, 1664) and by Johann Michael Vansleb (The Present State of Egypt, 1678). Europeans had been resident in the country since the late 15th century, and it is entirely possible one of them had visited the headwaters even earlier but was unable to send a report of his discoveries out of Ethiopia. Jerónimo Lobo also describes the source of the Blue Nile, visiting shortly after Pedro Páez. His account is likewise utilized by Balthazar Telles. The White Nile was even less understood, and the ancients mistakenly believed that the Niger River represented the upper reaches of the White Nile; for example, Pliny the Elder wrote that the Nile had its origins "in a mountain of lower Mauretania", flowed above ground for "many days" distance, then went underground, reappeared as a large lake in the territories of the Masaesyli, then sank again below the desert to flow underground "for a distance of 20 days' journey till it reaches the nearest Ethiopians." Natural History, 5.10 A merchant named Diogenes reported the Nile’s water attracted game such as water buffalo; and after the Persians introduced them in the 7th century BC, camels. Lake Victoria was first sighted by Europeans in 1858 when the British explorer John Hanning Speke reached its southern shore whilst on his journey with Richard Francis Burton to explore central Africa and locate the great Lakes. Believing he had found the source of the Nile on seeing this "vast expanse of open water" for the first time, Speke named the lake after the then Queen of the United Kingdom. Burton, who had been recovering from illness at the time and resting further south on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, was outraged that Speke claimed to have proved his discovery to have been the true source of the Nile when Burton regarded this as still unsettled. A very public quarrel ensued, which not only sparked a great deal of intense debate within the scientific community of the day, but much interest by other explorers keen to either confirm or refute Speke's discovery. The well known British explorer and missionary David Livingstone failed in his attempt to verify Speke's discovery, instead pushing too far west and entering the Congo River system instead. It was ultimately the Welsh-American explorer Henry Morton Stanley who confirmed the truth of Speke's discovery, circumnavigating Lake Victoria and reporting the great outflow at Ripon Falls on the Lake's northern shore. European involvement in Egypt goes back to the time of Napoleon. Laird shipyard of Liverpool sent an iron steamer to the Nile in the 1830s. With the completion of the Suez Canal, and the British takeover of Egypt in the1870s, more British river steamers were sure to follow. The Nile is the natural navigation channel in the area. Access to Khartoum and Sudan was via steamer. The Siege of Khartoum was ameliorated with steamers. Purpose built sternwheelers were shipped from England and steamed up the river to re-take the city. After this regular steam navigation came. With British Forces in Egypt in the First World War and the inter war years, river steamers provided both security and sight seeing to the pyramids and Luxor. Agatha Christie stories indicate the penetration of Nile steamer into the public consciousness. Steam navigation remained integral to the two countries as late as 1962—Sudan steamer traffic was the lifeline as few railways or roads were built. Most paddle steamers have been retired to shorefront service, but modern diesel tourist boats remain on the river. Modern achievements The White Nile Expedition, led by South African national Hendri Coetzee, became the first to navigate the Nile's entire length. The expedition took off from the source of the Nile in Uganda on January 17, 2004 and arrived safely at the Mediterranean in Rosetta, 4 months and 2 weeks later. National Geographic released a feature film about the expedition towards in late 2005 entitled The Longest River. On April 28, 2004, geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown became the first people to navigate the Blue Nile, from Lake Tana in Ethiopia to the beaches of Alexandria on the Mediterranean. Though their expedition included a number of others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to remain on the expedition for the entire journey. They chronicled their adventure with an IMAX camera and two handheld video cams, sharing their story in the IMAX film "Mystery of the Nile", and in a book of the same title. The team was forced to use outboard motors for most of their journey, and it was not until January 29, 2005 when Canadian Les Jickling and New Zealander Mark Tanner reached the Mediterranean Sea, that the river had been paddled for the first time under human power. A team led by South Africans Peter Meredith and Hendri Coetzee on 30 April 2005, became the first to navigate the most remote headstream, the remote source of the Nile, the Akagera river, which starts as the Rukarara in Nyungwe forest in Rwanda. On March 31, 2006, three explorers from Britain and New Zealand lead by Neil McGrigor claimed to have been the first to travel the river from its mouth to a new "true source" deep in Rwanda's Nyungwe rainforest. News item on Expeditions official website (via Archive.org cache ) . Crossings I This is a list of crossings from Khartoum to the Mediterranean: Aswan Bridge, Aswan Luxor Bridge, Luxor Suhag Bridge, Suhag 1st Ring Road Bridge (Moneeb Crossing), Cairo Abbas Bridge, Cairo University Bridge, Cairo Qasr El Nile Bridge, Cairo 6th of October Bridge, Cairo Abu El Ela Bridge, Cairo (Removed) New Abu El Ela Bridge, Cairo Imbama Bridge, Cairo Rod Elfarag Bridge, Cairo 2nd Ring Road Bridge, Cairo Crossings II This is a list of crossings from Rwanda to Khartoum: Kiyira Bridge, Jinja, Uganda Karuma Bridge, Karuma, Uganda Images of the Nile Media See also Aswan Dam Hydropolitics in the Nile Basin Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) Nile Delta Orders of magnitude (length) River cruise References Annotated bibliography An annotated bibliography of the key written documents for the western exploration of the Nile. 1600’s: Historia da Ethiopia Pero Pais or Pedro Paez Portugal, 1620 A Jesuit missionary who was sent from Goa to Ethiopia in 1589 and remained in the area until his death in 1622. Credited with being the first European to view the source of the Blue Nile which he describes in this volume. Voyage historique d'Abissinie Girolamo Lobo or Jerónimo Lobo Piero Matini, Firenze; 1693 One of the most important and earliest sources on Ethiopia and the Nile. Jerónimo Lobo (1595-1687), a Jesuit priest, stayed in Ethiopia, mostly in Tigre, for 9 years and travelled to Lake Tana and the Blue Nile, reaching the province of Damot. When the Jesuits were expelled from the country, he too had to leave and did so via Massaua and Suakin. ‘He was the best expert on Ethiopian matters. After Pais, Lobo is the second European to describe the sources of the Blue Nile and he did so exacter than Bruce’ (transl. from Henze) 1700’s: Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile in the Years – 1768, 1770, 1771, 1772, and 1773 James Bruce of Kinnaird J. Ruthven for G.GJ. and J. Robinson et al., Edinburgh, 1790 (5 Volumes) With time on his hands and at the urging of a friend, Bruce composed this account of his travels on the African continent, including comments on the history and religion of Egypt, an account of Indian trade, a history of Abyssinia, and other material. Although Bruce would not be confused with "a great scholar or a judicious critic., few books of equal compass are equally entertaining; and few such monuments exist of the energy and enterprise of a single traveller" (DNB). "The result of his travels was a very great enrichment of the knowledge of geography and ethnography" (Cox II, p. 389.) Bruce was one of the earliest westerners to search for the source of the Nile. In November of 1770 he reached the source of the Blue Nile, and though he acknowledged that the White Nile was the larger stream, he claimed that the Blue Nile was the Nile of the ancients and that he was thus the discoverer of its source. The account of his travels was written twelve years after his journey and without reference to his journals, which gave critics grounds for disbelief, but the substantial accuracy of the book has since been amply demonstrated 1800 - 1850: Egypt And Mohammed Ali, Or Travels In The Valley of The Nile James Augustus St. John Longman, London, 1834 St. John traveled extensively in Egypt and Nubia in 1832-33, mainly on foot. He gives a very interesting picture of Egyptian life and politics under Mohammed Ali, a large part of volume II deals with the Egyptian campaign in Syria. Travels in Ethiopia Above the Second Cateract of the Nile; Exhibiting the State of That Country and Its Various Inhabitants Under the Dominion of Mohammed Ali; and Illustrating the Antiquities, arts, and History of the Ancient Kingdom of Meroe G.A.Hoskins Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longman, London; 1835 Modern Egypt and Thebes: Being a Description of Egypt; Including Information Required for Travellers in That Country Sir Gardner Wilkinson John Murray, London, 1843 The first known English travelers guide to the Lower Nile Basin 1850 - 1900: Lake Regions of Central Equatorial Africa, with Notices of The Lunar Mountains and the Sources of the White Nile; being The Results of an Expedition Undertaken under the Patronage of Her Majesty's Government and the Royal Geographical Society of London, In the Years 1857-1859 Sir Richard Burton W. Clowes , London; 1860 Sir Richard Burton's presentation of his expedition with John Speke. Ultimately, Burton's view of the sources of the Nile failed and Speke's prevailed Travels, researches, and missionary labours, during eighteen years' residence in eastern Africa. Together with journeys to Jagga, Usambara, Ukambani, Shoa, Abessinia, and Khartum; and a coasting voyage from Mombaz to Cape Delgado. With an appendix respecting the snow-capped mountains of eastern Africa; the sources of the Nile; the languages and literature of Abessinia And eastern Africa, etc.etc. Rev Dr. J. Krapf Trubner and Co, London; 1860 Tickner & Fields, Boston; 1860 Krapf went to East Africa in the service of the English Church Missionary Society, arriving at Mombasa, Kenya in 1844 and staying in East Africa until 1853. While stationed there he was the first to report the existence of Lake Baringo and a sighting of the snow-clad Kilimanjaro. Krapf, during his travels, collected information from the Arab traders operating inland from the coast. From the traders Krapf and his companions learned of great lakes and snow-capped mountains, which Krapf claimed to have seen for himself, much to the ridicule of English explorers who could not believe the idea of snow on the equator. However, Krapf was correct and had seen Mounts Kilimanjaro and Kenya, the first European to do so. Egypt, Soudan and Central Africa: With Explorations From Khartoum on the White Nile to the Regions of the Equator, Being Sketches from Sixteen Years' Travel John Petherick William Blackwood, Edinburgh; 1861 Petherick was a well known Welsh traveler in East Central Africa where he had adopted the profession of mining engineer. This work describes sixteen years of his travel throughout Africa. In 1845 he entered the service of Mehemet Ali, and was employed in examining Upper Egypt, Nubia, the Red Sea coast and Kordofan in an unsuccessful search for coal. In 1848 he left the Egyptian service and established himself at El Obeid as a trader and was, at the same time made British Consul for the Sudan. In 1853 he removed to Khartoum and became an ivory trader. He traveled extensively in the Bahr-el-Ghazal region, then almost unknown, exploring the Jur, Yalo and other affluents of the Ghazal and in 1858 he penetrated the Niam-Niam country. Petherick's additions to the knowledge of natural history were considerable, being responsible for the discovery of a number of new species. In 1859 he returned to England where he became acquainted with John Speke, then arranging for an expedition to discover the source of the Nile. While in England, Petherick married and published this account of his travels. He got the idea to join Speke in his travels, and in this volume is an actual subscription and list of subscribers to raise money to send Petherick to join Speke. His subsequent adventures as a consul in Africa were published in a later work Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile John Hanning Speke Blackwood, Edinburgh; 1863 Harper & Brothers, New York; 1864 Speke had previously made an expedition with Sir Richard Burton under the auspices of the Indian government, on which Speke was convinced that he had discovered the source of the Nile. Burton, however, disagreed and ridiculed Speke's account. Speke set off on another expedition, recounted here, in the company of Captain Grant. During the course of this expedition he not only produced further evidence for his discoveries but also met up with Sir Samuel Baker and provided him with essential information which helped Baker in his discovery of the Albert Nyanza. The importance of Speke's discoveries can hardly be overestimated. In discovering the source reservoir of the Nile he succeeded in solving the problem of all ages; he and Grant were the first Europeans to cross Equatorial Eastern Africa and gained for the world a knowledge of about of a portion of Eastern Africa previously totally unknown External links A Fact File about the Nile River Comparison between the Nile and Amazon Rivers Photographs of the Nile in Uganda Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law See Nile River. Peace Palace Libray Information and a map of the Nile's watershed Geology and History of the Nile Map of the Nile River basin at Water Resources eAtlas Facts About The Nile River Nile Delta from Space Essay: The Inscrutable Nile at the Beginning of the New Millennium Nile paleogeography Link to Google Maps to see the Nile Article on the Eonile Canyon: Vast "Grand Canyon" Lurks 8200 feet BENEATH Cairo, Egypt (accessed October 21, 2006) PowerPoint slideshow with lots of hydrology information BBC: Amazon river 'longer than Nile' Formation of the Nile in Ancient Egypt be-x-old:Ніл	Nile \|@lemmatized nile:206 ancient:15 egyptian:23 iteru:3 ḥ:2 pī:2 coptic:2 piaro:2 phiaro:2 major:5 north:14 flow:40 river:65 africa:17 generally:1 regard:2 long:10 world:5 encarta:1 accessed:3 october:4 two:9 tributary:9 white:25 blue:28 latter:2 source:31 water:28 fertile:5 soil:4 former:2 longer:2 rise:1 great:14 lakes:1 region:7 central:8 distant:2 southern:6 rwanda:6 tanzania:2 lake:35 victoria:8 uganda:7 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6,067	Mario_Kart	is a series of go-kart-style racing video games developed by Nintendo as a spin-offs from its Mario series. To date, there have been eight Mario Kart games; four for home consoles, two for portable consoles, and two arcade games. The series debuted in 1992 with critical and commercial success. Mario Kart Wii, the eighth and latest installment released in April 2008, has sold over 13 million units worldwide and is the fourth-best-selling game for the Wii. Overall, the Mario Kart series has sold over 52 million copies. Series Main series Super Mario Kart – (Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), 1992) Mario Kart 64 – (Nintendo 64 (N64), 1996). Also available on Virtual Console, as of 2007. Mario Kart: Super Circuit – (Game Boy Advance (GBA), 2001) Mario Kart: Double Dash!! – (Nintendo GameCube (GCN), 2003) Mario Kart DS – (Nintendo DS, 2005) Mario Kart Wii – (Wii, 2008) Arcade series Mario Kart Arcade GP – (Arcade, 2005). Mario Kart Arcade GP 2 – (Arcade, 2007). Gameplay In Mario Kart, players choose from characters from the Mario series of video games and race vehicles around a variety of tracks to win trophies. In the first seven games, players race in go-karts; in Mario Kart Wii, motorbikes are also featured. All games have three engine classes that players can choose to race in: 50cc, 100cc and 150cc. Mario Kart DS also has a fourth engine class called "Mirror 150cc". Players can obtain items by driving through item boxes or coins, which can be used for either defense, offense or powering up the engine for a short amount of time (boost). Each Mario Kart game features several gameplay modes, which can be played in both single-player and multiplayer. Gameplay modes Grand Prix In Grand Prix, the characters compete against each other in a themed cup. Most games in the series have consisted of four cups: Mushroom Cup, Flower Cup, Star Cup and Special Cup, each have new race tracks. In Mario Kart DS and Mario Kart Wii, there are an extra four cups that consist of tracks from previous Mario Kart games, called the Shell Cup, Banana Cup, Leaf Cup, and Lightning Cup. On Mario Kart DS and Mario Kart Wii, the first four cups are the Mushroom Cup, the Shell Cup, the Flower Cup and the Banana Cup. In order to unlock the Leaf cup, the Shell and Banana cups must be completed and by winning the Leaf cup, the Lightning cup becomes playable. The same system applies to the Star (same conditions as Leaf) and Special (Lightning). The player wins the cup by receiving the most points throughout the Grand Prix. Points are allocated based on the position the player finishes in. Mario Kart Super Circuit, Mario Kart DS and Mario Kart Wii also feature a rating system, which, from lowest to highest, is E, D, C, B, A, , * and **. The player's rating is based on how well he or she played in a cup, such as performing mini-turbos, avoiding items, etc.. In Super Mario Kart and Mario Kart Super Circuit, while racing on a track players are to pick up coins. Once ten or more coins have been obtained a player's car can reach maximum speed. However, if a kart is hit by any items, bumps into another car, or falls of the track, coins will be lost. These coins can also determine a player's rating and unlock other tracks. Time Trial In Time Trial or Time Attack, the goal is to achieve the fastest time in the chosen track. In some series, players have been given up to three mushrooms (speed boosts) which they can use any time during the race. Once a record is set, the game saves a "ghost," a replay of the set record, to compete against. In Mario Kart 64, Mario Kart: Double Dash!!, Mario Kart DS, and Mario Kart Wii, the developers put in their own "Staff Ghosts" for the player to race against. They must be unlocked by achieving a certain time which differs on each track. In Mario Kart Super Circuit and Mario Kart DS, it is also possible to download a ghost from friends. In Mario Kart DS, two ghosts (the player's own and a friend's) can be saved. In Mario Kart Wii, ghosts can be downloaded from across the world via Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. There are two sets of staff Ghosts in-game--one available at the start and a faster ghost that is unlocked after the player achieves a certain time in the Time Trial or Time Attack. VS In VS. mode, multiple players can compete against each other in a race. The one who crosses the finish line first wins. Depending on the platform, up to eight players can play simultaneously. Racing against CPU opponents was for the first time an available option in Mario Kart DS. Battle In Mario Kart 64s Battle Mode, each player is assigned a set of balloons that can be detached. The aim of battle mode is to detach the opponent's balloons by attacking him or her with items, or by crashing into their kart with adequate force. Once all balloons are detached, the player transforms into a mobile bomb, which has the potential to kamikaze attack, or use remaining attack weapons, but can no longer win the game or pick up more items. In Mario Kart 64, battle mode is acclaimed by fans for its randomization of item acquisition, as opposed to the item welfare system in race mode (i.e. a player in first place will not receive the most devastating weapons such as lightning or triple red shells, whereas these items are commonly acquired by players in last place). In Mario Kart DSand Mario Kart Wii, another type of Battle Mode games involves acquiring more coins (or shines in Mario Kart DS) than an opponent. There have been several types of Battle Mode games, and they can be played in teams or "free for all" mode. Some items do not appear in Battle Mode because of the sheer advantage they give their users. Mushrooms were removed before the stealing of balloons was introduced in Mario Kart: Double Dash!!. Mario Kart DS and Mario Kart Wii are the first two games where players can battle against computer-controlled opponents. Missions Mission mode is only present in Mario Kart DS and includes several levels, each of which contain nine challenges (one of which is a boss battle). These challenges range include collecting X number of coins, driving through X number of gates, destroying X number of enemies, etc. The player is given a grade upon completing a mission, with E being the lowest and three stars being the highest (same as race ratings in Grand Prix mode). There is only one mission level to start with, but by beating each mission level's boss players can reach level six, and, by achieving a rank of at least one star in all missions, level seven. It's noticeable that you can't choose your own character in missions. A similar system are the Challenges in Mario Kart Wii, which are delivered via Wi-Fi Connection and have 2 challenges per month, with the addition of online rankings. Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection This mode was introduced in Mario Kart DS. Abbreviated as WFC, this mode allows players to use Nintendo's online gaming service to match up against other players elsewhere in the world, nationally, or with comparable skill levels. Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection Mode also includes a "friends roster" which allows a player to play with a group of people he or she knows. Wi-Fi gameplay follows the same scoring as multiplayer VS matches, except with a limit of four players instead of eight. Also, only half of the courses available in VS matches are available in Wi-Fi. Mario Kart Wii also uses the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, in which up to twelve people can race online via Wi-Fi and all courses are available. Online play in both games uses a voting system to choose the next level to be played. Reception Mario Kart has received positive reviews throughout the series. The aggregate review scores for each series is listed below. +Aggregate review scoresGameMCGR Super Mario Kart 95% Mario Kart 64 83 87% Mario Kart: Super Circuit 93 92% Mario Kart: Double Dash‼87 87% Mario Kart DS91% Mario Kart Wii 82 82% Sales Mario Kart has been very successful with the public, selling over 52 million copies worldwide: Year Game Console Units sold (Millions) Ranking (Console) 1992 Super Mario Kart SNES 8 2nd 1996 Mario Kart 64 N64 8.47 2nd 2001 Mario Kart: Super Circuit GBA 3.768 6th 2003 Mario Kart: Double Dash‼ GCN 4.876 3rd 2005 Mario Kart DS DS 13.79 5th 2008 Mario Kart Wii Wii 13.6 4th Total52.504 *Fourth overall, third not including console pack in game, second not including pack in games, first not including Wii series games. See List of best-selling Wii video games Merchandise Mario Kart has also had a range of merchandise released. This includes a Scalextric style Mario Kart DS Figure-8-Circuit. It came with Mario and Donkey Kong figures, while a Wario and a Luigi are available separately. A line of remote-controlled Mario Karts are available in stores. Each kart has a Game Boy Advance-shaped controller, and features forward driving and rotates when put in reverse, instead of steering. The current line-up of karts are Mario, Donkey Kong and Yoshi. There are three large karts that depict the same trio. These karts are controlled by a Nintendo GameCube controller shape. Japanese figurines of Mario, Luigi, Peach, Yoshi, Wario, Donkey Kong, and Bowser exist. For Mario Kart 64, figures of Mario, Luigi, Wario, Bowser, Donkey Kong, and Yoshi were made by Toybiz. There are also pull-back karts of Mario, Luigi, Peach, Bowser, DK, Yoshi, and Wario as depicted in their Mario Kart DS karts. They have pull back karts for Mario Kart Wii and they consist of Daisy, Bowser, Mario, Luigi, Peach, Mario, Toad, DK, Wario, Baby Mario, Baby Peach, Waluigi, Mario on a bike, and Peach on a bike. They have phone straps of Baby Mario, Baby Luigi, Baby Peach, Baby Daisy, Toad and Toadette in standard bikes or the cheep charger. They have plain figures of all the characters from Mario Kart DS in there standard karts. Awards Because of the tremendous success of the Mario Kart franchise, Guinness World Records awarded the series with 5 world records in the Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008. These awards include, "First Console Kart Racing Game", "Best Selling Handheld Racing Game", and a mention of Mario Kart Arcade GP as the only Mario Kart game to feature guest appearances by non-Nintendo characters, with Pac-Man, Blinky, and Ms. Pac-Man available as playable characters. The Mario Kart, world Championship was held in Sydney Australia in 2005, where DaVCo out-raced Shae Ryan to win the title. Shae was declared runner up in this event and DaVCo was crowned World Champion. In Other Media In Nintendogs, players can find a remote-controlled Kart during walks. There are three different karts, the Mario Kart, the Bowser Kart, and the Peach Kart. Each version of Nintendogs has only one type of kart. Several Mario Kart-related items appear in the Super Smash Bros. series. In Super Smash Bros. Melee, a trophy of a kart from the Mario Kart series is available. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl, a new item, Lightning, which is from Mario Kart, was introduced and one of the stages is themed after the series' leading stage, Mario Circuit, with a look based on Figure-8 Circuit from Mario Kart DS. It features arranged versions of the music that accompanies Super Mario Karts Mario Circuit, Mario Kart 64s Luigi Raceway, Mario Kart DSs Waluigi Pinball, and the original score of Mario Kart: Double Dash's Rainbow Road. Smash Bros. DOJO!! The Mario Kart 64 version of the Rainbow Road track makes a cameo in F-Zero X, also for the Nintendo 64. The stage is similar, only missing rails on many straightaways. The Special N64 Disk Drive also allowed the F-Zero X Expansion, which added the music that accompanies Mario Kart 64s Rainbow Road. References External links Official Mario Kart website Mario Kart DS official UK Microsite Mario Kart at Nintendo of Japan BTG RADIO #13 Mario Kart Podcast Mario Kart Central Mario Kart Wiki	Mario_Kart \|@lemmatized series:17 go:2 kart:96 style:2 race:15 video:3 game:28 develop:1 nintendo:14 spin:1 offs:1 mario:102 date:1 eight:3 four:5 home:1 console:7 two:5 portable:1 arcade:7 debut:1 critical:1 commercial:1 success:2 wii:20 eighth:1 late:1 installment:1 release:2 april:1 sell:5 million:4 unit:2 worldwide:2 fourth:3 best:3 selling:2 overall:2 copy:2 main:1 super:15 entertainment:1 system:6 snes:2 also:13 available:10 virtual:1 circuit:10 boy:2 advance:2 gba:2 double:6 dash:6 gamecube:2 gcn:2 gp:3 gameplay:4 player:29 choose:4 character:6 vehicle:1 around:1 variety:1 track:9 win:6 trophy:2 first:8 seven:2 karts:11 motorbike:1 feature:6 three:5 engine:3 class:2 call:2 mirror:1 obtain:2 item:12 drive:3 box:1 coin:7 use:6 either:1 defense:1 offense:1 power:1 short:1 amount:1 time:11 boost:2 several:4 mode:16 play:7 single:1 multiplayer:2 grand:4 prix:4 compete:3 themed:1 cup:22 consist:3 mushroom:4 flower:2 star:4 special:3 new:2 extra:1 previous:1 shell:4 banana:3 leaf:4 lightning:5 order:1 unlock:3 must:2 complete:2 become:1 playable:2 applies:1 condition:1 receive:3 point:2 throughout:2 allocate:1 base:3 position:1 finish:2 rating:4 low:2 high:2 e:3 c:1 b:1 well:1 perform:1 mini:1 turbos:1 avoid:1 etc:2 pick:2 ten:1 car:2 reach:2 maximum:1 speed:2 however:1 hit:1 bump:1 another:2 fall:1 lose:1 determine:1 trial:3 attack:5 goal:1 achieve:4 fast:2 chosen:1 give:3 record:5 set:4 save:2 ghost:7 replay:1 developer:1 put:2 staff:2 certain:2 differs:1 possible:1 download:2 friend:3 across:1 world:7 via:3 wi:8 fi:8 connection:5 one:7 start:2 unlocked:1 v:4 multiple:1 cross:1 line:3 depend:1 platform:1 simultaneously:1 cpu:1 opponent:4 option:1 battle:9 assign:1 balloon:4 detach:3 aim:1 crash:1 adequate:1 force:1 transform:1 mobile:1 bomb:1 potential:1 kamikaze:1 remain:1 weapon:2 longer:1 acclaim:1 fan:1 randomization:1 acquisition:1 oppose:1 welfare:1 place:2 devastating:1 triple:1 red:1 whereas:1 commonly:1 acquire:2 last:1 dsand:1 type:3 involve:1 shine:1 team:1 free:1 appear:2 sheer:1 advantage:1 user:1 remove:1 stealing:1 introduce:3 computer:1 controlled:2 mission:7 present:1 include:8 level:7 contain:1 nine:1 challenge:4 boss:1 range:2 collect:1 x:5 number:3 gate:1 destroy:1 enemy:1 grade:1 upon:1 beat:1 bos:1 six:1 rank:1 least:1 noticeable:1 similar:2 deliver:1 per:1 month:1 addition:1 online:4 ranking:2 abbreviate:1 wfc:1 allow:3 service:1 match:3 elsewhere:1 nationally:1 comparable:1 skill:1 roster:1 group:1 people:2 know:1 follow:1 scoring:1 except:1 limit:1 instead:2 half:1 course:2 twelve:1 voting:1 next:1 reception:1 positive:1 review:3 aggregate:2 score:2 list:2 scoresgamemcgr:1 sale:1 successful:1 public:1 year:1 ds:4 third:1 pack:2 second:1 see:1 merchandise:2 scalextric:1 figure:5 come:1 donkey:4 kong:4 wario:5 luigi:7 separately:1 remote:2 control:2 store:1 shaped:1 controller:2 forward:1 driving:1 rotate:1 reverse:1 steer:1 current:1 yoshi:4 large:1 depict:2 trio:1 shape:1 japanese:1 figurine:1 peach:7 bowser:5 exist:1 make:2 toybiz:1 pull:2 back:2 dk:2 daisy:2 toad:2 baby:6 waluigi:2 bike:3 phone:1 strap:1 toadette:1 standard:2 cheep:1 charger:1 plain:1 award:3 tremendous:1 franchise:1 guinness:2 gamer:1 edition:1 handheld:1 mention:1 guest:1 appearance:1 non:1 pac:2 man:2 blinky:1 championship:1 hold:1 sydney:1 australia:1 davco:2 raced:1 shae:2 ryan:1 title:1 declare:1 runner:1 event:1 crown:1 champion:1 medium:1 nintendogs:2 find:1 walk:1 different:1 version:3 related:1 smash:4 bros:4 melee:1 brawl:1 stage:3 theme:1 leading:1 look:1 arranged:1 music:2 accompany:2 raceway:1 pinball:1 original:1 rainbow:3 road:3 dojo:1 cameo:1 f:2 zero:2 miss:1 rail:1 many:1 straightaway:1 disk:1 expansion:1 add:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 website:1 uk:1 microsite:1 japan:1 btg:1 radio:1 podcast:1 central:1 wiki:1 \|@bigram spin_offs:1 mario_kart:86 kart_wii:15 best_selling:2 super_mario:5 kart_super:7 nintendo_entertainment:1 nintendo_gamecube:2 karts_mario:6 grand_prix:4 kart_mario:12 nintendo_wi:4 wi_fi:8 donkey_kong:4 playable_character:1 smash_bros:4 external_link:1
6,068	Lithium	Lithium () is the chemical element with atomic number 3, and is represented by the symbol Li. It is a soft alkali metal with a silver-white colour. Under standard conditions, it is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive, corroding quickly in moist air to form a black tarnish. For this reason, lithium metal is typically stored under the cover of oil. When cut open, lithium exhibits a metallic lustre, but contact with oxygen quickly turns it back to a dull silvery grey color. Lithium is also highly flammable. According to theory, lithium was one of the very few elements synthesized in the Big Bang; its abundance is now vastly less than that predicted by theory Crucible of creation; What really happened in the first few minutes after the big bang? Matthew Chalmers, 5 July 2008, New Scientist, 28-31, volume 199; issue 2663 ; the processes by which new lithium is created and destroyed, and the true value of its abundance [http://www.universetoday.com/2006/08/16/why-old-stars-seem-to-lack-lithium/ Why Old Stars Seem to Lack Lithium, 16th Aug 2006, Fraser Cain continue to be active matters of study in astronomy. Lithium Creation In Giant Stars, I.-Juliana Sackmann (Caltech), and Arnold I. Boothroyd (CITA), Proc. of IAU General Assembly "Lithium Joint Discussion 11", ed. F. Spite and R. Pallavicini, Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana, Vol. 66, 403-412 (1995) The Milky Way Galaxy, Leonid S. Marochnik, Anwar Shukurov, Igor Yastrzhembsky, Translated by Anwar Shukurov, Igor Yastrzhembsky, Contributor Anwar Shukurov, Igor Yastrzhembsky, Published by Taylor & Francis, 1996 , ISBN 2881249310, 9782881249310, p42-46 Primordial Lithium Abundance as a Stringent Constraint on the Baryonic Content of the Universe, Takeru Ken Suzuki et al 2000 Astrophysics journal 540 99-103 Though very light in atomic weight lithium is less common in the universe than any of the first 20 elements due to its low nuclear binding energy. Due to its high reactivity it only appears naturally on Earth in the form of compounds. Lithium occurs in a number of pegmatitic minerals, but is also commonly obtained from brines and clays; on a commercial scale, lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride. Trace amounts of lithium are present in the oceans and in some organisms, though the element serves no apparent biological function in humans. Nevertheless, the neurological effect of the lithium ion Li+ makes some lithium salts useful as a class of mood stabilizing drugs. Lithium and its compounds have several other commercial applications, including heat-resistant glass and ceramics, high strength-to-weight alloys used in aircraft, and lithium batteries. Lithium also has important links to nuclear physics: the splitting of lithium atoms was the first man-made form of a nuclear reaction, and lithium deuteride serves as the fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons. History and etymology Petalite (lithium aluminium silicate) was first discovered in 1800 by the Luso-Brazilian scientist José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva, who discovered the mineral in a Swedish iron mine on the island of Utö. However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then a trainee in the laboratory of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, discovered the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore. The element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less water soluble and had a larger capacity to neutralize acid. Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "lithos", from the Greek λιθoς (lithos, "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a mineral, as opposed to sodium and potassium which had been discovered in plant tissue; its name would later be standardized as "lithium". Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the mineral ores spodumene and lepidolite. In 1818, Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color in flame. However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the element from its salts. The element was not isolated until 1821, when William Thomas Brande performed electrolysis on lithium oxide, a process which had previously been employed by Sir Humphry Davy to isolate potassium and sodium. Brande also described pure salts of lithium, such as the chloride, and performed an estimate of its atomic weight. In 1855, Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen produced large quantities of the metal by electrolysis of lithium chloride. Commercial production of lithium metal began in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG through the electrolysis of a molten mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride. Properties Lithium ingots with a thin layer of black oxide tarnish Lithium pellets (covered in white lithium hydroxide) Like other alkali metals, lithium has a single weakly held valence electron which it will readily lose to form a cation (low ionisation energy); also indicated by the element's low electronegativity. As a result, lithium is easily deformed, highly reactive, and has a lower melting and boiling points than most metals. The properties and chemistry of Lithium are modified further due to its small atomic radius or ionic radius. Lithium is the least electropositive of the alkali group. Lithium is soft enough to be cut with a knife with some difficulty; it is the hardest of the alkali metals. The fresh metal has a silvery-white color which remains untarnished only in dry air. Lithium has about half the density of water, similar to pine, and lithium sticks have a heft more similar to wooden dowels than typically encountered metals. Lithium floats highly in hydrocarbons and thus laboratory stock lithium sticks are typically mechanically held under the protective liquid by the container lid. Lithium possesses a low coefficient of thermal expansion and the highest specific heat capacity of any solid element. Lithium has also been found to be superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure Superconductivity in lithium below 0.4 millikelvin at ambient pressure Nature 447, 187-189 (10 May 2007), doi:10.1038/nature05820; Accepted 26 March 2007, Juha Tuoriniemi, Kirsi Juntunen-Nurmilaukas, Johanna Uusvuori, Elias Pentti, Anssi Salmela, Alexander Sebedash and at higher temperatures (more than 9 Kelvin) at very high pressures (over 200,000 atmospheres) Superconductivity in Dense Lithium, Science 8 November 2002, Vol. 298. no. 5596, pp. 1213 - 1215, Viktor V. Struzhkin, Mikhail I. Eremets, Wei Gan, Ho-kwang Mao, Russell J. Hemley At cryogenic temperatures, lithium, like sodium, undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations. At 4.2K it has a Rhombohedral (with a 9 layer repeat spacing) , at higher temperatures it transforms to Face-centered cubic and then Body-centered cubic. At liquid helium temperatures (4 K) the rhombohedral structure is the most prevalent Chemistry In moist air, lithium metal rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·H2O), lithium nitride (Li3N) and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3, the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2). When placed over a flame, lithium gives off a striking crimson color, but when it burns strongly, the flame becomes a brilliant white. Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapours. It is the only metal that reacts with nitrogen at room temperature. Lithium metal is flammable and potentially explosive when exposed to air and especially water, though it is far less dangerous than other alkali metals in this regard. The lithium-water reaction at normal temperatures is brisk but not violent, though the hydrogen produced can ignite. Like all alkali metals Lithium fires are difficult to extinguish, requiring dry powder fire extinguishers, specifically Class D type. (See Fire_extinguisher#Types_of_extinguishing_agents) Lithium compounds Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium, an element of similar atomic and ionic radius. Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N2, the formation of an oxide when burnt in O2, salts with similar solubilities, and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides. Isotopes Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes 6Li and 7Li, the latter being the more abundant (92.5% natural abundance). Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon compared to the next lighter and heavier elements Helium and Beryllium, which means that alone among stable light elements, Lithium can produce net energy through nuclear fission. Seven radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 8Li with a half-life of 838 ms and 9Li with a half-life of 178.3 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is 4Li which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.58043x10-23 s. 7Li is one of the primordial elements or, more properly, primordial isotopes, produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis. A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars, but are thought to be burned even faster as produced. Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes, including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism, and ion exchange. Lithium ion substitutes for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where 6Li is preferred to 7Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a nuclear halo. Natural occurrence Lithium is about as common as chlorine in the Earth's upper continental crust, on a per-atom basis. The stable isotopes lithium-6 and lithium-7 were created in the Big Bang, but the amounts are unclear. There is general agreement that they were larger than the cosmos contains today. Because of the method by which elements are built up by fusion in stars, there is a general trend in the cosmos that the lighter elements are more common. However, lithium (element number 3) is tied with krypton as the 32nd/33rd most abundant element in the cosmos (see Cosmochemical Periodic Table of the Elements in the Solar System), being less common than any element before scandium (element 21). It is not until atomic number 36 (krypton) and beyond, that chemical elements are found to be universally less common in the cosmos than lithium. The reasons have to do with the failure of any good mechanisms to synthesize lithium in the fusion reactions between nuclides in supernovae. Due to the absence of any nuclide with five nucleons which is quasi-stable, nuclei of lithium-5 produced from helium and a proton has no time to fuse with a second proton or neutron to form a six nucleon isotope which might decay to lithium-6, even under extreme conditions of bombardment. Also, the product of helium-helium fusion (berylium-8) is also immediately unstable toward disintegration to helium again, and is thus also not available for formation of lithium. Some lithium-7 is formed in the pp III branch of the proton-proton chain in main sequence and red giant stars, but it is normally consumed by lithium burning as fast as it is formed. This leaves new formation of the stable isotopes lithium 6 and 7 to rare cosmic ray spallation on carbon or other elements in cosmic dust. Meanwhile, existing Li-6 and Li-7 is destroyed in many nuclear reactions in supernovae and by lithium burning in main sequence stars, resulting in net removal of lithium from the cosmos. Lithium is widely distributed on Earth, however, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity. Estimates for crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight. In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks, with the largest concentrations in granites. Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable mineral sources for the element. A newer source for lithium is hectorite clay, the only active development of which is through Western Lithium Corp in the USA. Moores, Simon (2007) Between a rock and a salt lake; Industrial Minerals, June '07 According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium, "Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations. There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively a few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are very small, others are too low in grade." Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium, Donald Garrett, Academic Press, 2004, cited in The Trouble with Lithium 2 The most important deposit of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which holds half of the world's reserves. According to the US Geological Survey the reserves of lithium in Bolivia are estimated at 5.4 million tons, compared with 3 million tons in Chile, 1.1 million tons in China and just 410,000 tons in the United States. "Bolivia holds key to electric car future", BBC, November 9, 2008 The lithium reserves are estimated at 30 million tonnes in 2015 Pag4.- The trouble with lithium . Seawater contains an estimated 230 billion tons of lithium, though at a low concentration of 0.1 to 0.2 ppm. Major applications of the metal Because of its specific heat capacity, the highest of all solids, lithium is often used in heat transfer applications. In the latter years of the 20th century lithium became important as an anode material; used in lithium-ion batteries because of its high electrochemical potential, a typical cell can generate approximately 3 volts (compare with 1.5 volts for lead/acid or zinc cells); additionally its low atomic mass gives a high charge (and power) to weight ratio. Lithium is also used in the pharmaceutical and fine chemical industry in the manufacture of organolithium reagents which are used both as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon carbon bonds. Organolithiums are also used in polymer synthesis, as catalysts/initiators Organometallics in anionic polymerisation of unfunctionalised olefins Polymerization of 1,2-dimethylenecyclobutane by organolithium initiators, Russian Chemical Bulletin, Publisher Springer New York, ISSN 1066-5285 (Print) 1573-9171 (Online), Volume 37, Number 9 / September, 1988, Pages 1782-1784, 2005 Functionalisation of polymeric organolithium - amination of poly (styryl-lithium) ,Journal Macromolecules, Vol 19, No.5, 1986, Roderic P. Quirk and Pao-Luo Cheng Advances in organometallic chemistry, F. G. A. Stone, Robert West, Published by Academic Press, 1980, ISBN 0120311186, 9780120311187, Page 55 Medical use Lithium salts were used during the 19th century to treat gout. Lithium salts such as lithium carbonate (Li2CO3), lithium citrate, and lithium orotate are mood stabilizers. They are used in the treatment of bipolar disorder, since unlike most other mood altering drugs, they counteract both mania and depression. Lithium can also be used to augment other antidepressant drugs. It was also sometimes prescribed as a preventive treatment for migraine disease and cluster headaches.</ref> The active principle in these salts is the lithium ion Li+. Although this ion has a smaller diameter than either Na+ or K+, in a watery environment like the cytoplasmic fluid, Li+ binds to the hydrogen atoms of water making it effectively larger than either Na+ or K+ ions. How Li+ works in the CNS is still a matter of debate. Li+ elevates brain levels of tryptophan, 5-HT (serotonin), and 5-HIAA (a serotonin metabolite). The serotonin system is related to stability of mood. Li+ also reduces catecholamine activity in the brain (associated with brain activation and mania), by enhancing reuptake and reducing release. Therapeutically useful amounts of lithium (~ 0.6 to 1.2 mmol/l) are only slightly lower than toxic amounts (>1.5 mmol/l), so the blood levels of lithium must be carefully monitored during treatment to avoid toxicity. Common side effects of lithium treatment include muscle tremors, twitching, ataxia. Long term use is linked to hyperparathyroidism Chronic lithium intake and hyperparathyroidism, Journal European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, ISSN 0031-6970 (Print) 1432-1041 (Online), Issue Volume 27, Number 4 / July, 1984, p. 499-500. , hypercalcemia (bone loss), hypertension, kidney damage, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (polyuria and polydipsia) and seizures. Some of the side-effects are a result of the increased elimination of potassium. Pregnancy - teratogenic properties: Ebstein (cardiac) Anomaly - There appears to be an increased risk of this abnormality in infants of women taking lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy. A study in 2009 at Oita University in Japan published in the British Journal of Psychiatry communities whose water contained larger amounts of lithium, had significantly lower suicide rates. However, health care professionals have recommended further research to ensure that lithium in drinking water does not result in the negative side effects associated with higher doses of the element. Other uses The red lithium flame leads to Lithium's use in flares and pyrotechnics Electrical and electronic uses: Lithium batteries are disposable (primary) batteries that have lithium metal or lithium compounds as an anode. Lithium batteries are not to be confused with lithium-ion batteries which are high energy-density rechargeable batteries. Lithium niobate is used extensively in telecommunication products, such as mobile phones and optical modulators, for such components as resonant crystals. Lithium products are currently used in more than 60 percent of mobile phones. Chemical uses: Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are extremely hygroscopic and are used as desiccants. Lithium metal is used in the preparation of organo-lithium compounds. General engineering: Lithium stearate is a common all-purpose high-temperature lubricant. Lithium is used as a flux to promote the fusing of metals during welding and soldering. It also eliminates the forming of oxides during welding by absorbing impurities. This fusing quality is also important as a flux for producing ceramics, enamels, and glass. Alloys of the metal with aluminium, cadmium, copper and manganese are used to make high performance aircraft parts. See also Lithium-aluminium alloys Optics: Lithium is sometimes used in glasses and ceramics including the glass for the 200-inch (5.08 m) telescope at Mt. Palomar. The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes a good choice for non-linear optics applications. Lithium fluoride artificially grown as crystal is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR, UV and VUV (vacuum UV) applications. It has the lowest refractive index and the farthest transmission range in the deep UV of all common materials. Rocketry: Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides such as e.g. Li[AlH4] are considered as high energy additives to rocket propellants[3]. Lithium peroxide, lithium nitrate, lithium chlorate, and lithium perchlorate are used as oxidizers in both rocket propellants and oxygen candles to supply submarines and space capsules with oxygen. Nuclear applications: Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb. When bombarded by neutrons, both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium—this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test. Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride still apparently plays a role in modern nuclear weapons, as a fusion material. Lithium fluoride (highly enriched in the common isotope lithium-7) forms the basic constituent of the preferred fluoride salt mixture (LiF-BeF2) used in liquid-fluoride nuclear reactors. Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF/BeF2 mixtures have low melting points and the best neutronic properties of fluoride salt combinations appropriate for reactor use. Lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined nuclear fusion reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel. Tritium does not occur naturally and will be produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will react with the lithium to produce more tritium. 6Li + n → 4He + 3H. Various means of doing this will be tested at the ITER reactor being built at Cadarache, France. Lithium is used as a source for alpha particles, or helium nuclei. When 7Li is bombarded by accelerated protons, 8Be is formed, which undergoes spontaneous fission to form two alpha particles. This was the first man-made nuclear reaction, produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1929. Other uses: Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is an important compound of lithium obtained from lithium carbonate (Li2CO3). It is a strong base, and when heated with a fat, it produces a lithium soap. Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils and so is used commercially to manufacture lubricating greases. Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are used in confined areas, such as aboard spacecraft and submarines for air purification. Lithium hydroxide absorbs the carbon dioxide from the air by reacting with it to form lithium carbonate, being preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight. Lithium peroxide (Li2O2) in presence of moisture not only absorb carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also release oxygen. E.g. 2 Li2O2 + 2 CO2 → 2 Li2CO3 + O2. Lithium compounds can be used to make red fireworks and flares. The Mark 50 Torpedo Stored Chemical Energy Propulsion System (SCEPS) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium, which generates enormous quantities of heat, in turn used to generate steam from seawater. The steam propels the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle. Stored Chemical Energy Propulsion System for Underwater Applications, T.G. Hughes, R.B. Smith, and D.H. Kiely, Journal of Energy, 1983, 0146-0412 vol.7 no.2 (128-133) Production and world supply Since the end of World War II, lithium metal production has greatly increased. The metal is separated from other elements in igneous mineral such as those above, and lithium salts are also extracted from the water of mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits. There are widespread hopes of using lithium ion batteries in electric vehicles, but one study concluded that "realistically achievable lithium carbonate production will be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements", that "demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade", and that "mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound, it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the 'Green Car'". The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused lithium and potassium chloride. In 1998 it was about US$ 43 per pound ($95 per kg). Deposits of lithium are found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain. Chile is currently the leading lithium metal producer in the world, with Argentina next. Both countries recover the lithium from brine pools. In the United States lithium is similarly recovered from brine pools in Nevada. Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in the Andes-containing country Bolivia, which in 2009 is negotiating with Japanese and French firms to begin production. Simon Romero, "In Bolivia, a Tight Grip on the Next Big Resource," New York Times, Feb. 2, 2009 According to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Uyuni Desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium, which can be used to make batteries for hybrid and electric vehicles. This is the largest amount of lithium in any country, compared to Chile's 3 million tons of lithium and the United States's 760,000 tons. USGS Mineral Commodities Summaries 2009 China may emerge as a significant producer of brine-based lithium carbonate around 2010. Potential capacity of up to 55,000 tons per year could come on-stream if projects in Qinghai province and Tibet proceed. The total amount of lithium recoverable from global reserves has been estimated at 35 million tonnes, which includes 15 million tons of the known global lithium reserve base. In 1976 a National Research Council Panel estimated lithium resources at 10.6 million tons for the Western World. Evans, R.K. (1978) "Lithium Reserves and Resources" Energy, Vol 3 No.3 With the inclusion of Russian and Chinese resources as well as new discoveries in Australia, Serbia, Argentina and the United States, the total has nearly tripled by 2008. Evans, R.K. (2008) "An Abundance of Lithium" http://www.worldlithium.com/Abstract.html Evans, R.K. (2008) "An Abundance of Lithium Part 2" http://www.worldlithium.com/AN_ABUNDANCE_OF_LITHIUM_-_Part_2.html Precautions Lithium metal, due to its alkaline tarnish, is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are often alkaline) can irritate the nose and throat; higher exposure to lithium can cause a build-up of fluid in the lungs, leading to pulmonary edema. The metal itself is usually a handling hazard because of the caustic hydroxide produced when it is in contact with moisture. Lithium should be stored in a non-reactive compound such as naphtha. Regulation Some jurisdictions limit the sale of lithium batteries, which are the most readily available source of lithium metal for ordinary consumers. Lithium can be used to reduce pseudoephedrine and ephedrine to methamphetamine in the Birch reduction method, which employs solutions of alkali metals dissolved in anhydrous ammonia. However, the effectiveness of such restrictions in controlling illegal production of methamphetamine remains indeterminate and controversial. Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain types of transportation (particularly aircraft), because of the ability of most types of lithium batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when short-circuited, leading to overheating and possible explosion in a process called thermal runaway. Most consumer lithium batteries have thermal overload protection built-in to prevent this type of incident, or their design inherently limits short-circuit currents. However, internal shorts have been known to develop due to manufacturing defects or some abuse conditions that can lead to spontaneous thermal runaway. See also Lithium compounds Lithium-based grease Dilithium References External links USGS: Lithium Statistics and Information WebElements.com – Lithium It's Elemental – Lithium University of Southampton, Mountbatten Centre for International Studies, Nuclear History Working Paper No5. be-x-old:Літый	Lithium \|@lemmatized lithium:195 chemical:9 element:29 atomic:7 number:7 represent:1 symbol:1 li:10 soft:2 alkali:8 metal:31 silver:1 white:4 colour:1 standard:2 condition:3 light:5 least:2 dense:2 solid:4 like:5 highly:5 reactive:3 corrode:1 quickly:2 moist:2 air:6 form:16 black:3 tarnish:4 reason:2 typically:3 store:3 cover:2 oil:2 cut:2 open:1 exhibit:2 metallic:2 lustre:1 contact:3 oxygen:5 turn:2 back:1 dull:1 silvery:2 grey:1 color:4 also:22 flammable:2 accord:4 theory:2 one:3 synthesize:2 big:5 bang:4 abundance:7 vastly:1 less:6 predict:1 crucible:1 creation:2 really:1 happen:1 first:8 minute:1 matthew:1 chalmers:1 july:2 new:8 scientist:2 volume:3 issue:2 process:5 create:2 destroy:2 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6,069	Analytic_geometry	Cartesian coordinates. Analytic geometry, usually called coordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry or analytical geometry, is the study of geometry using the principles of algebra; the modern development of analytic geometry is thus suggestively called algebraic geometry. Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight lines, and squares, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions of measurement. Geometrically, one studies the Euclidean plane (2 dimensions) and Euclidean space (3 dimensions). As taught in school books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining geometrical shapes in a numerical way and extracting numerical information from that representation. The numerical output, however, might also be a vector or a shape. That the algebra of the real numbers can be employed to yield results about the linear continuum of geometry relies on the Cantor-Dedekind axiom. History The Greek mathematician Menaechmus solved problems and proved theorems by using a method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been maintained that he had introduced analytic geometry. Apollonius of Perga, in On Determinate Section, dealt with problems in a manner that may be called an analytic geometry of one dimension; with the question of finding points on a line that were in a ratio to the others. Apollonius in the Conics further developed a method that is so similar to analytic geometry that his work is sometimes thought to have anticipated the work of Descartes by some 1800 years. His application of reference lines, a diameter and a tangent is essentially no different than our modern use of a coordinate frame, where the distances measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and the segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. He further developed relations between the abscissas and the corresponding ordinates that are equivalent to rhetorical equations of curves. However, although Apollonius came close to developing analytic geometry, he did not manage to do so since he did not take into account negative magnitudes and in every case the coordinate system was superimposed upon a given curve a posteriori instead of a priori. That is, equations were determined by curves, but curves were not determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were subsidiary notions applied to a specific geometric situation. The eleventh century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyám saw a strong relationship between geometry and algebra, and was moving in the right direction when he helped to close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra with his geometric solution of the general cubic equations, Glen M. Cooper (2003). "Omar Khayyam, the Mathmetician", The Journal of the American Oriental Society 123. but the decisive step came later with Descartes. Analytic geometry has traditionally been attributed to René Descartes who made significant progress with the methods of analytic geometry when in 1637 in the appendix entitled Geometry of the titled Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason in the Search for Truth in the Sciences, commonly referred to as Discourse on Method. This work, written in his native French tongue, and its philosophical principles, provided the foundation for Infinitesimal calculus in Europe. Abraham de Moivre also pioneered the development of analytic geometry. With the assumption of the Cantor-Dedekind axiom, essentially that Euclidean geometry is interpretable in the language of analytic geometry (that is, every theorem of one is a theorem of the other), Alfred Tarski's proof of the decidability of the ordered real field could be seen as a proof that Euclidean geometry is consistent and decidable. Themes Important themes of analytical geometry are vector space definition of the plane distance problems the dot product, to get the angle of two vectors the cross product, to get a perpendicular vector of two known vectors (and also their spatial volume) intersection problems Many of these problems involve linear algebra. Example Here an example of a problem from the United States of America Mathematical Talent Search that can be solved via analytic geometry: Problem: In a convex pentagon , the sides have lengths , , , , and , though not necessarily in that order. Let , , , and be the midpoints of the sides , , , and , respectively. Let be the midpoint of segment , and be the midpoint of segment . The length of segment is an integer. Find all possible values for the length of side . Solution: Without loss of generality, let , , , , and be located at , , , , and . Using the midpoint formula, the points , , , , , and are located at , , , , , and Using the distance formula, and Since has to be an integer, (see modular arithmetic) so . Algebraic geometry Algebraic geometry is the modern development of analytic geometry; in the context of algebraic geometry, analytic geometry, is the name for the theory of (real or) complex manifolds and the more general analytic spaces defined locally by the vanishing of analytic functions of several complex variables (or sometimes real ones). It is closely linked to algebraic geometry, especially through the work of Jean-Pierre Serre in GAGA. References External links Coordinate Geometry topics with interactive animations Build analytic geometry objects	Analytic_geometry \|@lemmatized cartesian:3 coordinate:8 analytic:17 geometry:31 usually:2 call:3 earlier:1 refer:2 analytical:2 study:2 use:6 principle:2 algebra:5 modern:3 development:3 thus:1 suggestively:1 algebraic:5 system:2 apply:2 manipulate:1 equation:6 plane:3 straight:1 line:3 square:1 often:1 two:3 sometimes:4 three:1 dimension:4 measurement:1 geometrically:1 one:4 euclidean:4 space:3 taught:1 school:1 book:1 explain:1 simply:1 concern:1 define:2 geometrical:1 shape:2 numerical:4 way:1 extract:1 information:1 representation:1 output:1 however:2 might:1 also:3 vector:5 real:4 number:1 employ:1 yield:1 result:1 linear:2 continuum:1 relies:1 cantor:2 dedekind:2 axiom:2 history:1 greek:1 mathematician:2 menaechmus:1 solve:2 problem:7 prove:1 theorem:3 method:5 strong:2 resemblance:1 maintain:1 introduce:1 apollonius:3 perga:1 determinate:1 section:1 dealt:1 manner:1 may:1 question:1 find:2 point:3 ratio:1 others:1 conic:1 far:2 develop:3 similar:1 work:4 think:1 anticipate:1 descartes:3 year:1 application:1 reference:2 diameter:2 tangent:2 essentially:2 different:1 frame:1 distance:3 measure:1 along:1 tangency:1 abscissa:2 segment:4 parallel:1 intercept:1 axis:1 curve:5 ordinate:2 relation:1 corresponding:1 equivalent:1 rhetorical:1 although:1 come:2 close:2 manage:1 since:2 take:1 account:1 negative:1 magnitude:1 every:2 case:1 superimpose:1 upon:1 give:1 posteriori:1 instead:1 priori:1 determine:2 variable:2 subsidiary:1 notion:1 specific:1 geometric:3 situation:1 eleventh:1 century:1 persian:1 omar:2 khayyám:1 saw:1 relationship:1 move:1 right:1 direction:1 help:1 gap:1 solution:2 general:2 cubic:1 glen:1 cooper:1 khayyam:1 mathmetician:1 journal:1 american:1 oriental:1 society:1 decisive:1 step:1 later:1 traditionally:1 attribute:1 rené:1 make:1 significant:1 progress:1 appendix:1 entitle:1 titled:1 discourse:2 rightly:1 conduct:1 reason:1 search:2 truth:1 science:1 commonly:1 write:1 native:1 french:1 tongue:1 philosophical:1 provide:1 foundation:1 infinitesimal:1 calculus:1 europe:1 abraham:1 de:1 moivre:1 pioneer:1 assumption:1 interpretable:1 language:1 alfred:1 tarski:1 proof:2 decidability:1 ordered:1 field:1 could:1 see:2 consistent:1 decidable:1 theme:2 important:1 definition:1 dot:1 product:2 get:2 angle:1 cross:1 perpendicular:1 known:1 spatial:1 volume:1 intersection:1 many:1 involve:1 example:2 united:1 state:1 america:1 mathematical:1 talent:1 via:1 convex:1 pentagon:1 side:3 length:3 though:1 necessarily:1 order:1 let:3 midpoint:4 respectively:1 integer:2 possible:1 value:1 without:1 loss:1 generality:1 locate:2 formula:2 modular:1 arithmetic:1 context:1 name:1 theory:1 complex:2 manifold:1 locally:1 vanishing:1 function:1 several:1 closely:1 link:2 especially:1 jean:1 pierre:1 serre:1 gaga:1 external:1 topic:1 interactive:1 animation:1 build:1 object:1 \|@bigram cartesian_coordinate:2 analytic_geometry:15 algebraic_geometry:5 cantor_dedekind:2 apollonius_perga:1 omar_khayyám:1 geometric_algebra:1 omar_khayyam:1 rené_descartes:1 infinitesimal_calculus:1 de_moivre:1 euclidean_geometry:2 alfred_tarski:1 modular_arithmetic:1 jean_pierre:1 pierre_serre:1 external_link:1
6,070	Hani_Hanjour	A pilot who had lived intermittently in the United States for ten years, Hani Saleh Hanjour, () (August 13 1972 – September 11 2001) was one of five men named by the FBI as hijackers of American Airlines Flight 77 in the September 11 attacks. The FBI believes that he piloted the plane and crashed it into The Pentagon. Hanjour is largely considered to have been among the most conservative and religiously observant of the hijackers. History Hanjour was the fourth of seven children, born to a food-supply businessman in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia. During his youth he suggested he may drop out of school to become a flight attendant, although his brother Abulrahman discouraged this route, and tried to help him focus on his studies. Early 1990s A young Hanjour Hani Hanjour may have visited the United States as early as 1990 to visit a brother in Tucson, though the earliest official record of Hanjour in the United States is from 1991. Hanjour's brother Abulrahman arranged a Tucson, Arizona, apartment for Hanjour to live in, and helped him apply to an eight-week program to study English at the University of Arizona. Hanjour arrived in Tucson for the English language program on October 3, 1991. Hanjour stayed in Arizona until February 1992, when he returned to Saudi Arabia. Hanjour was the only hijacker to live in the United States prior to any intentions for a large-scale attack, and was not a part of the Hamburg cell in Germany. He spent the next five years in Ta'if, helping the family manage a lemon and date farm. In 1996, he traveled briefly to Afghanistan to work with a relief agency. In 1996, Hanjour decided to return to the United States, and again asked his brother for help. Abulrahman asked family friends, Susan and Adnan Khalil, if they would be willing to put up Hani as a favour to him. They agreed, although they had since moved from Tucson to Miramar, Florida. Hanjour obtained a visa in March 1996 and arrived in the United States on April 2, 1996. He lived for a month in Miramar, where the Khalils provided accommodations for him. After the attacks, the Khalils would recall that they had been struck by how unlike Abulrahman he was, devoutly religious, whereas his brother had been fond of parties and drinking. In April 1996, Hanjour moved in with a host family in Oakland, California where he enrolled in intensive English studies at Holy Names College, and attended a single class at Sierra Academy of Aeronautics before withdrawing, citing financial worries about the $35,000 cost. Leaving Oakland in September and moving to Phoenix, Arizona, Hanjour paid $4,800 for lessons at CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management in Scottsdale. He received poor marks from instructor Duncan Hastie, and left the school frustrated, compounded with the fact his recent Visa application had been denied. Hanjour is recorded re-entering the United States on November 16, 1997. He made a brief sidetrip to Florida, before returning to Phoenix where he shared an apartment with Bandar al-Hazmi. In December, he again attended CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management, though left after a few weeks training. 1998 Hanjour was still living with Bandar in January, and the two of them both took flying lessons at Arizona Aviation, where Hanjour eventually earned his commercial pilot rating. After moving out of Bandar's place, Hanjour lived in several apartments in Tempe, Mesa and Phoenix, and enrolled in flight simulator classes at the Sawyer School of Aviation where he made only three or four visits. Interestingly Lotfi Raissi would begin taking lessons at the same school a month after Hanjour quit, part of what piqued the FBI's interest in Raissi. In February, financial records showed that Hanjour had taken a trip to Las Vegas, Nevada. An FBI informant named Aukai Collins claims he told the FBI about Hanjour's activities during 1998, giving them Hanjour's name and phone number, and warning them that more and more foreign-born Muslims seem to be taking flying lessons. The FBI admits it paid Collins to monitor the Islamic and Arab communities in Phoenix at the time, but denies Collins told them anything about Hanjour. http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/ap052402.html http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/foxnews052402.html In August 1998, Hanjour requested to rent a small plane at Freeway Airport in Bowie, Maryland. However, after three practice flights with an overseer, it was decided that he was not capable enough to allow him to rent. 1999 Hanjour's bank records indicate that he travelled to Ontario, Canada in March 1999 for an unknown reason. Hanjour gained his FAA commercial pilot certificate in April 1999, but was unable to get a job as a pilot after he returned to his native Saudi Arabia, and told his family he was heading to the United Arab Emirates to find work. He took an international flight out of New York on April 28, but it is not known where he went. Within two weeks however, bank withdrawals were again made in Arizona, indicating he had returned. 2000 In May 2000, a third person accompanied Salem al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar to Sorbi's Flying Club where he waited on the ground as they took a flight lesson. It has been theorized this may have been Hanjour. In September Hanjour again sent his $110 registration to Holy Names College in Oakland, California to continue his English studies. He also applied for another U.S. Student Visa. Although he was accepted, after the attacks, it would be reported that his Visa application was 'suspicious'. Granted a F-1 student visa in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, September 2000, he failed to reveal that he had previously traveled to the U.S. He never turned up for classes, and when the school contacted its Saudi representative, he reported that he could not find Hanjour either. On December 5, Hanjour opened a CitiBank account in Deira, Dubai. On the 8th Hanjour is recorded flying into Cincinnati, Ohio and is thought to be later meeting with Nawaf al-Hazmi in San Diego. 2001 Hanjour came back to San Diego in December 2000, frequently visiting Abdussattar Shaikh's house, which was shared with Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid Almihdhar. During this time Hanjour may have visited the San Diego Zoo in February, as a security guard recalls having to page his name to reclaim a lost briefcase containing cash and Arabic documents and later recognised his photograph. Shortly afterwards, the three hijackers moved out of Shaikh's house to Falls Church, Virginia. An FBI-released photo Holy Names College ELS Language Center said Hanjour reached a level of proficiency sufficient to “survive very well in the English language”. However, in January 2001, Arizona JetTech flight school managers reported him to the FAA at least five times because his English was inadequate for the commercial pilot’s certificate he had already obtained. It took him five hours to complete an oral exam meant to last just two hours, said Peggy Chevrette. Hanjour failed UA English classes with a 0.26 GPA and a JetTech manager said “He could not fly at all.” His FAA certificate had become invalid late in 1999 when he failed to take a mandatory medical examination. In February, Hanjour began advanced simulator training. On May 2, two new roommates joined them in Virginia: Moqed and Ahmed al-Ghamdi, both of whom had just flown in to the United States. In San Diego, Hanjour and al-Hazmi had met Eyad Alrababah, a Jordanian later charged with document fraud; they had told him that they were looking for an apartment to rent. Alrababah had initially tried finding an apartment for them in Paterson, New Jersey, but without success. He then suggested they all go together to look at apartments in Fairfield, Connecticut. On May 8, Alrababah, Hanjour, al-Hazmi, Moqed and al-Ghamdi traveled to Fairfield to look for housing. While there, they also called several local flight schools. They then travelled briefly to Paterson to look at that area as well. Rababah has contended that, after this trip, he never saw any of the men again. The 9/11 Commission Report, page 230 Sometime at the end of May 2001, Hanjour rented a one-bedroom apartment in Paterson, New Jersey. He lived there with at least one roommate and was visited by several other hijackers, including Mohamed Atta al Sayed. During his time in New Jersey, he and Al-Hazmi rented 3 different cars including a sedan in June that Hanjour cosigned with the alias "Hani Saleh Hassan". He later made his last phone call to his family back in Saudi Arabia, during which he claimed to be phoning from a payphone in the United Arab Emirates, where he was supposedly still working. Hanjour, along with at least five other future hijackers, is thought to have traveled to Las Vegas several times in the summer of 2001, where they reportedly drank alcohol, gambled, and practiced other forms of vice. Agents of terror leave their mark on Sin City / Las Vegas workers recall the men they can't forget On August 1, Hanjour and Almihdhar returned to Falls Church to obtain fraudulent documentation at a 7-11 store where an illegal side business operated for such a service. There they met Luis Martinez-Flores, himself also an illegal immigrant, who agreed to help them for a $100 fee. They drove together to a DMV office at a mall in nearby Springfield, Virginia, where Martinez-Flores gave them a false address in Falls Church to use, and signed legal forms attesting that they lived there. Hanjour and Almihdhar were then granted state identity cards. (Martinez-Flores was later sentenced to 21 months in prison for aiding them, and giving false testimony to police). "Hijackers' helper faces two years max", Timothy P. Carney, Human Events, December 24, 2001 On that same day, Hanjour was stopped by police for driving a Toyota Corolla 55 mph in a 30 mph zone in Arlington, Virginia, for which he paid the $70 fine. Moqed and Hanjour Employees at Advance Travel Service in Totowa, New Jersey later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there. They claimed that Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking. Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane. Their credit card failed to authorize, and after being told the agency didn't accept personal checks, the pair left to withdraw cash. They returned shortly afterwards and paid the $1842.25 total in cash. This claim is in contradiction to other claims that Hanjour never had a ticket for the flight at all. Hanjour began making cross-country flights in August to test security, and tried to rent a small Cessna 172 plane from Freeway Airport in Maryland, though he was declined after exhibiting poor flying skills. He moved out of his New Jersey apartment on September 1, and was photographed four days later using an ATM with fellow hijacker Majed Moqed in Laurel, Maryland, where all five Flight 77 hijackers had purchased a 1-week membership in a local Gold's Gym, there Hanjour claimed that his first name translated as warrior when a gym employee asked if there was an English translation of their Arabic names. (Hani actually translates as "contented") On September 10, 2001, Hanjour, al-Mihdhar, and al-Hazmi checked into the Marriott Residence Inn in Herndon, Virginia where Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen, a prominent Saudi government official, was staying. No evidence was ever uncovered that they had met, or knew of each other's presence. Attack Dulles International Airport security checkpoint footage Right foreground: possibly the real Hanjour On September 11, 2001, Hani Hanjour boarded American Airlines Flight 77 at 7:50 am. Some earlier reports stated he may not have had a ticket or appeared on any manifest, washingtonpost.com however he is listed on the flight manifest as 1B Official Manifests The Passengers and reported to have bought a single, first-class ticket from Advance Travel Service in Totowa, N.J. In the security tape footage released in 2004, Hanjour appears to walk through the metal detector without setting it off, the only hijacker to do so. There is a controversy over whether or not the security tapes indeed show him, since the man claimed to be him seems significantly heavier than Hanjour, has kept his beard (which the hijackers all reportedly shaved off the night before), and has a different style of hair. However, in another report from NBC, a different person is identified and shown as Hanjour who does seem to match his profile. The Moussaoui trial also showed footage, identifying Hanjour as wearing the white shirt matching the same person as in the NBC report. The flight was scheduled to depart at 08:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles. The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08:50:51. At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south, and then hijackers set the flight's autopilot heading for Washington, D.C. Passenger Barbara Olson called her husband, United States Solicitor General Ted Olson, and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives. At 09:37, American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the west facade of the Pentagon, killing all 64 aboard (including the hijackers), along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon. In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any DNA samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI. In the initial report given by the FBI on September 14, 2001 the names of the hijackers were released for the first time; Hanjour was not originally listed as a suspect, but "Mosear Caned" instead. The FBI later corrected the list. Aftermath After the attacks, Hanjour's family said they could not believe he had been involved, and stating that he had phoned them just eight hours prior to the hijackings. Hijacker list raises more questions See also Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali References External links The Final 9/11 Commission Report NBC video showing Hanjour with a correct profile Moussaoui trial exhibit video showing Hanjour with a correct profile Hanjour Ticket Purchase	Hani_Hanjour \|@lemmatized pilot:6 live:8 intermittently:1 united:11 state:12 ten:1 year:3 hani:6 saleh:3 hanjour:64 august:4 september:9 one:3 five:7 men:3 name:10 fbi:10 hijacker:16 american:3 airline:3 flight:21 attack:6 believe:2 plane:4 crash:2 pentagon:4 largely:1 consider:1 among:1 conservative:1 religiously:1 observant:1 history:1 fourth:1 seven:1 child:1 bear:1 food:1 supply:1 businessman:1 ta:2 saudi:7 arabia:5 youth:1 suggest:2 may:9 drop:1 school:7 become:2 attendant:1 although:3 brother:5 abulrahman:4 discourage:1 route:1 try:3 help:5 focus:1 study:4 early:4 young:1 visit:6 tucson:4 though:3 official:3 record:5 arrange:1 arizona:7 apartment:8 apply:2 eight:2 week:4 program:2 english:9 university:1 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6,071	Economy_of_Morocco	Morocco's economy is considered a relatively liberal economy governed by the law of supply and demand. Since 1993, the country has followed a policy of privatization of certain economic sectors which used to be in the hands of the government. Tough government reforms and steady yearly growth in the region of 4-5% from 2000 to 2007, including 4.9% year-on-year growth in 2003-2007 the Moroccan economy is much more robust than just a few years ago. Economic growth is far more diversified, with new service and industrial poles, like Casablanca and Tangier, developing. The agriculture sector is being rehabilitated, which in combination with good rainfalls led to a growth of over 20% in 2009. The services sector accounts for just over half of GDP and industry, made up of mining, construction and manufacturing, is an additional quarter. The sectors who recorded the highest growth are the tourism, telecoms and textile sectors. Morocco , however, still depends to an inordinate degree on agriculture. The sector accounts for only around 14% of GDP but employs 40-45% of the Moroccan population. With a semi-arid climate, it is difficult to assure good rainfall and Morocco’s GDP varies depending on the weather. Fiscal prudence has allowed for consolidation, with both the budget deficit and debt falling as a percentage of GDP. The economic system of the country presents several facets. It is characterized by a large opening towards the outside world. France remains the primary trade partner (supplier and customer) of Morocco. France is also the primary creditor and foreign investor in Morocco. In the Arab world, Morocco has the second-largest non-oil GDP, behind Egypt, as of 2005. Since the early 1980s, the Moroccan government has pursued an economic program toward accelerating real economy growth with the support of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the Paris Club of creditors. The country's currency, the dirham, is now fully convertible for current account transactions; reforms of the financial sector have been implemented; and state enterprises are being privatized. The major resources of the Moroccan economy are agriculture, phosphates, and tourism. Sales of fish and seafood are important as well. Industry and mining contribute about one-third of the annual GDP. Morocco is the world's third-largest producer of phosphates (after the United States and China), and the price fluctuations of phosphates on the international market greatly influence Morocco's economy. Tourism and workers' remittances have played a critical role since independence. The production of textiles and clothing is part of a growing manufacturing sector that accounted for approximately 34% of total exports in 2002, employing 40% of the industrial workforce. The government wishes to increase textile and clothing exports from $1.27 billion in 2001 to $3.29 billion in 2010. The high cost of imports, especially of petroleum imports, is a major problem. Another chronic problem is unreliable rainfall, which produces drought or sudden floods; in 1995, the country's worst drought in 30 years forced Morocco to import grain and adversely affected the economy. Another drought occurred in 1997, and one in 1999–2000. Reduced incomes due to drought caused GDP to fall by 7.6% in 1995, by 2.3% in 1997, and by 1.5% in 1999. During the years between drought, good rains brought bumper crops to market. Good rainfall in 2001 led to a 5% GDP growth rate. Morocco suffers both from unemployment (9.6% in 2008), and a large external debt estimated at around $20 billion, or half of GDP in 2002. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Morocco-ECONOMY.html Among the various free trade agreements that Morocco has ratified with its principal economic partners, are The Euro-Mediterranean free trade area agreement with the European Union with the objective of integrating the European Free Trade Association at the horizons of 2012; the Agadir Agreement, signed with Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia, within the framework of the installation of the Greater Arab Free Trade Area; the US-Morocco Free Trade Agreement with United States which came into force in January 1 2006 and lately the agreement of free exchange with Turkey. (See section below) Macro-economic trend Morocco is a fairly stable economy with continuous growth over the past half-a-century. Current GDP per capita grew 47% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 274% in the Seventies. However this proved unsustainable and growth scaled back sharply to just 8.2% in the Eighties and 8.9% in the Nineties. This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Morocco at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Moroccan dirhams. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 74,090 3.93 Dirhams 33 1985 129,507 10.06 Dirhams 53 1990 212,819 8.24 Dirhams 67 1995 281,702 8.54 Dirhams 91 2000 354,208 10.62 Dirhams 100 2005 460,855 8.86 Dirhams 107 2006 503,714 8.72 Dirhams 72 For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at over 8 Dirhams. Average wages in 2007 hover around $11–14 per day. Economic History (1960-recent) Mohammed VI, the current King of Morocco 1960s Morocco instituted a series of development plans to modernize the economy and increase production during the 1960s. Net investment under the five-year plan for 1960–64 was about $1.3 billion. The plan called for a growth rate of 6.2%, but by 1964 the growth rate had only reached only 3%. A new three-year plan (1965–67) targeted an annual growth rate of 3.7%. The main emphasis of the plan was on the development and modernization of the agricultural sector. The five-year development plan for 1968–72 called for increased agriculture and irrigation. The development of the tourist industry also figured prominently in the plan. The objective was to attain an annual 5% growth rate in GDP; the real growth rate actually exceeded 6%. 1970s Investment during the 1970s included industry and tourism development. The five-year plan for 1973–77 envisaged a real economic growth of 7.5% annually. Industries singled out for development included chemicals (especially phosphoric acid), phosphate production, paper products, and metal fabrication. Tourist development was also stressed. In 1975, King Hassan II announced a 50% increase in investment targets to allow for the effects of inflation. The 1978–80 plan was one of stabilization and retrenchment, designed to improve Morocco's balance-of payments position, but the 4% annual growth rate achieved was disappointing. 1980s The ambitious five-year plan for 1981–85, estimated to cost more than $18 billion, aimed at achieving a growth rate of 6.5% annually. The plan's principal priority was to create some 900,000 new jobs and to train managers and workers in modern agricultural and industrial techniques. Other major goals were to increase production in agriculture and fisheries to make the country self-sufficient in food, and to develop energy (by building more hydroelectric installations and by finding more petroleum and other fossil fuels), industry, and tourism to enable Morocco to lessen its dependence on foreign loans. The plan called for significant expansion of irrigated land, for increased public works projects such as hospitals and schools, and for economic decentralization and regional development through the construction of 25 new industrial parks outside the crowded Casablanca-Kénitra coastal area. Proposed infrastructural improvements included the $2-billion rail line from Marrakech to El Aaiún; a new fishing port at Ad-Dakhla, near Argoub in the Western Sahara; and a bridge-tunnel complex across the Strait of Gibraltar to link Morocco directly with Spain. Large industrial projects included phosphoric acid plants, sugar refineries, mines to exploit cobalt, coal, silver, lead, and copper deposits, and oil-shale development. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Morocco-ECONOMIC-DEVELOPMENT.html 1990s Moroccan economic policies brought macroeconomic stability to the country in the early 1990s but did not spurred growth sufficient to reduce unemployment despite Moroccan Government's ongoing efforts to diversify the economy. http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/morocco/morocco_economy.html Drought conditions depressed activity in the key agricultural sector, and contributed to an economic slowdown in 1999. Favourable rainfalls have led Morocco to a growth of 6% for 2000. Formidable long-term challenges included: servicing the external debt; preparing the economy for freer trade with the EU; and improving education and attracting foreign investment to improve living standards and job prospects for Morocco's youthful population. 2000s Macroeconomic indicators GDP (PPP) US $148.1 billion (2009 est.)GDP growth 5.7% (2009 est.)GDP per capita PPP US $4,725 (2009 est.)GNI(PPP) per capita US $3,990 (2009 est.)Inflation (CPI) 4,6% (2009 est.)Gini index 40.0 (2005)Unemployment 2,1% (2008)HDI 0.646 (2007)Labor force 11.5 million (2008 est.)Pop. in poverty 15% (2008) Macroeconomic stability coupled with relatively slow economic growth characterized the Moroccan economy over the period 2000-2005. The government introduced a number of important economic reforms in that period. The economy, however, remained overly dependent on the agricultural sector. Morocco's primary economic challenge was to accelerate growth in order to reduce high levels of unemployment. External debt stood at around $19 billion in 2002, but the country had strong foreign exchange reserves and active external debt management, which was allowing it to service its debts. The government continued liberalizing the telecommunications sector in 2002, as well as the rules for oil and gas exploration. This process started with the sale of a second GSM license in 1999. The government in 2003 was using revenue from privatizations to finance increased spending. Although Morocco's economy grew in the early 2000s, it was not enough to significantly reduce poverty. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Morocco-ECONOMIC-DEVELOPMENT.html Through a foreign exchange rate anchor and well-managed monetary policy, Morocco has held inflation rates to industrial country levels over the past decade. Inflation in 2000 and 2001 were below 2%. Despite criticism among exporters that the dirham has become badly overvalued, the current account deficit remains modest. Foreign exchange reserves were strong, with more than $7 billion in reserves at the end of 2001. The combination of strong foreign exchange reserves and active external debt management gives Morocco the capacity to service its debt. Current external debt stands at about $16.6 billion. Economic growth, however, has been erratic and relatively slow, partially as a result of an over-reliance on the agricultural sector. Agriculture production is extremely susceptible to rainfall levels and ranges from 13% to 20% of GDP. Given that 36% of Morocco's population depends directly on agriculture production, droughts have a severe knock-on effect to the economy. Two successive years of drought led to a 1% incline in real GDP in 1999 and stagnation in 2000. Better rains during the 2000 to 2001 growing season led to an 6,5 % growth rate in 2001. Growth in 2006 went above 9%, this was achieved by a booming real-estate market.Over the long term, Morocco will have to diversify its economy away from [agriculture] to develop a more stable economic basis for growth. The strongest point of Moroccan industry is phosphate mining near Khouribga and in Western Sahara. Morocco controls approximately two thirds of the world's phosphate reserves, placing it in a higher league than its major competitors, the People's Republic of China, Russia, and the United States. Although it employs only 2% of the population, phosphate mining is responsible for half of the nation's income. The government introduced a series of structural reforms in recent years. The most promising reforms have been in the liberalization of the telecommunications sector. In 2001, the process continued with the privatization of 35% of the state operator Maroc Telecom. Morocco has announced plans to sell two fixed licenses in 2002. Morocco also has liberalized rules for oil and gas exploration and has granted concessions for many public services in major cities. The tender process in Morocco is becoming increasingly transparent. Many believe, however, that the process of economic reform must be accelerated in order to reduce urban unemployment below the current rates above 20%. Morocco has signed Free Trade Agreements with the United States and the European Union. The agreement with the United States has been ratified on July 22, 2004 in the United States Senate, by a vote of 85 to 13, while the agreement with the is to take effect by 2010. Recent Developments 50 dirhams and Ksour in the background 2008 In a statement ,released on july 2008, the IMF called Morocco "a pillar of development in the region" and congratulated King Mohammed VI and the Central Bank on Morocco's continued strong economic progress and effective management of monetary policy. http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/international-monetary-fund-praises-moroccos/story.aspx?guid=%7B76C2DD9F-59CC-4750-A85E-2206E03BE00A%7D Morocco's economy is expected to grow by 6.5% in 2008, according to the Morrocan finance minister. While the forecast is slightly lower than the earlier 6.8% projected growth it still remains quite an achievement considering the circumstances. GDP growth in 2007 was only 2.2% due to a poor harvest caused by prolonged periods of drought; Morocco experienced nonagricultural GDP growth of 6.6 percent in 2007. Inflation is expected to reach 2.9% in 2008 due to the rising costs of energy. spitehttp://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbriefs/general/2008/06/05/newsbrief-05 In an increasingly challenging global economic climate, the IMF expects continued nonagricultural expansion of the Moroccan economy. The global financial crisis affected the Moroccan economy in only a limited way. Morocco may be affected, by the slowdown of international economy, stirred by the global financial crisis, and whose maximum impact on national economy could decrease the GDP growth rate by at least one point in 2009, according to the Bank Al-Maghrib http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/morocco_could_be_aff/view In a report issued on July 2008, the IMF noted that Morocco's financial sector is sound and resilient to shocks, and that the remarkable fiscal consolidation efforts of recent years have allowed the Moroccan economy to absorb the impact of difficult international economic conditions and increasing global prices for essential commodities such as petroleum and energy. International economic experts recognize that Morocco's exemplary economic performance is beneficial not only to Moroccans, but also for the nearly 90 million people who live the Maghreb. Morocco is expected to close the year 2008 with a budgetary surplus ranging between MAD 3-bln and MAD3.5bln ($348mln to $407mln) http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/morocco_banks_on_bud/view , despite a difficult international context marked by a severe economic crisis. At the end of November 2008, the state's budget registered a surplus of MAD 3.2bln ($372 mln), while at the end of November 2009, the budgetary surplus is projected at MAD 6.9bln ($803 mln) http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/morocco_banks_on_bud/view . The diversification of the Economy includes a multi-disciplinary aproach to the development of non-agricultural sector, icluding the creation of special sectorial zones in industry, tourism and services outsourcing. In addition, reforms to the higher educational system and business law are also planified in the new program-contract signed in 2009 between the governement, the banking sector and some zone-development companies. The aproach also include a better sustaining of smal-business development and prospection of external markets. The objective is to become an emerging industrial country of the likes of Vietnam by 2015. US Ambassador to the EU noted that: "Morocco stands out as a model of economic reform for the region and for other developing countries. The kind of economic progress that Morocco has made, and which the rest of the Maghreb has the potential to accomplish, is the best antidote to the new threat of terrorism in the region." Moroccan GDP growth compared to region (IMF http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/02/pdf/c2.pdf ) 2006 2007 2008 2009Maghreb GDP growth4.34.35.54.9Moroccan GDP growth7.82.76.55.5Algerian GDP growth2.04.64.94.5Tunisian GDP growth 5.5 6.3 5.5 5.0 2009 Morocco's economy is expected to achieve a 6.6% growth in the first quarter of 2009 up from 4.8% in the past quarter thanks to prospects for an agricultural campaign above the average of the past five years. http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/morocco_s_economy_to/view http://magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbriefs/general/2009/01/21/newsbrief-04 By end December 2008, rainfalls exceeded that of an ordinary year by 106%. This surplus has benefited to all agricultural regions and increased the water stored in dams destined for agriculture to 40.7%. In these conditions and taking into consideration a cereal campaign nearing 70 million quintals, the agricultural value added could increase by 22.2% in the first quarter of 2009, thus contributing 2.9% to the national economic growth. http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/morocco_s_economy_to/view http://magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbriefs/general/2009/01/21/newsbrief-04 Due to a decrease of activity among Morocco’s main commercial partners, foreign demand of goods destined towards Morocco would moderately slow down in 2009 compared to the 9% rise in 2008. This trend could continue in Q1 of 2009 with a growth rate not exceeding 2% due to a lackluster economic growth outlook and the slowdown of international trade. Economic growth Morocco is a fairly stable economy with continuous growth over the past half-a-century. Current GDP per capita grew 47% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 274% in the Seventies. However this proved unsustainable and growth scaled back sharply to just 8.2% in the Eighties and 8.9% in the Nineties. Real GDP growth is expected to average 5.5% in the 2009-13 period, seen the prospects in the tourism and the non-agricultural industry, as demand growth in the Eurozone — Morocco's key export market and source of tourists is projected to be more subdued. Growth will be well below the 8-10% levels that are widely regarded as necessary to have a major impact on poverty and unemployment. Economic growth will also be intermittently hindered by the impact of periodic droughts on the rain-fed agricultural sector, the country's largest employer. http://www.economist.com/countries/Morocco/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Economic%20Data Moroccan GDP growth (IMF) 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2004-2010Moroccan GDP(PPP)101.904108.171120.365126.943138.177148.109159.007NAMoroccan GDP(Nominal)56.948 59.524 65.64075.11690.470 97.68106.59NAMoroccan GDP(PPP) per capita3,4093,5853,9454,0934,4324,7255,025NA Percentage of GDP growth 4.8 3.0 7.8 2.7 6.5 5.7 (est.) 5.8 (est.) Av. of 5.2% Public Debt (percentage of GDP) http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08331.pdf 59.4 63.1 58.1 53.6 51.9 51.8 (est.) 50.1 (est.) NA Fiscal Policies and Debt Managing Morocco has made great progress toward fiscal consolidation in recent years, under the combined effect of a strong revenue performance and efforts to tackle expenditure rigidities, notably the wage bill. The overall fiscal deficit shrank by more than 4 percentage points of GDP during the last four years http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08331.pdf , bringing the budget close to balance in 2007.2 However, the overall deficit is projected to widen to 3.5 percent of GDP in 2008, driven by the upward surge in the fiscal cost of Morocco’s universal subsidy scheme following the sharp increase in world commodity and oil prices. Fiscal policy decisions so far have been mostly discretionary, as there is no explicit goal for fiscal policy. Looking forward, the question of a possible anchor for medium-term fiscal policy is worth exploring. Morocco’s low social indicators and large infrastructure needs could justify an increase in social spending and public investment. Further, some nominal tax rates remain high by international standards, possibly warranting a lowering of some rates. At the same time, the relatively high level of public debt remains a constraining factor, particularly as heightened attractiveness to investors is a key component of Morocco’s strategy of deepening its integration in the global economy. Public Finances Morocco has made major progress in recent years to increase economic growth and strengthen the economy’s resilience to shocks. The gains reflect sound macroeconomic policies and sustained structural reforms, and are reflected in the gradual improvement in living standards and per capita income. The turnaround in the fiscal performance is particularly noteworthy. At the turn of the century, Morocco’s overall deficit stood at 5.3 percent of GDP, and gross total government debt amounted to three-fourths of GDP. In 2007, reflecting a strong improvement in revenue performance and moderate growth in expenditure, the budget was close to balance. Under the combined effect of a prudent fiscal policy and sizeable privatization receipts, the total debt stock had shrunk by 20 percentage points http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08331.pdf , and now stands at a little over half of GDP. As a result, perceptions of Morocco’s creditworthiness have improved. In 2008, soaring world prices for oil and some commodities have drastically altered the budgetary environment. The decision to not pass on the increase in world prices to domestic prices to protect purchasing power has led to a significant increase in spending on subsidies, which could double as a share of GDP to reach about 5 percent at year-end. Taxation Tax revenues provide the largest part of the general budget. Taxes are levied on individuals, corporations, goods and services, and tobacco and petroleum products. Agriculture For main article see Agriculture in Morocco Agriculture employs about 40% of Morocco's workforce. In the rainy sections of the northeast, barley, wheat, and other cereals can be raised without irrigation. On the Atlantic coast, where there are extensive plains, olives, citrus fruits, and wine grapes are grown, largely with water supplied by artesian wells. Morocco also produces a significant amount of illicit hashish, much of which is shipped to Western Europe. Livestock are raised and forests yield cork, cabinet wood, and building materials. Part of the maritime population fishes for its livelihood. Agadir, Essaouira, El Jadida, and Larache are among the important fishing harbors. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0859768.html After a year of catastrophic droughts resulted in Morocco’s worst harvest in recent history and caused Morocco’s GDP growth to shrink to 3% from 7.9% in 2007. 2008 has been a period of relief and recovery for Moroccan farmers. The cereals harvest, mostly wheat, reached 5m tonnes – a dramatic improvement over 2007, when just 2.2m tonnes were grown. This is in line with the last decade’s average but was still far from the 1996 record of 10m tonnes. The drought meant that Morocco brought in five times the average amount of wheat imports in the beginning of 2008, which coincided with skyrocketing prices for cereals worldwide and strained the government’s Compensation Fund (Caisse de Compensation), a subsidy meant to stabilise the price of staple supplies. The agriculture sector is the foremost job provider and, together with agro-industry, accounts for approximately one-fifth of the country’s GDP and some 35% of exports. Although agriculture is an important sector, the country is not self-sufficient and Morocco imports a percentage of its cereal, sugar, meat and milk consumption. The sector is heavily dependent on the weather, but its performance should be aided by improvements in irrigation and water conservation. The government’s new Green Morocco Plan (Maroc Vert) should boost the sector’s productivity, turnover and investment levels. http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/publication.asp?country=27 Moroccan agricultural production also consists of orange, tomatoes, potatoes, olives, and olive oil. High quality agricultural products are usually exported to Europe. Morocco produces enough food for domestic consumption except for grains, sugar, coffee and tea. More than 40% of Morocco's consumption of grains and flour is imported from the United States and France. High Atlas, Boumalne du Dades. Agriculture industry in Morocco enjoys a complete tax exemption. Many Moroccan critics say that rich farmers and large agricultural companies are taking too much benefit of not paying the taxes, and that poor farmers are struggling with high costs and are getting very poor support from the state. Land Morocco is endowed with numerous exploitable resources. With approximately 33,000 square miles (85,000 square km) of arable land (one-seventh of which can be irrigated) and its generally temperate Mediterranean climate, Morocco’s agricultural potential is matched by few other Arab or African countries. It is one of the few Arab countries that has the potential to achieve self-sufficiency in food production. In a normal year Morocco produces two-thirds of the grains (chiefly wheat, barley, and corn [maize]) needed for domestic consumption. The country exports citrus fruits and early vegetables to the European market; its wine industry is developed, and production of commercial crops (cotton, sugarcane, sugar beets, and sunflowers) is expanding. Newer crops such as tea, tobacco, and soybeans have passed the experimental stage, the fertile Gharb plain being favourable for their cultivation. The country is actively developing its irrigation potential that ultimately will irrigate more than 2.5 million acres (1 million hectares). Drought Nevertheless, the danger of drought is ever present. Especially at risk are the cereal-growing lowlands, which are subject to considerable variation in annual precipitation. On average, drought occurs in Morocco every third year, creating a volatility in agricultural production that is the main constraint on expansion in the sector. Cannabis Morocco consistently ranks among the world's largest producers and exporters of cannabis, and its cultivation and sale provide the economic base for much of northern Morocco. The cannabis is typically processed into hashish. This activity represents 0.57% of Morocco's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A UN survey in 2003 estimated cannabis cultivation at about 1340 km² in Morocco's five northern provinces. This represented 10% of the total area and 23% of the arable lands of the surveyed territory and 1% of Morocco's total arable land http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2003/unisnar826.html "Europe's Drug Consumption Stimulates Cannabis Cultivation in Morocco", news release published by the UN Information Service, 16 December 2003 . Morocco is a party to the 1988 UN Drug Convention and in 1992 Morocco passed legislation designed to implement it and its new national strategy against drugs formulated by its National Committee on Narcotics was adopted in 2005. That same year, the International Narcotics Control Board commended the Government of Morocco for its efforts to eradicate cannabis plant cultivation on its territory, which has resulted in the total potential production of cannabis resin in the Rif region decreasing by 10 per cent over the previous year. At the same time the board called upon the international community to support its efforts where possible http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/ar/2005/incb_report_2005_3.pdf Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2005, a United Nations publication. ISBN 92-1-148209-7. Page 45 . Fishing The fishing grounds in the Canary Current off Morocco’s west coast are exceptionally rich in sardines, bonito, and tuna, but the country lacks the modern fleets and processing facilities to benefit fully from these marine resources. An important part of a major trade agreement Morocco concluded with the European Union (EU) in 1996 concerned fishing rights, by which the EU pays Morocco an annual fee to allow vessels (mainly Spanish) to fish Moroccan waters. The country is the largest fish market in Africa, with an estimated total catch of 1,084,638 MT in 2001. A new four-year fishery agreement with the European Union will allow European vessels, mostly from Spain, to operate in Moroccan and Western Saharan waters in exchange for an economic compensation programme, which the National Fishery Office of Morocco intends to use to boost modernisation of its domestic fishery sector. http://www.infosamak.org/english/actualite.cfm?id=283 There have been constant disputes with Spain over fishing rights since 1973 when Morocco declared a Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), resulting on a coastal fishing limit. This was extended to 200 nautical miles (370 km) in 1981 http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/morspain.htm "Morocco and Fishing", Inventory of Conflict and Environment Cases, published by American University, Washington (DC), U.S. . This "fish war" with Spain and the EU made daily headlines in Morocco. Industry The Moroccan industrial sector looks set to continue the strong growth it has enjoyed in recent years. Industrial activity recorded a 5.5% increase in 2007, a slight rise over 2006, when the sector grew by 4.7%. Added value in the sector increased by 5.6% in 2007. Overall the contribution of industrial activity to GDP fluctuates between about 25% and 35% every year, depending on the performance of the agriculture sector. The industrial sector accounted for about 21.1% of employment in 2007 and the sector is a key component of the government’s effort to curb unemployment. The sector also attracts high levels of FDI and authorities have announced initiatives to improve the investment climate, with particular attention to off-shoring activities, automotive, aeronautics, electronics, food processing activities, products from the sea and textiles. Other important industrial sectors include mining, chemicals, construction materials and pharmaceuticals. The future of Morocco’s industrial segment looks bright, particularly as new initiatives make it more globally competitive in a variety of sectors. http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/publication.asp?country=27 Manufacturing Manufacturing accounts for about one-sixth of GDP and is steadily growing in importance in the economy. Two particularly important components of the country’s industrial makeup are processing raw materials for export and manufacturing consumer goods for the domestic market. Many operations date to the colonial period. Until the early 1980s, government involvement was dominant and the major focus was on import substitution. Since then the emphasis has shifted to privatizing state operations and attracting new private investment, including foreign sources. Processing phosphate ore into fertilizers and phosphoric acid for export is a major economic activity. Food processing for export (canning fish, fresh vegetables, and fruit) as well as for domestic needs (flour milling and sugar refining) is also important, and the manufacture of textiles and clothes using domestically produced cotton and wool is a major source of foreign exchange. Morocco’s iron and steel manufacturing industry is small but provides a significant share of the country’s domestic needs. The manufacturing sector produces light consumer goods, especially foodstuffs, beverages, textiles, matches, and metal and leather products. Heavy industry is largely limited to petroleum refining, chemical fertilizers, automobile and tractor assembly, foundry work, asphalt, and cement. Many of the processed agricultural products and consumer goods are primarily for local consumption, but Morocco exports canned fish and fruit, wine, leather goods, and textiles, as well as such traditional Moroccan handicrafts as carpets and brass, copper, silver, and wood implements. Ownership in the manufacturing sector is largely private, but the government owns the phosphate-chemical fertilizer industry and much of the sugar-milling capacity, through either partnership or joint financing. It is also a major participant in the car and truck assembly industry and in tire manufacturing. Textiles Textiles form a major industry in Morocco. The European Union is Morocco's top client as regards textile and clothing, with France importing 46 % of hosiery, 28.5 % of basic textile and 27.6 % of ready-to-wear clothing from Morocco, managing director of the Moroccan Export Development Center underlined. http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/eu_top_client_of_mor/view Recalling that Morocco's textile and clothing exports totaled some $ 3.7 bln in 2007, Saad Benabdallah ascribed this performance to the many assets that Morocco enjoys, namely, geographical proximity, flexibility, sourcing skills and the multiple opportunities offered by Free Trade Agreements sealed with several countries, including the , the US and Turkey. Mining The mining sector is one of the pillars of Morocco’s economy. It represented a turnover of USD 2.7 billion in 2005, including MAD 2.17 billion in exports and 20% of energy consumption. It also employs about 39,000 people with an estimated MAD 571 million in salaries (2005). The Kingdom produces a number of minerals and metals, most importantly, phosphates, silver and lead. Morocco possesses 75 percent of the world's phosphate reserves. It is the world's first exporter (28% of the global market) and third producer (20% of global production). In 2005, Morocco produced 27,254 million tons of phosphates and 5,895 million tons of phosphate derivatives. Services Services, including government and military expenditures, account for about one-fourth of Morocco’s GDP. Government spending alone, despite an ongoing effort on the part of the government to sell much of its assets to private concerns, accounts for fully half of the service economy. Since the mid-1980s tourism and associated services have been an increasingly significant sector of the Moroccan economy and by the late 1990s had become the country’s largest source of foreign currency. During that time the Moroccan government committed significant resources — by way of loans and tax exemptions — to the development of the tourist industry and associated services. The government also made direct capital investments in the development of the service sector, but since the early 1990s it has begun to divest itself of these properties. Several million visitors enter Morocco yearly, most of them from Europe. Tourists also arrive from Algeria, the United States, and East Asia, mainly Japan. Tourism For main article see Tourism in Morocco Tourism in Morocco Morocco is a major touristic destination. Tourism is thus a major contributor to both the economic output and the current account balance, as well as a main job provider. In 2008 8 million tourists have visited the kingdom. Morocco has developed an ambitious strategy, dubbed "Vision 2010", aimed at attracting 10 million tourists by 2010. This strategy provides for creating 160,000 beds, thus bringing the national capacity to 230,000 beds. It also aims to create some 600,000 new jobs. Marrakech continues to be the market leader, but the case of Fez, showing a 20% increase of visitors in 2004, gives hope that better organisation can bring results in diversifying the sector as a whole. Like other regions, Fez has its Centre Regional du Tourisme (CRT), a local tourism body which coordinates the local industry and the authorities. Fez's plan involves a substantial restructuring of the old city and an upgrading of hotel capacity. Crucially, however, it is improved transport that has brought the city into more direct contact with potential visitors. There are now direct flights from France, where previously it was necessary to change plane in Casablanca. http://www.allbusiness.com/africa/1035405-1.html The "Plan Azur", is a large scale project initiated by king Mohammed VI, is meant to internationalise Morocco. The plan provides for creating six coastal resorts for holiday-home owners and tourists. Five on the Atlantic coast and one on the Mediterranean. The plan also includes other large-scale development projects such as upgrading regional airports to attract budget airlines, and building new train and road links. Thus, the country achieved an 11% rise in tourism in the first five months of 2008 compared with the same period last year, it said, adding that French visitors topped the list with 927,000 followed by Spaniards (587,000) and Britons (141,000). Morocco, which is close to Europe, has a mix of culture and the exotic that makes it popular with Europeans buying holiday homes. http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/development_efforts/view A view of Tangier Bay at sunset as seen from the Malabata suburb. Information Technology The information technology and communications sectors have been witnessing significant expansion as well. Morocco is the first country in North Africa to install a 3G network. The number of Internet subscribers in the country jumped 73% in 2006 over the year-ago period. Further, a new offshore site at Casablanca, with state-of-the-art technologies and other incentives, has grabbed the attention of many global multinationals. Setting up offshore service centers in the nation has become tempting. Such is the rate of growth, that off-shoring and IT activities are estimated to contribute $500 million to the country’s GDP and employ 30,000 people by 2015. The communications sector already accounts for half of all foreign direct investments Morocco received over the past five years. http://www.thomaswhite.com/explore-the-world/morocco.aspx The IT sector generated a turnover of Dh7bn ($910,000m) in 2007, which represented an 11% increase compared to 2006. The number of Moroccan internet subscribers in 2007 amounted to 526,080, representing an increase of 31.6% compared to the previous year and a 100% increase compared to 2005. The national penetration for internet subscription remains low, even though it increased from 0.38% in 2004 to 1.72% in 2007. Yet over 90% of subscribers have a broadband ADSL connection, which is one of the highest ratios in the world. The future of the Moroccan IT sector was laid out in M@roc 2006-12. The plan aims to increased the combined value of the telecoms and IT sector from Dh24bn ($3.1bn) in 2004 to Dh60bn ($7.8bn) in 2012. While the telecoms sector remains the big earner, with Dh33bn ($4.3bn), the IT and off shore industries should generate Dh21bn ($2.7bn) each by 2012. In addition, the number of employees should increase from 40,000 to 125,000. The government hopes that adding more local content to the internet will increase usage. There have also been efforts to add more computers to schools and universities. E-commerce is likely to take off in the next few years, especially as the use of credit cards is gaining more ground in Morocco. Although computer and internet use have made a great leap forward in the past five years, the IT market still finds itself in infancy and offers great potential for further development. Retail The retail industry represents 12.8% of Morocco’s GDP and 1.2m people – 13% of the total workforce – are employed in the sector. Organised retail, however, represents only a fraction of domestic trade, as shoppers rely on the country’s 1151 souks, markets and approximately 700,000 independent groceries and shops. The rapid emergence of a middle class – around 30% of the population – combined with a young and increasingly urban population and a craving for international brands, is rapidly changing the ways Moroccans spend their money. Still average purchasing power remains low overall, forcing retailers to cater to a broad section of the population and to keep prices low. Despite the challenges, the retail sector has strong growth potential. The franchising segment will continue to grow, and while strong local brands are emerging, international brand names will continue to account for the biggest percentage increase in the sector’s turnover. Changing consumption habits, increasing purchasing power and the growing number of tourists should boost the development of malls and luxury shopping. However, independent stores and markets should continue to account for most domestic trade in the foreseeable future. http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/publication.asp?country=27 Construction sector The construction and real estate sectors are also a part of the investment boom in the country. Increasing public investment in ports, housing development projects, and roads as well as the boom in the tourism sector have been a big shot in the arm for the construction sector. The rise in construction activities and efforts to improve infrastructure are creating many opportunities for public-private partnerships. The real estate sector has also been seeing record investments. In fact, Morocco is being touted as the most popular retirement destination among Europeans because it is inexpensive compared to other European tourist destinations. Most of the demand in Morocco is for moderate housing, and a decrease in lending rates has made home-ownership easier. Financial Sector The central bank of Morocco(Bank Al Maghrib) In 2007 the economic environment remained conducive to further growth of banking activity in Morocco following a very good year for the sector in 2006. In 2007 macroeconomic growth, excluding the agricultural sector, remained quite robust, providing the background for dynamic growth in banking credits. Total assets of the banking sector increased by 21.6% to MAD 654.7bn ($85.1bn), which is above the previous year’s high annual growth rate of 18.1%. The structure of the domestic sector has remained steady in the past two years, with the landscape dominated by three major local banks. The state has started to remove itself from the domestic sector by surrendering part of its share capital in public banks. At end-2007 public capital still held controlling stakes in five banks and four financing companies. Meanwhile, foreign ownership in the local financial sector continues to grow, with foreign institutions controlling five banks and eight financing companies as well as holding significant stakes in four banks and three financing companies. The introduction of additional Islamic banking products is also likely in the future. http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/publication.asp?country=27 The financial system, though robust, has to take on excessive quantities of low risk-low return government debt at the expense of riskier, but more productive private sector lending. This crowding–out of private sector investment reduces the profitability and growth incentives of the financial sector. Insurance The insurance sector in Morocco is witnessing dynamic growth, driven foremost by developments in life insurance, which has superseded motor insurance in the past two years as the leading segment of the market with around one-third of total premiums. Behind life and auto insurance, accident, work-related accident, fire and transport insurance were the largest contributors. Total premiums reached Dh17.7bn ($2.3bn) in 2007, ranking Morocco as one of the largest insurance markets in the Arab world behind Saudi Arabia and the UAE. The insurance penetration rate is 2.87% of GDP, while the insurance density is $69 per person. More broadly, the Moroccan insurance sector is already consolidated, with five large players controlling the market. The sector is set to be opened up to foreign competition from 2010 onward, and the consolidation of insurance companies into larger entities should strengthen the local players to better compete with eventual competition from foreign insurers. There is also the possibility that new insurance niches such as takaful (Islamic insurance) and microinsurance products will become part of the Moroccan market in the medium-term, but they are unlikely to appear in the near future. Bank Al-Maghrib The Central Bank of Morocco, Bank Al-Maghrib, was granted enhanced autonomy in 2006. The bank, which follows the dual policy of controlling inflation and promoting growth, seems to be doing a good job. Morocco has largely had low levels of inflation. In 2006, its annual inflation was only 2.7%. http://www.thomaswhite.com/explore-the-world/morocco.aspx The central bank plays a preeminent role in the country’s banking system. It issues the Moroccan dirham, maintains Morocco’s foreign currency reserves, controls the credit supply, oversees the government’s specialized lending organizations, and regulates the commercial banking industry. Market capitilisation In 2007 the capitalisation of the Moroccan stock market increased by 40.5% to Dh586.3bn ($76.2bn), up from the Dh417.1bn ($54.2bn) recorded the previous year. This substantial jump is largely attributed to the 10 new share issues on the Casablanca Stock Exchange over the course of the year, as well as the several secondary issues that also took place in 2007. The market capitalisation-to-GDP ratio also moved in step with the upward trend, now accounting for 96.5% of GDP, up from 71.1% of GDP in 2006, and is comparable to the ratios characteristic of many developed Western economies. The major industrial leaders of the market are banking, telecoms and real estate, which together make up almost two-thirds of market capitalisation. The volume of activity on the stock market, including shares and bonds, also increased significantly in 2007, reaching Dh359.7bn ($46.8bn), an increase of 161.1% on 2006, when total volumes amounted to Dh166.4bn ($21.6bn). There is a widespread belief among market professionals that the market capitalisation and trading volumes will probably continue their upward trend, supported by a positive macroeconomic background, and the latest technology developments, such as on-line securities trading, and the potential introduction of derivatives trading. Education of the public is also seen as an important issue and despite the improvements made in recent years, there is still a need to develop a level of professionalism of operators and to make professional training courses compulsory, as they are still offered on a voluntary basis. Casablanca Stock Exchange Privatization has stimulated activity on the Casablanca Stock Exchange(Bourse de Casablanca) notably trough trade in shares of large former state-owned operation. Founded in 1929, it is one of the oldest stock exchanges in Africa, but it came into reckoning after financial reforms in 1993. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/392604/Morocco The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Morocco was valued at $75,495 billion in 2007 by the World Bank. That is an increase of 74% compared with the year 2005. Media and advertising According to the Moroccan Advertisers Group, Dh3.9bn ($507m) was spent in 2007, a near-fourfold increase on the Dh1.1bn ($143m) spent in 2000. There is still room for growth, as the market remains underdeveloped by international standards. Advertising expenditure represented just over 0.6% of GDP in 2007, compared with 1% in Egypt and 1.5 % to 2% in countries. Morocco’s 10 biggest advertising spenders account for about 35% of the total, with telecoms, consumer goods and services companies making up a large percentage of that amount. Television retained the lion’s share of advertising expenditure, with 55% of above-the-line advertising. In a 2006 poll, GAM found that 94% of its members used outdoor advertising, although 81% companied about problems, mainly caused by quality issues and delays. The potential for expansion is huge, and while telecoms should remain the largest advertising segment, fast-growing sectors of the economy such as retail, automobile and real estate are providing advertising companies with new opportunities. http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/publication.asp?country=27 Communications For main article see Communications in Morocco Image of Casablanca, economic capital of Morocco Telecommunications sector The telecoms sector increased in value from Dh25.6bn ($3.3bn) in 2006 to Dh33.3bn ($4.2bn) in 2007. With a workforce of some 41,000 employees, the sector contributes 7% to annual GDP and is one of the country’s leading recipients of foreign direct investment (FDI). Under the development plan, the sector should employ 125,000 people by 2012 and contribute 10% of GDP. With the penetration rates of 69.4% from mobile phones and 8.95% for fixed lines, the Moroccan telecoms industry is set to continue to grow. The call centre industry – partially as a result of offshore initiatives, such as Casanearshore and Rabat Technoplis – will continue to expand. However, the worldwide call centre industry is highly competitive and education is the key to success if Morocco truly intends to become a leading international player in this industry. http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/publication.asp?country=27 Telephone system In the late 1980s and early ’90s the government undertook a major expansion and modernization of the telecommunications system. This nearly quadrupled the number of internal telephone lines and greatly improved international communications. In 1996 the state-owned telecommunications industry was opened up to privatization by a new law that allowed private investment in the retail sector, while the state retained control of fixed assets. In 1998 the government created Maroc Telecom (Ittiṣālāt al-Maghrib), which provides telephone, cellular, and Internet service for the country. Satellite dishes are found on the roofs of houses in even the poorest neighbourhoods, suggesting that Moroccans at every social and economic level have access to the global telecommunications network. The Internet has made steady inroads in Morocco; major institutions have direct access to it, while private individuals can connect via telecommunications “boutiques,” a version of the cyber cafés found in many Western countries, and through home computers. Morocco has a good system composed of open-wire lines, cables, and microwave radio relay links. The internet is available . The principal switching centers are Casablanca and Rabat. The national network is nearly 100% digital using fiber-optic links. An improved rural service employs microwave radio relay. The international system has seven submarine cables, three satellite earth stations, two Intelsat (over the Atlantic Ocean) and one Arabsat. There is a microwave radio relay to Gibraltar, Spain and the Western Sahara. Coaxial cables and microwave radio relays exist to Algeria. Morocco is a participant in Medarabtel and a fiber-optic cable links from Agadir to Algeria and Tunisia. Main lines in use: 2.394 million (2007) : estimation Mobile cellular: 21 million (2007) : estimation Internet users: 7.4 million (2007): estimation https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mo.html Radio AM stations 25, FM stations 31, shortwave 11 (2007) Radio sets: 7.78 million (2007) Broadband Internet access Operated by Maroc Telecom. The service started as a test in November 2002 before it was launched in October 2003. The service is offered by the subsidiary Menara. External trade For main article see Trade in Morocco Moroccan exports in 2006 In recent years, Morocco has reduced its dependence on phosphate exports, emerging as an exporter of manufactured and agricultural products, and as a growing tourism destination. However, its competitiveness in basic manufactured goods, such as textiles, is hampered by low labour productivity and high wages. Morocco is dependent on imported fuel and its food import requirement can rise substantially in drought years, as in 2007. Although Morocco runs a structural trade deficit, this is typically offset by substantial services earnings from tourism and large remittance inflows from the diaspora, and the country normally runs a small current-account surplus. http://www.economist.com/countries/Morocco/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-FactSheet Morocco signed in 1996 an agreement of association with the European Union which came into effect in 2000. This agreement, which lies within the scope of the Barcelona Process (euro-Mediterranean partnership) started in 1995 and envisages the progressive implementation of a free trade area planned for 2012. After a good performance in the 1st half of 2008, exports of goods slowed in the 3rd quarter before plummeting in the 4th quarter (-16.3%), following the fall in foreign sales of phosphates and their derivatives, after a sharp rise in the 1st and 2nd quarters. Trade imbalance Morocco's trade imbalance rose from 86 billion to 118 billion dirhams between 2006 and 2007 – a 26.6% increase bringing the total amount to 17% of GDP. The Caisse de Dépôt et de Gestion forecasts that if imports continue to rise faster than exports, the disparity could reach 21% of GDP. Foreign Trade Minister Abdellatif Maâzouz said earlier in September that members of the government have agreed to a plan focused on four major areas: a concerted export development strategy, the regulation of imports, market and economic monitoring, and the adaptation of regulations and working practices. The plan, Maâzouz said, "will enable us to redress the external trade situation and to reduce Morocco’s trade deficit." The minister added that that he expects to see a reversal of the imbalance by 2010. http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/features/2008/09/22/feature-02 Investment For main article see Investment in Morocco Graph by the World Bank showing increase in remittances. Moroccan officials have heralded a significant increase in the amount of money Moroccan expatriates are sending home. Government efforts are underway to encourage Moroccans living abroad to increase their investments at home, and to allay concerns about bureaucracy and corruption. With money sent home by Moroccan migrants reaching $5.7 billion in 2007, Morocco came in second, behind Egypt, on the recent World Bank list of the top 10 MENA remittance recipient countries. Neighbouring Algeria ($2.9 billion) came in at number five. In fact according to the World Bank, remittances constituted 9.5% of GDP in Morocco in 2006. http://moroccoeconomywatch.blogspot.com Foreign Direct Investments in Morocco grew to $2.57bln in 2007 from $2.4bln a year earlier to position the country in the fourth rank in Africa among FDI recipients, according to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/box1/fdis_in_morocco_rise/view Although other studies have showm much higher figures. Expectations for 2008 are promising noting that 72 projects were approved for a global amount of $9.28bln. These are due to open 40,023 direct and stable job opportunities. Morocco is also a source of foreign investments. In 2007, it has injected $652mln in projects abroad, which put the kingdom in the third position in Africa. Investment by country Most of the FDIs injected in Morocco came from the European Union with France, the major economic partner of the North African kingdom, topping the list with investments worth $1.86bln, followed by Spain ($783mln), the report said. The influx of European countries in Morocco's FDI represents 73.5% of the global amount received in 2007. 19.3% of the investments came from Arab countries, whose share in Morocco's FDI showed a marked rise, as they only represented 9.9% of the entire FDIs in 2006. A number of Arab countries, mainly from the Gulf are involved in large-scale projects in Morocco, including the giant Tanger Med port on the Mediterranean. Morocco remains the preferred destination of foreign investors in the Maghreb region (Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia), with a total of $13.6bln between 2001 and 2007, which puts it largely on the top of the list. Casablanca Twin Center. Investment by sector In terms of sectors, tourism has the lion’s share with $1.55bln, that is 33% of the total FDIs, followed by the real estate sector and the industrial sector, with respectively $930mln and $374mln. Moroccan expatriates’ share of the FDI stood at $92mln in 2007, up from $57mln in 2006, and they touch mainly the sectors of real estate, tourism and catering, according to the report. Recent Developments Morocco has become an attractive destination for European investors thanks to its relocation sites "Casashore" and "Rabatshore", and to the very rapid cost escalation in Eastern Europe. http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/morocco_an_attractiv/view The offshoring sector in Morocco is of great importance as it creates high-level jobs that are generally accompanied by an influx of Moroccan immigrants. Noting however that human resources remain the major concern for companies seeking to gain a foothold in Morocco. In this regard, it has been deemed an important decision of the Moroccan government to accelerate training in the required disciplines. In a bid to promote foreign investments, Morocco in 2007 adopted a series of measures and legal provisions to simplify procedures and secure appropriate conditions for projects launching and completing. Foreign trade minister, Abdellatif Maazouz cited that these measures include financial incentives and tax exemptions provided for in the investment code and the regional investment centres established to accompany projects. http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/morocco_set_to_impro/view These measures combined with actions carried out by the Hassan II Fund for Development increased foreign investments in Morocco by $ 544,7 mln in 2007. 20% of these investments came from islamic countries. Economy of Western Sahara For main article see Economy of Western Sahara The majority of the territory of Western Sahara is currently administered by the Kingdom of Morocco. As such, the economical activity of Western Sahara happens in the framework of the economy of Morocco. However, there are no patent laws in Western Sahara. http://www.billanderson.com.au/Gazetteer-Patents.htm In the Moroccan-administered territory, fishing and phosphate mining are the 2001 signed contracts to explore for oil off the coast of Western Sahara. The area east of the Moroccan defensive wall is mainly uninhabited. There is practically no economical infrastructure and the only activity is camel herding kept by beduins and also many Tuaregs who depend on pastoral nomadism. The government-in-exile of the Polisario front has signed oil contracts of its own ,but there is no practical exploration. Fishing and oil exploration contracts concerning Western Sahara are sometimes sources of political tension. Key agricultural products include fruits and vegetables (grown in the few oases); camels, sheep, goats (kept by nomads.) Development of the Northern Region Historically, the Casablanca-Rabat axis has been more prosperous and has received more government attention than the predominantly mountainous northern provinces and the Western Sahara region. Although the latter region has received government attention since the 1990s because of its phosphate deposits, the northern provinces, which include the Rif Mountains, home to 6 million Moroccans, had been largely neglected. The uneven development among Morocco's regions fueled a cycle of rural-urban migration that has shown no signs of slowing down. In 1998, the government launched a program to develop the northern region, largely with international help. Spain had shown particular interest in the development of the region, because its underdevelopment has fueled illegal immigration and drug trafficking across the Strait of Gibraltar. http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/020710/2002071018.html When king Hassan II, past on his son Mohammed VI, made it his duty to develop the Northern Region and especially its biggest city Tangier. The state-owned railway company will engage some $755 million in investment in the northern region, including building a railway line between Tangier and Tangier-Med port (43 km), improving the Tangier-Casablanca railway line and modernizing many train stations over the next few years. Tangier For main article see Economy of Tangier Before 1956, Tangier was a city with international status. It had a great image and attracted many artists. After Morocco regained control over Tangier, this attention slacked off. Investment was low and the city lost its economic importance. But when Mohammed VI became king in 1999, he developed a plan for the economic revival of Tangier. New developments include a new airport terminal, a soccer stadium with seating for 45,000 spectators, a high-speed train line and a new highway to connect the city with Casablanca. Additionally, a new train station was constructed, called Tanger-Ville. The creation of a free economic zone increased the economic output of the city significantly. It allowed Tangier to become an industrial pillar of the country. But the biggest investment was the creation of the new port Tan-Med. It's the largest port in Africa and on the Mediterranean. The city is undergoing an economic boom. This increased the need for a commercial district, Tangier City Center. Which is now under construction. Infrastructure With billions of dollars committed to improving the country’s infrastructure, Morocco aims to become a world player in terms of marine transport. The government is well aware that a well-oiled transport sector is essential to accelerate growth in such key economic sectors as agriculture, tourism and industry. The 2008-2012 investment plan aims to invest $16.3bn and will contribute to major projects such as the combined port and industrial complex of the Tanger-Med and the construction of a high-speed train between Tangier and Casablanca. The plan will also improve and expand the existing highway system and expand the Casablanca Mohammed V International Airport. Morocco’s transport sector is one of the kingdom’s most dynamic, and will remain so for years to come. The improvements in infrastructure will boost other sectors and will also help the country in its goal of attracting 10m tourists by 2010. Morocco plans to invest more than $15 billion to upgrade its basic infrastructure, including roads, ports, airports for the 2002-2015 period to bolster its economic competitiveness amid efforts to turn the country into a platform of investment and exports to the European Union and United States. http://www.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUSL2766705120071127 Morocco’s road network effectively integrates the country’s diverse regions. Established during the colonial period, the network has been well maintained and gradually expanded since. The railway system connects the principal urban centres of the north, and new rail links, together with improved roads, are being established to Laâyoune in Western Sahara. Morocco has some two dozen ports along its lengthy coastline. Casablanca alone accounts for about half of all port tonnage handled, although port facilities in Tangier are of increasing significance. Other major ports include Safi, Mohammedia, Agadir, Nador, Kenitra, and El Jorf Lasfar. About a dozen airports capable of accommodating large aircraft service the country; the principal international airport is located near Casablanca. The state-owned Royal Air Maroc airline provides regular service to Europe, North America, the Middle East, and Western Africa. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/392604/Morocco Development Morocco plans to implement a USD 16.3Bn transport infrastructure program in the period 2008-2012 This program covers several projects such as developing the Tangier-Med port complex, modernizing the rail network, and achieving the first high speed train connection between Tangiers and Casablanca. The program also touches on developing Morocco's airports capacity to accommodate 30Mn passengers in 2010, establishing 630 km of expressways and completing 1,500 km of highways. In november 2008 there was an estimated 900 km of highways in Morocco http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/economy/morocco_to_implement_1/view The highways construction pace jumped to 160 km currently from 40 km annually in the 90s and 100 km during the 2002-2005 period, noting that investments rose from USD 81.7Mn to USD 543Mn currently. Labour Roughly one-third of the population is employed in agriculture, another one-third make their living in mining, manufacturing, and construction, and the remainder are occupied in the trade, finance, and service sectors. Not included in these estimates is a large informal economy of street vendors, domestic workers, and other underemployed and poorly paid individuals. High unemployment is a problem; the official figure is roughly on tenth of the workforce, but unofficial estimates are much higher, and—in a pattern typical of most Middle Eastern and North African countries—unemployment among university graduates holding nontechnical degrees is especially high. Several trade unions exist in the country; the largest of these, with nearly 700,000 members, is L’Union Marocaine du Travail, which is affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. Unemployment Morocco's unemployment rate, long a cause for concern, has been dropping steadily in 2008, on the back of job growth in services and construction. Further institutional reforms to bolster competitiveness and financial openness are expected to help the trend to continue. On the whole, the growth rate of the economy will not reduce the unemployment rate significantly, also taking account of the constant rise in the number of first entrants on the labour market. The growth level of the last five years did, however, reduce urban unemployment from 22% in 1999 to 18.3% in 2005, and the national rate from 13.9% in 1999 to 10.8% in 2005. The State High Planning Commission that Morocco's official unemployment rate dropped to 9.1% in Q2 2008, down from 9.6% in Q1. This leaves Morocco with some 1.03m unemployed, compared to 1.06m at the end of March. Unemployment stood at 9.8% at the end of 2007, up 0.1% from the end of 2006. Urban areas saw particularly strong job growth, and the services and construction sectors were the two leading drivers of job creation. Services generated some 152,000 new jobs, with the business process outsourcing (BPO) and telecoms sector proving particularly dynamic. Meanwhile, government infrastructure projects, as well as heavy private investment in real estate and tourism helped boost the construction sector, which created 80,000 new jobs in the second quarter of 2008. Evidently, this trend of falling unemployment rates is a positive one. Joblessness has long been a cause for serious concern in North Africa. Morocco has a lower rate than its Maghreb neighbours - Tunisia has a rate of around 13.9%, and in Algeria it is around 12.3% - but the issue is still a pressing one, both for economic and for social reasons. A 2006 government report suggested that the country needed a net increase of 400,000 jobs annually for the next two decades in order to provide enough employment for its people, given the underlying demographic dynamic. Moreover, with Spanish construction firms facing much harder times, Morocco may soon face the additional challenge of workers returning from across the Gibraltar Straits, potentially putting further pressure on the authorities to create jobs. With 30.5% of Morocco's population of 34.3m aged 14 or younger, according to the CIA, job creation for the young is one of the government's major priorities. 2007 data indicate that 17.6% of those in the 15-24 age group are unemployed. This rises to around one third in urban areas - rural communities often employ the young in agriculture, including on the family farm, as soon as they leave school, contributing to relatively high youth employment rates (lower levels of official unemployment registration are also a factor). http://moroccoeconomywatch.blogspot.com/ Energy For main article see Energy policy of Morocco Morocco has very few reserves of its own and has been affected by the high oil prices of 2007 and early 2008. The country has to import 96% of its energy requirements and the national oil bill for the first quarter of 2008 was $1.1bn—69% higher than for the same period in 2007. The kingdom is working to diversify its energy sources, especially to develop renewable energy, with a particular focus on wind energy. Solar power and nuclear energy are also part of the strategy, but development of the former has been slow and there has been minimal progress on the latter, aside from an announcement of collaboration with France in 2007. The government plans to reorganise its subsidy system, which is a heavy burden on government finances. In the short term these subsidies are helping to ease the burden but they cannot keep rising indefinitely, and sooner or later the load will have to be shared out. In the short term, national consumption per capita is expected to rise from the current level of 0.4 tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) to as much as 0.90 toe in 2030, a good indication of development, but a massive challenge as well. The input of renewable energy is a matter of particular importance. http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/publication.asp?country=27 According to a 2006 estimate by the Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ), Morocco has proven oil reserves of 1.07 million barrels and natural gas reserves of 60 billion cubic feet (Bcf). Morocco may have additional hydrocarbon reserves, as many of the country's sedimentary basins have not yet been explored. The Moroccan Office of Hydrocarbons and Mining (ONHYM) has become optimistic about finding additional reserves - particularly offshore - following discoveries in neighboring Mauritania. Recent activity in Western Sahara, which is believed to contain viable hydrocarbon reserves, has been controversial. In 2001, Morocco granted exploration contracts to Total and Kerr-McGee, angering Premier Oil and Sterling Energy, which previously had obtained licenses from the Polisario government. In 2005, the government-in-exile of the Western Sahara invited foreign companies to bid on 12 contracts for offshore exploration, with hopes of awarding production sharing contracts by the end of 2005. Environment The shift to an environment-conscious approach in Morocco has brought about scores of investment opportunities, most being in the utility and renewable energy industries. In addition to the rise in sales of photovoltaic panels, the business of wind turbines is also surging despite soaring prices on international markets because of the growing demand. To work towards a programme of sustainable development, a number of technological updates need to be made, including improvements to automobiles, the quality of energy products and increasing the number of renewable energy-producing plants. The government also needs to promote water conservation and efficiency in order to prevent further scarcity. Despite these challenges, Morocco is working to conserve and protect its environment and its efforts were recognised when its Mohammed VI Foundation for Environment won the environmental prize National Energy Globe Award in Brussels in 2007. http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/publication.asp?country=27 See also Economy of Africa Bank Al-Maghrib - Central bank of Morocco Morocco and the European Union Investment in Morocco Economy of Tangier Notes External links Kingdom of Morocco - Country Strategy Paper 2003-2005 - African Development Bank Description of the US-Moroccan FTA Final Text of the US-Moroccan FTA Description of benefits of the US-Moroccan FTA Moroccan-American Trade and Investment Council Maroc Entrepreneurs : Association dedicated to the Promotion of Entrepreneurship in Morocco Fantastic Morocco Morocco Economy	Economy_of_Morocco \|@lemmatized morocco:191 economy:53 consider:2 relatively:5 liberal:1 govern:1 law:4 supply:4 demand:5 since:9 country:64 follow:9 policy:12 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6,072	Fu_Manchu	Dr. Fu Manchu is a fictional character first featured in a series of novels by English author Sax Rohmer during the first half of the 20th century. The character was also featured extensively in cinema, television, radio, comic strips and comic books for over 90 years, and has become an archetype of the evil criminal genius while inspiring the Fu Manchu moustache. Characters Fu Manchu A master criminal, Fu Manchu's murderous plots are marked by the extensive use of arcane methods; he disdains guns or explosives, preferring dacoits, Thuggee, and members of other secret societies as his agents armed with knives, or using "pythons and hamadryads... fungi and my tiny allies, the bacilli... my black spiders" and other peculiar animals or natural chemical weapons. According to Cay Van Ash (a friend and biographer of Sax Rohmer, who wrote his own authorized pastiches Ten Years Beyond Baker Street and The Fires of Fu Manchu) "Fu Manchu" was a title of honor, which meant "the Warlike Manchu." It was thought that the character had been a member of the Imperial family who backed the losing side in the Boxer Rebellion. In the earliest books, Fu Manchu is an assassin sent on missions by the Si-Fan, but he quickly rises to become head of that dreaded secret society. At first, the Si-Fan's goal is to throw the Europeans out of Asia; later, the group attempts to intervene more generally in world politics, while funding itself by more ordinary crime. Dr. Fu Manchu has extended his already considerable lifespan by use of the elixir vitae, a formula he spent decades trying to perfect. When China is conquered by the Communists, Fu Manchu fights to restore the China of old. It has been argued that Fu Manchu was based on or influenced by Dr. Yen How, the oriental villain in M. P. Shiel's novels, and Li Shoon from H. Irving Hancock's stories. Kâramanèh Prominent among his agents was the "seductively lovely" Kâramanèh. Her real name is unknown. She was sold to the Si-Fan by Egyptian slave traders while still a child. Kara falls in love with the editor of the first three books in the series, Dr. Petrie. She rescues Petrie and Nayland Smith many times. Eventually the couple are united and she wins her freedom. They marry and have a daughter, Fleurette who figures in later novels. Author Lin Carter later created a son for Dr. Petrie and Kara, but this is not considered canonical. Fah lo Suee Fu Manchu's daughter, Fah lo Suee, is a devious mastermind in her own right, plotting to take control of the Si-Fan from her father and making things difficult for him. Her real name is Mama Maka Shuee Ka Loo Fah E Meleoloakalotorororor. Fah lo Suee was a term of endearment from her childhood. She is introduced anonymously in the third book in the series and plays a larger role in several later entries. She rebelled against her father and sided with his enemies (within and outside of the Si-Fan) on several occasions. She was known for a time as Koreani after being brainwashed by her father, but her memory was later restored. She is infamous for taking on false identities, like her father. Among them are Madame Ingomar and Queen Mamaloi. The daughter of Fu Manchu has been played by numerous actresses over the years from Anna May Wong to Myrna Loy to Tsai Chin among others. Her name has been altered for the big screen several times. Commissioner Sir Denis Nayland Smith and Dr. Petrie Opposing Fu Manchu in the early stories are Commissioner Sir Denis Nayland Smith and Dr. Petrie. They are in the Holmes and Watson tradition, with Dr. Petrie narrating the stories while Nayland Smith carries the fight, combating Fu Manchu more by dogged determination than intellectual brilliance (except in extremis). Nayland Smith and Fu Manchu share a grudging respect for one another, as each believes a man must keep his word even to an enemy. Smith is an official of the British government with a roving commission which allows him to exercise authority over any group that can help him in his mission. He resembles Sherlock Holmes and James Bond, both in their physical description, in their acerbic manner, and in their deductive geniuses. He has been criticized as being a racist and jingoistic character, especially in the early entries in the series, and gives voice to anti-Asian sentiments. Smith has been played by many actors of varying ages over the years. Controversy Even at the time of publication, there were objections to the sinophobic "negative stereotyping" involved in the Fu Manchu character. More recent admirers of the novels have claimed that Fu Manchu should not in fact be seen as specifically Manchurian Chinese but as a pure creation, with no real-world reference at all. Scholars however, contend that the character is built upon a well-known structure of "racist and imperialist assumptions" about Manchurian Chinese, and "catered to the racist and sensationalistic proclivities of his intended audience", though perhaps he should be viewed as a more nuanced portrayal than simply a soulless stereotype. The sexuality of the character has also received attention, with several critics making the argument that he serves to "pervert" Chinese "masculine expression" and is representative of an "assault" of "effeminate stereotypes" on Asian men, which has caused some conflict within feminist literary theory. The author himself, while "bemused" at the furor, defended his character by saying that the portrait was "fundamentally truthful" because "criminality was often rampant among the Chinese", especially in Limehouse. Cultural impact The character of Fu Manchu became a stereotype often associated with the Yellow Peril. Fu Manchu has inspired numerous other characters, and is the model for most villains in later "Yellow Peril" thrillers. Violet Books: Yellow Peril Examples include Pao Tcheou, Ming the Merciless from Flash Gordon, Li Chang Yen from The Big Four, James Bond adversary Dr. No, Dr. Benton Quest's archenemy Doctor Zin from the Jonny Quest television series, Dr. Yen-Lo from The Manchurian Candidate, Lo-Pan from Big Trouble in Little China, Marvel comics foes the Mandarin and the Yellow Claw, DC Comics' Rā's al Ghūl, Wo Fat from the CBS TV series Hawaii Five-O, and Ancient Wu from the video game True Crime: Streets of LA,. While not of Chinese descent, "Egyptian" arch-villain "Kathulos" (then revealed to be a survived Atlantean) of Robert E. Howard's Skull-Face novella is blatantly inspired by Fu Manchu. "Comrade Li" in Peter George's Commander-1 (1965) is essentially the same type of villain -- despite his name having only a thin veneer of Communism or Marxism, being rather a suave philosopher steeped in ancient Chinese learning whose cold-blooded machinations bring about a nuclear holocaust in which nearly all humanity perishes (including China, which he sought to make great) and who eventually meets a suitable gruesome and ignominious end. Fu Manchu is also one of the earliest known examples of a supervillain, with Professor Moriarty being among the few other precedents. The style of facial hair associated with him in film adaptations has become known as the Fu Manchu moustache, although Rohmer's writings described the character as possessing no such accoutrement. Books The Insidious Dr Fu Manchu (1913) (also known as The Mystery of Dr. Fu-Manchu). A combination of short stories originally published in magazines. The first of these was The Zayat Kiss, which was published in The Storyteller (1912). The Return of Dr Fu Manchu (1916) (also known as The Devil Doctor) The Hand of Fu Manchu (1917) (also known as The Si-Fan Mysteries) Daughter of Fu Manchu (1931) narrated by Shan Greville rather than Dr. Petrie. The Mask of Fu Manchu (1932) also narrated by Shan Greville. The Bride of Fu Manchu (1933) narrated by Alan Sterling. The Trail of Fu Manchu (1934) narrated in the third person. President Fu Manchu (1936) narrated in the third person. The Drums of Fu Manchu (1939) narrated by Bart Kerrigan. The Island of Fu Manchu (1940) narrated by Bart Kerrigan. The Shadow of Fu Manchu (1948) narrated in the third person. Re-Enter Fu Manchu (1957) narrated in the third person. Emperor Fu Manchu (1959) narrated by Tony McCay. Emperor Fu Manchu was Rohmer's last novel. After Rohmer's death came the following Fu Manchu books: The Wrath of Fu Manchu (1973). A posthumous anthology containing the title novella, first published in 1952, and three later short stories: The Eyes of Fu Manchu (1957), The Word of Fu Manchu (1958), and The Mind of Fu Manchu (1959). Ten Years Beyond Baker Street: Sherlock Holmes Matches Wits with the Diabolical Dr. Fu Manchu (1984). The first of two authorized pastiches by Cay van Ash, Sax Rohmer's former assistant and biographer. The novel is set in a gap in the narrative of Rohmer's third Fu Manchu novel, The Hand of Fu Manchu (1917) and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes story, His Last Bow (1917). The Fires of Fu Manchu (1987). The second of two authorized pastiches by Cay van Ash. The novel is set in 1917 and falls between Rohmer's novels, The Hand of Fu Manchu (1917) and Daughter of Fu Manchu (1931). (A third Van Ash title The Seal of Fu Manchu was never completed.) Both Van Ash pastiches are narrated by Dr. Petrie. The League of Dragons was an unpublished, unauthorized novel involving a young Sherlock Holmes matching wits with Fu Manchu in the nineteenth century. The novel's author, George Alec Effinger labored for two decades to finish and publish the book. Excerpts have been published in the anthologies, Sherlock Holmes in Orbit (1995) and My Sherlock Holmes (2003). The Effinger pastiche is narrated by Conan Doyle's character Reginald Musgrave. The Terror of Fu Manchu is the title of a new authorized Fu Manchu novel by William Patrick Maynard. It is set within a gap in the narrative of The Hand of Fu Manchu (1917) and is narrated by Dr. Petrie. The novel was published in April 2009 by Black Coat Press. A second one is planned. Fu Manchu also made appearances in the following non-Fu Manchu books: Anno Dracula (1994). Fu Manchu appeared in a cameo as one of the criminal rulers of the London underworld. He is never referred to by his name in the novel. Rather, he is called only "the Devil Doctor." Written by Kim Newman. "Sex Slaves of the Dragon Tong", and "Part of the Game," short stories anthologized in the F. Paul Wilson collection Aftershocks and Others: 19 Oddities (2009) feature Dr. Fu Manchu, without naming him. The first story also features Little Orphan Annie, Sandy, Daddy Warbucks, Punjab, and the Asp, also not named. Fu Manchu appears anonymously as "The Doctor" in several of August Derleth's Sherlock Holmes pastiches in his Solar Pons series. Derleth's successor, Basil Copper continued this tradition after Derleth's death. The name Fu Manchu is borrowed for the character of a Chinese ambassador in Kurt Vonnegut's Slapstick (novel) (1976) In other media Film serials Fu Manchu first appeared on the big screen in the 1923 British film serial The Mystery of Dr. Fu Manchu starring Harry Agar Lyons. Lyons returned to the role the next year in The Further Mysteries of Fu Manchu. Fu Manchu returned to the serial format in 1940 in Republic Pictures' Drums of Fu Manchu, a 15-episode serial considered to be one of the best the studio ever made. It was later edited and released as a feature film in 1943. Republic had wanted to do a second serial Fu Manchu Strikes Back, but the State Department persuaded them to refrain from doing so because China was a war-time ally against Japan. Feature films In 1929 Fu made his American film debut in The Mysterious Dr. Fu Manchu starring Warner Oland, best known for his portrayal of Charlie Chan. Oland repeated the role in 1930's The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu and 1931's Daughter of the Dragon. Oland appeared in character in the 1931 musical, Paramount on Parade where the Devil Doctor was seen to murder both Philo Vance and Sherlock Holmes. Nevertheless, the most famous early incarnation of the character was The Mask of Fu Manchu (1932) starring Boris Karloff and Myrna Loy. The film's tone has long been considered racist and offensive, but that only added to its cult status alongside its humor and Grand Guignol sets and torture sequences. The film was suppressed for many years, but has since received critical re-evaluation and been released on DVD uncut. Other than an obscure, unauthorized 1946 Spanish film El Otro Fu Manchu, Fu was absent from the big sceen for about twenty five years, until producer Harry Alan Towers and his company, Towers of London, began a series starring Christopher Lee in 1965. Towers and Lee would make one Fu Manchu film per year through the end of the decade: The Face of Fu Manchu (1965), The Brides of Fu Manchu (1966), The Vengeance of Fu Manchu (1967), The Blood of Fu Manchu (1968), and finally The Castle of Fu Manchu (1969) His last authorized film appearance was The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu, a 1980 spoof starring Peter Sellers as both Fu Manchu and Nayland Smith. The film, taking place in contemporary times bore little connection to any prior film or the original books. However Peter Sellers' characterisation of Fu Manchu and Nayland Smith were aged as the characters of the Harry Alan Towers films set in the late 1920s would have been, and seems to fit in with the Towers series. In the film, Fu Manchu claims he was known as "Fred" at public school, a reference to the aforementioned "Fred Fu Manchu" from the Goon Show. Jess Franco, who had directed The Blood of Fu Manchu and The Castle of Fu Manchu, also directed the second of three Towers films based on Rohmer's Sumuru character, The Girl from Rio and an unauthorized 1986 Spanish film about Fu Manchu's daughter, Esclavas del Crimen. Nicolas Cage cameos as Fu Manchu in Rob Zombie's faux trailer Werewolf Women of the SS, which is part of the 2007 film Grindhouse. Harry Alan Towers has several times announced unsuccessful plans to revive the character since the early 1970s, most recently at Cannes in 2007. Television Fu Manchu was first brought to television in NBC's 1952 short film The Zayat Kiss starring John Carradine. It was intended to be a series of mystery films starring the character, but only an unsold pilot was produced. From 3 September 1956 till 26 November 1956, Hollywood Television Service (a subsidiary of Republic Pictures) produced a 13-episode syndicated programme, The Adventures of Fu Manchu starring Glen Gordon as Dr Fu Manchu, Lester Matthews as Sir Dennis Nayland Smith, Clark Howat as Dr John Petrie, Carla Balenda as Betty Leonard, Laurette Luez as Karamaneh (Fu Manchu's woman servant) and John George as Kolb (his dwarf flunkey). The shows would start off with a chess game, telling us that the white pieces were good/life and the black pieces bad/death, that the Devil was said to play chess for men's souls and so does Fu Manchu who is evil incarnate. At the end of each episode, after Nayland Smith and Petrie had foiled Fu Manchu's latest fiendish scheme, he would signify that it was over by breaking a black chess piece. It was directed by noted serial director Franklin Adreon as well as William Witney. Unlike the Holmes/Watson type relationship of the films, the series featured Smith as a law enforcement officer and Petrie using his medical knowledge to complement each other. In 1990, Spanish television broadcast the spoof, The Daughter of Fu Manchu featuring Paul Naschy as the Devil Doctor. Music The stoner rock band Fu Manchu (band) was named after him. Jamaican reggae pioneer Desmond Dekker recorded a song titled "Fu Man Chu" in 1968 with the chorus, "This is the face of Fu Manchu." Frank Black (of the Pixies) recorded a song called "Fu Manchu" in 1993. Fu Manchu was the name of a bull, mentioned in Tim McGraw's song Live Like You Were Dying Fu Man Chu was also mentioned Travis Tritt's song "It's a Great Day to Be Alive". British band Ash include Fu Manchu in the lyrics to their song "Kung Fu" British band The Wildhearts include Fu Manchu on their list of admired villains in the song "Rooting For The Bad Guy". Village Green Preservation Society on the similarly titled album by The Kinks mentions Fu Manchu, alongside other fictional villains, Moriarty and Dracula, in its list of things to preserve, "Help save Fu Manchu, Moriarty and Dracula". Hip Hop group The Fugees briefly mention Fu Manchu in the song "Vocab", from the album Blunted on Reality. Montréal French speaking rock singer Robert Charlebois composed a song entitled "Fu Man Chu (Chus d'dans)" in 1972, in which he refers to the Fu Man Chu and Gene Autry black and white movies of the 1950-1960s. Through the story of Bill, the hero, the song highlights the main events of the second half of the 20th Century, starting with Bill initially dreaming about being attached to a railway track when the train is coming, then his posting abroad to war (presumably Vietnam) and finally ends with Lady Trenton losing her virginity to Bill, whom she saved from the villains after his trip to the milky way. Radio Fu Manchu earliest radio appearances were on the Collier Hour 1927-31 on the Blue Network. This was a radio programme designed to promote Collier's magazine and presented weekly dramatizations of the current issues stories and serials. Fu was voiced by Arthur Hughes. A self titled show on CBS followed in 1932-33. John C. Daly, and later Harold Huber, played Fu. Additionally, there were "pirate" broadcast from the Continent into Britain, from Radio Luxembourg and Radio Lyons in 1936 through 1937. Frank Cochrane voiced Fu Manchu. The BBC produced a competing series, The Peculiar Case of the Poppy Club starting in 1939. That same year The Shadow of Fu Manchu aired in the United States as a thrice weekly serial dramatizing the early novels. The series starred Gale Gordon as Dr. James Petrie, and Bruno Lang as Fu Manchu. (As a side note: both Gordon and Lang worked together three years earlier on the radio series "The Interplanetary Adventures of Flash Gordon", with Gordon as Flash and Lang cast as the Ming The Merciless.) The last Fu Manchu radio series The Insidious Dr. Fu Manchu aired in 1944 on NBC. A character with the name "Fred Fu Manchu" appeared as a famous Chinese bamboo saxophonist as part of The Goon Show, a 1950's British radio comedy programme. He appeared in his very own episode, "The Terrible Revenge of Fred Fu Manchu" in 1955 (announced as "Fred Fu-Manchu and his Bamboo Saxophone"), as well as making minor appearances in other episodes (including "China Story", "The Siege of Fort Night" and "The Lost Emperor"(as "Doctor Fred Fu Manchu: oriental tattooist")). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Goon_Show_cast_members_and_characters#Fu_Manchu The character was invented and performed by Spike Milligan, who used the character to mock British xenophobia and self-satisfaction, the traits summoning the original Fu Manchu into existence, and not as a slur against Asians. Blood of Fu Manchu In commercials for Nissan of North Olmsted, Employee Larry Chupa is referred to as Larry "Fu Manchu" Pa. Comic strips Fu was first brought to newspaper comic strips in a black and white daily strip drawn by Leo O'Mealia and ran from 1931 to 1933. The strips were adaptations of the first two Fu Manchu novels and part of the third. They were copyrighted by "Sax Rohmer and The Bell Syndicate, Inc". Comic books Fu Manchu made his first comic book appearance in Detective Comics # 17, and continued, as one feature among many in the anthology series, until #28. These were reprints of the earlier Leo O'Mealia strips. Original Fu stories in comics had to wait for Avon's one-shot The Mask of Dr. Fu Manchu in 1951. A similar British one-shot The Island of Fu Manchu was published in 1956. In the 1970s, Fu Manchu appeared as the father of the character Shang-Chi in the series Shang-Chi, Master of Kung Fu. However Marvel Comics lost the rights to the character in the 1980s, so in later appearances, Fu Manchu is never named, only referred to as Shang-Chi's 'father,' and never shown out of shadow. In a recent Black Panther storyline, he is referred to as "Mr. Han", apparently a play on the name of the main villain in Enter the Dragon. Fu Manchu appeared as a villain in the first volume of Alan Moore's comic book series The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, but was referred to only as "the Doctor" or "the Devil Doctor" as the character is not in the public domain in Europe. Fu Manchu and his daughter are the inspiration for the character Hark and his daughter Anna Hark in the comic book series Planetary as well as Ming the Merciless and Princess Aura in Alex Raymond's Flash Gordon series. Fu Manchu was also the inspiration for Ra's al Ghul in Batman and The Mandarin and the Yellow Claw in his own four issue Atlas (Marvel) Comics series as well as Marvel Comics' Nick Fury and Iron Man series. References External links The Page of Fu Manchu The Insidious Dr. Fu Manchu by Sax Rohmer The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu by Sax Rohmer Hermes Reviews'' reviews of all the Fu Manchu books as well as those featuring Sax Rohmer's other criminal mastermind, Sumuru A database and cover gallery of Fu Manchu comic book appearances Theater of the Ears: The Shadow of Fu Manchu Radio Dramas	Fu_Manchu \|@lemmatized dr:30 fu:140 manchu:129 fictional:2 character:27 first:14 feature:10 series:22 novel:17 english:1 author:4 sax:7 rohmer:13 half:2 century:3 also:13 extensively:1 cinema:1 television:6 radio:10 comic:16 strip:6 book:16 year:11 become:4 archetype:1 evil:2 criminal:4 genius:2 inspire:3 moustache:2 master:2 murderous:1 plot:3 mark:1 extensive:1 use:5 arcane:1 method:1 disdain:1 gun:1 explosive:1 prefer:1 dacoit:1 thuggee:1 member:2 secret:2 society:3 agent:2 arm:1 knife:1 python:1 hamadryad:1 fungi:1 tiny:1 ally:2 bacillus:1 black:8 spider:1 peculiar:2 animal:1 natural:1 chemical:1 weapon:1 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6,073	Euclid	Euclid (Greek: ), fl. 300 BC, also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician and is often referred to as the "Father of Geometry." He was active in Hellenistic Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323 BC – 283 BC). His Elements is the most successful textbook and one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century. Macardle, et al. (2008). Scientists: Extraordinary People Who Altered the Course of History. New York: Metro Books. g. 12. In it, the principles of what is now called Euclidean geometry were deduced from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory and rigor. Biographical knowledge Little is known about Euclid except his writings. The biographical information that we do have comes largely from commentaries by Proclus and Pappus of Alexandria. Euclid was active at the great Library of Alexandria and may have studied at Plato's Academy in Greece. The date and place of Euclid's birth and the date and circumstances of his death are unknown. Some writers in the Middle Ages confused him with Euclid of Megara, a Greek Socratic philosopher who lived approximately one century earlier. Heath (1956) vol. I, p. 4 The Elements One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's Elements, found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to circa AD 100. The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5. Although many of the results in Elements originated with earlier mathematicians, one of Euclid's accomplishments was to present them in a single, logically coherent framework, making it easy to use and easy to reference, including a system of rigorous mathematical proofs that remains the basis of mathematics 23 centuries later. ".. their logical structure has influenced scientific thinking perhaps more than any other text in the world" (Struik, pg 51) Although best-known for its geometric results, the Elements also includes number theory. It considers the connection between perfect numbers and Mersenne primes, the infinitude of prime numbers, Euclid's lemma on factorization (which leads to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic on uniqueness of prime factorizations), and the Euclidean algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers. The geometrical system described in the Elements was long known simply as geometry, and was considered to be the only geometry possible. Today, however, that system is often referred to as Euclidean geometry to distinguish it from other so-called non-Euclidean geometries that mathematicians discovered in the 19th century. Other works Euclid, as imagined by Raphael in this detail from The School of Athens. No likeness or description of Euclid's physical appearance made during his lifetime survived antiquity. Therefore, Euclid's depiction in works of art depends on the artist's imagination. In addition to the Elements, at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day. They follow the same logical structure as Elements, with definitions and proved propositions. Data deals with the nature and implications of "given" information in geometrical problems; the subject matter is closely related to the first four books of the Elements. On Divisions of Figures, which survives only partially in Arabic translation, concerns the division of geometrical figures into two or more equal parts or into parts in given ratios. It is similar to a third century AD work by Heron of Alexandria. Catoptrics, which concerns the mathematical theory of mirrors, particularly the images formed in plane and spherical concave mirrors. The attribution to Euclid is doubtful. Its author may have been Theon of Alexandria. Phenomena, a treatise on spherical astronomy, survives in Greek; it is quite similar to On the Moving Sphere by Autolycus of Pitane, who flourished around 310 BC. Optics is the earliest surviving Greek treatise on perspective. In its definitions Euclid follows the Platonic tradition that vision is caused by discrete rays which emanate from the eye. One important definition is the fourth: "Things seen under a greater angle appear greater, and those under a lesser angle less, while those under equal angles appear equal." In the 36 Statue of Euclid in the Oxford University Museum of Natural Historypropositions that follow, Euclid relates the apparent size of an object to its distance from the eye and investigates the apparent shapes of cylinders and cones when viewed from different angles. Proposition 45 is interesting, proving that for any two unequal magnitudes, there is a point from which the two appear equal. Pappus believed these results to be important in astronomy and included Euclid's Optics, along with his Phaenomena, in the Little Astronomy, a compendium of smaller works to be studied before the Syntaxis (Almagest) of Claudius Ptolemy. Other works are credibly attributed to Euclid, but have been lost. Conics was a work on conic sections that was later extended by Apollonius of Perga into his famous work on the subject. It is likely that the first four books of Apollonius's work come directly from Euclid. According to Pappus, "Apollonius, having completed Euclid's four books of conics and added four others, handed down eight volumes of conics." The Conics of Apollonius quickly supplanted the former work, and by the time of Pappus, Euclid's work was already lost. Porisms might have been an outgrowth of Euclid's work with conic sections, but the exact meaning of the title is controversial. Pseudaria, or Book of Fallacies, was an elementary text about errors in reasoning. Surface Loci concerned either loci (sets of points) on surfaces or loci which were themselves surfaces; under the latter interpretation, it has been hypothesized that the work might have dealt with quadric surfaces. Several works on mechanics are attributed to Euclid by Arabic sources. On the Heavy and the Light contains, in nine definitions and five propositions, Aristotelian notions of moving bodies and the concept of specific gravity. On the Balance treats the theory of the lever in a similarly Euclidean manner, containing one definition, two axioms, and four propositions. A third fragment, on the circles described by the ends of a moving lever, contains four propositions. These three works complement each other in such a way that it has been suggested that they are remnants of a single treatise on mechanics written by Euclid. See also Axiomatic method A lesson on formal proofs, from Wikiversity Euclid's orchard Euclidean relation References Notes Bibliography Artmann, Benno (1999). Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics. New York: Springer. ISBN 0387984232. Heath, Thomas L. (1981). A History of Greek Mathematics, 2 Vols. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0486240738 / ISBN 0486240746. Kline, Morris (1980). Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019502754X. External links MacTutor Biography Euclid's elements, All thirteen books, with interactive diagrams using Java. Clark University Euclid's elements, with the original Greek and an English translation on facing pages (includes PDF version for printing). University of Texas. Euclid's elements, All thirteen books, in several languages as Spanish, Catalan, English, German, Portuguese, Arabic, Italian, Russian and Chinese . Elementa Geometriae 1482, Venice. From Rare Book Room. Elementa 888 AD, Byzantine. From Rare Book Room. Euclid biography by Charlene Douglass With extensive bibliography. Texts on Ancient Mathematics and Mathematical Astronomy PDF scans (Note: many are very large files). Includes editions and translations of Euclid's Elements, Data, and Optica, Proclus's Commentary on Euclid, and other historical sources.	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6,074	Emperor	An emperor (from the Latin "imperator") is a (male) monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress is the female equivalent. As a title, "empress" may indicate the wife of an emperor (empress consort) or a woman who rules in her own right (empress regnant). Emperors and Empresses are generally recognized to be above kings and queens in honour and rank. Today the Emperor of Japan is the only remaining Emperor in the world. Distinction from other monarchs Both kings and emperors are monarchs. Within the European context, "emperor" and "empress" are considered the highest of monarchical titles, ironic in that "emperor" began as a military honorific in a staunchly anti-monarchical republic. Emperors were once given precedence over kings in international diplomatic relations; currently, precedence is decided by the length a head of state is continuously in office. Some emperors claimed inheritance (translatio imperii) of the political and religious authority of the Roman Emperors such as an important role in the state church; see Imperial cult and Caesaropapism. This inheritance has been claimed by, among others, the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, and the Russian Empire; however, all types of monarchies have played religious roles; see divine right of kings and divine king. The title was a conscious attempt by monarchs to link themselves to the institutions and traditions of the Romans as part of state ideology. In contrast, many republics have named a legislative chamber after the Roman Senate. Outside the European context, "emperor" is a translation given to holders of titles who are accorded the same precedence as European emperors in diplomatic terms. In reciprocity, these rulers may accredit equal titles in their native languages to their European peers. Due to centuries of international convention, this has become the dominant rule to identifying an emperor in the modern era. Also, historians have liberally used "emperor" and "empire" anachronistically and out of its Roman and European context to describe any large state and its ruler in the past and present. "Empire" became identified with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century. Voltaire sardonically described the Holy Roman Empire as "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire" since by his time it was little more than an informal association of German states and its "Emperor", though at Voltaire's time ruler of Austria and king of Hungary and Bohemia, had almost no authority within the non-Austrian parts of the territory. Roman tradition In the Roman tradition a large variety in the meaning and importance of the imperial form of monarchy developed: in intention it was always the highest office, but it could as well fall down to a redundant title for nobility that had never been near to the "Empire" they were supposed to be reigning. Also the name of the position split in several branches of Western tradition, see below. Importance and meaning of Coronation ceremonies and regalia also varied within the tradition: for instance Holy Roman Emperors could only be crowned emperor by the pope, which meant the coronation ceremony usually took place in Rome, often several years after these emperors had ascended to the throne (as "king") in their home country. The first Latin Emperors of Constantinople on the other hand had to be present in the newly conquered capital of their Empire, because that was the only place where they could be granted to become Emperor. Early Roman Emperors avoided any type of ceremony or regalia different from what was already usual for 'republican' offices in the Roman Republic: the most intrusive change had been changing the color of their robe to 'purple'. Later new symbols of worldly and/or spiritual power, like the orb became an essential part of the Imperial accessories. Rules for indicating successors also varied: there was a tendency towards male inheritance of the supreme office, but as well election by noblemen, as ruling Empresses (for empires not too strictly under salic law) are known. Ruling monarchs could additionally steer the succession by adoption, as often occurred in the two first centuries of Imperial Rome. Of course, intrigue, murder and military force could also mingle in for appointing successors, the Roman Imperial tradition made no exception to other monarchical traditions in this respect. Probably the epoch best known for this part of the Imperial tradition is Rome's third century rule. Ancient Roman and Byzantine emperors Classical Antiquity When Republican Rome turned into a monarchy again, in the second half of the 1st century BC, at first there was no name for the title of the new type of monarch: ancient Romans abhorred the name Rex ("king"), and after Julius Caesar also Dictator (which was an acknowledged office in Republican Rome, Julius Caesar not being the first to hold it). Augustus, who can be considered the first Roman Emperor, avoided naming himself anything that could be reminiscent of "monarchy" or "dictatorship". Instead, these first Emperors constructed their office as a complicated collection of offices, titles, and honours, that were consolidated around a single person and his closest relatives (while in the republic the "taking of turns", often in shared offices, had been the principle for passing on power). These early Roman emperors didn't need a specific name for their monarchy: they had enough offices and powers accumulated so that in any field of power they were "unsurpassable", and besides: it was clear who had supreme power. The supreme power could poison, exile, or try for treason any who did not obey. As the first Roman Emperors did not rule by virtue of any particular republican or senatorial office, the name given to the office of "head of state" in this new monarchical form of government became different depending on tradition, none of these traditions consolidated in the early days of the Roman Empire: Caesar (as, for example, in Suetonius' Twelve Caesars). This tradition continued in many languages: in German it became "Kaiser"; in certain Slavic languages it became "Tsar"; in Hungarian it became "Császár", and several more variants. The name derived from Julius Caesar's cognomen "Caesar": this cognomen was adopted by all Roman emperors, exclusively by the ruling monarch after the Julio-Claudian dynasty had died out. In this tradition Julius Caesar is sometimes described as the first Caesar/emperor (following Suetonius). This is one of the most enduring titles, Caesar and its transliterations appeared in every year from the time of Caesar Augustus to Tsar Symeon II of Bulgaria's removal from the throne in 1946. Augustus was the honorific first bestowed on Emperor Augustus: after him all Roman emperors added it to their name. Although it had a high symbolical value, something like "akin to divinity", it was generally not used to indicate the office of Emperor itself. Exceptions include the title of the Augustan History, a half-mockumentary biography of the Emperors of the 2nd and 3rd century. Augustus had (by his last will) granted the feminine form of this honorific (Augusta) to his wife. Since there was no "title" of Empress(-consort) whatsoever, women of the reigning dynasty sought to be granted this honorific, as the highest attainable goal. Few were however granted the title, and certainly not as a rule all wives of reigning Emperors. Imperator (as, for example, in Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia). In the Roman Republic Imperator meant "(military) commander". In the late Republic, as in the early years of the new monarchy, Imperator was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the Roman Senate after a great victory, roughly comparable to field marshal (head or commander of the entire army). For example, in 15 AD Germanicus was proclaimed Imperator during the reign of his adoptive father Tiberius. Soon thereafter "Imperator" became however a title reserved exclusively for the ruling monarch. This led to "Emperor" in English and, among other examples, "Empereur" in French. The Latin feminine form Imperatrix only developed after "Imperator" had gotten the connotation of "Emperor". : although the Greeks used equivalents of "Caesar" (Καίσαρ) and "Augustus" (in two forms: or translated as "Sebastos") these were rather used as part of the name of the Emperor than as an indication of the office. Instead of developing a new name for the new type of monarchy, they used ("autokratōr", only partly overlapping with the modern understanding of "autocrat") or ("basileus", until then the usual name for "sovereign"). "Autokratōr" could be seen as a translation of the Latin "Imperator" (it was certainly used as its replacement in Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire), but also here there is only partial overlap between the meaning of the original Greek and Latin concepts. For the Greeks "Autokratōr" was not a military title, and was closer to the Latin dictator concept ("the one with unlimited power"), before it came to mean Emperor. Basileus appears not to have been used exclusively in the meaning of Emperor before the 7th century, although it was a standard informal designation of the emperor in the Greek-speaking East. After the problematic year 69, the Flavian Dynasty reigned for about half a century. The succeeding Nervan-Antonian Dynasty, ruling for most of the 2nd century, stabilised the Empire. This epoch became known as the era of the Five Good Emperors, and was followed by the short-lived Severan Dynasty. During the Crisis of the 3rd century, Barracks Emperors succeeded one another at short intervals. Three short lived secessionist attempts had their own emperors: the Gallic Empire, the Britannic Empire, and the Palmyrene Empire though the latter used rex more regularly. The next period, known as the Dominate, started with the Tetrarchy installed by Diocletian. Through most of the 4th century, there were separate emperors for the Western and Eastern part of the Empire. Although there were several dynastic relations between the Emperors of both parts, they also often were adversaries. The last Emperor to rule a unified Roman Empire was Theodosius. Less than a century after his death in 395, the last Emperor of the Western half of the Empire was driven out. Byzantine period Prior to the 4th Crusade Under Justinian I, reigning in the 6th century, parts of Italy were for a few decades (re)conquered from the Ostrogoths: that's why this famous mosaic, featuring the Byzantine emperor in the center, can be admired at Ravenna. Historians generally call the eastern part of the Roman Empire the Byzantine Empire due to its capital Constantinople, whose ancient name was Byzantium (now Istanbul). After the fall of Rome to barbarian forces in 476, the title of "emperor" lived on in rulers of Constantinople (New Rome). The Byzantine Emperors completed the transition from the idea of the Emperor as a semi-republican official to the Emperor as a traditional monarch when Emperor Heraclius retained the title of Basileus, already a synonym for "Emperor" (but which had earlier designated "King" in Greek) in the first half of the seventh century. A specifically Byzantine development of emperor's position was cesaropapism, position as leader of Christians. In general usage, the Byzantine imperial title evolved from simply "emperor" (basileus), to "emperor of the Romans" (basileus tōn Rōmaiōn) in the 9th century, to "emperor and autocrat of the Romans" (basileus kai autokratōr tōn Rōmaiōn) in the 10th. George Ostrogorsky, "Avtokrator i samodržac", Glas Srpske kraljevske akadamije CLXIV, Drugi razdred 84 (1935), 95-187 In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded. The Byzantine empire also produced three powerful empresses who effectively reigned as an emperor, in the form of a regent: the Empress Irene, and powerful consorts: the Empresses Zoe and Theodora. Latin emperors In 1204, the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople, and soon established a Latin Empire of Constantinople under one of the Crusader leaders. The Latin Empire was, however, unable to consolidate control of the whole of the former territories of the Byzantine Empire. Driven out of Constantinople in 1261, some territories in Greece still recognized their authority for some time. Eventually, the Imperial title became redundant and did not even contribute any longer to the prestige of the noblemen in their own country: it remained dormant after 1383. It produced three reigning empresses, two of which reigned outside of the city in the remnants of their empire. After the 4th Crusade In Asia Minor, after being driven out of Constantinople, relations of the last pre-Crusader emperors established the Empire of Nicaea and the Empire of Trebizond. Similarly, the Despotate of Epirus was founded in the Western Balkans (the rulers of the latter took the title of Emperor for a short time following their conquest of Thessalonica in 1224). Eventually, the Nicaean Emperors were successful in reclaiming the Byzantine imperial title. They managed to force Epirus into submission and retake Constantinople by 1261, but Trebizond remained independent. The restored Byzantine empire finally fell due to Ottoman invasion in 1453. The Trapezuntines produced three reigning empresses before they too were defeated by the Ottomans in 1461. Emperors in Germany Holy Roman Empire The Roman of the Emperor's title was a reflection of the translatio imperii (transfer of rule) principle that regarded the (Germanic) Holy Roman Emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, a title left unclaimed in the West after the death of Julius Nepos in 480. From the time of Otto the Great onward, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire. The various German princes elected one of their peers as King of the Germans, after which he would be crowned as emperor by the Pope. The last emperor to be crowned by the pope was Charles V; all emperors after him were technically emperors-elect, but were universally referred to as Emperor. In the face of aggressions by Napoleon, Francis feared for the future of the Holy Roman Empire and wished to maintain his and his family's Imperial status in the event that the Holy Roman Empire should be dissolved, as it indeed was in 1806 when Austrian-led army suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz and the victorious Napoleon proceeded to dismantle the old Reich by severing a good portion from the empire and turning it into a separate Confederation of the Rhine. With the size of his imperial realm significantly reduced, Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor became Francis I, Emperor of Austria. German Empire under Prussia Under the guise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck's authoritarian Realpolitik. Bismarck wanted to unify the rival German states to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. Three wars led to military successes and helped to convince German people to do this: the Second war of Schleswig against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War against the Second French Empire in 1870–71. During the Siege of Paris in 1871, the North German Confederation, supported by its allies from southern Germany, formed the German Empire with the proclamation of the Prussian king Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, to the humiliation of the French, who ceased to resist only days later. After his death he was succeeded by his son Frederick III who was only emperor for 99 days. In the same year his son Wilhelm II became the third emperor with in a year. He was the last German emperor. After the empire's defeat in World War I the empire ceased to exist. Austrian Empire The first Austrian Emperor was the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. In the face of aggressions by Napoleon, Francis feared for the future of the Holy Roman Empire and wished to maintain his and his family's Imperial status in the event that the Holy Roman Empire should be dissolved, as it indeed was in 1806 when Austrian-led army suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz and the victorious Napoleon proceeded to dismantle the old Reich by severing a good portion from the empire and turning it into a separate Confederation of the Rhine. With the size of his imperial realm significantly reduced, Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor became Francis I, Emperor of Austria. The new imperial title may have sounded less prestigious than the old one, but Francis' dynasty continued to rule from Austria and a Habsburg monarch was still an emperor (Kaiser), and not just merely a king (König), in name. The title lasted just a little over one century until 1918, but it was never clear what territory constituted the "Empire of Austria". When Francis took the title in 1804, the Habsburg lands as a whole were dubbed the Kaisertum Österreich. Kaisertum might literally be translated as "emperordom" (on analogy with "kingdom") or "emperor-ship"; the term denotes specifically "the territory ruled by an emperor", and is thus somewhat more general than Reich, which in 1804 carried connotations of universal rule. Austria proper (as opposed to the complex of Habsburg lands as a whole) had been an Archduchy since the 15th century, and most of the other territories of the Empire had their own institutions and territorial history, although there were some attempts at centralization, especially between 1848 and 1859. When Hungary was given self-government in 1867, the non-Hungarian portions, although usually collectively called Austria, were officially known only as the "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council (Reichsrat)". The title of Emperor of Austria and the associated Empire (if there was such) were both abolished at the end of the First World War in 1918, when German Austria became a republic and the other kingdoms and lands represented in the Imperial Council established their independence or adhesion to other states. Emperors of Eastern Europe Byzantium's close cultural and political interaction with its Balkan neighbors Bulgaria and Serbia, and with Russia (Kievan Rus', then Muscovy) led to the adoption of Byzantine imperial traditions in all of these countries. Bulgaria In 913 Simeon I of Bulgaria was crowned Emperor (Tsar) by the Patriarch of Constantinople and imperial regent Nicholas Mystikos outside of the Byzantine capital. In its final simplified form, the title read "Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians and Romans" (Tsar i samodăržec na vsički bălgari i gărci in the modern vernacular). The "Roman" component in the Bulgarian imperial title indicateed both rulership over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans (represented by the "Roman" Byzantines). Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial title was revoked by the succeeding Byzantine government. The decade 914–924 was spent in destructive warfare between Byzantium and Bulgaria over this and other matters of conflict. The Bulgarian monarch, who had further irritated his Byzantine counterpart by claiming the title "Emperor of the Romans" (basileus tōn Rōmaiōn), was eventually recognized, as "Emperor of the Bulgarians" (basileus tōn Boulgarōn) by the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lakapenos in 924. Byzantine recognition of the imperial dignity of the Bulgarian monarch and the patriarchal dignity of the Bulgarian patriarch was again confirmed at the conclusion of permanent peace and a Bulgarian-Byzantine dynastic marriage in 927. In the meantime, the Bulgarian imperial title may have been also confirmed by the Pope. The Bulgarian imperial title "Tsar" was adopted by all Bulgarian monarchs up to the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule. 14th century Bulgarian literary compositions clearly denote the Bulgarian capital (Tărnovo) as a successor of Rome and Constantinople, in effect, the "Third Rome". It should be noted that after Bulgaria obtained full independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1908, its monarch, who was previously styled "Knyaz", i.e Prince, took the traditional title of "Tsar", but was recognized internationally only as a King. Serbia In 1345 the Serbian King Stefan Uroš IV Dušan proclaimed himself Emperor (Tsar) and was crowned as such at Skopje on Easter 1346 by the newly created Patriarch of Serbia, and by the Patriarch of Bulgaria and the autocephalous Archbishop of Ohrid. His imperial title was recognized by Bulgaria and various other neighbors and trading partners but not by the Byzantine Empire. In its final simplified form, the Serbian imperial title read "Emperor of Serbians and Greeks" (car srbljem i grkom in the modern vernacular). It was only employed by Stefan Uroš IV Dušan and his son Stefan Uroš V in Serbia (until his death in 1371), after which it became extinct. A half-brother of Dušan, Simeon Uroš, and then his son Jovan Uroš, claimed the same title, until the latter's abdication in 1373, while ruling as dynasts in Thessaly. The "Greek" component in the Serbian imperial title indicates both rulership over Greeks and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans (represented by the "Greek" Byzantines). Russia In 1472, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Palaiologina, married Ivan III, grand prince of Moscow, who began championing the idea of Russia being the successor to the Byzantine Empire. This idea was represented more emphatically in the composition the monk Filofej addressed to their son Vasili III. After ending Muscovy's dependence on its Mongol overlords in 1480, Ivan III began the usage of the titles Tsar and Autocrat (samoderžec' ). His insistence on recognition as such by the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire since 1489 resulted in the granting of this recognition in 1514 by Emperor Maximilian I to Vasili III. His son Ivan IV emphatically crowned himself Tsar (Tsar) on 16 January, 1547. The word Tsar derives from Latin Caesar, but this title was used in Russia as equivalent to King; the error occurred when medieval Russian clerics referred to the biblical Jewish kings with the same title that was used to designate Roman and Byzantine rulers - Caesar. On 31 October, 1721 Peter I was proclaimed Emperor by the Senate - the title used was Latin "Imperator", which is a westernizing form equivalent to the traditional Slavic title "Tsar". He based his claim partially upon a letter discovered in 1717 written in 1514 from Maximilian I to Vasili III, in which the Holy Roman Emperor used the term in referring to Vasili. The title has not been used in Russia since the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II on 15 March, 1917. Imperial Russia produced four reigning Empresses, all in the eighteenth century. Ottoman Empire Ottoman rulers held several titles denoting their Imperial status. These included: Sultan (given name) Khan, Sovereign of the Imperial House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans, Khan of Khans, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe (Caliph), Protector of the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem, Emperor of The Three Cities of Constantinople, Andrinopole and Bursa, and of the Cities of Damascus and Cairo, of all Azerbaijan, of the Magris, of Barka, of Kairuan, of Aleppo, of Arabic Iraq and of Ajim, of Basra, of El Hasa, of Dilen, of Raka, of Mosul, of Parthia, of Diyarbakır, of Cicilia, of the Vilayets of Erzurum, of Sivas, of Adana, of Karaman, Van, of Barbary, of Abyssinia, of Tunisia, of Tripoli, of Damascus, of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of Candia, of the Vilayet of the Morea, of the Marmara Sea, the Black Sea and also its coasts, of Anatolia, of Rumelia, Baghdad, Kurdistan, Greece, Turkistan, Tartary, Circassia, of the two regions of Kabarda, of Georgia, of the plain of Kypshak, of the whole country of the Tartars, of Kefa and of all the neighbouring countries, of Bosnia and its dependencies, of the City and Fort of Belgrade, of the Vilayet of Serbia, with all the castles, forts and cities, of all Albania, of all Iflak and Bogdania, as well as all the dependencies and borders, and many other countries and cities. After the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453, the additional title of Kaysar-i Rum (Emperor of the Romans) was used. Emperors in Western Europe France The kings of the Ancien Régime and the July Monarchy used the title Empereur de France in diplomatic correspondence and treaties with the Ottoman emperor from at least 1673 onwards. The Ottomans insisted on this elevated style while refusing to recognize the Holy Roman Emperors or the Russian tsars due to their rival claims of the Roman crown. In short, it was an indirect insult by the Ottomans to the HRE and the Russians. The French kings also used it for Morocco (1682) and Persia (1715). First French Empire See also: First French Empire One of the most famous Imperial coronation ceremonies was that of Napoleon, crowning himself Emperor in the presence of Pope Pius VII (who had blessed the regalia), at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris.The painting by David commemorating the event is equally famous: the gothic cathedral restyled style Empire, supervised by the mother of the Emperor on the balcony (a fictional addition, while she had not been present at the ceremony), the pope positioned near the altar, Napoleon proceeds to crown his then wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais as Empress. Napoleon Bonaparte who was already First Consul of the French Republic (Premier Consul de la République française) for life, declared himself Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français) on May 18, 1804. Despite being ruled by an emperor, it continued to be the French Republic (République Française) until 1808, when it was renamed the French Empire (Empire Français). Napoleon relinquished the title of Emperor of the French on 6 April and again on April 11, 1814. Napoleon's infant son, Napoleon II, was recognized by the Council of Peers, as Emperor from the moment of his father's abdication, and therefore reigned (as opposed to ruled) as Emperor for fifteen days, June 22 to July 7 of 1815. Elba Since 3 May 1814, the Sovereign Principality of Elba was created a miniature non-hereditary Monarchy under the exiled French Emperor Napoleon I. Napoleon I was allowed, by the treaty of Fontainebleau with (27 April), to enjoy, for life, the imperial title. The islands were not restyled an empire. On 26 February 1815, Napoleon abandoned Elba for France, reviving the French Empire for a Hundred Days; the Allies declared an end to Napoleon's sovereignty over Elba on 25 March 1815, and on 31 March 1815 Elba was ceded to the restored Grand Duchy of Tuscany by the Congress of Vienna. After his final defeat, Napoleon was treated as a general by the British authorities during his second exile to Atlantic Isle of St. Helena. His title was a matter of dispute with the governor of St Helena, who insisted on addressing him as "General Bonaparte", despite the "historical reality that he had been an emperor" and therefore retained the title. Napoleon, Vincent Cronin, p419, HarperCollins, 1994. Napoleon, Frank McLynn, p644, Pimlico 1998 Le Mémorial de Sainte Hélène, Emmanuel De Las Cases, Tome III, page101, published by Jean De Bonnot, Libraire à l'enseigne du canon, 1969 Second French Empire See also: Second French Empire Napoleon I's nephew, Napoleon III, resurrected the title of emperor on December 2, 1852, after establishing the Second French Empire in a presidential coup, subsequently approved by a plebiscite. His reign was marked by large scale public works, the development of social policy, and the extension of France's influence in Asia. He was deposed on September 4, 1870, after France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. The Third Republic followed and after the death of his son Napoleon IV, in 1879 during the Zulu War, the Bonapartist movement split, and the Third Republic was to last until 1940. Iberian Peninsula The origins of the title Imperator totius Hispaniae (Latin for Emperor of All Spain Notice that, before the emergence of the modern country of Spain (beginning with the union of Castile and Aragon in 1492), the Latin word Hispania, in any of the Iberian Romance languages, either in singular or plural forms (in English: Spain or Spains), was used to refer to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula, and not exclusively, as in modern usage, to the country of Spain, thus excluding Portugal. ) is murky. It was associated with the Leonese monarchy perhaps as far back as Alfonso the Great (r. 866-910). The last two kings of its Pérez Dynasty were called emperors in a contemporary source. King Sancho III of Navarre conquered Leon in 1034 and began using it. His son, Ferdinand I of Castile also took the title in 1039. Ferdinand's son, Alfonso VI of Castile took the title in 1077. It then passed to his son-in-law, Alfonso I of Aragon in 1109. His stepson and Alfonso VI's grandson, Alfonso VII was the only one who actually had an imperial coronation in 1135. The title was not exactly hereditary but self proclaimed by those who had, wholly or partially, united the Christian northern part of the Iberian peninsula, often at the expense of killing rival siblings. The popes and Holy Roman emperors protested at the usage of the imperial title as a usurpation of leadership in western Christendom. After Alfonso VII's death in 1157, the title was abandoned. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the legitimate heir to the throne, Andreas Palaiologos, willed away his claim to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1503. This claim seems to have been forgotten or abandoned quietly for the last 300 years. Britain In the late 3rd century, by the end of the epoch of the barracks emperors in Rome, there were two Britannic Emperors, reigning for about a decade. After the Roman departure from Britain, the Imperator Cunedda forged the Kingdom of Gwynedd in northern Wales, but all his successors were titled kings and princes. England There was no set title for the king of England before 1066 and monarchs chose to style themselves as they pleased. Imperial titles were used inconsistently beginning with Athelstan in 930 and ended with the Norman conquest of England. Henry VIII began claiming his crown was an Imperial Crown during the Reformation; however, this did not lead to the creation of the title of Emperor in England. United Kingdom King George V. King of the United Kingdom, Emperor of India. In 1801, George III rejected the title of Emperor when offered. The only period when British monarchs were given the title of Emperor in a dynastic succession started when the title Empress of India was created for Queen Victoria. The government led by Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, conferred the additional title upon her by an Act of Parliament; it was also formally justified as the expression of Britain succeeding as paramount ruler of the subcontinent the former Mughal 'Padishah of Hind', using indirect rule through hundreds of princely states formally under protection, not colonies, but accepting the British Sovereign as their suzerain. That title was relinquished by the last Kaisar-i-Hind George VI when India was granted independence on August 15 1947. Two decades earlier the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 had stated that the United Kingdom and the dominions were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". Along with the Statute of Westminster, 1931 this changed the way the British parliamentary monarchy ruled the overseas dominions, moving from a colonial British Empire towards a new structure for the interaction between the Commonwealth Realms and the Crown. The last Empress of India was HM Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother. Post-colonial emperors modeled on Europe Post-Columbian Americas Pedro II Emperor of Brazil in regalia at the opening of the General Assembly (oil painting by Pedro Américo). Brazil When Napoleon I ordered the invasion of Portugal in 1807 because it refused to join the Continental System, the Portuguese Braganças moved their capital to Rio de Janeiro to avoid the fate of the Spanish Bourbons (Napoleon I arrested them and made his brother Joseph king). When the French general Junot arrived in Lisbon, the Portuguese fleet had already left with all the local elite. In 1808, under a British naval escort, the fleet arrived in Brazil. Later, in 1815, the Portuguese Prince Regent (since 1816 king John VI) proclaimed the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarve, as a union of three kingdoms, lifting Brazil from its colonial status. After the fall of Napolean I and the Liberal revolution in Portugal, the Portuguese Royals returned to Europe (1820). Prince Peter of Braganza (King John’s older son) stayed in South America acting as regent of the local kingdom, but, two years later in 1822, he proclaimed himself Peter I, first Emperor of Brazil. He did, however, recognize his father, John VI, as Titular Emperor of Brazil - a purely honorific title - until John VI's death in 1826. The empire came to an end in 1889, with the overthrow of Emperor Pedro II (Pedro I's son and successor), when the Brazilian republic was proclaimed. Haiti Haiti was declared an empire by its ruler, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who made himself Jacques I, in 20 May, 1805. He was assassinated the next year. Haiti again became an empire from 1849 to 1859 under Faustin Soulouque. Mexico Portrait of Maximilian I of Mexico, by Franz Xaver Winterhalter In Mexico, the First Mexican Empire was the first of two empires created. Agustín de Iturbide, the general who helped secure Mexican independence from Spanish rule, was proclaimed Emperor Agustín I in 12 July, 1822, but was overthrown the next year. In 1863, the invading French, under Napoleon III (see above), in alliance with Mexican conservatives, helped create the Second Mexican Empire, and invited Archduke Maximilian, of the house of Habsburg-Lorraine, younger brother of the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef I, to become emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. The childless Maximilian and his consort Empress Carlota of Mexico, daughter of Leopold I of Belgium, adopted Agustín's grandson as his heir to bolster his claim to the throne of Mexico. Maximilian and Carlota made Chapultepec Castle their home, which was the only palace in North America to house soveriegns. After the withdrawal of French protection in 1867, Maximilian was captured and executed by liberal forces. This empire led to French influence in the Mexican culture and also immigration from France, Belgium, and Switzerland to Mexico. Pre-Columbian traditions The Aztec and Inca traditions are unrelated to one another. Both were conquered under the reign of King Charles I of Spain who was simultaneously emperor-elect of the Holy Roman Empire during the fall of the Aztecs and fully emperor during the fall of the Incas. Incidentally by being king of Spain, he was also Roman (Byzantine) emperor in pretence through Andreas Palaiologos. The translations of their titles were provided by the Spanish. Aztec Empire The only pre-Columbian North American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the Hueyi Tlatoani of the Aztec Empire (1375–1521). It was an elected monarchy chosen by the elite. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés slew Emperor Cuauhtémoc and installed puppet rulers who became vassals for Spain. Mexican Emperor Maximilian built his palace, Chapultepec Castle, over the ruins of an Aztec one. Inca Empire The only pre-Columbian South American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire (1438–1533). Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro, conquered the Inca for Spain, killed Emperor Atahualpa, and installed puppets as well. Atahualpa may actually be considered a usurper as he had achieved power by killing his half-brother and he did not perform the required coronation with the imperial crown mascaipacha by the Huillaq Uma (high priest). Persia In Persia, from the time of Darius the Great, Persian rulers used the title "King of Kings" (Shahanshah in modern Iranian) since they had dominion over peoples from India to Greece. Alexander the Great probably crowned himself shahanshah after conquering Persia, bringing the phrase basileus toon basileoon to Greek. It is also known that Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, was named as the king of kings when he made his empire after defeating the Parthians. The last shahanshah was ousted in 1979 following the Iranian Revolution. Shahanshah is usually translated as king of kings or simply king for ancient rulers of the Achaemenid, Arsacid, and Sassanid dynasties, and often shortened to shah for rulers since the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century. Indian subcontinent The Sanskrit word for emperor is Samrāṭ or Chakravarti (word stem: samrāj). This word has been used as an epithet of various Vedic deities, like Varuna, and has been attested in the Holy Rig Veda, possibly the oldest compiled book among the Indo-Europeans. Chakravarti refers to the king of kings. A Chakravarti is not only a sovereign ruler but also has feudatories. Typically, in the later Vedic age, a Hindu king (Maharajah) was only called Samrāṭ after performing the Vedic Rājasūya sacrifice, enabling him by religious tradition to claim superiority over the other kings and princes. Another word for emperor is sārvabhaumā. The title of Samrāṭ has been used by many rulers of the Indian subcontinent as claimed by the Hindu mythologies. In proper history, most historians call Chandragupta Maurya the first samrāṭ (emperor) of the Indian subcontinent, because of the huge empire he ruled. The most famous Hindu emperor was his grandson Ashoka the Great. Other dynasties that are considered imperial by historians are the Kushanas, Guptas, Vijayanagara, Hoysala and the Cholas. After India was invaded by the Mongol Khans and Turkic Muslims, the rulers of their major states on the subcontinent were titled Sultān, In this manner, the only empress-regnant ever to have actually sat on the throne of Delhi was Razia Sultan. For the episode from 1877 to 1947 when British Emperors ruled colonial India as the pearl in the crown of the British Empire, see above. Africa Ethiopia In Ethiopia, the Solomonic dynasty used, beginning in 1270, the title of "" which is literally "King of Kings". The use of the king of kings style began a millennium earlier in this region, however, with the title being used by the Kings of Aksum, beginning with Sembrouthes in the 3rd century. Another title used by this dynasty was "Itegue Zetopia". "Itegue" translates as Empress, and was also used by the only female reigning Empress, Zauditu, along with the official title Negiste Negest (Queen of Kings). In 1936, the Italian king Victor Emmanuel III claimed the title of Emperor of Ethiopia after Ethiopia was occupied by Italy during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. After the defeat of the Italians by the British in 1941, Haile Selassie was restored to the throne but Victor Emmanuel did not relinquish his claim to the title until 1943. The Rastafari claimed Selassie as God incarnate before and even more so after the Second World War (see Rastafari movement) which he did not endorse, though he was sympathetic. He was deposed in 1974, the imperial title ending the next year when his son, who had succeeded him, was deposed and exiled. Central African Empire In 1976, President Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the Central African Republic, proclaimed the country to be an autocratic Central African Empire, and made himself Emperor as Bokassa I. The expenses of his coronation ceremony actually bankrupted the country. He was overthrown three years later and the republic was restored. East Asian tradition China The East Asian tradition is different from the Roman tradition, having arisen separately. What links them together is the use of the Chinese logographs 皇 (huáng) and 帝 (dì) which together or individually are imperial. Due to the cultural influence of China, China's neighbors adopted these titles or had their native titles conform in hanzi. Qin Shi Huang. In 221 BC, Ying Zheng, who was king of Qin at the time, proclaimed himself shi huangdi (始皇帝), which translates as "first emperor". Huangdi is composed of huang ("august one", 皇) and di ("sage-king", 帝), and referred to legendary/mythological sage-emperors living several millennia earlier, of which three were huang and five were di. Thus Zheng became Qin Shi Huang, abolishing the system where the huang/di titles were reserved to dead and/or mythological rulers. Although not as popular, the title 王 wang (king or prince) was still used by many monarchs and dynasties in China up to the Taipings in the 19th century. 王 is pronounced vuong in Vietnamese, ō in Japanese, and wang in Korean. The imperial title continued in China until the Qing Dynasty was overthrown in 1912. The title was briefly revived from December 12, 1915 to March 22, 1916 by President Yuan Shikai and again in early July, 1917 when General Zhang Xun attempted to restore last Qing emperor Puyi to the throne. Puyi retained the title and attributes of a foreign emperor, as a personal status, until 1924. After the Japanese occupied Manchuria in 1931, they proclaimed it to be the Empire of Manchukuo, and Puyi became emperor of Manchukuo. This empire ceased to exist when it was occupied by Soviet troops in 1945. In general, an emperor would have one empress (Huanghou, 皇后) at one time, although posthumous entitlement to empress for a concubine was not uncommon. The earliest known usage of huanghou was in the Han Dynasty. The emperor would generally select the empress from his harem. In subsequent dynasties, when the distinction between wife and concubine became more accentuated, the crown prince would have chosen an empress-designate before his reign. Imperial China produced only one reigning empress, Wu Zetian, and she used the same Chinese title as an emperor (Huangdi, 皇帝). Wu Zetian then reigned for about 15 years. Japan Emperor Hirohito (裕仁), or the Shōwa Emperor (昭和天皇), the last Japanese Emperor having ruled with extended monarchical powers, combined with claims of divinity (photographed 1926). In some countries in the Ancient Japan, the earliest titles for the sovereign were either ヤマト大王/大君 (yamato ōkimi, Grand King of Yamato), 倭王/倭国王 (waō/wakokuō, King of Wa, used externally), or 治天下大王 (amenoshita shiroshimesu ōkimi, Grand King who rules all under heaven, used internally). As early as the 7th century the word 天皇 (which can be read either as sumera no mikoto, divine order, or as tennō, Heavenly Emperor, the latter being derived from a Tang Chinese term referring to the Pole star around which all other stars revolve) began to be used. The earliest attested use of this term is on a wooden slat, or mokkan, that was unearthed in Asuka-mura, Nara Prefecture in 1998 and dated back to the reign of Emperor Temmu and Empress Jitō. The reading 'Tennō' has become the standard title for the sovereign of Japan up to and including the present age. The term 帝 (mikado, Emperor) is also found in literary sources. Japanese monarchs placed themselves from 607 on equal footing with Chinese emperors in titulary terms, but rarely was the Chinese-style "Son of Heaven" term used. In the Japanese language, the word tennō is restricted to Japan's own monarch; kōtei (皇帝) is used for foreign emperors. Historically, retired emperors have kept power over a child-emperor as de facto Regent. For a fairly long time, a shōgun (formally the imperial generalissimo, but made hereditary) or regent wielded actual political power. In fact, through much of Japanese history, the emperor has been little more than a figurehead. After World War II, all claims of divinity were dropped (see Ningen-sengen). Parliamentary government has wielded the power, reducing the office of emperor again to a mere ceremonial function. Although the Emperor of Japan is classified as constitutional monarch among political scientists, the current constitution of Japan defines him only as a symbol of the nation and no law states his status as a political monarch (head of state) or otherwise. By the end of the 20th century, Japan was the only country with an emperor on the throne. As of the early 21st century, Japan's succession law prohibits a female from ascending the throne. With the birth of a daughter as the first child of the current Crown Prince, Naruhito, Japan considered abandoning that rule. However, shortly after the announcement that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, the proposal to alter the Imperial Household Law was suspended by Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi. On January 3, 2007, after the birth of her son, Prince Hisahito, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced that he would drop the proposal. http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070103/ap_on_re_as/japan_imperial_succession Currently, many believe the new prince of Japan will ascend the throne, as the law defines. Historically, Japan has had eight reigning empresses who used the genderless title Tennō, rather than the female consort title kōgō (皇后) or chūgū (中宮). There is ongoing discussion of the Japanese Imperial succession controversy. Although current Japanese law prohibits female succession, all Japanese emperors claim to trace their lineage to Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess of the Shintō religion. Vietnam Although the Vietnamese rulers acknowledged the supremacy of China, and were known to the Chinese emperors as simply King of Annam (An Nam quốc vương) but some of them still proclaimed the title hoàng đế such as Lý Bí (Lý Nam Đế), Nguyễn Huệ (Quang Trung hoàng đế) ; and many others was given this title by their successors posthumously. In 1806, they took on a full Chinese-style imperial regalia domestically and have inconsistently used the title hoàng đế for a century though many were raised to that status posthumously so as not to antagonize relations with China. Axis-occupied Vietnam was declared an empire by the Japanese in March 1945. The line of emperors came to an end with Bảo Đại, who was deposed after the war, although he later served as head of state of South Vietnam from 1949 to 1955. Korea The rulers of Goguryeo used the title of Taewang (Hangul: 태왕, hanja:太王), literally translated as the Greatest of the Kings but often to signify emperor. The rulers of Baekje and Silla used the title (Hangul: 대왕, hanja: 大王) which means "Great King". Rulers of the Goryeo Dynasty (from Gwangjong onward) took the title of emperor as a means of enhancing the prestige of the monarchy. The title was relinquished in the 13th century, however, after the agreement of peace with the Mongols, when the Korean rulers were pressured into use the title of Kings and as such tributary vassal of Kublai Khan's China-based Mongol Yuan Dynasty. The full style of the ruler of the Joseon Dynasty was referred to by the terms Jusang Jeonha(Hangul: 주상전하, "His Majesty") and Joseon Guk-wang (Hangul: 조선국왕, "King of the Realm of Joseon") until 1895. Following the Chinese defeat by Japan in 1895, Korea declared its total independence from China (see Treaty of Shimonoseki) and King Gojong took the title of Daehan Hwangje, (Hangul: 대한황제, translated as "Emperor of Great Han"). Emperor Gojong also adopted the Yeonho (연호 era name, of Gwangmu (Hangul: 광무, Hanja: 光武, meaning "Warrior of Light") on 1 January 1896. The full style of the ruler (7 January 1895 - 12 October 1897) called Daegunju Pyeha ("His Majesty the Great Monarch"), Joseon Guk-wang ("King of the Joseon State"). In the Korean Empire, since 12 October 1897, the full imperial style was Daehan Hwangje ("Emperor of Great Korean"). Mongolia The title Khagan (khan of khans or grand khan) was held by Genghis Khan, founder of the Mongol Empire in 1206. After the civil war of the Empire in 1260-1304, the emperors of the Yuan dynasty in Mongolia and China (who also took the Chinese title huangdi, or Chinese emperor) were later seen as nominal Great Khans by the Mongol khanates to the west. Only the Khagans from Genghis Khan to the fall of the Yuan Mongol Empire in 1368 are normally referred to as Emperors in English. Fictional uses There have been many fictional emperors in movies and books. To see a list of these emperors, see Category of fictional emperors and empresses. See also Auctoritas Lists of emperors Emperor of Mankind (Warhammer 40,000) Notes External links Ian Mladjov's site at University of Michigan: Monarchs (chronology and geneaology) Monarchs (more genealogy)	Emperor \|@lemmatized emperor:184 latin:13 imperator:11 male:2 monarch:22 usually:4 sovereign:8 ruler:29 empire:90 another:6 type:5 imperial:49 realm:5 empress:29 female:5 equivalent:4 title:106 may:8 indicate:5 wife:5 consort:5 woman:2 rule:25 right:2 regnant:2 generally:4 recognize:8 king:61 queen:5 honour:2 rank:1 today:1 japan:13 remain:3 world:5 distinction:2 monarchs:2 within:3 european:6 context:3 consider:5 high:5 monarchical:5 ironic:1 begin:11 military:5 honorific:5 staunchly:1 anti:1 republic:14 give:8 precedence:3 international:2 diplomatic:3 relation:4 currently:2 decide:1 length:1 head:5 state:15 continuously:1 office:14 claim:18 inheritance:3 translatio:2 imperii:2 political:5 religious:3 authority:4 roman:59 important:1 role:2 church:1 see:15 cult:1 caesaropapism:1 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6,075	Blu-Tack	Blu-Tack Australian Blu-Tack packaging Blu-Tack is a versatile, reusable putty-like pressure-sensitive adhesive. The original version of the product was blue, but many colours are now available. It is based on a formulation consisting of synthetic rubber, polymers, oil, and inorganic fillers. Blu-Tack can leave an oily stain on paper materials if attached for a long period of time. Blu Tack is known as "Zorkai" in north eastern areas of Canada. http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/36960/Blu-Tack-goes-pink-for-charity In South Africa it is commonly known as "Prestik" (as made by Bostik), or "Sticky Stuff" (as made by Pritt). History The substance was invented by Austin Carpenter (1921 – ) in 1971 in England during development of an industrial adhesive by Bostik, he was prompted by his wife (a teacher) for a glue that could easily stick posters to walls and be removed again without leaving marks. Laboratory Researcher Alan Holloway, working for sealant manufacturer Ralli Bondite of Waterlooville Hampshire, had in 1970 inadvertently produced a product that was useless as a sealant, but pliable and semi-elastic. This novelty product was demonstrated by Ralli Bondite management to visiting executives from another sealant and adhesive manufacturer, as a means of wall mounting notices. There was no need for secrecy about the formula, as it was of no use for a gun-grade mastic, the main product of Ralli Bondite. In the beginning the potential of this material was not fully recognized, until later when Bostik commenced research into the development of what they were eventually to launch as Blu-Tack. In its conceptual stage the product was white, but was coloured blue in response to concerns received from marketing research regarding the possibility of children mistaking it for edible confectionery. In the UK in March 2008, Blu-Tack changed colour for the first time since 1971 – to pink – to help raise money for Breast Cancer Campaign. 200,000 numbered packs were made available, 10% from each pack going to the charity. The formulation was slightly altered to retain complete consistency with its blue counterpart. The traditional blue colour returned in April. Similar products Similar products from other manufacturers include "Buddies" (coloured pink), "Pritt-Tack", "Poster Putty", "Tac 'N Stick", "Ticky Tack" and "Sticky Tack". "White Tack", made by the German company UHU, is similar but, as the name suggests, is white, so coloured so that it doesn't show through easily on posters as Blu-Tack does. In the USA, a similar, competing product in an orange color is marketed under the brand "Elmer's Tack." Uses Blu-Tack is also used for sculpture. Artist Elizabeth Thompson created a giant 200 kilogram sculpture of a spider using Blu-Tack over a wire frame. It took 4000 packs and was exhibited at London Zoo in 2007. Other serious artists have created works from the material, and there is a large international body of dedicated users of Blu-Tack who create minor art works and stop-motion animation. The British Blu-Tack web site takes a keen interest in these activities and has a section devoted to them. Official Blu-Tack Site UK References External links Official Blu-Tack Site UK Official Blu Tack site Australia	Blu-Tack \|@lemmatized blu:16 tack:21 australian:1 packaging:1 versatile:1 reusable:1 putty:2 like:1 pressure:1 sensitive:1 adhesive:3 original:1 version:1 product:8 blue:4 many:1 colour:5 available:2 base:1 formulation:2 consisting:1 synthetic:1 rubber:1 polymer:1 oil:1 inorganic:1 filler:1 leave:2 oily:1 stain:1 paper:1 material:3 attach:1 long:1 period:1 time:2 know:2 zorkai:1 north:1 eastern:1 area:1 canada:1 http:1 www:1 express:1 co:1 uk:4 post:1 view:1 go:2 pink:3 charity:2 south:1 africa:1 commonly:1 prestik:1 make:4 bostik:3 sticky:2 stuff:1 pritt:2 history:1 substance:1 invent:1 austin:1 carpenter:1 england:1 development:2 industrial:1 prompt:1 wife:1 teacher:1 glue:1 could:1 easily:2 stick:2 poster:3 wall:2 remove:1 without:1 mark:1 laboratory:1 researcher:1 alan:1 holloway:1 work:3 sealant:3 manufacturer:3 ralli:3 bondite:3 waterlooville:1 hampshire:1 inadvertently:1 produce:1 useless:1 pliable:1 semi:1 elastic:1 novelty:1 demonstrate:1 management:1 visit:1 executive:1 another:1 mean:1 mounting:1 notice:1 need:1 secrecy:1 formula:1 use:4 gun:1 grade:1 mastic:1 main:1 begin:1 potential:1 fully:1 recognize:1 later:1 commence:1 research:2 eventually:1 launch:1 conceptual:1 stage:1 white:3 response:1 concern:1 receive:1 market:2 regard:1 possibility:1 child:1 mistake:1 edible:1 confectionery:1 march:1 change:1 first:1 since:1 help:1 raise:1 money:1 breast:1 cancer:1 campaign:1 numbered:1 pack:3 slightly:1 alter:1 retain:1 complete:1 consistency:1 counterpart:1 traditional:1 return:1 april:1 similar:4 include:1 buddy:1 coloured:1 tac:1 n:1 ticky:1 german:1 company:1 uhu:1 name:1 suggest:1 show:1 usa:1 compete:1 orange:1 color:1 brand:1 elmer:1 also:1 sculpture:2 artist:2 elizabeth:1 thompson:1 create:3 giant:1 kilogram:1 spider:1 wire:1 frame:1 take:2 exhibit:1 london:1 zoo:1 serious:1 large:1 international:1 body:1 dedicated:1 user:1 minor:1 art:1 stop:1 motion:1 animation:1 british:1 web:1 site:4 keen:1 interest:1 activity:1 section:1 devote:1 official:3 reference:1 external:1 link:1 australia:1 \|@bigram blu_tack:16 synthetic_rubber:1 http_www:1 breast_cancer:1 external_link:1
6,076	Jurisprudence	The Final Honour School of Jurisprudence is also the formal name of the undergraduate Bachelor of Arts degree in Law awarded by the University of Oxford Philosophers of law ask "what is law?" and "what should it be?" Jurisprudence is the theory and philosophy of law. Scholars of jurisprudence, or legal philosophers, hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems and of legal institutions. As jurisprudence has developed, there are three main aspects with which scholarly writing engages: Natural law is the idea that there are unchangeable laws of nature which govern us, and that our laws and institutions should try to align with this natural law. Analytic jurisprudence asks questions distinctive to legal philosophy like, "What is law?" "What are the criteria for legal validity?" or "What is the relationship between law and morality?" and other such questions that legal philosophers may engage. Normative jurisprudence asks what law ought to be. It is close to political philosophy, and includes questions of whether one ought to obey the law, on what grounds law-breakers might properly be punished, the proper uses and limits of regulation, how judges ought to decide cases. Modern jurisprudence and philosophy of law is dominated today primarily by Western academics. The ideas of the Western legal tradition have become so pervasive throughout the world that it is tempting to see them as universal. Historically, however, many philosophers from other traditions have discussed the same questions, from Islamic scholars to the ancient Greeks. Etymology The English term is based on the Latin word jurisprudentia: juris is the genitive form of jus meaning "law", and prudentia means "knowledge". The word is first attested in English in 1628 Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition 1989 , at a time when the word prudence had the now obsolete meaning of "knowledge of or skill in a matter". The word may have come via the French jurisprudence, which is attested earlier. History of jurisprudence The Central Criminal Court of England and Wales Jurisprudence already had this meaning in Ancient Rome, even if at its origins the discipline was a monopoly of the College of Pontiffs (Pontifex), which retained an exclusive power of judgment on facts, being the only experts (periti) in the jus of traditional law (mos maiorum, a body of oral laws and customs verbally transmitted "by father to son"). Pontiffs indirectly created a body of laws by their pronunciations (sententiae) on single concrete (judicial) cases. Their sentences were supposed to be simple interpretations of the traditional customs, but effectively it was an activity that, apart from formally reconsidering for each case what precisely was traditionally in the legal habits, soon turned also to a more equitative interpretation, coherently adapting the law to the newer social instances. The law was then implemented with new evolutive Institutiones (legal concepts), while remaining in the traditional scheme. Pontiffs were replaced in 3rd century BC by a laical body of prudentes. Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience. Under the Roman Republic, schools of law were created, and the activity constantly became more academic. In the age from the early Roman Empire to the 3rd century, a relevant literature was produced by some notable groups including the Proculians and Sabinians. The degree of scientific depth of the studies was unprecedented in ancient times and reached still unrivaled peaks of skill. It is about this activity that it has been said that Romans had developed an art out of the law. After the 3rd century, Juris prudentia became a more bureaucratic activity, with few notable authors. It was during the Byzantine Empire (5th century) that legal studies were once again undertaken in depth, and it is from this cultural movement that Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis was born. Natural law Natural law theory asserts that there are laws that are immanent in nature, to which enacted laws should correspond as closely as possible. This view is frequently summarised by the maxim an unjust law is not a true law , lex iniusta non est lex, in which 'unjust' is defined as contrary to natural law. Natural law is closely associated with morality and, in historically influential versions, with the intentions of God. To oversimplify its concepts somewhat, natural law theory attempts to identify a moral compass to guide the lawmaking power of the state and to promote 'the good'. Notions of an objective moral order, external to human legal systems, underlie natural law. What is right or wrong can vary according to the interests one is focused upon. Natural law is sometimes identified with the maxim that "an unjust law is no law at all", but as John Finnis, the most important of modern natural lawyers has argued, this maxim is a poor guide to the classical Thomist position. Aristotle Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law. Shellens, "Aristotle on Natural Law." Like his philosophical forefathers, Socrates and Plato, Aristotle posited the existence of natural justice or natural right (dikaion physikon, δικαιον φυσικον, Latin ius naturale). His association with natural law is due largely to the interpretation given to him by Thomas Aquinas. Jaffa, Thomism and Aristotelianism. This was based on Aquinas' conflation of natural law and natural right, the latter of which Aristotle posits in Book V of the Nicomachean Ethics (= Book IV of the Eudemian Ethics). Aquinas' influence was such as to affect a number of early translations of these passages, H. Rackham, trans., Nicomachean Ethics, Loeb Classical Library; J. A. K. Thomson, trans. (revised by Hugh Tedennick), Nicomachean Ethics, Penguin Classics. though more recent translations render them more literally. Joe Sachs, trans., Nicomachean Ethics, Focus Publishing Aristotle conceives of justice in two manners. Firstly, the most important but often overlooked form of justice is termed General Justice. Aristotle's objectivist ethics proclaims that there are some legal systems which are more just than other legal systems. The best politico-legal system will promote the greatest virtues of character, which Aristotle details extensively in the Nicomachean Ethics, in the citizens which constitute that society. Hence, general justice is the aspirational state of political, ethical and legal activities. It refers natural justice is a species of political justice, viz. the scheme of distributive and corrective justice that would be established under the best political community; Nicomachean Ethics, Bk. V, ch. 6–7. were this to take the form of law, this could be called a natural law, though Aristotle does not discuss this and suggests in the Politics that the best regime may not rule by law at all. Politics, Bk. III, ch. 16. The best evidence of Aristotle's having thought there was a natural law comes from the Rhetoric, where Aristotle notes that, aside from the "particular" laws that each people has set up for itself, there is a "common" law that is according to nature. Rhetoric 1373b2–8. The context of this remark, however, suggests only that Aristotle advised that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the "particular" law of ones' own city was averse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law; Shellens, "Aristotle on Natural Law," 75–81 Aristotle, moreover, considered two of the three candidates for a universally valid, natural law provided in this passage to be wrong. "Natural Law," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Aristotle's theoretical paternity of the natural law tradition is consequently disputed. Sharia and Fiqh in Islam The first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi. Sharia () refers to the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and most private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Islamic principles of jurisprudence. Fiqh is the term for Islamic jurisprudence, made up of the rulings of Islamic jurists. A component of Islamic studies, Fiqh expounds the methodology by which Islamic law is derived from primary and secondary sources. Mainstream Islam distinguish fiqh, which means understanding details and inferences drawn by scholars, from sharia that refers to principles that lie behind the fiqh. Scholars hope that fiqh and sharia are in harmony in any given case, but this cannot be assured. On the Sources of Islamic Law and Practices, The Journal of law and religion [0748-0814] Souaiaia yr:2005 vol:20 iss:1 pg:123 Early forms of logic in Islamic philosophy were introduced in Islamic jurisprudence from the 7th century with the process of Qiyas. During the Islamic Golden Age, there was a logical debate among Islamic philosophers and jurists whether the term Qiyas refers to analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning or categorical syllogism. Some Islamic scholars argued that Qiyas refers to reasoning, which Ibn Hazm (994-1064) disagreed with, arguing that Qiyas does not refer to inductive reasoning, but refers to categorical syllogism in a real sense and analogical reasoning in a metaphorical sense. On the other hand, al-Ghazali (1058-1111) (and in modern times, Abu Muhammad Asem al-Maqdisi) argued that Qiyas refers to analogical reasoning in a real sense and categorical syllogism in a metaphorical sense. Other Islamic scholars at the time, however, argued that the term Qiyas refers to both analogical reasoning and categorical syllogism in a real sense. Wael B. Hallaq (1993), Ibn Taymiyya Against the Greek Logicians, p. 48. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198240430. Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas was the most important Western medieval legal scholar Saint Thomas Aquinas [Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino] (c. 1225 – 7 March 1274) was a philosopher and theologian in the scholastic tradition, known as "Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Universalis". He is the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of the Thomistic school of philosophy, for a long time the primary philosophical approach of the Roman Catholic Church. The work for which he is best-known is the Summa Theologica. One of the thirty-three Doctors of the Church, he is considered by many Catholics to be the Church's greatest theologian. Consequently, many institutions of learning have been named after him. Aquinas distinguished four kinds of law. These are the eternal, natural, human, and divine law. Eternal law is the decree of God which governs all creation. Natural law is the human "participation" in the eternal law and is discovered by reason. Louis Pojman, Ethics (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1995). Natural law, of course, is based on "first principles": . . . this is the first precept of the law, that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided. All other precepts of the natural law are based on this . . . Summa, Q94a2. The desire to live and to procreate are counted by Aquinas among those basic (natural) human values on which all human values are based. Human law is positive law: the natural law applied by governments to societies. Divine law is the law as specially revealed in the scriptures and teachings of the apostles. Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes was an English Enlightenment scholar In his treatise Leviathan, (1651), Hobbes expresses a view of natural law as a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or takes away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that by which he thinks it may best be preserved. Hobbes was a social contractarian Basically meaning: the people of a society are prepared give up some rights to a government in order to receive social order. and believed that the law gained peoples' tacit consent. He believed that society was formed from a state of nature to protect people from the state of war between mankind that exists otherwise. Life is, without an ordered society, "solitary, poore, nasty, brutish and short". It is commonly commented that Hobbes' views about the core of human nature were influenced by his times. The English Civil War and the Cromwellian dictatorship had taken place, and he felt absolute authority vested in a monarch, whose subjects obeyed the law, was the basis of a civilized society. Lon Fuller Writing after World War II, Lon L. Fuller notably emphasised that the law must meet certain formal requirements (such as being impartial and publicly knowable). To the extent that an institutional system of social control falls short of these requirements, Fuller argues, we are less inclined to recognise it as a system of law, or to give it our respect. Thus, law has an internal morality that goes beyond the social rules by which valid laws are made. Fuller and scholar H.L.A. Hart were colleagues at Oxford University. One of the disagreements between Fuller, a natural lawyer, and Hart, a positivist, was whether Nazi law was so bad that it could no longer be considered law. John Finnis Sophisticated positivist and natural law theories sometimes resemble each other more than the above descriptions might suggest, and they may concede certain points to the other "side". Identifying a particular theorist as a positivist or a natural law theorist sometimes involves matters of emphasis and degree, and the particular influences on the theorist's work. In particular, the older natural lawyers, such as Aquinas and John Locke made no distinction between analytic and normative jurisprudence. But modern natural lawyers, such as John Finnis claim to be positivists, while still arguing that law is a basically moral creature... Analytic jurisprudence Hume made the famous is-ought distinction Analytic, or 'clarificatory' jurisprudence is using a neutral point of view and descriptive language when referring to the aspects of legal systems. This was a philosophical development that rejected natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be. See H L A Hart, 'Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals' (1958) 71 Harv. L. Rev. 593 David Hume famously argued in A Treatise of Human Nature David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739) that people invariably slip between describing that the world is a certain way to saying therefore we ought to conclude on a particular course of action. But as a matter of pure logic, one cannot conclude that we ought to do something merely because something is the case. So analysing and clarifying the way the world is must be treated as a strictly separate question to normative and evaluative ought questions. The most important questions of analytic jurisprudence are: "What are laws?"; "What is the law?"; "What is the relationship between law and power/sociology?"; and, "What is the relationship between law and morality?" Legal positivism is the dominant theory, although there are a growing number of critics, who offer their own interpretations. Legal positivists Positivism simply means that the law is something that is "posited": laws are validly made in accordance with socially accepted rules. The positivist view on law can be seen to cover two broad principles: Firstly, that laws may seek to enforce justice, morality, or any other normative end, but their success or failure in doing so does not determine their validity. Provided a law is properly formed, in accordance with the rules recognized in the society concerned, it is a valid law, regardless of whether it is just by some other standard. Secondly, that law is nothing more than a set of rules to provide order and governance of society. No legal positivist, however, argues that it follows that the law is therefore to be obeyed, no matter what. This is seen as a separate question entirely. What the law is - is determined by social facts (or "sources') What obedience the law is owed - is determined by moral considerations. Bentham and Austin Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law till the twentieth century One of the earliest legal positivists was Jeremy Bentham. Bentham was an early and staunch supporter of the utilitarian concept (along with Hume), an avid prison reformer, advocate for democracy, and strongly atheist. Bentham's views about law and jurisprudence were popularized by his student, John Austin. Austin was the first chair of law at the new University of London from 1829. Austin's utilitarian answer to "what is law?" was that law is "commands, backed by threat of sanctions, from a sovereign, to whom people have a habit of obedience". John Austin, The Providence of Jurisprudence Determined (1831) Contemporary legal positivists have long abandoned this view, and have criticised its oversimplification, H.L.A. Hart particularly. Hans Kelsen Hans Kelsen is considered one of the preeminent jurists of the 20th century. He is most influential in Europe, where his notion of a Grundnorm or a "presupposed" ultimate and basic legal norm, still retains some influence. It is a hypothetical norm on which all subsequent levels of a legal system such as constitutional law and "simple" law are based. Kelsen's pure theory of law described the law as being a set of social facts, which are normatively binding too. Law's normativity, meaning that we must obey it, derives from a basic rule which sits outside the law we can alter. It is a rule proscribing the validity of all others. Kelsen was a Professor at several universities in Europe, notably the University of Vienna and the University of Cologne. In 1940, he moved to the United States, giving the Oliver Wendell Holmes Lectures at Harvard Law School in 1942 and becoming a full professor at the department of political science at the University of California, Berkeley in 1945. During those years, he increasingly dealt with issues of international law and international institutions such as the United Nations. H.L.A. Hart In the Anglophone world, the pivotal writer was H.L.A. Hart, who argued that the law should be understood as a system of social rules. Hart rejected Kelsen's views that sanctions were essential to law and that a normative social phenomenon, like law, can not be grounded in non-normative social facts. Hart revived analytical jurisprudence as an important theoretical debate in the twentieth century through his book The Concept of Law. H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law (1961) Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-876122-8 As the chair of jurisprudence at Oxford University, Hart argued law is a 'system of rules'. Rules, said Hart, are divided into primary rules (rules of conduct) and secondary rules (rules addressed to officials to administer primary rules). Secondary rules are divided into rules of adjudication (to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (allowing laws to be varied) and the rule of recognition (allowing laws to be identified as valid). The "rule of recognition", a customary practice of the officials (especially judges) that identifies certain acts and decisions as sources of law. A pivotal book on Hart was written by Neil MacCormick in 1981 (second edition due in 2007), which further refined and offered some important criticisms that led MacCormick to develop his own theory (the best example of which is his recently published Institutions of Law, 2007). Other important critiques have included that of Ronald Dworkin, John Finnis, and Joseph Raz. In recent years, debates about the nature of law have become increasingly fine-grained. One important debate is within legal positivism. One school is sometimes called exclusive legal positivism, and it is associated with the view that the legal validity of a norm can never depend on its moral correctness. A second school is labeled inclusive legal positivism, a major proponent of which is Wil Waluchow, and it is associated with the view that moral considerations may determine the legal validity of a norm, but that it is not necessary that this is the case. Joseph Raz Some philosophers used to contend that positivism was the theory that there is "no necessary connection" between law and morality; but influential contemporary positivists, including Joseph Raz, John Gardner, and Leslie Green, reject that view. As Raz points out, it is a necessary truth that there are vices that a legal system cannot possibly have (for example, it cannot commit rape or murder). Joseph Raz defends the positivist outlook, but criticised Hart's "soft social thesis" approach in The Authority of Law. Joseph Raz, The Authority of Law (1979) Oxford University Press Raz argues that law is authority, identifiable purely through social sources, without reference to moral reasoning. Any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authoritative is best left to sociology, rather than jurisprudence. ch. 2, Joseph Raz, The Authority of Law (1979) Ronald Dworkin Ronald Dworkin sought a theory of law which would justify judges' ability to strike down democratically decided laws. Ronald Dworkin is a leading philosopher. In his book 'Law's Empire' Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire (1986) Harvard University Press Dworkin attacked Hart and the positivists for their refusal to treat law as a moral issue. Dworkin argues that law is an 'interpretive' concept, that requires judges to find the best fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given their constitutional traditions. According to him, law is not entirely based on social facts, but includes the morally best justification for the institutional facts and practices that we intuitively regard as legal. It follows on Dworkin's view that one cannot know whether a society has a legal system in force, or what any of its laws are, until one knows some moral truths about the justifications for the practices in that society. It is consistent with Dworkin's view--in contrast with the views of legal positivists or legal realists--that no one in a society may know what its laws are (because no one may know the best justification for its practices.) Interpretation, according to Dworkin's law as integrity theory, has two dimensions. To count as an interpretation, the reading of a text must meet the criterion of fit. But of those interpretations that fit, Dworkin maintains that the correct interpretation is the one that puts the political practices of the community in their best light, or makes of them the best that they can be. But many writers have doubted whether there is a single best justification for the complex practices of any given community, and others have doubted whether, even if there are, they should be counted as part of the law of that community. Legal realism Oliver Wendell Holmes was a self-defined legal realist Legal realism was a view popular with some Scandinavian and American writers. Skeptical in tone, it held that the law should be understood and determined by the actual practices of courts, law offices, and police stations, rather than as the rules and doctrines set forth in statutes or learned treatises. It had some affinities with the sociology of law. The essential tenet of legal realism is that all law is made by human beings and, thus, is subject to human foibles, frailties and imperfections. It has become quite common today to identify Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., as the main precursor of American Legal Realism (other influences include Roscoe Pound, Karl Llewellyn and Justice Benjamin Cardozo). Karl Llewellyn, another founder of the U.S. legal realism movement, similarly believed that the law is little more than putty in the hands of a judge who is able to shape the outcome of a case based on personal biases. “Jurisprudence”. West’s Encyclopedia of American Law. Ed. Jeffrey Lehman, Shirelle Phelps. Detroit: Thomson/Gale, 2005. The chief inspiration for Scandinavian legal realism many consider to be the works of Axel Hägerström. Despite its decline in facial popularity, realists continue to influence a wide spectrum of jurisprudential schools today, including critical legal studies (scholars such as Duncan Kennedy and Roberto Unger), feminist legal theory, critical race theory, law and economics and law and society. The Historical School Historical jurisprudence came to prominence during the German debate over the proposed codification of German law. In his book On the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence, Friedrich Carl von Savigny, On the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence (Abraham A. Hayward trans., 1831) Friedrich Carl von Savigny argued that Germany did not have a legal language that would support codification because the traditions, customs and beliefs of the German people did not include a belief in a code. The Historicists believe that the law originates with society. Normative jurisprudence In addition to the question, "What is law?", legal philosophy is also concerned with normative, or "evaluative" theories of law. What is the goal or purpose of law? What moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law? What is the proper function of law? What sorts of acts should be subject to punishment, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted? What is justice? What rights do we have? Is there a duty to obey the law? What value has the rule of law? Some of the different schools and leading thinkers are as follows. Virtue jurisprudence Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens Aretaic moral theories such as contemporary virtue ethics emphasize the role of character in morality. Virtue jurisprudence is the view that the laws should promote the development of virtuous characters by citizens. Historically, this approach is associated mainly with Aristotle or Thomas Aquinas later. Contemporary virtue jurisprudence is inspired by philosophical work on virtue ethics. Deontology Kant was a pre-eminent Enlightenment thinker Deontology is "the theory of duty or moral obligation." Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, p. 378 (2d Coll. Ed. 1978). The philosopher Immanuel Kant formulated one influential deontological theory of law. He argued that any rule we follow must be universalisable: we must be willing to will everyone to follow that rule. A contemporary deontological approach can be found in the work of the legal philosopher Ronald Dworkin. Utilitarianism Mill believed law should create happiness Utilitarianism is the view that the laws should be crafted so as to produce the best consequences. Historically, utilitarian thinking about law is associated with the great philosopher, Jeremy Bentham. John Stuart Mill was a pupil of Bentham's and was the torch bearer for utilitarian philosophy through the late nineteenth century. see, Utilitarianism at Metalibri Digital Library In contemporary legal theory, the utilitarian approach is frequently championed by scholars who work in the law and economics tradition. John Rawls John Rawls was an American philosopher, a professor of political philosophy at Harvard University and author of A Theory of Justice (1971), Political Liberalism, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement, and The Law of Peoples. He is widely considered one of the most important English-language political philosophers of the 20th century. His theory of justice uses a device called the original position to ask us which principles of justice we would choose to regulate the basic institutions of our society if we were behind a `veil of ignorance.' Imagine we do not know who we are - our race, sex, wealth status, class, or any distinguishing feature - so that we would not be biased in our own favour. Rawls argues from this 'original position' that we would choose exactly the same political liberties for everyone, like freedom of speech, the right to vote and so on. Also, we would choose a system where there is only inequality because that produces incentives enough for the economic well-being of all society, especially the poorest. This is Rawls' famous 'difference principle'. Justice is fairness, in the sense that the fairness of the original position of choice guarantees the fairness of the principles chosen in that position. There are many other normative approaches to the philosophy of law, including critical legal studies and libertarian theories of law. References Further reading Freeman, M.D.A. (2001). Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence. 7th ed. London: Sweet and Maxwell. Hartzler, H. Richard (1976). Justice, Legal Systems, and Social Structure. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press. Hutchinson, Allan C., ed. (1989). Critical Legal Studies. Totowa, NJ: Roman & Littlefield. Kempin, Jr., Frederick G. (1963). Legal History: Law and Social Change. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Llewellyn, Karl N. (1986). Karl N. Llewellyn on Legal Realism. Birmingham, AL: Legal Classics Library. (Contains penetrating classic "The Bramble Bush" on nature of law). Murphy, Cornelius F. (1977). Introduction to Law, Legal Process, and Procedure. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing. Rawls, John (1999). A Theory of Justice, revised ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. (Philosophical treatment of justice). Zinn, Howard (1990). Declarations of Independence: Cross-Examining American Ideology. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. See also General Analytical jurisprudence Artificial intelligence and law Brocard Cautelary jurisprudence Critical legal studies Defeasible reasoning Fiqh Judicial activism Justice Law and economics Legal formalism Legal positivism Legal realism Libertarian theories of law Living Constitution Originalism Natural law Political jurisprudence Strict interpretation Virtue jurisprudence Philosopher A-Z Robert Alexy Thomas Aquinas John Austin (legal philosophy) Jeremy Bentham Emilio Betti Norberto Bobbio António Castanheira Neves Giorgio Del Vecchio Ronald Dworkin Joel Feinberg John Finnis Lon L. Fuller Leslie Green (philosopher) Robert P. George Germain Grisez H.L.A. Hart Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Wesley Hohfeld Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Immanuel Kant Hans Kelsen Hans Köchler David Lyons Neil MacCormick Karl Marx Karl Olivecrona Richard Posner Gustav Radbruch John Rawls Joseph Raz Adolf Reinach Karl Renner Friedrich Karl von Savigny Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex Roberto Unger Jeremy Waldron Ludwig Wittgenstein External links Navigate to page for Encyclopedia of the Science of Law (Mellen, 2002). John Witte, Jr: A Brief Biography of Dooyeweerd, based on Hendrik van Eikema Hommes, Inleiding tot de Wijsbegeerte van Herman Dooyeweerd (The Hague, 1982; pp 1–4,132). LII Law about... Jurisprudence. The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: Nine New Opinions, by Peter Suber (Routledge, 1998.) Lon Fuller's classic of jurisprudence brought up to date 50 years later. The Roman Law Library, incl. Responsa prudentium by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev. Evgeny Pashukanis - General Theory of Law and Marxism. Internet Encyclopedia: Philosophy of Law. The Opticon: Online Repository of Materials covering Spectrum of U.S. Jurisprudence. For more information about Neil MacCormick and the Edinburgh Legal Theory Research Group visit www.law.ed.ac.uk Jurisprudence Revision Notes for Students: - LawTeacher.net - Jurisprudence Foundation for Law, Justice and Society Bibliography on the Philosophy of Law. 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6,077	Hassium	Hassium ( or hassium - Definitions from Dictionary.com ) is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol Hs and atomic number 108. Its most stable isotope is , with a half-life of 16.5 minutes. Official discovery Hassium was first synthesized in 1984 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt. The team bombarded a lead target with 58Fe nuclei to produce 3 atoms of 265Hs in the reaction: + → + The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) recognised the GSI collaboration as official discoverers in their 1992 report. "Discovery of the transfermium elements", IUPAC Technical report, Pure & Appl. Chem., Vol. 65, No. 8, pp. 1757-1814,1993. Retrieved on 2008-03-07 Naming Element 108 has historically been known as eka-osmium. During the period of controversy over the names of the elements (see element naming controversy) IUPAC adopted unniloctium ( unniloctium - Definitions from Dictionary.com or , symbol Uno) as a temporary element name for this element. The name hassium was proposed by the officially recognised German discoverers in 1992, derived from the Latin name for the German state of Hesse where the institute is located (L. hassia German Hessen). In 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 108 be named hahnium (Hn). http://iupac.org/publications/pac/1994/pdf/6612x2419.pdf (IUPAC 1994 recomm) The name hassium (Hs) was adopted internationally in 1997. http://iupac.org/publications/pac/1997/pdf/6912x2471.pdf (IUPAC 1997 recomm) Electronic structure Hassium has 6 full shells, 7s+5p+3d+2f=17 full subshells, and 108 orbitals: Bohr model2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2Quantum mechanical model1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d6 Extrapolated chemical properties of eka-osmium/dvi-ruthenium Oxidation states Element 108 is projected to be the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals and the heaviest member of group VIII in the Periodic Table, below iron, ruthenium and osmium. The latter two members of the group readily portray their group oxidation state of +8 and this state becomes more stable as the group is descended. Thus hassium is expected to form a stable +8 state. Osmium also shows stable +5, +4 and +3 states with the +4 state the most stable. For ruthenium, the +6, +5 and +3 states are stable with the +3 state being the most stable. Hassium is therefore expected to also show other stable lower oxidation states. Chemistry The group VIII elements show a very distinctive oxide chemistry which allows facile extrapolations to be made for hassium. All the lighter members have known or hypothetical tetroxides, MO4. The oxidising power decreases as one descends the group such that FeO4 "FeO4: A unique example of a closed-shell cluster mimicking a superhalogen", Gutsev et al., Phys. Rev. A , 59, 3681- 3684 (1999). Retrieved on 2008-03-01 is not known due to an extraordinary electron affinity which results in the formation of the well-known oxo-ion ferrate(VI), FeO42−. Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO4, formed by oxidation of ruthenium(VI) in acid, readily undergoes reduction to ruthenate(VI), RuO42−. Oxidation of ruthenium metal in air forms the dioxide, RuO2. In contrast, osmium burns to form the stable tetroxide, OsO4, which complexes with hydroxide ion to form an osmium(VIII) -ate complex, [OsO4(OH)2]2−. Therefore, eka-osmium properties for hassium should be demonstrated by the formation of a volatile tetroxide HsO4, which undergoes complexation with hydroxide to form a hassate(VIII), [HsO4(OH)2]2−. Experimental chemistry Gas phase chemistry Hassium is expected to have the electron configuration [Rn]5f14 6d6 7s2 and thus behave as the heavier homolog of osmium (Os). As such, it should form a volatile tetroxide, HsO4, due to the tetrahedral shape of the molecule. The first chemistry experiments were performed using gas thermochromatography in 2001, using 172Os as a reference. During the experiment, 5 hassium atoms were detected using the reaction 248Cm(26Mg,5n)269Hs. The resulting atoms were thermalized and oxidized in a He/O2 mixture to form the oxide. + 2 → The measured deposition temperature indicated that hassium(VIII) oxide is less volatile than osmium tetroxide, OsO4, and places hassium firmly in group 8. http://lch.web.psi.ch/pdf/anrep01/B-03heavies.pdf (Investigation of Hassium) In order to further probe the chemistry of hassium, scientists decided to assess the reaction between hassium tetroxide and sodium hydroxide to form sodium hassate(VIII), a reaction well-known with osmium. In 2004, scientists announced that they had succeeded in carrying out the first acid-base reaction with a hassium compound: http://www.gsi.de/informationen/wti/library/scientificreport2003/files/172.pdf (CALLISTO result) + 2 NaOH → Summary of compounds and complex ions FormulaNames(s)HsO4hassium tetroxide; hassium(VIII) oxidesodium hassate(VIII); disodium dihydroxytetraoxohassate(VIII) History of synthesis of isotopes by cold fusion 136Xe(136Xe,xn)272−xHs Important future experiments will involve the attempted synthesis of hassium isotopes in this symmetric reaction using the fission fragments. This reaction was carried out at Dubna in 2007 but no atoms were detected, leading to a cross section limit of 1 pb. Zagraebev, TAN07, 23-28 September 2007, Davos, Switzerland If confirmed, this would indicate that such symmetric fusion reactions should be modelled as 'hot fusion' reactions rather than 'cold fusion' ones, as first suggested. This would indicate that such reactions will unfortunately have limited use in the synthesis of superheavy elements. 198Pt(70Zn,xn)268−xHs This reaction was performed in May 2002 at the GSI. Unfortunately, the experiment was cut short due to a failure of the zinc-70 beam. 208Pb(58Fe,xn)266−xHs (x=1,2) This reaction was first reported in 1978 by the team at Dubna. In a later experiment in 1984, using the rotating drum technique, they were able to detect a spontaneous fission activity assigned to 260Sg, daughter of 264Hs. "On the stability of the nuclei of element 108 with A=263–265", Oganessian et al.., Z. Phys. A., 1984, 319, 2. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 In a repeat experiment in the same year, they applied the method of chemical identification of a descendant to provide support to the synthesis of element 108. They were able to detect several alpha decays of 253Es and 253Fm, descendants of 265108. In the official discovery of the element in 1984, the team at GSI studied the reaction using the alpha decay genetic correlation method. They were able to positively identify 3 atoms of 265Hs. "The identification of element 108", Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A., 1984, 317, 2. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 After an upgrade of their facilities in 1993, the team repeated the experiment in 1994 and detected 75 atoms of 265Hs and 2 atoms of 264Hs, during the measurement of a partial excitation function for the 1n neutron evaporation channel. "New elements-approaching Z=114", S.Hoffmann, Rep. Prog. Phys.,1998, 61, 639-689.Retrieved on 2008-03-01 The maximum of the 1n channel was measured as 69 pb in a further run in late 1997 in which a further 20 atoms were detected. "Excitation function for the production of 265108 and 266109", Hofmann et al.., Z. Phys. A., 1997, 358, 4. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 The discovery experiment was successfully repeated in 2002 at RIKEN (10 atoms) and in 2003 at GANIL (7 atoms). The team at RIKEN further studied the reaction in 2008 in order to conduct first spectroscopic studies of the even-even nucleus 264Hs. 207Pb(58Fe,xn)265−xHs (x=1) The use of a Pb-207 target was first used in 1984 at Dubna. They were able to detect the same SF activity as observed in the Pb-208 run and once again assigned it to 260Sg, daughter of 264Hs. The team at GSI first studied the reaction in 1986 using the method of correlation of genetic alpha decays and identified a single atom of 264Hs with a cross section of 3.2 pb. "Evidence for 264108, the heaviest known even-even isotope", Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A., 1986, 324, 4. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 The reaction was repeated in 1994 and the team were able to measure both alpha decay and spontaneous fission for 264Hs. This reaction was studied in 2008 at RIKEN in order to conduct first spectrscopic studies of the even-even nucleus 264Hs. 208Pb(56Fe,xn)264−xHs (x=1) This reaction was studied for the first time in 2008 by the team at LBNL. They were able to produce and identify 6 atoms of the new isotope 263Hs. ["New Isotope 263108"/http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevC.79.011602], Dragojevic et al., Phys. Rev. C 79, 011602, 2009, 2008-03-24 . A few months later, the RIKEN team also published their results on the same reaction ["Production and Decay Properties of 263108"/http://jpsj.ipap.jp/link?JPSJ/78/035003], Kaji et al., J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 78, 035003 , 2009, 2008-03-24 . 206Pb(58Fe,xn)264−xHs (x=1) This reaction was studied for the first time in 2008 by the team at RIKEN. They were able to identify the new isotope 263Hs. The results have not been published to date. 209Bi(55Mn,xn)264−xHs First attempts to synthesise nuclei of element 108 were performed using this reaction by the team at Dubna in 1983. Using the rotating drum technique, they were able to detect a spontaneous fission activity assigned to 255Rf, descendant of the 263108 decay chain. Identical results were measured in a repeat run in 1984. In a subsequent experiment in 1983, they applied the method of chemical identification of a descendant to provide support to the synthesis of element 108. They were able to detect alpha decays from fermium isotopes, assigned as descendants of the decay of 262108. This reaction has not been tried since and 263Hs and 262Hs are currently inconfirmed. History of synthesis of isotopes by hot fusion 226Ra(48Ca,xn)274−xHs (x=4) This reaction was reportedly first studied in 1978 by the team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) under the leadership of Yuri Oganessian. However, results are not available in the literature. The reaction was repeated at the FLNR in July 2008 and preliminary unpublished results show that the isotope 270Hs was detected with a yield of 9 pb. The decay data for the recently discovered isotope was confirmed. 232Th(40Ar,xn)272−xHs This reaction was first studied at Dubna in 1987. Detection was by spontaneous fission and no activities were found leading to a calculated cross section limit of 2 pb. 238U(36S,xn)274−xHs (x=4) This reaction with the rare and expensive 36S isotope was conducted at the GSI in April-May 2008. Preliminary unpublished results show that a single atom of 270Hs was detected with a yield of 0.8 pb. The data confirms the decay properties of 270Hs and 266Sg. 238U(34S,xn)272−xHs (x=5) In March 1994, the team at Dubna led by the late Yuri Lazerev announced the detection of 3 atoms of 267Hs from the 5n neutron evaporation channel. "New Nuclide 267108 Produced by the 238U + 34S Reaction", Lazarev et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 75, 1903-1906 (1995). Retrieved on 2008-03-01 The decay properties was confirmed by the team at GSI in their simultaneous study of element 110. 248Cm(26Mg,xn)274−xHs (x=3,4,5) Most recently, a GSI-PSI collaboration has studied the nuclear reaction of curium-248 with magnesium-26 ions. Between May 2001 and August 2005, the team has studied the excitation function of the 3n, 4n, and 5n evaporation channels leading to 269Hs, 270Hs, and 271Hs. "Decay properties of 269Hs and evidence for the new nuclide 270Hs", Turler et al., GSI Annual Report 2001. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 http://www2.ha.physik.uni-muenchen.de/heaviest_atoms/talks/Dvorak.pdf (269-271Hs) The synthesis of the important isotope 270Hs was published in December 2006 by the team of scientists from the Technical University of Munich. "Doubly magic 270Hs", Turler et al.., GSI report, 2006. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 It was reported that this isotope decayed by emission of an alpha-particle with an energy of 8.83 MeV and a projected half-life of ~22 s, assuming a 0+ to 0+ ground state decay to 266Sg using the Viola-Seaborg equation. 248Cm(25Mg,xn)273−xHs This new reaction was studied at the GSI in July-August 2006 in a search for the new isotope 268Hs. They were unable to detect any atoms from neutron evaporation and calculated a cross section limit of 1 pb. 249Cf(22Ne,xn)271−xHs The team at Dubna studied this reaction in 1983 using detection by spontaneous fission (SF). Several short SF activities were found indicating the formation of nuclei of element 108. Chemical yields of isotopes The tables below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for reactions producing hassium isotopes directly. Data in bold represent maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel. Cold fusion ProjectileTargetCN1n2n3n58Fe208Pb266Hs69 pb, 13.9 MeV4.5 pb 58Fe 207Pb 265Hs3.2 pb Hot fusion ProjectileTargetCN3n4n5n48Ca226Ra274Hs 9.0 pb36S238U274Hs 0.8 pb34S238U272Hs 2.5 pb, 50.0 MeV26Mg248Cm274Hs2.5 pb3.0 pb7.0 pb Isomerism in hassium isotopes 269Hs The direct synthesis of 269Hs has resulted in three alpha lines at 9.21, 9.10, and 8.94 MeV. In the decay of 277112, only 9.21 MeV 269Hs alpha decays have been observed indicating that this decay occurs from an isomeric level. Further research is required to confirm this. 267Hs The decay of 267Hs is known to occur by alpha decay with three alpha lines at 9.88, 9.83, and 9.75 MeV and a half-life of 52 ms. In the recent syntheses of 271m,gDs additional activities have been observed. A .94ms activity decaying by 9.83 MeV alpha emission has been observed in addition to longer lived ~.8 s and ~6.0 s activities. Each of these is currently not assigned and confirmed and further research is required to positively identify them. 265Hs The synthesis of 265Hs has also provided evidence for two levels. The ground state decays by 10.30 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of 2.0 ms. The isomeric state is placed at 300 keV above the ground state and decays by 10.57 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of .75 ms. Chronology of isotope discovery IsotopeYear discoveredDiscoverer reaction263Hs2008208Pb(56Fe,n)264Hs1986207Pb(58Fe,n)265Hs1984208Pb(58Fe,n) 266Hs2000207Pb(64Ni,n) see darmstadtium 267Hs1995238U(34S,5n)268Hsunknown269Hs1996208Pb(70Zn,n) see ununbium 270Hs2004248Cm(26Mg,4n) 271Hs2004248Cm(26Mg,3n)272Hsunknown 273Hsunknown 274Hsunknown275Hs2003242Pu(48Ca,3n) see ununquadium 276Hsunknown277Hs1999?244Pu(48Ca,3n) 270Hs: prospects for a deformed doubly-magic nucleus According to macroscopic-microscopic (MM) theory, Z=108 is a deformed proton magic number. This means that such nuclei are permanently deformed in their ground state but have high, narrow fission barriers to further deformation and hence relatively-long SF partial half-lives. The SF half-lives in this region are typically reduced by a factor of 109 in comparison with those in the vicinity of the spherical doubly-magic nucleus 298114, caused by an increase in the probability of barrier penetration by quantum tunnelling, due to the narrower fission barrier. In addition, N=162 has been calculated as a deformed neutron magic number and hence the nucleus 270Hs has promise as a deformed doubly-magic nucleus. Experimental data from the decay of Z=110 isotopes 271Ds and 273Ds, provides strong evidence for the magic nature of the N=162 sub-shell. The recent synthesis of 269Hs, 270Hs, and 271Hs also fully support the assignment of N=162 as a magic closed shell. Evidence for the Z=108 deformed proton shell Evidence for the effect of the Z=108 closed shell in the vicinity of the N=162 shell is limited at this moment in time. This is caused by the low production yields of the isotopes in question and thus poor statistics regarding SF partial half-lives resulting from branching of the decay mode. In the case of the isotonic pair 264Hs and 262Sg (N=156 isotones), the lifetimes and decay modes do not support the stabilizing effect of Z=108 but this is most likely due to a retreat from the N=162 shell. More conclusive evidence would come from the measurement of SF partial half-lives for 266Hs (vs. 264Sg), 268Hs (vs. 266Sg), and especially 270Hs itself (vs 268Sg and 266Rf), although 268Sg and 268Hs are currently unknown and 266Rf has not been produced via alpha decay (which would provide TSF for this N=162 isotone). Analysis of partial SF half-lives of nuclei with Z>108 (e.g. 272Ds) would also help to confirm the Z=108 closed shell. It should be noted that whilst 270Hs is expected to be a doubly-magic nucleus, it is not expected to have the longest half-life in this region of the periodic table. The reason is that whilst the N=162 shell staves off fission, alpha decay will predominate. As an example, the nucleus 268Sg (Z=106,N=162) is calculated to have a halflife of the order of two hours. However, recent data from the decay of 264Sg (TSF = 70 ms) and 266Sg (TSF = 360 ms) indicate that the influence of the N=162 shell for seaborgium isotopes against fission is some 1–2 orders of magnitude overestimated, so 268Sg may in fact decay by SF will a short half life of ~5 s. The recently-synthesized nucleus 268Db (TSF = 29 h) has such a long half-life because the presence of both the odd proton and odd neutron hinder SF, relative to neighbouring even-even nuclei. Unconfirmed isotopes 277Hs An isotope assigned to 277Hs has been observed on two occasions decaying by SF with a long half-life of ~12 minutes. The isotope is not observed in the decay of ground state 281Ds but is observed in the decay from an unconfirmed isomeric level. The half-life is very long for the ground state and it is possible that it belongs to an isomeric level in 277Hs. Further research is required to confirm this result. Retracted isotopes 273Hs The claimed synthesis of element 118 by LBNL in 1999 involved the intermediate 273Hs. This isotope was claimed to decay by 9.78 and 9.47 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of 1.2 s. The claim to discovery of 293118 was retracted and this hassium isotope is currently unknown. Future experiments The team at GSI has plans to further study the synthesis of hassium isotopes by hot fusion. In Jan-Feb 2009, they plan to study the reaction: http://www.gsi.de/documents/DOC-2007-Mar-178-1.pdf (238U + 34S proposal) + → The team at the Universitaet Mainz are planning to study the electrodeposition of hassium atoms using the new reaction: Kratz,J.V., "Liquid-phase studies of the transactinides, TAN07, Davos, Switzerland, September 2007 + → As part of their continued program on the study of the effect of isospin on the yield of evaporation residues in cold fusion reactions, the team at LBNL are planning to study the following reaction in 2008 with the search for a new isotope : + → + Eka-osmium Eka-osmium was a temporary name used to refer to the element that goes under osmium in the periodic table. The name "eka" was used in the same way as in Mendeleev's predicted elements. During the first half of the 20th century, eka-osmium referred to plutonium, because the actinide concept, which postulates the actinides form an inner transition series similar to the lanthanides, had not been proposed yet. Once the actinide concept became widely accepted, eka-osmium started to refer to element 108, now called Hassium, which was discovered in 1984. References External links WebElements.com: Hassium Apsidium: Hassium 108	Hassium \|@lemmatized hassium:28 definition:2 dictionary:2 com:3 synthetic:1 element:23 periodic:4 table:5 symbol:2 h:3 atomic:1 number:3 stable:9 isotope:28 half:17 life:15 minute:2 official:3 discovery:6 first:15 synthesize:2 german:4 research:5 team:21 lead:6 peter:1 armbruster:1 gottfried:1 münzenberg:1 institute:2 heavy:4 ion:5 gesellschaft:1 für:1 schwerionenforschung:1 darmstadt:1 bombard:1 target:2 nucleus:16 produce:5 atom:16 reaction:36 iupac:8 iupap:1 transfermium:2 work:1 group:8 twg:1 recognise:1 gsi:13 collaboration:2 discoverer:2 report:6 elements:1 technical:2 pure:1 appl:1 chem:1 vol:1 pp:1 retrieve:10 naming:1 historically:1 know:7 eka:8 osmium:15 period:1 controversy:2 name:9 see:4 adopt:2 unniloctium:2 uno:1 temporary:2 propose:2 officially:1 recognised:1 derive:2 latin:1 state:17 hesse:1 locate:1 l:1 hassia:1 hessen:1 committee:1 recommend:1 hahnium:1 hn:1 http:8 org:3 publication:2 pac:2 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several:2 alpha:16 decay:32 study:21 genetic:2 correlation:2 positively:2 identify:5 munzenberg:2 upgrade:1 facility:1 measurement:3 partial:5 excitation:5 function:4 neutron:5 evaporation:5 channel:5 new:10 approach:1 hoffmann:1 rep:1 prog:1 maximum:2 measure:3 run:3 production:3 hofmann:1 successfully:1 riken:5 ganil:1 conduct:3 spectroscopic:1 even:8 sf:11 observe:7 single:2 evidence:7 spectrscopic:1 time:3 lbnl:3 link:3 aps:1 doi:1 physrevc:1 dragojevic:1 c:1 month:1 later:1 publish:3 jpsj:2 ipap:1 jp:1 kaji:1 j:2 soc:1 jpn:1 date:1 attempt:1 synthesise:1 chain:1 identical:1 subsequent:1 fermium:1 try:1 since:1 currently:4 inconfirmed:1 reportedly:1 flerov:1 laboratory:1 nuclear:2 flnr:2 leadership:1 yuri:2 however:2 available:1 literature:1 july:2 preliminary:2 unpublished:2 yield:5 data:5 recently:3 discover:2 detection:3 find:2 calculated:1 rare:1 expensive:1 april:1 march:1 lazerev:1 nuclide:2 lazarev:1 lett:1 simultaneous:1 curium:1 magnesium:1 august:2 turler:2 annual:1 ha:1 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6,078	Mötley_Crüe	Mötley Crüe (IPA pronunciation: ) is a Grammy Award-nominated American hard rock band formed in Los Angeles, California in 1981. The band was founded by bass guitarist Nikki Sixx (who was, at the time, in a band called London) and drummer Tommy Lee, who were later joined by guitarist Mick Mars and singer Vince Neil. Mötley Crüe has sold more than 50 million album copies worldwide. years of chaos, Motley Crue still no "Saints" The band has often been noted for their hard-living lifestyles; all members have had numerous brushes with the law, spent time in jail, suffered long addictions to alcohol and drugs, had countless escapades with women, and are heavily tattooed. Their ninth studio album entitled Saints of Los Angeles was released on June 24, 2008, while a film adaptation of their best-selling band autobiography The Dirt, is due to be released sometime in 2011. The Dirt (2009) History Formation and early years: 1981-1983 Mötley Crüe was formed on January 17, 1981 when bassist Nikki Sixx left the band London and began rehearsing with Tommy Lee and vocalist/guitarist Greg Leon Chronological Crüe . Lee had worked previously with Leon in a band called Suite 19 Sleaze Roxx: Greg Leon interview and the trio practiced together for some time with Leon eventually deciding not to continue. The bassist and drummer then began a search for new members. Sixx and Lee soon met guitarist Bob "Mick Mars" Deal. Mars was quickly auditioned and subsequently hired by Sixx and Lee. Mars had been playing for a band, White Horse, when one of the members called the group "a motley looking crew." He had remembered the phrase and later copied it down as Mottley Cru-. Modifying the spelling slightly, 'Mötley Crüe' was eventually selected with the inspiration to add the two sets of umlauts supposedly coming from the German beer the members were drinking at the time. The group was still in need of a singer. Lee had known Neil from their high school days at Royal Oak H.S. in Covina and the two had performed in different bands on the garage-band circuit. On seeing him perform with the band Rock Candy at the Starwood in Hollywood, Mars suggested Mötley Crüe hire Vince. At first he refused. However, as the other members of Rock Candy became involved in outside projects, Neil grew anxious to try something else. When Lee made one final appeal to audition, he accepted. They soon met their first manager, Allan Coffman, "the thirty-eight-year-old brother-in-law of Mick’s driver friend Stick". Chronological Crue The band's first release was the single "Stick to Your Guns/Toast of the Town," which was released on their own label, Leathür Records, which had a pressing & distribution deal with Greenworld Distribution in Torrance. In November 1981, their debut album Too Fast for Love was self-produced and released on Leathür, selling 20,000 copies. Coffman's assistant Eric Greif set up a tour of Canada, while they used the band's success in the Los Angeles club scene to negotiate with several record labels, eventually signing a recording contract with Elektra Records in late spring 1982. At Elektra's insistence, the debut album was then re-mixed by producer Roy Thomas Baker and re-released on August 20, 1982, two months after its Canadian WEA release using the original Leathür mixes, to coincide with the tour. During the "Crüesing Through Canada Tour '82," there were several widely-publicized incidents. First, the band was arrested and then released at Edmonton International Airport for wearing their spiked stage wardrobe through Customs and for Vince's small carry-on filled with porn magazines (both PR stunts) - considered 'dangerous weapons' and 'indecent material', Customs eventually had the confiscated items destroyed. Second, a spurious 'bomb threat' against the band, playing Scandals Disco in Edmonton, made the front page of the Edmonton Journal Edmonton Journal Library (June 9, 1982) where assistant band manager Greif and Lee were interviewed. This ended up being a PR stunt perpetrated by Greif. Lastly, Lee threw a television set from the upper story window of the Sheraton Caravan Hotel. Canadian rock magazine Music Express noted that the band were "banned for life" from the city. Despite the tour ending prematurely in financial disaster, it was the basis for the band's first international press. Sleaze Roxx: Eric Greif Interview In 1983, the band changed management from Coffman to Doug Thaler and Doc McGhee. McGhee is best known for managing Bon Jovi & Kiss, starting with their reunion tour in 1996. Greif subsequently sued all parties in a Los Angeles Superior Court action that dragged on for several years, and coincidentally later re-surfaced as manager of Nikki's former band, London. Coffman himself was sued by a couple of investors for whom he had sold 'stock in the band', including Michigan-based Bill Larson. Coffman eventually declared bankruptcy, as he had mortgaged his home at least three times to cover band expenses. Rise to International Fame: 1984–1991 Vince Neil Tommy Lee Nikki Sixx Mick Mars After playing the US Festival, and with the aid of the new medium of MTV, the band found rapid success in the United States. They were also known as much for their backstage groupie antics, outrageous clothing, extreme high-heeled boots, heavy make-up, and seemingly endless abuse of alcohol and drugs as for their recordings. Their mixture of heavy metal and glam rock stylings produced several best-selling albums during the 1980s, including Shout at the Devil (September 26, 1983), Theatre of Pain (June 21, 1985), and Girls, Girls, Girls (May 15, 1987), which showcased their love of motorcycles, whiskey and strip clubs, as well as telling tales of substance abuse, sexual escapades, and general decadence. The band has also had their share of scrapes with the law and life. In 1984, Neil wrecked his car on his way back from the liquor store. He was in a head-on collision, and his passenger, Hanoi Rocks drummer Nicholas "Razzle" Dingley, was killed. Neil, charged with a DUI and vehicular manslaughter, was sentenced to 30 days in jail (though he only spent 18 days). The band would later release box sets entitled "Music to Crash Your Car To". On December 21, 1987, Sixx suffered a near-fatal heroin overdose. He was declared legally dead on the way to the hospital, but two girls insisted that the medic continue to try to revive him and he gave Sixx two shots of adrenaline to the heart, bringing him back to life. His two minutes in death were the inspiration for the band's song "Kickstart My Heart", which peaked at #16 on the Mainstream U.S. chart, and was featured on their album Dr. Feelgood. During his heroin addiction, Nikki Sixx kept a daily diary of the year of 1987, where he battled his heroin addiction that resulted in him going to rehab in January, 1988. In 2006, Nikki Sixx published his diaries as a best selling novel: The Heroin Diaries; A Year in the Life of a Shattered Rockstar. Their decadent lifestyles almost shattered the band, until managers Thaler and McGhee pulled an intervention, and refused to allow the band to tour in Europe, fearing that "some [of them] would come back in bodybags". Shortly after, all the band members except for Mars underwent drug rehabilitation; Mars cleaned up on his own. After finding sobriety in 1989, Mötley Crüe reached its peak popularity with the release of their fifth album, the Bob Rock produced Dr. Feelgood, on September 1, 1989. On October 14 of that year, it became a No. 1 album and stayed on the charts for 109 weeks after its release. The band members each stated in interviews that, due in no small part to their collective push for sobriety, Dr. Feelgood was their most solid album musically to that point, and indeed, one of their best albums to date. The title track and Kickstart My Heart were both nominated for Grammys in the Best Hard Rock Category, but lost both times to Living Colour. They did find some success at the American Music Awards, as Dr. Feelgood was nominated twice for Favorite Hard Rock/Metal Award, losing once to Guns N' Roses' Appetite for Destruction, but winning the following year, beating out Aerosmith's Pump and Poison's Flesh And Blood. They were also nominated twice for Favorite Hard Rock/Metal Artist, but lost to Guns N' Roses and Aerosmith. In 1989, Doc McGhee was fired after breaking several promises that he made to the band in relation to the Moscow Music Peace Festival including giving his other band, Bon Jovi, advantages with slot placement. Doug Thaler then soldiered on as sole band manager. On October 14, 1991, the band's sixth album, Decade of Decadence, a compilation, was released. It peaked at #2 on the Billboard 200 album chart. It was supposed to be just something for the fans while they worked on the next "all new" album. Years of Turmoil: 1992–2003 After Decade was released, Neil left the band in February 1992. The same time that others in the 80's glam metal scene, like...Ratt, Stryper, White Lion, Europe & Britny Fox also broke-up. Poison also fired guitarist C.C. Deville around this same time too. A controversy exists to this day over whether Neil was fired or quit. Sixx has long maintained that Neil quit the band. However, Neil disputes this and insists that he was fired. Neil was replaced by John Corabi (formerly of Angora and The Scream). Mötley Crüe's commercial success waned throughout the 1990s, although their self-titled March 1994 release made the Billboard top ten (#7). Thaler would manage the band alone until 1994, after the band did a mass-firing when their album, Mötley Crüe, failed to meet commercial expectations. The band reunited in 1997, after their current manager, Allen Kovac, and Neil's manager, Bert Stein, set up a meeting between Neil, Lee, and Sixx. Agreeing to "leave their egos at the door," the band released Generation Swine. Although it debuted at #4, and despite the band performing at the American Music Awards, the album was a commercial failure, due in part to their label Elektra Records' lack of support. The band soon left Elektra and created their own label, Mötley Records. In 1998, Mötley Crüe's contractual ties with Elektra Records had expired putting the band in total control of their future. This included the ownership of the masters of all their albums. In announcing the end of their relationship with Elektra Records, the band became one of the few groups in history to own and control their publishing and catalogue of recorded masters. In 1999, the band re-released all their albums, dubbed as Crücial Crüe. The limited-edition digital re-masters included demos and previously unreleased tracks. In 1999, Lee put his role in the band on hold to pursue a solo career due to increasing bad tension with frontman Neil. He was replaced by Randy Castillo, who drummed on several Ozzy Osbourne albums. Randy died of cancer on March 26, 2002. No replacement had been named which sent the band into a hiatus following a 2000 tour in support of their studio release, New Tattoo. New Tattoo charted at #41 and sold less than 200,000 copies. Former Hole Drummer Samantha Maloney filled in on the tour to promote New Tattoo. The Salt Lake City performance of the tour is featured on the the DVD Lewd, Crüed & Tattooed.. Within the following six years, Sixx played in the bands 58 and Brides of Destruction, while Lee formed Methods of Mayhem and performed as a solo artist. Neil continued touring on an annual basis as a solo artist, singing mostly Mötley Crüe songs. Mars, who suffers from a rare degenerative form of arthritis called ankylosing spondylitis, went into seclusion in 2001. A 2001 autobiography entitled The Dirt packaged the band as "the world's most notorious rock band". The book made the top ten on the New York Times best-seller list and spent ten weeks there. Reunion and new album: 2004–present A promoter in England, Mags Revell, started the ball rolling for Mötley Crüe's reunion when he started a promotion that basically revealed how fans wanted the band to reunite. After meeting with management several times, in September 2004, Sixx announced that he and Neil had returned to the studio and had begun recording new material. In December 2004, the four original members announced a reunion tour which began February 14, 2005, in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The band's latest compilation album, Red, White & Crüe, was released in February 2005. It features the band members' favorite original songs plus three new tracks, "If I Die Tomorrow", "Sick Love Song", co-written by Sixx and James Michael as well as a cover of The Rolling Stones' classic "Street Fighting Man". A small controversy was caused when it was suggested that neither Tommy nor Mick played on the new tracks (duties were supposedly handled by Vandals drummer Josh Freese and ex-Beautiful Creatures guitarist DJ Ashba). However, a VH1 documentary of the band reuniting would later show that Lee did indeed play on some of the tracks. The Japanese release of Red, White & Crüe, includes an extra new track titled "I'm a Liar (and That's the Truth)". Red, White & Crüe charted at #6 and has since gone platinum. In 2006, Mötley Crüe went on the Route of All Evil Tour co-headlining with Aerosmith. This was another well attended tour following the "Carnival of Sins" tour of 2005. In June 2007, Mötley Crüe set out on a small European tour. A lawsuit was recently filed by Neil, Mars and Sixx against Carl Stubner, Lee's manager. The three sued him for contracting for Lee to appear on two unsuccessful reality shows the band claim hurt its image. It was reported on Motley.com that the lawsuit has been settled. Mötley Crüe's ninth studio album, titled Saints of Los Angeles was released in Japan on June 17 and in America on June 24. The album was originally titled "The Dirt", but was changed. The album features the band's original lineup. On April 11, Mötley Crüe released the song "Saints Of Los Angeles" in full, and also the full "Saints Of Los Angeles" for the game Rock Band on April 15. The song is available on spinner.com. http://www.spinner.com/2008/04/11/motley-crue-saints-of-los-angeles-song-premiere Spinner.com Mötley Crüe had announced that sometime in 2009 is the possible release date for the movie, The Dirt, based on the book written by Mötley Crüe and Neil Strauss. Rumors about the cast of characters in this movie include Christopher Walken as the famous rock and roll star Ozzy Osbourne and Val Kilmer as David Lee Roth Motley.com home . Mötley Crüe have recently announced their 2009 "Saints of Los Angeles" Tour. Supporting them will be Hinder, Theory of a Deadman, and The Last Vegas. Motley Crue play in Erie, PA March 7th, 2009. iTunes picked "Saints Of Los Angeles" in their "Best of 2008" in the Rock category as the number one song. Mötley Crüe's "Saints of Los Angeles" was nominated for a Grammy Award in the "Best Hard Rock Performance" category. The track "Saints of Los Angeles" was released in the music/rhythm game Rock Band as downloadable content the day the single was released. On February 9, 2009 the band were confirmed for Download Festival in Donington Park taking place from June 12-14th, with them headlining the friday night on the second stage. The band made a guest appearance in the season finale of "Bones" on May 14, 2009 entitled "The End In The Beginning". They performed one of their classic songs, "Dr. Feelgood". Related work In 2005, Mötley Crüe were involved in an animation-comedy spoof Disaster! Rotten Tomatoes , written by Paul Benson and Matt Sullivan and was used as the introduction film to concerts on their Carnival of Sins tour. Legacy Acts such as Marilyn Manson, Nine Inch Nails, Moby, Murderdolls, Linkin Park, Backyard Babies, Private Line, Slipknot, The Living End, Lady Gaga, Belladonna, Mana, Papa Roach, Hardcore Superstar, Negative, and Vains of Jenna have cited them as an influence in recent years, most notably for Too Fast for Love and Shout at the Devil. They've also been parodied for their early look in music videos by a variety of artists such as Bowling for Soup, Beck, Red Hot Chili Peppers, New Order, Aerosmith and the Backstreet Boys. The band has been featured on a number of VH1 countdown shows, 'Dr. Feelgood' was ranked the #7 Greatest Air Guitar Song, 'Live Wire' was ranked the #17 Greatest Metal Song Of All Time on VH1's 40 Greatest Metal Songs, and 'Home Sweet Home' was ranked the #12 greatest power ballad of all time. Mötley Crüe were featured several times on VH1's 100 most metal moments, their highest spot being #3. VH1 included the Tommy Lee sex tapes, The Dirt, Ozzy and Nikki pee at an incident and the Moscow Music Peace Festival; all featured in the countdown. Mötley Crüe has also been one of the many bands featured on VH1: Behind the Music. The band was also ranked #19 on VH1's list of the most popular hard rock bands. Building on the popularity and the desire of fans to see The Crüe between World tours, a wide variety of tribute acts have spawned who celebrate and pay homage to the different eras and albums over the years. Red Hot, a tribute from L.A., captures the look and feel of the Shout at the Devil era with black and red leathers. Theatre of Pain captures the spandex and lipstick attitude of the album of the same name. And Carnival of Sins rounds out the tributes with a rendition of the current Crüe image that brings to mind the crüdeness of the Mötley moniker. The band even has an all-female version from New York City, Girls Girls Girls, who cover all eras of the band's music without emulating the look of any specific Crüe era. Band members Additional musicians Will Hunt - drums (2006, 2007): Filled-in for injured Tommy Lee on the last few dates of North American tour, as well as a few dates on 2007 European tour Harvey Warren, from Calgary band Broken Toys Muchmusic.com - drums (2006): Played on April 5, 2006 at the Enmax Centrium in Red Deer, Alberta, Canada when Tommy Lee was injured Donna McDaniel - touring backing vocals Fast Rewind IMDB Emi Canyon - touring backing vocals Rock Detector Ultimate Guitar Discography Too Fast for Love (1981) Shout at the Devil (1983) Theatre of Pain (1985) Girls, Girls, Girls (1987) Dr. Feelgood (1989) Mötley Crüe (1994) Generation Swine (1997) New Tattoo (2000) Saints of Los Angeles (2008) Tours "Anywhere, USA" - Northern California Tour (1981) Too Fast For Love Tour (1981) Crüesing Through Canada (1982) Too Fast For Love Tour (1982) Mötley Crüe - World Tour (1983-1984) Welcome To The Theatre Of Pain Tour (1985-1986) Girls, Girls, Girls World Tour 87/88 (1987-1988) Moscow Music Peace Festival (1989) Dr. Feelgood World Tour 89/90(1989-1990) Monsters Of Rock Tour 1991 (1991) Anywhere There's Electricity Tour Of The Americas 1994 (1994) Anywhere There's Electricity Japan Tour (1994) Live Swine Listening Party (1997) Mötley Crüe vs. The Earth Tour (1997) Greatest Hits Tour (1998-1999) Maximum Rock Tour (1999) Welcome To The Freekshow Tour (1999) Maximum Rock 2000 Tour with Megadeth (2000) New Tattoo Japan Tour 2000 (2000) Red, White & Crüe Tour 2005...Better Live Than Dead (2005) Carnival Of Sins Tour (2005-2006) Route of All Evil Tour with Aerosmith (2006) Mötley Crüe Tour 2007 (2007) Crüe Fest (2008) Saints Of Los Angeles World Tour (2008) Saints of Los Angeles Winter Tour (2009) Crüe Fest 2: The White Trash Circus (2009) Awards and Nominations See also Best selling music artists Heavy Metal Umlaut Timeline of heavy metal Glam Metal References External links Official website Vince Neil's official website Nikki Sixx's official website Mick Mars' official website Tommy Lee's official website Official Store for Nikki Sixx and Vince Neil Motley Crue Videos Motley Crue Official Photos	Mötley_Crüe \|@lemmatized mötley:28 crüe:37 ipa:1 pronunciation:1 grammy:2 award:6 nominated:1 american:4 hard:7 rock:21 band:68 form:4 los:15 angeles:15 california:2 found:1 bass:1 guitarist:6 nikki:9 sixx:17 time:13 call:4 london:3 drummer:5 tommy:8 lee:21 later:5 join:1 mick:6 mar:11 singer:2 vince:6 neil:20 sell:6 million:1 album:25 copy:4 worldwide:1 year:12 chaos:1 motley:8 crue:6 still:2 saint:13 often:1 note:2 living:2 lifestyle:1 member:10 numerous:1 brush:1 law:3 spent:2 jail:2 suffer:3 long:2 addiction:3 alcohol:2 drug:3 countless:1 escapade:2 woman:1 heavily:1 tattooed:2 ninth:2 studio:4 entitle:4 release:24 june:7 film:2 adaptation:1 best:10 autobiography:2 dirt:6 due:4 sometime:2 history:2 formation:1 early:2 january:2 bassist:2 leave:4 begin:4 rehearse:1 vocalist:1 greg:2 leon:4 chronological:2 work:3 previously:2 suite:1 sleaze:2 roxx:2 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6,079	La_Malinche	La Malinche and Hernan Cortés in the city of Xaltelolco, in a drawing from the late 16th century codex History of Tlaxcala. La Malinche (c. 1496 or c. 1505 – c. 1529, some sources give 1550), known also as Malintzin, Malinali or Doña Marina, was a woman (almost certainly Nahua) from the Mexican Gulf Coast, who played an active and powerful role in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, acting as interpreter, advisor and intermediary for Hernán Cortés. She was also a mistress to Cortés and gave birth to his first son, who is considered one of the first Mestizos (people of mixed European and indigenous American ancestry). In Mexico today, La Malinche remains iconically potent. She is understood in various and often conflicting aspects, as the embodiment of treachery, the quintessential victim, or simply as symbolic mother of the new Mexican people. She is often known by the pejorative term La Chingada ("the violated one"). The term malinchista refers to a disloyal Mexican. Life Origins There is little certain information regarding Malinche's background. Most of what is reported about her early life comes through the reports of Cortés' "official" biographer (Francisco López de Gómara), and some of Cortés' contemporary conquistadores, such as Andrés de Tapia and (most importantly) Bernal Díaz del Castillo, whose vibrant chronicles Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España relate much of what is known. According to Díaz, Malinche was the noble first-born child of the lord of Paynala (near present-day Coatzacoalcos, then a "frontier" region between the Aztec Empire and the Maya states of the Yucatán Peninsula). In her youth, her father died and her mother remarried and bore a son. Now an inconvenient stepchild, the girl was sold or given to Maya slave-traders from Xicalango, an important commercial town further south and east along the coast. Díaz claims Malinche's family faked her death by telling the townspeople that a recently deceased child of a slave was Malinche. The Conquest of Mexico Malinche was introduced to the Spanish in April 1519, when she was among twenty slave women given by the Chontal Maya of Potonchan (in the present-day state of Tabasco) to the triumphant Spaniards. Her age at the time is unknown, however assumptions have been made of her being in her twenties, as well as of the likelihood that she was striking in appearance according to European tastes of the time. It is suggestive of her appeal that Cortés singled her out as a gift for Alonzo Hernando Puertocarrero, perhaps the most well-born member of the expedition. Soon, however, Puertocarrero was on his way to Spain as Cortés' emissary to Charles V, and Cortés decided she was too valuable or attractive to be left in the care of anyone but himself. According to the surviving indigenous and Spanish sources, within several weeks, the young woman had begun acting as interpreter - translating between the Nahuatl language (the then lingua franca of what is today central Mexico) and the Chontal Maya language. The Spanish priest Gerónimo de Aguilar understood the Mayan language, because he had spent several years in captivity among the Maya peoples in Yucatán following a shipwreck. Cortés used Malinche and Aguilar to interpret until La Malinche learned Spanish and could be used as the sole interpreter. By the end of the year, when the Spaniards had installed themselves in the Mexican capital Tenochtitlan, it is apparent that the woman, now called "Malintzin" by the Indians, had learned enough Spanish to interpret directly between Cortés and the Aztecs. The Indians, significantly, also call Cortés "Malintzin," an indication, perhaps, of how closely connected they had become. According to surviving records, Malinche learned of several plans by natives to destroy the small Spanish army, and she alerted Cortés of the danger and even played along with the natives in order to lead them into traps. Following the fall of Tenochtitlan in late 1521 and the birth of her son Don Martín Cortés in 1522, Malinche disappears from the record until Cortés' nearly disastrous Honduran expedition of 1524–26 when she is seen serving again as interpreter (suggestive of a knowledge of Maya dialects beyond Chontal and Yucatecan.) While in the forests of central Yucatán, she married Juan Jaramillo, a Spanish gentleman, with whom she had a daughter (also named Marina) around 1526 or 1527. Little or nothing more is known about her after this, even the year of her death, 1529, being somewhat in dispute. Some sources give the date 1551. Role of La Malinche in the Conquest of Mexico For the conquistadores, having a reliable translator was important enough, but there is evidence that Malinche's role and influence were larger still. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a soldier who, as an old man, produced the most comprehensive of the eye-witness accounts, the Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España ("True Story of the Conquest of New Spain"), speaks repeatedly and reverentially of the "great lady" Doña Marina (always using the honorific, "Doña"). "Without the help of Doña Marina," he writes, "we would not have understood the language of New Spain and Mexico." Rodríguez de Ocana, another conquistador, relates Cortés' assertion that after God, Marina was the main reason for his success. The evidence from indigenous sources is even more interesting, both in the commentaries about her role, and in her prominence in the drawings made of conquest events. In the Lienzo de Tlaxcala (History of Tlaxcala), for example, not only is Cortés rarely portrayed without Malinche poised by his ear, but she is shown at times on her own, seemingly directing events as an independent authority. If she had been trained for court life, as in Díaz's account, her loyalty to Cortés may have been dictated by the familiar pattern of marriage among native elite classes. In the role of primary wife acquired through an alliance, her role would have been to assist her husband achieve his military and diplomatic objectives. Origin of the name "La Malinche" The many uncertainties which surround Malinche's role in the Spanish conquest begin with her name itself. Her birth name is not known. Before the twenty slave girls were distributed among the Spanish captains for their pleasure in "grinding corn", Cortés insisted that they be baptized, and it was here that the woman was given the Spanish name "Marina". We know that the Nahuas later call her "Malintzin". We do not know whether "Marina" was chosen because of a phonetic resemblance to her actual name, or chosen randomly from among common Spanish names of the time. "Malinche" is almost certainly a Spanish corruption of "Malintzin," which itself probably results from a Nahua mispronunciation of "Marina" plus the reverential "-tzin" suffix. A possible reading of her name as "Mãlin-tzin" can be translated as "Noble Prisoner/Captive" - a reasonable possibility, given her noble birth and her initial relationship to the Cortés expedition. This proposal suggests that the origin language of her name was Nahuatl, and that perhaps "Marina" was a Spanish approximation of "Mãlin-." There is a widely-held but unsubstantiated explanation for her name which starts with the Nahua word "Malinalli", a bad-luck daysign whose root meaning has something to do with a kind of grass (Nahua men—but less so women—were often named for their day-signs). If true, Mallinalli could be translated as "One Reed", a reference to the coming of Quetzalcoatl, the mythical Armageddon when Aztec civilization was supposed to end due to his divine wrath. The similarity between "Malinalli" and "Malintzin" has led to the notion that "Malinalli" might have been her original name; there is, however, nothing but the phonetic coincidence to support it. The word malinchismo is used by modern-day Mexicans to identify countrymen who betray their race and country; those who mix their blood and culture with European or other outside influences. A small minority of historians believe that La Malinche saved her people: that without someone who was not only a fluent translator but who also advised both sides of the negotiations, the Spanish would have been far more violent and destructive in their conquest. The Aztec empire was destroyed, but the Aztec people, their language, and much of their history and culture weren't completely destroyed. It is argued, however, that without her help, Cortes would not have been successful in conquering the Aztecs as quickly, giving the Aztec people enough time to adapt to new technology and methods of warfare. Malinche's figure in contemporary Mexico Malinche's image has become a mythical archetype that Latin American artists have represented in various forms of art. Her figure permeates historical, cultural, and social dimensions of Latin American cultures. In modern times and in several genres, she is compared with the figure of the Virgin Mary, La Llorona (folklore story of the weeping woman) and with the Mexican soldaderas (women who fought beside men during the Mexican Revolution) for their brave actions. Finally, one must understand that La Malinche's legacy is one of myth mixed with legend, and the opposing opinions of the Mexican people about the woman. Many see her as the founding figure of the Mexican race. Most, however, see her as a traitor to the race, as may be gathered from the nickname La Chingada. Virginia Zurí as "La Malinche" in a 1933 Mexican motion picture, La Llorona In Modern Culture La Malinche is the main protagonist in such works as the novel Feathered Serpent: A Novel of the Mexican Conquest by Colin Falconer, and The Golden Princess by Alexander Baron. In stark contrast, she is portrayed as a scheming, duplicitous traitor in Gary Jennings' novel Aztec. More recently she has been the focus in Malinche's Conquest by Ana Lanyon, a non-fiction account of the author's research into the historical and mythic woman who was Malinche. A novel published in 2006 by Laura Esquivel casts the Nahua, Malinalli, as one of history's pawns who becomes Malinche (the novel's title) a woman "trapped between the Mexican civilization and the invading Spaniards, and unveils a literary view of the legendary love affair". She appears as a true Christian and protector of her fellow native Mexicans in the novel Tlaloc weeps for Mexico by László Passuth. La Malinche, in the name Marina ("for her Indian name is too long to be written"), also appears in the adventure novel Montezuma's Daughter, by H. Rider Haggard. First appearing in Chapter XIII, she saves the protagonist from sacrifice and torture. A fictional journal written by La Malinche and discovered in an archeological dig is a central element in a 2008 adventure novel "The Treasure of La Malinche" by Jeffry S. Hepple. In the fictional Star Trek universe, a starship, the USS Malinche was named for La Malinche. This was done by Hans Beimler, a native of Mexico City, who together with friend Robert Hewitt Wolfe later wrote a screenplay based on La Malinche called The Serpent and the Eagle. The screenplay was optioned by Ron Howard and Imagine Films and is currently under development at Paramount Pictures. Octavio Paz addresses the issue of La Malinche's role as the mother of Mexican culture in The Labyrinth of Solitude. He uses her relation to Cortés symbolically to represent Mexican culture as originating from rape and violation. He uses the analogy that she essentially helped Cortés take over and destroy the Aztec culture by submitting herself to him. His claim summarizes a major theme in the book, claiming that Mexican culture is a labyrinth. In the animated television series The Mysterious Cities of Gold, which chronicles the adventures of a Spanish boy named Esteban as he and his companions travel throughout South America in 1532 to seek the lost city of El Dorado, a woman called "Marinche," accompanied by a Doctor Fernando LaGuerra, becomes a dangerous adversary. The series was originally produced in Japan, and when translated into English, the name the Japanese had rendered as "Ma-ri-n-chi-e" was transliterated into "Marinche." This incarnation of La Malinche meets her end, along with the Doctor and their hulking Mayan bodyguard, when the three are caught in a rockslide triggered by the activation of a long-dormant war machine built by the techologically-advanced Olmecs. She was also referred to in the song Cortez the Killer by Neil Young. See also Hernan Cortes Gerónimo de Aguilar History of Mexico Spanish Conquest of Mexico External links Hernando Cortes on the Web : Malinche / Doña Marina (resources) Pre-Columbian Women "Reinterpreting Malinche" by John Taylor, Ex Post Facto (2000) Leyenda y nacionalismo: alegorías de la derrota en La Malinche y Florinda "La Cava", Spanish-language article by Juan F. Maura comparing La Cava and Mexican Malinche. References MAURA, Juan Francisco.Women in the Conquest of the Americas. Translated by John F. Deredita. New York: Peter Lang, 1997. MAURA, Juan Francisco. Españolas de ultramar. Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, 2005. http://parnaseo.uv.es/Editorial/Maura/INDEX.HTM Traditions and Encounters - A Global Perspective on the Past by Bentley and Ziegler.	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6,080	Differential_geometry	A triangle immersed in a saddle-shape plane (a hyperbolic paraboloid), as well as two diverging ultraparallel lines. Differential geometry is a mathematical discipline that uses the methods of differential and integral calculus to study problems in geometry. The theory of plane and space curves and of surfaces in the three-dimensional Euclidean space formed the basis for its initial development in the eighteenth and nineteenth century. Since the late nineteenth century, differential geometry has grown into a field concerned more generally with geometric structures on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related with differential topology and with the geometric aspects of the theory of differential equations. Grigori Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture using the techniques of Ricci flow demonstrated the power of the differential-geometric approach to questions in topology and highlighted the important role played by the analytic methods. Branches of differential geometry Riemannian geometry Riemannian geometry studies Riemannian manifolds, smooth manifolds with a Riemannian metric, a notion of a distance expressed by means of a smooth positive definite symmetric bilinear form defined on the tangent space at each point. Riemannian geometry generalizes Euclidean geometry to spaces that are not necessarily flat, although they still resemble the Euclidean space at each point "infinitesimally", i.e. in the first order of approximation. Various concepts based on length, such as the arc length of curves, area of plane regions, and volume of solids all admit natural analogues in Riemannian geometry. The notion of a directional derivative of a function from multivariable calculus is extended in Riemannian geometry to the notion of a covariant derivative of a tensor. Many concepts and techniques of analysis and differential equations have been generalized to the setting of Riemannian manifolds. A distance-preserving diffeomorphism between Riemannian manifolds is called an isometry. This notion can also be defined locally, i.e. for small neighborhoods of points. Any two regular curves are locally isometric. However, Theorema Egregium of Gauss showed that already for surfaces, the existence of a local isometry imposes strong compatibility conditions on their metrics: the Gaussian curvatures at the corresponding points must be the same. In higher dimensions, the Riemann curvature tensor is an important pointwise invariant associated to a Riemannian manifold that measures how close it is to being flat. An important class of Riemannian manifolds is formed by the Riemannian symmetric spaces, whose curvature is constant. They are the closest to the "ordinary" plane and space considered in Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. Pseudo-Riemannian geometry Pseudo-Riemannian geometry generalizes Riemannian geometry to the case in which the metric tensor need not be positive-definite. A special case of this is a Lorentzian manifold which is the mathematical basis of Einstein's general relativity theory of gravity. Finsler geometry Finsler geometry has the Finsler manifold as the main object of study — this is a differential manifold with a Finsler metric, i.e. a Banach norm defined on each tangent space. A Finsler metric is a much more general structure than a Riemannian metric. A Finsler structure on a manifold M is a function F : TM → [0,∞) such that: F(x, my) = mF(x,y) for all x, y in TM, F is infinitely differentiable in TM − {0}, The vertical Hessian of F2 is positive definite. Symplectic geometry Symplectic geometry is the study of symplectic manifolds. An almost symplectic manifold is a differentiable manifold equipped with a smoothly varying non-degenerate skew-symmetric bilinear form on each tangent space, i.e., a nondegenerate 2-form ω, called the symplectic form. A symplectic manifold is an almost symplectic manifold for which the symplectic form ω is closed: dω = 0. A diffeomorphism between two symplectic manifolds which preserves the symplectic form is called a symplectomorphism. Non-degenerate skew-symmetric bilinear forms can only exist on even dimensional vector spaces, so symplectic manifolds necessarily have even dimension. In dimension 2, a symplectic manifold is just a surface endowed with an area form and a symplectomorphism is an area-preserving diffeomorphism. The phase space of a mechanical system is a symplectic manifold and they made an implicit appearance already in the work of Lagrange on analytical mechanics and later in Jacobi's and Hamilton's formulation of classical mechanics. By contrast with Riemannian geometry, where the curvature provides a local invariant of Riemannian manifolds, Darboux's theorem states that all symplectic manifolds are locally isomorphic. The only invariants of a symplectic manifold are global in nature and topological aspects play a prominent role in symplectic geometry. The first result in symplectic topology is probably the Poincaré-Birkhoff theorem, conjectured by Henri Poincaré and proved by George Birkhoff in 1912. It claims that if an area preserving map of an annulus twists each boundary component in opposite directions, then the map has at least two fixed points. It is easy to show that the area preserving condition (or the twisting condition) cannot be removed. Note that if one tries to extend such a theorem to higher dimensions, one would probably guess that a volume preserving map of a certain type must have fixed points. This is false in dimensions greater than 3. Contact geometry Contact geometry deals with certain manifolds of odd dimension. It is close to symplectic geometry and like the latter, it originated in questions of classical mechanics. A contact structure on a (2n+1)-dimensional manifold M is given by a smooth hyperplane field H in the tangent bundle that is as far as possible from being associated with the level sets of a differentiable function on M (the technical term is "completely nonintegrable tangent hyperplane distribution"). Near each point p, a hyperplane distribution is determined by a nowhere vanishing 1-form , which is unique up to multiplication by a nowhere vanishing function: A local 1-form on M is a contact form if the restriction of its exterior derivative to H is a non-degenerate 2-form and thus induces a symplectic structure on Hp at each point. If the distribution H can be defined by a global 1-form then this form is contact if and only if the top-dimensional form is a volume form on M, i.e. does not vanish anywhere. A contact analogue of the Darboux theorem holds: all contact structures on an odd-dimensional manifold are locally isomorphic and can be brought to a certain local normal form by a suitable choice of the coordinate system. Complex and Kähler geometry Complex differential geometry is the study of complex manifolds. An almost complex manifold is a real manifold , endowed with a tensor of type (1,1), i.e. a vector bundle endomorphism (called an almost complex structure) , such that . It follows from this definition that an almost complex manifold is even dimensional. An almost complex manifold is called complex if , where is a tensor of type (2,1) related to , called the Nijenhuis tensor (or sometimes the torsion). An almost complex manifold is complex if and only if it admits a holomorphic coordinate atlas. An almost Hermitian structure is given by an almost complex structure J, along with a riemannian metric g, satisfying the compatibility condition . An almost hermitian structure defines naturally a differential 2-form . The following two conditions are equivalent: where is the Levi-Civita connection of . In this case, is called a Kähler structure, and a Kähler manifold is a manifold endowed with a Kähler structure. In particular, a Kähler manifold is both a complex and a symplectic manifold. A large class of Kähler manifolds (the class of Hodge manifolds) is given by all the smooth complex projective varieties. CR geometry CR geometry is the study of the intrinsic geometry of boundaries of domains in complex manifolds. Bundles and connections The apparatus of vector bundles, principal bundles, and connections on them plays an extraordinarily important role in the modern differential geometry. A smooth manifold always carries a natural vector bundle, the tangent bundle. Loosely speaking, this structure by itself is sufficient only for developing analysis on the manifold, while doing geometry requires in addition some way to relate the tangent spaces at different points, i.e. a notion of parallel transport. An important example is provided by affine connections. For a surface in R3, tangent planes at different points can be identified using the flat nature of the ambient Euclidean space. In Riemannian geometry, the Levi-Civita connection serves a similar purpose. More generally, differential geometers consider spaces with a vector bundle and a connection as a replacement for the notion of a Riemannian manifold. In this approach, the bundle is external to the manifold and has to be specified as a part of the structure, while the connection provides a further enhancement. In physics, the manifold may be the spacetime and bundles and connections correspond to various physical fields. Intrinsic versus extrinsic Initially and up to the middle of the nineteenth century, differential geometry was studied from the extrinsic point of view: curves and surfaces were considered as lying in a Euclidean space of higher dimension (for example a surface in an ambient space of three dimensions). The simplest results are those in the differential geometry of curves and differential geometry of surfaces. Starting with the work of Riemann, the intrinsic point of view was developed, in which one cannot speak of moving 'outside' the geometric object because it is considered as given in a free-standing way. The intrinsic point of view is more flexible. For example, it is useful in relativity where space-time cannot naturally be taken as extrinsic (what would be 'outside' it?). With the intrinsic point of view it is harder to define the central concept of curvature and other structures such as connections, so there is a price to pay. These two points of view can be reconciled, i.e. the extrinsic geometry can be considered as a structure additional to the intrinsic one. (See the Nash embedding theorem.) Applications of differential geometry Below are some examples of how differential geometry is applied to other fields of science and mathematics. In physics, differential geometry is the language in which Einstein's general theory of relativity is expressed. According to the theory, the universe is a smooth manifold equipped with pseudo-Riemannian metric, which described the curvature of space-time. Understanding this curvature is essential for the positioning of satellites into orbit around the earth. Differential geometry is also indispensable in the study of gravitational lensing and black holes. In economics, differential geometry has applications to the field of econometrics Paul Marriott and Mark Salmon, "Applications of Differential Geometry to Econometrics". . Geometric modeling (including computer graphics) and computer-aided geometric design draw on ideas from differential geometry. In engineering, differential geometry can be applied to solve problems in digital signal processing Jonathan H. Manton, "On the role of differential geometry in signal processing" . . In physics, the use of differential forms is useful in the study of electromagnetism. In physics, differential geometry has applications to both Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics. Symplectic manifolds in particular can be used to study Hamiltonian systems. In probability, statistics, and information theory, one can interpret various structures as Riemannian manifolds, which yields the field of information geometry, particularly via the Fisher information metric. In structural geology, differential geometry is used to analyze and describe geologic structures. In computer vision, differential geometry is used to analyze shapes. http://www.math.ucla.edu/~micheli/PUBLICATIONS/micheli_phd.pdf See also Integral geometry List of differential geometry topics Glossary of differential geometry and topology Important publications in differential geometry Important publications in differential topology Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime Affine differential geometry Projective differential geometry Noncommutative geometry Synthetic differential geometry Abstract differential geometry Discrete differential geometry Analysis on fractals Notes References A classical geometric approach to differential geometry without the tensor machinery. External links Michael Murray's online differential geometry course, 1996 A Modern Course on Curves and Surface, Richard S Palais, 2003 Richard Palais's 3DXM Surfaces Gallery Balázs Csikós's Notes on Differential Geometry Modern Differential Geometry for Maple N. J. Hicks, Notes on Differential Geometry, Van Nostrand. 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6,081	RDX	Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, also known as RDX, cyclonite, hexogen, and T4, is an explosive nitroamine widely used in military and industrial applications. Nomenclature variants include cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine and cyclotrimethylene trinitramine. In its pure, synthesized state RDX is a white, crystalline solid. As an explosive, it is usually used in mixtures with other explosives and plasticizers, phlegmatizers or desensitizers. It is stable in storage and is considered one of the most powerful and brisant of the military high explosives. RDX forms the base for a number of common military explosives: Composition A: (wax-coated, granular explosive consisting of RDX and plasticizing wax), composition A5 (mixed with 1.5% stearic acid), Composition B: (castable mixtures of RDX and TNT), Composition C: (a plastic demolition explosive consisting of RDX, other explosives, and plasticizers), Composition D, HBX: (castable mixtures of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminium, and D-2 wax with calcium chloride), H-6, and C-4. RDX is also used as a major component of many plastic bonded explosives used in nuclear weapons. Properties The velocity of detonation of RDX at a density of 1.76 g/cm³ is 8750 m/s. It is a colourless solid, of maximum theoretical density 1.82 g/cm³. It is obtained by reacting concentrated nitric acid with hexamine. (CH2)6N4 + 4HNO3 → (CH2-N-NO2)3 + 3HCHO + NH4+ + NO3- It is a heterocycle and has the molecular shape of a ring. It starts to decompose at about 170 °C and melts at 204 °C. Its structural formula is: hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine or (CH2-N-NO2)3. At room temperature, it is very stable. It burns rather than explodes and detonates only with a detonator, being unaffected even by small arms fire. It is less sensitive than pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN). However, it is very sensitive when crystallized, below −4 °C. Under normal conditions, RDX has a figure of insensitivity of exactly 80 (as this is the reference point). RDX sublimates in vacuum, which limits its use in pyrotechnic fasteners for spacecraft. History The discovery of RDX dates from 1898 when Georg Friedrich Henning obtained a German patent (patent No. 104280) for its manufacture, by nitrating hexamethylenetetramine. Urbanski (1967) Volume 3 In this patent, its properties as an explosive were at length described, as well as its possible use as a medical compound mentioned. Research and development were not published further until G. C. V. Herz obtained a British patent in 1921 and a U.S. patent in 1922, for its manufacture by nitrating hexamethylenetetramine. Later in the 1920s RDX was produced by the direct nitration of hexamine. RDX was used by both sides in World War II. UK and Canadian production In the United Kingdom RDX was manufactured in pilot plants at the RGPF Waltham Abbey in 1938 and at the Research Department at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. Cocroft, Wayne D.(2000). Dangerous Energy: The archaeology of gunpowder and military explosives manufacture. Swindon: English Heritage. ISBN 1-85074-718-0. In 1939 a twin-unit industrial-scale plant was designed to be installed at a new site, ROF Bridgwater, away from London; and production of RDX started at Bridgwater in 1941. The United Kingdom attempted to be self-sufficient in the early stages of the war, and at this time the USA was still a neutral country; Canada, a member of the British Commonwealth, was looked upon to supply ammunition and explosives, including RDX. A slightly different method of production, but still using hexamine, was found and used in Canada, possibly at the McGill University Department of Chemistry. Urbanski provides details of five methods of production. US - Bachmann process Near the beginning of World War II the US Government turned to Tennessee Eastman Company (TEC), Kingsport, Tennessee, US, a leading manufacturer of acetic anhydride, to develop a continuous-flow manufacturing process for RDX. RDX was crucial to the war effort and the current batch-production process could not keep up. The US began research to safely make large quantities of RDX. Werner Emmanuel Bachmann of the University of Michigan developed the “combination process” which required large quantities of acetic anhydride instead of nitric acid in the old British “Woolwich process”. In February 1942, TEC built the Wexler Bend pilot plant and began producing small amounts of RDX. This led to the US Government authorizing TEC to design and build Holston Ordnance Works (H.O.W.) in June 1942. By April 1943, RDX was being manufactured there. The US Bachmann process for RDX was found to be richer in HMX than the United Kingdom's RDX. This later led to a RDX plant using the Bachmann process being set up at ROF Bridgwater in 1955, to produce both RDX and HMX. Use RDX was widely used during World War II, often in explosive mixtures with TNT such as Torpex, Composition 'B', Cyclotols, and H6. RDX was used in one of the first plastic explosives. RDX is believed to have been used in many bomb plots including terrorist plots. Outside of military applications, RDX is also used in controlled demolition to raze structures. The demolition of the Jamestown Bridge in the U.S. state of Rhode Island is one example where RDX shaped charges were used to remove the span. Names There are many explanations for the name RDX, including (but not limited to) Royal Demolition eXplosive, Research Department (composition) X and Research Department eXplosive. Research Department composition X is most likely correct. In the United Kingdom, new military explosives were given an identification number preceded by the letters 'RD' indicating 'Research Department No.'. For some reason, this explosive was unable to be given a number. Instead, the letter 'X' was appended to indicate 'unknown' with the intention of adding the number later. The first public reference in the United Kingdom to the name RDX, or R.D.X to use the official title, appears in 1948; its authors were the Managing Chemist, ROF Bridgwater, the Chemical Research and Development Department, Woolwich, and the Director of Royal Ordnance Factories, Explosives; it is referred to as simply RDX. Simmons (1948), Part II and III. Davis, writing in the USA in 1943, stated it was generally known in the USA as cyclonite; the Germans called it Hexogen, the Italians T4. Davis (1943) Volume II. References Notes Bibliography Davis, Tenney L. (1943). The Chemistry of Powder and Explosives, Volume II. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Simmons, W.H., Forster, A. and Bowden, R.C., (1948). "The Manufacture of R.D.X. in Great Britain: Part II - Raw Materials and Ancillary Processes", in: The Industrial Chemist, Pages 530 - 545, August 1948. Simmons, W.H., Forster, A. and Bowden, R.C., (1948). "The Manufacture of R.D.X. in Great Britain: Part III - Production of the Explosive", in: The Industrial Chemist, Pages 593 - 601, September 1948. Henning, German Patent 104,280 (1898). External links Prva Iskra Namenska AD (Serbia) ADI Limited (Australia)	RDX \|@lemmatized cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine:1 also:3 know:2 rdx:34 cyclonite:2 hexogen:2 explosive:20 nitroamine:1 widely:2 use:17 military:6 industrial:4 application:2 nomenclature:1 variant:1 include:4 cyclotrimethylene:2 trinitramine:2 pure:1 synthesize:1 state:3 white:1 crystalline:1 solid:2 usually:1 mixture:4 plasticizer:2 phlegmatizers:1 desensitizers:1 stable:2 storage:1 consider:1 one:3 powerful:1 brisant:1 high:1 form:1 base:1 number:4 common:1 composition:8 wax:3 coat:1 granular:1 consisting:2 plasticize:1 mixed:1 stearic:1 acid:3 b:2 castable:2 tnt:3 c:8 plastic:3 demolition:4 hbx:1 powder:2 aluminium:1 calcium:1 chloride:1 h:4 major:1 component:1 many:3 bond:1 nuclear:1 weapon:1 property:2 velocity:1 detonation:1 density:2 g:3 colourless:1 maximum:1 theoretical:1 obtain:3 react:1 concentrated:1 nitric:2 hexamine:3 n:2 heterocycle:1 molecular:1 shape:2 ring:1 start:2 decompose:1 melt:1 structural:1 formula:1 hexahydro:1 trinitro:1 triazine:1 room:1 temperature:1 burn:1 rather:1 explodes:1 detonate:1 detonator:1 unaffected:1 even:1 small:2 arm:1 fire:1 less:1 sensitive:2 pentaerythritol:1 tetranitrate:1 petn:1 however:1 crystallize:1 normal:1 condition:1 figure:1 insensitivity:1 exactly:1 reference:3 point:1 sublimate:1 vacuum:1 limit:2 pyrotechnic:1 fastener:1 spacecraft:1 history:1 discovery:1 date:1 georg:1 friedrich:1 henning:2 german:3 patent:6 manufacture:7 nitrate:2 hexamethylenetetramine:2 urbanski:2 volume:3 length:1 described:1 well:1 possible:1 medical:1 compound:1 mention:1 research:8 development:2 publish:1 far:1 v:1 herz:1 british:3 u:8 later:3 produce:3 direct:1 nitration:1 side:1 world:3 war:5 ii:7 uk:1 canadian:1 production:6 united:5 kingdom:5 pilot:2 plant:4 rgpf:1 waltham:1 abbey:1 department:7 royal:3 arsenal:1 woolwich:3 cocroft:1 wayne:1 dangerous:1 energy:1 archaeology:1 gunpowder:1 swindon:1 english:1 heritage:1 isbn:1 twin:1 unit:1 scale:1 design:2 instal:1 new:3 site:1 rof:3 bridgwater:4 away:1 london:1 attempt:1 self:1 sufficient:1 early:1 stage:1 time:1 usa:3 still:2 neutral:1 country:1 canada:2 member:1 commonwealth:1 look:1 upon:1 supply:1 ammunition:1 slightly:1 different:1 method:2 find:2 possibly:1 mcgill:1 university:2 chemistry:2 provide:1 detail:1 five:1 bachmann:4 process:8 near:1 beginning:1 government:2 turn:1 tennessee:2 eastman:1 company:1 tec:3 kingsport:1 lead:3 manufacturer:1 acetic:2 anhydride:2 develop:2 continuous:1 flow:1 manufacturing:1 crucial:1 effort:1 current:1 batch:1 could:1 keep:1 begin:2 safely:1 make:1 large:2 quantity:2 werner:1 emmanuel:1 michigan:1 combination:1 require:1 instead:2 old:1 february:1 build:2 wexler:1 bend:1 amount:1 authorize:1 holston:1 ordnance:2 work:1 w:3 june:1 april:1 richer:1 hmx:2 set:1 often:1 torpex:1 cyclotols:1 first:2 believe:1 bomb:1 plot:2 terrorist:1 outside:1 controlled:1 raze:1 structure:1 jamestown:1 bridge:1 rhode:1 island:1 example:1 charge:1 remove:1 span:1 name:3 explanation:1 limited:1 x:6 likely:1 correct:1 give:2 identification:1 precede:1 letter:2 rd:1 indicate:2 reason:1 unable:1 append:1 unknown:1 intention:1 add:1 public:1 r:5 official:1 title:1 appear:1 author:1 manage:1 chemist:3 chemical:1 director:1 factory:1 explosives:1 refer:1 simply:1 simmons:3 part:3 iii:2 davis:3 write:1 generally:1 call:1 italian:1 note:1 bibliography:1 tenney:1 l:1 york:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 inc:1 forster:2 bowden:2 great:2 britain:2 raw:1 material:1 ancillary:1 page:2 august:1 september:1 external:1 link:1 prva:1 iskra:1 namenska:1 ad:1 serbia:1 adi:1 australia:1 \|@bigram crystalline_solid:1 stearic_acid:1 rdx_tnt:2 calcium_chloride:1 nuclear_weapon:1 nitric_acid:2 georg_friedrich:1 waltham_abbey:1 acetic_anhydride:2 rhode_island:1 wiley_son:1 raw_material:1 external_link:1
6,082	Operating_system	A layer structure showing where the Operating System is located on generally used software systems on desktops Operating system (commonly abbreviated to either OS or O/S) is an interface between hardware and user; it is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the limited resources of the computer. The operating system acts as a host for applications that are run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these details and makes it easier to write applications. Almost all computers, including handheld computers, desktop computers, supercomputers, and even video game consoles, use an operating system of some type. Some of the oldest models may however use an embedded operating system, that may be contained on a compact disk or other data storage device. Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users. Applications access these services through application programming interfaces (APIs) or system calls. By invoking these interfaces, the application can request a service from the operating system, pass parameters, and receive the results of the operation. Users may also interact with the operating system with some kind of software user interface (UI) like typing commands by using command line interface (CLI) or using a graphical user interface (GUI, commonly pronounced “gooey”). For hand-held and desktop computers, the user interface is generally considered part of the operating system. On large multi-user systems like Unix and Unix-like systems, the user interface is generally implemented as an application program that runs outside the operating system. (Whether the user interface should be included as part of the operating system is a point of contention.) Ubuntu, a GNU/Linux based operating system Common contemporary operating systems include Darwin (Mac OS X), Windows NT (XP/Vista/7), Linux, BSD and SunOS (Solaris/OpenSolaris). While servers generally rans by Unix or Unix-like operating systems, embedded system markets are split amongst several operating systems. Linux market share set to surpass Win 98, OS X still ahead of Vista Linux server market share keeps growing A head's up and a short lesson A head's up. See the discussion section about VAST problems with this wikipedia page as a whole. Part of it represents a slanted American PC store book's view of computing: not representative OS science. (refering to the article which revolves around "who made which computer" which is not all true even). A Short Lesson on What Is an Operating System An OS is instruction that prepares a computer for use then provides essential services to both software and humans. With it comes distribution of essential softwares, such as development softwares for engineers (depending on the brand) and, often, solitaire. A computer, when turned on, acts in timely steps. The OS provides the steps as follows: A computer chip in the hardware of a computer reads instructions (software) and acts (reads, interprets, channels, or writes). The OS is software the software that is read first. To be simple, with laptops in mind: the OS is the groundwork software which speaks with the hardware to cause the hardware to read and act upon software, ie the Firefox web browser. The web browser knows nothing about the hardware - it speaks to the OS. An OS "prepares hardware for operation in the desired manner". And the hardware needs this. The hardware is usually designed for a variety of purpose which only become specific enough for use when the OS tells it how to act (ie, some computers are not for humans). Also, some hardwares are incomplete and cannot even function until the OS tells the CPU how to treat such "dummy" components (ie, some brands of printers need drivers period, but postscript printers print beautifully without) For humans use the OS puts the hardware in a continual loop of running pre-recorded instructions while allowing a user to inspect and intervene throughout. There are many phases in doing so. The initial stage is "bootstrapping" (pulling one's boots on). In modern computers the hardware has a miniature OS built into it so that a human decide which and how the OS is chosen (which brand to buy). The OS, during the initial phase, also provides chip initializations: such as security. Security prevents software from damaging the hardware, prevents one software from interfering with another software, and of course :) allows you to hide what your doing, "privacy", as a result of security. Lastly the OS makes available services that software takes advantage of. But hardware often changes. So a big part of OS science is to offer services in an unwavering language so softwares do not need to be rewritten when hardware changes. With any luck: you buy new hardwares but your old software, your hard work, maybe your life's work: is still safe and works fine. Sue if it doesn't :) More science: the OS provides mappings hardware and software needs to make use of the hardware. The hardware is typically a CPU, which talks through other chips to things like memory, monitors and keyboards, disks, networks, gps, cameras, etc. Making them all inter-operable as a service of by language is no small applicatoin. Generally: the OS provides many mathematical and other services to hardware and software as well - which is evolutionary. Distribution of OS and software itself is a science - since there are countless tasks to consider so that things do not become a knot. When the OS finishes loading typically software is automatically loaded as well - resulting in, ie, the OS and software causing the many hardwares involved to provide you a pleasant web surfing. Today software is usually defined as "what a typical human user can install or uninstall" to suit their needs. Ethical Concerns It's become widely known (and through many lawsuits) that computers are infact speech. Processors speaking recorded words, users speaking to processors, on and on. Therefore a major ethical issue is that certain companies have, and still do, use reverse engineering. This is hardware that forces a brand choice of OS and software, a brand of OS that forces a use of particular hardware, and so on. Reverse engineering limits speech, science, continual development, or a persons use. Humans have a right to speak freely. Humans have a right to set purchased goods to their own purposes. All in good faith of course. Humans have a right not to have their recordings made illegible by a big company (scorched earth business practices). Humans have a right to ethical business practice instead of rip-offs. Reverse engineering has wasted millions, maybe billions, of work hours over 50 years. Unix (to drop a name) and Linux rank highest in ethics. However they still show the ravages of 50 years of hardware and software wars. The "Single Unix Specification" was maybe the first attempt to bring peace and end to the "scorched earth" style wars. This specification sets forth the goal that all brands of hardwares, OS, and software can work together by heeding technical agreements. History of Development Began at the end of WWII. But we can't forget Napolean Boneparte was sending faxes before that. OS development has much been a study of "operations research" since computing ability is a limited resource. In the past the computers were extremely limited - costly, timely, and hardly able to add lists of numbers well infact. In the early days the OS was introduced into the hardware manually by way of human operators moving wires or plugs. Little code to make software easier to was needed as very little indeed could fit in the hardware's memory for such accomodation. Eventually the "recorded data" arrived and the OS was read by the hardware from it automatically. Today the OS is still automatically loaded from a recording when the computer is turned on: a feature which is adjustable and allows human to choose brands. Today's personal computer OS's focus on breadth of free software, breadth of hardware support, and depth of facility that allows humans to develop higher computing more easily. This also allows greater ability for companies to offer softwares or hardware products for purchase (offering the buyer solutions they do not have time or money to provide themselves). Sun Java is a recent major movement in OS technology for small electronics / work equipment. Solaris, by Sun Microsystems, is the parent name of Java. Lastly. Mathematical history, thus OS history, is not in the past. We use math. We still make small simple devices (they will always be in vogue). And so the old OS (or a minimal distribution of a new one) is exactly what is needed, with a little modification. History In the beginning The first computers did not have operating systems. By the early 1960s, commercial computer vendors were supplying quite extensive tools for streamlining the development, scheduling, and execution of jobs on batch processing systems. Examples were produced by UNIVAC and Control Data Corporation, among others. The operating systems originally deployed on mainframes, and, much later, the original microcomputer operating systems, only supported one program at a time, requiring only a very basic scheduler. Each program was in complete control of the machine while it was running. Multitasking (timesharing) first came to mainframes in the 1960s. In 1969-70, UNIX first appeared on the PDP-7 and later the PDP-11. It soon became capable of providing cross-platform time sharing using preemptive multitasking, advanced memory management, memory protection, and a host of other advanced features. UNIX soon gained popularity as an operating system for mainframes and minicomputers alike. MS-DOS provided many operating system like features, such as disk access. However, many DOS programs bypassed it entirely and ran directly on hardware. IBM's version, PC DOS, ran on IBM microcomputers, including the IBM PC and the IBM PC XT, and MS-DOS came into widespread use on clones of these machines. IBM PC compatibles could also run Microsoft Xenix, a UNIX-like operating system from the early 1980s. Xenix was heavily marketed by Microsoft as a multi-user alternative to its single user MS-DOS operating system. The CPUs of these personal computers could not facilitate kernel memory protection or provide dual mode operation, so Xenix relied on cooperative multitasking and had no protected memory. The 80286-based IBM PC AT was the first IBM compatible personal computer capable of using dual mode operation, and providing memory protection. However, the adoption of these features by software vendors was delayed due to numerous bugs in their implementation on the 286, and were only widely accepted with the release of the Intel 80386. Classic Mac OS, and Microsoft Windows 1.0-3.11 supported only cooperative multitasking (Windows 95, 98, & ME supported preemptive multitasking only when running 32-bit applications, but ran legacy 16-bit applications using cooperative multitasking), and were very limited in their abilities to take advantage of protected memory. Application programs running on these operating systems must yield CPU time to the scheduler when they are not using it, either by default, or by calling a function. Windows NT's underlying operating system kernel which was a designed by essentially the same team as Digital Equipment Corporation's VMS, a UNIX-like operating system which provided protected mode operation for all user programs, kernel memory protection, preemptive multi-tasking, virtual file system support, and a host of other features. Classic AmigaOS and versions of Microsoft Windows from Windows 1.0 through Windows Me did not properly track resources allocated by processes at runtime. If a process had to be terminated, the resources might not be freed up for new programs until the machine was restarted. The AmigaOS did have preemptive multitasking. Mainframes Through the 1960s, many major features were pioneered in the field of operating systems. The development of the IBM System/360 produced a family of mainframe computers available in widely differing capacities and price points, for which a single operating system OS/360 was planned (rather than developing ad-hoc programs for every individual model). This concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line was crucial for the success of System/360 and, in fact, IBM`s current mainframe operating systems are distant descendants of this original system; applications written for the OS/360 can still be run on modern machines. In the mid-70's, the MVS, the descendant of OS/360 offered the first implementation of using RAM as a transparent cache for disk resident data. OS/360 also pioneered a number of concepts that, in some cases, are still not seen outside of the mainframe arena. For instance, in OS/360, when a program is started, the operating system keeps track of all of the system resources that are used including storage, locks, data files, and so on. When the process is terminated for any reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the operating system. An alternative CP-67 system started a whole line of operating systems focused on the concept of virtual machines. Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for batch processing. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the KRONOS and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth BASIC operating systems, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages. In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks. Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring real-time chat, and multi-user graphical games. Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 in 1961 with the MCP, (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high-level languages with no machine language or assembler, and indeed the MCP was the first OS to be written exclusively in a high-level language – ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL. MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being the first commercial implementation of virtual memory. During development of the AS400, IBM made an approach to Burroughs to licence MCP to run on the AS400 hardware. This proposal was declined by Burroughs management to protect its existing hardware production. MCP is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP line of computers. UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced a series of EXEC operating systems. Like all early main-frame systems, this was a batch-oriented system that managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BASIC system. General Electric and MIT developed General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels. After acquisition by Honeywell it was renamed to General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS). Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operating systems for its various computer lines, including TOPS-10 and TOPS-20 time sharing systems for the 36-bit PDP-10 class systems. Prior to the widespread use of UNIX, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community. In the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported software to run on more than one system. Early systems had utilized microprogramming to implement features on their systems in order to permit different underlying architecture to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact most 360's after the 360/40 (except the 360/165 and 360/168) were microprogrammed implementations. But soon other means of achieving application compatibility were proven to be more significant. The enormous investment in software for these systems made since 1960s caused most of the original computer manufacturers to continue to develop compatible operating systems along with the hardware. The notable supported mainframe operating systems include: Burroughs MCP – B5000,1961 to Unisys Clearpath/MCP, present. IBM OS/360 – IBM System/360, 1966 to IBM z/OS, present. IBM CP-67 – IBM System/360, 1967 to IBM z/VM, present. UNIVAC EXEC 8 – UNIVAC 1108, 1964, to Unisys Clearpath IX, present. Microcomputers The first microcomputers did not have the capacity or need for the elaborate operating systems that had been developed for mainframes and minis; minimalistic operating systems were developed, often loaded from ROM and known as Monitors. One notable early disk-based operating system was CP/M, which was supported on many early microcomputers and was closely imitated in MS-DOS, which became wildly popular as the operating system chosen for the IBM PC (IBM's version of it was called IBM DOS or PC DOS), its successors making Microsoft. In the 80's Apple Computer Inc. (now Apple Inc.) abandoned its popular Apple II series of microcomputers to introduce the Apple Macintosh computer with an innovative Graphical User Interface (GUI) to the Mac OS. The introduction of the Intel 80386 CPU chip with 32-bit architecture and paging capabilities, provided personal computers with the ability to run multitasking operating systems like those of earlier minicomputers and mainframes. Microsoft responded to this progress by hiring Dave Cutler, who had developed the VMS operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation. He would lead the development of the Windows NT operating system, which continues to serve as the basis for Microsoft's operating systems line. Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple Inc., started NeXT Computer Inc., which developed the Unix-like NEXTSTEP operating system. NEXTSTEP would later be acquired by Apple Inc. and used, along with code from FreeBSD as the core of Mac OS X. Minix, an academic teaching tool which could be run on early PCs, would inspire another reimplementation of Unix, called Linux. Started by computer student Linus Torvalds with cooperation from volunteers over the internet, a operating system was developed with the tools from the GNU Project. The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as BSD, is the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the 1970s. Freely distributed and ported to many minicomputers, it eventually also gained a following for use on PCs, mainly as FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. Features Program execution The operating system acts as an interface between an application and the hardware. The user interacts with the hardware from "the other side". The operating system is a set of services which simplifies development of applications. Executing a program involves the creation of a process by the operating system. The kernel creates a process by assigning memory and other resources, establishing a priority for the process (in multi-tasking systems), loading program code into memory, and executing the program. The program then interacts with the user and/or other devices performing its intended function. Interrupts Interrupts are central to operating systems as they provide an efficient way for the operating system to interact and react to its environment. The alternative is to have the operating system "watch" the various sources of input for events (polling) that require action -- not a good use of CPU resources. Interrupt-based programming is directly supported by most CPUs. Interrupts provide a computer with a way of automatically running specific code in response to events. Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts, and allow the programmer to specify code which may be run when that event takes place. When an interrupt is received the computer's hardware automatically suspends whatever program is currently running, saves its status, and runs computer code previously associated with the interrupt. This is analogous to placing a bookmark in a book when someone is interrupted by a phone call and then taking the call. In modern operating systems interrupts are handled by the operating system's kernel. Interrupts may come from either the computer's hardware or from the running program. When a hardware device triggers an interrupt the operating system's kernel decides how to deal with this event, generally by running some processing code. How much code gets run depends on the priority of the interrupt (for example: a person usually responds to a smoke detector alarm before answering the phone). The processing of hardware interrupts is a task that is usually delegated to software called device drivers, which may be either part of the operating system's kernel, part of another program, or both. Device drivers may then relay information to a running program by various means. A program may also trigger an interrupt to the operating system. If a program wishes to access hardware for example, it may interrupt the operating system's kernel, which causes control to be passed back to the kernel. The kernel will then process the request. If a program wishes additional resources (or wishes to shed resources) such as memory, it will trigger an interrupt to get the kernel's attention. Protected mode and supervisor mode Modern CPUs support something called dual mode operation. CPUs with this capability use two modes: protected mode and supervisor mode, which allow certain CPU functions to be controlled and affected only by the operating system kernel. Here, protected mode does not refer specifically to the 80286 (Intel's x86 16-bit microprocessor) CPU feature, although its protected mode is very similar to it. CPUs might have other modes similar to 80286 protected mode as well, such as the virtual 8086 mode of the 80386 (Intel's x86 32-bit microprocessor or i386). However, the term is used here more generally in operating system theory to refer to all modes which limit the capabilities of programs running in that mode, providing things like virtual memory addressing and limiting access to hardware in a manner determined by a program running in supervisor mode. Similar modes have existed in supercomputers, minicomputers, and mainframes as they are essential to fully supporting UNIX-like multi-user operating systems. When a computer first starts up, it is automatically running in supervisor mode. The first few programs to run on the computer, being the BIOS, bootloader and the operating system have unlimited access to hardware - and this is required because, by definition, initializing a protected environment can only be done outside of one. However, when the operating system passes control to another program, it can place the CPU into protected mode. In protected mode, programs may have access to a more limited set of the CPU's instructions. A user program may leave protected mode only by triggering an interrupt, causing control to be passed back to the kernel. In this way the operating system can maintain exclusive control over things like access to hardware and memory. The term "protected mode resource" generally refers to one or more CPU registers, which contain information that the running program isn't allowed to alter. Attempts to alter these resources generally causes a switch to supervisor mode, where the operating system can deal with the illegal operation the program was attempting (for example, by killing the program). Memory management Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible for managing all system memory which is currently in use by programs. This ensures that a program does not interfere with memory already used by another program. Since programs time share, each program must have independent access to memory. Cooperative memory management, used by many early operating systems assumes that all programs make voluntary use of the kernel's memory manager, and do not exceed their allocated memory. This system of memory management is almost never seen anymore, since programs often contain bugs which can cause them to exceed their allocated memory. If a program fails it may cause memory used by one or more other programs to be affected or overwritten. Malicious programs, or viruses may purposefully alter another program's memory or may affect the operation of the operating system itself. With cooperative memory management it takes only one misbehaved program to crash the system. Memory protection enables the kernel to limit a process' access to the computer's memory. Various methods of memory protection exist, including memory segmentation and paging. All methods require some level of hardware support (such as the 80286 MMU) which doesn't exist in all computers. In both segmentation and paging, certain protected mode registers specify to the CPU what memory address it should allow a running program to access. Attempts to access other addresses will trigger an interrupt which will cause the CPU to re-enter supervisor mode, placing the kernel in charge. This is called a segmentation violation or Seg-V for short, and since it is both difficult to assign a meaningful result to such an operation, and because it is usually a sign of a misbehaving program, the kernel will generally resort to terminating the offending program, and will report the error. Windows 3.1-Me had some level of memory protection, but programs could easily circumvent the need to use it. Under Windows 9x all MS-DOS applications ran in supervisor mode, giving them almost unlimited control over the computer. A general protection fault would be produced indicating a segmentation violation had occurred, however the system would often crash anyway. In most Linux systems, part of the hard disk is reserved for virtual memory when the Operating system is being installed on the system. This part is known as swap space. Windows systems use a swap file instead of a partition. Virtual memory The use of virtual memory addressing (such as paging or segmentation) means that the kernel can choose what memory each program may use at any given time, allowing the operating system to use the same memory locations for multiple tasks. If a program tries to access memory that isn't in its current range of accessible memory, but nonetheless has been allocated to it, the kernel will be interrupted in the same way as it would if the program were to exceed its allocated memory. (See section on memory management.) Under UNIX this kind of interrupt is referred to as a page fault. When the kernel detects a page fault it will generally adjust the virtual memory range of the program which triggered it, granting it access to the memory requested. This gives the kernel discretionary power over where a particular application's memory is stored, or even whether or not it has actually been allocated yet. In modern operating systems, application memory which is accessed less frequently can be temporarily stored on disk or other media to make that space available for use by other programs. This is called swapping, as an area of memory can be used by multiple programs, and what that memory area contains can be swapped or exchanged on demand. Multitasking Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same computer, giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time. Since most computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done via time sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer's time to execute. An operating system kernel contains a piece of software called a scheduler which determines how much time each program will spend executing, and in which order execution control should be passed to programs. Control is passed to a process by the kernel, which allows the program access to the CPU and memory. At a later time control is returned to the kernel through some mechanism, so that another program may be allowed to use the CPU. This so-called passing of control between the kernel and applications is called a context switch. An early model which governed the allocation of time to programs was called cooperative multitasking. In this model, when control is passed to a program by the kernel, it may execute for as long as it wants before explicitly returning control to the kernel. This means that a malicious or malfunctioning program may not only prevent any other programs from using the CPU, but it can hang the entire system if it enters an infinite loop. The philosophy governing preemptive multitasking is that of ensuring that all programs are given regular time on the CPU. This implies that all programs must be limited in how much time they are allowed to spend on the CPU without being interrupted. To accomplish this, modern operating system kernels make use of a timed interrupt. A protected mode timer is set by the kernel which triggers a return to supervisor mode after the specified time has elapsed. (See above sections on Interrupts and Dual Mode Operation.) On many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking is perfectly adequate, as home computers generally run a small number of well tested programs. Windows NT was the first version of Microsoft Windows which enforced preemptive multitasking, but it didn't reach the home user market until Windows XP, (since Windows NT was targeted at professionals.) Kernel Preemption In recent years concerns have arisen because of long latencies often associated with some kernel run-times, sometimes on the order of 100ms or more in systems with monolithic kernels. These latencies often produce noticeable slowness in desktop systems, and can prevent operating systems from performing time-sensitive operations such as audio recording and some communications. http://inf3-www.informatik.unibw-muenchen.de/research/linux/milan/paper_milan.pdf Modern operating systems extend the concepts of application preemption to device drivers and kernel code, so that the operating system has preemptive control over internal run-times as well. Under Windows Vista, the introduction of the Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) accomplishes this for display drivers, and in Linux, the preemptable kernel model introduced in version 2.6 allows all device drivers and some other parts of kernel code to take advantage of preemptive multi-tasking. Under Windows prior to Windows Vista and Linux prior to version 2.6 all driver execution was co-operative, meaning that if a driver entered an infinite loop it would freeze the system. Disk access and file systems Access to files stored on disks is a central feature of all operating systems. Computers store data on disks using files, which are structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster access, higher reliability, and to make better use out of the drive's available space. The specific way in which files are stored on a disk is called a file system, and enables files to have names and attributes. It also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged in a directory tree. Early operating systems generally supported a single type of disk drive and only one kind of file system. Early file systems were limited in their capacity, speed, and in the kinds of file names and directory structures they could use. These limitations often reflected limitations in the operating systems they were designed for, making it very difficult for an operating system to support more than one file system. While many simpler operating systems support a limited range of options for accessing storage systems, operating systems like UNIX and Linux support a technology known as a virtual file system or VFS. An operating system like UNIX supports a wide array of storage devices, regardless of their design or file systems to be accessed through a common application programming interface (API). This makes it unnecessary for programs to have any knowledge about the device they are accessing. A VFS allows the operating system to provide programs with access to an unlimited number of devices with an infinite variety of file systems installed on them through the use of specific device drivers and file system drivers. A connected storage device such as a hard drive is accessed through a device driver. The device driver understands the specific language of the drive and is able to translate that language into a standard language used by the operating system to access all disk drives. On UNIX this is the language of block devices. When the kernel has an appropriate device driver in place, it can then access the contents of the disk drive in raw format, which may contain one or more file systems. A file system driver is used to translate the commands used to access each specific file system into a standard set of commands that the operating system can use to talk to all file systems. Programs can then deal with these file systems on the basis of filenames, and directories/folders, contained within a hierarchical structure. They can create, delete, open, and close files, as well as gather various information about them, including access permissions, size, free space, and creation and modification dates. Various differences between file systems make supporting all file systems difficult. Allowed characters in file names, case sensitivity, and the presence of various kinds of file attributes makes the implementation of a single interface for every file system a daunting task. Operating systems tend to recommend the use of (and so support natively) file systems specifically designed for them; for example, NTFS in Windows and ext3 and ReiserFS in Linux. However, in practice, third party drives are usually available to give support for the most widely used filesystems in most general-purpose operating systems (for example, NTFS is available in Linux through NTFS-3g, and ext2/3 and ReiserFS are available in Windows through FS-driver and rfstool). Device drivers A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device, and on the other end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications. It is a specialized hardware-dependent computer program which is also operating system specific that enables another program, typically an operating system or applications software package or computer program running under the operating system kernel, to interact transparently with a hardware device, and usually provides the requisite interrupt handling necessary for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs. The key design goal of device drivers is abstraction. Every model of hardware (even within the same class of device) is different. Newer models also are released by manufacturers that provide more reliable or better performance and these newer models are often controlled differently. Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to know how to control every device, both now and in the future. To solve this problem, OSes essentially dictate how every type of device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these OS mandated function calls into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver will ensure that the device appears to operate as usual from the operating systems' point of view. Networking Currently most operating systems support a variety of networking protocols, hardware, and applications for using them. This means that computers running dissimilar operating systems can participate in a common network for sharing resources such as computing, files, printers, and scanners using either wired or wireless connections. Networks can essentially allow a computer's operating system to access the resources of a remote computer to support the same functions as it could if those resources were connected directly to the local computer. This includes everything from simple communication, to using networked file systems or even sharing another computer's graphics or sound hardware. Some network services allow the resources of a computer to be accessed transparently, such as SSH which allows networked users direct access to a computer's command line interface. Client/server networking involves a program on a computer somewhere which connects via a network to another computer, called a server. Servers, usually running UNIX or Linux, offer (or host) various services to other network computers and users. These services are usually provided through ports or numbered access points beyond the server's network address. Each port number is usually associated with a maximum of one running program, which is responsible for handling requests to that port. A daemon, being a user program, can in turn access the local hardware resources of that computer by passing requests to the operating system kernel. Many operating systems support one or more vendor-specific or open networking protocols as well, for example, SNA on IBM systems, DECnet on systems from Digital Equipment Corporation, and Microsoft-specific protocols (SMB) on Windows. Specific protocols for specific tasks may also be supported such as NFS for file access. Protocols like ESound, or esd can be easily extended over the network to provide sound from local applications, on a remote system's sound hardware. Security A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A modern operating system provides access to a number of resources, which are available to software running on the system, and to external devices like networks via the kernel. The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. While some systems may simply distinguish between "privileged" and "non-privileged", systems commonly have a form of requester identity, such as a user name. To establish identity there may be a process of authentication. Often a username must be quoted, and each username may have a password. Other methods of authentication, such as magnetic cards or biometric data, might be used instead. In some cases, especially connections from the network, resources may be accessed with no authentication at all (such as reading files over a network share). Also covered by the concept of requester identity is authorization; the particular services and resources accessible by the requester once logged into a system and tied to either the requester's user account or to the variously configured groups of users to which the requester belongs. In addition to the allow/disallow model of security, a system with a high level of security will also offer auditing options. These would allow tracking of requests for access to resources (such as, "who has been reading this file?"). Internal security, or security from an already running program is only possible if all possibly harmful requests must be carried out through interrupts to the operating system kernel. If programs can directly access hardware and resources, they cannot be secured. External security involves a request from outside the computer, such as a login at a connected console or some kind of network connection. External requests are often passed through device drivers to the operating system's kernel, where they can be passed onto applications, or carried out directly. Security of operating systems has long been a concern because of highly sensitive data held on computers, both of a commercial and military nature. The United States Government Department of Defense (DoD) created the Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC) which is a standard that sets basic requirements for assessing the effectiveness of security. This became of vital importance to operating system makers, because the TCSEC was used to evaluate, classify and select computer systems being considered for the processing, storage and retrieval of sensitive or classified information. Network services include offerings such as file sharing, print services, email, web sites, and file transfer protocols (FTP), most of which can have compromised security. At the front line of security are hardware devices known as firewalls or intrusion detection/prevention systems. At the operating system level, there are a number of software firewalls available, as well as intrusion detection/prevention systems. Most modern operating systems include a software firewall, which is enabled by default. A software firewall can be configured to allow or deny network traffic to or from a service or application running on the operating system. Therefore, one can install and be running an insecure service, such as Telnet or FTP, and not have to be threatened by a security breach because the firewall would deny all traffic trying to connect to the service on that port. An alternative strategy, and the only sandbox strategy available in systems that do not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, is the operating system not running user programs as native code, but instead either emulates a processor or provides a host for a p-code based system such as Java. Internal security is especially relevant for multi-user systems; it allows each user of the system to have private files that the other users cannot tamper with or read. Internal security is also vital if auditing is to be of any use, since a program can potentially bypass the operating system, inclusive of bypassing auditing. Example: Microsoft Windows While the Windows 9x series offered the option of having profiles for multiple users, they had no concept of access privileges, and did not allow concurrent access; and so were not true multi-user operating systems. In addition, they implemented only partial memory protection. They were accordingly widely criticised for lack of security. The Windows NT series of operating systems, by contrast, are true multi-user, and implement absolute memory protection. However, a lot of the advantages of being a true multi-user operating system were nullified by the fact that, prior to Windows Vista, the first user account created during the setup process was an administrator account, which was also the default for new accounts. Though Windows XP did have limited accounts, the majority of home users did not change to an account type with fewer rights – partially due to the number of programs which unnecessarily required administrator rights – and so most home users ran as administrator all the time. Windows Vista changes this Microsoft describes in detail the steps taken to combat this in a TechNet bulletin. by introducing a privilege elevation system called User Account Control. When logging in as a standard user, a logon session is created and a token containing only the most basic privileges is assigned. In this way, the new logon session is incapable of making changes that would affect the entire system. When logging in as a user in the Administrators group, two separate tokens are assigned. The first token contains all privileges typically awarded to an administrator, and the second is a restricted token similar to what a standard user would receive. User applications, including the Windows Shell, are then started with the restricted token, resulting in a reduced privilege environment even under an Administrator account. When an application requests higher privileges or "Run as administrator" is clicked, UAC will prompt for confirmation and, if consent is given (including administrator credentials if the account requesting the elevation is not a member of the administrators group), start the process using the unrestricted token. Example: Linux/Unix Linux and UNIX both have two tier security, which limits any system-wide changes to the root user, a special user account on all UNIX-like systems. While the root user has virtually unlimited permission to affect system changes, programs running as a regular user are limited in where they can save files, what hardware they can access, etc. In many systems, a user's memory usage, their selection of available programs, their total disk usage or quota, available range of programs' priority settings, and other functions can also be locked down. This provides the user with plenty of freedom to do what needs to be done, without being able to put any part of the system in jeopardy (barring accidental triggering of system-level bugs) or make sweeping, system-wide changes. The user's settings are stored in an area of the computer's file system called the user's home directory, which is also provided as a location where the user may store their work, a concept later adopted by Windows as the 'My Documents' folder. Should a user have to install software outside of his home directory or make system-wide changes, they must become the root user temporarily, usually with the su or sudo command, which is answered with the computer's root password when prompted. Some systems (such as Ubuntu and its derivatives) are configured by default to allow select users to run programs as the root user via the sudo command, using the user's own password for authentication instead of the system's root password. One is sometimes said to "go root" or "drop to root" when elevating oneself to root access. For more information on the differences between the Linux su/sudo approach and Vista's User Account Control, see Comparison of privilege authorization features. File system support in modern operating systems Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems although there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include support and drivers for. Solaris The SUN Microsystems Solaris Operating System in earlier releases defaulted to (non-journaled or non-logging) UFS for bootable and supplementary file systems. Solaris (as most Operating Systems based upon Open Standards and/or Open Source) defaulted to, supported, and extended UFS. Support for other file systems and significant enhancements were added over time, including Veritas Software Corp. (Journaling) VxFS, SUN Microsystems (Clustering) QFS, SUN Microsystems (Journaling) UFS, and SUN Microsystems (open source, poolable, 128 bit compressible, and error-correcting) ZFS. Kernel extensions were added to Solaris to allow for bootable Veritas VxFS operation. Logging or Journaling was added to UFS in SUN's Solaris 7. Releases of Solaris 10, Solaris Express, OpenSolaris, and other Open Source variants of Solaris Operating System later supported bootable ZFS. Logical Volume Management allows for spanning a file system across multiple devices for the purpose of adding redundancy, capacity, and/or throughput. Legacy environments in Solaris may use Solaris Volume Manager (formerly known as Solstice DiskSuite.) Multiple operating systems (including Solaris) may use Veritas Volume Manager. Modern Solaris based Operating Systems eclipse the need for Volume Management through leveraging virtual storage pools in ZFS. Linux Many Linux distributions support some or all of ext2, ext3, ext4, ReiserFS, Reiser4, JFS , XFS , GFS, GFS2, OCFS, OCFS2, and NILFS. The ext file systems, namely ext2, ext3 and ext4 are based on the original Linux file system. Others have been developed by companies to meet their specific needs, hobbyists, or adapted from UNIX, Microsoft Windows, and other operating systems. Linux has full support for XFS and JFS, along with FAT (the MS-DOS file system), and HFS which is the primary file system for the Macintosh. In recent years support for Microsoft Windows NT's NTFS file system has appeared in Linux, and is now comparable to the support available for other native UNIX file systems. ISO 9660 and Universal Disk Format (UDF) are supported which are standard file systems used on CDs, DVDs, and BluRay discs. It is possible to install Linux on the majority of these file systems. Unlike other operating systems, Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc (CD,DVD...), an USB key, or even contained within a file located on another file system. Microsoft Windows Microsoft Windows currently supports NTFS and FAT file systems, along with network file systems shared from other computers, and the ISO 9660 and UDF filesystems used for CDs, DVDs, and other optical discs such as BluRay. Under Windows each file system is usually limited in application to certain media, for example CDs must use ISO 9660 or UDF, and as of Windows Vista, NTFS is the only file system which the operating system can be installed on. Windows Embedded CE 6.0, Windows Vista Service Pack 1, and Windows Server 2008 support ExFAT, a file system more suitable for flash drives. Mac OS X Mac OS X supports HFS+ with journaling as its primary file system. It is derived from the Hierarchical File System of the earlier Mac OS. Mac OS X has facilities to read and write FAT, NTFS (only read, although an open-source cross plataform implementation known as NTFS 3G provides read-write support to Microsoft Windows NTFS file system for Mac OS X users.), UDF, and other file systems, but cannot be installed to them. Due to its UNIX heritage Mac OS X now supports virtually all the file systems supported by the UNIX VFS. Recently Apple Inc. started work on porting Sun Microsystem's ZFS filesystem to Mac OS X and preliminary support is already available in Mac OS X 10.5. Special-purpose file systems FAT file systems are commonly found on floppy disks, flash memory cards, digital cameras, and many other portable devices because of their relative simplicity. Performance of FAT compares poorly to most other file systems as it uses overly simplistic data structures, making file operations time-consuming, and makes poor use of disk space in situations where many small files are present. ISO 9660 and Universal Disk Format are two common formats that target Compact Discs and DVDs. Mount Rainier is a newer extension to UDF supported by Linux 2.6 series and Windows Vista that facilitates rewriting to DVDs in the same fashion as has been possible with floppy disks. Journalized file systems File systems may provide journaling, which provides safe recovery in the event of a system crash. A journaled file system writes some information twice: first to the journal, which is a log of file system operations, then to its proper place in the ordinary file system. Journaling is handled by the file system driver, and keeps track of each operation taking place that changes the contents of the disk. In the event of a crash, the system can recover to a consistent state by replaying a portion of the journal. Many UNIX file systems provide journaling including ReiserFS, JFS, and Ext3. In contrast, non-journaled file systems typically need to be examined in their entirety by a utility such as fsck or chkdsk for any inconsistencies after an unclean shutdown. Soft updates is an alternative to journaling that avoids the redundant writes by carefully ordering the update operations. Log-structured file systems and ZFS also differ from traditional journaled file systems in that they avoid inconsistencies by always writing new copies of the data, eschewing in-place updates. Graphical user interfaces Most modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces (GUI), and often include them. In some computer systems, such as the original implementations of Microsoft Windows and the Mac OS, the GUI is integrated into the kernel. While technically a graphical user interface is not an operating system service, incorporating support for one into the operating system kernel can allow the GUI to be more responsive by reducing the number of context switches required for the GUI to perform its output functions. Other operating systems are modular, separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel and the Operating System. In the 1980s UNIX, VMS and many others had operating systems that were built this way. Linux and Mac OS X are also built this way. Modern releases of Microsoft Windows such as Windows Vista implement a graphics subsystem that is mostly in user-space, however versions between Windows NT 4.0 and Windows Server 2003's graphics drawing routines exist mostly in kernel space. Windows 9x had very little distinction between the interface and the kernel. Many computer operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they desire. The X Window System in conjunction with GNOME or KDE is a commonly-found setup on most Unix and Unix-like (BSD, Linux, Minix) systems. A number of Windows shell replacements have been released for Microsoft Windows, which offer alternatives to the included Windows shell, but the shell itself cannot be separated from Windows. Numerous Unix-based GUIs have existed over time, most derived from X11. Competition among the various vendors of Unix (HP, IBM, Sun) led to much fragmentation, though an effort to standardize in the 1990s to COSE and CDE failed for the most part due to various reasons, eventually eclipsed by the widespread adoption of GNOME and KDE. Prior to open source-based toolkits and desktop environments, Motif was the prevalent toolkit/desktop combination (and was the basis upon which CDE was developed). Graphical user interfaces evolve over time. For example, Windows has modified its user interface almost every time a new major version of Windows is released, and the Mac OS GUI changed dramatically with the introduction of Mac OS X in 1999. Poisson, Ken. "Chronology of Personal Computer Software". Retrieved on 2008-05-07. Last checked on 2009-03-30. Examples of operating systems Microsoft Windows Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems that originated as an add-on to the older MS-DOS operating system for the IBM PC. Modern versions are based on the newer Windows NT kernel that was originally intended for OS/2. Windows runs on x86, x86-64 and Itanium processors. Earlier versions also ran on the DEC Alpha, MIPS, Fairchild (later Intergraph) Clipper and PowerPC architectures (some work was done to port it to the SPARC architecture). As of June 2008, Microsoft Windows holds a large amount of the worldwide desktop market share. Windows is also used on servers, supporting applications such as web servers and database servers. In recent years, Microsoft has spent significant marketing and research & development money to demonstrate that Windows is capable of running any enterprise application, which has resulted in consistent price/performance records (see the TPC) and significant acceptance in the enterprise market. The most widely used version of the Microsoft Windows family is Windows XP, released on October 25, 2001. In November 2006, after more than five years of development work, Microsoft released Windows Vista, a major new operating system version of Microsoft Windows family which contains a large number of new features and architectural changes. Chief amongst these are a new user interface and visual style called Windows Aero, a number of new security features such as User Account Control, and a few new multimedia applications such as Windows DVD Maker. A server variant based on the same kernel, Windows Server 2008, was released in early 2008. Windows 7 is currently under development; Microsoft has stated that it intends to scope its development to a three-year timeline, placing its release sometime at the end of 2009. Unix and Unix-like operating systems Ken Thompson wrote B, mainly based on BCPL, which he used to write Unix, based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by C, and Unix developed into a large, complex family of inter-related operating systems which have been influential in every modern operating system (see History). The Unix-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name "UNIX" is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. "Unix-like" is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original Unix. Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of machine architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free software Unix variants, such as GNU, Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas. Market share statistics for freely available operating systems are usually inaccurate since most free operating systems are not purchased, making usage under-represented. On the other hand, market share statistics based on total downloads of free operating systems are often inflated, as there is no economic disincentive to acquire multiple operating systems so users can download multiple systems, test them, and decide which they like best. Some Unix variants like HP's HP-UX and IBM's AIX are designed to run only on that vendor's hardware. Others, such as Solaris, can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 servers and PCs. Apple's Mac OS X, a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD, has replaced Apple's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS. Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants. Mac OS X Mac OS X is a line of proprietary, graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintosh computers. Mac OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, Mac OS X is a UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, with a desktop-oriented version (Mac OS X v10.0) following in March 2001. Since then, five more distinct "end-user" and "server" editions of Mac OS X have been released, the most recent being Mac OS X v10.5, which was first made available in October 2007. Releases of Mac OS X are named after big cats; Mac OS X v10.5 is usually referred to by Apple and users as "Leopard". The server edition, Mac OS X Server, is architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart but usually runs on Apple's line of Macintosh server hardware. Mac OS X Server includes work group management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name server, and others. Plan 9 Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie and Douglas McIlroy at Bell Labs designed and developed the C programming language to build the operating system Unix. Programmers at Bell Labs went on to develop Plan 9 and Inferno, which were engineered for modern distributed environments. Plan 9 was designed from the start to be a networked operating system, and had graphics built-in, unlike Unix, which added these features to the design later. Plan 9 has yet to become as popular as Unix derivatives, but it has an expanding community of developers. It is currently released under the Lucent Public License. Inferno was sold to Vita Nuova Holdings and has been released under a GPL/MIT license. Real-time operating systems A real-time operating system (RTOS1) is a multitasking operating system intended for applications with fixed deadlines (real-time computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large-scale computing systems. An early example of a large-scale real-time operating system was Transaction Processing Facility developed by American Airlines and IBM for the Sabre Airline Reservations System. Embedded systems Embedded systems use a variety of dedicated operating systems. In some cases, the "operating system" software is directly linked to the application to produce a monolithic special-purpose program. In the simplest embedded systems, there is no distinction between the OS and the application. Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use a real-time operating system such as VxWorks, eCos, QNX, MontaVista Linux and RTLinux. Some embedded systems use operating systems such as Symbian OS, Palm OS, Windows CE, BSD, and Linux, although such operating systems do not support real-time computing. Windows CE shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows' codebase. Hobby development Operating system development, or OSDev for short, as a hobby has a large cult-like following. As such, operating systems, such as Linux, have derived from hobby operating system projects. The design and implementation of an operating system requires skill and determination, and the term can cover anything from a basic "Hello World" boot loader to a fully featured kernel. One classical example of this is the Minix Operating System—an OS that was designed by A.S. Tanenbaum as a teaching tool but was heavily used by hobbyists before Linux eclipsed it in popularity. Other Older operating systems which are still used in niche markets include OS/2 from IBM; Mac OS, the non-Unix precursor to Apple's Mac OS X; BeOS; XTS-300. Some, most notably AmigaOS 4 and RISC OS, continue to be developed as minority platforms for enthusiast communities and specialist applications. OpenVMS formerly from DEC, is still under active development by Hewlett-Packard. There were a number of operating systems for 8 bit computers - Apple's DOS (Disk Operating System) 3.2 & 3.3 for Apple ][, ProDOS, UCSD, CP/M - available for various 8 and 16 bit environments. Research and development of new operating systems continues. GNU Hurd is designed to be backwards compatible with Unix, but with enhanced functionality and a microkernel architecture. Singularity is a project at Microsoft Research to develop an operating system with better memory protection based on the .Net managed code model. Systems development follows the same model used by other Software development, which involves maintainers, version control "trees", of revision control software forks, "patches", and specifications. From the AT&T-Berkeley lawsuit the new unencumbered systems were based on 4.4BSD which forked as FreeBSD and NetBSD efforts to replace missing code after the Unix wars. Recent forks include DragonFly BSD and Darwin from BSD Unix. of BSD operating systems Diversity of operating systems and portability Software are generally written for a given operating system (and even specific hardware). On another OS, the set of functionalities required by that software may be implemented differently (name of functions, list of arguments, etc.), requiring the application to be more or less adapted for that new OS. Today most softwares are written for a different software platforms like Java or Qt what are written to operating system itself and other system libraries running beneath of them, allowing high-level development easier. In order to limit differences in terms of behaviour and API, the application can make use of pieces of software abstracting the operating system, generally called OS abstraction layer (similarly, an hardware abstraction layer can also be used). As an example, the POSIX Threads API (which is part of the POSIX standards) provides basic mechanisms for applications to manipulate threads, whatever the target operating system. See also List of operating systems Computer systems architecture Disk operating system Kernel (computer science) List of important publications in computer science#Operating systems Object-oriented operating system Orthogonal persistence Process management (computing) System call System image Trusted operating system (For Linux-related information see: EmperorLinux) Footnotes References http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/255/auslander.pdf External links Multics History and the history of operating systems How Stuff Works - Operating Systems Operating Systems Reviews DynaOS - Description of a conceptual Distributed Operating System How to choose the right operating system Operating System Documentation Project Google Directory for Operating System be-x-old:Апэрацыйная сыстэма	Operating_system \|@lemmatized layer:3 structure:6 show:3 operating:100 system:345 locate:2 generally:16 use:85 software:53 desktop:11 operate:98 commonly:6 abbreviate:1 either:7 interface:25 hardware:65 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6,083	Cattle	Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated ungulates, a member of the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae. They are raised as livestock for meat (called beef and veal), dairy products (milk), leather and as draft animals (pulling carts, plows and the like). In some countries, such as India, they are honored in religious ceremonies and revered. It is estimated that there are 1.3 billion cattle in the world today. Breeds of Cattle at CATTLE TODAY In 2009 the cattle became the first livestock animal to have its genome mapped. Species of cattle Cattle were originally identified by Carolus Linnaeus as three separate species. These were Bos taurus, the European cattle, including similar types from Africa and Asia; Bos indicus, the zebu; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and European cattle. More recently these three have increasingly been grouped as one species, with Bos primigenius taurus, Bos primigenius indicus and Bos primigenius primigenius as the subspecies. BZN 63(3) General Articles & Nomenclatural Notes Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between European cattle and zebu but also with yaks (called a dzo or "yattle" "Yattle What?", Washington Post, August 11, 2007 ), banteng, gaur, and bison ("cattalo"), a cross-genera hybrid. For example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only humpless "Bos taurus-type" cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of European cattle, zebu and yak. Cattle cannot successfully be bred with water buffalo or African buffalo. The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, their range was restricted to Europe, and the last animals were killed by poachers in Masovia, Poland, in 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing of domesticated cattle breeds, creating the Heck cattle breed. (See also aurochs and zebu articles.) Cattle genome In the April 24, 2009 edition of the journal Science it was reported that a team of researchers led by the National Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Agriculture have mapped the bovine genome. The scientists found that the cattle has approximately 22,000 genes, and 80 percent of their genes are shared with humans, and they have approximately 1,000 genes they share with dogs and rodents but are not found in humans. Using this bovine "HapMap", researchers can track the differences between the breeds that affect the quality of meat and milk yields. BBC: Cow genome 'to transform farming' Terminology Word origin Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals. It was borrowed from Old French catel, itself from Latin caput, head, and originally meant movable property, especially livestock of any kind. The word is closely related to "chattel" (a unit of personal property) and "capital" in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh "cattle, property" (cf. German Vieh, Gothic faihu). Older English sources like King James Version of the Bible refer to livestock in general as cattle (as opposed to the word deer which then was used for wild animals). Additionally other species of the genus Bos are sometimes called wild cattle. Today, the modern meaning of "cattle", without any other qualifier, is usually restricted to domesticated bovines. Terminology of cattle A Hereford bull In general, the same words are used in different parts of the world but with minor differences in the definitions. The terminology described here contrasts the differences in definition between the United Kingdom and other British influenced parts of world such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and the United States. http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Cattle_-_Terminology/id/1287270 Cattle Terminology An intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male is called a bull. A wild, young, unmarked bull is known as a micky in Australia. Coupe, Sheena (ed.), Frontier Country, Vol. 1, Weldon Russell Publishing, Willoughby, 1989, ISBN 1 875202 01 3 An unbranded bovine of either gender is called a "maverick" in the USA and Canada. An adult female who has had one or two calves (depending on regional usage) is called a cow. A young female before she has had a calf of her own is called a heifer ( "heffer"). A young female that has had only one calf is occasionally called a first-calf heifer. Young cattle of both sexes are called calves until they are weaned, then weaners until they are a year old in some areas; in other areas, particularly with male beef cattle, they may be known as feeder-calves or simply feeders. After that, they are referred to as yearlings or stirks McIntosh, E., The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, Clarendon Press, 1967 if between one and two years of age. A castrated male is called a steer in the United States, and older steers are often called a bullock in other parts of the world; Delbridge, A, et al., Macquarie Dictionary, The Book Printer, Australia, 1991 although in North America this term refers to a young bull. Piker bullocks are micky bulls that were caught, castrated and then later lost. In Australia, the term "Japanese ox" is used for grain fed steers in the weight range of 500 to 650 kg that are destined for the Japanese meat trade. Meat & Livestock Australia, Feedback, June/July 2008 In North America, draft cattle under four years old are called working steers. Improper or late castration on a bull results in it becoming a coarse steer known as a stag in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Sure Ways to Lose Money on Your Cattle In some countries an incompletely castrated male is known also as a rig. A castrated male (occasionally a female or in some areas a bull) kept for draft purposes or for food Delbridge, Arthur, The Macquarie Dictionary, 2nd ed., Macquarie Library, North Ryde, 1991 is called an ox (plural oxen). In all cattle species, a female that is the twin of a bull usually becomes an infertile partial intersex, and is a freemartin. Neat (horned oxen, from which neatsfoot oil is derived), beef (young ox) and beefing (young animal fit for slaughtering) are obsolete terms, although poll or polled cattle is still a term in use for naturally hornless animals, or in some areas cattle that have been disbudded. Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the older term beef (plural beeves) is still used to refer to an animal of either gender. Some Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and Scottish farmers use the term beast, especially when the gender is unknown. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called dairy cows. The adjective applying to cattle in general is usually bovine. The terms "bull", "cow" and "calf" are also used by extension to denote the gender of other large animals, including whales, hippopotamuses, camels, elk and elephants. Singular terminology dilemma Cattle can only be used in the plural and not in the singular: it is a plurale tantum. Thus one may refer to "three cattle" or "some cattle", but not "one cattle". There is no universally used singular equivalent in modern English to "cattle", other than the gender and age-specific terms such as cow, bull, steer and heifer. Strictly speaking, the singular noun for the domestic bovine was "ox", however, "ox" today is rarely used in this general sense. An ox today generally denotes a draft beast, most commonly a castrated male (but is not to be confused with the unrelated wild musk ox). A Brahman calf "Cow" has been in general use as a singular for the collective "cattle" in spite of the objections of those who say that it is a female-specific term, so that that phrases such as "that cow is a bull" would be absurd from a lexicographic standpoint. However, it is easy to use when a singular is needed and the gender is not known, as in "There is a cow in the road". Further, any herd of fully mature cattle in or near a pasture is statistically likely to consist mostly of cows, so the term is probably accurate even in the restrictive sense. Other than the few bulls needed for breeding, the vast majority of male cattle are castrated as calves and slaughtered for meat before the age of three years. Thus, in a pastured herd, any calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the cows due to distinctively different sizes and clear anatomical differences. The Oxford English Dictionary lists the use of "cows" as a synonym for "cattle" as an American usage. Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford Merriam-Webster, a U.S. dictionary, recognizes the non-gender-specific use of "cow" as an alternate definition, Merriam Webster Online: whereas Collins, a UK dictionary, does not. Collins Language.com Colloquially, more general non-specific terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed. Australian, New Zealand and British farmers use the term "beast" or "cattle beast". "Bovine" is also used in Britain. The term "critter" is common in the western United States and Canada, particularly when referring to young cattle. In some areas of the American South (particularly the Appalachian region), where both dairy and beef cattle are present, an individual animal was once called a "beef critter", though that term is becoming archaic. Other terminology Cattle raised for human consumption are called "beef cattle". Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the term "beef" (plural "beeves") is still used in its archaic sense to refer to an animal of either gender. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called "dairy cows" or "milking cows" (formerly "milch cows" – "milch" was pronounced as "milk"). Most young male offspring of dairy cows are sold for veal, and may be referred to as veal calves. The term "dogies" was once used to describe calves and young steers in the context of ranch work in the American west, as in "Keep them dogies moving," but in modern use is considered archaic unless used in a humorous context. In some places, a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a "house cow". Other obsolete terms for cattle include "neat" (this use survives in "neatsfoot oil", extracted from the feet and legs of cattle), and "beefing" (young animal fit for slaughter). An onomatopoeic term for one of the commonest sounds made by cattle is "moo", and this sound is also called lowing. There are a number of other sounds made by cattle, including calves bawling, and bulls bellowing (a high-pitched yodeling call). The bullroarer makes a sound similar to a territorial call made by bulls. Anatomy Cattle have one stomach with four compartments. They are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, the rumen being the largest compartment. Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum, the smallest compartment, and this is where hardware disease occurs. The reticulum is known as the "Honeycomb." The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "Many Plies." The abomasum is like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "true stomach". Dairy farming and the milking of cattle - once performed largely by hand, but now usually replaced by machine - exploits the cow's unique ruminant biology. Cattle are ruminants, meaning that they have a digestive system that allows use of otherwise indigestible foods by repeatedly regurgitating and rechewing them as "cud". The cud is then reswallowed and further digested by specialised microorganisms in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids that cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes inside of the rumen are also able to synthesize amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources such as urea and ammonia. As these microbes reproduce in the rumen, older generations die and their carcasses continue on through the digestive tract. These carcasses are then partially digested by the cattle, allowing it to gain a high quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other vegetation. The gestation period for a cow is nine months. A newborn calf weighs . The world record for the heaviest bull was a Chianina named Donetto, when he was exhibited at the Arezzo show in 1955. Friend, John B., Cattle of the World, Blandford Press, Dorset, 1978 The heaviest steer was eight year old ‘Old Ben’, a Shorthorn/Hereford cross weighing in at in 1910. McWhirter, Norris & Ross, Guiness Book of Records, Redwood Press, Trowbridge, 1968 Steers are generally killed before reaching . Breeding stock usually live to about 15 years (occasionally as much as 25 years). A common misconception about cattle (particularly bulls) is that they are enraged by the color red (something provocative is often said to be "like a red flag to a bull"). This is incorrect, as cattle are red-green color-blind. ITLA - Longhorn_Information - handling http://iacuc.tennessee.edu/pdf/Policies-AnimalCare/Cattle-BasicCare.pdf The myth arose from the use of red capes in the sport of bullfighting; in fact, two different capes are used. The capote is a large, flowing cape that is magenta and yellow. The more famous muleta is the smaller, red cape, used exclusively for the final, fatal segment of the fight. It is not the color of the cape that angers the bull, but rather the movement of the fabric that irritates the bull and incites it to charge. Although cattle cannot distinguish red from green, they do have two kinds of color receptors in their retinas (cone cells) and so are theoretically able to distinguish some colors, probably in a similar way to other red-green color-blind or dichromatic mammals (such as dogs, cats, horses and up to ten percent of male humans). Jacobs, G. H., J. F.Deegan, and J. Neitz. 1998. Photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision in cows, goats and sheep. Vis. Neurosci. 15:581–584 Perception of Color by Cattle and its Influence on Behavior C.J.C. Phillips* and C. A. Lomas†2 J. Dairy Sci. 84:807–813 Domestication and husbandry Texas Longhorns are an iconic U.S. breed Cattle occupy a unique role in human history, domesticated since at least the early Neolithic. They are raised for meat (beef cattle), dairy products and hides. They are also used as draft animals and in certain sports. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. A hereford being inspected for ticks; cattle are often restrained or confined in Cattle crushes when given medical attention. Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to graze on the grasses of large tracts of rangeland. Raising cattle in this manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve daily feeding, cleaning and milking. Many routine husbandry practices involve ear tagging, dehorning, loading, medical operations, vaccinations and hoof care, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. There are also some cultural differences in working with cattle- the cattle husbandry of Fulani men rests on behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe cattle are controlled primarily by physical means like fences. Breeders utilise cattle husbandry to reduce M. bovis infection susceptibility by selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease. Cattle are farmed for beef, veal, dairy, leather and they are less commonly used simply to maintain grassland for wildlife- for example, in Epping Forest, England. They are often used in some of the most wild places for livestock. Depending on the breed, cattle can survive on hill grazing, heaths, marshes, moors and semi desert. Modern cows are more commercial than older breeds and, having become more specialized, are less versatile. For this reason many smaller farmers still favor old breeds, like the dairy breed of cattle Jersey. In Portugal, Spain, Southern France and some Latin American countries, bulls are used in the activity of bullfighting; a similar activity, Jallikattu, is seen in South India; in many other countries this is illegal. Other activities such as bull riding are seen as part of a rodeo, especially in North America. Bull-leaping, a central ritual in Bronze Age Minoan culture (see Bull (mythology)), still exists in southwestern France. In modern times, cattle are also entered into agricultural competitions. These competitions can involve live cattle or cattle carcasses. In terms of food intake by humans, consumption of cattle is less efficient than of grain or vegetables with regard to land use, and hence cattle grazing consumes more area than such other agricultural production when raised on grains. Edward O. Wilson, The Future of Life, 2003, Vintage Books, 256 pages ISBN 0679768114 Nonetheless, cattle and other forms of domesticated animals can sometimes help to utilize plant resources in areas not easily amenable to other forms of agriculture. These factors just as important today because grazing animals such as cattle, sheep, goats and pigs can use pastures unsuitable for growing crops. Environmental impact Cattle - especially when kept on enormous feedlots such as this one - have been named as a contributing factor in the rise in greenhouse gas emissions. A 400-page United Nations report from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) states that cattle farming is "responsible for 18% of greenhouse gases." The production of cattle to feed and clothe humans stresses ecosystems around the world, and is assessed to be one of the top three environmental problems in the world on a local to global scale. LEAD digital library: Livestock’s long shadow - Environmental issues and options The report, entitled Livestock's Long Shadow, also surveys the environmental damage from sheep, chickens, pigs and goats. But in almost every case, the world's 1.5 billion cattle are cited as the greatest adverse impact with respect to climate change as well as species extinction. The report concludes that, unless changes are made, the massive damage reckoned to be due to livestock may more than double by 2050, as demand for meat increases. One of the cited changes suggests that intensification of the livestock industry may be suggested, since intensification leads to less land for a given level of production. Some microbes respire in the cattle gut by an anaerobic process known as methanogenesis (producing the gas methane). Cattle emit a large volume of methane, 95% of it through eructation or burping, not flatulence. "Bovine belching called udderly serious gas problem." Los Angeles Times, Sunday, July 13, 2003 As the carbon in the methane comes from the digestion of vegetation produced by photosynthesis, its release into the air by this process would normally be considered harmless, because there is no net increase in carbon in the atmosphere — it's removed as carbon dioxide from the air by photosynthesis and returned to it as methane. Methane is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, having a warming effect 23 to 50 times greater, (pie charts) Junichi Takahashi and Bruce A. Young, Greenhouse Gases and Animal Agriculture: Proceedings (2002) Elsevier Health Sciences, 372 pages ISBN 0444510125 and according to Takahashi and Young "even a small increase in methane concentration in the atmosphere exerts a potentially significant contribution to global warming". Further analysis to the methane gas produced by livestock as a contributor to the increase in greenhouse gases is provided by Weart. Spencer Weart: The Discovery of Global Warming: "Other Greenhouse Gases". June 2007. Research is underway on methods of reducing this source of methane, by the use of dietary supplements, or treatments to reduce the proportion of methanogenetic microbes, perhaps by vaccination. Research on use of bacteria from the stomach lining of kangaroos (who don't emit methane) to reduce methane in cattle Cattle are fed a concentrated high-corn diet which produces rapid weight gain, but this has side effects which include increased acidity in the digestive system. When improperly handled, manure and other byproducts of concentrated agriculture also have environmental consequences. Manure Management Grazing by cattle at low intensities can create a favourable environment for native herbs and forbs; however, in most world regions cattle are reducing biodiversity due to overgrazing driven by food demands by an expanding human population. E.O. Wilson, The Future of Life, 2003, Vintage Books, 256 pages ISBN 067976811 Oxen Draft Zebus in Mumbai, India Oxen (singular ox) are large and heavyset breeds of Bos taurus cattle trained as draft animals. Often they are adult, castrated males. Usually an ox is over four years old due to the need for training and to allow it to grow to full size. Oxen are used for plowing, transport, hauling cargo, grain-grinding by trampling or by powering machines, irrigation by powering pumps, and wagon drawing. Oxen were commonly used to skid logs in forests, and sometimes still are, in low-impact select-cut logging. Oxen are most often used in teams of two, paired, for light work such as carting. In the past, teams might have been larger, with some teams exceeding twenty animals when used for logging. An ox is nothing more than a mature bovine with an "education." The education consists of the animal's learning to respond appropriately to the teamster's (ox driver's) signals. These signals are given by verbal commands or by noise (whip cracks) and many teamsters were known for their voices and language. In North America, the commands are (1) get up, (2) whoa, (3) back up, (4) gee (turn right) and (5) haw (turn left). Oxen must be painstakingly trained from a young age. Their teamster must provide as many as a dozen yokes of different sizes as the animals grow. A wooden yoke is fastened about the neck of each pair so that the force of draft is distributed across their shoulders. From calves, oxen are chosen with horns since the horns hold the yoke in place when the oxen lower their heads, back up, or slow down (particularly with a wheeled vehicle going downhill). Yoked oxen cannot slow a load like harnessed horses can; the load has to be controlled downhill by other means. The gait of the ox is often important to ox trainers, since the speed the animal walks should roughly match the gait of the ox driver who must work with it. U.S. ox trainers favored larger breeds for their ability to do more work and for their intelligence. Because they are larger animals, the typical ox is the male of a breed, rather than the smaller female. Females are potentially more useful producing calves and milk. Riding an ox in Hova, Sweden. Oxen can pull harder and longer than horses, particularly on obstinate or almost un-movable loads. This is one of the reasons that teams drag logs from forests long after horses had taken over most other draft uses in Europe and North America. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury because they are more sure-footed and do not try to jerk the load. An "ox" is not a unique breed of bovine, nor have any "blue" oxen lived outside the folk tales surrounding Paul Bunyan, the mythical American logger. A possible exception and antecedent to this legend is the Belgian Blue breed which is known primarily for its unusual musculature and at times exhibits unusual white/blue, blue roan, or blue coloration. The unusual musculature of the breed is believed to be due to a natural mutation of the gene that codes for the protein Myostatin, which is responsible for normal muscle atrophy. Many oxen are used worldwide, especially in developing countries. Ox is also used for various cattle products, irrespective of age, sex or training of the beast – for example, ox-blood, ox-liver, ox-kidney, ox-heart, ox-hide. Religion, traditions and folklore Legend of the founding of Durham Cathedral is that monks carrying the body of Saint Cuthbert were led to the location by a milk maid who had lost her dun cow, which was found resting on the spot. The Evangelist St. Luke is depicted as an ox in Christian art. In Judaism, as described in , the ashes of a sacrificed unblemished red heifer that has never been yoked can be used for ritual purification of people who came into contact with a corpse. The ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. See: Ox (Zodiac). The constellation Taurus represents a bull. An apocryphal story has it that a cow started the Great Chicago Fire by kicking over a kerosene lamp. Michael Ahern, the reporter who created the cow story, admitted in 1893 that he had fabricated it for more colorful copy. On February 18, 1930 Elm Farm Ollie became the first cow to fly in an airplane and also the first cow to be milked in an airplane. The first known law requiring branding in North America was enacted on February 5, 1644 by Connecticut. It said that all cattle and pigs have to have a registered brand or earmark by May 1, 1644. The is a traditional toy from the Aizu region of Japan that is thought to ward off illness. Madden, Thomas (May 1992). "Akabeko". OUTLOOK. Online copy accessed 18 January 2007. The case of Sherwood v. Walker -- involving a supposedly barren heifer that was actually pregnant—first enunciated the concept of Mutual mistake as a means of destroying the Meeting of the minds in Contract law. The Maasai tribe of East Africa traditionally believe that all cows on earth are the God-given property of the Maasai Hindu tradition In Hinduism, the cow is a symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, selfless giving and a full Earthly life.Cows are venerated within the Hindu religion of India. According to Vedic scripture they are to be treated with the same respect 'as one's mother' because of the milk they provide; "The cow is my mother. The bull is my sire." Mahabharata, Book 13-Anusasana Parva, Section LXXVI They appear in numerous stories from the Puranas and Vedas, for example the deity Krishna is brought up in a family of cowherders, and given the name Govinda (protector of the cows). Also Shiva is traditionally said to ride on the back of a bull named Nandi. Bulls in particular are seen as a symbolic emblem of selfless duty and religion. In ancient rural India every household had a few cows which provided a constant supply of milk and a few bulls that helped as draft animals. Many Hindus feel that at least it was economically wise to keep cattle for their milk rather than consume their flesh for one single meal. Gandhi explains his feelings about cow protection as follows: "The cow to me means the entire sub-human world, extending man's sympathies beyond his own species. Man through the cow is enjoined to realize his identity with all that lives. Why the ancient rishis selected the cow for apotheosis is obvious to me. The cow in India was the best comparison; she was the giver of plenty. Not only did she give milk, but she also made agriculture possible. The cow is a poem of pity; one reads pity in the gentle animal. She is the second mother to millions of mankind. Protection of the cow means protection of the whole dumb creation of God. The appeal of the lower order of creation is all the more forceful because it is speechless." In heraldry Cattle are typically represented in heraldry by the bull. Present status Simmental cattle resting on a Swiss pasture The world cattle population is estimated to be about 995,838,000 head. India is the nation with the largest number of cattle, about 281,700,000 or 28.29% of the world cattle population, followed by Brazil: 187,087,000, 18.79%; China: 139,721,000, 14.03%; the United States: 96,669,000, 9.71%; EU-27: at 87,650,000, 8.80%; Argentina: 51,062,000, 5.13%; Australia: 29,202,000, 2.93%; South Africa: 14,187,000, 1.42%; Canada: 13,945,000, 1.40% and other countries: 49,756,000 5.00%. Cattle Population By Country Africa has about 20,000,000 head of cattle, many of which are raised in traditional ways and serve partly as tokens of their owner's wealth. Cattle today are the basis of a multi-billion dollar industry worldwide. The international trade in beef for 2000 was over $30 billion and represented only 23 percent of world beef production. (Clay 2004). The production of milk, which is also made into cheese, butter, yogurt, and other dairy products, is comparable in economic size to beef production and provides an important part of the food supply for many of the world's people. Cattle hides, used for leather to make shoes, couches and clothing, are another widespread product. Cattle remain broadly used as draft animals in many developing countries, such as India. See also Aurochs (extinct) Bovine genome Bull-baiting Cattle age determination Cattle judging Cattle raiding Cow-tipping Cowboy Dairy farming Factory farming List of breeds of cattle List of domesticated animals Dzo British Cattle Health Initiative 1966 anti-cow slaughter agitation Notes References Bhattacharya, S. 2003. Cattle ownership makes it a man's world. Newscientist.com. Retrieved December 26, 2006. Cattle Today (CT). 2006. Website. Breeds of cattle. Cattle Today. Retrieved December 26, 2006) Clay, J. 2004. World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices. Washington, D.C., USA: Island Press. ISBN 1559633700. Clutton-Brock, J. 1999. A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals. Cambridge UK : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521634954. - A visual textbook containing History/Origin, Phenotype & Statistics of 45 breeds. Huffman, B. 2006. The ultimate ungulate page. UltimateUngulate.com. Retrieved December 26, 2006. Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). 2005. .Bos taurus. Global Invasive Species Database. Nowak, R.M. and Paradiso, J.L. 1983. Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801825253 Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006. Breeds of Cattle. Retrieved January 5, 2007. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 2004. Holy cow. PBS Nature. Retrieved January 5, 2007. Rath, S. 1998. The Complete Cow. Stillwater, Minnesota, USA: Voyageur Press. ISBN 0896583759. Raudiansky, S. 1992. The Covenant of the Wild. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. ISBN 0688096107. Spectrum Commodities (SC). 2006. Live cattle. Spectrumcommodities.com. Retrieved January 5, 2007. Voelker, W. 1986. The Natural History of Living Mammals. Medford, New Jersey, USA: Plexus Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0937548081. Yogananda, P. 1946. The Autobiography of a Yogi. Los Angeles, California, USA: Self Realization Fellowship. 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6,084	Libra_(constellation)	Libra (, genitive Librae ) is a constellation of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for weighing scales, and its symbol is (Unicode ). It is fairly faint, with no first magnitude stars, and lies between Virgo to the west and Scorpius to the east. Notable features The brightest stars in Libra form a quadrangle: α Librae, Zubenelgenubi ("southern claw"), a visual binary; β Librae, Zubeneschamali ("northern claw"); γ Librae, Zubenelakrab ("scorpion's claw"); σ Librae, Brachium an eclipsing variable. σ Librae was formerly known as γ Scorpii despite being well inside the boundaries of Libra. It was not redesignated as σ Librae until 1851 (by Benjamin A. Gould). Planetary system Libra is home to the star Gliese 581, which has a planetary system consisting of at least 4 planets, including, Gliese 581 c, the first Earth-like extrasolar planet to be found within its parent star's habitable zone, and Gliese 581 e, the smallest mass exoplanet orbiting a normal star, both of which are of significance for establishing the likelihood of life outside of the Solar System. SPACE.com - Major Discovery: New Planet Could Harbor Water and Life History In earlier times, Libra was represented not by a balance, but as the claws of a scorpion. The reason is a confused translation of the words zubānā in Arabic and zibanitu in Akkadian, which mean both 'weighing scale' and 'scorpion'. In ancient Mesopotamia, a weighing scale was often the arm and the pans without a stand, and was hung up by a string tied to the midpoint of the arm, resulting in a close resemblance to a scorpion hung up by the end of its tail with its arms stretched out. The double meaning of zibanitu resulted in the constellation being called Chelae Scorpionis (the scorpion's claws), and it originally formed part of the claws of the Scorpius. The modern Libra is the youngest of the Zodiac signs and the only one not to represent a living creature. In Greek mythology, Libra is considered to depict the scales held by Astraea (identified as Virgo), the goddess of justice. Astrology , the Sun appears in the constellation Libra from October 31 to November 22. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Libra from September 23 to October 23, and in sidereal astrology, from October 16 to November 15. The symbol for Libra is the Scales, making it the only zodiac sign of which the symbol is not a living creature. Libra as depicted in Urania's Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825 Visualizations Traditionally, α and β Librae are considered to represent the scales' balance beam, and γ and σ are the weighing pans. H.A. Rey has suggested a way to connect the stars more fully to graphically show a balance. The star beta Librae, of third magnitude, represents the top of the balance. The stars gamma Librae and alpha Librae represent the balance beam: alpha Librae being of third magnitude as well. The stars upsilon Librae and tau Librae represent the left plate of the balance, whereas the star sigma Librae represents the right plate of the balance. All three of these stars are of the third magnitude. Citations References H. A. Rey, The Stars — A New Way To See Them. Enlarged World-Wide Edition. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1997. ISBN 0-395-24830-2. Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Libra Libra constellation Star Tales – Libra	Libra_(constellation) \|@lemmatized libra:29 genitive:1 constellation:6 zodiac:3 name:1 latin:1 weigh:3 scale:6 symbol:3 unicode:1 fairly:1 faint:1 first:2 magnitude:4 star:14 lie:1 virgo:2 west:1 scorpius:2 east:1 notable:1 feature:1 bright:1 form:2 quadrangle:1 α:2 zubenelgenubi:1 southern:1 claw:6 visual:1 binary:1 β:2 zubeneschamali:1 northern:1 γ:3 zubenelakrab:1 scorpion:5 σ:4 brachium:1 eclipse:1 variable:1 formerly:1 know:1 scorpii:1 despite:1 well:2 inside:1 boundary:1 redesignated:1 benjamin:1 gould:1 planetary:2 system:3 home:1 gliese:3 consist:1 least:1 planet:4 include:1 c:2 earth:1 like:1 extrasolar:1 find:1 within:1 parent:1 habitable:1 zone:1 e:1 small:1 mass:1 exoplanet:1 orbit:1 normal:1 significance:1 establish:1 likelihood:1 life:2 outside:1 solar:1 space:1 com:1 major:1 discovery:1 new:2 could:1 harbor:1 water:1 history:1 early:1 time:1 represent:7 balance:7 reason:1 confused:1 translation:1 word:1 zubānā:1 arabic:1 zibanitu:2 akkadian:1 mean:1 ancient:1 mesopotamia:1 often:1 arm:3 pan:2 without:1 stand:1 hang:1 string:1 tie:1 midpoint:1 result:2 close:1 resemblance:1 hung:1 end:1 tail:1 stretch:1 double:1 meaning:1 call:1 chela:1 scorpionis:1 originally:1 part:1 modern:1 young:1 sign:3 one:1 living:2 creature:2 greek:1 mythology:1 consider:3 depict:2 hold:1 astraea:1 identify:1 goddess:1 justice:1 astrology:3 sun:2 appear:1 october:3 november:2 tropical:1 september:1 sidereal:1 make:1 urania:1 mirror:1 set:1 card:1 publish:1 london:2 visualization:1 traditionally:1 beam:2 weighing:1 h:2 rey:2 suggest:1 way:2 connect:1 fully:1 graphically:1 show:1 beta:1 third:3 top:1 gamma:1 alpha:2 upsilon:1 tau:1 left:1 plate:2 whereas:1 sigma:1 right:1 three:1 citation:1 reference:1 see:1 enlarge:1 world:1 wide:1 edition:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 boston:1 isbn:3 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 guide:2 collins:1 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 deep:1 photographic:1 tale:1 \|@bigram constellation_zodiac:1 extrasolar_planet:1 habitable_zone:1 sidereal_astrology:1 depict_urania:1 urania_mirror:1 α_β:1 houghton_mifflin:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1
6,085	L._Ron_Hubbard	Lafayette Ronald Hubbard (March 13, 1911 – January 24, 1986) was an American writer of science fiction, who also devised a self-help system called Dianetics, which was first published in 1950. Hubbard developed the system over the next three decades into a set of doctrines and rituals he called Scientology. Hubbard's writings became the guiding texts for the Church of Scientology and a number of affiliated organizations that address such diverse topics as business administration, literacy and drug rehabilitation. Hubbard was a controversial public figure, and many details of his life are still disputed. Official Scientology biographies present him as a "larger than life" figure whose career is studded with admirable accomplishments in an astonishing array of fields. These accounts have been disputed by third-party researchers not connected with Scientology, who have often written sharply critical accounts of Hubbard's deeds. Early life L. Ron Hubbard was born in 1911 in Tilden, Nebraska to Ledora May Hubbard and Harry Ross Hubbard. Since Harry Hubbard was involved with the Navy, the family had to move as Harry was reassigned to new posts. While living on the Puget Sound in 1923, L. Ron Hubbard joined the Boy Scouts of America and became an Eagle Scout at age 13. In 1930, Hubbard was reported in the Washington Evening Star as having been the youngest Eagle Scout in the United States. According to the Boy Scouts of America, their documents at the time were only kept in alphabetical order with no reference to their ages and thus there was no way of telling who was the youngest. Between 1927 and 1929, Hubbard traveled twice to the Far East with his parents during his father's posting to the United States Navy base on Guam. While in Guam, Hubbard was befriended by Commander Joseph "Snake" Thompson (1874–1943), who had recently returned from Vienna and studies with Sigmund Freud, and was stationed as a member of the Naval Medical Corps. The American Academy of Psychoanalysis, The Psychoanalytic Roots of Scientology by Silas L. Warner, M.D. Lightly edited by Ann-Louise S. Silver, M.D. The American Academy of Psychoanalysis, Presented at the winter meeting, New York City December 12, 1993 Through the course of their friendship, the commander spent many afternoons teaching Hubbard about the human mind. James R. Lewis/Jesper A. Petersen Controversial New Religions, p. 238, Oxford University Pres US, 2004 ISBN 978-0195156836 Church biographies published from the 1950s to the 1970s stated that with "the financial support of his wealthy grandfather" Hubbard journeyed throughout Asia, "studying with holy men" in northern China, India, and Tibet. Alexandra David-Neel Magic and Mystery in Tibet, Dover Publications Inc., 1971 ISBN 0-486-22682-4; French 1st ed. 1929 Although Hubbard said on several occasions that he visited India, Jon Atack disputes the possibility that this ever took place. Hubbard said Michael Streeter Behind Closed Dooors, p. 205, New Holland Publishers, 2008 ISBN 978-1845379377 that he was made a lama priest by Old Mayo the Beijing magician in the Western Hills of China after a year as a neophyte. Hubbard's diaries were used as evidence in the Armstrong trial; they make no mention of Old Mayo or nomad bandits and no reflection on Eastern philosophy. Education After studies at Swavely Preparatory School in Manassas, Virginia and graduating from Woodward School for Boys in 1930, Hubbard enrolled at The George Washington University where he majored in civil engineering. There he became one of eight assistant editors of the University newspaper "The University Hatchet". "The University Hatchet" of George Washington University, Vol. 28 , No. 33, May 24, 1932, lists L. Ron Hubbard as "Assistant Editor" "The Hatchet" Paulette Cooper wrote that Hubbard received extremely low grades during his time there. The Scandal of Scientology by Paulette Cooper: Actually his grades were appallingly low.{16} Although he did do well in his engineering and English courses, the man who frequently calls himself a nuclear physicist got a D in one physics course, an E in another, and in the atomic and molecular physics courses that he most often emphasizes (to the degree of thanking his instructors for it), he received an F.{17} With those grades, along with similar ones in mathematics, it is not surprising that Hubbard was placed on probation after his first year in college and didn't return for his second -- and of course never received the degrees that he claims he has.{18} University records show that he attended for only two semesters after which he was placed on academic probation "for deficiency in scholarship" in September 1931, leaving the university without a degree and "entitled to a statement of honorable dismissal. George D. Chryssides/Margaret Wilkens A Reader In New Religious Movements, p. 16, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006 ISBN 978-0826461681 During the Second World War, Hubbard attended a four-month course in military government at the Naval Training School, located at Princeton. Hubbard claimed to be a nuclear physicist. Hubbard as a Nuclear Physicist BOARD OF INQUIRY INTO SCIENTOLOGY, The Anderson Report, 1963. One of the many claims made by Hubbard about himself, and oft repeated by his followers, is that he is a nuclear physicist, and his boast is that he was even one of the first nuclear physicists who, in 1932, were studying on lines which finally led to the atomic bomb. One of his classes was among the country's first schools offering curriculum in molecular and atomic physics, although he failed the course. Bent Corydon/Brian Ambri L. Ron Hubbard: Messiah or Madman, p. 228, Barricade Books, 1992 ISBN 978-0942637571 The Church denies that he ever made that claim, despite the fact that Hubbard asserted expertise in radiation exposure on the human body in the book "All About Radiation" (co-authored by Hubbard in 1957). Bent Corydon/Brian Ambri L. Ron Hubbard: Messiah or Madman, p. 234, Barricade Books, 1992 ISBN 978-0942637571 After leaving George Washington University, Hubbard worked as a writer and aviator. The Pilot, July 1934 issue, about Hubbard The Sportsman Pilot, articles of L. Ron Hubbard, Issue January 1932, Issue May 1933, Issue October 1933 In June 1932 Hubbard headed the "Caribbean Motion Picture Expedition", a two-and-a-half-month, voyage aboard a chartered , four-masted schooner called "Doris Hamlin" with over fifty fellow college students. Russell Miller Bare-faced Messiah, pp. 40, 54, M. Joseph, 1987 ISBN 978-0718127640 Its purpose was to collect floral and reptilian specimens for the University of Michigan and to film recreations of pirate activity and haunts. Russell Miller Bare-Faced Messiah, p. 56, M. Joseph, 1987 ISBN 978-0718127640 The voyage was a disappointment, with only three of the sixteen planned ports of call visited. Russell Miller Bare-faced Messiah, pp. 54, 56, M. Joseph, 1987 ISBN 978-0718127640 Hubbard later called it "a two-bit expedition and a financial bust". Hubbard was accepted as a member of The Explorers Club on February 19, 1940. Official Explorers Club Member list, "Deceased Members of The Explorers Club, 1904 to May 23, 2007" In December of that year Hubbard was licensed by the United States Department of Commerce to legally operate steam and motor vessels. Etc, p. 280, International Society for General Semantics, 1950, v. 8 In 1961 Hubbard carried the Explorers Club flag for his "Ocean Archaeological Expedition" and in 1966 was awarded custody of the Explorers Club flag for the "Hubbard Geological Survey Expedition". George Plimpton As Told At The Explorers Club, p. 75, Globe Pequot, 2005 ISBN 978-1592286584 On February 10, 1953 Hubbard was awarded an honorary Ph.D. by Sequoia University, California, "in recognition of his outstanding work and contributions in the fields of Dianetics and Scientology." This non-accredited body was closed by the California state courts 30 years later after it was investigated by California authorities on the grounds of being a mail-order "degree mill." "Some Questionable Creationist Credentials", talkorigins.org, May 31, 2002. Retrieved January 7, 2007. Sequoia University was issued a permanent injunction in 1984 by a Los Angeles judge and ordered to "cease operation until the school could comply with state education laws." The school offered degrees in osteopathic medicine, religious studies, hydrotherapy and physical sciences John B. Bear and Mariah P. Bear, Bears' Guide to Earning College Degrees Nontraditionally, p.331. Ten Speed Press, 2003. Military career In 1941, Hubbard entered the navy and served a public relations role. According to Thomas Streissguth author of Charismatic Cult Leaders, Hubbard suffering from depression and thoughts of suicide once checked into a hospital to receive psychiatric treatment. He was able to skip the initial officer rank of Ensign and was commissioned a Lieutenant, Junior Grade for service in the Office of Naval Intelligence. Jan Friedman Eccentric California, p. 117, Bradt Travel Guides, 2005 ISBN 978-1841621265 He was unsuccessful there, and after some difficulty with other assignments found himself in charge of a submarine chaser. 173' subchasers from Navsource In May 1943, while taking the USS PC-815 on her shakedown cruise to San Diego, Hubbard attacked what he believed to be two enemy submarines, ten miles (16 km) off the coast of Oregon. The battle took two days and involved at least four other US vessels plus two blimps, summoned for reinforcements and resupply. Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher, Commander Northwest Sea Frontier concluded after reviewing trip data and other captains' accounts that there were no submarines in the area at the time. Hubbard and Tom Moulton, one of the ship's officers, subsequently claimed that the authorities' denials of any Japanese submarine presence off the Pacific coast had been motivated by a desire to avoid panic among the U.S. population. Streeter, Michael (2008). Behind Closed Doors, New Holland Publishers, ISBN 9781845379377, p. 208 In June 1943, Hubbard was relieved of command after anchoring PC-815 off the Coronado Islands, which is Mexican territory. There, he conducted unauthorised gunnery practice. An official complaint from Mexican authorities, coupled with his failure to return to base as ordered, led to a Board of Investigation. It was determined that Hubbard had disregarded orders, and he was given the punishment of a formal warning and was transferred to other duties. Since this was the third leadership position Hubbard had lost during his tenure, he was not given command authority on his next assignment. It was later reported that Hubbard had been relieved of command twice, and was the subject of negative reports from his superiors on several occasions. However, he also won some praise, being described as a "capable and energetic" officer, "if temperamental", an "above-average navigator", and as possessing "excellent personal and military character". In 1947, Hubbard wrote the Veterans Administration requesting psychiatric help. Photocopy of Veteran Administration letter by L. Ron Hubbard Early writings and Dianetics Hubbard's post war writing career: Cover of October, 1950 edition of Fantastic Adventures featuring Hubbard's "The Masters of Sleep". Hubbard published stories, novellas in aviation, sports, and pulp magazines. Michael Ashley The Time Machines, pp. 110-1, Liverpool University Press, 2000 ISBN 978-0853238553 Between 1933 and 1938, Hubbard wrote 138 novels, both science fiction and adventure. He published his first hardcover novel in 1937, titled Buckskin Brigades. He helped write a 15-part movie screenplay titled, "The Secret of Treasure Island". Literature critics have cited Final Blackout, set in a war-ravaged future Europe, and Fear, a psychological horror story, as the best examples of Hubbard's pulp fiction. N G Christakos, "Three By Thirteen: The Karl Edward Wagner Lists" in Black Prometheus: A Critical Study of Karl Edward Wagner, ed. Benjamin Szumskyj, Gothic Press 2007 Among his published stories were Sea Fangs, The Carnival of Death, Man-Killers of the Air, and The Squad that Never Came Back, which he wrote under numerous pseudonyms. He became a well-known author in the science fiction and fantasy genres. He also published westerns and adventure stories. Anthony Testa The Key to the Abyss, p. 15, Lulu.com, 2006 ISBN 978-1430301608 His agent at one time was the well known science fiction guru Forrest Ackerman. Phyllis White Hollywood and the Best of Los Angeles Alive!, p. 160, Hunter Publishing Inc., 2002 ISBN 978-1588432865 According to friend and colleague A.E. van Vogt, Hubbard wrote: Hubbard returned to writing fiction briefly for a few years after the war. He eventually sought to publicize Dianetics, a self-help technique. In 1948, today's The Dynamics of Life was offered to the medical profession as Abnormal Dianetics but was not accepted except by Joseph A. Winter, M. D. who would write a foreword to Dianetics: the modern science of mental health in 1950. The original manuscript of Abnormal Dianetics, was written in 1947 as Scientology: a new science and was printed by mimeograph and other means available like carbon copy, and circulated from hand to hand becoming popular by word of mouth and arousing an interest in Dianetics in some parts of the general public. The original manuscript would eventually be published in 1951 as Dianetics: the original thesis. Unable to elicit interest from mainstream publishers or medical professionals, Eugene V. Gallgher The New Religious Movements Experience in America, p. 197, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004 ISBN 978-0313328077 Melton J. Gordon Encyclopedic Handbook of Cults in America, pp. 189-90, Taylor & Francis, 1992 ISBN 978-0815311409 Hubbard turned to the science fiction editor John W. Campbell, who had for years published Hubbard's science fiction. Hubbard wrote the Ole Doc Methuselah series for Campbell's Astounding Science Fiction, and in 1949 published the first article on Dianetics in the magazine. Campbell referred to Dianetics in the preface of the article as a "scientific method" of mental therapy. In works such as "Masters of Sleep," the story features "a mad psychiatrist, Doctor Dyhard, who persists in rejecting Dianetics after all his abler colleagues have accepted it believes in prefrontal lobotomies for everyone". de Camp, L. Sprague. " El-Ron Of The City Of Brass". "Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers" series, Fantastic, August 1975 most of Hubbard's output thereafter was related to Dianetics or Scientology. During Hubbard's transition from science fiction to Dianetics, his story The Professor was a Thief was adapted and aired on the Dimension X radio show, whose writers included Ray Bradbury, Robert A. Heinlein and Kurt Vonnegut. Hubbard did not make a major return to non-Dianetics fiction until the 1980s. Introducing Dianetics: Cover of May, 1950 edition of Astounding Science Fiction featuring "Dianetics: a new science of the mind". Members of the science fiction community held varying opinions about Hubbard's Dianetics work. Isaac Asimov, a professor of biochemistry, criticized Dianetics' unscientific aspects, and veteran author and literature PhD Jack Williamson described Dianetics as "a lunatic revision of Freudian psychology", likening it to a scam. Campbell and novelist A. E. van Vogt, on the other hand, enthusiastically embraced Dianetics. Campbell became Hubbard's treasurer, and van Vogt—convinced his wife's health had been transformed for the better by auditing—interrupted his writing career to run the first Los Angeles Dianetics center. Joseph A. Winter M.D., who supported Hubbard, submitted papers outlining the principles and methodology of Dianetic therapy to the journal of the American Medical Association and the American Journal of Psychiatry, but they were rejected. Although Campbell was initially supportive of Dianetics, he reversed his position in 1951. In April 1950, Hubbard and several others established the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth, New Jersey to coordinate work related for the forthcoming publication of a book on Dianetics. The book, entitled Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, was published in May 1950 by Hermitage House, whose head was also on the Board of Directors of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation. With Dianetics, Hubbard introduced the concept of "auditing," a two-person question-and-answer therapy that focused on painful memories, referred to as "engrams". Hubbard claimed that Dianetics could cure physical illnesses and increase intelligence. In his introduction to Dianetics, Hubbard called his discoveries "a milestone for Man comparable to his discovery of fire and superior to his inventions of the wheel and the arch". Dianetics sold 150,000 copies within a year of publication. Reviews were almost entirely hostile. In September 1950, The New York Times published a cautionary statement by the American Psychological Association which stated that the claims of Dianetics were not supported by empirical evidence, recommending against the use of the techniques described therein until they had scientific evidence to support their use. Consumer Reports, in an August 1951 assessment of Dianetics, called it "the basis for a new cult", noted its lack of modesty, and pointed out that it made generalizations without backing them up with evidence or facts. Branch offices of the Dianetics Foundation opened in five other US cities before the end of 1950. In August of that year, amid public pressure to show evidence of the book's claims, Hubbard arranged to present a Clear (the end product of Dianetics) in the Shrine Auditorium. He presented a physics student, Sonya Bianca, who failed to answer several questions testing her memory and analytical abilities. Many of the Dianetics practices folded within a year of establishment and Hubbard abandoned the Foundation, denouncing a number of his former associates to the FBI as communists. Sam Moskowitz, a 74-year-old science fiction editor in Newark, claimed that Hubbard made comments to 23 members of the Eastern Science Fiction Association in 1948 about starting a religion to make money. Lloyd Esbach recalls Hubbard making such a statement in 1948, made to a group of science fiction authors. According to The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, Hubbard made statements to the effect that developing a religion or psychiatric method was an effective way to make money. The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, ed. Brian Ash, Harmony Books, 1977 Harlan Ellison says that Hubbard told John W. Campbell that he was going to devise a religion that would make him wealthy. Harlan Ellison, Time Out, UK, No 332 After spending some time with Hubbard in 1951, Del Close claimed that Hubbard frequently complained about the American Medical Association and IRS, expressing interest in starting a religion. Scientology In March 1952, Hubbard moved to Phoenix, Arizona. He claimed that he had conducted years of intensive research into the nature of human existence. James R Lewis Controversial New Religions, pp. 236-44, Jesper Aagaard Petersen, Oxford University Press US, 2004 ISBN 978-0195156829 He codified a set of ideas that promised to improve the condition of the human spirit, which he called a "Thetan." To describe his findings, he developed an elaborate system of neologisms which he described as Scientology, "an applied religious philosophy". James R. Lewis The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements, p. 110, Oxford University Press US, 2004 ISBN 978-0195149869 Tope Omoniyi/Joshua A. Fishman Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, p. 292, John Benjamin Publishing Co., 2006 ISBN 978-9027227102 In December 1953, Hubbard founded the Church of Scientology in Camden, New Jersey. He moved to Washington, D.C. in 1955 and organized the Founding Church of Scientology. His Washington, D.C. residence, the L. Ron Hubbard House, now operates as a historic house museum. In 1952, Hubbard visited England for the first time and started a Dianetic training center in London; the news spread far and wide abroad. In 1959, Hubbard moved to England where he supervised the growing organization from Saint Hill Manor near the Sussex town of East Grinstead, a Georgian manor house once owned by the Maharajah of Jaipur which Hubbard purchased in 1959. This became the world headquarters of Scientology. Hubbard's followers believed his techniques gave them access to their past lives, the traumas of which led to failures in the present unless they were dealt with in a process referred to as "auditing". By this time, in the 1950s, just after the publication of Dianetics: the modern science of mental health, Karen Christensen/David Levinson Encyclopedia of Community, p. 1209, SAGE, 2003 ISBN 978-0761925989 Hubbard had introduced a biofeedback device to the auditing process, which he called a "Hubbard Electropsychometer" or "E-meter", originally invented in the 1940s by a chiropractor and later Dianetics enthusiast named Volney Mathison and refined to Hubbard's specifications in 1959. This machine is used by Scientologists in auditing to evaluate what Hubbard referred to as "mental masses" which were said to impede thetans from realizing their full potential. Hubbard professed that many physical diseases were psychosomatic, and that a person who had attained the enlightened state of "clear" would be relatively disease free. Hubbard insisted humanity was imperiled by such forces, which were the result of negative memories (or "engrams") stored in the unconscious or "reactive" mind, some carried by the immortal thetans for billions of years. Church members were expected to pay fixed donation rates for courses, auditing, books and E-meters, all of which proved very lucrative for the Church, which paid emoluments directly to Hubbard and his family. In a case fought by the Founding Church of Scientology of Washington, D.C. over its tax-exempt status (revoked in 1958 because of these emoluments) it was found that Hubbard had personally received over $108,000 from the Church and affiliates over a four-year period, over and above the percentage of gross income (usually 10%) he received from Church-affiliated organizations. Enquiry into the Practice and Effects of Scientology, Report by Sir John Foster, K.B.E., Q.C., M.P., Published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London December 1971. Cited at http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/Cowen/audit/fosthome.html . Hubbard denied such emoluments many times in writing, stating instead that he never received any money from the Church. The Church of Scientology founded its own companies to publish Hubbard's works: Bridge Publications for the US and Canadian market, and New Era Publications based in Denmark for the rest of the world. Max Fink Electroshock, p. 98, Oxford University Press US, 2002 ISBN 978-0195158045 New volumes of his transcribed lectures continue to be produced. William W. Zellner/Richard T Schaefer Extraordinary Groups, pp. 287-8, Macmillan, 2007 ISBN 978-0716770343 There are estimated to be 110 related volumes. Benjamin J. Hubbard An Educator's Classroom Guide to America's Religious Beliefs and Practices, p. 93, Libraries Unlimited, 2007 ISBN 978-1591584094 Hubbard also wrote a number of works of fiction during the 1930s and 1980s, which are published by the Scientology-owned Galaxy Press. James R. Lewis/Olav Hammer The Invention of Sacred Tradition, p. 35, Cambridge University Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0521864794 All three of these publishing companies are subordinate to Author Services Inc., another Scientology corporation. Some documents written by Hubbard himself suggest he regarded Scientology as a business, not a religion. In one letter dated April 10, 1953, he says that calling Scientology a religion solves "a problem of practical business [...] A religion charter could be necessary in Pennsylvania or NJ to make it stick." In a 1962 policy letter, he said that Scientology "is being planned on a religious organization basis throughout the world. This will not upset in any way the usual activities of any organization. It is entirely a matter for accountants and solicitors." Legal difficulties and life on the high seas Scientology became a focus of controversy across the English-speaking world during the mid-1960s, with the United Kingdom, New Zealand, South Africa, the Australian state of Victoria [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/Cowen/audit/andrhome.html Report of the Board of Enquiry into Scientology by Kevin Victor Anderson, Q.C. Published 1965 by the State of Victoria, Australia] Nick O'Neill/Simon Rice/Roger Douglas Retreat from Injustice, p. 349, Federation Press, 2004 ISBN 978-1862874145 Ian Parker/Simona Rivelli Psychoanalytic Practice and State Regulation, pp. 19-21, Karnac Books, 2008 ISBN 978-1855755338 and the Canadian province of Ontario all holding public inquiries into Scientology's activities. James T. Richardson Regulating Religion, p. 433, Springer, 2004 ISBN 978-0306478871 In 1966, Hubbard moved to Rhodesia, claiming to be the reincarnation of Cecil Rhodes. Following Ian Smith's Unilateral Declaration of Independence, Hubbard offered to invest large sums in Rhodesia's economy which was then hit by UN sanctions, but was asked to leave the country. In 1967, L. Ron Hubbard resigned as executive director of the Church and appointed himself "Commodore" of a small fleet of Scientologist-crewed ships that spent the next eight years cruising the Mediterranean Sea. During this time, Hubbard formed the religious order known as the "Sea Organization" or "Sea Org," with titles and uniforms. Derek Davis/Barry Hankins New Religious Movements and Religious Liberty in America, pp. 43-62, Baylor University Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0918954923 The Sea Org subsequently became the management group within Hubbard's Scientology empire. Derek Davis/Barry Hankins New Religious Movements and Religious Liberty in America, p. 44, Baylor University Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0918954923 He was attended by "Commodore's Messengers"; teenage girls who performed various tasks for him, such as fixing his shower, dressing him, and catching the ash from his cigarettes. He had frequent screaming tantrums and instituted harsh punishments such as being confined to the ship's dirty chain-locker for days or weeks at a time, or being bound, blindfolded, and thrown overboard. Wakefield, Margery. Understanding Scientology, Chapter 9. Reproduced at David S. Touretzky's Carnegie Mellon site. Some of these punishments were applied to children as well as to adults. A letter Hubbard wrote to his third wife, Mary Sue, when he was in Las Palmas around 1967: "I’m drinking lots of rum and popping pinks and greys..." In L. Ron Hubbard: Messiah or Madman? Corydon, expanded 1992 paperback edition, page 59 The author of an unauthorized Hubbard biography also says that "John McMasters told me that on the flagship Apollo in the late sixties he witnessed Hubbard's drug supply. 'It was the largest drug chest I had ever seen. He had everything!'". This was confirmed by Gerry Armstrong through Virginia Downsborough who said in 1967 Hubbard returned to Las Palmas totally debilitated from drugs. His drug use appears to pre-date the 1967 accounts. Hubbard claimed in a letter to his first wife that he had once been an opium addict. The last sentence of the letter reads: "...I do love you, even if I used to be an opium addict." Bent Corydon/Brian Ambry L. Ron Hubbard: Messiah or Madman?, p. 59, Barricade Books, 1992 ISBN 978-0942637571 In March 1969, the Greek Government branded L. Ron Hubbard and his group of 200 disciples "undesirables". The group had been living aboard the 3,300 ton Panamanian ship Apollo and had been docked in the harbor of Corfu island since August. On March 18, local authorities issued a 24-hour ultimatum to the Scientologists, but Hubbard was granted an extension due to engine problems. The expulsion order was the result of mounting pressure from American, British, and Australian diplomats to examine the activities of the Apollo occupants. Most of the occupants were American, some were British, Australian, and South African. In 1977, Scientology offices on both coasts of the United States were raided by FBI agents seeking evidence of Operation Snow White, a programme to obtain information from government offices by covert and illegal means. Hubbard's wife Mary Sue and a dozen other senior Scientology officials were convicted in 1979 of conspiracy against the United States federal government, while Hubbard himself was named by federal prosecutors as an "unindicted co-conspirator." At this time the IRS also had evidence that he had skimmed millions of dollars from church accounts and secreted the funds to destinations overseas. . In 1978, as part of a case against three French Scientologists, Hubbard was convicted of making fraudulent promises and given a four year prison sentence and a 35,000₣ fine by a French court. Hubbard was not in the country at the time of the trial, and didn't retain legal assistance but was tried anyway and convicted in absentia. The case was subsequently appealed by one of the other convicts in 1980, during which the court indicated that all those who had been convicted could be pardoned if they filed their own appeals against the original ruling. International Herald Tribune, March 3 1980 A second defendant did in 1981, and the fraud charges were canceled by judgment on November 9, 1981 on two more except Hubbard. Decisions and Rulings from the Conseil D'Etat, France Hubbard himself never took any action, and the fine was never enforced. Reuters wire service, printed in Sunday Star (Toronto), March 2, 1980, also in International Herald Tribune, March 3, 1980:"The Paris Court of Appeal has recognized the U.S.-based Church of Scientology as a religion and cleared a former leader of the movement's French branch of fraud. ... The court's president indicated that the three others, who were sentenced in their absence, might be acquitted if they appealed." Hubbard's refusal to speak with British immigration officials about this conviction is said to have later caused the British Home Office to re-affirm an earlier decision to bar him from the UK. In 1989 however the then Home Office Minister of State, Tim Renton, confirmed in writing that from 1980 until the date of his death, Hubbard had been free to apply for entry to the United Kingdom under the ordinary immigration rules and that any ban had been lifted on July 16, 1980. Home Office, Letter of Tim Renton, Feb 24, 1989: "I can indeed confirm that the ban on Scientologists entering this country ... was removed on July 16, 1980." The accuracy of Hubbard's self-representations were challenged in court during a 1984 custody case of a Scientologist and his former wife about two of their children. The judgment of the High court of London (Family Division) quotes the opinion of Justice Latey, that Scientology is "dangerous, immoral, sinister and corrupt" and "has its real objective money and power for Mr. Hubbard." According to the 1965 Report of the Board of Enquiry into Scientology in the Australian state of Victoria, Hubbard falsely claimed scientific and other credentials and his sanity was "to be gravely doubted". The report concluded that while Hubbard's followers are taught that they are entitled to question the beliefs, they are conditioned to believe that the teachings are correct. . Online at Operation Clambake It also notes that Hubbard's claims of finding a cure for atomic radiation is unsupported by evidence. . Online at Operation Clambake The Scientologists' response was a pamphlet entitled Kangaroo Court, describing Victoria as "the riff-raff of London's slums [...] a very primitive community, somewhat barbaric". "Fair Game" was introduced by Hubbard as a policy against people or groups that "actively seeks to suppress or damage Scientology or a Scientologist by Suppressive Acts." He defined it as: ENEMY — SP Order. Fair game. May be deprived of property or injured by any means by any Scientologist without any discipline of the Scientologist. May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed. Ruth A. Tucker Another Gospel, p. 317, Zondervan, 2004 ISBN 978-0310259374 In July 1968, Hubbard revised this definition to a somewhat milder wording: ENEMY — Suppressive Person order. May not be communicated with by anyone except an Ethics Officer, Master at Arms, a Hearing Officer or a Board or Committee. May be restrained or imprisoned. May not be protected by any rules or laws of the group he sought to injure as he sought to destroy or bar fair practices for others. May not be trained or processed or admitted to any org. HCO POLICY LETTER OF 21 JULY 1968, quoted in the Foster Report, cancels the earlier HCO POLICY LETTER OF 18 OCTOBER 1967, Issue IV The use of the expression "Fair Game" was canceled altogether in October 1968, with Hubbard stating that Hubbard later explained that: While the number of incidents involving so-called dirty tricks or unethical actions dropped in the years that followed, J. Gordon Melton, The Church of Scientology, Studies in Contemporary Religion, Signature Books, Salt Lake City 2000, p. 36 several judges and juries have through their decisions or comments asserted that the tactics continued beyond Hubbard's order canceling use of the term Fair Game in 1968. Personal life Hubbard claimed that when he was four years old, he became the protegé of "Old Tom (medicine man)," a Blackfeet Indian shaman. In 1985, Scientologists claimed that members of Blackfeet Nation, Montana, commemorated "the seventieth anniversary of [L. Ron Hubbard] becoming a blood brother of the Blackfeet Nation. Tree Manyfeathers in a ceremony re-established L. Ron Hubbard as a blood brother to the Blackfeet Tribe." Blackfeet historian Hugh Dempsey has commented that the act of blood brotherhood was "never done among the Blackfeet", and Blackfeet Nation officials have disavowed attempts to "re-establish" Hubbard as a "blood brother" of the Blackfeet. Former vice president of the tribe's executive committee, John Yellow Kidney dismissed the credibility of a letter claiming to re-establish Hubbard as a blood brother. Publicly, Hubbard was sociable and charming. Privately, he wrote entries in his notebook like "All men are your slaves," and "You can be merciless whenever your will is crossed and you have the right to be merciless." After a 1940 sailing trip that ended with engine trouble on his yacht, he began a three-month stay in Ketchikan, Alaska. Hubbard worked as the host of a popular maritime radio show where he was known as a "charismatic storyteller". He once incurred a debt from First National Bank in the amount of $350 which was not repaid. Hubbard was also interested in and talented at hypnosis although biographer Russell Miller mentions several incidents—including a cruel post-hypnotic 'prank' recalled by writer A.E. van Vogt—which suggest that Hubbard sometimes used his hypnotic talents capriciously on his unsuspecting subjects. Russell Miller, Barefaced Messiah (Michael Joseph, 1987) pp.139-141 During this same period, just after World War II, Hubbard was financially destitute, and suffered from feelings of depression as well as suicidal thoughts, according to a letter he wrote in 1947 requesting assistance from Veterans Affairs. The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power Page 2, Time Magazine. The founder of this enterprise was part storyteller, part flimflam man. Born in Nebraska in 1911, Hubbard served in the Navy during World War II and soon afterward complained to the Veterans Administration about his "suicidal inclinations" and his "seriously affected" mind. Hubbard's first wife was Margaret "Polly" Grubb whom he married in 1933, and fathered two children: L. Ron, Jr. (also known as Ronald DeWolf) and Katherine May (born in 1936). Lewis Spence Encyclopedia of Occultism, p. 442, Kessinger Publishing, 2003 ISBN 978-0766128156 They lived in Los Angeles, California and, during the late 1930s and 40s, in Bremerton, Washington. Bent Corydon L. Ron Hubbard: Messiah or Madman?, p. 281, Barricade Books Inc., 1992 ISBN 0-942637-57-7 In a 1983 interview for Penthouse magazine that he later retracted, William W. Zellner/Richard T. Schaefer Extraordinary Groups, p. 281, Macmillan, 2007 ISBN 978-0716770343 DeWolf said, "according to him and my mother", he was the result of a failed abortion and recalls at six years old seeing his father performing an abortion on his mother with a coat hanger. In the same interview, he said "Scientology is a power-and-money-and-intelligence-gathering game" and described his father as "only interested in money, sex, booze, and drugs." Later, in a sworn affidavit, DeWolf stated that he had "weaved" stories about his father's harassment of others, that the charge he had made about drugs was false, and that the Penthouse story was an example of statements that he deeply regretted and that had caused his father and himself much pain. Before, in 1972, L. Ron Jr. had signed affidavits declaring the denigrating statements he had made about his father false. Bent Corydon L. Ron Hubbard: Messiah or Madman?, pp. 12-13, Barricade Books Inc., 1992 ISBN 0-942637-57-7 After the war, in August 1945, Hubbard met Jack Parsons, a researcher at Caltech and an associate of the British Intelligence occultist Richard B. Spence Secret Agent 666: Aleister Crowley, British Intelligence and the Occult, Feral House, 2008 ISBN 1932595333 Aleister Crowley. Aleister Crowley The Confessions of Aleister Crowley: an autohagiography, Penguin, 1989 ISBN 0140191895 By Crowley's account, Hubbard and Parsons were engaged in the practice of ritual magick in 1946, including an extended set of sex magic rituals called the Babalon Working, intended to summon a goddess or "moonchild." Aleister Crowley Moonchild, Weiser Books, 1975 ISBN 0877281475 The Church says Hubbard was working as an ONI agent on a mission to end Parsons' supposed magical activities and to "rescue" a girl Parsons was "using" for supposedly magical purposes. Lawrence Sutin Do what thou wilt, p. 412, Macmillan, 2000 ISBN 978-0312252434 Hubbard later married the girl he said that he rescued from Parsons, Sara Northrup. Scientology: A new light on Crowley, Sunday Times, December 28, 1969 Crowley recorded in his notes that Hubbard made off with Parsons' money and girlfriend in an "confidence trick." Sara Northrup became Hubbard's second wife in August 1946 while he was still married to Polly, something Sara did not know at the time Gary Lachman Turn off your mind, p. 233, Disinformation Co., 2003 ISBN 978-0971394230 Hubbard left his first wife and children as soon as he left the Navy, and he divorced his first wife more than a year after he had remarried. Both women allege Hubbard physically abused them. Sara Northrup Hubbard complaint for divorce Derek Swannson Crash Gordon and the Mysteries of Kingsburg, p. 468, Three Graces Press LLC, 2007 ISBN 978-0615154169 Later, he disowned Alexis, claiming he was not her father and that she was actually Jack Parsons' child. Sara filed for divorce in late 1950, claiming that Hubbard was still legally bound to his first wife at the time of their marriage. Sara Northrup Hubbard complaint for divorce She accused him in her divorce papers of kidnapping their baby daughter Alexis, as well as torturing her. Lattin, Don. "Scientology Founder's Family Life Far From What He Preached", San Francisco Chronicle, February 12, 2001 In 1952, Hubbard married his third wife, Mary Sue Whipp, to whom he remained married until his death. Over the next six years, Hubbard fathered four more children: Diana, Quentin, Suzette, and Arthur. Four of L. Ron Hubbard's Children Quentin, born in 1954, was expected to one day replace his father as head of the Scientology organization. However Quentin was uninterested in his father's plans and had preferred to become a pilot. He felt guilty about his homosexuality, and committed suicide in 1976. Hubbard was prone to self-aggrandizement and exaggeration, and in 1938 he wrote a letter to then-wife Margaret "Polly" Grubb reading, "I have high hopes of smashing my name into history so violently that it will take a legendary form, even if all the books are destroyed. That goal is the real goal as far as I am concerned." In 1984, during the Church of Scientology's lawsuit against Gerry Armstrong, Judge Paul G. Breckenridge Jr. described Hubbard as "charismatic and highly capable of motivating, organizing, controlling, manipulating and inspiring his adherents." However, the judge ruled against the Church, and in so doing said that "The evidence portrays a man who has been virtually a pathological liar when it comes to his history, background and achievements." Hubbard was regarded as abusive by some family members and former associates. He married his second wife, Sara Northrup, on August 10, 1946, without revealing his existing marriage and children. This was one reason for her later divorce from Hubbard. During those legal proceedings, Northrup alleged abuse by Hubbard, and produced a letter she received from Margaret "Polly" Grubb during the proceedings recounting her treatment by him. It reads, in part, In 1957, Martin Gardner wrote that friends differed in their assessments of Hubbard. Some described him as honest and sincere, some called him a great con man, and to others he was basically sincere but a victim of his own psychoses. Several trusted colleagues say Hubbard was prone to emotional fits when he became upset, using insults and obscenities. Former Scientologist Adelle Hartwell once described such an outburst: "I actually saw him take his hat off one day and stomp on it and cry like a baby." The financial windfall that came with the success of Scientology allowed Hubbard to hide this and other aspects of his personality that contrasted with the image of himself currently celebrated by Scientologists, who regard Hubbard as "mankind's greatest friend". The few who worked at his side saw personality flaws and quirks not reflected in the staged photographs or in Hubbard's church-produced biographies. Later life In 1976, Hubbard moved to a California ranch, and returned to writing science fiction for the proceeding years. He wrote an unpublished screenplay called Revolt in the Stars in 1977 which dramatizes Scientology's OT III teachings. In 1982, he wrote Battlefield Earth, and later wrote the ten-volume Mission Earth. During this time, Hubbard's science fiction sold well and received mixed reviews, but some press reports suggest that sales of Hubbard's books were inflated by Scientologists purchasing large quantities of books to manipulate the bestseller charts. McIntyre, Mike (April 15, 1990). Hubbard Hot-Author Status Called Illusion. San Diego Union, p. 1. While claiming to be entirely divorced from the Scientology management, Hubbard continued to draw income from the Scientology enterprises; Forbes magazine estimated "at least $200 million gathered in Hubbard's name through 1982". On January 24, 1986, Hubbard died from a stroke at his ranch aged 74. He left a $600 million estate. Scientology attorneys arrived to claim his body, which they sought to have cremated immediately in accordance with his will. They were blocked by the San Luis Obispo County medical examiner, who ordered a drug toxicology test of a blood sample from Hubbard's corpse. The examination revealed a trace amount of the drug hydroxyzine (brand name Vistaril). The Big Issue Capetown, vol. 9 #90-101 p. 19, Big Issue Cape Town, 2005 After the blood was taken, Hubbard's remains were cremated. The Church of Scientology announced Hubbard had deliberately discarded his body to conduct his research in spirit form, and was now living "on a planet a galaxy away." In May 1987, David Miscavige, one of Hubbard's former personal assistants, assumed the position of Chairman of the Religious Technology Center (RTC), a corporation which owns the trademarked names and symbols of "Dianetics", "Scientology", and "L. Ron Hubbard". Fictionalized depictions in media Hubbard turns up in a fellow pulp author's fiction as early as Anthony Boucher's 1942 murder mystery Rocket to the Morgue, which features cameos by members and friends of the "Mañana Literary Society of Southern California", in which Hubbard makes a dual appearance as D. Vance Wimpole and Rene Lafayette (a pen name of Hubbard). Del Close, who apparently knew Hubbard personally through his involvement in science fiction fandom, fictionalized an encounter between them in an autobiographical story in the comic book Wasteland. The story showed Hubbard hypnotizing Close in order to probe the latter's subconscious memories in a similar manner to that of the subjects whose past life recollections appear in Hubbard's Have You Lived Before This Life. Bibliography Hubbard was awarded the 1994 Ig Nobel Prize in Literature (a mock award parodying the Nobel prize) for Dianetics. In 2006, Guinness World Records declared Hubbard the world's most published and most translated author, having published 1,084 fiction and non-fiction works that have been translated into 71 languages. http://www.voxmagazine.com/stories/2006/12/07/guinness-gracious/ Guinness Gracious; Vox - Columbia Missourian; Sean Ludwig; December 7, 2006; accessed February 11, 2007 Novels Under the Black Ensign (1935) Buckskin Brigades (1937), ISBN 0-88404-280-4 Slaves of Sleep (1939) Ultimate Adventure, the (1939) Final Blackout (1940), ISBN 0-88404-340-1 Indigestible Triton, the (1940) The Automagic Horse (1940) published (1994) Death's Deputy (1948) Return to Tomorrow (1950) The Masters of Sleep (1948) The Kingslayer (1949) Fear (1951), ISBN 0-88404-599-4 Typewriter in the Sky (1951), ISBN 0-88404-933-7 Return to Tomorrow (1954) The Ultimate Adventure (1970) Ole Doc Methuselah (1953), ISBN 0-88404-653-2 Seven Steps to the Arbiter (1975) Battlefield Earth (1982), ISBN 0-312-06978-2 Mission Earth 1. The Invaders Plan (1985) Mission Earth 2. Black Genesis (1986) Mission Earth 3. The Enemy Within (1986) Mission Earth 4. An Alien Affair (1986) Mission Earth 5. Fortune of Fear (1986) Mission Earth 6. Death Quest (1986) Mission Earth 7. Voyage of Vengeance (1987) Mission Earth 8. Disaster (1987) Mission Earth 9. Villainy Victorious (1987) Mission Earth 10. The Doomed Planet (1987) Ai! Pedrito! When Intelligence Goes Wrong (1998) Very Strange Trip, a (1999) Short fiction The Dangerous Dimension Astounding Science Fiction, July 1938, The Tramp (Part 1), Astounding Science Fiction, September 1938, The Tramp (Part 2), Astounding Science Fiction, October 1938, The Tramp (Part 3), Astounding Science Fiction, November 1938 General Swamp, C.I.C. (Part 1), Astounding Science Fiction, Aug 1939 (as Frederick Engelhardt) General Swamp, C.I.C. (Part 2), Astounding Science Fiction, Sep 1939 (as Frederick Engelhardt) This Ship Kills! Astounding Science Fiction, November 1939 (as Frederick Engelhardt) Danger in the Dark Unknown, May 1939 The Ghoul Unknown, August 1939 Vanderdecken Unknown, December 1939 (as Frederick Engelhardt) The Professor Was a Thief, Astounding Science Fiction, February 1940 Final Blackout (Part 1), Astounding Science Fiction, April 1940, Final Blackout (Part 2), Astounding Science Fiction, May 1940, Final Blackout (Part 3), Astounding Science Fiction, June 1940, The Kraken Unknown Fantasy Fiction, June 1940 (as Frederick Engelhardt) Fear Unknown Fantasy Fiction, July 1940 The Idealist Astounding Science Fiction, July 1940 (as Kurt von Rachen) The Kilkenny Cats Astounding Science Fiction, September 1940 (as Kurt von Rachen) The Devil's Rescue Unknown Fantasy Fiction, October 1940, One Was Stubborn Unknown Fantasy Fiction, October 1940, (as Rene La Fayette) Typewriter in the Sky (Part 1), Unknown Fantasy Fiction, November 1940 Typewriter in the Sky (Part 2), Unknown Fantasy Fiction, December 1940 The Traitor Astounding Science Fiction, January 1941 (as Kurt von Rachen) History Class, 2133 A.D. Thrilling Wonder Stories, January 1941 (as Frederick Engelhardt) The Crossroads Unknown Fantasy Fiction, February 1941, (1941) The Mutineers Astounding Science Fiction, April 1941, (as Kurt von Rachen) The Case of the Friendly Corpse Unknown Fantasy Fiction, August 1941, Borrowed Glory, Unknown Worlds, October 1941, (1941) The Last Drop, Astonishing Stories, November 1941, (with L. Sprague de Camp) The Invaders,Astounding Science Fiction, January 1942, The Rebels Astounding Science Fiction, February 1942, (as Kurt von Rachen) He Didn't Like Cats Unknown Worlds, February 1942 The Room, Unknown Worlds, April 1942, Strain, Astounding Science Fiction, April 1942, The Slaver, Astounding Science Fiction, June 1942, Space Can, Astounding Science Fiction, July 1942 The Beast, Astounding Science Fiction, October 1942 The Great Secret, Science Fiction Stories, April 1943, The End Is Not Yet (Part 1), Astounding Science Fiction, August 1947 The End Is Not Yet (Part 2), Astounding Science Fiction, September1947 The End Is Not Yet (Part 3), Astounding Science Fiction, October 1947 Ole Doc Methuselah, Astounding Science Fiction, October 1947 (as René Lafayette) The Expensive Slaves Astounding Science Fiction, November 1947 (as René Lafayette) Her Majesty's Aberration, Astounding Science Fiction, March 1948 (as René Lafayette) The Obsolete Weapon, Astounding Science Fiction, May 1948 The Great Air Monopoly Astounding Science Fiction, September 1948, (as René Lafayette) When Shadows Fall, Startling Stories, July 1948, 240,000 Miles Straight Up, Thrilling Wonder Stories, December 1948 Forbidden Voyage, Startling Stories, January 1949, (as René Lafayette) The Magnificent Failure, Startling Stories, March 1949, (as René Lafayette) Plague! , Astounding Science Fiction, April 1949, (as René Lafayette) The Conroy Diary, Astounding Science Fiction, May 1949, (as René Lafayette) The Incredible Destination, Startling Stories, May 1949, (as René Lafayette) A Sound Investment, Astounding Science Fiction, June 1949, (as René Lafayette) The Unwilling Hero, Startling Stories, July 1949, (as René Lafayette) A Matter of Matter, Astounding Science Fiction, August 1949, Beyond the Black Nebula, Startling Stories, September 1949, (as Rene LaFayete) The Automagic Horse, Astounding Science Fiction, October 1949 The Planet Makers, Thrilling Wonder Stories, October 1949, The Emperor of the Universe, Startling Stories, November 1949, (as René Lafayette) A Can of Vacuum, Astounding Science Fiction, December 1949 The Last Admiral, Startling Stories, January 1950, (as René Lafayette) Beyond All Weapons, Super Science Stories, January 1950 Ole Mother Methuselah, Astounding Science Fiction, January 1950, (as René Lafayette) Greed, Astounding Science Fiction, April 1950, Battling Bolto, Thrilling Wonder Stories, August 1950, The Final Enemy Super Science Stories, September 1950, Tough Old Man Startling Stories, November 1950, Scientology and Dianetics Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, New York 1950, ISBN 0-88404-416-5 Child Dianetics. Dianetic Processing for Children, Wichita, Kansas 1951, ISBN 0-88404-421-1 Notes on the Lectures Parts of transcripts and notes from a series of lectures given in Los Angeles, California in November 1950, ISBN 088404-422-X Scientology 8-8008, Phoenix, Arizona 1952, ISBN 0-88404-428-9 Dianetics 55!, Phoenix, Arizona 1954, ISBN 0-88404-417-3 Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science Phoenix, Arizona 1955, ISBN 1-4031-0538-3 "The Creation of Human Ability" 1955 Scientology: The Fundamentals of Thought Washington, DC 1956, ISBN 0-88404-503-X The Problems of Work Washington, DC 1956, ISBN 0-88404-377-0 Have You Lived Before This Life East Grinstead, Sussex 1960, ISBN 0-88404-447-5 Scientology: A New Slant on Life, East Grinstead, Sussex 1965, ISBN 1-57318-037-8 The Volunteer Minister's Handbook Los Angeles 1976, ISBN 0-88404-039-9 Research and Discovery Series, a chronological series collecting Hubbard's lectures. Vol 1, Copenhagen 1980, ISBN 0-88404-073-9 The Way to Happiness, Los Angeles 1981, ISBN 0-88404-411-4 Notes References External links Sites run by Church of Scientology International Index of L. Ron Hubbard Site A profile of L. Ron Hubbard ScientologyToday: Who is L. Ron Hubbard? 6 commonly asked questions by the media Publishers' sites Author Services Inc. Various fictional genres by L. Ron Hubbard Writers of the Future A contest founded by L. Ron Hubbard to encourage upcoming fiction and fantasy writers Unofficial biographies (online) L. Ron Hubbard: Messiah or Madman? by Bent Corydon A Piece of Blue Sky by Jon Atack Contains biographical material in addition to other topics. Bare Faced Messiah by Russell Miller Further mention of Hubbard Operation Clambake site. (critical material on Hubbard and Scientology) U.S. Government FBI Files for Hubbard via The Smoking Gun "L. Ron Hubbard, Scientology's esteemed founder," by Michael Crowley (Slate magazine, July 15, 2005) Frenschkowski, Marco, L. Ron Hubbard and Scientology: An annotated bibliographical survey of primary and selected secondary literature, Marburg Journal of Religion, Vol. 1. No. 1. July 1999, ISSN 1612-2941 Guinness World Records: L. Ron Hubbard Is the Most Translated Author L. 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6,086	Foreign_relations_of_Nicaragua	Nicaragua pursues an independent foreign policy. A participant of the Central American Security Commission (CASC), Nicaragua also has taken a leading role in pressing for regional demilitarization and peaceful settlement of disputes within states in the region. Nicaragua has submitted three territorial disputes, one with Honduras another with Colombia, and the third with Costa Rica to the International Court of Justice for resolution. At the 1994 Summit of the Americas, Nicaragua joined six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA or CONCAUSA, to promote sustainable economic development in the region. Nicaragua belongs to the United Nations and several specialized and related agencies, including: World Bank International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Trade Organization (WTO) UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Health Organization (WHO) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) International Labour Organization (ILO) UN Human Rights Commission (UNHRC) Organization of American States (OAS) Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) International Atomic Energy Commission (IAEA) Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) Central American Common Market (CACM) Central America Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI). Nicaragua maintains relations with the Republic of China instead of the People's Republic of China and recognises Abkhasia and South Ossetia as independent states. International Disputes Territorial disputes with Colombia over the Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia and Quita Sueno Bank; with respect to the maritime boundary question in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua likely would be required; maritime boundary dispute with Honduras in the Caribbean Sea; Nicaragua is sovereign over the Rio San Juan, and by treaty Costa Rica has the right to navigate over part of the river with 'objects of commerce'. A dispute emerged when Costa Rica tried to navigate with armed members of its security forces. Illicit drugs Alleged trans-shipment point for cocaine destined for the US and trans-shipment point for arms-for-drugs dealing. See also List of diplomatic missions in Nicaragua Nicaraguan diplomatic missions Nicaragua v United States External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua ICJ Nicaragua v. Colombia (Preliminary Objections) and (Merits) and 2007 Preliminary Objections Judgment and ASIL and BBC and Colombia President and Colombia MFA and Analysis 20 Hague YIL 75-119 2008	Foreign_relations_of_Nicaragua \|@lemmatized nicaragua:13 pursue:1 independent:2 foreign:2 policy:1 participant:1 central:4 american:5 security:2 commission:4 casc:1 also:2 take:1 leading:1 role:1 press:1 regional:1 demilitarization:1 peaceful:1 settlement:1 dispute:6 within:1 state:4 region:2 submit:1 three:1 territorial:2 one:1 honduras:4 another:1 colombia:5 third:1 costa:3 rica:3 international:5 court:1 justice:1 resolution:2 summit:1 america:2 join:1 six:1 neighbor:1 sign:1 alliance:1 sustainable:2 development:3 know:1 conjunta:1 centroamerica:1 usa:1 concausa:1 promote:1 economic:2 belongs:1 united:2 nation:1 several:1 specialized:1 related:1 agency:1 include:1 world:3 bank:4 monetary:1 fund:1 imf:1 trade:1 organization:6 wto:1 un:2 educational:1 scientific:1 cultural:1 unesco:1 health:1 food:1 agriculture:1 fao:1 labour:1 ilo:1 human:1 right:2 unhrc:1 oas:1 non:1 align:1 movement:1 nam:1 atomic:1 energy:1 iaea:1 inter:1 idb:1 common:1 market:1 cacm:1 integration:1 cabei:1 maintains:1 relation:1 republic:2 china:2 instead:1 people:1 recognise:1 abkhasia:1 south:1 ossetia:1 archipelago:1 de:2 san:2 andres:1 providencia:1 quita:1 sueno:1 respect:1 maritime:2 boundary:3 question:1 golfo:1 fonseca:1 icj:2 refer:1 line:1 determine:1 mixed:1 advise:1 tripartite:1 among:1 el:1 salvador:1 likely:1 would:1 require:1 caribbean:1 sea:1 sovereign:1 rio:1 juan:1 treaty:1 navigate:2 part:1 river:1 object:1 commerce:1 emerge:1 try:1 armed:1 member:1 force:1 illicit:1 drug:2 allege:1 trans:2 shipment:2 point:2 cocaine:1 destine:1 u:1 arm:1 deal:1 see:1 list:1 diplomatic:2 mission:2 nicaraguan:1 v:2 external:1 link:1 ministry:1 affair:1 preliminary:2 objection:2 merit:1 judgment:1 asil:1 bbc:1 president:1 mfa:1 analysis:1 hague:1 yil:1 \|@bigram costa_rica:3 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 bank_idb:1 south_ossetia:1 golfo_de:1 honduras_nicaragua:2 el_salvador:1 salvador_honduras:1 san_juan:1 illicit_drug:1 trans_shipment:2 diplomatic_mission:2 external_link:1 foreign_affair:1 preliminary_objection:2
6,087	Interwiki_links	InterWiki is a facility for creating links to the many wiki wiki webs on the World Wide Web. Users avoid pasting in entire URLs (as they would for regular web pages) and instead use a shorthand similar to links within the same wiki (intrawiki links). Unlike domain names on the Internet, there is no globally defined list of InterWiki prefixes, so owners of a wiki must define a mapping appropriate to their needs. Users generally have to create separate accounts for each wiki they intend to use (unless they intend to edit anonymously). Variations in text formatting and layout can also hinder a seamless transition from one wiki to the next. By making wiki links simpler to type for the members of a particular community, these features help bring the different wikis closer together. Furthering that goal, InterWiki "bus tours" (similar to webrings) have been created to explain the purposes and highlights of different wikis. Such examples on Wikipedia include and . Syntax InterWiki notations vary, depending largely on the syntax a wiki uses for markup. The two most common link patterns in wikis are CamelCase and free links (arbitrary phrases surrounded by some set delimiter, such as [[double square brackets]]). CURIE syntax uses a single set of square brackets. Accordingly, InterWiki links on a CamelCase-based wiki frequently take the form of "Code:PageName", where Code is the defined InterMap prefix for another wiki. Thus, a link "WikiPedia:InterWiki" could be rendered in HTML as a link to an article on Wikipedia for example . Linking from a CamelCase-wiki to a page that contains spaces in its title typically requires substitution of the spaces with underscores (e.g. WikiPedia:Main_Page). InterWiki links on wikis based on free links, such as Wikipedia, typically follow the same principle, but using the delimiters that would be used for internal links. These links can then be parsed and escaped as they would be if they were internal, allowing easier typing of spaces but potentially causing problems with other special characters. For example, on Wikipedia, [[MeatBall:AssumeGoodFaith]] appears as MeatBall:AssumeGoodFaith, and [[:de:InterWiki]] (former syntax: [[DeWikipedia:InterWiki]]) appears as :de:InterWiki. The MediaWiki software has an additional feature which uses similar notation to create automatic interlanguage links - for instance, the link [[de:InterWiki]] (with no leading colon) automatically creates a reference labelled "Other languages: Deutsch \| ..." at the top and bottom of, or in a sidebar next to, the article display. Various other wiki software systems have features for "semi-internal" links of this kind, such as support for namespaces or multiple sub-communities. Most InterMap implementations simply substitute the InterWiki prefix with a full URL prefix, so many non-wiki websites can also be referred to using the system. A reference to a definition on the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing, for instance, could take the form [[Foldoc:foo]] which would tell the system to append "foo" to "http://www.foldoc.org/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?", and display the link as Foldoc:foo. This makes it very easy to link to commonly referenced resources from within a wiki page, without the need to even know the form of the URL in question. The InterWiki concept can equally be applied to links from non-wiki websites. Advogato, for instance, offers a syntax for creating shorthand links based on a MeatBall-derived InterMap. Implementation Internally, a wiki that uses InterWiki links needs to have a mapping from wiki-code links to full URLs. For example, [[MeatBall:InterWiki]] might appear as MeatBall:InterWiki, but link to http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterWiki. Since most wiki systems use URLs for individual pages where the page's title appears at the end of an otherwise unchanging address, the simplest way of defining such mappings is by substituting the InterWiki prefix for the unchanging part of the URL. So in the example above, the MeatBall: has simply been replaced by http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl? in creating the target of the HTML rendered link. Rather than creating a new list from scratch for every wiki, it is often useful to obtain a copy of that from another site. Sites such as MeatballWiki and the UseModWiki site contain comprehensive lists which are often used for this purpose - the former being publicly editable in the same way as any other wiki page, and the latter being verified as usable but potentially out of date. See also CURIE, emerging W3C standard Wikipedia:InterWikimedia links Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects Help:Interlanguage links Wiktionary wiktionary:interwiki Wikimedia Meta-Wiki meta:Help:Interwiki linking Wikimedia Commons commons:Template talk:Siblinglinks commons:Category:CommonsRoot External links Discussion of the FileReplacement concept Discussion of the InterWiki concept at MeatballWiki	Interwiki_links \|@lemmatized interwiki:21 facility:1 create:8 link:29 many:2 wiki:21 web:3 world:1 wide:1 user:2 avoid:1 paste:1 entire:1 url:5 would:4 regular:1 page:6 instead:1 use:11 shorthand:2 similar:3 within:2 intrawiki:1 unlike:1 domain:1 name:1 internet:1 globally:1 defined:2 list:3 prefix:5 owner:1 must:1 define:2 mapping:3 appropriate:1 need:3 generally:1 separate:1 account:1 intend:2 unless:1 edit:1 anonymously:1 variation:1 text:1 formatting:1 layout:1 also:3 hinder:1 seamless:1 transition:1 one:1 next:2 make:2 simpler:1 type:1 member:1 particular:1 community:2 feature:3 help:3 bring:1 different:2 wikis:4 closer:1 together:1 goal:1 bus:1 tour:1 webrings:1 explain:1 purpose:2 highlight:1 example:5 wikipedia:8 include:1 syntax:5 notation:2 vary:1 depend:1 largely:1 markup:1 two:1 common:4 pattern:1 camelcase:3 free:3 arbitrary:1 phrase:1 surround:1 set:2 delimiter:1 double:1 square:2 bracket:2 curie:2 single:1 accordingly:1 base:3 frequently:1 take:2 form:3 code:3 pagename:1 intermap:3 another:2 thus:1 could:2 render:2 html:2 article:2 contain:2 space:3 title:2 typically:2 require:1 substitution:1 underscore:1 e:1 g:1 follow:1 principle:1 delimiters:1 internal:3 parse:1 escape:1 allow:1 easy:2 typing:1 potentially:2 causing:1 problem:1 special:1 character:1 meatball:6 assumegoodfaith:2 appear:4 de:3 former:2 dewikipedia:1 mediawiki:1 software:2 additional:1 automatic:1 interlanguage:2 instance:3 lead:1 colon:1 automatically:1 reference:2 label:1 language:1 deutsch:1 top:1 bottom:1 sidebar:1 display:2 various:1 system:4 semi:1 kind:1 support:1 namespaces:1 multiple:1 sub:1 implementation:2 simply:2 substitute:2 full:2 non:2 website:2 refer:1 definition:1 line:1 dictionary:1 computing:1 foldoc:5 foo:3 tell:1 append:1 http:3 www:1 org:1 cgi:3 commonly:1 referenced:1 resource:1 without:1 even:1 know:1 question:1 concept:3 equally:1 apply:1 advogato:1 offer:1 derive:1 internally:1 might:1 usemod:2 com:2 bin:2 mb:2 pl:2 since:1 urls:1 individual:1 end:1 otherwise:1 unchanging:2 address:1 simple:1 way:2 part:1 replace:1 target:1 rather:1 new:1 scratch:1 every:1 often:2 useful:1 obtain:1 copy:1 site:3 meatballwiki:2 usemodwiki:1 comprehensive:1 publicly:1 editable:1 latter:1 verify:1 usable:1 date:1 see:1 emerge:1 standard:1 interwikimedia:1 wikimedia:3 sister:1 project:1 wiktionary:2 meta:2 template:1 talk:1 siblinglinks:1 category:1 commonsroot:1 external:1 discussion:2 filereplacement:1 \|@bigram interwiki_link:5 mediawiki_software:1 http_www:1 cgi_bin:2 external_link:1
6,088	Inuit_languages	The Inuit language is traditionally spoken across the North American Arctic and to some extent in the subarctic in Labrador. It is also spoken in far eastern Russia, particularly the Diomede Islands, but is severely endangered in Russia today and is spoken only in a few villages on the Chukchi Peninsula. The Inuit live primarily in three countries: Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark), Canada (specifically in Nunavut, Labrador, Nunavik, and the Northwest Territories), and the U.S. state of Alaska. The total population of Inuit speaking their traditional language is difficult to assess with precision, since most counts rely on self-reported census data that may not accurately reflect usage or competence. Greenland census estimates place the number of speakers of Inuit dialects there at roughly 50,000, while Canadian estimates are at roughly 35,000. These two countries count the bulk of speakers of Inuit language variants, although about 7,500 Alaskans yourdictionary.com speak Inuit dialects out of a population of over 13,000 Inuit. The Eskimo languages have a few hundred speakers in Russia. In addition, an estimated 7,000 Greenlandic Inuit live in European Denmark, but this is the largest group outside of Canada and Greenland. So, the global population of speakers of Inuit language variants is on the order of over 90,000 people. Nomenclature The traditional language of the Inuit is a system of closely interrelated dialects that are not readily comprehensible from one end of the Inuit world to the other, and some people do not think of it as a single language but rather as a group of languages. However, there are no clear criteria for breaking the Inuit language into specific member tongues, since it forms a continuum of close dialects. Each band of Inuit understands its neighbours, and most likely their neighbours' neighbours; but at some remove, comprehensibility drops to a very low level. As a result, Inuit in different places use different words for their own variants and for the entire group of languages, and this ambiguity has been carried into other languages, creating a great deal of confusion over what labels should be applied to it. In Greenland the official form of Inuit language, and the official language of the state, is called Kalaallisut. In other languages, it is often called Greenlandic or some cognate term. The Eskimo languages of Alaska are called Inupiatun, but the variants of the Seward Peninsula are distinguished from the other Alaskan variants by calling them Qawiaraq, or for some dialects, Bering Straits Inupiatun. In Canada, the word Inuktitut is routinely used to refer to all Canadian variants of the Inuit traditional language, and it is under that name that it is recognised as one of the official languages of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories. However, one of the variants of western Nunavut is called Inuinnaqtun to distinguish itself from the dialects of eastern Canada, while the variants of the Northwest Territories are sometimes called Inuvialuktun and have in the past sometimes been called Inuktun. In those dialects, the name is sometimes rendered as Inuktitun to reflect dialectal differences in pronunciation. The Inuit language of Quebec is called Inuttitut by its speakers, and often by other people, but this is a minor variation in pronunciation. In Labrador, the language is called Inuttut or, often in official documents, by the more descriptive name Labradorimiutut. Furthermore, Canadians - both Inuit and non-Inuit - sometimes use the word Inuktitut to refer to all of the Inuit language variants, including those of Alaska and Greenland. The phrase "Inuit language" is largely limited to professional discourse, since in each area, there is one or more conventional terms that cover all the local variants; or it is used as a descriptive term in publications where readers can't necessarily be expected to know the locally used words. But, this means that while you can call the French language French, you cannot call the Inuit language Inuit. Saying "Peter speaks Inuit" is a very strange usage that most people who are familiar with the Inuit language would recognise as suspect, comparable to asserting that Hispanics must speak "Hispanic". The word Inuit is generally reserved for the ethnic group, both from its Inuit language meaning - it refers specifically to a group of people - and in the way the word has been adopted in English. Although many people refer to the Inuit language as Eskimo language, this is an ambiguous term that can also include Yupik (see Eskimo-Aleut languages), and is in addition strongly discouraged in Canada and diminishing in usage elsewhere. See the article on Eskimo for more information on this word. Classification and history The language of the Inuit is an Eskimo-Aleut language. It is fairly closely related to the Yupik languages, and more remotely to the Aleut language. These cousin languages are all spoken in Western Alaska and Eastern Chukotka, Russia. It is not discernibly related to other North American or northwest Asian indigenous languages, although some have proposed that it is related to Indo-European languages as part of the hypothetical Nostratic superphylum, and there are those who consider it a Paleo-Siberian language, although that is more a geographic than a linguistic grouping. Early forms of the Inuit language were spoken by the Thule people, who overran the Dorset (culture), which had previously occupied Arctic America, at the beginning of the second millennium. By 1300, the Inuit and their language had reached western Greenland, and finally east Greenland roughly at the same time the Viking colony in southern Greenland disappeared. It is generally believed that it was during this centuries-long eastwards migration that the Inuit language became distinct from the Yupik languages spoken in Western Alaska and Chukotka. Until 1902, an enclave of Dorset people or Sadlermiut (in modern Inuktitut spelling Sallirmiut) existed on Southampton Island. Almost nothing is known about their language, but the few eyewitness accounts tell of them speaking a "strange dialect". This suggests that they also spoke an Eskimo-Aleut language, but one quite distinct from the forms spoken in Canada today. The Yupik and Inuit languages are very similar syntactically and morphologically. Their common origin can be seen in a number of cognates: English Central Yupik Iñupiatun North Baffin Inuktitut Kalaallisut person yuk iñuk inuk inuk frost kaneq kaniq kaniq kaneq river kuik kuuk kuuk kuuk outside ellami silami silami The western Alaskan variants retain a large number of features present in proto-Inuit language and in Yup'ik, enough so that they might be classed as Yup'ik languages if they were viewed in isolation from the larger Inuit world. Geographic distribution and variants Distribution of Inuit language variants across the Arctic.The Inuit language is a fairly closely linked set of dialects which can be broken up using a number of different criteria. Traditionally, Inuit describe dialect differences by means of place names to describe local idiosyncrasies in language: The dialect of Iglulik versus the dialect of Iqaluit, for example. However, political and sociological divisions are increasingly the principal criteria for describing different variants of the Inuit language because of their links to different writing systems, literary traditions, schools, media sources and borrowed vocabulary. This makes any partition of the Inuit language somewhat problematic. This article will use labels that try to synthesise linguistic, sociolinguistic and political considerations in splitting up the Inuit dialect spectrum. This scheme is not the only one used or necessarily one used by Inuit themselves, but its labels do try to reflect the usages most seen in popular and technical literature. In addition to the territories listed below, some 7,000 Greenlandic speakers are reported to live in mainland Denmark , and according to the 2001 census roughly 200 self-reported Inuktitut native speakers regularly live in parts of Canada which are outside of traditional Inuit lands. Alaska Of the roughly 13,000 Alaskan Inupiat, as few as 3,000 may still be able to speak Inuit language variants, with most of them over the age of 40. Alaskan Inuit speak four distinct dialects: Qawiaraq is spoken on the southern side of the Seward Peninsula and the Norton Sound area. It was also in the past spoken in Chukotka, particularly Big Diomede island, but appears to have vanished in Russian areas through assimilation into Yupik, Chukchi and Russian speaking communities. It is radically different in phonology from other Inuit language variants. Some people consider the Bering Strait dialect to be separate from Qawariaq. Inupiatun (North Slope Iñupiaq) is spoken on the North Slope and in the Kotzebue Sound area. MalimiutThe variants of the Kotzebue Sound area and the northwest of Alaska are sometimes called Malimiutun or Malimiut Inupiatun. Canada The Inuit language is an official language in the Northwest Territories, the official and dominant language of Nunavut, enjoys a high level of official support in Nunavik, a semi-autonomous portion of Quebec, and is still spoken in some parts of Labrador. Generally, Canadians refer to all dialects spoken in Canada as Inuktitut, but the terms Inuvialuktun, Inuinnaqtun, Nunatsiavummiutut, (sometimes called Inuttut or Labradorimiutut) have some currency in referring to the variants of specific areas. Greenland Greenland counts approximately 50,000 speakers of Inuit language variants, of whom over 90% speak west Greenlandic dialects at home. Kalaallisut, or in English Greenlandic, is the name given to the standard dialect and official language of Greenland. This standard national language is now taught to all Greenlanders in school, regardless of their native dialect. It reflects almost exclusively the language of western Greenland and has borrowed a great deal of vocabulary from Danish, while Canadian and Alaskan Inuit language variants have tended to take vocabulary from English or sometimes French and Russian. It is written using the Roman alphabet. The dialect of the Upernavik area in northwest Greenland is somewhat different in phonology from the standard dialect. Tunumiit oraasiat, (or Tunumiusut in Kalaallisut, often East Greenlandic in other languages), is the dialect of eastern Greenland. It differs sharply from other Inuit language variants and has roughly 3,000 speakers according to Ethnologue. Inuktun (Or Avanersuarmiutut in Kalaallisut) is the dialect of the area around Qaanaaq in northern Greenland. It is sometimes called the Thule dialect or North Greenlandic. This area is the northernmost settlement area of the Inuit and has a relatively small number of speakers. It is reputed to be fairly close to the North Baffin dialect, since a group of migratory Inuit from Baffin Island settled in the area during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It counts under 1,000 speakers according to Ethnologue. Phonology and Phonetics Eastern Canadian Inuit language variants have fifteen consonants and three vowels (which can be long or short). Consonants are arranged with five places of articulation: bilabial, alveolar, palatal, velar and uvular; and three manners of articulation: voiceless stops, voiced continuants and nasals, as well as two additional sounds — voiceless fricatives. The Alaskan dialects have an additional manner of articulation, the retroflex, which was present in proto-Inuit language. Retroflexes have disappeared in all the Canadian and Greenlandic dialects. In Natsilingmiutut, the voiced palatal plosive derives from a former retroflex. Almost all Inuit language variants have only three basic vowels and make a phonological distinction between short and long forms of all vowels. The only exceptions are at the extreme edges of the Inuit world - parts of Greenland, and in western Alaska. Morphology and syntax The Inuit language, like other Eskimo-Aleut languages, has a very rich morphological system, in which a succession of different morphemes are added to root words (like verb endings in European languages) to indicate things that, in languages like English, would require several words to express. (See also: Agglutinative language and Polysynthetic language) All Inuit language words begin with a root morpheme to which other morphemes are suffixed. The language has hundreds of distinct suffixes, in some dialects as many as 700. Fortunately for learners, the language has a highly regular morphology. Although the rules are sometimes very complicated, they do not have exceptions in the sense that English and other Indo-European languages do. This system makes words very long, and potentially unique. For example in central Nunavut Inuktitut: tusaatsiarunnanngittualuujunga I can't hear very well. This long word is composed of a root word tusaa- - to hear - followed by five suffixes: -tsiaq-well-junnaq-be able to-nngit-<td>not<td>-tualuu-very much-junga1st pers. singular present indicative non-specific This sort of word construction is pervasive in Inuit language and makes it very unlike English. In one large Canadian corpus - the Nunavut Hansard - 92% of all words appear only once, in contrast to a small percentage in most English corpora of similar size. This makes the application of Zipf's law quite difficult in the Inuit language. Furthermore, the notion of a part of speech can be somewhat complicated in the Inuit language. Fully inflected verbs can be interpreted as nouns. The word ilisaijuq can be interpreted as a fully inflected verb - "he studies" - but can also be interpreted as a noun: "student". That said, the meaning is probably obvious to a fluent speaker, when put in context. The morphology and syntax of the Inuit language vary to some degree between dialects, and the article Inuit language morphology and syntax describes primarily central Nunavut dialects, but the basic principles will generally apply to all of them and to some degree to Yupik as well. Vocabulary Toponymy and Names Exotic as traditional Inuit names sound, both the names of places and people tend to be highly prosaic when translated. Iqaluit, for example, is simply the plural of the noun iqaluk - "trout". Iglulik simply means place with houses, a word that could be interpreted as simply town; Inuvik is place of people; Baffin Island - Qikiqtaaluk in Inuit language - approximately translates to "big island". Although practically all Inuit have legal names based on southern naming traditions, at home and among themselves they still use native naming traditions. There too, names tend to consist of highly prosaic words. The Inuit traditionally believed that by adopting the name of a dead person or a class of things, they could take some of their characteristics or powers, and enjoy a part of their identity. (This is why they were always very willing to accept European names - they believed that this made them equal to the Europeans.) Common native names in Canada include "Ujarak" (rock), "Nuvuk" (headland), "Nasak" (hat, or hood), "Tupiq" or "Tupeq" in Kalaallisut (tent), and "Qajaq" (kayak). Inuit also use animal names, traditionally believing that by using those names, they took on some of the characteristics of that animal: "Nanuq" or "Nanoq" in Kalaallisut (polar-bear), "Uqalik" or "Ukaleq" in Kalaallisut (Arctic hare), and "Tiriaq" or "Teriaq" in Kalaallisut (ermine) are favourites. In other cases, Inuit are named after dead people or people in traditional tales, by naming them after anatomical traits those people are believed to have had. Examples include "Itigaituk" (has no feet), "Usuiituk" (has no penis), and "Tulimak" (rib). Inuit may have any number of names, given by parents and other community members. Disc numbers and Project Surname In the 1920s, changes in lifestyle and serious epidemics like tuberculosis made the Government of Canada interested in tracking the Inuit of Canada's arctic. Traditionally Inuit names reflect what is important in Inuit culture: environment, landscape, seascape, family, animals, birds, spirits. But the names were complicated for southerners to understand: when is it a name, when is it kinship term or a diagnosis? Also, the agglutinative nature of Inuit language meant that names seemed long and were difficult for southern bureaucrats and missionaries to pronounce. Thus, in the 1940s, the Inuit were given disc numbers, recorded on a special leather ID tag, like a dog tag. They were required to keep the tag with them always (Some tags are now so old and worn that the number is polished out). The numbers were assigned with a letter prefix that indicated location (E = east), community, and then the order in which the census taker saw the individual. In some ways this state re-naming was abetted by the churches and missionaries, who viewed the traditional names and their calls to power as related to shamanism and paganism. They encouraged people to take Christian names. So a young woman who was known to her relatives as "Lutaaq, Pilitaq, Palluq, or Inusiq" and had been baptised as "Annie" was under this system to become Annie E7-121. What's in a name? by Ann Meekitjuk Hanson People adopted the number-names, their family members' numbers, etc., and learned all the region codes (like knowing a telephone area code). Until Inuit began studying in the south, many didn't know that numbers were not normal parts of Christian and English naming systems. Then in 1969, the Government started Project Surname, headed by Abe Okpik, to replace number-names with patrilineal "family surnames". But contemporary Inuit carvers and graphic artists still use their disk number as their signature on their works of art. Words for snow A popular belief exists that the Inuit have an unusually large number of words for snow. This is not accurate, and results from a misunderstanding of the nature of polysynthetic languages. In fact, The Inuit have only a few base roots for snow: 'qanniq-' ('qanik-' in some dialects), which is used most often like the verb to snow, and 'aput', which means snow as a substance. Parts of speech work very differently in the Inuit language than in English, so these definitions are somewhat misleading. The Inuit language can form very long words by adding more and more descriptive affixes to words. Those affixes may modify the syntactic and semantic properties of the base word, or may add qualifiers to it in much the same way that English uses adjectives or prepositional phrases to qualify nouns (eg. "falling snow", "blowing snow", "snow on the ground", "snow drift", etc.) The "fact" that there are many Inuit words for snow has been put forward so often it is somewhat of a journalistic cliché Pullum, Geoff. (1991) The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax and Other Irreverent Essays on the Study of Language. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN: 0226685349 Numbers Inuit uses a base-20 counting system. Writing A Stopsign in Inuit writing and English Because the Inuit language is spread over such a large area, divided between different nations and political units and originally reached by Europeans of different origins at different times, there is no uniform way of writing the Inuit language. Most Inuktitut in Nunavut and Nunavik is written using a scheme called Inuktitut syllabics, based on Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. The western part of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories use a Roman alphabet scheme usually identified as Inuinnaqtun. In Alaska, another Roman scheme is used. Nunatsiavut uses another variant devised by German-speaking Moravian missionaries, which included the letter kra. Greenland's Roman scheme was originally much like the one used in Nunatsiavut, but has undergone a spelling reform in 1973 to bring the orthography in line with changes in pronunciation and better reflect the phonemic inventory of the language. The Siberian Yupik languages of Russia are written in the Cyrillic Alphabet. The Canadian syllabary The syllabary used to write Inuktitut (titirausiq nutaaq). The extra characters with the dots represent long vowels: in the Latin transcription, the vowel would be doubled.The Inuktitut syllabary used in Canada is based on the Cree syllabary devised by the missionary James Evans. The present form of the syllabary for Canadian Inuktitut was adopted by the Inuit Cultural Institute in Canada in the 1970s. The Inuit in Alaska, the Inuvialuit, Inuinnaqtun speakers, and Inuit in Greenland and Labrador use the Roman alphabet, although it has been adapted for their use in different ways. Though conventionally called a syllabary, the writing system has been classified by some observers as an abugida, since syllables starting with the same consonant have related glyphs rather than unrelated ones. All of the characters needed for the Inuktitut syllabary are available in the Unicode character repertoire. (See Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics character table.) See also Canadian Aboriginal syllabics Eskimo-Aleut languages Inuit grammar Inuit phonology Yupik language References Alia, Valerie (1994) Names, numbers and northern policy: Inuit, Project Surname and the politics of identity. Halifax NS: Fernwood Publishing. Collis, Dirmid R. F., ed. Arctic Languages: An Awakening ISBN 92-3-102661-5 . Greenhorn, Beth Project Naming: Always On Our Minds, Library and Archives Canada, Canada. Mallon, Mick Inuktitut Linguistics for Technocrats. Mallon, Mick (1991) Introductory Inukitut and Introductory Inuktitut Reference Grammar. ISBN 0-7717-0230-2 and ISBN 0-7717-0235-3 Okpik, Abe. Disk Numbers. (Okpik received the Order of Canada for his work on Project Surname) Project Naming Website Spalding, Alex (1998) Inuktitut: A multi-dialectal outline dictionary (with an Aivilingmiutaq base) ISBN 1-896204-29-5 Spalding, Alex (1992) Inuktitut: a Grammar of North Baffin Dialects ISBN 0-920063-43-8 External links Dictionaries and lexica Inuktitut - English Dictionary Nunavut Living Dictionary Interactive IñupiaQ Dictionary Oqaasileriffik Language database Webpages A Brief History of Inuktitut Writing Culture Inuktitut Syllabarium Our Language, Our Selves Alt.folkore.urban on Eskimo words for snow. 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6,089	Gödel's_completeness_theorem	Gödel's completeness theorem is a fundamental theorem in mathematical logic that establishes a correspondence between semantic truth and syntactic provability in first-order logic. It was first proven by Kurt Gödel in 1929. A first-order formula is called logically valid if it is true in every structure for its language. The completeness theorem shows that if a formula is logically valid then there is a finite deduction (a formal proof) of the formula. The deduction is a finite object that can be verified by hand or computer. This relationship between truth and provability establishes a close link between model theory and proof theory in mathematical logic. An important consequence of the completeness theorem is that it is possible to enumerate the logical consequences of any effective first-order theory, by enumerating all the correct deductions using axioms from the theory. Gödel's incompleteness theorem, referring to a different meaning of completeness, shows that if any sufficiently strong effective theory of arithmetic is consistent then there is a formula (depending on the theory) which can neither be proven nor disproven within the theory. Nevertheless the completeness theorem applies to these theories, showing that any logical consequence of such a theory is provable from the theory. Background There are numerous deductive systems for first-order logic, including systems of natural deduction and Hilbert-style systems. Common to all deductive systems is the notion of a formal deduction. This is a sequence (or, in some cases, a finite tree) of formulas with a specially-designated conclusion. The definition of a deduction is such that it is finite and that it is possible to verify algorithmically (by a computer, for example, or by hand) that a given collection of formulas is indeed a deduction. A formula is logically valid if it is true in every structure for the language of the formula. In order to formally state, and then prove, the completeness theorem, it is necessary to also define a deductive system. A deductive system is called complete if every logically valid formula is the conclusion of some formal deduction, and the completeness theorem for a particular deductive system is the theorem that it is complete in this sense. Thus, in a sense, there is a different completeness theorem for each deductive system. Statement and consequences Gödel's completeness theorem says that a deductive system of first-order predicate calculus is "complete" in the sense that no additional inference rules are required to prove all the logically valid formulas. A converse to completeness is soundness, the fact that only logically valid formulas are provable in the deductive system. Taken together, these theorems imply that a formula is logically valid if and only if it is the conclusion of a formal deduction. A more general version of Gödel's completeness theorem holds. It says that for any first-order theory T and any sentence S in the language of the theory, there is a formal deduction of S from T if and only if S is satisfied by every model of T. This more general theorem is used implicitly, for example, when a sentence is shown to be provable from the axioms of group theory by considering an arbitrary group and showing that the sentence is satisfied by that group. The branch of mathematical logic that deals with what is true in different models is called model theory. The branch called proof theory studies what can be formally proved in particular formal systems. The completeness theorem establishes a fundamental connection between these two branches, giving a link between semantics and syntax. The completeness theorem should not, however, be misinterpreted as obliterating the difference between these two concepts; in fact Gödel's incompleteness theorem, another celebrated result, shows that there are inherent limitations in what can be achieved with formal proofs in mathematics. The name for the incompleteness theorem refers to another meaning of complete (see model theory - Using the compactness and completeness theorems). In particular, Gödel's completeness theorem deals with formulas that are logical consequences of a first-order theory, while the incompleteness theorem constructs formulas that are not logical consequences of certain theories. An important consequence of the completeness theorem is that the set of logical consequences of an effective first-order theory is an enumerable set. The definition of logical consequence quantifies over all structures in a particular language, and thus does not give an immediate method for algorithmically testing whether a formula is logically valid. Moreover, a consequence of Gödel's incompleteness theorem is that the set of logically valid formulas is not decidable. But the completeness theorem implies that the set of consequences of an effective theory is enumerable; the algorithm is to first construct an enumeration of all formal deductions from the theory, and use this to produce an enumeration of their conclusions. The finitary, syntactic nature of formal deductions makes it possible to enumerate them. Relationship to the compactness theorem The completeness theorem and the compactness theorem are two cornerstones of first-order logic. While neither of these theorems can be proven in a completely effective manner, each one can be effectively obtained from the other. The compactness theorem says that if a formula φ is a logical consequence of a (possible infinite) set of formulas Γ then it is a logical consequence of a finite subset of Γ. This is an immediate consequence of the completeness theorem, because only a finite number of axioms from Γ can be mentioned in a formal deduction of φ, and the soundness of the deduction system then implies φ is a logical consequence of this finite set. This proof of the compactness theorem is originally due to Gödel. Conversely, for many deductive systems, it is possible to prove the completeness theorem as an effective consequence of the compactness theorem. The ineffectiveness of the completeness theorem can be measured in two ways, in set theory and in reverse mathematics. In set theory, the ultrafilter lemma is a weak form of the axiom of choice that is not provable in ZF, the system of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. ZF proves the completeness and compactness theorems are equivalent to each other, and to the ultrafilter lemma. Thus no theory extending ZF can prove either the completeness or compactness theorems without also proving the ultrafilter lemma. In reverse mathematics, only countable structures and countable theories are considered. In this context, the completeness and compactness theorems are equivalent to each other and to the axiom system WKL0, with the equivalence provable in RCA0. In particular, although every consistent first-order theory has a finite or countable model, as a consequence of the completeness theorem and the Löwenheim-Skolem theorem, it is known there are effective consistent first-order theories with no computable model. Completeness in other logics The completeness theorem is a central property of first-order logic that does not hold for all logics. Second-order logic, for example, does not have a completeness theorem for its standard semantics (but does have the completeness property for Henkin semantics), and the same is true of all higher-order logics. It is possible to produce sound deductive systems for higher-order logics, but no such system can be complete. The set of logically-valid formulas in second-order logic is not enumerable. A completeness theorem can be proved for modal logic using Kripke semantics. Proofs Gödel's original proof of the theorem proceeded by reducing the problem to a special case for formulas in a certain syntactic form, and then handling this form with an ad hoc argument. In modern logic texts, Gödel's completeness theorem is usually proved with Henkin's proof, rather than with Gödel's original proof. Henkin's proof directly constructs a term model for any consistent first-order theory. Other proofs are also known. See also Gödel's incompleteness theorems Original proof of Gödel's completeness theorem Further reading The first proof of the completeness theorem. The same material as the dissertation, except with briefer proofs, more succinct explanations, and omitting the lengthy introduction. External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Kurt Gödel" -- by Juliette Kennedy. MacTutor biography: Kurt Gödel. Detlovs, Vilnis, and Podnieks, Karlis, "Introduction to mathematical logic."	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6,090	Motorcycle_sport	Classic Road Racing Motorcycle sport is a broad field that encompasses all sporting aspects of motorcycling. The disciplines are not all "races" or timed-speed events, as several disciplines test a competitor's various riding skills. Motorcycle racing Motorcycle racing (also known as Moto racing and Bike racing) is a motorcycle sport involving racing motorcycles. Motorcycle racing can be divided into two categories, tarmac-based road disciplines and off road. Track racing Track racing is a motorcycle sport where teams or individuals race opponents around an oval track. There are differing variants, with each variant racing on a different surface type. Rally A road rally is a navigation event on public roads whereby competiors must visit a number of checkpoints in diverse geographical locations while still obeying road traffic laws (not to be confused with car rallies such as WRC). Other Motorcycle sports Land speed Land Speed is where a single rider accelerates over a 1 to long straight track (usually on dry lake beds) and is timed for top speed through a trap at the end of the run. The rider must exceed the previous top speed record for that class or type of bike for their name to be placed on the record books. See— for an example. Enduro Enduro isn't exactly racing, because the main objective is to traverse a series of checkpoints, arriving exactly "on time" in accordance with your beginning time and the time it is supposed to take to arrive at each checkpoint. The courses are usually run over thick wooded terrain, sometimes with large obstacles such as logs, ditches, and sudden drops. Freestyle Motocross A competition based upon points for acrobatic ability on an MX bike over jumps. Trials Known in the US as "Observed Trials", it is not racing, but a sport nevertheless. Trials is a test of skill on a motorcycle whereby the rider attempts to traverse an observed section without placing a foot on the ground (and traditionally, although not always, without ceasing forward motion). The winner is the rider with the least penalty points. Time and Observation Time and observation trials are trials with a time limit. The person who completes the route the quickest sets the "standard time" and all other competitors must finish within a certain amount of time of the standard time to be counted as a finisher (they received penalty points for every minute after the quickest finisher). This is combined with the penalty points accrued from the observed sections to arrive at a winner, who is not alway the quickest rider or the rider who lost the less marks on observation but the rider who balanced these competing demands the best. One of the most famous time and observation trials is the "Scott" trial held annually in North Yorkshire. Indoor Trials Indoor Trials are trials held in stadiums (not necessarily with a roof) which by their very nature use man made artificial sections in contrast to outdoor trials with rely heavily on the natural terrain. Long Distance Trials (non-competitive) Wall of Death Motorcycle Rodeo (Rally) External links A Supersport bike at Phillip Island. Sanctioning bodies Fédération Internationale de Motocyclismo (FIM) - World governing body Motorcycling Australia (MA)- Australian Governing Body Auto Cycle Union - UK governing body American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) - US governing body Motosport South Africa (MSA) - South African governing body Federation Francaise de moto (FFM) - French governing body MCUI Southern Centre - "governing body of motor cycle sport in Leinster, Munster and Connacht" (i.e., Republic of Ireland) Championship Cup Series - Sanctioning body for Sportman Level motorcycle road racing in the United States Miscellaneous Racesafe, British Superbike Marshals' organisation Motorcycle-Glossary.com Motorcycle Glossary. Motorcycle Racing News Motorcycle Racing News.	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6,091	Béla_Bartók	Béla Bartók in 1927 Béla Viktor János Bartók (Hungarian: ) (March 25, 1881–September 26, 1945) was a Hungarian composer and pianist, regarded, along with Liszt, to be his country’s greatest composer (Gillies 2001). Through his collection and analytical study of folk music, he was one of the founders of ethnomusicology. Biography Childhood and early years (1881–1898) Béla Bartók was born in the small Banatian town of Nagyszentmiklós in Austria-Hungary (now Sânnicolau Mare, Romania) on March 25, 1881. He displayed notable musical talent very early in life: according to his mother, he could distinguish between different dance rhythms that she played on the piano even before he learned to speak in complete sentences (Gillies 1990, 6). By the age of four, he was able to play 40 pieces on the piano, and his mother began formally teaching him the next year. Béla was a small and sickly child. He suffered from a painful chronic rash until the age of five (Gillies 1990, 5). In 1888, when he was seven, his father (the director of an agricultural school) died suddenly. Béla's mother then took him and his sister, Erzsebet, to live in Nagyszőlős (today Vinogradiv, Ukraine), and then to Pozsony (German: Pressburg, today Bratislava, Slovakia). In Pozsony, Béla gave his first public recital at age eleven to a warm critical reception. Among the pieces he played was his own first composition, written two years previously: a short piece called "The Course of the Danube" (de Toth 1999). Shortly thereafter László Erkel accepted him as a pupil. Early musical career (1899–1908) Bartók on his high school graduation Bartok studied piano under István Thomán, a former student of Franz Liszt, and composition under János Koessler at the Royal Academy of Music in Budapest from 1899 to 1903. There he met Zoltán Kodály, who influenced him greatly and became his lifelong friend and colleague. In 1903, Bartók wrote his first major orchestral work, Kossuth, a symphonic poem which honored Lajos Kossuth, hero of the Hungarian revolution of 1848. The music of Richard Strauss, whom he met in 1902 at the Budapest premiere of Also sprach Zarathustra, was very influential on his early work. When visiting a holiday resort in the summer of 1904, Bartók overheard the eighteen-year-old nanny Lidi Dósa from Kibéd in Maros-Torda in Transylvania sing folk songs to the children under her care. This sparked his life-long dedication to folk music. From 1907 his music also began to be influenced by Claude Debussy, whose compositions Kodály had brought back from Paris. Bartók's large-scale orchestral works were still in the style of Johannes Brahms and Richard Strauss, but also around this time he wrote a number of small piano pieces which show his growing interest in folk music. The first piece to show clear signs of this new interest is the String Quartet No. 1 in A minor (1908), which contains folk-like elements. In 1907, Bartók began teaching as a piano professor at the Royal Academy. This position freed him from touring Europe as a pianist and enabled him to stay in Hungary. Among his notable students were Fritz Reiner, Sir Georg Solti, György Sándor, Ernő Balogh, Lili Kraus, and, after Bartók moved to the United States, Jack Beeson and Violet Archer. In 1908, inspired by both their own interest in folk music and by the contemporary resurgence of interest in traditional national culture, he and Kodály travelled into the countryside to collect and research old Magyar folk melodies. Their findings came as a surprise: Magyar folk music had previously been categorised as Gypsy music. The classic example of this misconception is Franz Liszt's famous Hungarian Rhapsodies for piano, which were based on popular art-songs performed by Gypsy bands of the time. In contrast, the old Magyar folk melodies discovered by Bartók and Kodály bore little resemblance to the popular music performed by these Gypsy bands. Instead, they found that many of the folk-songs are based on pentatonic scales similar to those in Oriental folk traditions, such as those of Central Asia and Siberia. Bartók and Kodály quickly set about incorporating elements of real Magyar peasant music into their compositions. Both Bartók and Kodály frequently quoted folk songs verbatim and wrote pieces derived entirely from authentic folk melodies. An example is his two volumes entitled For Children for solo piano containing 80 folk tunes to which he wrote accompaniment. Bartók's style in his art music compositions was a synthesis of folk music, classicism, and modernism. His melodic and harmonic sense was profoundly influenced by the folk music of Hungary, Romania, and many other nations, and he was especially fond of the asymmetrical dance rhythms and pungent harmonies found in Bulgarian music. Most of his early compositions offer a blend of nationalist and late Romanticism elements. Middle years and career (1909–1939) In 1909, Bartók married Márta Ziegler. Their son, Béla II, was born in 1910. In 1911, Bartók wrote what was to be his only opera, Bluebeard's Castle, dedicated to Márta. He entered it for a prize awarded by the Hungarian Fine Arts Commission, which rejected it out of hand as un-stageworthy (Leafstedt 1999). In 1917 Bartók revised the score in preparation for the 1918 première, for which he rewrote the ending. Following the 1919 revolution, he was pressured by the government to remove the name of the blacklisted librettist Béla Balázs (by then a refugee in Vienna) from the opera. Bluebeard's Castle received only one revival, in 1936, before Bartók emigrated. For the remainder of his life, although he was passionately devoted to Hungary, its people and its culture, he never felt much loyalty to its government or its official establishments. After his disappointment over the Fine Arts Commission prize, Bartók wrote little for two or three years, preferring to concentrate on collecting and arranging folk music. He collected first in the Carpathian Basin (the then Kingdom of Hungary), where he notated Hungarian, Slovakian, Romanian and Bulgarian folk music. He also collected in Moldavia, Wallachia and in 1913 in Algeria. However, the outbreak of World War I forced him to stop these expeditions, and he returned to composing, writing the ballet The Wooden Prince in 1914–16 and the String Quartet No. 2 in 1915–17, both influenced by Debussy. It was The Wooden Prince which gave him some degree of international fame. Raised as a Roman Catholic, Bartók had by his early adulthood become an atheist, and considered the existence of God as undecidable and unnecessary. He later became attracted to Unitarianism, and publicly converted to the Unitarian faith in 1916. His son later became president of the Hungarian Unitarian Church (Hughes 1999–2007). He subsequently worked on another ballet, The Miraculous Mandarin influenced by Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, as well as Richard Strauss, following this up with his two violin sonatas (written in 1921 and 1922 respectively) which are harmonically and structurally some of the most complex pieces he wrote. The Miraculous Mandarin, a sordid modern story of prostitution, robbery, and murder, was started in 1918, but not performed until 1926 because of its sexual content. He wrote his third and fourth string quartets in 1927–28, after which his compositions demonstrate his mature style. Notable examples of this period are Divertimento for String Orchestra BB 118 (1939) and Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936). The String Quartet No. 5 (1934) is written in somewhat more traditional style. Bartók wrote his sixth and last string quartet in 1939, the sadness of which has been related to the death of Bartók’s mother and the looming war in Europe. Bartók divorced Márta in 1923, and married a piano student, Ditta Pásztory. His second son, Péter, was born in 1924. In 1936 he traveled to Turkey to collect and study folk music. He worked in collaboration with Turkish composer Ahmet Adnan Saygun mostly around Adana (Özgentürk 2008; Sipos 2000). World War II and last years (1940–1945) In 1940, as the European political situation worsened after the outbreak of World War II, Bartók was increasingly tempted to flee Hungary. He was strongly opposed to the Nazis and Hungary’s siding with Germany. After the Nazis had come to power in Germany, he had refused to give concerts there and broke from his German publisher. His liberal views were causing him a great deal of trouble from the establishment in Hungary. Having first sent his manuscripts out of the country, Bartók reluctantly emigrated to the U.S. with Ditta Pásztory. They settled in New York City. After joining them in 1942, Péter Bartók enlisted in the United States Navy. Béla Bartók, Jr. remained in Hungary. Bartók never became fully at home in the U.S. He initially found it difficult to compose. Although well-known in America as a pianist, ethnomusicologist, and teacher, he was not well known as a composer, and there was little interest in his music during his final years. He and his wife Ditta gave concerts. Bartók, who had made some piano recordings in Hungary, also recorded for Columbia Records after he came to the U.S; many of these recordings (some with Bartók's own spoken introductions) were later issued on LP and CD (Bartók 1994, 1995a, 1995b, 2003 2007, 2008). For several years, supported by a research fellowship from Columbia University, Bartók and his wife worked on a large collection of Serbo-Croatian folk songs in Columbia's libraries. Bartók's difficulties during his first years in the US were mitigated by publication royalties, teaching, and performance tours. While their finances were always precarious, it is a myth that he lived and died in poverty and neglect. There were enough supporters to ensure that there was sufficient money and work available for him to live on. Bartók generally refused outright charity. Though he was not a member of ASCAP, the society paid for any medical care he needed in his last two years and Bartók accepted this (Chalmers 1995, 196–203). The first symptoms of his leukemia began in 1940, when his right shoulder began to show signs of stiffening. In 1942 symptoms increased, and he started having bouts of fever, but the disease was not diagnosed in spite of medical examinations. Finally, in April 1944, leukemia was diagnosed, but by this time little could be done (Chalmers 1995, 202–207). As his body failed, Bartók's creative energy reawakened and he produced a final set of masterpieces, partly thanks to the violinist Joseph Szigeti and the conductor Fritz Reiner (Reiner had been Bartók's friend and champion since his days as Bartók's student at the Royal Academy). Bartók's last work might well have been the String Quartet No. 6 but for Serge Koussevitsky's commission for the Concerto for Orchestra. Koussevitsky's Boston Symphony Orchestra premièred the work in December 1944 to highly positive reviews. Concerto for Orchestra quickly became Bartók's most popular work, although he did not live to see its full impact. He was also commissioned in 1944 by Yehudi Menuhin to write a Sonata for Solo Violin. In 1945 Bartók composed his Piano Concerto No. 3, a graceful and almost neo-classical work, and he began work on his Viola Concerto. He had not completed the scoring at his death. Béla Bartók on 1000 Hungarian forint banknote (1983, no longer used). Bartók died in New York from leukemia (specifically, of secondary polycythemia) on September 26, 1945 at age 64. His funeral was attended by only ten people, including his friend the pianist György Sándor (anon. 2006). Bartok's body was initially interred in Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York, but during the final year of communist Hungary in the late 1980s, his remains were transferred to Budapest for a state funeral on July 7, 1988 with interment in Budapest's Farkasréti Cemetery (Chalmers 1995, 214). He left his Third Piano Concerto almost finished at his death. For the Viola Concerto he only left rough notes. Both works were later completed by his pupil, Tibor Serly. György Sándor was the soloist in the first performance of the Third Piano Concerto on February 8, 1946. The Viola Concerto was revised and polished in the 1990s by Bartók's son, Peter, and this version may be closer to what Bartók may have intended (Chalmers 1995, 210). There is a statue of Béla Bartók in Brussels, Belgium near the central train station in a public square, Spanjeplein-Place d'Espagne. Another statue stands in London, opposite South Kensington Underground Station. Still another is in front of one of the houses that Bartók owned in the hills above Budapest, which is now a museum. Music Bartók's music reflects two trends that dramatically changed the sound of music in the 20th century: the breakdown of the diatonic system of harmony that had served composers for the previous two hundred years (Griffiths, 7); and the revival of nationalism as a source for musical inspiration, a trend that began with Mikhail Glinka and Antonín Dvořák in the last half of the 19th century (Einstein, 332). In his search for new forms of tonality, Bartók turned to Hungarian folk music, as well as to other folk music of the Carpathian Basin and even of Algeria and Turkey; and in so doing he became influential in that stream of modernism which exploited indigenous music and techniques (Botstein, 6). One characteristic style of music is his Night music, which he used mostly in slow movements of multi-movement ensemble or orchestral compositions in his mature period. It is characterised by "eerie dissonances providing a backdrop to sounds of nature and lonely melodies" (Schneider 2006, 84). The third movement of his Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (Adagio) (which is used in the suspense film The Shining) is an example of Night music style. His music can be grouped roughly in accordance with the different periods in his life. Youth: Late-Romanticism (1890–1902) The works of his youth are of a late-Romantic style. Between 1890 and 1894 (nine to 13 years of age) he wrote 31 pieces with corresponding opus numbers. He started numbering his works anew with ‘opus 1’ in 1894 with his first large scale work, a piano sonata. Up to 1902, Bartók wrote in total 74 works which can be considered in Romantic style. Most of these early compositions are either scored for piano solo or include a piano. Additionally, there is some chamber music for strings. Compared to his later achievements, these works are of less importance. New influences (1903–1911) Under the influence of Richard Strauss (among others Also sprach Zarathustra) (Stevens 1993, 15–17), Bartók composed in 1903 Kossuth, a symphonic poem in ten tableaux. In 1904 followed his Rhapsody for piano and orchestra which he numbered opus 1 again, marking it himself as the start of a new era in his music. An even more important occurrence of this year was his overhearing the eighteen-year-old nanny Lidi Dósa from Transylvania sing folk songs, sparking Bartók’s life long dedication to folk music (Stevens 1993, 22). When criticised for not composing his own melodies, Bartók pointed out that Molière and Shakespeare mostly based their plays on well-known stories too. Regarding the incorporation of folk music into art music he said: The question is, what are the ways in which peasant music is taken over and becomes transmuted into modern music? We may, for instance, take over a peasant melody unchanged or only slightly varied, write an accompaniment to it and possibly some opening and concluding phrases. This kind of work would show a certain analogy with Bach’s treatment of chorales. [...] Another method [...] is the following: the composer does not make use of a real peasant melody but invents his own imitation of such melodies. There is no true difference between this method and the one described above. [...] There is yet a third way [...] Neither peasant melodies nor imitations of peasant melodies can be found in his music, but it is pervaded by the atmosphere of peasant music. In this case we may say, he has completely absorbed the idiom of peasant music which has become his musical mother tongue. (Bartók 1931/1976, 341–44.) Bartók became first acquainted with Debussy’s music in 1907 and regarded his music highly. In an interview in 1939 Bartók said Debussy's great service to music was to reawaken among all musicians an awareness of harmony and its possibilities. In that, he was just as important as Beethoven, who revealed to us the possibilities of progressive form, or as Bach, who showed us the transcendent significance of counterpoint. Now, what I am always asking myself is this: is it possible to make a synthesis of these three great masters, a living synthesis that will be valid for our time? (Moreux 1953, 92) Debussy's influence is present in the Fourteen Bagatelles (1908). These made Ferruccio Busoni exclaim ‘At last something truly new!’ (Bartók, 1948, 2:83). Until 1911, Bartók composed widely differing works which ranged from adherence to romantic-style, to folk song arrangements and to his modernist opera Bluebeard’s Castle. The negative reception of his work led him to focus on folk music research after 1911 and abandon composition with the exception of folk music arrangements (Gillies 1993, 404 and Stevens 1964, 47-49). New inspiration and experimentation (1916–1921) His pessimistic attitude towards composing was lifted by the stormy and inspiring contact with Klára Gombossy in the summer of 1915 (Gillies 1993, 405). This interesting episode in Bartók's life remained hidden until it was researched by Denijs Dille between 1979 and 1989 (Dille 1990, 257–277). Bartók started composing again, including the Suite for piano opus 14 (1916), and The Miraculous Mandarin (1918) and he completed The Wooden Prince (1917). Bartók felt the result of World War I as a personal tragedy (Stevens 1993, 3). Many regions he loved were severed from Hungary: Transylvania, the Banat where he was born, and Pozsony where his mother lived. Additionally, the political relations between Hungary and the other successor states to the Austro-Hungarian empire prohibited his folk music research outside of Hungary (Somfai, 1996, 18). Thrown largely onto himself, he experimented with extreme compositional practices, the peak being his Sonata for Violin and Piano No. 1 (Op. 21) and No. 2. With the noteworthy Eight Improvisations on Hungarian Peasant Songs (1920), and the sunny Dance Suite (1923, year of his second marriage), we have summed up all Bartók’s works of 1919–25. Synthesis of East and West (1926–1945) In 1926, Bartók needed a significant piece for piano and orchestra with which he could tour in Europe and America. In the preparation for writing his First Piano Concerto, he wrote his Sonata, Out of Doors, and Nine Little Pieces, all for solo piano (Gillies 1993, 173). He increasingly found his own voice of his maturity. The style of his last period (named "Synthesis of East and West" (Gillies 1993, 189)) is hard to define let alone to stick under one term. In his mature period, Bartók wrote relatively few works but most of them are large-scale compositions for large settings. Only his voice works have programmatic titles and his late works often adhere to classical forms. Among his masterworks are all the six String quartets (1908, 1917, 1927, 1928, 1934, and 1939), the Cantata Profana (1930, Bartók declared that this was the work he felt and professed to be his most personal "credo", Szabolcsi 1974, 186), the Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936), the Concerto for Orchestra (1943) and the Third Piano Concerto (1945). Bartók also made a lasting contribution to the literature for younger students: for his son Péter's music lessons, he composed Mikrokosmos, a six-volume collection of graded piano pieces. Music-theoretical analysis Paul Wilson lists as the most prominent characteristics of Bartók's music from late 1920s onwards the influence of the Carpathian basin and European art music, and his changing attitude toward (and use of) tonality, but without the use of the traditional harmonic functions associated with major and minor scales (Wilson 1992, 2–4). Bartók is an influential modernist and his music used or may be analysed as containing various modernist techniques such as atonality, bitonality, attenuated harmonic function, polymodal chromaticism, projected sets, privileged patterns, and large set types used as source sets such as the equal tempered twelve tone aggregate, octatonic scale (and alpha chord), the diatonic and heptatonia seconda seven-note scales, and less often the whole tone scale and the primary pentatonic collection (Wilson 1992, 24–29). He rarely used the simple aggregate actively to shape musical structure, though there are notable examples such as the second theme from the first movement of his Second Violin Concerto, commenting that he "wanted to show Schoenberg that one can use all twelve tones and still remain tonal" (Gillies 1990, 185). More thoroughly, in the first eight measures of the last movement of his Second Quartet, all notes gradually gather with the twelfth (G♭) sounding for the first time on the last beat of measure 8, marking the end of the first section. The aggregate is partitioned in the opening of the Third String Quartet with C♯–D–D♯–E in the accompaniment (strings) while the remaining pitch classes are used in the melody (violin 1) and more often as 7-35 (diatonic or "white-key" collection) and 5-35 (pentatonic or "black-key" collection) such as in no. 6 of the Eight Improvisations. There, the primary theme is on the black keys in the left hand, while the right accompanies with triads from the white keys. In measures 50–51 in the third movement of the Fourth Quartet, the first violin and 'cello play black-key chords, while the second violin and viola play stepwise diatonic lines (Wilson 1992, 25). On the other hand, from as early as the Suite for piano, op. 14 (1914), he occasionally employed a form of serialism based on compound interval cycles, some of which are maximally distributed, multi-aggregate cycles (Gollin 2007). Béla Bartók memorial plaque in Baja, Hungary Ernő Lendvai (1971) analyses Bartók's works as being based on two opposing tonal systems, that of the acoustic scale and the axis system, as well as using the golden section as a structural principle. Milton Babbitt, in his 1949 critique of Bartók's string quartets, criticized Bartók for using tonality and non tonal methods unique to each piece. Babbitt noted that "Bartók's solution was a specific one, it cannot be duplicated" (Babbitt 1949, 385). Bartók's use of "two organizational principles"—tonality for large scale relationships and the piece-specific method for moment to moment thematic elements—was a problem for Babbitt, who worried that the "highly attenuated tonality" requires extreme non-harmonic methods to create a feeling of closure (Babbitt 1949, 377–78). Catalogues and opus numbers The cataloguing of Bartók's works is somewhat complex. Bartók assigned opus numbers to his works three times, the last of these series ending with the Sonata for Violin and Piano No. 1 Op. 21 in 1921. He ended this practice because of the difficulty of distinguishing between original works and ethnographic arrangements, and between major and minor works. Since his death, three attempts—two full and one partial—have been made at cataloguing. The first, and still most widely used, is András Szőllősy's chronological Sz. numbers, from 1 to 121. Denijs Dille subsequently reorganised the juvenilia (Sz. 1–25) thematically, as DD numbers 1 to 77. The most recent catalogue is that of László Somfai; this is a chronological index with works identified by BB numbers 1 to 129, incorporating corrections based on the Béla Bartók Thematic Catalogue (Somfai [undated]). Media Bibliography Anon. 1945. "Béla Bartók 1881–1945". Musical Times (November): . Anon. 2003. "Béla Bartók 1881–1945". Websophia.com. (Accessed 25 March 2009) Anon. 2006. "Gyorgy Sandor, Pianist and Bartok Authority, Dies at 93". The Juilliard Journal Online 21, no. 5 (February). Babbitt, Milton. 1949. "The String Quartets of Bartók". Musical Quarterly 35 (July): 377–85. Reprinted in The Collected Essays of Milton Babbitt, edited by Stephen Peles, with Stephen Dembski, Andrew Mead, and Joseph N. Straus, . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN 0691089663 Bartók, Béla. 1948. Levelek, fényképek, kéziratok, kották. ("Letters, photographs, manuscripts, scores"), ed. János Demény, 2 vols. A Muvészeti Tanács könyvei, 1.–2. sz. Budapest: Magyar Muvészeti Tanács. English edition, as Béla Bartók: Letters, translated by Péter Balabán and István Farkas; translation revised by Elisabeth West and Colin Mason (London: Faber and Faber Ltd.; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1971). ISBN 978-0571096381 Botstein, Leon. "Modernism", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed April 29, 2008), (subscription access) Chalmers, Kenneth. 1995. Béla Bartók. 20th-Century Composers. London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0714831646 (pbk.) de Toth, June. 1999. "Béla Bartók: A Biography". Bela Bartok Biography Liner notes to Béla Bartók: Complete Piano Works 7-CD set, Eroica Classical Recordings Dille, Denijs. 1990. Béla Bartók: Regard sur le Passé. (French, no English version available). Namur: Presses universitaires de Namur. ISBN 2870371683 ISBN 978-2870371688 Einstein, Alfred. 1947. Music in the Romantic Era. New York: W.W. Norton. Gillies, Malcolm (ed.). 1990. Bartók Remembered. London: Faber. ISBN 0571142435 (cased) ISBN 0571142443 (pbk) Gillies, Malcolm (ed.). 1993. The Bartók Companion. London: Faber. ISBN 0571153305 (cloth), ISBN 0571153313 (pbk) New York: Hal Leonard. ISBN 0-931340-74-8 Gillies, Malcolm. 2001. "Béla Bartók". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Press; New York: Grove's Dictionaries of Music. Also in Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed May 23, 2006), (subscription access) Gollin, Edward. 2007. "Multi-Aggregate Cycles and Multi-Aggregate Serial Techniques in the Music of Béla Bartók". Music Theory Spectrum 29, no. 2 (Fall): 143–76. Griffiths, Paul. 1978. A Concise History of Modern Music. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20164-1 Hughes, Peter. 1999–2007. "Béla Bartók" in Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography. [n.p.]: Unitarian Universalist Historical Society. Leafstedt, Carl S. 1999. Inside Bluebeard's Castle. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195109996 Moreux, Serge. 1953. Béla Bartók, translated G. S. Fraser and Erik de Mauny. London: The Harvill Press. Özgentürk, Nebil. 2008. Türkiye'nin Hatıra Defteri, episode 3. Istanbul: Bir Yudum İnsan Prodüksiyon LTD. ŞTİ. Turkish CNN television documentary series. Sipos, János (ed.). 2000. In the Wake of Bartók in Anatolia 1: Collection Near Adana. Budapest: Ethnofon Records. Somfai, László. [undated]. "The 'BB' Numbering System", in "Mikrocosmos" [sic], ed. by Zoltán Kocsis, Philips 462 381–2. Somfai, Laszlo (1996). Béla Bartók: Composition, Concepts, and Autograph Sources. Ernest Bloch Lectures in Music 9. Berkeley : University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520084858 Schneider, David E. 2006. Bartók, Hungary, and the Renewal of Tradition: Case Studies in the Intersection of Modernity and Nationality. California Studies in 20th-Century Music 5. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520245037 Stevens, Halsey. 1964. The Life and Music of Béla Bartók, second edition. New York: Oxford University Press. ASIN: B000NZ54ZS (Third edition 1993, ISBN 978-0198163497) Szabolcsi, Bence. 1974. Bartók Béla: Cantata profana in "Miért szép századunk zenéje?" (Why is the music of the Twentieth century so beautiful), ed. György Kroó. Budapest. Wilson, Paul. 1992. The Music of Béla Bartók. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300051115. Discography Bartók, Béla. 1994. Bartók at the Piano. Hungaroton 12326. 6-CD set. Bartók, Béla. 1995a. Bartok Plays Bartok - Bartok At The Piano 1929–41. Pearl 9166. CD recording. Bartók, Béla. 1995b. Bartók Recordings From Private Collections. Hungaroton 12334. CD recording. Bartók, Béla. 2003. Bartók Plays Bartók. Pearl 179. CD recording. Bartók, Béla. 2007. Bartók: Contrasts, Mikrokosmos. Membran/Documents 223546. CD recording. Bartók, Béla. 2008. Bartok Plays Bartok. Urania 340. CD recording. Further reading Antokoletz, Elliott (1984). The Music of Béla Bartók: A Study of Tonality and Progression in Twentieth-Century Music. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0520046048 Kárpáti, János (1975). Bartók's String Quartets. Translated by Fred MacNicol. Budapest: Corvina Press. Somfai, László. 1981. Tizennyolc Bartók-tanulmány [Eighteen Bartók Studies]. Budapest: Zeneműkiadó. ISBN 9633303702 Somfai, Lászlo. 1996. Béla Bartók: Composition, Concepts, and Autograph Sources. Ernest Bloch Lectures. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520084853 External links The Lied and Art Song Texts Page Original texts of the songs of Bartok with translations in various languages. Bartók Béla Memorial House, Budapest Bartók Béla Guitar transliteration videos Bartók and his relationship with Unitarianism Gallery of Bartók portraits Béla Bartok Audio Recordings—listen on Magazzini-Sonori Music Space Bela Bartók at Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music Boosey.com- Snapshot page Recordings Kunst der Fuge: Béla Bartók—MIDI files Contrasts: Verbunkos (7.10 mb), Contrasts: Piheno (5.86 mb), Contrasts: Sebes (8.26 mb). Helen Kim (violin), Ted Gurch (clarinet), Adam Bowles (piano). 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6,092	Ericaceae	Ericaceae, or the heath family, is comprised mostly of lime-hating (calcifuge) plants that thrive in acid soils. Many well-known plants of Ericaceae live in temperate climates, such as cranberry, blueberry, various heaths, heather, huckleberry, azalea and rhododendron. However, the family also contains many tropical species. See for example The Ericaceae family consists of herbs, shrubs and trees with leaves that are usually alternate, simple and without stipules, and hermaphrodite flowers. The flowers show considerable variability. The petals are often fused (sympetalous) with shapes ranging from narrowly tubular to funnelform or widely bowl-shaped. The corollas are usually radially symmetrical (actinomorphic) but many flowers of the genus Rhododendron are somewhat bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic). Recent genetic research by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group has resulted in the inclusion of the formerly recognised families Empetraceae, Epacridaceae, Monotropaceae, Prionotaceae and Pyrolaceae into Ericaceae. Most Ericaceae, except Monotropaceae, Prionotaceae and Pyrolaceae form ericoid mycorrhiza. This symbiotic relationship is considered crucial to the success of members of the family in edaphically stressful environments worldwide (Cairney and Meharg, 2003). Genera Vaccinium (Ericaceae) berries, from top right: Cranberries, red huckleberries, blueberries, lingonberries Acrostemon Acrotriche Agapetes Agarista Allotropa Andersonia Andromeda Anomalanthus Anthopteropsis Anthopterus Arachnocalyx Arbutus Archeria Arctostaphylos Astroloma Bejaria Brachyloma Bruckenthalia Bryanthus Calluna Calopteryx Cassiope Cavendishia Ceratiola Ceratostema Chamaedaphne Chimaphila Coccosperma Coilostigma Comarostaphylis Conostephium Corema CosteraCraibiodendron Cyathodes Daboecia Demosthenesia Didonica Dimorphanthera Diogenesia Diplarche Diplycosia Disterigma Dracophyllum Empetrum Elliottia Epacris Epigaea Enkianthus Eremia Eremiella Erica Findlaya Gaultheria Gaylussacia Gonocalyx Grisebachia Harrimanella Hemitomes Kalmia Kalmiopsis Killipiella Lateropora Ledothamnus LedumLeiophyllum Leptecophylla Leucopogon Leucothoe Lissanthe Loiseleuria Lyonia Macleana Macnabia Malea Menziesia Mitrastylus Moneses Monotoca Monotropa Monotropsis Mycerinus Nagelocarpus Notopora Oreanthes Ornithostaphylos Orthaea Orthilia Oxydendrum Pellegrinia Pentachondra Pernettyopsis Phyllodoce Pieris Pityopus Platycalyx Pleuricospora Plutarchia Polyclita PrionotesPsammisia Pterospora Pyrola Rhododendron Rhodothamnus Richea Rusbya Salaxis Sarcodes Satyria Scyphogyne Semiramisia Simocheilus Siphonandra Sphyrospermum Stokoeanthus Styphelia Sympieza Syndsmanthus Tepuia Thamnus Themistoclesia Therorhodion Thibaudia Thoracosperma Trochocarpa Tsusiophyllum Utleya Vaccinium Woollsia Xylococcus Zenobia References Cairney, JWG & Meharg, AA (2003). Ericoid mycorrhiza: a partnership that exploits harsh edaphic conditions. European Journal of Soil Science 54, 735-740. Walters, Dick R. and David J. Keil. Vascular Plant Taxonomy. Kendall\Hunt: 1996, Dubuque External links Ericaceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants. Neotropical blueberries reference at New York Botanical Garden (very detailed, keys to genera and species, etc.) Ericaceae Homepage, including a large number of photographs, cladograms, and descriptions.	Ericaceae \|@lemmatized ericaceae:8 heath:2 family:6 comprise:1 mostly:1 lime:1 hating:1 calcifuge:1 plant:4 thrive:1 acid:1 soil:2 many:3 well:1 know:1 live:1 temperate:1 climate:1 cranberry:2 blueberry:3 various:1 heather:1 huckleberry:2 azalea:1 rhododendron:3 however:1 also:1 contain:1 tropical:1 specie:2 see:1 example:1 consist:1 herb:1 shrub:1 tree:1 leaf:1 usually:2 alternate:1 simple:1 without:1 stipule:1 hermaphrodite:1 flower:4 show:1 considerable:1 variability:1 petal:1 often:1 fuse:1 sympetalous:1 shape:2 range:1 narrowly:1 tubular:1 funnelform:1 widely:1 bowl:1 corolla:1 radially:1 symmetrical:2 actinomorphic:1 genus:2 somewhat:1 bilaterally:1 zygomorphic:1 recent:1 genetic:1 research:1 angiosperm:1 phylogeny:1 group:1 result:1 inclusion:1 formerly:1 recognised:1 empetraceae:1 epacridaceae:1 monotropaceae:2 prionotaceae:2 pyrolaceae:2 except:1 form:1 ericoid:2 mycorrhiza:2 symbiotic:1 relationship:1 consider:1 crucial:1 success:1 member:1 edaphically:1 stressful:1 environment:1 worldwide:1 cairney:2 meharg:2 vaccinium:2 berry:1 top:1 right:1 red:1 lingonberry:1 acrostemon:1 acrotriche:1 agapetes:1 agarista:1 allotropa:1 andersonia:1 andromeda:1 anomalanthus:1 anthopteropsis:1 anthopterus:1 arachnocalyx:1 arbutus:1 archeria:1 arctostaphylos:1 astroloma:1 bejaria:1 brachyloma:1 bruckenthalia:1 bryanthus:1 calluna:1 calopteryx:1 cassiope:1 cavendishia:1 ceratiola:1 ceratostema:1 chamaedaphne:1 chimaphila:1 coccosperma:1 coilostigma:1 comarostaphylis:1 conostephium:1 corema:1 costeracraibiodendron:1 cyathodes:1 daboecia:1 demosthenesia:1 didonica:1 dimorphanthera:1 diogenesia:1 diplarche:1 diplycosia:1 disterigma:1 dracophyllum:1 empetrum:1 elliottia:1 epacris:1 epigaea:1 enkianthus:1 eremia:1 eremiella:1 erica:1 findlaya:1 gaultheria:1 gaylussacia:1 gonocalyx:1 grisebachia:1 harrimanella:1 hemitomes:1 kalmia:1 kalmiopsis:1 killipiella:1 lateropora:1 ledothamnus:1 ledumleiophyllum:1 leptecophylla:1 leucopogon:1 leucothoe:1 lissanthe:1 loiseleuria:1 lyonia:1 macleana:1 macnabia:1 malea:1 menziesia:1 mitrastylus:1 moneses:1 monotoca:1 monotropa:1 monotropsis:1 mycerinus:1 nagelocarpus:1 notopora:1 oreanthes:1 ornithostaphylos:1 orthaea:1 orthilia:1 oxydendrum:1 pellegrinia:1 pentachondra:1 pernettyopsis:1 phyllodoce:1 pieris:1 pityopus:1 platycalyx:1 pleuricospora:1 plutarchia:1 polyclita:1 prionotespsammisia:1 pterospora:1 pyrola:1 rhodothamnus:1 richea:1 rusbya:1 salaxis:1 sarcodes:1 satyria:1 scyphogyne:1 semiramisia:1 simocheilus:1 siphonandra:1 sphyrospermum:1 stokoeanthus:1 styphelia:1 sympieza:1 syndsmanthus:1 tepuia:1 thamnus:1 themistoclesia:1 therorhodion:1 thibaudia:1 thoracosperma:1 trochocarpa:1 tsusiophyllum:1 utleya:1 woollsia:1 xylococcus:1 zenobia:1 reference:2 jwg:1 aa:1 partnership:1 exploit:1 harsh:1 edaphic:1 condition:1 european:1 journal:1 science:1 walter:1 dick:1 r:1 david:1 j:2 keil:1 vascular:1 taxonomy:1 kendall:1 hunt:1 dubuque:1 external:1 link:1 l:1 watson:1 dallwitz:1 onwards:1 neotropical:1 new:1 york:1 botanical:1 garden:1 detail:1 key:1 genera:1 etc:1 homepage:1 include:1 large:1 number:1 photograph:1 cladogram:1 description:1 \|@bigram temperate_climate:1 bilaterally_symmetrical:1 angiosperm_phylogeny:1 symbiotic_relationship:1 vascular_plant:1 kendall_hunt:1 external_link:1 j_dallwitz:1 dallwitz_onwards:1 botanical_garden:1
6,093	Baryon	Baryons are the family of composite particles made of three quarks, as opposed to the mesons which are the family of composite particles made of one quark and one antiquark. Both baryons and mesons are part of the larger particle family comprising all particles made of quarks – the hadrons. The term baryon is derived from the Greek βαρύς (barys), meaning "heavy", because at the time of their naming it was believed that baryons were characterized by having greater masses than other particles. Until very recently, it was believed that some experiments showed the existence of pentaquarks – "exotic" baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark. H. Muir (2003) K. Carter (2003) The particle physics community as a whole did not view their existence as likely in 2006, W.-M. Yao et al. (2006): Particle listings – Θ+ and in 2008, considered evidence to be overwhelmingly against the existence of the reported pentaquarks. C. Amsler et al. (2008): Pentaquarks Since baryons are composed of quarks, they participate in the strong interaction. Leptons, on the other hand, are not composed of quarks and as such do not participate in the strong interaction. The most well known baryons are the protons and neutrons which make up most of the mass of the visible matter in the universe, whereas electrons (the other major component of atoms) are leptons. Each baryon has a corresponding antiparticle (antibaryon) where quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks. For example, a proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark; and its corresponding antiparticle, the antiproton, is made of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark. Background Baryons are strongly interacting fermions – that is, they experience the strong nuclear force and are described by Fermi-Dirac statistics, which apply to all particles obeying the Pauli exclusion principle. This is in contrast to the bosons, which do not obey the exclusion principle. Baryons, along with mesons, are hadrons, meaning they are particles composed of quarks. Quarks have baryon numbers of B = and antiquarks have baryon number of B = −. The term "baryon" usually refers to triquarks—baryons made of three quarks (B = + + = 1). Other "exotic" baryons have been proposed, such as pentaquarks — baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark (B = + + + − = 1), but their existence is not generally accepted. Theoretically, heptaquarks (5 quarks, 2 antiquarks), nonaquarks (6 quarks, 3 antiquarks), etc. could also exist. Baryonic matter Baryonic matter is matter composed mostly of baryons (by mass), which includes atoms of any sort (and thus includes nearly all matter that we may encounter or experience in everyday life, including our bodies). Non-baryonic matter, as implied by the name, is any sort of matter that is not primarily composed of baryons. This might include such ordinary matter as neutrinos or free electrons; however, it may also include exotic species of non-baryonic dark matter, such as supersymmetric particles, axions or black holes. The distinction between baryonic and non-baryonic matter is important in cosmology, because Big Bang nucleosynthesis models set tight constraints on the amount of baryonic matter present in the early universe. The very existence of baryons is also a significant issue in cosmology because we have assumed that the Big Bang produced a state with equal amounts of baryons and antibaryons. The process by which baryons come to outnumber their antiparticles is called baryogenesis (in contrast to a process by which leptons account for the predominance of matter over antimatter, leptogenesis). Baryogenesis Experiments are consistent with the number of quarks in the universe being a constant and, more specifically, the number of baryons being a constant; in technical language, the total baryon number appears to be conserved. Within the prevailing Standard Model of particle physics, the number of baryons may change in multiples of three due to the action of sphalerons, although this is rare and has not been observed experimentally. Some grand unified theories of particle physics also predict that a single proton can decay, changing the baryon number by one; however, this has not yet been observed experimentally. The excess of baryons over antibaryons in the present universe is thought to be due to non-conservation of baryon number in the very early universe, though this is not well understood. Properties Isospin and charge Combinations of three u, d or s quarks forming baryons with a spin- form the uds baryon decuplet Combinations of three u, d or s quarks forming baryons with a spin- form the uds baryon octet The concept of isospin was first proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1932 to explain the similarities between protons and neutrons under the strong interaction. W. Heisengberg (1932) Although they had different electric charges, their masses were so similar that physicists believed they were actually the same particle. The different electric charges were explained as being the result of some unknown excitation similar to spin. This unknown excitation was later dubbed isospin by Eugene Wigner in 1937. E. Wigner (1937) This belief lasted until Murray Gell-Mann proposed the quark model in 1964 (containing originally only the u, d, and s quarks). M. Gell-Mann (1964) The success of the isospin model is now understood to be the result of the similar masses of the u and d quarks. Since the u and d quarks have similar masses, particles made of the same number then also have similar masses. The exact specific u and d quark composition determines the charge, as u quarks carry charge + while d quarks carry charge −. For example the four Deltas all have different charges ( (uuu), (uud), (udd), (ddd)), but have similar masses (~1,232 MeV/c2) as they are each made of a total of three u and d quarks. Under the isospin model, they were considered to be a single particle in different charged states. The mathematics of isospin was modeled after that of spin. Isospin projections varied in increments of 1 just like those of spin, and to each projection was associated a "charged state". Since the "Delta particle" had four "charged states", it was said to be of isospin I = . Its "charged states" , , , and , corresponded to the isospin projections Iz = +, Iz = +, Iz = −, and Iz = − respectively. Another example is the "nucleon particle". As there were two nucleon "charged states", it was said to be of isospin . The positive nucleon (proton) was identified with Iz = + and the neutral nucleon (neutron) with Iz = −. S.S.M. Wong (1998a) It was later noted that the isospin projections were related to the up and down quark content of particles by the relation: where the n's are the number of up and down quarks and antiquarks. In the "isospin picture", the four Deltas and the two nucleons were thought to be the different states of two particles. However in the quark model, Deltas are different states of nucleons (the N++ or N− are forbidden by Pauli's exclusion principle). Isospin, although conveying an inaccurate picture of things, is still used to classify baryons, leading to unnatural and often confusing nomenclature. Flavour quantum numbers The strangeness flavour quantum number S (not to be confused with spin) was noticed to go up and down along with particle mass. The higher the mass, the lower the strangeness (the more s quarks). Particles could be described with isospin projections (related to charge) and strangeness (mass) (see the uds octet and decuplet figures on the right). As other quarks were discovered, new quantum numbers were made to have similar description of udc and udb octets and decuplets. Since only the u and d mass are similar, this description of particle mass and charge in terms of isospin and flavour quantum numbers only works well for octet and decuplet made of one u, one d and one other quark and breaks down for the other octets and decuplets (for example ucb octet and decuplet). If the quarks all had the same mass, their behaviour would be called symmetric, as they would all behave in exactly the same way with respect to the strong interaction. Since quarks do not have the same mass, they do not interact in the same way (exactly like an electron placed in an electric field will accelerate more than a proton placed in the same field because of its lighter mass), and the symmetry is said to be broken. It was noted that charge (Q) was related to the isospin projection (Iz), the baryon number (B) and flavour quantum numbers (S, C, B′, T) by the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula: where S, C, B′, and T represent the strangeness, charmness, bottomness and topness flavour quantum numbers respectively. They are related to the number of strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks and antiquark according to the relations: meaning that the Gell-Man–Nishijima formula is equivalent to the expression of charge in terms of quark content: Spin, orbital angular momentum, and total angular momentum Spin (quantum number S) is a vector quantity that represents the "intrinsic" angular momentum of a particle. It comes in increments of ħ (pronounced "h-bar"). The ħ is often dropped because it is the "fundamental" unit of spin, and it is implied that "spin 1" means "spin 1 ħ". In some systems of natural units, ħ is chosen to be 1, therefore does not appear anywhere. Quarks are fermionic particles of spin (S = ). Because spin projections varies in increments of 1 (that is 1 ħ), a single quark has a spin vector of length , and has two spin projections (Sz = + and Sz = −). Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length S = 1 and three spin projections (Sz = +1, Sz = 0, and Sz = −1). If two quarks have unaligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length S = 0 and has only one spin projection (Sz = 0), etc. Since baryons are made of three quarks, their spin vectors can add to make a vector of length S = which has four spin projections (Sz = +, Sz = +, Sz = −, and Sz = −), or a vector of length S = with two spin projections (Sz = +, and Sz = −). R. Shankar (1994) There is another quantity of angular momentum, called the orbital angular momentum (quantum number L), that comes in increments of 1 ħ, which represent the angular moment due to quarks orbiting around each other. The total angular momentum (quantum number J) of a particle is therefore the combination of intrinsic angular momentum (spin) and orbital angular momentum. It can take any value from to , in increments of 1. +Baryon angular momentum quantum numbers for L = 0, 1, 2, 3 Spin (S) Orbital angular momentum (L) Total angular momentum (J) Parity (P)(See below) Condensed notation (JP) 0 + + 1 , − −, − 2 , + +, + 3 , − −, − 0 + + 1 , , − −, −, − 2 , , + +, +, + 3 , , − −, −, − Particle physicists are most interested in baryons with no orbital angular momentum (L = 0), as they correspond to ground states – states of minimal energy. Therefore the two groups of baryons most studied are the S = ; L = 0 and S = ; L = 0, which corresponds to J = + and J = + respectively, although they are not the only ones. It is also possible to obtain J = + particles from S = and L = 2, as well as S = and L = 2. This phenomena of having multiple particles in the same total angular momentum configuration is called degeneracy. How to distinguish between these degenerate baryons is an active area of research in baryon spectroscopy. H. Garcilazo et al. (2007) D.M. Manley (2005) Parity If the universe were reflected in a mirror, most of the laws of physics would be identical – things would behave the same way regardless of what we call "left" and what we call "right". This concept of mirror reflection is called intrinsic parity or parity (P). Gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the strong interaction all behave in the same way regardless of whether or not the universe is reflected in a mirror, and thus are said to conserve parity (P-symmetry). However, the weak interaction does distinguish "left" from "right", a phenomenon called parity violation (P-violation). Based on this, one might think that if the wavefunction for each particle (more precisely, the quantum field for each particle type) were simultaneously mirror-reversed, then the new set of wavefunctions would perfectly satisfy the laws of physics (apart from the weak interaction). It turns out that this is not quite true: In order for the equations to be satisfied, the wavefunctions of certain types of particles have to be multiplied by −1, in addition to being mirror-reversed. Such particle types are said to have negative or odd parity (P = −1, or alternatively P = –), while the other particles are said to have positive or even parity (P = +1, or alternatively P = +). For baryons, the parity is related to the orbital angular momentum by the relation: S.S.M. Wong (1998b) As a consequence, baryons with no orbital angular momentum (L = 0) all have even parity (P = +). Nomenclature Baryons are classified into groups according to their isospin (I) values and quark (q) content. There are six groups of baryons – nucleon (), Delta (), Lambda (), Sigma (), Xi (), and Omega (). The rules for classification are defined by the Particle Data Group. These rules consider the up (), down () and strange () quarks to be light and the charm (), bottom quark (), and top () to be heavy. The rules cover all the particles that can be made from three of each of the six quarks, even though baryons made of t quarks are not expected to exist because of the t quark's short lifetime. The rules do not cover pentaquarks. C. Amsler et al. (2008): Naming scheme for hadrons Baryons with three and/or quarks are 's (I = ) or 's (I = ). Baryons with two and/or quarks are 's (I = 0) or 's (I = 1). If the third quark is heavy, its identity is given by a subscript. Baryons with one or quark are 's (I = ). One or two subscripts are used if one or both of the remaining quarks are heavy. Baryons with no or quarks are 's (I = 0), and subscripts indicate any heavy quark content. Baryons that decay strongly have their masses as part of their names. For example, Σ0 does not decay strongly, but Δ++(1232) does. It is also a widespread (but not universal) practice to follow some additional rules when distinguishing between some states which would otherwise have the same symbol. Baryons in total angular momentum J = configuration which have the same symbols as their J = counterparts are denoted by an asterisk ( * ). Two baryons can be made of three different quarks in J = configuration. In this case, a prime ( ′ ) is used to distinguish between them. Exception: When two of the three quarks are one up and one down quark, one baryon is dubbed Λ while the other is dubbed Σ. Quarks carry charge, so knowing the charge of a particle indirectly gives the quark content. For example, the rules above say that a contains a c quark and some combination of two u and/or d quarks. The c quark as a charge of (Q = +), therefore the other two must be a u quark (Q = +), and a d quark (Q = −) to have the correct total charge (Q = +1). List See list of baryons. See also Eightfold way Mesons List of particles Timeline of particle discoveries References Bibliography External links Particle Data Group – Review of Particle Physics (2008). Georgia State University – HyperPhysics	Baryon \|@lemmatized baryon:53 family:3 composite:2 particle:40 make:19 three:12 quark:64 oppose:1 meson:4 one:19 antiquark:11 part:2 large:1 comprise:1 hadron:3 term:4 derive:1 greek:1 βαρύς:1 barys:1 meaning:2 heavy:5 time:1 naming:1 believe:3 characterize:1 great:1 mass:17 recently:1 experiment:2 show:1 existence:5 pentaquarks:5 exotic:3 four:6 h:3 muir:1 k:1 carter:1 physic:6 community:1 whole:1 view:1 likely:1 w:2 yao:1 et:4 al:4 listing:1 θ:1 consider:3 evidence:1 overwhelmingly:1 report:1 c:6 amsler:2 since:6 compose:5 participate:2 strong:6 interaction:7 lepton:3 hand:1 well:4 know:2 proton:6 neutron:3 visible:1 matter:12 universe:7 whereas:1 electron:3 major:1 component:1 atom:2 corresponding:3 antiparticle:3 antibaryon:3 replace:1 example:6 two:17 antiproton:1 background:1 strongly:3 interact:2 fermion:1 experience:2 nuclear:1 force:2 describe:2 fermi:1 dirac:1 statistic:1 apply:1 obey:2 pauli:2 exclusion:3 principle:3 contrast:2 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6,094	Original_sin	Original sin The term "ancestral sin" is also used, as in Greek προπατορικὴ ἁμαρτία (e.g. Πόλεμος και φτώχεια - η ορθόδοξη άποψη, Η νηστεία της Σαρακοστής, Πώς στράφηκε ο Λούθηρος κατά του Μοναχισμού - του Γεωργίου Φλωρόφσκυ) or προπατορικὸ ἁμάρτημα (e.g. Απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα δογματικά - Ανδρέα Θεοδώρου, εκδ. Αποστολικής Διακονίας, 1997, σελ. 156-161, Θεοτόκος και προπατορικό αμάρτημα) is, according to a doctrine proposed in Christian theology, humanity's state of sin resulting from the Fall of Man. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Original Sin This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred to as a "sin nature", to something as drastic as total depravity or automatic guilt by all humans through collective guilt. Those who uphold the doctrine look to the teaching of Paul the Apostle in and for its scriptural base, and see it as perhaps implied in Old Testament passages such as and . Some Christians do not accept the doctrine indicated by the terms "original sin" or "ancestral sin", which are not found in the Bible. The same applies to terms such as "Trinity" used to express other Christian doctrines. The doctrine is not found in other religions, such as Judaism, Judaism's Rejection Of Original Sin Hinduism What is the Hindu view of sin? and Islam. Roman Catholic teaching regards original sin as the general condition of sinfulness (lack of holiness) into which human beings are born, distinct from the actual sins that a person commits. It explicitly states that original sin does not have the character of a personal fault in any of Adam's descendants. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 405 The prevailing view also in Eastern Orthodoxy is that man bears no guilt for the sin of Adam. Orthodoxy prefers the term "ancestral sin", While the traditional term in Latin is "peccatum originale", with reference to the "origin" of the human race, the traditional term in Greek is "προπατορική αμαρτία" (or "προπατορικό αμάρτημα", more rarely "προγονική αμαρτία"), with reference to the "ancestor" of the human race). This is the term used also by Roman Catholics when speaking or writing in Greek. which indicates that "original sin is hereditary. It did not remain only Adam and Eve's. As life passes from them to all of their descendants, so does original sin. We all of us participate in original sin because we are all descended from the same forefather, Adam." Metropolis Basic Teachings of the Orthodox Faithby Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Archbishop Sotirios of Toronto (Canada): Original Sin and Its Consequences An important exposition of the belief of Eastern Christians identifies original sin as physical and spiritual death, the spiritual death being the loss of "the grace of God, which quickened (the soul) with the higher and spiritual life". Catechism of St. Philaret, questions 166, 167, 168 Others see original sin also as the cause of actual sins: "a bad tree bears bad fruit" (Matthew 7:17, NIV), although, in this view, original and actual sin may be difficult to distinguish. Johann Gerhard, Loci theologici, 5.17, quoted by Henri Blocher, Original Sin: Illuminating the Riddle, (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 19. Michelangelo's painting of the sin of Adam and Eve (the Fall) The fall of Man Original sin is said to result from the Fall of Man, when Adam and Eve ate the forbidden fruit of a particular tree in the Garden of Eden. This first sin ("the original sin"), an action of the first human beings, is traditionally understood to be the cause of "original sin", the fallen state from which human beings can be saved only by God's grace. History of the doctrine Augustine of Hippo wrote that original sin is transmitted by concupiscence and enfeebles freedom of the will without destroying it. The Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists mostly dealt with topics other than original sin. The doctrine of original sin was first developed in second-century Bishop of Lyon Irenaeus's struggle against Gnosticism. The Greek Fathers emphasized the cosmic dimension of the Fall, namely that since Adam human beings are born into a fallen world, but held fast to belief that man, though fallen, is free. It was in the West that precise definition of the doctrine arose. Augustine of Hippo taught that original sin was physically transmitted from parent to child through the concupiscence (roughly, lust) that accompanied sexual reproduction, weakening the will and making humanity a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd). In Augustine's view (termed "Realism"), all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all human beings inherit. As sinners, human beings are utterly depraved in nature, lack the freedom to do good, and cannot respond to the will of God without divine grace. Grace is irresistible, results in conversion, and leads to perseverance. In the struggle against Pelagianism, which denied the doctrine of original sin, the principles of Augustine's teaching was confirmed by many councils, especially the Second Council of Orange in 529. Some of the followers of Augustine identified original sin with concupiscence, but this identification was challenged by the eleventh-century Saint Anselm of Canterbury , who defined original sin as "privation of the righteousness that every man ought to possess", thus separating it from concupiscence. In the twelfth century the identification of original sin with concupiscence was supported by Peter Lombard and others, but was rejected by the leading theologians in the next century, chief of whom was Thomas Aquinas. He distinguished the supernatural gifts of Adam before the Fall from what was merely natural, and said that it was the former that were lost, privileges that enabled man to keep his inferior powers in submission to reason and directed to his supernatural end. Even after the fall, man thus kept his natural abilities of reason, will and passions. Rigorous Augustine-inspired views persisted among the Franciscans, though the most prominent Franciscan theologians, such as Duns Scotus and William of Ockham, eliminated the element of concupiscence. Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin equated original sin with concupiscence, affirming that it persisted even after baptism and completely destroyed freedom. The Council of Trent, while not pronouncing on points disputed among Catholic theologians, condemned the teaching that in baptism the whole of what belongs to the essence of sin is not taken away, but is only cancelled or not imputed, and declared the concupiscence that remains after baptism not truly and properly "sin" in the baptized, but only to be called sin in the sense that it is of sin and inclines to sin. Decree 5 concerning original sin In 1567, soon after the close of the Council of Trent, Pope Pius V went beyond Trent by sanctioning Aquinas's distinction between nature and supernature in Adam's state before the Fall, condemned the identification of original sin with concupiscence, and approved the view that the unbaptized could have right use of will. From about the 18th century, belief about original sin has tended to become softened, but has persisted in some form as in Immanuel Kant's idea of "radical evil". Unbaptized infants Augustine believed that the only definitive destinations of souls are heaven and hell. He concluded that unbaptized infants go to hell as a consequence of original sin. "Infernum", literally "underworld," later identified as limbo. "Limbo: Past Catholic statements on the fate of unbaptized infants, etc. who have died" The Latin Church Fathers who followed Augustine adopted his position, which became a point of reference for Latin theologians in the Middle Ages. Study by International Theological Commission, 19 January 2007, 19-21 In the later mediaeval period, some theologians continued to hold Augustine's view, others held that unbaptized infants suffered no pain at all: unaware of being deprived of the beatific vision, they enjoyed a state of natural, not supernatural happiness. Starting around 1300, unbaptized infants were often said to inhabit the "limbo of infants". Study by International Theological Commission, 19 January 2007, 22-25 The Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1261 declares: "As regards children who have died without Baptism, the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God, as she does in her funeral rites for them. Indeed, the great mercy of God who desires that all men should be saved, and Jesus' tenderness toward children which caused him to say: 'Let the children come to me, do not hinder them,' ; cf. allow us to hope that there is a way of salvation for children who have died without Baptism. All the more urgent is the Church's call not to prevent little children coming to Christ through the gift of holy Baptism." But the theory of Limbo, while it "never entered into the dogmatic definitions of the Magisterium ... remains ... a possible theological hypothesis". Study by International Theological Commission, 19 January 2007, secondary preliminary paragraph; cf. paragraph 41. Augustine's formulation of original sin was popular among Protestant reformers, such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, and also, within Roman Catholicism, in the Jansenist movement, but this movement was declared heretical by the Roman Catholic Church. "Jansenius and Jansenism" in The Catholic Encyclopedia Like other traditional church doctrines, original sin has been denied or reinterpreted by various modern Christian denominations (such as the Unity Church) and theologians (such as Matthew Fox). Under such different views, Augustine's example of newborn babies would suffer the temptation to sin from their nature, but would not bear any guilt because of not actually committing sins of their own. Christian doctrine Illuminated parchment, Spain, circa AD 950-955, depicting the Fall of Man, cause of original sin. There are wide-ranging disagreements among Christian groups as to the exact understanding of the doctrine about a state of sinfulness or absence of holiness affecting all human beings, even children, with some Christian groups denying it altogether. New Testament The scriptural basis for the doctrine is found in two New Testament books by Paul the Apostle, Romans 5:12-21 and 1 Corinthians 15:22, in which he identifies Adam as the one man through whom death came into the world. Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned—for sin indeed was in the world before the law was given, but sin is not counted where there is no law. Yet death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over those whose sinning was not like the transgression of Adam, who was a type of the one who was to come. —Romans 5:12-14, ESV "Therefore, as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all men. For as by the one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man's obedience the many will be made righteous. Now the law came in to increase the trespass, but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more, so that, as sin reigned in death, grace also might reign through righteousness leading to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord." —Rom. 5:18-21, ESV Roman Catholicism The Catechism of the Catholic Church says: By his sin Adam, as the first man, lost the original holiness and justice he had received from God, not only for himself but for all human beings. Adam and Eve transmitted to their descendants human nature wounded by their own first sin and hence deprived of original holiness and justice; this deprivation is called "original sin". As a result of original sin, human nature is weakened in its powers, subject to ignorance, suffering and the domination of death, and inclined to sin (this inclination is called "concupiscence"). Catechism of the Catholic Church, 416-418 Catechism of the Catholic Church explains that in "yielding to the tempter, Adam and Eve committed a personal sin, but this sin affected the human nature that they would then transmit in a fallen state … original sin is called "sin" only in an analogical sense: it is a sin "contracted" and not "committed"—a state and not an act" (404). This "state of deprivation of the original holiness and justice … transmitted to the descendants of Adam along with human nature" (Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 76) involves no personal responsibility or personal guilt on their part (cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 405). Personal responsibility and guilt were Adam's, who because of his sin, was unable to pass on to his descendants a human nature with the holiness with which it would otherwise have been endowed, in this way implicating them in his sin. Though Adam's sinful act is not the responsibility of his descendants, the state of human nature that has resulted from that sinful act has consequences that plague them: "Human nature, without being entirely corrupted, has been harmed in its natural powers, is subject to ignorance, suffering and the power of death, and has a tendency to sin. This tendency is called concupiscence" (Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 77), but is distinct from original sin itself, since it remains even when original sin is remitted. The Church has always held baptism to be "for the remission of sins", and, as mentioned in Catechism of the Catholic Church, 403, infants too have traditionally been baptized, though not guilty of any actual personal sin. The sin that through baptism was remitted for them could only be original sin, with which they were connected by the very fact of being human beings. Based largely on this practice, Saint Augustine of Hippo articulated the teaching in reaction to Pelagianism, which insisted that human beings have of themselves, without the necessary help of God's grace, the ability to lead a morally good life, and thus denied both the importance of baptism and the teaching that God is the giver of all that is good. The Roman Catholic Church did not accept all of Augustine's ideas, which he developed to counter the claim by Pelagius that the influence of Adam on other human beings was merely that of bad example. For instance, the Church did not adopt the opinion that involvement in Adam's guilt and punishment takes effect through the dependence of human procreation on the sexual passion, in which the spirit's inability to control flesh is evident. Rather, the Church teaches that original sin comes to the soul simply from the new person taking his nature from one whose nature itself had original sin. In this way, the Church argues that original sin is not imputing the sin of the father to the son; rather, it is simply the inheritance of a wounded nature from the father, which is an unavoidable part of reproduction. The Roman Catholic doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of Mary is that Mary was conceived free from original sin: "the most Blessed Virgin Mary was, from the first moment of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege of almighty God and by virtue of the merits of Jesus Christ, Savior of the human race, preserved immune from all stain of original sin." Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus (1854) quoted in Catechism of the Catholic Church, 491 The exceptional character that Catholic doctrine attributes to the conception of Mary thus depends on the reality of original sin. If, as some hold, original sin did not exist, not only she, but all human beings would be conceived "immune from all stain of original sin". Eastern Christianity Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy and Eastern Catholicism, which together make up Eastern Christianity, acknowledge that the introduction of ancestral sin into the human race affected the subsequent environment for mankind, but never accepted Augustine of Hippo's notions of original sin and hereditary guilt. stmaryorthodoxchurch.org The act of Adam is not the responsibility of all humanity, but the consequences of that act changed the reality of this present age of the cosmos. The Greek Fathers emphasized the metaphysical dimension of the Fall of Man, whereby Adam's descendants are born into a fallen world, but at the same time held fast to belief that, in spite of that, man remains free. Instead of accepting the Lutheran interpretation of Augustine's teaching, Orthodox Churches accept the teaching of John Cassian, which rejects the doctrine of Total Depravity, by teaching that human nature is "fallen", that is, depraved, but not totally. Lutheranism The second article in Lutheranism's Augsburg Confession presents its doctrine of original sin in summary form: Mainstream Protestantism The notion of original sin as interpreted by Augustine of Hippo was affirmed by the Protestant Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin. Both Luther and Calvin agreed that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state of sin from the moment of conception. This inherently sinful nature (the basis for the Calvinistic doctrine of "total depravity") results in a complete alienation from God and the total inability of humans to achieve reconciliation with God based on their own abilities. Not only do individuals inherit a sinful nature due to Adam's fall, but since he was the federal head and representative of the human race, all whom he represented inherit the guilt of his sin by imputation. John Calvin defined original sin in his Institutes of the Christian Religion as follows: The Methodist Church, founded by John Wesley, upholds Article VII in the Articles of Religion in the Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church: Because of this conundrum, Protestants believe that God the Father sent Jesus into the world. The personhood, life, ministry, suffering, and death of Jesus, as God incarnate in human flesh, is meant to be the atonement for original sin as well as actual sins; this atonement is according to some rendered fully effective by the Resurrection of Jesus. Seventh-day Adventism One authoritative Adventist position is outlined by reference to publicly available theological positions available on the General Conference of the Seventh-day Adventist Church’s official website on theological doctrine, the Biblical Research Institute. adventistbiblicalresearch.org One such article commenting on original sin can be found here. Denial of original sin Restoration Movement Most Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement Churches, such as the Churches of Christ, Christian Churches, and the Disciples of Christ, reject the notion of original sin, believing only in the sins for which men and women are personally responsible. Such churches do not object to the idea that Adam and Eve brought sin into the world by introducing disobedience. Disobedience influenced further generations in much the same way other ideas spread, thus making sin likely in any individual above "The Age of Accountability." In the Old Testament, in the Book of Ezekiel, God's people are rebuked for suggesting that the children would die/suffer for their father's sins: The word of the Lord came to me: "What do you people mean by quoting this proverb about the land of Israel: 'The parents eat sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge'? As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign Lord, you will no longer quote this proverb in Israel. For everyone belongs to me, the parent as well as the child—both alike belong to me. The one who sins is the one who will die. —Ezek. 18:1-4, TNIV The Lord then gives examples of a good father with a bad son, of a good son with a bad father, etc. and states: "Yet you ask, 'Why does the son not share the guilt of his father?' Since the son has done what is just and right and has been careful to keep all my decrees, he will surely live. The one who sins is the one who will die. The child will not share the guilt of the parent, nor will the parent share the guilt of the child. The righteousness of the righteous will be credited to them, and the wickedness of the wicked will be charged against them. —Ezek. 18:19-20, TNIV God concludes: "house of Israel, I will judge each of you according to your own ways … Repent! Turn away from all your offenses; then sin will not be your downfall. Rid yourselves of all the offenses you have committed, and get a new heart and a new spirit" (Ezek. 18:30-31, TNIV). Many Restoration movement churches and individuals, however, do believe that Adam's sin made us depraved (that is, with a tendency towards sin) without making us guilty of Adam's sin. Man is predisposed towards sin, but though every person sins, they are not guilty on account of any sin nature. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as Mormons), are a movement with an additional set of scriptures. Mormonism does not believe in the concept of original sin as it is generally used in Christianity, but believes that everyone will be punished for their own individual sins and not for any transgression of Adam or Eve. Articles of Faith, article #2 Neither do Mormons believe that children come into the world with any guilt. Rather, Jesus Christ atoned for any "original guilt" and the sins of parents cannot be answered upon the heads of their children. Moses 6:53 in the Pearl of Great Price reads:And our father Adam spake unto the Lord, and said: Why is it that men must repent and be baptized in water? And the Lord said unto Adam: Behold I have forgiven thee thy transgression in the Garden of Eden. 54 Hence came the saying abroad among the people, that the Son of God hath atoned for original guilt, wherein the sins of the parents cannot be answered upon the heads of the children, for they are whole from the foundation of the world. Mormons also hold that little children are incapable of committing sin and, as such, have no need of (saving) baptism until age eight when they can begin to learn to discern right from wrong and are thus capable of sin and can be held accountable. Little children who die before reaching the age of accountability (even though they are unbaptized) are automatic heirs of salvation and are saved in the Celestial Kingdom of God through the atonement of Jesus Christ. Those who are incapable of understanding right from wrong, such as mentally handicapped persons, are also saved under the atonement of Jesus Christ without baptism. Extraterrestrial beings and original sin In an interview entitled "Aliens Are My Brother", granted to L'Osservatore Romano, the Vatican newspaper, Father Gabriel Funes, director of the Vatican Observatory, stated: "In my opinion this possibility (of life on other planets) exists"; "intelligent beings, created by God may exist in outer space" and "some aliens could even be free from original sin" concluding "there could be (other beings) who remained in full friendship with their creator". Reuters MSNBC Catholic News AgencyBBC And on 5 March 2009, Jesuit Brother Guy Consolmagno, another astronomer working at the Vatican Observatory, told the BBC, in relation to the search for Earth-like worlds about to be embarked upon by the Kepler Space telescope, that "we Jesuits are actively involved in the search for Earth-like planets. The idea that there could be other intelligent creatures made by God in a relationship with God is not contrary to traditional Judeo-Christian thought. The Bible has many references to, or descriptions of, non-human intelligent beings; after all, that's what angels are. Our cousins on other planets may even have their own salvation story – including other examples of the incarnation of the second person of the Trinity. We are open to whatever the Universe has for us." Is there anybody out there? Retrieved 3 March 2009] With regard to the attribution to "the Vatican" of similar statements by individuals working for the Holy See, official spokesman Father Federico Lombardi, also a Jesuit, published on 21 February 2009 a declaration that they must not be mistaken for statements of the Holy See. Declaration by the Director of the Press Office of the Holy See, Reverend Father Federico Lombardi, S.J. Retrieved 22 February 2009] References See also Sin Actual sin Ancestral sin Deadly sin Eternal sin (also known as Unforgivable or Unpardonable sin) Divine grace Immaculate Conception Fall of Man Hamartiology Incurvatus in se Internal sin Justification Mortal sin Pandora's box Prevenient grace The Antichrist (book) Total depravity Venial sin External links Article "Original Sin" in Catholic Encyclopedia The Book of Concord The Defense of the Augsburg Confession, Article II: Of Original Sin; from an early Protestant perspective, part of the Augsburg Confession. Original Sin According To St. Paul by John S. 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6,095	Josef_Terboven	Josef Antonius Heinrich Terboven (May 23, 1898 - May 8, 1945) was a Nazi leader, best known as the Reichskommissar (commissioner) during the German military occupation of Norway. Early life Terboven was born in Essen, the son of minor landed gentry. He served in the German field artillery and nascent air force in World War I and was awarded the Iron Cross, rising to the rank of lieutenant. He studied law and political science at the universities of Munich and Freiburg, where he first got involved in politics. Dropping out of the university in 1923, Terboven joined the NSDAP with member number 25247 and participated in the abortive Beer Hall Putsch in Munich. When the NSDAP was subsequently outlawed, he found work at a bank for a few years before being laid off in 1925. Nazism He then went to work full-time for the Nazi party. Terboven helped establish the party in Essen and became Gauleiter there in 1928. He was part of the Sturmabteilung from 1925. On June 29, 1934, Terboven married Ilse Stahl, Joseph Goebbels' former secretary and mistress. Adolf Hitler was the guest of honor at the wedding. Terboven was made Oberpräsident der Rheinprovinz in 1935 and earned a reputation as a petty and ruthless ruler. See Martial law in Trondheim in 1942 and Telavåg. Rule of Norway He was made Reichskommissar of Norway on April 24, 1940, even before the military invasion was completed on 7 June 1940. He moved into the Norwegian crown prince's residence at Skaugum in September 1940 and made his headquarters in Stortinget (the Norwegian parliament buildings). Although the Nazi authorities instituted a puppet Norwegian regime through the Quisling cabinet, Terboven ruled Norway as a dictator. Terboven did not have authority over the 400,000 regular German Army forces stationed in Norway, but did command a force of 6,000, of whom 800 were part of the secret police. His aspiration was to set up Fortress Norway (Festung Norwegen) for the Nazi regime's last stand. He also planned to set up concentration camps in Norway, establishing Falstad concentration camp near Levanger and Bredtvet concentration camp in Oslo in late 1941. Terboven was hated by the Norwegians and earned little respect among fellow Germans. Even Goebbels showed anger in his diary toward what he called Terboven's "bullying tactics" against the Norwegians. When the war was lost, Terboven committed suicide on 1945 May 8 by detonating 50 kilograms of dynamite in a bunker on the Skaugum compound, along with the body of the commander in Norway, Obergruppenführer Wilhelm Rediess, who had shot himself earlier. Sources and references (incomplete) WorldStatesmen- here Norway Biography from Deutsches Historisches Museum Biography from Historisches Centrum Hagen	Josef_Terboven \|@lemmatized josef:1 antonius:1 heinrich:1 terboven:11 may:3 nazi:4 leader:1 best:1 know:1 reichskommissar:2 commissioner:1 german:4 military:2 occupation:1 norway:9 early:1 life:1 bear:1 essen:2 son:1 minor:1 land:1 gentry:1 serve:1 field:1 artillery:1 nascent:1 air:1 force:3 world:1 war:2 award:1 iron:1 cross:1 rise:1 rank:1 lieutenant:1 study:1 law:2 political:1 science:1 university:2 munich:2 freiburg:1 first:1 get:1 involve:1 politics:1 drop:1 join:1 nsdap:2 member:1 number:1 participate:1 abortive:1 beer:1 hall:1 putsch:1 subsequently:1 outlaw:1 find:1 work:2 bank:1 year:1 lay:1 nazism:1 go:1 full:1 time:1 party:2 help:1 establish:2 become:1 gauleiter:1 part:2 sturmabteilung:1 june:2 marry:1 ilse:1 stahl:1 joseph:1 goebbels:2 former:1 secretary:1 mistress:1 adolf:1 hitler:1 guest:1 honor:1 wedding:1 make:3 oberpräsident:1 der:1 rheinprovinz:1 earn:2 reputation:1 petty:1 ruthless:1 ruler:1 see:1 martial:1 trondheim:1 telavåg:1 rule:2 april:1 even:2 invasion:1 complete:1 move:1 norwegian:5 crown:1 prince:1 residence:1 skaugum:2 september:1 headquarters:1 stortinget:1 parliament:1 building:1 although:1 authority:2 institute:1 puppet:1 regime:2 quisling:1 cabinet:1 dictator:1 regular:1 army:1 station:1 command:1 secret:1 police:1 aspiration:1 set:2 fortress:1 festung:1 norwegen:1 last:1 stand:1 also:1 plan:1 concentration:3 camp:3 falstad:1 near:1 levanger:1 bredtvet:1 oslo:1 late:1 hat:1 little:1 respect:1 among:1 fellow:1 show:1 anger:1 diary:1 toward:1 call:1 bully:1 tactic:1 lose:1 commit:1 suicide:1 detonate:1 kilogram:1 dynamite:1 bunker:1 compound:1 along:1 body:1 commander:1 obergruppenführer:1 wilhelm:1 rediess:1 shoot:1 earlier:1 source:1 reference:1 incomplete:1 worldstatesmen:1 biography:2 deutsches:1 historisches:2 museum:1 centrum:1 hagen:1 \|@bigram hall_putsch:1 joseph_goebbels:1 adolf_hitler:1 concentration_camp:3 commit_suicide:1
6,096	Left_Behind	'Left Behind' is a series of 16 best-selling novels by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins, dealing with Christian dispensationalist End Times: pretribulation, premillennial, Christian eschatological viewpoint of the end of the world. The primary conflict of the series is the members of the Tribulation Force against the Global Community and its leader Nicolae Carpathia—the Antichrist. Left Behind is also the title of the first book in the series. It is published by Tyndale House, a firm with a history of interest in dispensationalism. Plot summary Based on dispensationalist interpretation of prophecies in the Biblical books of Revelation, Isaiah and Ezekiel, Left Behind tells the story of the end times, in which many have been "raptured," leaving the world shattered and chaotic. As people scramble for answers, a Romanian politician named Nicolae Jetty Carpathia rises to become secretary-general of the United Nations, promising to restore peace and stability to all nations. What most of the world does not realize is that Carpathia is actually the Antichrist foretold from the Bible. Coming to grips with the truth and becoming born-again Christians, Rayford Steele, his daughter Chloe, their pastor Bruce Barnes, and young journalist Cameron "Buck" Williams begin their quest as the Tribulation Force to help save the lost and prepare for the coming Tribulation, in which God will rain down judgment on the world for seven years. Response In 1998, the first four books of the series held the top four slots simultaneously,<ref name="Money">[http://www.catholic.com/library/false_profit.asp Catholic Answers Special Report: False Profit: Money, Prejudice, and Bad Theology in Tim LaHaye’s Left Behind Series]</ref> despite the fact that the New York Times' Bestseller's list does not take Christian bookstore sales into account. Book 10 debuted at number one on this list. Total sales for the series have surpassed 65 million copies. Seven titles in the adult series have reached #1 on the bestseller lists for The New York Times, USA Today, and Publishers Weekly. Left Behind Series, Leftbehind.com Official Website of the Book Series, Retrieved on September 8, 2007 One reason often cited for the books' popularity is the quick pacing and action. Michelle Goldberg has written that, "On one level, the attraction of the Left Behind books isn't that much different from that of, say, Tom Clancy or Stephen King. The plotting is brisk and the characterizations Manichean. People disappear and things blow up." Michelle Goldberg. "Fundamentally unsound". Salon.com. July 29, 2002. The New York Times also compared the series to Clancy's works. Tim LaHaye, Jerry B. Jenkins, and Sandi Swanson. The Authorized Left Behind Handbook. Tyndale House Publishers. 2005. p. 336. But those views are not universally shared. Other reviewers have called the series "almost laughably tedious" and "fatuous and boring." Robert Dreyfuss. "Reverend Doomsday: According to Tim LaHaye, the Apocalypse is now". Rolling Stone. January 28, 2004. Gordon Haber. "The Ministry of Fear". New York Sun. August 23, 2004. In 2007 the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association (ECPA) recognized the Left Behind Series at its CBA & ECPA Awards Celebration in Atlanta, Georgia with the ECPA Pinnacle Award. ECPA President Mark Kuyper said, "In many ways this series established Christian fiction as a significant category in publishing in general." Jerry Falwell said about the first book in the series: "In terms of its impact on Christianity, it's probably greater than that of any other book in modern times, outside the Bible." Time magazine. Accessed 2007-9-8 The popularity of this series has spilled over beyond the Americas and the English-speaking world. It has been translated to many languages including Chinese and Japanese. There is, however, a protracted lag in translation; as of September 2005, the Chinese version of Book 11 is in the press and the Japanese version of Book 6 has been published. In other areas, such as Europe—where dispensationalism is largely non-existent—the books have been far less successful. Influences on the authors LaHaye and Jenkins cite the influence of Russell S. Doughten, an Iowan film-maker who directed a series of four low-budget feature-length films in the 1970s and 1980s about the Rapture and Second Coming. The films' popularity among Christians have led to increased study and speculation as to the events described in the Book of Revelation. Crawford Gribben has shown that there were successful rapture fiction novels as early as 1913, with some earlier works identified as dating from 1905. Of the former, Sydney Watson's Scarlet and Purple (1913), The Mark of the Beast (1915) and In the Twinkling of an Eye are cited as examples of the genre. Criticism While writing that the series fulfills the norms of mass-market fiction, as mentioned above, magazine writer Michelle Goldberg characterized the books as an attack on Judaism and liberal secularism, and suggested out that the near-future "end times" in which the books are set seem to reflect the actual worldview of millions of Americans, including many prominent conservative leaders. Salon.com: Fundamentally unsound The series has been criticized for the poor depiction of the pantheist and universalist belief that the Enigma Babylon World Religion indicates, which has overtones of Hinduism and Buddhism. The Slacktivist blog is notable for analyzing the series at a rate of a few pages every week. slacktivist: Left Behind From the perspective of a non-dispensationalist evangelical Christian, it generally criticizes the books for poor writing, bad biblical scholarship and for presenting an unflattering view of God. The series has also been accused of plagiarizing. Catholic.com: Recycled Rapture One website states that: "These similarities [with earlier novel 666] are noteworthy, I think, for a couple of reasons. The first has to do with Lahaye’s claim of originality for his series of books. In an interview in the March 28, 2000 issue of the Assembly of God magazine Pentecostal evangel, Pentecostal evangel: Conversation with Tim LaHaye - Prophecy-based fiction he insists that "Left Behind is the first fictional portrayal of events that are true to the literal interpretation of Bible prophecy. It was written for anyone who loves gripping fiction featuring believable characters, a dynamic plot that also weaves prophetic events in a fascinating story." Christian criticisms From premillennialists Some premillennialists, while accepting many of the basic beliefs behind the series, describe problems with specific prophetical teachings in the Left Behind books. For instance, in The Mark, Chang Wong receives both the mark of the beast and the sealing of the Lord and he is later able to go to heaven, despite having the mark. In Desecration, the character's dual-marking was justified in the storyline. He was saved because he did not accept the mark of the beast; he was forced to receive it because he was involuntarily put to sleep and then given it. This has led some readers Tim & Beverly LaHaye: General Teachings/Activities to wonder how a Christian can have the mark of the beast and still be saved LeftBehind.com - General FAQs . Mainstream Christianity Along with some other rapture fiction novels, the Left Behind series demonstrates a different understanding of the Gospel and the Christian life from that taught within the historic orthodoxy of evangelical Protestantism which denies the key eschatological beliefs underpinning the plotline. The books have not sold particularly well outside of the United States. Rob Boston. "If Best-Selling End-Times Author Tim LaHaye Has His Way, Church-State Separation Will Be... Left Behind". Americans United for Separation of Church and State. February 2002. Dispensationalism remains a minority view among theologians. Dart, John. "'Beam me up' theology--The Debate Over 'Left Behind'". Christian Century. September 25, 2002. For instance, amillenial and postmillenial Christians do not believe in the same timeline of the Second Coming as premillennialists, while preterist Christians do not interpret the Book of Revelation to predict future events at all. Brian McLaren of the Emergent Church compares the Left Behind series to The Da Vinci Code, and states, "What the Left Behind novels do, the way they twist scripture toward a certain theological and political end, I think [Dan] Brown is twisting scripture, just to other political ends. But at the end of the day, the difference is I don't think Brown really cares that much about theology." "Brian McLaren on the Da Vinci Code"; Sojourners Magazine John Dart, writing in Christian Century characterized the works as "beam me up theology". Violence Some practicing Christians, evangelical and otherwise, along with nonchristians have shown concern that the social perspectives promoted in the Left Behind series unduly sensationalize the death and destruction of masses of people. Harvey Cox, a professor of divinity at Harvard, says part of the appeal of the books lies in the "lip-licking anticipation of all the blood," and theologian Barbara Rossing, author of The Rapture Exposed: The Message of Hope in the Book of Revelation, said the books glorify violence. John W. Whitehead. "God So Loved the World that He Gave Us World War III". OldSpeak. July 1, 2004. Time magazine said "the nuclear frights of, say, Tom Clancy's The Sum of All Fears wouldn't fill a chapter in the Left Behind series. (Large chunks of several U.S. cities have been bombed to smithereens by page 110 of Book 3.)" John Cloud and Rancho Mirage. "Meet the Prophet". Time. June 23, 2002. More than one critic has pointed to a passage in Glorious Appearing in which Jesus, who is portrayed as a lamb in the Book of Revelation, slaughters millions of people: The riders not thrown leaped from their horses and tried to control them with the reins, but even as they struggled, their own flesh dissolved, their eyes melted, and their tongues disintegrated. As Rayford watched, the soldiers stood briefly as skeletons in now-baggy uniforms, then dropped in heaps of bones as the blinded horses continued to fume and rant and rave. <p> Seconds later the same plague afflicted the horses, their flesh and eyes and tongues melting away, leaving grotesque skeletons standing, before they too rattled to the pavement. (pp. 273-274) Paul Nuechterlein accused the authors of re-sacralizing violence, adding that "we human beings are the ones who put our faith in superior firepower. But in the Left Behind novels the darkness of that human, satanic violence is once again attributed to God." "Re-Sacralizing Violence in the Left Behind Books". May 18, 2004. In that same book Jesus merely speaks and the bodies of his enemies are ripped open, forcing the Christians to drive carefully to avoid "hitting splayed and filleted bodies of men and women and horses." Nicholas D. Kristof. "Jesus and Jihad". New York Times. July 17, 2004. Anti-Catholicism The series makes no secret of its Protestant-style view of Christianity. As a result some believe the books are Anti-Catholic, noting that many Catholics were not "raptured." The book says that many "who called themselves Catholics" but did not truly believe in Jesus were not raptured, but it does not mention the proportion who were. While the fictional Pope, John XXIV, was raptured, he is described as having embraced some of the views of the "Father of Protestantism" Martin Luther, implying that he was raptured for this reason. His successor, Pope Peter II, becomes Pontifex Maximus of Enigma Babylon One World Faith, an amalgamation of all remaining world faiths and religions. Jimmy Akin, writing for Catholic Answers, details the series as anti-Catholic, a view also held by other Catholics. Catholic.com - No Rapture for Rome However on page 343 of Book 10, The Remnant, most of a Catholic church (including the priest and the catechism teacher) are raptured, similar to Tribulation Force's situation with their Protestant church: "He and some of his friends from childhood raced to their little Catholic church, where hardly anyone was left.". BooksNote: The books are listed initially in story-line (chronological) order but then numbered in order of publication.{\| class="sortable" ! Chron Seq. !! Pub Seq. !! Title (with subtitle) !! Pub Date \|- \| 1 \|\| 13 \|\| The Rising: Antichrist is Born: Before They Were Left Behind \|\| (2005) (All Libraries) \|- \| 2 \|\| 14 \|\| The Regime: Evil Advances: Before They Were Left Behind #2 \|\| (2005) (All Libraries) \|- \| 3 \|\| 15 \|\| The Rapture: In the Twinkling of an Eye: Countdown to Earth's Last Days #3 \|\| (2006) \|- \| 4 \|\| 1 \|\| Left Behind: A Novel of the Earth's Last Days \|\| (1995) \|- \| 5 \|\| 2 \|\| Tribulation Force: The Continuing Drama of Those Left Behind \|\| (1996) \|- \| 6 \|\| 3 \|\| Nicolae: The Rise of Antichrist \|\| (1997) \|- \| 7 \|\| 4 \|\| Soul Harvest: The World Takes Sides \|\| (1999) \|- \| 8 \|\| 5 \|\| Apollyon: The Destroyer Is Unleashed \|\| (1999) \|- \| 9 \|\| 6 \|\| Assassins: Assignment: Jerusalem, Target: Antichrist \|\| (1999) \|- \| 10 \|\| 7 \|\| The Indwelling: The Beast Takes Possession \|\| (2000) \|- \| 11 \|\| 8 \|\| The Mark: The Beast Rules the World \|\| (2000) \|- \| 12 \|\| 9 \|\| Desecration: Antichrist Takes the Throne \|\| (2001) \|- \| 13 \|\| 10 \|\| The Remnant: On the Brink of Armageddon \|\| (2002) \|- \| 14 \|\| 11 \|\| Armageddon: The Cosmic Battle of the Ages \|\| (2003) \|- \| 15 \|\| 12 \|\| Glorious Appearing: The End of Days \|\| (2004) \|- \| 16 \|\| 16 \|\| Kingdom Come: The Final Victory \|\| (2007) \|} There are also graphic novels, CDs, and a Left Behind series for teens. Audio dramatizations based on the first thirteen titles have also been produced for broadcast on Christian radio. The series written for teens is called Left Behind:The Kids. The plot of this series is the same as the adult series, but the main protagonists are teenagers. Several of the main books have also been turned into movies by the Canadian motion picture studio Cloud Ten Pictures, including Left Behind: The Movie, Left Behind II: Tribulation Force, and Left Behind: World at War. Two spin-off series have been written: a political series by Neesa Hart, and a military series by Mel Odom. A video game, Left Behind: Eternal Forces, was released for the PC on November 6, 2006. Spin-offs Left Behind: Apocalypse, by Mel Odom Left Behind: Military Series Apocalypse Dawn Apocalypse Crucible Apocalypse Burning Apocalypse Unleashed Left Behind: The Kids by Jerry B. Jenkins & Tim LaHaye with Chris Fabry The Vanishings Second Chance Through The Flames Facing The Future Nicolae High The Underground Busted! Death Strike The Search On The Run Into The Storm Earthquake! The Showdown Judgement Day Battling The Commander Fire From Heaven Terror In The Stadium Darkening Skies Attack Of Apollyon A Dangerous Plan Secrets Of New Babylon Escape From New Babylon Horsemen Of Terror Uplink From The Underground Death At The Gala The Beast Arises Wildfire! The Mark Of The Beast Breakout! Murder In The Holy Place Escape To Masada War Of The Dragon Attack On Petra Bounty Hunters The Rise Of False Messiahs Ominous Choices Heatwave The Perils Of Love The Road To War Triumphant ReturnLeft Behind: End of State, by Neesa Hart Left Behind: Political Series End of State Impeachable Offense Necessary Evils In other media Movies The success of the Left Behind books has led to the release of three motion pictures based on the series so far. The movies have been produced and released by Cloud Ten Pictures, a Canadian Christian movie studio. The first, Left Behind: The Movie, was based on the first book of the series and was released in 2000. In a very unusual marketing scheme, the studio released the movie on video and DVD first, and then released it to the theaters. The movie fared poorly in theaters. Imdb.com: Left Behind (2000) - Box-office/Business The movie starred former Growing Pains star Kirk Cameron as Buck Williams. Cameron, who finds the series inspiring, is a practicing evangelist (and co-host with Ray Comfort on the TV show The Way of the Master). In 2002, the sequel, Left Behind II: Tribulation Force, based on the first four hundred pages of the second novel, Tribulation Force, was released. The film debuted at #2 on Nielson's video scan reports, behind Spider-Man clarionledger.com: Audition for TV role or be 'Left Behind' , and was #1 in terms of overall sales for two days on Amazon.com End-Times Thriller Left Behind II: Tribulation Force Ousts Spider-Man Over the Weekend to Become the #1 Selling Video Overall on Amazon.com The second sequel, Left Behind: World at War, was released first to churches on October 21, 2005 for church theatrical viewings, and was released to DVD and video on October 25, 2005. Except for Clarence Gilyard, the entire cast of Left Behind and Left Behind II: Tribulation Force reprised their respective roles for Left Behind: World At War. Clarence Gilyard, who played Bruce Barnes, was unable to return for the third movie due to a scheduling conflict with a play in New York. The movie is based very loosely on the final fifty pages of Tribulation Force, and features Louis Gossett Jr. playing the President of the United States, Gerald Fitzhugh. The third movie was the least identifiable with events in any of the books. Recognizable events were the marriages of Buck with Chloe Steele, and Rayford Steele with Amanda White, the death of Bruce Barnes, and President Fitzhugh heading an attack, resulting in World War III, with Great Britain and Egypt, against the Global Community. Major parts of the movie, however, were either changed from the books or not found in the books whatsoever, including the poisoning of Barnes by GC forces instead of Nicolae Carpathia himself, and an attempt by Fitzhugh to assassinate Nicolae Carpathia, which did not exist in any of the books. Buck's meeting with the President in the books makes it into the movie, but in a totally different form. The movies have been criticized for, among other things, low production values. A Slate reviewer, commented that In low-budget movies there are just some things that you can't portray convincingly. The end of the world is one of them[...] While each installment's budget is estimated to be around $17.4 million, I think that number might be off by $16 million or so. In Left Behind 2: Tribulation Force, for example, Kirk Cameron has to take Ben Judah, a respected rabbi, to the Wailing Wall so that he can tell Jews everywhere that Jesus Christ is Lord. Israel is represented by a few stone walls obviously made of plywood, some Christmas-tree lights, and 500 volunteer extras wearing leftover costumes from a Nativity pageant. The Wailing Wall is patrolled by soldiers dressed in World War II army uniforms. The producers have also dubbed in the sound of goats during scenes set in downtown Jerusalem, which leads to the unusual notion that modern-day Israel is populated by WWII re-enactors, nervous-looking people in bathrobes, and goats. Grady Hendrix. "The "Left Behind" Movies: How to end the world on a budget". Slate. December 1, 2005. In 2004, Cloud Ten Pictures made a deal with Sony Entertainment to release all of its pictures under the Sony banner and has been doing so ever since. Video game The video game Left Behind: Eternal Forces was developed by a publicly traded company, Left Behind Games. The game is a real-time strategy game where the player controls a 'Tribulation Forces' team and allows the player to "use the power of prayer to strengthen your troops in combat and wield modern military weaponry throughout the game world." The game was released in the United States on November 14, 2006 and received mixed reviews. Distribution was initially planned to work through churches and megachurches. Although the game has been accused of encouraging religious violence , not all reviewers of the game or critics of the Left Behind series shared that view. Left Behind: Eternal Forces - The Video Game IGN: Left Behind: Eternal Forces Review Left Behind: Eternal Forces: Page 1 GameSpy: Left Behind: Eternal Forces Review Representatives of the company have responded that the game's message is pacifist because shooting nonbelievers instead of converting them costs the player "spirit points", which can be recovered by pausing to pray. The company also responded to these criticisms in an online newsletter LB Games - Newsletter , stating, "There is no violence, only conflict," and, "The most successful way to fight, is through the means of spiritual warfare; PRAYER and WORSHIP. Soldiers and military weaponry are available, but once anyone plays the game, they’ll see how difficult it is to succeed by using these less effective means of warfare." Album People Get Ready is "a musical collection inspired by the Left Behind series." Track listing People Get Ready Crystal Lewis 4:24 UFO Geoff Moore & The Distance 3:08 Come Quickly Lord Rebecca Saint James 4:29 I Wish We'd All Been Ready dc Talk 3:44 Horses Margaret Becker 4:05 Eve of Destruction Barry McGuire 3:34 People Get Ready Impressions 2:38 Thief in the Night Big Tent Revival 3:38 Elijah Rich Mullins 5:14 New Body Audio Adrenaline 4:00 I'll Lead You Home Michael W. Smith 5:22 Jesus Is Waiting Al Green 8:08 Graphic novels In 2002 a series of graphic novels was launched that comprised the first two books in the series, Left Behind and Tribulation Force. The original idea was to release sets of 3 to 5 novels (each about 45-50 pages) for each book in the original series. However, after the 5th and final novel for Tribulation Force was released, the graphic novel series was apparently discontinued and the novels that were released are now (as of December 2006) said to be out of print. A compilation of the graphic novels for the first book was later released as one novel. See also Christian theology Rapture Tim LaHaye Futurism Preterism Historicism IdealismDispensationalism Covenantalism Christian Zionism The Late Great Planet Earth Hal Lindsey Summary of Christian eschatological differences References Further reading Forbes, Bruce David and Jeanne Halgren Kilde (eds.), Rapture, Revelation, and the End Times: Exploring the Left Behind Series. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. ISBN 1-4039-6525-0 Frykholm, Amy Johnson. Rapture Culture: Left Behind in Evangelical America. Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-515983-7 Reed, David A., LEFT BEHIND Answered Verse by Verse. Morrisville, NC: Lulu.com, 2008. ISBN 1-4357-0873-3 Rossing, Barbara R., The Rapture Exposed: The Message of Hope in the Book of Revelation, New York: Basic Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8133-4314-3 Shuck, Glenn W.. Marks Of The Beast: The Left Behind Novels And The Struggle For Evangelical Identity. New York University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8147-4005-7 Gribben, Crawford, Rapture Fiction and the Evangelical Crisis. Evangelical Press, 2006. ISBN 0-85234-610-7. Snow Flesher, LeAnn, "Left Behind? The Facts Behind the Fiction". Valley Forge, Judson Press, 2006. ISBN 0-8170-1490-X External links Official website Archive of Left Behind radio shows in Real Audio Eternal Forces.com Official Game site The Left Behind Wiki Left Behind encyclopedia set up as a wiki that anyone can edit. Religion in Science Fiction The New York Times > Opinion > Op-Ed Columnist: Jesus and Jihad, The New York Times, July 17, 2004 The New York Times > Opinion > Op-Ed Columnist: Apocalypse (Almost) Now, The New York Times, November 24, 2004 Slate reviews the three Left Behind DVDs Statement from the Catholic Conference of Illinois A response from the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod (PDF) Has real hope been left behind by Dr. Stephen Travis Methodist Evangelicals Together, January 2005 ''Left Behind?: The Facts Behind the Fiction, Exposes errors of Pop-Theology National Ministries, American Baptist Churches Barbara Rossing interview ELCA Lutheran Professor Lecture	Left_Behind \|@lemmatized leave:46 behind:71 series:47 best:2 selling:1 novel:18 tim:9 lahaye:11 jerry:4 b:3 jenkins:4 deal:2 christian:22 dispensationalist:3 end:15 time:19 pretribulation:1 premillennial:1 eschatological:3 viewpoint:1 world:20 primary:1 conflict:3 member:1 tribulation:15 force:24 global:2 community:2 leader:2 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6,097	Interstitial_cystitis	Interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (commonly abbreviated to "IC/PBS"), is a urinary bladder disease of unknown cause characterised by pain associated with urination (dysuria), urinary frequency (as often as every 10 minutes), urgency, and pressure in the bladder and/or pelvis. The Interstitial Cystitis Survival Guide: Your Guide to the Latest Treatment Options and Coping Strategies ISBN 1-57224-210-8 Pain that worsened with a certain food or drink and/or worsened with bladder filling and/or improved with urination was reported by 97% of patients. Patients may also experience nocturia, pelvic floor dysfunction and tension (thus making it difficult to start their urine stream), pain with sexual intercourse, and discomfort and difficulty driving, traveling or working. Research has claimed that the quality of life of some IC patients is equivalent to those with end stage renal failure. Ho N, Koziol J, Parsons CL. Epidemiology of Interstitial Cystitis, in G. Sant (Ed.), Interstitial Cystitis. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1997; 9-15. It is not unusual for patients to have been misdiagnosed with a variety of other conditions, including: overactive bladder, urethritis, urethral syndrome, trigonitis, prostatitis and other generic terms used to describe frequency/urgency symptoms in the urinary tract. IC/PBS affects men and women of all cultures, socioeconomic backgrounds, and ages. Although the disease previously was believed to be a condition of menopausal women, growing numbers of men and women are being diagnosed in their twenties and younger. IC/PBS is not a rare condition, however IC/PBS is more common in females than in men. Early research suggested that IC/PBS prevalence ranged from 1 in 100,000 to 5.1 in 1,000 of the general population. New epidemiological data released in 2006 by Dr. Matt Rosenberg now suggests that up to 12% of women may have early symptoms of IC/PBS. Nomenclature Originally called interstitial cystitis, the name for this disorder changed to interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome in the period 2002-2005. In 2007, the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) began using the umbrella term Urologic Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndromes (UCPPS) to refer to pain syndromes associated with the bladder (i.e. interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome, IC/PBS) and the prostate gland (i.e. chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome, CP/CPPS). In 2008, terms currently in use in addition to IC/PBS include painful bladder syndrome, bladder pain syndrome and hypersensitive bladder syndrome, alone and in a variety of combinations. These different terms are being used in different parts of the world. Causes The cause of IC/PBS is unknown, though several theories have been put forward (these include autoimmune, neurologic, allergic and genetic). NIDDK Interstitial Cystitis Summary - IC section of the NKUDIC Regardless of the origin, it is clear that the majority of IC/PBS patients struggle with a damaged urothelium, or bladder lining. When the surface glycosaminoglycan (GAG) layer is damaged (via a urinary tract infection (UTI), excessive consumption of coffee or sodas, traumatic injury, etc.), urinary chemicals can "leak" into surrounding tissues, causing pain, inflammation, and urinary symptoms. Oral medications like Elmiron and medications that are placed directly into the bladder via a catheter work to repair and rebuild this damaged/wounded lining, allowing for a reduction in symptoms. Recent work at the University of Maryland, Baltimore indicates that genetics may be a factor in a small subset of patients. Two genes, FZD8 and PAND , are associated with the syndrome. FZD8, at gene map locus 10p11.2, is associated with an antiproliferative factor secreted by the bladders of IC/PBS patients which "profoundly inhibits bladder cell proliferation," thus causing the missing bladder lining. Numerous publications by Keay & colleagues available at PubMed PAND, at gene map locus 13q22-q32, is associated with a constellation of disorders (a "pleiotropic syndrome") including IC/PBS and other bladder and kidney problems, thyroid diseases, serious headaches/migraines, panic disorder, and mitral valve prolapse. Symptoms The symptoms of IC/PBS are often misdiagnosed as a "common" bladder infection (cystitis) or a UTI. However IC/PBS has not been shown to be caused by a bacterial infection, and the mis-prescribed treatment of antibiotics is ineffective. The symptoms of IC/PBS may also initially be attributed to prostatitis and epididymitis (in men) and endometriosis and uterine fibroids (in women). The most common symptom of IC/PBS is pain, which is found in 100% of patients, frequency (82% of patients) and nocturia (62%). In general, symptoms are: Pain that is worsened with bladder filling and/or improved with urination. Pain that is worsened with a certain food or drink. Urinary frequency (as often as every 10 minutes), urgency, and pressure in the bladder and/or pelvis. Some patients report dysuria (burning sensation in the urethra when urinating). Some patients report waking at night to urinate, hesitancy (needing to wait for the stream to begin), pain with sexual intercourse, and discomfort and difficulty driving, travelling or working. During cystoscopy, 5 to 10% of patients are found to have Hunner's ulcers. Far more patients may experience a very mild form of IC/PBS, in which they have no visible wounds in their bladder, yet struggle with symptoms of pain, frequency and/or urgency. Still other patients may have discomfort only in their urethra, while others struggle with pain in the entire pelvis. Diagnosis Diagnosis has been greatly simplified in recent years with the development of two new methodologies. The Pelvic Pain Urgency/Frequency (PUF) Patient Survey, created by C. Lowell Parsons, is a short questionnaire that will help doctors identify if pelvic pain could be coming from the bladder. Dr. Lowell Parsons website - includes references, protocols and publications. The KCl test, also known as the potassium sensitivity test, uses a mild potassium solution to test the integrity of the bladder wall. Though the latter is not specific for IC/PBS, it has been determined to be helpful in predicting the use of compounds, such as pentosan polysulphate, which are designed to help repair the GAG layer. The previous gold standard test for IC/PBS was the use of hydrodistention with cystoscopy. Researchers, however, determined that this visual examination of the bladder wall after stretching the bladder was not specific for IC/PBS and that the test, itself, can contribute to the development of small glomerulations (that is, petechial hemorrhages) often found in IC/PBS. Thus, a diagnosis of IC/PBS is one of exclusion, as well as a review of clinical symptoms. In 2006, the ESSIC society proposed more rigorous and demanding diagnostic methods with specific classification criteria so that it cannot be confused with other, similar conditions. Specifically, they require that a patient must have pain associated with the bladder, accompanied by one other urinary symptom. Thus, a patient with just frequency or urgency would be excluded from a diagnosis. Secondly, they strongly encourage the exclusion of confusable diseases through an extensive and expensive series of tests including (A) a medical history and physical exam, (B) a dipstick urinalysis, various urine cultures, and a serum PSA in men over 40, (C) flowmetry and post-void residual urine volume by ultrasound scanning and (D) cystoscopy. A diagnosis of IC/PBS would be confirmed with a hydrodistention during cystoscopy with biopsy. They also propose a ranking system based upon the physical findings in the bladder. Patients would receive a numeric and letter based score based upon the severity of their disease as found during the hydrodistention. A score of 1-3 would relate to the severity of the disease and a rating of A-C represents biopsy findings. Thus, a patient with 1A would have very mild symptoms and disease while a patient with 3C would have the worst available symptoms. ESSIC Society website - includes white papers, conference notes and protocols Treatment Pelvic floor treatments Work by Wise and Anderson (see details) has shown that urologic pelvic pain syndromes, such as IC/PBS and CP/CPPS, may have no initial trigger other than anxiety, often with an element of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder or other anxiety-spectrum problem. This is theorized to leave the pelvic area in a sensitized condition resulting in a loop of muscle tension and heightened neurological feedback (neural wind-up). This is a form of myofascial pain syndrome. Current protocols largely focus on stretches to release overtensed muscles in the pelvic or anal area (commonly referred to as trigger points), physical therapy to the area, and progressive relaxation therapy to reduce causative stress. Most major IC/PBS clinics now evaluate the pelvic floor and/or refer patients directly to a physical therapist for a prompt treatment of pelvic floor muscle tension or weakness. Chronic pelvic floor tension can cause pain in the bladder and/or pelvis, which is often described by women as a burning sensation, particularly in the vagina. Men with pelvic floor tension experience referred pain, particularly at the tip of their penis. In 9 out 10 IC/PBS patients struggling with painful sexual relations, muscle tension is the primary cause of that pain and discomfort. Tender trigger points —small, tight, hyperirritable bundles of muscle— may also be found in the pelvic floor. 13. Sandler, G. Pelvic Floor Dysfunction and Problem Trigger Points in Other Areas of the Body. June 2002 IC/PBS Network Feature Column Pelvic floor dysfunction is a fairly new area of specialty for physical therapists world wide. The goal of therapy is to relax and lengthen the pelvic floor muscles, rather than to tighten and/or strengthen them as is the goal of therapy for patients with incontinence. Thus, traditional exercises such as Kegels, can be helpful as they strengthen the muscles, however they can provoke pain and additional muscle tension. A specially trained physical therapist can provide direct, hands on, evaluation of the muscles, both externally and internally. While weekly therapy is certainly valuable, most providers also suggest an aggressive self-care regimen at home to help combat muscle tension, such as daily muscle relaxation audiotapes, stress reduction and anxiety management on a daily basis. Anxiety is often found in patients with painful conditions and can subconsciously trigger muscle tension. Thiele massage Transvaginal manual therapy of the pelvic floor musculature (Thiele massage) has shown promise in relieving the pain associated with Interstitial cystitis in at least one open, clinical pilot study. Medication As recently as a decade ago, treatments available were limited to the use of astringent instillations, such as chlorpactin (oxychlorosene) or silver nitrate, designed to kill "infection" and/or strip off the bladder lining. In 2005, our understanding of IC/PBS has improved dramatically and these therapies are now no longer done. Rather, IC/PBS therapy is typically multi-modal, including the use of a bladder coating, an antihistamine to help control mast cell activity and a low dose antidepressant to fight neurogenic inflammation. Pentosan polysulfate Oral pentosan polysulfate (Elmiron) is believed to provide a protective coating in the bladder, but studies show it is not statistically significant compared to placebo. However, some studies have found that a minority of patients do respond to pentosan polysulfate. Amitriptyline Amitriptyline can reduce symptoms in patients with IC/PBS. Patient overall satisfaction with the therapeutic result of amitriptyline was excellent or good in 46%. Bladder instillations DMSO, a wood pulp extract, is the only approved bladder instillation for IC/PBS yet it is much less frequently used in urology clinics. Research studies presented at recent conferences of the American Urological Association by C. Subah Packer have demonstrated that the FDA approved dosage of a 50% solution of DMSO had the potential of creating irreversible muscle contraction. However, a lesser solution of 25% was found to be reversible. Long term use is questionable, at best, particularly given the fact that the method of action of DMSO is not fully understood. AUA 2002 Abstract - DMSO: Does it change functional properties in the bladder wall Diethild Melchior*, C Subah Packer, Tomalyn C Johnson, Martin Kaefer, Indianapolis, IN Rescue instillations More recently, the use of a "rescue instillation" composed of Elmiron or heparin, Cystistat, lidocaine and sodium bicarbonate, has generated considerable excitement in the IC/PBS community because it is the first therapeutic intervention that can be used to reduce a flare of symptoms. Published studies report a 90% effectiveness in reducing symptoms. Bladder coatings Other bladder coating therapies include Cystistat (sodium hyaluronate) and Uracyst (chondroitin). They are believed to replace the deficient GAG layer on the bladder wall. Like most other intravesical bladder treatments, this treatment may require the patient to lie for 20 – 40 minutes, turning over every ten minutes, to allow the chemical to 'soak in' and give a good coating, before it is passed out with the urine. Diet The foundation of therapy is a modification of diet to help patients avoid those foods which can further irritate the damaged bladder wall. Common offenders are highly spiced or acidic foods and include alcohol, coffees, teas, herbal teas, green teas, all sodas (particularly diet), concentrated fruit juices, tomatoes, citrus fruit, cranberries, the B vitamins, vitamin C, monosodium glutamate, chocolate, and potassium-rich foods such as bananas. Most IC/PBS support groups and many urology clinics have diet lists available. The problem with diet triggers is that they vary from person to person: the best way for a person to discover his or her own triggers is to use an elimination diet. Bladder distension Bladder distension (a procedure which stretches the bladder capacity, done under general anaesthesia) has shown some success in reducing urinary frequency and giving pain relief to patients. However, many experts still cannot understand precisely how this can cause pain relief. Recent studies showing that pressure on pelvic trigger points can relieve symptoms may be connected. Unfortunately, the relief achieved by bladder distensions is only temporary (weeks or months) and consequently, it is not really viable as a long-term treatment for IC/PBS. Surgery Surgical interventions are rarely used for IC/PBS. Pain control Pain control is usually necessary in the IC/PBS treatment plan. The pain of IC/PBS has been rated equivalent to cancer pain and may lead to central sensitization if untreated. Medication The use of a variety of traditional pain medications, including opiates and synthetic opioids like tramadol, is often necessary to treat the varying degrees of pain. Even children with IC/PBS should be appropriately addressed regarding pelvic pain, and receive necessary treatment to manage it. Neuromodulation Neuromodulation can be successful in treating IC/PBS symptoms, including pain. Electronic pain-killing options include TENS. PTNS stimulators have also been used, with varying degrees of success. Percutaneous sacral nerve root stimulation (PNS) was able to produce statistically significant improvements in several parameters, including pain. Acupuncture A 2002 review study reported that acupuncture alleviates pain associated with IC/PBS as part of multimodal treatment. While a 1987 study showed that 11 of 14 (78%) patients had a >50% reduction in pain, another study (published in 1993) found no beneficial effect. A 2008 review found that although there are hardly any controlled studies on alternative medicine and IC/PBS, "rather good results have been obtained" when acupuncture is combined with other treatments. Biofeedback Biofeedback, a relaxation technique aimed at helping people control functions of the autonomous nervous system, has shown some benefit in controlling pain associated with IC/PBS as part of a multimodal approach that may also include medication or hydrodistention of the bladder. Links to other conditions It is important to note that some people with IC/PBS suffer from anxiety disorder, and other conditions that may have the same etiology as IC/PBS. These include: irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, endometriosis, vulvodynia, and chemical sensitivities. Men with IC/PBS are frequently diagnosed as having chronic nonbacterial prostatitis, and there is an extensive overlap of symptoms and treatment between the two conditions, leading researchers to posit that the conditions share the same etiology and pathology. References See also Pelvic Myoneuropathy - a new explanation for painful bladder. Quercetin - alternative medicine- a flavonoid that has anti-inflammatory properties, used to treat IC/PBS with some success. Trigger Points - a key to myofascial pain syndrome. Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome - women have vestigial prostate glands that may cause IC/PBS-like symptoms. Men with IC/PBS may have prostatitis, and vice versa. External links The Urologic Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome Society	Interstitial_cystitis \|@lemmatized interstitial:9 cystitis:10 painful:7 bladder:45 syndrome:19 commonly:2 abbreviate:1 ic:50 pb:44 urinary:9 disease:8 unknown:2 cause:10 characterise:1 pain:42 associate:9 urination:3 dysuria:2 frequency:8 often:8 every:3 minute:4 urgency:6 pressure:3 pelvis:4 survival:1 guide:2 late:1 treatment:14 option:2 cop:1 strategy:1 isbn:1 worsen:4 certain:2 food:5 drink:2 filling:2 improve:3 report:5 patient:31 may:15 also:9 experience:3 nocturia:2 pelvic:23 floor:11 dysfunction:3 tension:9 thus:6 make:1 difficult:1 start:1 urine:4 stream:2 sexual:3 intercourse:2 discomfort:4 difficulty:2 driving:2 travel:2 work:5 research:3 claim:1 quality:1 life:1 equivalent:2 end:1 stage:1 renal:1 failure:1 ho:1 n:1 koziol:1 j:1 parson:3 cl:1 epidemiology:1 g:2 sant:1 ed:1 philadelphia:1 lippincott:1 raven:1 publisher:1 unusual:1 misdiagnosed:2 variety:3 condition:10 include:16 overactive:1 urethritis:1 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rarely:1 usually:1 necessary:3 plan:1 rat:1 cancer:1 lead:2 central:1 sensitization:1 untreated:1 opiate:1 synthetic:1 opioids:1 tramadol:1 treat:3 degree:2 even:1 child:1 appropriately:1 addressed:1 regard:1 manage:1 neuromodulation:2 successful:1 electronic:1 killing:1 ptns:1 stimulators:1 percutaneous:1 sacral:1 nerve:1 root:1 stimulation:1 pns:1 able:1 produce:1 improvement:1 parameter:1 acupuncture:3 alleviate:1 multimodal:2 another:1 beneficial:1 effect:1 hardly:1 controlled:1 alternative:2 medicine:2 obtain:1 combine:1 biofeedback:2 technique:1 aim:1 people:2 function:1 autonomous:1 nervous:1 benefit:1 approach:1 link:2 important:1 suffer:1 etiology:2 irritable:1 bowel:1 ibs:1 fibromyalgia:1 fatigue:1 vulvodynia:1 nonbacterial:1 overlap:1 posit:1 share:1 pathology:1 myoneuropathy:1 explanation:1 quercetin:1 flavonoid:1 anti:1 inflammatory:1 key:1 vestigial:1 vice:1 versa:1 external:1 \|@bigram interstitial_cystitis:9 painful_bladder:5 bladder_syndrome:5 ic_pb:44 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6,098	Digital_compositing	Digital compositing is the process of digitally assembling multiple images to make a final image, typically for print, motion pictures or screen display. It is the evolution into the digital realm of optical film compositing. Mathematics The basic operation used is known as 'alpha blending', where an opacity value, 'α' is used to control the proportions of two input pixel values that end up a single output pixel. Consider three pixels; a foreground pixel, f a background pixel, b a composited pixel, c and α, the opacity value of the foreground pixel. (α=1 for opaque foreground, α=0 for a completely transparent foreground). A monochrome raster image where the pixel values are to be interpreted as alpha values is known as a matte. Then, considering all three colour channels, and assuming that the colour channels are expressed in a γ=1 colour space (that is to say, the measured values are proportional to light intensity), we have: cr = α fr + (1 − α) br cg = α fg + (1 − α) bg cb = α fb + (1 − α) bb Note that if the operations are performed in a colour space where γ is not equal to 1 then the operation will lead to non-linear effects which can potentially be seen as aliasing artifacts (or 'jaggies') along sharp edges in the matte. More generally, nonlinear compositing can have effects such as "halos" around composited objects, because the influence of the alpha channel is non-linear. It is possible for a compositing artist to compensate for the effects of compositing in non-linear space. Performing alpha blending is an expensive operation if performed on an entire image or 3D scene. If this operation has to be done in real time video games there is an easy trick to boost performance. cout = α fin + (1 − α) bin cout = α fin + bin − α bin cout = bin + α (fin − bin) By simply rewriting the mathematical expression one can save 50% of the multiplications required. Algebraic properties When many partially transparent layers need to be composited together, it is worthwhile to consider the algebraic properties of compositing operators used. Specifically, the associativity and commutativity determine when repeated calculation can or cannot be avoided. Consider the case when we have four layers to blend to produce the final image: F=A(B(CD)) where A, B, C, D are partially transparent image layers and "" denotes a compositing operator (with the left layer on top of the right layer). If only layer C changes, we should find a way to avoid re-blending all of the layers when computing F. Without any special considerations, four full-image blends would need to occur. For compositing operators that are commutative, such as additive blending, it is safe to re-order the blending operations. In this case, we might compute T=A(BD) only once and simply blend TC to produce F, a single operation. Unfortunately, most operators are not commutative. However, many are associative, suggesting it is safe to re-group operations without changing their order. In this case we may compute S=AB once and save this result. To form F with an associative operator, we need only do two additional compositing operations to integrate the new layer C: F=S(CD). Note that this expression indicates compositing C with all of the layers below it in one step and then blending all of the layers on top of it with the previous result to produce the final image in the second step. If all layers of an image change regularly but a large number of layer still need to be composited (such as in distributed rendering), the commutativity of a compositing operator can still be exploited to speed up computation through parallelism even when there is no gain from pre-computation. Again, consider the image F=A(B(CD)). Each compositing operation in this expression depends on the next, leading to serial computation. However, commutativity can allow us to rewrite F=(AB)(CD) where there are clearly two operations that do not depend on each other that may be executed in parallel. In general, we can build a tree of pair-wise compositing operations with a height that is logarithmic in the number of layers. Software The most historically significant nonlinear compositing system was the Cineon, which operated in a logarithmic color space, which more closely mimics the natural light response of film emulsions (the Cineon system, made by Kodak, is no longer in production). Due to the limitations of processing speed and memory, compositing artists did not usually have the luxury of having the system make intermediate conversions to linear space for the compositing steps. Over time, the limitations have become much less significant, and now most compositing is done in a linear color space, even in cases where the source imagery is in a logarithmic color space. Compositing often also includes scaling, retouching and colour correction of images. Node-based and layer-based compositing There are two radically different digital compositing workflows: node-based compositing and layer-based compositing. Node-based compositing represents an entire composite as a tree graph, linking media objects and effects in a procedural map, intuitively laying out the progression from source input to final output, and is in fact the way all compositing applications internally handle composites. This type of compositing interface allows great flexibility, including the ability to modify the parameters of an earlier image processing step "in context" (while viewing the final composite). Node-based compositing packages can often handle keyframing and time effects poorly, as their workflow does not stem directly from a timeline, as do layer-based compositing packages. An example of a node-based compositor is Apple Shake. Layer-based compositing represents each media object in a composite as a separate layer within a timeline, each with its own time bounds, effects, and keyframes. All the layers are stacked, one above the next, in any desired order; and the bottom layer is rendered first, progressively moving upward until all layers have been rendered into the final composite. Layer-based compositing is very well suited for motion graphics and relatively simple compositing projects, but becomes awkward for more complex composites, often entailing a large number of layers as well as numerous "pre-composites" that together will produce the final composite. An example of a layer-based compositor is Adobe After Effects. Digital compositing systems Adobe After Effects Apple Shake Autodesk Combustion Autodesk Flint, Flame & Inferno Autodesk Smoke Autodesk Toxik Aviary Peacock Blender (software) Kodak Cineon CompTime Industrial Light & Magic eyeon Fusion Foundry Nuke FXHome CompositeLab Pro Industrial Light & Magic's proprietary Saber Jahshaka Pinnacle Commotion SideFX Houdini Halo (Houdini Master) Silicon Grail Rayz and Chalice See also Chroma key Gamma correction Digital cinema Further reading T. Porter and T. Duff, "Compositing Digital Images", Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '84, 18 (1984). The Art and Science of Digital Compositing (ISBN 0-12-133960-2)	Digital_compositing \|@lemmatized digital:7 compositing:33 process:3 digitally:1 assemble:1 multiple:1 image:13 make:3 final:7 typically:1 print:1 motion:2 picture:1 screen:1 display:1 evolution:1 realm:1 optical:1 film:2 mathematics:1 basic:1 operation:12 use:3 know:2 alpha:4 blend:6 opacity:2 value:6 α:15 control:1 proportion:1 two:4 input:2 pixel:8 end:1 single:2 output:2 consider:5 three:2 foreground:4 f:8 background:1 b:7 composited:4 c:10 opaque:1 completely:1 transparent:3 monochrome:1 raster:1 interpret:1 matte:2 colour:5 channel:3 assume:1 express:1 γ:2 space:7 say:1 measure:1 proportional:1 light:4 intensity:1 cr:1 fr:1 br:1 cg:1 fg:1 bg:1 cb:1 fb:1 bb:1 note:2 perform:3 equal:1 lead:2 non:3 linear:5 effect:8 potentially:1 see:2 aliasing:1 artifact:1 jaggies:1 along:1 sharp:1 edge:1 generally:1 nonlinear:2 halo:2 around:1 object:3 influence:1 possible:1 artist:2 compensate:1 blending:3 expensive:1 entire:2 scene:1 real:1 time:4 video:1 game:1 easy:1 trick:1 boost:1 performance:1 cout:3 fin:3 bin:5 simply:2 rewrite:2 mathematical:1 expression:3 one:3 save:2 multiplication:1 require:1 algebraic:2 property:2 many:2 partially:2 layer:24 need:4 together:2 worthwhile:1 operator:6 specifically:1 associativity:1 commutativity:3 determine:1 repeat:1 calculation:1 cannot:1 avoid:2 case:4 four:2 produce:4 denote:1 left:1 top:2 right:1 change:3 find:1 way:2 compute:3 without:2 special:1 consideration:1 full:1 would:1 occur:1 commutative:2 additive:1 safe:2 order:3 might:1 unfortunately:1 however:2 associative:2 suggest:1 group:1 may:2 result:2 form:1 additional:1 integrate:1 new:1 indicate:1 step:4 previous:1 second:1 regularly:1 large:2 number:3 still:2 distributed:1 rendering:1 exploit:1 speed:2 computation:3 parallelism:1 even:2 gain:1 pre:2 depend:2 next:2 serial:1 allow:2 u:1 clearly:1 execute:1 parallel:1 general:1 build:1 tree:2 pair:1 wise:1 height:1 logarithmic:3 software:2 historically:1 significant:2 system:4 cineon:3 operate:1 color:3 closely:1 mimic:1 natural:1 response:1 emulsion:1 kodak:2 longer:1 production:1 due:1 limitation:2 memory:1 usually:1 luxury:1 intermediate:1 conversion:1 become:2 much:1 less:1 source:2 imagery:1 often:3 also:2 include:2 scaling:1 retouch:1 correction:2 node:5 base:11 radically:1 different:1 workflow:2 represent:2 composite:8 graph:1 link:1 medium:2 procedural:1 map:1 intuitively:1 lay:1 progression:1 fact:1 application:1 internally:1 handle:2 type:1 interface:1 great:1 flexibility:1 ability:1 modify:1 parameter:1 early:1 context:1 view:1 package:2 keyframing:1 poorly:1 stem:1 directly:1 timeline:2 example:2 compositor:2 apple:2 shake:2 separate:1 within:1 bound:1 keyframes:1 stack:1 desired:1 bottom:1 render:2 first:1 progressively:1 move:1 upward:1 well:2 suit:1 graphic:1 relatively:1 simple:1 project:1 awkward:1 complex:1 entail:1 numerous:1 adobe:2 autodesk:4 combustion:1 flint:1 flame:1 inferno:1 smoke:1 toxik:1 aviary:1 peacock:1 blender:1 comptime:1 industrial:2 magic:2 eyeon:1 fusion:1 foundry:1 nuke:1 fxhome:1 compositelab:1 pro:1 proprietary:1 saber:1 jahshaka:1 pinnacle:1 commotion:1 sidefx:1 houdini:2 master:1 silicon:1 grail:1 rayz:1 chalice:1 chroma:1 key:1 gamma:1 cinema:1 far:1 reading:1 porter:1 duff:1 proceeding:1 siggraph:1 art:1 science:1 isbn:1 \|@bigram digital_compositing:4 motion_picture:1 proceeding_siggraph:1
6,099	Physical_quantity	A physical quantity is a physical property that can be quantified. This means it can be measured and/or calculated and expressed in numbers. For example, "weight" is a physical quantity that can be expressed by stating a number of some basic measurement unit such as pounds or kilograms, while "beauty" is a property that is difficult to describe with a number. The value of a physical quantity Q is expressed as the product of a numerical value {Q} and a physical unit [Q]. Q = {Q} x [Q] The relationship between different physical quantities are described by quantity calculus. units are usually preferred today. The notion of physical dimension of a physical quantity was introduced by Fourier (1822). Examples If a person weighs 120 pounds, then "120" is the numerical value and "pound" is the unit. This physical quantity would be written as "120 lbs." If the temperature outside is 30 degrees Celsius, then "30" is the numerical value and "degree Celsius" is the unit. This quantity would be written as "30 °C". A more complex example, employing units and scientific notation for the number, might be a measurement of power written as P = 42.3 x 103 W, Here, P represents the physical quantity of power, 42.3 x 103 is the numerical value {P}, and W is the symbol for the unit of power [P], the watt Symbols for physical quantities Usually, the symbols for physical quantities are chosen to be a single lower case or capital letter of the Latin or Greek alphabet written in italic type. Often, the symbols are modified by subscripts and superscripts, in order to specify what they pertain to — for instance Ep is usually used to denote potential energy and cp heat capacity at constant pressure. Symbols for quantities should be chosen according to the international recommendations from ISO 31, the IUPAP red book and the IUPAC green book. For example, the recommended symbol for a physical quantity of mass is m, and the recommended symbol for a quantity of charge is Q. Units of physical quantities Most physical quantities Q include a unit [Q] (where [Q] means "unit of Q"). Neither the name of a physical quantity, nor the symbol used to denote it, implies a particular choice of unit. For example, a quantity of mass might be represented by the symbol m, and could be expressed in the units kilograms (kg), pounds (lb), or daltons (Da). Base quantities, derived quantities and dimensions By convention, physical quantities are organized in a dimensional system built upon base quantities, each of which is regarded as having its own dimension. In the system of units, there are seven base units, but other conventions may have a different number of fundamental units. The base quantities according to the International System of Quantities (ISQ) and their dimensions are listed in the following table: ISQ base quantitiesNameSymbol for quantitySymbol for dimensionSI base unit Length l L meter Time t T second Mass m M kilogram Electric current I I ampere Thermodynamic temperature T θ kelvin Amount of substance n N mole Luminous intensity Iv J candela All other quantities are derived quantities since their dimensions are derived from those of base quantities by multiplication and division. For example, the physical quantity velocity is derived from base quantities length and time and has dimension L/T. Some derived physical quantities have dimension 1 and are said to be dimensionless quantities. Extensive and intensive quantities A quantity is called: extensive when its magnitude is additive for subsystems (volume, mass, etc.) intensive when the magnitude is independent of the extent of the system (temperature, pressure, etc.) Some extensive physical quantities may be prefixed in order to further qualify their meaning: specific is added to refer to the quantity divided by its mass (such as specific volume) molar is added to refer to the quantity divided by the amount of substance (such as molar volume) There are also physical quantities that can be classified as neither extensive nor intensive, for example angular momentum, area, force, length, and time. Physical quantities as coordinates over spaces of physical qualities The meaning of the term physical quantity is generally well understood (everyone understands what is meant by the frequency of a periodic phenomenon, or the resistance of an electric wire). It is clear that behind a set of quantities like temperature − inverse temperature − logarithmic temperature, there is a qualitative notion: the cold−hot quality. Over this one-dimensional quality space, we may choose different coordinates: the temperature, the inverse temperature, etc. Other quality spaces are multidimensional. For instance, to represent the properties of an ideal elastic medium we need 21 coefficients, that can be the 21 components of the elastic stiffness tensor , or the 21 components of the elastic compliance tensor (inverse of the stiffness tensor), or the proper elements (six eigenvalues and 15 angles) of any of the two tensors, etc. Again, we are selecting coordinates over a 21-dimensional quality space. On this space, each point represents a particular elastic medium. It is always possible to define the distance between two points of any quality space, and this distance is —inside a given theoretical context— uniquely defined. For instance, two periodic phenomena can be characterized by their periods, and , or by their frequencies, and . The only definition of distance that respects some clearly defined invariances is loglog. These notions have implications in physics. As soon as we accept that behind the usual physical quantities there are quality spaces, that usual quantities are only special coordinates over these quality spaces, and that there is a metric in each space, the following question arises: Can we do physics intrinsically, i.e., can we develop physics using directly the notion of physical quality, and of metric, and without using particular coordinates (i.e., without any particular choice of physical quantities)? In fact, physics can (and must?) be developed independently of any particular choice of coordinates over the quality spaces, i.e., independently of any particular choice of physical quantities to represent the measurable physical qualities. This point of view has recently been developed (Tarantola, 2006 ). Books Cook, Alan H. The observational foundations of physics, Cambridge, 1994. ISBN 0-521-45597-9. Fourier, Joseph. Théorie analytique de la chaleur, Firmin Didot, Paris, 1822. (In this book, Fourier introduces the concept of physical dimensions for the physical quantities.) Tarantola, Albert. Elements for physics - Quantities, qualities and intrinsic theories, Springer, 2006. ISBN 3-540-25302-5. See also Physical property Physical constant Fundamental unit	Physical_quantity \|@lemmatized physical:33 quantity:45 property:4 quantify:1 mean:3 measure:1 calculate:1 express:4 number:5 example:7 weight:1 state:1 basic:1 measurement:2 unit:17 pound:4 kilogram:3 beauty:1 difficult:1 describe:2 value:5 q:11 product:1 numerical:4 x:3 relationship:1 different:3 calculus:1 usually:3 prefer:1 today:1 notion:4 dimension:8 introduce:2 fourier:3 person:1 weigh:1 would:2 write:4 lb:2 temperature:8 outside:1 degree:2 celsius:2 c:1 complex:1 employ:1 scientific:1 notation:1 might:2 power:3 p:4 w:2 represent:5 symbol:9 watt:1 choose:3 single:1 low:1 case:1 capital:1 letter:1 latin:1 greek:1 alphabet:1 italic:1 type:1 often:1 modify:1 subscript:1 superscript:1 order:2 specify:1 pertain:1 instance:3 ep:1 use:4 denote:2 potential:1 energy:1 cp:1 heat:1 capacity:1 constant:2 pressure:2 accord:2 international:2 recommendation:1 iso:1 iupap:1 red:1 book:4 iupac:1 green:1 recommended:2 mass:5 charge:1 include:1 neither:2 name:1 imply:1 particular:6 choice:4 could:1 kg:1 dalton:1 da:1 base:8 derive:5 convention:2 organize:1 dimensional:3 system:4 build:1 upon:1 regard:1 seven:1 may:3 fundamental:2 quantities:1 isq:2 list:1 following:2 table:1 quantitiesnamesymbol:1 quantitysymbol:1 dimensionsi:1 length:3 l:3 meter:1 time:3 second:1 electric:2 current:1 ampere:1 thermodynamic:1 θ:1 kelvin:1 amount:2 substance:2 n:2 mole:1 luminous:1 intensity:1 iv:1 j:1 candela:1 since:1 multiplication:1 division:1 velocity:1 say:1 dimensionless:1 extensive:4 intensive:3 call:1 magnitude:2 additive:1 subsystem:1 volume:3 etc:4 independent:1 extent:1 prefix:1 far:1 qualify:1 meaning:2 specific:2 add:2 refer:2 divide:2 molar:2 also:2 classify:1 angular:1 momentum:1 area:1 force:1 coordinate:6 space:10 quality:12 term:1 generally:1 well:1 understood:1 everyone:1 understand:1 frequency:2 periodic:2 phenomenon:2 resistance:1 wire:1 clear:1 behind:2 set:1 like:1 inverse:3 logarithmic:1 qualitative:1 cold:1 hot:1 one:1 multidimensional:1 ideal:1 elastic:4 medium:2 need:1 coefficient:1 component:2 stiffness:2 tensor:4 compliance:1 proper:1 element:2 six:1 eigenvalue:1 angle:1 two:3 select:1 point:3 always:1 possible:1 define:2 distance:3 inside:1 give:1 theoretical:1 context:1 uniquely:1 characterize:1 period:1 definition:1 respect:1 clearly:1 defined:1 invariance:1 loglog:1 implication:1 physic:6 soon:1 accept:1 usual:2 special:1 metric:2 question:1 arises:1 intrinsically:1 e:3 develop:3 directly:1 without:2 fact:1 must:1 independently:2 measurable:1 view:1 recently:1 tarantola:2 cook:1 alan:1 h:1 observational:1 foundation:1 cambridge:1 isbn:2 joseph:1 théorie:1 analytique:1 de:1 la:1 chaleur:1 firmin:1 didot:1 paris:1 concept:1 albert:1 intrinsic:1 theory:1 springer:1 see:1 \|@bigram weigh_pound:1 degree_celsius:2 dimensionless_quantity:1 angular_momentum:1 clearly_defined:1

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