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5,800 | French_Polynesia | French Polynesia (French: Polynésie française, Tahitian: Pōrīnetia Farāni) is a French overseas collectivity in the southern Pacific Ocean. It is made up of several groups of Polynesian islands, the most famous island being Tahiti in the Society Islands group, which is also the most populous island and the seat of the capital of the territory (Papeete). Although not an integral part of its territory, Clipperton Island was administered from French Polynesia until 2007. History The French frigate Floréal, stationed in Bora Bora lagoon. The French Polynesian island groups do not share a common history before the establishment of the French protectorate in 1889. The first French Polynesian islands to be settled by Polynesians were the Marquesas Islands in AD 300 and the Society Islands in AD 800. The Polynesians were organized in petty chieftainships. European discovery began in 1521 when the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sighted Pukapuka in the Tuamotu Archipelago. Dutchman Jakob Roggeveen discovered Bora Bora in the Society Islands in 1722, and the British explorer Samuel Wallis visited Tahiti in 1767. The French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville visited Tahiti in 1768, while the British explorer James Cook visited in 1769. Christian missions began with Spanish priests who stayed in Tahiti for a year from 1774; Protestants from the London Missionary Society settled permanently in Polynesia in 1797. King Pomare II of Tahiti was forced to flee to Moorea in 1803; he and his subjects were converted to Protestantism in 1812. French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeete was founded in 1843. In 1880, France annexed Tahiti, changing the status from that of a protectorate to that of a colony. In the 1880s, France claimed the Tuamotu Archipelago, which formerly belonged to the Pomare dynasty, without formally annexing it. Having declared a protectorate over Tahuatu in 1842, the French regarded the entire Marquesas Islands as French. In 1885, France appointed a governor and established a general council, thus giving it the proper administration for a colony. The islands of Rimatara and Rurutu unsuccessfully lobbied for British protection in 1888, so in 1889 they were annexed by France. Postage stamps were first issued in the colony in 1892. The first official name for the colony was Établissements de l'Océanie (Settlements in Oceania); in 1903 the general council was changed to an advisory council and the colony's name was changed to Établissements Français de l'Océanie (French Settlements in Oceania). In 1940 the administration of French Polynesia recognised the Free French Forces and many Polynesians served in World War II. Unknown at the time to French and Polynesians, the Konoe Cabinet in Imperial Japan on September 16, 1940 included French Polynesia among the many territories which were to become Japanese possessions in the post-war world The Japanese claim to the French Pacific islands, along with many other vast territories, appears in the September 16, 1940, "Sphere of survival for the Establishment of a New Order in Greater East Asia by Imperial Japan", published in 1955 by Japan's Foreign Ministry as part of the two-volume "Chronology and major documents of Diplomacy of Japan 1840-1945" - here quoted from "Interview with Tetsuzo Fuwa: Japan's War: History of Expansionism", Japan Press Service, July 2007 – though in the course of the war in the Pacific the Japanese were not able to launch an actual invasion of the French islands. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia). In 1962, France's early nuclear testing ground of Algeria became independent and the Mururoa Atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago was selected as the new testing site; tests were conducted underground after 1974. In 1977, French Polynesia was granted partial internal autonomy; in 1984, the autonomy was extended. French Polynesia became a full overseas collectivity of France in 2004. In September 1995, France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing at Fangataufa atoll after a three-year moratorium. The last test was on January 27, 1996. On January 29, 1996, France announced it would accede to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and no longer tests nuclear weapons. Politics Politics of French Polynesia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French overseas collectivity, whereby the President of French Polynesia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of French Polynesia (the territorial assembly). Political life in French Polynesia has been marked by great instability since the mid-2000s. On September 14, 2007, the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru, 63, was elected president of French Polynesia for the 3rd time in 3 years (with 27 of 44 votes cast in the territorial assembly). BBC NEWS, French Polynesia gets new leader He replaced former President Gaston Tong Sang, opposed to independence, who lost a no-confidence vote in the Assembly of French Polynesia on 31 August after the longtime former president of French Polynesia, Gaston Flosse, hitherto opposed to independence, sided with his long enemy Oscar Temaru to topple the government of Gaston Tong Sang. Oscar Temaru, however, had no stable majority in the Assembly of French Polynesia, and new territorial elections were held in February 2008 to solve the political crisis. The party of Gaston Tong Sang won the territorial elections, but that did not solve the political crisis: the two minority parties of Oscar Temaru and Gaston Flosse, who together have one more member in the territorial assembly than the political party of Gaston Tong Sang, allied to prevent Gaston Tong Sang from becoming president of French Polynesia. Gaston Flosse was then elected president of French Polynesia by the territorial assembly on February 23, 2008 with the support of the pro-independence party led by Oscar Temaru, while Oscar Temaru was elected speaker of the territorial assembly with the support of the anti-independence party led by Gaston Flosse. Both formed a coalition cabinet. Many observers doubted that the alliance between the anti-independence Gaston Flosse and the pro-independence Oscar Temaru, designed to prevent Gaston Tong Sang from becoming president of French Polynesia, could last very long. Polynésie : Gaston Flosse présente un gouvernement d’union At the French municipal elections held in March 2008, several prominent mayors who are member of the Flosse-Temaru coalition lost their offices in key municipalities of French Polynesia, which was interpreted as a disapproval of the way Gaston Tong Sang, whose party French Polynesian voters had placed first in the territorial elections the month before, had been prevented from becoming president of French Polynesia by the last minute alliance between Flosse and Temaru's parties. Eventually, on April 15, 2008 the government of Gaston Flosse was toppled by a constructive vote of no confidence in the territorial assembly when two members of the Flosse-Temaru coalition left the coalition and sided with Tong Sang's party. Gaston Tong Sang was elected president of French Polynesia as a result of this constructive vote of no confidence, but his majority in the territorial assembly is very narrow. He offered posts in his cabinet to Flosse and Temaru's parties which they both refused. Gaston Tong Sang has called all parties to help end the instability in local politics, a prerequisite to attract foreign investors needed to develop the local economy. Despite a local assembly and government, French Polynesia is not in a free association with France, like the Cook Islands with New Zealand or Puerto Rico with the United States. As a French overseas collectivity, the local government has no competence in justice, education, security and defense, directly provided and administered by the French State, the Gendarmerie and the French Military. The highest representative of the State in the territory is the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia (). French Polynesia also sends two deputies to the French National Assembly, one representing the Leeward Islands administrative subdivision, the Austral Islands administrative subdivision, the commune (municipality) of Moorea-Maiao, and the westernmost part of Tahiti (including the capital Papeete), and the other representing the central and eastern part of Tahiti, the Tuamotu-Gambier administrative division, and the Marquesas Islands administrative division. French Polynesia also sends one senator to the French Senate. French Polynesians vote in the French presidential elections and at the 2007 French presidential election, in which the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru openly called to vote for the Socialist candidate Ségolène Royal while the parties opposed to independence generally supported the center-right candidate Nicolas Sarkozy, the turnout in French Polynesia was 69.12% in the first round of the election and 74.67% in the second round. French Polynesians voters placed Nicolas Sarkozy ahead of Ségolène Royal in both rounds of the election (2nd round: Nicolas Sarkozy 51.9%; Ségolène Royal 48.1%). Administration Between 1946 and 2003, French Polynesia had the status of an overseas territory (French: territoire d'outre-mer, or TOM). In 2003 it became an overseas collectivity (French: collectivité d'outre-mer, or COM). Its statutory law of 27 February 2004 gives it the particular designation of overseas country inside the Republic (, or POM), but without legal modification of its status. Administrative divisions French Polynesia has five administrative subdivisions (): Windward Islands ( or officially ) (the two Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands) Leeward Islands ( or officially ) (the two Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands) Marquesas Islands ( or officially ) Austral Islands ( or officially ) (including the Bass Islands) Tuamotu-Gambier ( or officially ) (the Tuamotus and the Gambier Islands) Geography Map of French Polynesia The islands of French Polynesia have a total land area of 4,167 square kilometres (1,622 sq. mi) scattered over 2,500,000 square kilometres (965,255 sq. mi) of ocean. It is made up of several groups of islands, the largest and most populated of which is Tahiti. The island groups are: Austral Islands Bass Islands often considered part of the Austral Islands Gambier Islands often considered part of the Tuamotu Archipelago Marquesas Islands Society Islands (including Tahiti) Tuamotu Archipelago Aside from Tahiti, some other important atolls, islands, and island groups in French Polynesia are: Ahe, Bora Bora, Hiva `Oa, Huahine, Maiao, Maupiti, Mehetia, Moorea, Nuku Hiva, Raiatea, Tahaa, Tetiaroa, Tubuai, and Tupai. Economy The GDP of French Polynesia in 2005 was 5.5 billion US dollars at market exchange rates, the fifth-largest economy in Oceania after Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and New Caledonia. The GDP per capita was 21,565 US dollars in 2005 (at market exchange rates, not at PPP), lower than in Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia, but higher than in all the independent insular states of Oceania. French Polynesia has a moderately developed economy, which is dependent on imported goods, tourism, and the financial assistance of mainland France. Tourist facilities are well developed and are available on the major islands. Also, as the noni fruit from these islands is discovered for its medicinal uses, people have been able to find jobs related to this agricultural industry. The legal tender of French Polynesia is the CFP Franc. Agriculture: coconuts, vanilla, vegetables, fruits. Natural resources: timber, fish, cobalt. In 2007 French Polynesia's imports amounted to 1.9 billion US dollars and exports amounted to 197 million US dollars. The major export of French Polynesia is their famous black Tahitian pearls which accounted for 64% of exports (in value) in 2007. Demographics Tahitian girls. Total population at the August 2007 census was 259,596 inhabitants. At the 2007 census, 68.6% of the population of French Polynesia lived on the island of Tahiti alone. The urban area of Papeete, the capital city, has 131,695 inhabitants (2007 census). At the 2007 census, 87.3% of people were born in French Polynesia, 9.3% were born in metropolitan France, 1.4% were born in overseas France outside of French Polynesia, and 2.0% were born in foreign countries. At the 1988 census, the last census which asked questions regarding ethnicity, 66.5% of people were ethnically unmixed Polynesians, 7.1 % were Polynesians with light European and/or East Asian mixing, 11.9% were Europeans (mostly French and white Americans), 9.3% were people of mixed European and Polynesian descent, the so-called Demis (literally meaning "Half"), and 4.7% were East Asians (mainly Chinese). The Europeans, the Demis and the East Asians are essentially concentrated on the island of Tahiti, particularly in the urban area of Papeete, where their share of the population is thus much greater than in French Polynesia overall. Race mixing has been going on for more than a century already in French Polynesia, resulting in a rather mixed society. For example Gaston Flosse, the long-time leader of French Polynesia, is a Demi (European father from Lorraine and Polynesian mother). Flosse s'efface après 20 ans de règne sur la Polynésie His main opponent Gaston Tong Sang is a member of the East Asian (in his case Chinese) community. Victoire de Gaston Tong Sang Oscar Temaru, the pro-independence leader, is ethnically Polynesian (father from Tahiti, mother from the Cook Islands), Portrait du Président Oscar Manutahi TEMARU but he has admitted to also have Chinese ancestry. Logiques « autonomiste » et « indépendantiste » en Polynésie française Despite a long tradition of race mixing, racial tensions have been growing in recent years, with politicians using a xenophobic discourse and fanning the flame of racial tensions. Temaru-Flosse: le rebond du nationalisme tahitien The pro-independence politicians have long pointed the finger at the European community (Oscar Temaru, pro-independence leader and former president of French Polynesia, was for example found guilty of "racial discrimination" by the criminal court of Papeete in 2007 for having referred to the Europeans living in French Polynesia as "trash", "waste"). Temaru Found Guilty Of "Racial Discrimination" More recently, the Chinese community which controls many businesses in French Polynesia has been targeted in verbal attacks by the newly allied Gaston Flosse and Oscar Temaru in their political fight against Gaston Tong Sang, whose Chinese origins they emphasize in contrast with their Polynesian origins, despite the fact that they both have mixed origins (European and Polynesian for Flosse; Polynesian and Chinese for Temaru). Politique : Toujours pas de gouvernement In April 2008, after the government of Gaston Flosse was toppled in the Assembly of French Polynesia and Gaston Tong Sang became the new president of French Polynesia, two French Polynesian labor union leaders made anti-Chinese remarks ("I'm not hiding from the fact that I wouldn't like our country to be ruled by someone who's not a Polynesian"; "a Chinese only thinks of the business leaders, because he is a businessman"). Anti-Chinese Remarks Cause A Political Furor These anti-Chinese remarks caused a political furor and were widely condemned in French Polynesia. Propos "anti-chinois": les réactions se multiplient Historical population 1907 1911 1921 1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 30,600 31,900 31,600 35,900 40,400 44,000 51,200 58,200 63,300 1956 1962 1971 1977 1983 1988 1996 2002 2007 76,323 84,551 119,168 137,382 166,753 188,814 219,521 245,516 259,596 <small>Official figures from past censuses. 2002 census 1971, 1977, 1983, 1988, and 1996 censuses Censuses from 1907 to 1962 in Population, 1972, #4-5, pp. 705-706, published by INED Languages Cemetery in the Tuamotus French is the official language of French Polynesia. An organic law of April 12, 1996 states that "French is the official language, Tahitian and other Polynesian languages can be used." At the 2007 census, among the population whose age was 15 and older, 68.5% of people reported that the language they speak the most at home is French, 29.9% reported that the language they speak the most at home is any of the Polynesian languages (four-fifth of which Tahitian), 1.0% reported a Chinese language (half of which Hakka), and 0.6% another language. At the same census, 94.7% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas only 2.0% reported that they had no knowledge of French. 74.6% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they could speak, read and write one of the Polynesian languages, whereas 13.6% reported that they had no knowledge of any of the Polynesian languages. Religion Christianity is the main religion of the islands, a majority (54%) belonging to various Protestant churches and a large minority (30%) being Roman Catholic. Transportation While most major roads are paved and well-maintained, many secondary roads are not. Traffic is brisk and all types of vehicles and pedestrians jockey for space on narrow streets. Crosswalks are marked and the law requires that motor vehicles stop for pedestrians; however, this is not always done. Tourists should exercise caution when driving, particularly at night. There are 51 airports in French Polynesia, 39 are paved. Famous people of French Polynesia Henri Hiro (1944-1991), Film director & script writer, poet, ecologist, activist Marco Namouro, writer (1889-1968) Célestine Hitiura Vaite, writer (born 1966) Ella Koon, model (born 1979) Pascal Vahirua, former French international footballer (born 1966) Marama Vahirua, footballer, cousin of Pascal Vahirua (born 1980) Music French Polynesia came to the forefront of the world music scene in 1992, with the release of The Tahitian Choir's recordings of unaccompanied vocal Christian music called himene tārava, recorded by French musicologist Pascal Nabet-Meyer. This form of singing is common in French Polynesia and the Cook Islands, and is distinguished by a unique drop in pitch at the end of the phrases, which is a characteristic formed by several different voices; it is also accompanied by steady grunting of staccato, nonsensical syllables. Miscellaneous topics French Polynesia has one of the lowest crime rates within France and its territories. However, petty crime, such as pickpocketing and purse snatching, occurs. Medical treatment is generally good on the major islands, but is limited in areas that are more remote or less/sparsely populated. Patients with emergencies or with serious illnesses are often referred to facilities on Tahiti for treatment. In Papeete, the capital of Tahiti, two major hospitals as well as several private clinics provide 24-hour medical service. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization or medical evacuation can cost thousands of dollars. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for health services. As an overseas territory of France, defence and law-enforcement are provided by the French Forces (Army, Navy, Air Force) and Gendarmerie. Charles Darwin visited French Polynesia on his five year trip around the world. PDF file of his journal Gallery See also Communications in French Polynesia Université de la Polynésie Française, University of French Polynesia French overseas departments and territories Administrative divisions of France Islands administered by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans Music of French Polynesia Conseil du Scoutisme polynésien Nuclear-free zone Moruroa References Bibliography External links Government Government of French Polynesia Presidency of French Polynesia Administrative Subdivisions of French Polynesia General information French Polynesia at UCB Libraries GovPubs Travel Official Tourism Website Travel Guide South Seas island guide be-x-old:Француская Палінэзія | French_Polynesia |@lemmatized french:105 polynesia:64 polynésie:6 française:4 tahitian:6 pōrīnetia:1 farāni:1 overseas:11 collectivity:5 southern:1 pacific:4 ocean:3 make:3 several:5 group:6 polynesian:25 island:45 famous:3 tahiti:18 society:8 islands:8 also:7 populous:1 seat:1 capital:5 territory:10 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5,801 | American_Film_Institute | The American Film Institute (AFI) is an independent non-profit organization created by the National Endowment for the Arts, which was established in 1967 when President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act. The organization describes itself as "a national institute providing leadership in screen education and the recognition and celebration of excellence in the art of film, television and digital media." The AFI also preserves film and video through its National Center for Film and Video Preservation. Often confused, AFI DALLAS International Film Festival is not an AFI program. AFI DALLAS is a separate non-profit organization with a licensing agreement with the American Film Institute. History The first CEO and director was George Stevens, Jr. In 1969, Czechoslovakian-born Frank Daniel was appointed the first school's first dean. In 1980, Jean Picker Firstenberg became Director and CEO. In 1998—the 100th anniversary of American film—AFI began its 100 Years... series, celebrating and promoting interest in film history; they also preserve old films, which are subject to degradation of film stock. The AFI re-opened the AFI Silver theatre in Silver Spring, Maryland, near Washington, D.C., in April 2003. The AFI Conservatory focuses on training through hands-on experience with established figures. AFI also produces film education and appreciation materials for middle and high school students. In spite of its name, AFI does not focus exclusively on film, but also on television and video. In 2007, Bob Gazzale, a fifteen-year veteran of AFI, was named president and CEO. Awards The AFI established a Life Achievement Award in 1973. Their own film festival, AFI Fest, was launched in 1987 and has been held every year. AFI Fest is the first film festival in the United States to carry FIAPF accreditation. Ceremonies 2005 was the only year when all the nominees of the Academy Award for Best Picture were also listed as one of the best 10 films of the year: Brokeback Mountain, Capote, Crash, Good Night, and Good Luck. and Munich. 2004, 2006 and 2008 only listed 3 Best Picture Oscar nominees – 2004: The Aviator, Million Dollar Baby and Sideways – 2006: Babel, Letters from Iwo Jima and Little Miss Sunshine and 2008: The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, Frost/Nixon and Milk. Up to 2008, 6 animated features made the list of 10 best films of the year. Shrek (2001), Finding Nemo (2003), The Incredibles (2004), Happy Feet (2006), Ratatouille (2007) and WALL-E (2008); all of them went on to win the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. 2006 and 2008 were the only years where the eventual Best Picture winner at the Oscars, The Departed and Slumdog Millionaire, were not selected as one of the year's Ten Best. The latter was not eligilble due to being produced in Britain. See also AFI 100 Years... series AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (1998) AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars (1999) AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs (2000) AFI's 100 Years... 100 Thrills (2001) AFI's 100 Years... 100 Passions (2002) AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains (2003) AFI's 100 Years... 100 Songs (2004) AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores (2005) AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes (2005) AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers (2006) AFI's 100 Years of Musicals (2006) AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) (2007) AFI's 10 Top 10 (2008) AFI Life Achievement Award Australian Film Institute British Film Institute Finnish Film Foundation Swedish Film Institute References AFI Website AFI Fest (AFI Los Angeles Film Festival) Official website AFI Los Angeles Film Festival - History and Information | American_Film_Institute |@lemmatized american:3 film:23 institute:6 afi:34 independent:1 non:2 profit:2 organization:3 create:1 national:4 endowment:1 art:3 establish:3 president:2 lyndon:1 b:1 johnson:1 sign:1 foundation:2 humanity:1 act:1 describe:1 provide:1 leadership:1 screen:1 education:2 recognition:1 celebration:1 excellence:1 television:2 digital:1 medium:1 also:6 preserve:2 video:3 center:1 preservation:1 often:1 confused:1 dallas:2 international:1 festival:5 program:1 separate:1 licensing:1 agreement:1 history:3 first:4 ceo:3 director:2 george:1 stevens:1 jr:1 czechoslovakian:1 born:1 frank:1 daniel:1 appoint:1 school:2 dean:1 jean:1 picker:1 firstenberg:1 become:1 anniversary:2 begin:1 year:21 series:2 celebrate:1 promote:1 interest:1 old:1 subject:1 degradation:1 stock:1 open:1 silver:2 theatre:1 spring:1 maryland:1 near:1 washington:1 c:1 april:1 conservatory:1 focus:2 training:1 hand:1 experience:1 figure:1 produce:2 appreciation:1 material:1 middle:1 high:1 student:1 spite:1 name:2 exclusively:1 bob:1 gazzale:1 fifteen:1 veteran:1 award:5 life:2 achievement:2 fest:3 launch:1 hold:1 every:1 united:1 state:1 carry:1 fiapf:1 accreditation:1 ceremony:1 nominee:2 academy:2 best:7 picture:3 list:3 one:2 brokeback:1 mountain:1 capote:1 crash:1 good:2 night:1 luck:1 munich:1 oscar:2 aviator:1 million:1 dollar:1 baby:1 sideways:1 babel:1 letter:1 iwo:1 jima:1 little:1 miss:1 sunshine:1 curious:1 case:1 benjamin:1 button:1 frost:1 nixon:1 milk:1 animate:2 feature:2 make:1 shrek:1 find:1 nemo:1 incredibles:1 happy:1 foot:1 ratatouille:1 wall:1 e:1 go:1 win:1 eventual:1 winner:1 departed:1 slumdog:1 millionaire:1 select:1 ten:1 latter:1 eligilble:1 due:1 britain:1 see:1 movie:3 star:1 laugh:1 thrill:1 passion:1 hero:1 villain:1 song:1 score:1 quote:1 cheer:1 musical:1 edition:1 top:1 australian:1 british:1 finnish:1 swedish:1 reference:1 website:2 los:2 angeles:2 official:1 information:1 |@bigram president_lyndon:1 lyndon_b:1 brokeback_mountain:1 iwo_jima:1 slumdog_millionaire:1 los_angeles:2 |
5,802 | Chinese_Islamic_cuisine | Chinese Islamic cuisine (清真菜 or 回族菜) is the cuisine of the Hui (ethnic Chinese Muslims) and other Muslims living in the People's Republic of China. History Due to the large Muslim population in western China, many Chinese restaurants cater to, or are run by, Muslims. Northern Chinese Islamic cuisine originated in China proper. It is heavily influenced by Beijing cuisine, with nearly all cooking methods identical, and differs only in material due to religious restrictions. As a result, northern Islamic cuisine is often included in Beijing cuisine. Traditionally, there is a distinction between northern and southern Chinese Islamic cuisine despite both utilizing mutton and lamb. Northern Chinese Islamic cuisine relies heavily on beef, but rarely ducks, geese, shrimp or seafood, while southern Islamic cuisine is the reverse. The reason for this difference is due to availability of the ingredients. Oxen have been long used for farming and Chinese governments have frequently strictly prohibited the slaughter of oxen for food. However, due to the geographic proximity of the northern part of China to minority-dominated regions that were not subjected to such restrictions, beef could be easily purchased and transported to northern China. At the same time, ducks, geese, and shrimp are rare in comparison to southern China due to the arid climate of northern China. A Chinese Islamic restaurant (清真菜館 mandarin: qīngzhēn càiguǎn) can be similar to a Mandarin restaurant with the exception that there is no pork on the menu. The Chinese word for halal is "pure truth" (清真, pinyin: qīngzhēn) food (菜, cài), so a Chinese Islamic restaurant is a "qingzhen restaurant" that serves "qingzhen" food. In most major cities in China, there are small Islamic restaurants typically run by migrants from Western China (e.g., Uyghurs), which offer inexpensive noodle soup. These restaurants are typically decorated with Islamic motifs such as pictures of Islamic rugs and Arabic writing. Another difference is that lamb and mutton dishes are more commonly available than in other Chinese restaurants, due to the greater prevalence of these meats in the cuisine of western Chinese regions. (Refer to image 1.) Many cafeterias (canteens) at Chinese universities have separate sections or dining areas for Muslim students (Hui or western Chinese minorities), typically labeled "qingzhen." Student ID cards sometimes indicate whether a student is Muslim, and will allow access to these dining areas, or will allow access on special occasions such as the Eid feast following Ramadan. Famous Dishes Lamian Lamian (Refer to image 2.) () is a Chinese dish of hand-made noodles, usually served in a beef or mutton-flavored soup (湯麵 tāngmiàn), but sometimes stir-fried (炒麵 chǎomiàn) and served with a tomato-based sauce. Literally, 拉 (lā) means to pull or stretch, while 麵 (miàn) means noodle. The hand-making process involves taking a lump of dough and repeatedly stretching it to produce a single very long noodle. Chuanr Chuanr (Chinese :串儿, pinyin: chuànr (shortened from "chuan er"); "kebab"), originating in the Xinjiang (新疆) province of China and in recent years has been disseminated throughout the rest of that country, most notably in Beijing. It is a product of the Chinese Islamic cuisine of the Uyghur (维吾尔) people and other Chinese Muslims. Yang rou chuan, or lamb kebabs, is particularly popular. Beef noodle soup Beef noodle soup (Refer to image 3.) is a noodle soup dish composed of stewed beef, beef broth, vegetables and wheat noodles. It exists in various forms throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia. The most common Vietnamese version is called Bo kho, but which uses rice noodles instead. It was created by the Hui people during the Tang Dynasty of China. In the West, this food may be served in a small portion as a soup. In China, a large bowl of it is often taken as a whole meal with or without any side dish. Suan cai Suan cai or Chinese Sauerkraut is a traditional Chinese cuisine vegetable dish used in a variety of ways. It consists of pickled Chinese cabbage. Suan cai is a unique form of pao cai due to the material used and the method of production. Although suan cai is not exclusively Chinese Islamic cuisine, it is used in Chinese Islamic cuisine to top off noodle soups, especially beef noodle soup. Nang Nang 馕 - A type of round unleavened bread, topped with sesame - similar to South and Central Asia naan. Image gallery External links A San Francisco Chronicle article on a Chinese Islamic restaurant in the US www.chinaheritagequarterly.org The Famous Dungan Noodles or Lyu Mian with Eight Seasoning Dishes! More pictures of the Dungan Cuisine See also Turkish cuisine Arab cuisine Iranian cuisine Chinese cuisine Lanzhou Gansu Shaanxi Xi'an Islam in China Cuisine of Xinjiang | Chinese_Islamic_cuisine |@lemmatized chinese:25 islamic:15 cuisine:20 清真菜:1 回族菜:1 hui:3 ethnic:1 muslim:7 live:1 people:3 republic:1 china:13 history:1 due:7 large:2 population:1 western:4 many:2 restaurant:9 cater:1 run:2 northern:7 originate:2 proper:1 heavily:2 influence:1 beijing:3 nearly:1 cooking:1 method:2 identical:1 differs:1 material:2 religious:1 restriction:2 result:1 often:2 include:1 traditionally:1 distinction:1 southern:3 despite:1 utilizing:1 mutton:3 lamb:3 relies:1 beef:8 rarely:1 duck:2 geese:2 shrimp:2 seafood:1 reverse:1 reason:1 difference:2 availability:1 ingredient:1 ox:2 long:2 use:5 farm:1 government:1 frequently:1 strictly:1 prohibit:1 slaughter:1 food:4 however:1 geographic:1 proximity:1 part:1 minority:2 dominated:1 region:2 subject:1 could:1 easily:1 purchase:1 transport:1 time:1 rare:1 comparison:1 arid:1 climate:1 清真菜館:1 mandarin:2 qīngzhēn:2 càiguǎn:1 similar:2 exception:1 pork:1 menu:1 word:1 halal:1 pure:1 truth:1 清真:1 pinyin:2 菜:1 cài:1 qingzhen:3 serve:4 major:1 city:1 small:2 typically:3 migrant:1 e:1 g:1 uyghurs:1 offer:1 inexpensive:1 noodle:12 soup:8 decorate:1 motif:1 picture:2 rug:1 arabic:1 writing:1 another:1 dish:7 commonly:1 available:1 great:1 prevalence:1 meat:1 refer:3 image:4 cafeteria:1 canteen:1 university:1 separate:1 section:1 din:2 area:2 student:3 label:1 id:1 card:1 sometimes:2 indicate:1 whether:1 allow:2 access:2 special:1 occasion:1 eid:1 feast:1 follow:1 ramadan:1 famous:2 lamian:2 hand:2 made:1 usually:1 flavor:1 湯麵:1 tāngmiàn:1 stir:1 fry:1 炒麵:1 chǎomiàn:1 tomato:1 base:1 sauce:1 literally:1 拉:1 lā:1 mean:2 pull:1 stretch:2 麵:1 miàn:1 making:1 process:1 involve:1 take:2 lump:1 dough:1 repeatedly:1 produce:1 single:1 chuanr:2 串儿:1 chuànr:1 shorten:1 chuan:2 er:1 kebab:2 xinjiang:2 新疆:1 province:1 recent:1 year:1 disseminate:1 throughout:2 rest:1 country:1 notably:1 product:1 uyghur:1 维吾尔:1 yang:1 rou:1 particularly:1 popular:1 compose:1 stewed:1 broth:1 vegetable:2 wheat:1 exist:1 various:1 form:2 east:1 asia:3 southeast:1 common:1 vietnamese:1 version:1 call:1 bo:1 kho:1 rice:1 instead:1 create:1 tang:1 dynasty:1 west:1 may:1 portion:1 bowl:1 whole:1 meal:1 without:1 side:1 suan:4 cai:5 sauerkraut:1 traditional:1 variety:1 way:1 consist:1 pickled:1 cabbage:1 unique:1 pao:1 production:1 although:1 exclusively:1 top:2 especially:1 nang:2 馕:1 type:1 round:1 unleavened:1 bread:1 sesame:1 south:1 central:1 naan:1 gallery:1 external:1 link:1 san:1 francisco:1 chronicle:1 article:1 u:1 www:1 chinaheritagequarterly:1 org:1 dungan:2 lyu:1 mian:1 eight:1 season:1 see:1 also:1 turkish:1 arab:1 iranian:1 lanzhou:1 gansu:1 shaanxi:1 xi:1 islam:1 |@bigram restaurant_cater:1 beijing_cuisine:2 relies_heavily:1 duck_geese:2 noodle_soup:6 stir_fry:1 beef_noodle:3 southeast_asia:1 rice_noodle:1 tang_dynasty:1 suan_cai:4 unleavened_bread:1 external_link:1 san_francisco:1 |
5,803 | Lee_Marvin | Lee Marvin (February 19, 1924 – August 29, 1987) was an American film actor. Known for his gravelly voice, white hair and 6' 2" stature, Marvin at first did supporting roles, mostly villains, soldiers, and other hard-boiled characters, but after winning a Academy Award for Best Actor for his dual roles in Cat Ballou, he landed more heroic and sympathetic leading roles. Early life Marvin was born in New York City, New York, the son of Lamont Waltman Marvin, an advertising executive and the head of the New York and New England Apple Institute, and his wife Courtenay Washington Davidge, a fashion writer and beauty consultant. Lee Marvin's ancestors from a collection of celebrity family trees at freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com His father was a direct descendant of Matthew Marvin, Sr., who emigrated from Great Bentley, Essex, England in 1635 and helped found Hartford, Connecticut. Marvin studied violin when he was young. As a teenager, Marvin "spent weekends and spare time hunting deer, puma, wild turkey and bobwhite in the wilds of the then-uncharted Everglades." He attended St. Leo Preparatory College in St. Leo, Florida after being expelled from several schools for bad behavior. Marvin left school to join the United States Marine Corps, serving as a Scout Sniper in the 4th Marine Division. He was wounded in action during the WWII Battle of Saipan. Most of his platoon were killed during the battle. Marvin's wound (in the buttocks) was from machine gun fire, which severed his sciatic nerve. He was awarded the Purple Heart medal and was given a medical discharge with the rank of Private First Class. Contrary to rumors, Marvin did not serve with Bob Keeshan during World War II. Career After the war, while working as a plumber's assistant at a local community theater in upstate New York, Marvin was asked to replace an actor who had fallen ill during rehearsals. He then began an amateur off-Broadway acting career in New York City and served as an understudy in Broadway productions. In 1950, Marvin moved to Hollywood. He found work in supporting roles, and from the beginning was cast in various war films. As a decorated combat veteran, Marvin was a natural in war dramas, where he frequently assisted the director and other actors in realistically portraying infantry movement, arranging costumes, and even adjusting war surplus military prop firearms. His debut was in You're in the Navy Now (1951), and in 1952 he appeared in several films, including Don Siegel's Duel at Silver Creek, Hangman's Knot, and the war drama Eight Iron Men. He played Gloria Grahame's vicious boyfriend in Fritz Lang's The Big Heat (1953). Marvin had a small but memorable role in The Wild One (1953) opposite Marlon Brando (Marvin's gang in the film was called "The Beetles"), followed by Seminole (1953) and Gun Fury (1953). He also had a small but memorable role as smartalecky sailor Meatball in The Caine Mutiny. He was again praised for his role as Hector the small town hood in Bad Day at Black Rock (1955) with Spencer Tracy. During the mid-1950s, Marvin gradually began playing more substantial roles. He starred in Attack (1956), and The Missouri Traveler (1958) but it took over one hundred episodes as Chicago cop Frank Ballinger in the successful 1957-1960 television series M Squad to actually give him name recognition. One critic described the show as "a hyped-up, violent Dragnet... with a tough-as-nails Marvin" playing a police lieutenant. In the 1960s, Marvin was given prominent co-starring roles such as The Comancheros (1961), The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962; Marvin played Liberty Valance) and Donovan's Reef (1963), all with John Wayne. Marvin also guest-starred in Combat! "The Bridge at Chalons" (Episode 34, Season 2, Mission 1), and The Twilight Zone "The Grave" (1961, episode #72), in which he played a fearless gunman investigating the haunted grave of a man who swore to get revenge on him, and "Steel" (1963, episode #122 ), in which he played a former boxer who gets into the ring with a boxing robot. Thanks to director Don Siegel, Marvin appeared in the groundbreaking The Killers (1964) playing an organized, no-nonsense, efficient, businesslike professional assassin whose character was copied to a great degree by Samuel L. Jackson in the 1994 Quentin Tarantino film Pulp Fiction. The Killers was also the first movie in which Marvin received top billing and the only time Ronald Reagan played a villain. Marvin won the 1965 Academy Award for Best Actor for his comic role in the offbeat western Cat Ballou starring Jane Fonda. Following roles in The Professionals (1966) and the hugely successful The Dirty Dozen (1967), Marvin was given complete control over his next film. In Point Blank, an influential film with director John Boorman, he portrayed a hard-nosed criminal bent on revenge. In that film Marvin, who had selected Boorman himself for the director's slot, had a central role in the film's development, plot line, and staging. In 1968, Marvin also appeared in another Boorman film, the critically acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful Hell in the Pacific, co-starring famed Japanese actor Toshirō Mifune. He had a hit song with "Wand'rin' Star" from the western musical Paint Your Wagon (1969). By this time he was getting paid a million dollars per film, $200,000 less than Paul Newman was making at the time; he was also ambivalent about the business, even with its financial rewards: "You spend the first forty years of your life trying to get in this fucking business, and the next forty years trying to get out. And then when you're making the bread, who needs it?" Marvin in a scene from the 1973 film Emperor of the North Marvin had a much greater variety of roles in the 1970s and 1980s, with fewer 'bad-guy' roles than in earlier years. His 1970s films included Monte Walsh (1970), Prime Cut (1972), Pocket Money (1972), Emperor of the North Pole (1973), The Iceman Cometh (1973) as Hickey, The Spikes Gang (1974), The Klansman (1974), Shout at the Devil (1976), The Great Scout and Cathouse Thursday (1976), and Avalanche Express (1978). Marvin was offered the role of Quint in Jaws (1975) but declined. Marvin's last big role was in Samuel Fuller's The Big Red One (1980). His remaining films were Death Hunt (1981), Gorky Park (1983), Dog Day (1984), The Dirty Dozen: The Next Mission (1985), with his final appearance being in The Delta Force (1986). Personal life A father of six, Marvin was married twice. His first marriage to Betty Ebeling began in February 1951 and ended in divorce on January 5, 1967; during this time his hobbies included sport fishing off the Baja California coast and duck hunting along the Mexican border near Mexicali. He then married Pamela Feeley on October 18, 1970 and remained her husband until his death. During the 1970s, Marvin resided off and on in Woodstock, New York, and would make regular trips to Cairns, Australia to engage in marlin fishing. Want to see a marlin? from The Cairns Post website In 1975 Marvin and Pamela moved to Tucson, where he lived until his death. Marvin was a liberal Democrat who opposed the Vietnam War and declared his support for the gay rights movement in a January 1969 interview with Playboy magazine. In December 1986, Marvin underwent intestinal surgery after suffering abdominal pains while at his ranch outside of Tucson. Doctors said then that there was an inflammation of the colon, but that no malignancy was found. He died of a heart attack on August 29, 1987 after being hospitalized for more than a fortnight because of "a run-down condition related to the flu." He is interred at Arlington National Cemetery. Children with Betty Ebeling: Christopher (b.1952), Courtenay (b.1954), Cynthia (b.1956), Claudia (b.1958) Community property case In 1971, Marvin was sued by long-time girlfriend Michelle Triola (who called herself Michelle Marvin at the time). Though the couple never married, she sought financial compensation similar to that available to spouses under California's alimony and community property laws. The result was the landmark "palimony" case, Marvin v. Marvin 18 Cal. 3d 660 (1976). Marvin v. Marvin (1976) 18 C3d 660 from online.ceb.com In 1979, Marvin was ordered to pay $104,000 to Triola for "rehabilitation purposes" but denied her community property claim for one-half of the $3.6 million which Marvin had earned during their six years of cohabitation. In August 1981, however, the California Court of Appeal reversed this decision, declaring that Triola was entitled to no money whatsoever, in that the co-habitant in an unmarried cohabitative relationship has no community property claim, but merely a contract claim. Without evidence of any contract between Marvin and Triola requiring that Marvin support her should their relationship end, Triola could not recover any money. Unmarried Cohabitant's Right to Support and Property from peoples-law.org Partial filmography You're in the Navy Now (1951) (uncredited film debut) Hangman's Knot (1952) We're Not Married (1952) The Big Heat (1953) Gun Fury (1953) The Wild One (1953) The Caine Mutiny (1954) Pete Kelly's Blues (1955) A Life In the Balance (1955) Bad Day at Black Rock (1955) Violent Saturday (1955) Attack (1956) Seven Men from Now (1956) Raintree County (1957) The Missouri Traveller (1958) The Comancheros (1961) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962) Donovan's Reef (1963) The Killers (1964) Cat Ballou (1965) Ship of Fools (1965) The Professionals (1966) The Dirty Dozen (1967) Point Blank (1967) Hell in the Pacific (1968) Paint Your Wagon (1969) Monte Walsh (1970) Prime Cut (1972) Pocket Money (1972) Emperor of the North (1973) The Iceman Cometh (1973) The Klansman (1974) The Great Scout and Cathouse Thursday(1976) Shout at the Devil (1976) Avalanche Express (1979) The Big Red One (1980) Death Hunt (1981) Gorky Park (1983) The Dirty Dozen: The Next Mission (1985) The Delta Force (1986) Television appearances Marvin's appearances on television included M Squad, Climax!, Dragnet (as murder suspect Henry Ellsworth Ross), General Electric Theater, The Investigators, The Barbara Stanwyck Show, Route 66, The Untouchables, The Dick Powell Show, Combat!, The Twilight Zone, Kraft Suspense Theatre, and Dr. Kildare, as well as westerns such as Wagon Train, Bonanza, and The Virginian. See also The Sons of Lee Marvin, a secret society dedicated to Marvin References External links Profile of Marvin in Film Comment | Lee_Marvin |@lemmatized lee:3 marvin:50 february:2 august:3 american:1 film:16 actor:6 know:1 gravelly:1 voice:1 white:1 hair:1 stature:1 first:5 support:5 role:16 mostly:1 villains:1 soldier:1 hard:2 boiled:1 character:2 win:2 academy:2 award:3 best:2 dual:1 cat:3 ballou:3 land:1 heroic:1 sympathetic:1 lead:1 early:2 life:4 bear:1 new:7 york:6 city:2 son:2 lamont:1 waltman:1 advertising:1 executive:1 head:1 england:2 apple:1 institute:1 wife:1 courtenay:2 washington:1 davidge:1 fashion:1 writer:1 beauty:1 consultant:1 ancestor:1 collection:1 celebrity:1 family:1 tree:1 freepages:1 genealogy:1 rootsweb:1 com:2 father:2 direct:1 descendant:1 matthew:1 sr:1 emigrate:1 great:5 bentley:1 essex:1 help:1 find:3 hartford:1 connecticut:1 study:1 violin:1 young:1 teenager:1 spent:1 weekend:1 spare:1 time:7 hunt:3 deer:1 puma:1 wild:4 turkey:1 bobwhite:1 uncharted:1 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5,804 | Bob_Knight | Robert Montgomery "Bob" or "Bobby" Knight (born October 25, 1940) is a retired American basketball coach. Nicknamed "The General", Knight has won 902 NCAA Division I men's college basketball games, more than any other head coach. On January 1, 2007, he achieved his 880th victory, breaking the record held by Dean Smith. His 900th victory came on January 16, 2008. He was most recently the head men's basketball coach at Texas Tech before announcing his retirement on February 4, 2008. He was previously the head coach at Indiana University and at the United States Military Academy. From 1971–2000, Knight coached the Indiana Hoosiers, where he led his teams to three NCAA championships, one National Invitation Tournament (NIT) championship, and eleven Big Ten Conference championships. For his accomplishments, he received the National Coach of the Year honor four times and the Big Ten Coach of the Year honor six times. RedRaiders.com In 1984, he coached the USA men's Olympic team to a gold medal, becoming one of only three basketball coaches to win an NCAA title, NIT title, and an Olympic gold medal. Bob Knight resigns Knight was one of college basketball's most controversial coaches. He threw a chair across the court during a game, was arrested for assault, and displayed a combative nature during encounters with members of the press. On the other hand, Knight has been praised for running clean programs (none of his teams have ever been sanctioned by the NCAA for recruiting violations) and graduating most of his players. Knight still commands a following among fans of the Indiana Hoosiers basketball program. Pat Knight to mine for players in Indiana In 2008, Knight joined ESPN as a men's college basketball studio analyst during Championship Week and for coverage of the NCAA Tournament. Bob Knight joins ESPN for Championship Week and NCAA Tournament . For the 2008–09 season, he joined ESPN as a part-time color commentator as well as continuing his studio analyst duties. Biography Playing career Knight was born in Massillon, Ohio, According to some sources, he was born in Orrville, Ohio. However, he was probably born in Massillon and grew up in Orrville. http://www2.indystar.com/library/factfiles/people/k/knight_bob/knight.html He began his career as a player at Orrville High School where he played football and basketball. He continued under Basketball Hall of Fame coach Fred Taylor at Ohio State University in 1958. He was a reserve on the Buckeyes' 1960 national championship team, which featured future Hall of Fame players John Havlicek and Jerry Lucas. In addition to lettering in basketball at Ohio State, it has been claimed that Knight also lettered in football and baseball; Howstuffworks "Bob Knight" however, the official list of Ohio State football letter earners does not include Knight. Knight graduated with a degree in history and government in 1962. Coaching career Army After graduation in 1962, Knight coached junior varsity basketball at Cuyahoga Falls High School in Ohio for one year. Knight then enlisted in the U.S. Army and accepted an assistant coaching position at Army in 1963, where, two years later, he was named the head coach at the relatively young age of 24. In six seasons at West Point, Knight won 102 games, with his first as a head coach coming against Worcester Polytechnic Institute. One of his players was Hall of Fame and current Duke Blue Devils head coach Mike Krzyzewski. Season records under Knight Indiana Knight was noticed as a rising star, and when Indiana University was seeking a new coach in 1971, they turned to Knight. Educated in military history, Knight was given the nickname "The General" by former University of Detroit and Detroit Pistons coach-turned-broadcaster Dick Vitale. Indiana reached the Final Four in 1973, losing to UCLA. In 1975, the Hoosiers were undefeated and the number one team in the nation, when leading scorer Scott May suffered a broken arm in a win over arch-rival Purdue. Indiana subsequently lost 92–90 to Kentucky in the regional finals of the NCAA tournament, with May playing with a heavily-braced arm. In 1976, the Hoosiers were undefeated at 32–0 and won the championship, beating Michigan 86–68 in the title game. Immediately after the game, Knight lamented that "it should have been two." No Division I men's team has had an undefeated season including a championship since, although UNLV went undefeated in the regular season before losing in the semifinals of the 1991 NCAA tournament. Knight's Hoosiers also won championships in 1981, with future NBA and Hall of Fame point guard Isiah Thomas, beating North Carolina 63–50; and in 1987 with guard Steve Alford, beating Syracuse 74–73 on a last-second shot by Keith Smart. Indiana won the 1979 NIT championship, and Knight led the U.S. national team to a gold medal in the Olympic Games as coach of the Michael Jordan-led 1984 team (coaches do not receive medals in the Olympics). He also won eleven Big Ten Conference titles. Knight is one of only three coaches to win NCAA, NIT, and Olympic championships, joining Dean Smith of North Carolina, and Pete Newell of California. Knight is the only coach to win the NCAA, the NIT, the Olympic Gold and the Pan-Am Gold. The Indiana Hoosiers were undefeated in Big Ten Conference play from 1974 to 1976, and lost only one game during the period (the aforementioned regional final against Kentucky). In 1991, Knight was elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame in his second year of eligibility. After he wasn't elected in his first year of eligibility, Knight told the committee to take his name off the list, but they denied his request. "Zero tolerance" On March 14, 2000, just before Indiana was to begin play in the NCAA tournament, the CNN/SI network ran a piece on Knight in which former player Neil Reed claimed he was choked by Knight in a 1997 practice. Knight denied the claims in the story. However, on April 11, 2000, CNN Sports Illustrated aired a tape of an IU practice from 1997 that showed Knight with his hand around the neck of Neil Reed. CNN.com - Fired Bob Knight calms angry student demonstrators - September 11, 2000 In May of that year, Indiana University president Myles Brand (currently executive director of the NCAA) announced that he had adopted a "zero tolerance" policy with regard to Bob Knight's behavior. Bob Knight - Former Indiana University basketball coach Termination from Indiana Knight's dismissal led to a media storm of publicity including the cover of Sports Illustrated. In September 2000, an IU freshman named Kent Harvey reportedly said, "Hey, Knight, what's up?" to Knight. According to Harvey, Knight grabbed him by the arm and lectured him for not showing proper respect. Brand stated that this incident was only one of numerous complaints that occurred after the zero-tolerance policy had been placed on Knight. He asked Knight to resign on September 10. When Knight refused, however, he then relieved Knight of his duties immediately. That evening, a crowd of thousands of students swarmed Bloomington in protest. Harvey was supported by some and vilified by many who claim he intentionally set up Knight. Knight's supporters contend he was the victim of a media smear campaign organized by enemies in the IU administration and that the majority of Brand's reasons for firing Knight were not credible. However, Knight has said he didn't think he was set up. The following day, September 11, Knight said goodbye to a crowd of some 6,000 supporters at Indiana University. He asked that they not hold a grudge against Harvey and that they let Harvey get on with his education and his life. Internet Archive: Details: Coach Bob Knight's Farewell Address to Indiana University Knight's firing made national headlines including the cover of Sports Illustrated and around the clock coverage on ESPN. It was also mentioned on major news programs such as CBS News and CNN. Season records under Knight Source: Texas Tech After taking the next season off, all the while on the lookout for vacancies, Knight accepted the head coaching job at Texas Tech, though his hiring was opposed by a group of faculty led by Walter Schaller. At the press conference introducing him, Knight quipped, "This is without question the most comfortable red sweater I've had on in six years." COLLEGE BASKETBALL; Texas Tech Will Be Knight's New Home Knight quickly improved the program, which had not been to an NCAA tournament since 1996. He led the Red Raiders to postseason appearances in each of his first four years at the school (three NCAA Championship tournaments and one NIT). After a rough 2006 season, the team improved in 2007, finishing 21–13 and again making it to the NCAA Championship tournament, where it lost to Boston College in the first round. The best performance by the Red Raiders under Knight came in 2005 when they advanced as far as the Sweet Sixteen. In both 2006 and 2007 under Knight, Texas Tech defeated two Top 10-ranked teams in consecutive weeks. During Knight's first six years at Texas Tech, the Red Raiders won 126 games, an average of 21 wins per season. Knight has a high regard for education and has made generous donations to Texas Tech. On November 29, 2007, the Tech library honored this with A Legacy of Giving: The Bob Knight Exhibit. When Knight came to the school in 2001, he gave $10,000, the first gift to the Coach Knight Library Fund which has now collected over $300,000. A Knight's Tale: Tech library honors coach Knight for donations, generosity - La Vida On February 4, 2008, Bob Knight retired as head coach of the Texas Tech Red Raiders. His son Pat Knight, the head coach designate since 2005, was immediately named as his successor. The younger Knight stated that, after many years of coaching, his father was exhausted and ready to retire. Knight handed the job over to Pat in the mid-season in part to allow him to get acquainted with coaching the team earlier, instead of having him wait until October, the start of the next season. SI.com - Writers - Seth Davis: Pat Knight sheds light on father's decision to leave - Tuesday February 5, 2008 9:14AM According to Knight's biographer, Bob Hammel, Knight is expected to continue living in Lubbock. Season records under Knight (*) Indicates record/standing at timeof resignation from Texas Tech. Source: Basketball philosophy Bob Knight's motion offense emphasizes post players setting screens and perimeter players passing the ball until a teammate becomes open for an uncontested jump shot or lay-up. This requires players to be unselfish, disciplined, and effective in the setting and use of screens to get open. On defense, players are required both to tenaciously guard opponents man-to-man and to help teammates when needed, although Knight has also incorporated using a zone defense periodically after eschewing that defense for the first two decades of his coaching career. Knight 880: Tribute to Coach Bob Knight present by the Lubbock-Avalanche-Journal Coaching victories and awards On January 1, 2007, Knight achieved his 880th career win at Texas Tech, passing retired North Carolina coach Dean Smith for the most career NCAA Division I men's college basketball victories. The game was a 70–68 victory by the Red Raiders over the New Mexico Lobos. Knight trails both Adolph Rupp and Dean Smith in win differential, which is the difference between wins and losses and reflects Knight's lower lifetime winning percentage, as it took Knight 41 seasons and 100 extra games to achieve the record, compared with Smith's 36. However, Knight overtook Smith at a younger age (he was also one of the youngest or the youngest to reach milestones 200 (age 35), 300 (age 40), 400 (age 44), 500 (age 48) and 600 (age 52).) Knight chalked up win number 900 when the Red Raiders defeated the ninth-ranked Texas A&M Aggies, 68–53, on January 16, 2008. http://chicagosports.chicagotribune.com/sports/college/cs-17-4pbjan17,1,5383186.story?coll=cs-college-print Knight is also the only coach to win the NCAA, the NIT, the Olympic Gold, and the Pan American Games Gold. The Red Raiders' participation in the 2007 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament marked another record. With their inclusion as the #10 seed in the East Regional, Knight became the coach to lead his team to more NCAA Tournaments than any other. However, the team lost to Boston College in the first round by a score of 84–75. In 1987, Knight was the first person to be honored with the Naismith Men's College Coach of the Year Award. Five years later, he received the Clair Bee Coach of the Year Award. And, in 2007, he was the recipient of the Naismith Award for Men's Outstanding Contribution to Basketball. Knight was nominated to receive a 2007 ESPY Award in the category of Best Record Breaking Performance but was not chosen as the winner. On May 29, 2008, Army Athletic Director Kevin Anderson announced that Knight would be one of ten persons inducted into the Army Sports Hall of Fame. On September 20, 2008, Bobby Knight was inducted into the Army Sports Hall of Fame Class of 2008 in a ceremony during Army's home football game against Akron, at Michie Stadium, West Point, New York. Knight students A number of assistant coaches, players, and managers of Knight have gone on to be coaches. One of these is current Duke head coach Mike Krzyzewski. Controversies 1980s In 1985, Knight threw a chair across the court to protest a referee's call during a game against the rival Purdue Boilermakers. CNNSI video archive of chair-throwing event in Quicktime Knight was suspended for one game and received two years' probation from the Big Ten Conference. Women's groups nationwide were outraged by Knight's comments during an April, 1988 interview with Connie Chung in which he said, "I think that if rape is inevitable, relax and enjoy it." Bob Knight's outburst timeline - USATODAY.com Knight's comment was in reference to an Indiana basketball game in which he felt the referees were making poor calls against the Hoosiers. 1990s Knight was shown berating an NCAA volunteer at a 1995 post-game press conference following a 65–60 loss to Missouri in the first round of the NCAA tournament held in Boise, Idaho. The volunteer, Rance Pugmire, informed the press that Knight would not be attending the press conference, when in reality, Knight was running a few minutes late and had planned on attending per NCAA rules. Knight was shown saying: "You've only got two people that are going to tell you I'm not going to be here. One is our SID [Sports Information Director], and the other is me. Who the hell told you I wasn't going to be here? I'd like to know. Do you have any idea who it was?...Who?...They were from Indiana, right?...No, they weren't from Indiana, and you didn't get it from anybody from Indiana, did you?...No, I—I'll handle this the way I want to handle it now that I'm here. You (EXPLETIVE) it up to begin with. Now just sit there or leave. I don't give (EXPLETIVE) what you do. Now back to the game." ESPN.com - Page2 - Outside the Lines - Bob Knight: The Final Crisis? 2000s Two days after Knight was fired from Indiana University, Jeremy Schaap of ESPN interviewed him and discussed his time at Indiana. Towards the end of the interview, Knight talked about his son, Patrick, who had also been dismissed by the university, wanting an opportunity to be a head coach. Schaap, thinking that Knight was finished, attempted to move on to another subject, but Knight insisted on continuing about his son. Schaap repeatedly tried to ask another question when Knight shifted the conversation to Schaap's style of interviewing, notably chastising him about interruptions. Knight then commented, "You've got a long way to go to be as good as your dad (referring to Schaap's father, Dick Schaap)!" In March 2006, a student's heckling at Baylor University resulted in Knight having to be restrained by a police officer. The incident was not severe enough to warrant any action from the Big 12 Conference. On November 13, 2006, Knight was shown allegedly hitting player Michael Prince under the chin to get him to make eye contact. Although Knight didn't comment on the incident afterwards and as of yet hasn't done so, Prince, his parents, and Texas Tech Athletic Director Gerald Myers insisted that Knight did nothing wrong and that he merely lifted Prince's chin and told him "Hold your head up and don't worry about mistakes. Just play the game." Prince commented, "He was trying to teach me and I had my head down so he raised my chin up. He was telling me to go out there and don't be afraid to make mistakes. He said I was being too hard on myself." On October 21, 2007, James Simpson of Lubbock, Texas, accused Knight of firing a shotgun in his direction after he yelled at Knight and another man for hunting too close to his home. Knight denied the allegations. An argument between the two men was recorded via camera phone and aired later on television. Books about Bob Knight Books about Knight include A Season on the Brink (ISBN 0-02-537230-0) by John Feinstein, "Bob Knight: His Own Man" by Joan Mellen (ISBN 0-380-70809-4), and "Playing for Knight: My Six Seasons with Bobby Knight" (ISBN 0-671-72441-X) by former player and current New Mexico head basketball coach Steve Alford. In 2002, Knight and longtime friend and sports journalist Bob Hammel wrote his biography, "Knight: My Story" (ISBN 0-312-31117-6.) In Bob Knight, His Own Man, Mellen characterized Feinstein's book as being banal (21). In 2006, an "unauthorized" biography on Knight, written by Steve Delsohn and Mark Heisler, was released. (ISBN 0-7432-4348-X) Film and television Blue Chips is a 1994 feature film about Pete Bell, a volatile but honest college basketball coach under pressure to win who decides to blatantly violate NCAA rules to field a competitive team after a sub-par season. It starred Nick Nolte as Bell and NBA star Shaquille O'Neal as Neon Bodeaux, a once-in-a-lifetime player Bell woos to his school with gifts and other perks. The coach's temper and wardrobe seem to be modeled after Knight's, but at no time has Knight been known to illegally recruit. Knight himself coaches against Nolte in the film's climactic game. In 2002, veteran character actor Brian Dennehy portrayed Knight in A Season on the Brink, a TV film adapted from John Feinstein's book. It was ESPN's first feature-length film. Knight made a cameo appearance as himself in the 2003 film Anger Management. In 2008, Knight appeared in a commercial as part of Volkswagen's Das Auto series where Max, a 1964 black Beetle interviews famous people. When Knight talked about Volkswagen winning the best resale value award in 2008, Max replied, "At least one of us is winning a title this year." This prompted Knight to throw his chair off the stage and walk out saying, "I may not be retired." Knight also made an appearance in a TV commercial for Guitar Hero: Metallica with fellow coaches Mike Krzyzewski, Rick Pitino, and Roy Williams, in a parody of Tom Cruise in Risky Business. A poster of Knight hangs above the desk of character Ron Swanson (played by Nick Offerman) in the NBC show Parks and Recreation. Knight School Knight was the central character in a reality show for ESPN. The show, titled Knight School, followed a handful of Texas Tech students as they competed for the right to join the Red Raiders as a non-scholarship player. See also NCAA Men's Division I Final Four appearances by coaches Notes References "The Archives". 2004-05 Army Men's Basketball Media Guide. Retrieved December 23, 2005. "History". 2005-06 Indiana Men's Basketball Media Guide. Retrieved December 23, 2005. "Texas Tech Record Book". 2005-06 Red Raider Media Guide. Retrieved December 23, 2005. 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5,805 | Differential_cryptanalysis | Differential cryptanalysis is a general form of cryptanalysis applicable primarily to block ciphers, but also to stream ciphers and cryptographic hash functions. In the broadest sense, it is the study of how differences in an input can affect the resultant difference at the output. In the case of a block cipher, it refers to a set of techniques for tracing differences through the network of transformations, discovering where the cipher exhibits non-random behaviour, and exploiting such properties to recover the secret key. History The discovery of differential cryptanalysis is generally attributed to Eli Biham and Adi Shamir in the late 1980s, who published a number of attacks against various block ciphers and hash functions, including a theoretical weakness in the Data Encryption Standard (DES). It was noted by Bamford in The Puzzle Palace that DES is surprisingly resilient to differential cryptanalysis, in the sense that even small modifications to the algorithm would make it much more susceptible. In 1994, a member of the original IBM DES team, Don Coppersmith, published a paper stating that differential cryptanalysis was known to IBM as early as 1974, and that defending against differential cryptanalysis had been a design goal. According to author Steven Levy, IBM had discovered differential cryptanalysis on its own, and the NSA was apparently well aware of the technique. IBM kept some secrets, as Coppersmith explains: "After discussions with NSA, it was decided that disclosure of the design considerations would reveal the technique of differential cryptanalysis, a powerful technique that could be used against many ciphers. This in turn would weaken the competitive advantage the United States enjoyed over other countries in the field of cryptography." Within IBM, differential cryptanalysis was known as the "T-attack", or "Tickle attack". Matt Blaze, sci.crypt, 15 August 1996, Re: Reverse engineering and the Clipper chip" While DES was designed with resistance to differential cryptanalysis in mind, other contemporary ciphers proved to be vulnerable. An early target for the attack was the FEAL block cipher. The original proposed version with four rounds (FEAL-4) can be broken using only eight chosen plaintexts, and even a 31-round version of FEAL is susceptible to the attack. Attack mechanics Differential cryptanalysis is usually a chosen plaintext attack, meaning that the attacker must be able to obtain encrypted ciphertexts for some set of plaintexts of his choosing. The scheme can successfully cryptanalyze DES with an effort on the order 247 chosen plaintexts. There are, however, extensions that would allow a known plaintext or even a ciphertext-only attack. The basic method uses pairs of plaintext related by a constant difference; difference can be defined in several ways, but the eXclusive OR (XOR) operation is usual. The attacker then computes the differences of the corresponding ciphertexts, hoping to detect statistical patterns in their distribution. The resulting pair of differences is called a differential. Their statistical properties depend upon the nature of the S-boxes used for encryption, so the attacker analyses differentials , where (and denotes exclusive or) for each such S-box . In the basic attack, one particular ciphertext difference is expected to be especially frequent; in this way, the cipher can be distinguished from random. More sophisticated variations allow the key to be recovered faster than exhaustive search. In the most basic form of key recovery through differential cryptanalysis, an attacker requests the ciphertexts for a large number of plaintext pairs, then assumes that the differential holds for at least r-1 rounds, where r is the total number of rounds. The attacker then deduces which round keys (for the final round) are possible assuming the difference between the blocks before the final round is fixed. When round keys are short, this can be achieved by simply exhaustively decrypting the ciphertext pairs one round with each possible round key. When one round key has been deemed a potential round key considerably more often than any other key, it is assumed to be the correct round key. For any particular cipher, the input difference must be carefully selected if the attack is to be successful. An analysis of the algorithm's internals is undertaken; the standard method is to trace a path of highly probable differences through the various stages of encryption, termed a differential characteristic. Since differential cryptanalysis became public knowledge, it has become a basic concern of cipher designers. New designs are expected to be accompanied by evidence that the algorithm is resistant to this attack, and many, including the Advanced Encryption Standard, have been proven secure against the attack. Specialized types Higher order differential cryptanalysis Truncated differential cryptanalysis Impossible differential cryptanalysis Boomerang attack See also Cryptography Linear cryptanalysis References Eli Biham, Adi Shamir, Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard, Springer Verlag, 1993. ISBN 0-387-97930-1, ISBN 3-540-97930-1. Biham, E. and A. Shamir. (1990). Differential Cryptanalysis of DES-like Cryptosystems. Advances in Cryptology — CRYPTO '90. Springer-Verlag. 2–21. Eli Biham, Adi Shamir,"Differential Cryptanalysis of the Full 16-Round DES," CS 708, Proceedings of CRYPTO '92, Volume 740 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, December 1991. (Postscript) Eli Biham, slides from , March 16, 2006, FSE 2006, Graz, Austria External links A tutorial on differential (and linear) cryptanalysis Helger Lipmaa's links on differential cryptanalysis A description of the attack applied to DES | Differential_cryptanalysis |@lemmatized differential:24 cryptanalysis:22 general:1 form:2 applicable:1 primarily:1 block:5 cipher:11 also:2 stream:1 cryptographic:1 hash:2 function:2 broad:1 sense:2 study:1 difference:11 input:2 affect:1 resultant:1 output:1 case:1 refer:1 set:2 technique:4 trace:2 network:1 transformation:1 discover:2 exhibit:1 non:1 random:2 behaviour:1 exploit:1 property:2 recover:2 secret:2 key:10 history:1 discovery:1 generally:1 attribute:1 eli:4 biham:5 adi:3 shamir:4 late:1 publish:2 number:3 attack:14 various:2 include:2 theoretical:1 weakness:1 data:2 encryption:5 standard:4 de:5 note:2 bamford:1 puzzle:1 palace:1 des:3 surprisingly:1 resilient:1 even:3 small:1 modification:1 algorithm:3 would:4 make:1 much:1 susceptible:2 member:1 original:2 ibm:5 team:1 coppersmith:2 paper:1 state:2 know:2 early:2 defend:1 design:4 goal:1 accord:1 author:1 steven:1 levy:1 nsa:2 apparently:1 well:1 aware:1 keep:1 explains:1 discussion:1 decide:1 disclosure:1 consideration:1 reveal:1 powerful:1 could:1 use:4 many:2 turn:1 weaken:1 competitive:1 advantage:1 united:1 enjoy:1 country:1 field:1 cryptography:2 within:1 tickle:1 matt:1 blaze:1 sci:1 crypt:1 august:1 reverse:1 engineering:1 clipper:1 chip:1 resistance:1 mind:1 contemporary:1 prove:1 vulnerable:1 target:1 feal:3 propose:1 version:2 four:1 round:14 break:1 eight:1 chosen:3 plaintexts:3 mechanic:1 usually:1 plaintext:4 meaning:1 attacker:5 must:2 able:1 obtain:1 encrypted:1 ciphertexts:3 choosing:1 scheme:1 successfully:1 cryptanalyze:1 effort:1 order:2 however:1 extension:1 allow:2 known:1 ciphertext:3 basic:4 method:2 pair:4 relate:1 constant:1 define:1 several:1 way:2 exclusive:2 xor:1 operation:1 usual:1 compute:1 corresponding:1 hop:1 detect:1 statistical:2 pattern:1 distribution:1 result:1 call:1 depend:1 upon:1 nature:1 box:2 analyse:1 denote:1 one:3 particular:2 expect:2 especially:1 frequent:1 distinguish:1 sophisticated:1 variation:1 fast:1 exhaustive:1 search:1 recovery:1 request:1 large:1 assume:3 hold:1 least:1 r:2 total:1 deduce:1 final:2 possible:2 fix:1 short:1 achieve:1 simply:1 exhaustively:1 decrypt:1 deem:1 potential:1 considerably:1 often:1 correct:1 carefully:1 select:1 successful:1 analysis:1 internals:1 undertaken:1 path:1 highly:1 probable:1 stage:1 term:1 characteristic:1 since:1 become:2 public:1 knowledge:1 concern:1 designer:1 new:1 accompany:1 evidence:1 resistant:1 advanced:1 proven:1 secure:1 specialize:1 type:1 higher:1 truncate:1 impossible:1 boomerang:1 see:1 linear:2 reference:1 springer:2 verlag:2 isbn:2 e:1 like:1 cryptosystems:1 advance:1 cryptology:1 crypto:2 full:1 c:1 proceeding:1 volume:1 lecture:1 computer:1 science:1 december:1 postscript:1 slide:1 march:1 fse:1 graz:1 austria:1 external:1 link:2 tutorial:1 helger:1 lipmaa:1 description:1 apply:1 |@bigram differential_cryptanalysis:19 block_cipher:4 stream_cipher:1 cryptographic_hash:1 eli_biham:4 biham_adi:3 adi_shamir:3 chosen_plaintexts:2 chosen_plaintext:1 exclusive_xor:1 linear_cryptanalysis:2 shamir_differential:3 springer_verlag:2 graz_austria:1 external_link:1 |
5,806 | Emperor_Kazan | Emperor Kazan (花山天皇 Kazan-tennō) (October 26, 968–February 8, 1008) was the 65th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from 984 to 986. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 148-150; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 300-302; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki,p. 192. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Morosada-shinnō (師貞親王). Titsingh, p. 148; Varley, p. 192; Brown, p. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their imina) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] Morasada was the eldest son of Emperor Reizei. The prince's mother was Fujiwara no Kaneko/Kaishi (藤原懐子), who was a daughter of sesshō Fujiwara no Koretada. Morasada was also was the brother of Emperor Sanjō. Titsingh, p. 148. Consorts and Children Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Shishi (藤原忯子) (969-985), daughter of Fujiwara no Tamemitsu (藤原為光) Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Teishi (藤原諟子) (?-1035), daughter of Fujiwara no Yoritada (藤原頼忠) Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Chōshi (藤原姚子) (971-989), daughter of Fujiwara no Asateru (藤原朝光) Court lady: A daughter of Taira no Sukeyuki (平祐之の娘), Nakatsukasa (中務) - Nurse of Emperor Kazan Imperial Prince Kiyohito (清仁親王) (ca.998-1030) - Ancestor of Shirakawa family (白川家) princess (?-1008) princess (?-1008) Taira no Heishi (平平子), daughter of Taira no suketada (平祐忠) and Nakatsukasa (中務) Imperial Prince Akinori (昭登親王) (998-1035) princess (?-1008) princess (?-1025), a lady-in-waiting to Fujiwara no Shoshi (Empress consort of Emperor Ichijō) Fujiwara no Genshi (藤原厳子) (?-1016), daughter of Fujiwara no Tamemitsu (藤原為光); later, concubine of Fujiwara no Michinaga (藤原道長) (from unknown women) Kakugen (覚源) (1000-1065), a Buddhist monk (Gon-no-Sōjō, 権僧正) Shinkan (深観) (1001-1050), a Buddhist monk (Gon-no-Daisōzu, 権大僧都) Events of Kazan's life Morasada was seventeen years of age at the time of the succession. Titsingh, p. 148; Brown, p. 300. Eikan 1, on the 27th day of the 8th month (984): In the 15th year of Emperor En'yu's reign (円融天皇15年), he abdicated; and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by a nephew. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kazan is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 148; Brown, pp. 300; Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] He commissioned the Shūi Wakashū. Kanna 1, in the 4th month (985): Fujiwara no Tokiakira and his brother, Yasusuke, contended with Fujiwara no Sukitaka and Ōe-no Masahira in a swordfight in Kyoto. Masahira lost the fingers of his left hand. The two brothers fled; and after careful searching, Tokiakira was eventually located in Ōmi Province. He faced a tough political struggle from the Fujiwara family; and at the age of nineteen, he was manipulated into abandoning the throne by Fujiwara no Kaneie. Kanna 2, in the 6th month (986): Kazan abdicated, and took up residence at Kazan-ji where he became a Buddhist monk; and his new priestly name was Nyūkaku. Brown, p. 302. Kanna 2, on the 16th day of the 7th month (986): Iyasada-shinnō was appointed as heir and crown prince at age 11. Brown, p. 307. This followed the convention that two imperial lineages took the throne in turn, although Emperor Ichijō was in fact Iyasada's junior. He thus gained the nickname Sakasa-no moke-no kimi (the imperial heir in reverse). When Emperor Kanzan abandoned the world for holy orders, one grandson of Kaneie ascended to the throne as Emperor Ichijō (the 66th sovereign); and in due course, another grandson would follow on the throne as Emperor Sanjō (the 67th sovereign). Varley, p. 195. Nyūkaku went on various pilgrimages and 're-founded' the Kannon pilgrimage, as a monk to the name of Tokudo Shonin (Some scholars doubt that Kazan, in his unstable mental health was not likely to have fonded it, thereby leaving all of the credit to Shonin) had supposedlly already created it. This pilgrimage involved travelling to 33 locations across the eight provinces of the Bando area. He was told to visit these 33 sites, in order to bring release from suffering, by Kannon Bosatsu in a vision. It is said that the first site of the pilgrimage was the Sugimoto-dera in Kamakura. This site is also the first site on the Kamakura pilgrimage. It is suggested by many scholars that the mental health of Kazan, particularly in later life, was not stable; and therefore, living as a monk may have caused deteriorating behavior. Decorative emblems (kiri) of the Hosokawa clan are found at Ryoan-ji. Kazan is amongst six other emperors entombed near what had been the residence of Hosokawa Katsumoto before the Ōnin War.Daijō-tennō Kazan died at the age of 41 on the 8th day of the 2nd month of the fifth year of Kankō (1008). Brown, p. 306. He is buried amongst the "Seven Imperial Tombs" at Ryoan-ji Temple in Kyoto. The mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Kazan is today named Kinugasa-yama. The emperor's burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Kazan died. These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers (misasagi) which were ordered by Emperor Meiji. Moscher, G. (1978). Kyoto: A Contemplative Guide, pp. 277-278. Kugyō 'Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Kazan's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included: Kampaku, Fujiwara no Yoritada, 924-989. Brown, p. 301. Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara no Yoritada. Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Kaneie, 929-990. [see above] Naidaijin (not appointed) Dainagon Eras of Kazan's reign The years of Kazan's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Eikan (983-985) Kanna (985-986) Notes References Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Kazan |@lemmatized emperor:22 kazan:16 花山天皇:1 tennō:2 october:1 february:1 japan:6 accord:1 traditional:1 order:4 succession:3 rule:1 titsingh:6 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:4 brown:9 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 varley:6 h:3 paul:3 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 p:14 genealogy:1 ascension:1 chrysanthemum:1 throne:6 personal:2 name:7 imina:2 morosada:1 shinnō:2 師貞親王:1 time:3 jomei:2 long:1 people:1 generally:1 use:1 number:1 character:1 diminish:1 reign:6 morasada:3 eldest:1 son:1 reizei:1 prince:4 mother:1 fujiwara:19 kaneko:1 kaishi:1 藤原懐子:1 daughter:7 sesshō:1 koretada:1 also:3 brother:3 sanjō:2 consort:2 child:1 nyōgo:3 shishi:1 藤原忯子:1 tamemitsu:2 藤原為光:2 teishi:1 藤原諟子:1 yoritada:3 藤原頼忠:1 chōshi:1 藤原姚子:1 asateru:1 藤原朝光:1 court:2 lady:2 taira:3 sukeyuki:1 平祐之の娘:1 nakatsukasa:2 中務:2 nurse:1 imperial:8 kiyohito:1 清仁親王:1 ca:1 ancestor:1 shirakawa:1 family:2 白川家:1 princess:4 heishi:1 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5,807 | Chemical_vapor_deposition | DC plasma (violet) enhances the growth of carbon nanotubes in this laboratory-scale PECVD apparatus. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a chemical process used to produce high-purity, high-performance solid materials. The process is often used in the semiconductor industry to produce thin films. In a typical CVD process, the wafer (substrate) is exposed to one or more volatile precursors, which react and/or decompose on the substrate surface to produce the desired deposit. Frequently, volatile by-products are also produced, which are removed by gas flow through the reaction chamber. Microfabrication processes widely use CVD to deposit materials in various forms, including: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, and epitaxial. These materials include: silicon, carbon fiber, carbon nanofibers, filaments, carbon nanotubes, SiO2, silicon-germanium, tungsten, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, silicon oxynitride, titanium nitride, and various high-k dielectrics. The CVD process is also used to produce synthetic diamonds. Types of chemical vapor deposition hot-wall thermal CVD (batch operation type) plasma assisted CVD A number of forms of CVD are in wide use and are frequently referenced in the literature. These processes differ in the means by which chemical reactions are initiated (e.g., activation process) and process conditions. Classified by operating pressure Atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD) - CVD processes at atmospheric pressure. Low-pressure CVD (LPCVD) - CVD processes at subatmospheric pressures . Reduced pressures tend to reduce unwanted gas-phase reactions and improve film uniformity across the wafer. Most modern CVD process are either LPCVD or UHVCVD. Ultrahigh vacuum CVD (UHVCVD) - CVD processes at a very low pressure, typically below 10-6 Pa (~ 10-8 torr). Caution: in other fields, a lower division between high and ultra-high vacuum is common, often 10-7 Pa. Classified by physical characteristics of vapor Aerosol assisted CVD (AACVD) - A CVD process in which the precursors are transported to the substrate by means of a liquid/gas aerosol, which can be generated ultrasonically. This technique is suitable for use with involatile precursors. Direct liquid injection CVD (DLICVD) - A CVD process in which the precursors are in liquid form (liquid or solid dissolved in a convenient solvent). Liquid solutions are injected in a vaporization chamber towards injectors (typically car injectors). Then the precursors vapors are transported to the substrate as in classical CVD process. This technique is suitable for use on liquid or solid precursors. High growth rates can be reached using this technique. Plasma methods (see also Plasma processing) Microwave plasma-assisted CVD (MPCVD) Plasma-Enhanced CVD (PECVD) - CVD processes that utilize a plasma to enhance chemical reaction rates of the precursors . PECVD processing allows deposition at lower temperatures, which is often critical in the manufacture of semiconductors. Remote plasma-enhanced CVD (RPECVD) - Similar to PECVD except that the wafer substrate is not directly in the plasma discharge region. Removing the wafer from the plasma region allows processing temperatures down to room temperature. Atomic layer CVD (ALCVD) – Deposits successive layers of different substances to produce layered, crystalline films. See Atomic layer epitaxy. Hot wire CVD (HWCVD) - Also known as Catalytic CVD (Cat-CVD) or hot filament CVD (HFCVD). Uses a hot filament to chemically decompose the source gases. Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) - CVD processes based on metalorganic precursors. Hybrid Physical-Chemical Vapor Deposition (HPCVD) - Vapor deposition processes that involve both chemical decomposition of precursor gas and vaporization of solid a source. Rapid thermal CVD (RTCVD) - CVD processes that use heating lamps or other methods to rapidly heat the wafer substrate. Heating only the substrate rather than the gas or chamber walls helps reduce unwanted gas phase reactions that can lead to particle formation. Vapor phase epitaxy (VPE) Substances commonly deposited for ICs This section discusses the CVD processes often used for integrated circuits (ICs). Particular materials are deposited best under particular conditions. Polysilicon Polycrystalline silicon is deposited from silane (SiH4), using the following reaction: SiH4 → Si + 2H2 This reaction is usually performed in LPCVD systems, with either pure silane feedstock, or a solution of silane with 70-80% nitrogen. Temperatures between 600 and 650 °C and pressures between 25 and 150 Pa yield a growth rate between 10 and 20 nm per minute. An alternative process uses a hydrogen-based solution. The hydrogen reduces the growth rate, but the temperature is raised to 850 or even 1050 °C to compensate. Polysilicon may be grown directly with doping, if gases such as phosphine, arsine or diborane are added to the CVD chamber. Diborane increases the growth rate, but arsine and phosphine decrease it. Silicon dioxide Silicon dioxide (usually called simply "oxide" in the semiconductor industry) may be deposited by several different processes. Common source gases include silane and oxygen, dichlorosilane (SiCl2H2) and nitrous oxide (N2O), or tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS; Si(OC2H5)4). The reactions are as follows: SiH4 + O2 → SiO2 + 2H2 SiCl2H2 + 2N2O → SiO2 + 2N2 + 2HCl Si(OC2H5)4 → SiO2 + byproducts The choice of source gas depends on the thermal stability of the substrate; for instance, aluminium is sensitive to high temperature. Silane deposits between 300 and 500 °C, dichlorosilane at around 900 °C, and TEOS between 650 and 750 °C, resulting in a layer of Low Temperature Oxide (LTO). However, silane produces a lower-quality oxide than the other methods (lower dielectric strength, for instance), and it deposits nonconformally. Any of these reactions may be used in LPCVD, but the silane reaction is also done in APCVD. CVD oxide invariably has lower quality than thermal oxide, but thermal oxidation can only be used in the earliest stages of IC manufacturing. Oxide may also be grown with impurities (alloying or "doping"). This may have two purposes. During further process steps that occur at high temperature, the impurities may diffuse from the oxide into adjacent layers (most notably silicon) and dope them. Oxides containing 5% to 15% impurities by mass are often used for this purpose. In addition, silicon dioxide alloyed with phosphorus pentoxide ("P-glass") can be used to smooth out uneven surfaces. P-glass softens and reflows at temperatures above 1000 °C. This process requires a phosphorus concentration of at least 6%, but concentrations above 8% can corrode aluminium. Phosphorus is deposited from phosphine gas and oxygen: 4PH3 + 5O2 → 2P2O5 + 6H2 Glasses containing both boron and phosphorus (borophosphosilicate glass, BPSG) undergo viscous flow at lower temperatures; around 850 °C is achievable with glasses containing around 5 weight % of both constituents, but stability in air can be difficult to achieve. Phosphorus oxide in high concentrations interacts with ambient moisture to produce phosphoric acid. Crystals of BPO4 can also precipitate from the flowing glass on cooling; these crystals are not readily etched in the standard reactive plasmas used to pattern oxides, and will result in circuit defects in integrated circuit manufacturing. Besides these intentional impurities, CVD oxide may contain byproducts of the deposition process. TEOS produces a relatively pure oxide, whereas silane introduces hydrogen impurities, and dichlorosilane introduces chlorine. Lower temperature deposition of silicon dioxide and doped glasses from TEOS using ozone rather than oxygen has also been explored (350 to 500 °C). Ozone glasses have excellent conformality but tend to be hygroscopic -- that is, they absorb water from the air due to the incorporation of silanol (Si-OH) in the glass. Infrared spectroscopy and mechanical strain as a function of temperature are valuable diagnostic tools for diagnosing such problems. Silicon nitride Silicon nitride is often used as an insulator and chemical barrier in manufacturing ICs. The following two reactions deposit nitride from the gas phase: 3SiH4 + 4NH3 → Si3N4 + 12H2 3SiCl2H2 + 4NH3 → Si3N4 + 6HCl + 6H2 Silicon nitride deposited by LPCVD contains up to 8% hydrogen. It also experiences strong tensile stress (physics), which may crack films thicker than 200 nm. However, it has higher resistivity and dielectric strength than most insulators commonly available in microfabrication (1016 Ω·cm and 10 MV/cm, respectively). Another two reactions may be used in plasma to deposit SiNH: 2SiH4 + N2 → 2SiNH + 3H2 SiH4 + NH3 → SiNH + 3H2 These films have much less tensile stress, but worse electrical properties (resistivity 106 to 1015 Ω·cm, and dielectric strength 1 to 5 MV/cm). Metals Some metals (notably aluminium and copper) are seldom or never deposited by CVD. , a commercially, cost effective, viable CVD process for copper did not exist- though many people have used Copper Formate, Copper(hfac)2, and other precursors(Cu(II) ethyl acetoacetate, etc...). Copper deposition of the metal has been done mostly by electroplating due to cost. Aluminum can be deposited from tri-isobutyl aluminium (TIBAL), or Tri-ethyl Aluminum (TEA), but physical vapor deposition methods are usually preferred. However, CVD processes for molybdenum, tantalum, titanium, nickel, and tungsten are widely used. These metals can form useful silicides when deposited onto silicon. Mo, Ta and Ti are deposited by LPCVD, from their pentachlorides. Nickel, Molybdenum, and Tungsten can be deposited at low temperatures from their carbonyl precursors. In general, for an arbitrary metal M, the reaction is as follows: 2MCl5 + 5H2 → 2M + 10HCl The usual source for tungsten is tungsten hexafluoride, which may be deposited in two ways: WF6 → W + 3F2 WF6 + 3H2 → W + 6HF See also Atomic layer deposition, a more precise and conformal coating technology Hot-wire Ion plating, a process that may use chemical vapor precursors Physical vapor deposition, the deposition of materials from vapor without chemical reactions Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition References ISO 3529/1-1981 Vacuum Technology - Vocabulary - part 1: General terms As quoted by UK National Physical Laboratory External links Fundamental of Chemical Vapor Deposition, by TimeDomain CVD, Inc. | Chemical_vapor_deposition |@lemmatized dc:1 plasma:13 violet:1 enhance:4 growth:5 carbon:4 nanotube:2 laboratory:2 scale:1 pecvd:4 apparatus:1 chemical:13 vapor:14 deposition:15 cvd:39 process:29 use:24 produce:9 high:10 purity:1 performance:1 solid:4 material:5 often:6 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5,808 | Ion_implantation | An ion implantation system at LAAS technological facility in Toulouse, France. Ion implantation is a materials engineering process by which ions of a material can be implanted into another solid, thereby changing the physical properties of the solid. Ion implantation is used in semiconductor device fabrication and in metal finishing, as well as various applications in materials science research. The ions introduce both a chemical change in the target, in that they can be a different element than the target, and a structural change, in that the crystal structure of the target can be damaged or even destroyed by the energetic collision cascades. General principle Ion implantation setup with mass separator Ion implantation equipment typically consists of an ion source, where ions of the desired element are produced, an accelerator, where the ions are electrostatically accelerated to a high energy, and a target chamber, where the ions impinge on a target, which is the material to be implanted. Thus ion implantation is a special case of particle radiation. Each ion is typically a single atom or molecule, and thus the actual amount of material implanted in the target is the integral over time of the ion current. This amount is called the dose. The currents supplied by implanters are typically small (microamperes), and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount of time is small. Thus, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of chemical change required is small. Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 keV (1,600 to 80,000 aJ). Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160 to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation ion beam deposition. Higher energies can also be used: accelerators capable of 5 MeV (800,000 aJ) are common. However, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad, the net composition change at any point in the target will be small. The energy of the ions, as well as the ion species and the composition of the target determine the depth of penetration of the ions in the solid: A monoenergetic ion beam will generally have a broad depth distribution. The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions. Under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between 10 nanometers and 1 micrometer. Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target. Ions gradually lose their energy as they travel through the solid, both from occasional collisions with target atoms (which cause abrupt energy transfers) and from a mild drag from overlap of electron orbitals, which is a continuous process. The loss of ion energy in the target is called stopping. Application in semiconductor device fabrication Doping The introduction of dopants in a semiconductor is the most common application of ion implantation. Dopant ions such as boron, phosphorus or arsenic are generally created from a gas source, so that the purity of the source can be very high. These gases tend to be very hazardous. When implanted in a semiconductor, each dopant atom creates a charge carrier in the semiconductor (hole or electron, depending on if it is a p-type or n-type dopant), thus modifying the conductivity of the semiconductor in its vicinity. Silicon on insulator One prominent method for preparing silicon on insulator (SOI) substrates from conventional silicon substrates is the SIMOX (Separation by IMplantation of OXygen) process, wherein a buried high dose oxygen implant is converted to silicon oxide by a high temperature annealing process. Mesotaxy Mesotaxy is the term for the growth of a crystallographically matching phase underneath the surface of the host crystal (compare to epitaxy, which is the growth of the matching phase on the surface of a substrate). In this process, ions are implanted at a high enough energy and dose into a material to create a layer of a second phase, and the temperature is controlled so that the crystal structure of the target is not destroyed. The crystal orientation of the layer can be engineered to match that of the target, even though the exact crystal structure and lattice constant may be very different. For example, after the implantation of nickel ions into a silicon wafer, a layer of nickel silicide can be grown in which the crystal orientation of the silicide matches that of the silicon. Application in metal finishing Tool steel toughening Nitrogen or other ions can be implanted into a tool steel target (drill bits, for example). The structural change caused by the implantation produces a surface compression in the steel, which prevents crack propagation and thus makes the material more resistant to fracture. The chemical change can also make the tool more resistant to corrosion. Surface finishing In some applications, for example prosthetic devices such as artificial joints, it is desired to have surfaces very resistant to both chemical corrosion and wear due to friction. Ion implantation is used in such cases to engineer the surfaces of such devices for more reliable performance. As in the case of tool steels, the surface modification caused by ion implantation includes both a surface compression which prevents crack propagation and an alloying of the surface to make it more chemically resistant to corrosion. Problems with ion implantation Crystallographic damage Each individual ion produces many point defects in the target crystal on impact such as vacancies and interstitials. Vacancies are crystal lattice points unoccupied by an atom: in this case the ion collides with a target atom, resulting in transfer of a significant amount of energy to the target atom such that it leaves its crystal site. This target atom then itself becomes a projectile in the solid, and can cause successive collision events. Interstitials result when such atoms (or the original ion itself) come to rest in the solid, but find no vacant space in the lattice to reside. These point defects can migrate and cluster with each other, resulting in dislocation loops and other defects. Damage recovery Because ion implantation causes damage to the crystal structure of the target which is often unwanted, ion implantation processing is often followed by a thermal annealing. This can be referred to as damage recovery. Amorphization The amount of crystallographic damage can be enough to completely amorphize the surface of the target: i.e. it can become an amorphous solid (such a solid produced from a melt is called a glass). In some cases, complete amorphization of a target is preferable to a highly defective crystal: An amorphized film can be regrown at a lower temperature than required to anneal a highly damaged crystal. Sputtering Some of the collision events result in atoms being ejected (sputtered) from the surface, and thus ion implantation will slowly etch away a surface. The effect is only appreciable for very large doses. Ion channelling A diamond cubic crystal viewed from the <110> direction, showing hexagonal ion channels. If there is a crystallographic structure to the target, and especially in semiconductor substrates where the crystal structure is more open, particular crystallographic directions offer much lower stopping than other directions. The result is that the range of an ion can be much longer if the ion travels exactly along a particular direction, for example the <110> direction in silicon and other diamond cubic materials. This effect is called ion channelling, and, like all the channelling effects, is highly nonlinear, with small variations from perfect orientation resulting in extreme differences in implantation depth. For this reason, most implantation is carried out a few degrees off-axis, where tiny alignment errors will have more predictable effects. There is no relation between this effect and ion channel of a cell membrane. Ion channelling can be used directly in Rutherford backscattering and related techniques as an analytical method to determine the amount and depth profile of damage in crystalline thin film materials. Hazardous Materials Note In the ion implantation semiconductor fabrication process of wafers, it is important for the workers to minimize their exposure to the toxic materials used in the ion implanter process. Such hazardous elements, solid source and gasses are used, such as Arsine and Phosphine. For this reason, the semiconductor fabrication facilities are highly automated, and may feature negative pressure gas bottles safe delivery system (SDS). Other elements may include Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus, and Boron. Residue of these elements show up when the machine is opened to atmosphere, and can also be accumulated and found concentrated in the vacuum pumps hardware. It is important not to expose yourself to these carcinogenic, corrosive, flammable, and toxic elements. Many overlapping safety protocols must be used when handling these deadly compounds. Use safety, and read MSDS's. High Voltage Safety High voltage power supplies in ion implantation equipment can pose a risk of electrocution. In addition, high-energy atomic collisions can, in some cases, generate radionuclides. Operators and Maintenance personnel should learn and follow the safety advice of the manufacturer and/or the institution responsible for the equipment. Prior to entry to high voltage area, terminal components must be grounded using a grounding stick. Next, power supplies should be locked in the off state and tagged to prevent unauthorized energizing. Manufacturers of Ion Implantation Equipment Advanced Ion Beam Technology Applied Materials Axcelis Technologies Complete Ions Facilitation Centre for Industrial Plasma Technologies Global Technologies, R&D equipment and Service Ion Beam Services Nissin Ion Equipment SemEquip SEN Corporation (a SHI and Axcelis company) Tokyo Electron Limited Ulvac Technologies Varian Semiconductor Equipment External links SEMI -- a semiconductor standards clearinghouse and trade organization Ion Implantation James Ziegler's code for simulating ion implantation. | Ion_implantation |@lemmatized ion:57 implantation:25 system:2 laas:1 technological:1 facility:2 toulouse:1 france:1 material:12 engineering:1 process:7 implant:8 another:1 solid:9 thereby:1 change:8 physical:1 property:1 use:10 semiconductor:11 device:4 fabrication:4 metal:2 finishing:3 well:2 various:1 application:6 science:1 research:1 introduce:1 chemical:5 target:24 different:2 element:6 structural:4 crystal:14 structure:6 damage:10 even:2 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5,809 | Diving | Arvid Spångberg (1908 Summer Olympics)A man dives into the Great South Bay of Long Island. Diving refers to the sport of performing acrobatics while jumping or falling into water from a platform or springboard of a certain height. Diving is an internationally-recognized sport that is part of the Olympic Games. In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a common recreational pastime in places where swimming is popular. While not a particularly popular participant sport, diving is one of the more popular Olympic sports with spectators. Successful competitors possess many of the same characteristics as gymnasts and dancers, including strength, flexibility, kinaesthetic judgment and air awareness. Diving tower at the 2008 Euros In the recent past, the success and prominence of Greg Louganis led to American strength internationally. China came to prominence several decades ago when the sport was revolutionized by national coach Liang Boxi and after intense study of the dominant Louganis. China has lost few world titles since. Other noted countries in this sport include Australia and Canada. Competitive diving Competitive Springboard Diving Competitive Platform Diving Most diving competitions consist of three disciplines: 1m and 3m springboards, and the platform. Competitive athletes are divided by gender, and often by age groups as well. In platform events, competitors are allowed to perform their dives on either the five, seven and a half (generally just called seven) or ten meter towers. In major diving meets, including the Olympic Games and the World Championships, platform diving is from the 10 meter height. Divers have to perform a set number of dives according to various established requirements, including somersaults and twists in various directions and from different starting positions. Divers are judged on whether and how well they completed all aspects of the dive, the conformance of their body to the requirements of the nominated dive, and the amount of splash created by their entry to the water. Theoretically, a score out of ten is supposed to be broken down into three points for the takeoff, three for the flight, and three for the entry, with one more available to give the judges flexibility. The raw score is multiplied by a difficulty factor, derived from the number and combination of movements attempted. The diver with the highest total score after a sequence of dives is declared the winner. Synchronized diving Synchronized diving was adopted as an Olympic sport in 2000. In this event, two divers form a team and attempt to perform dives simultaneously. The dives are usually identical; however, sometimes the dives may be opposites, in what is called a pinwheel. In these events, the diving is judged both on the quality of execution and the synchronicity - in timing of take-off and entry, height and forward travel. Scoring the dive Ultimately, the judges' scores given on each dive are subjective. However, there are specific rules governing how a dive is supposed to be scored. Usually a score factors three elements of the dive: the approach, the flight, and the entry. The primary factors affecting the scoring are: (1) the platform selected (10-meter, 7.5-meter, or 5-meter), (2) if a hand-stand is required, the length of time and quality of the hold, (3) the height of the diver at the apex of the dive, with extra height resulting in a higher score, (4) the distance of the diver from the diving apparatus throughout the dive (a diver must not be dangerously close, should not be too far away, but should ideally be within of the platform), (5) the properly defined body position of the diver according to the dive being performed, including pointed toes and feet touching at all times, (6) the proper amounts of rotation and revolution upon completion of the dive and entry into the water, and (7) angle of entry (a diver should enter the water straight, without any angle). Many judges award divers for the amount of splash created by the diver on entry, with less splash resulting in a higher score. To reduce the subjectivity of scoring in major meets, panels of five or seven judges are assembled. In the case where five judges are assembled, the highest and lowest scores are discarded and the middle three are summed and multiplied by the DD (Degree of Difficulty—determined from a combination of the moves undertaken, in which position and from what height). In major international events, seven judges are assembled. In these circumstances, the highest and lowest scores are again discarded and the middle five are summed, then ratioed by 3/5, and multiplied by the DD, so as to provide consistent comparison with 5-judge events. Accordingly, it is extremely difficult for one judge to manipulate scores. There is a general misconception about scoring and judging. In serious meets, the absolute score is somewhat meaningless. It is the relative score, not the absolute score that wins meets. Accordingly, good judging implies consistent scoring across the dives. Specifically, if a judge consistently gives low scores for all divers, or consistently gives high scores for the same divers, the judging will yield fair relative results and will cause divers to place in the correct order. However, absolute scores have significance to the individual divers. Besides the obvious instances of setting records, absolute scores are also used for rankings and qualifications for higher level meets. In synchronised diving events, there is a panel of seven judges; two to mark the execution of one diver, two to mark the execution of the other, and three to judge the synchronisation. Competitive strategy To win dive meets, divers create a dive list in advance of the meet. To win the meet the diver must accumulate more points than other divers. Oftentimes simple dives with low DDs will look good to spectators but will not win meets. The competitive diver will attempt the highest DD dives possible with which they can achieve consistent, high scores. If divers are scoring 8 or 9 on most dives, it may be a sign of their extreme skill, or it may be a sign that their dive list is not competitive, and they may lose the meet to a diver with higher DDs and lower scores. In competition, divers must submit their lists beforehand, and past a certain deadline (usually when the event is announced shortly before it begins) they cannot change their dives under any circumstances. If they fail to perform the dive announced, even if they physically cannot execute the dive announced, even if they perform a more difficult dive, they will receive a score of zero. Under exceptional circumstances, a redive may be granted, but these are exceedingly rare (usually for very young divers just learning how to compete, or if some event outside the diver's control has caused them to be unable to perform). In the Olympics or other highly competitive meets, many divers will have nearly the same list of dives as their competitors. Divers of Olympic caliber need to have unwavering confidence about each dive they perform. The importance for divers competing at this level is not so much the DD, but how they arrange their list. Diving is a mentally challenging sport that requires focus, so it is important for the diver to have the right frame of mind for each dive. Once the more difficult rounds of dives begin it is important to lead off with a confident dive to build momentum. They also tend to put a very confident dive in front of a very difficult dive to ensure that they will have a good mentality for the difficult dive. When a dive doesn’t score well or doesn’t go as planned the diver’s mentality becomes very important. It is very important to recover momentum on the next dive. Most divers have pre-dive and post-dive rituals that help them either maintain or regain focus. Coaches also play a great role in this aspect of the sport. Many divers rely on their coaches to help keep their composure during the meet. Of course in a meet this large the coaches are rarely allowed on the deck to talk to their athlete so it is common to see coaches using hand gestures to communicate. There are some American meets which will allow changes of the position of the dive even after the dive has been announced immediately before execution, but these are an exception to the rules generally observed internationally. Generally, NCAA rules allow for dives to be changed while the diver is on the board, but the diver must request the change directly after the dive is announced. This applies especially in cases where the wrong dive is announced. If the diver pauses during his or her hurdle to ask for a change of dive, it will be declared a balk and the change of dive will not be permitted. Under FINA law, no dive may be changed after the deadline for the dive-sheet to be submitted (generally a period ranging from one hour to 24 hours, depending on the rulings made by the event organiser. It is the diver's responsibility to ensure that the dive-sheet is filled in correctly, and also to correct the referee or announcer before the dive if they describe it incorrectly. If a dive is performed which is as submitted but not as (incorrectly) announced, it is declared failed and scores zero according to a strict reading of the FINA law. But in practice, a re-dive would usually be granted in these circumstances. Diving and other sports Divers do not consider themselves swimmers. While each sport shares a pool, and may compete side by side when doing so for their schools, the two sports are very different. Swimming is a full body exercise with emphasis on upper body strength and speed, diving is a full body exercise with emphasis on grace and execution; swimmers most frequently suffer overuse injuries, divers most frequently suffer impact injuries or strains. The sister sport of diving is gymnastics. Many divers begin their training as gymnasts, and switch sports for one reason or another. Two of the most common are that they simply prefer diving, or that they develop a chronic injury that makes continuing gymnastics impossible. Gymnastics provides young divers with unique skills that help them perform complex and risky dives, but there are downsides; some habits developed in gymnastics can interfere with the correct technique of diving. Twisting is the major habit that is different in diving and gymnastics. Gymnasts are commonly taught to twist with the arms crossed on the chest while divers are taught to wrap the arms at head level. This difference can easily be overlooked because both techniques are efficient but the esthetics twisting are seen differently in the two sports. Another common difficulty for a gymnast entering the world of diving is learning to land on the hands. Governance The global governing body of diving is FINA, which also governs swimming, synchronized swimming, water polo and open water swimming. Almost invariably, at national level, diving shares a governing body with the other aquatic sports. This is frequently a source of political friction as the committees are naturally dominated by swimming officials who do not necessarily share or understand the concerns of the diving community. Divers often feel, for example, that they do not get adequate support over issues like the provision of facilities. Other areas of concern are the selection of personnel for the specialised Diving committees and for coaching and officiating at events, and the team selection for international competitions. There are sometimes attempts to separate the governing body as a means to resolve these frustrations, but they are rarely successful. For example, in the UK the Great Britain Diving Federation was formed in 1992 with the intention of taking over the governance of Diving from the ASA (Amateur Swimming Association). Although it initially received widespread support from the diving community, the FINA requirement that international competitors had to be registered with their National Governing Body was a major factor in the abandonment of this ambition a few years later. Since FINA refused to rescind recognition of the ASA as the British governing body for all aquatic sports including diving, this meant that the elite divers had to belong to ASA affiliated clubs in order to be eligible for selection to international competition. In the United States scholastic diving is almost always part of the school’s swim team. Diving is a separate sport in Olympic and Club Diving. The NCAA will separate diving from swimming in special diving competitions after the swim season is completed. Safety A sign prohibiting diving at a beach in Kirkland, Washington There is a general perception of diving as being a dangerous activity, and this has contributed to the decline in availability of facilities. In fact, despite the apparent risk, the statistical incidence of injury in supervised training and competition is extremely low. The majority of accidents that are classified as 'diving-related' are incidents caused by individuals jumping from structures such as bridges or piers into water of inadequate depth. Because of this many beaches and pools prohibit diving in shallow waters or when a lifeguard is not on duty. After an incident in Washington state in 1993, most US and other pool builders are reluctant to equip a residential swimming pool with a diving springboard, so home diving pools are much less common these days. In the incident, 14-year-old Shawn Meneely made a "suicide dive" (his hands at his sides - so his head hit the bottom first) in a private swimming pool and was seriously injured (tetraplegic). Family lawyer Fred Zeder successfully sued the diving board manufacturer, the pool builder, and the National Spa & Pool Institute over the inappropriate depth of the pool. The NSPI had specified a minimum depth of 7 ft 6 in (2.55m) which proved to be insufficient in the above case. The pool into which Meneelly dived was not constructed exactly to the published standards. The standards had changed after the diving board was installed on the non-compliant pool by the homeowner. But the courts held that the pool "was close enough" to the standards to hold NSPI liable. The multi-million dollar lawsuit was eventually settled in 2001 for $6,600,000USD ($US8,000,000 after interest was added) in favor of the plaintiff. Appeals Court State of WA, Docket Number:18036-1-III Title: Shawn Meneely, et al. v.S. R. Smith,inc,. et al. The NSPI was held to be liable, and was financially strained by the case. It filed twice for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and was successfully reorganized into a new swimming pool industry association. Within competitive diving, FINA takes regulatory steps to ensure that athletes are protected from the inherent dangers of the sport. For example, they impose restrictions according to age on the heights of platforms which divers may compete on. Group D (11 & under): 5m Group C (12/13 year): 5m & 7.5m Group B (14/15 year): 5m, 7.5m & 10m Group A (16/18 year): 5m, 7.5m & 10m Group D divers have only recently been allowed to compete tower at all. In the past, the age group could compete only springboard, in order to discourage young children from taking on the greater risks of tower diving. Group D tower was introduced to counteract the phenomenon of coaches pushing young divers to compete in higher age categories, thus putting them at even greater risk. However, some divers may safely dive in higher age categories in order to dive on higher platforms. Usually this occurs when advanced Group C divers wish to compete on the 10m. Here are some points on pool depths in connection with safety. Most competition pools are 5m deep for 10m platform and 4m deep for 5m platform or 3m springboard. These are currently the FINA recommended minimum depths. Some are deeper, eg 6m for the diving pit at Sheffield, England. Diving from 10m and maintaining a downward streamlined position, results in gliding to a stop at about 4.5 - 5m. High standard competition divers rarely go more than about 2.5m below the surface, as they roll in the direction of the dive's rotation. This is a technique to produce a clean entry. Attempting to scoop the trajectory underwater against the rotation is extremely inadvisable as it can cause serious back injuries. Hitting the water flat from 10m brings the diver to rest in about 1 ft. The extreme deceleration causes severe bruising both internal and external, strains to connective tissue securing the organs and possible minor hemorrhage to lungs and other tissue. Very painful and distressing, but not life-threatening. Dive groups A male diver performs a reverse from a 1 meter springboard in the tuck position There are six "groups" into which dives are classified: Forward, Back, Inward, Reverse, Twist, and Armstand. The latter applies only to Platform competitions, whereas the other five apply to both Springboard and Platform. In the Forward Group (Group 1), the diver takes off facing forward and rotates forward In the Back Group (2), the diver takes off with their back to the water and rotates backward In the Reverse Group (3), the diver takes off facing forward and rotates backward In the Inward Group (4), the diver takes off with their back to the water and rotates forward Any dive incorporating an axial twisting movement is in the Twist group (5). Any dive commencing from a handstand is in the Armstand group (6). (Only on platform) Dive positions During the flight of the dive, one of the four positions may be specified: Straight - with no bend at the knees or hips Pike - with knees straight but a tight bend at the hips Tuck - body folded up in a tight ball, hands holding the shins and toes pointed. Free - Some sequence of the above positions. These positions are referred to by the letters A, B,C and D respectively. Dive numbers In competition, the dives are referred to by a schematic system of three- or four-digit numbers. The letter to indicate the position is appended to the end of the number. The first digit of the number indicates the dive group as defined above. For groups 1 to 4, the number consists of three digits and a letter of the alphabet. The third digit represents the number of half-somersaults. The second digit is either 0 or 1, with 0 representing a normal somersault, and 1 signifying a "flying" variation of the basic movement (i.e. the first half somersault is performed in the straight position, and then the pike or tuck shape is assumed). No flying dive has been competed at a high level competition for many years. For example: 101A - Forward Dive Straight 203C - Back one-and-a-half somersaults, tuck 307C - Reverse three-and-a-half somersaults, tuck 113B - Flying forward one-and-a-half somersaults, pike For Group 5, the dive number has 4 digits. The second digit indicates the group (1-4) of the underlying movement; the third digit indicates the number of half-somersaults, and the fourth indicates the number of half-twists. For example: 5211A - Back dive, half twist, straight position. 5337D - Reverse one and a half somersaults with three and a half twists, in the Free position. For Group 6 - Armstand - the dive number has either three, four or five digits: Three digits for dives without twist and four for dives with twists. In non-twisting armstand dives, the second digit indicates the direction of rotation (0 = no rotation, 1 = forward, 2 = backward, 3 = reverse, 4 = inward) and the third digit indicates the number of half-somersaults. Inward-rotating armstand dives have never been performed, and are generally regarded as physically impossible. For example: 600A - Armstand dive straight 612B - Armstand forward somersault pike 624C - Armstand back double somersault tuck For twisting Armstand dives, the dive number again has 4 digits, but rather than beginning with the number 5, the number 6 remains as the first digit, indicating that the "twister" will be performed from an Armstand. The second digit indicates the direction of rotation - as above, the third is the number of half-somersaults, and the fourth is the number of half-twists: e.g. 6243D - armstand back double-somersault with one and a half twists in the free position All of these dives come with DD (degree of difficulty) this is an indication of how difficult/complex a dive is. The score that the dive receives is multiplied by the DD (also known as tariff) to give the dive a final score. Before a diver competes they must decide on a "list" this is a number of optional dives and compulsory dives. The optionals come with a DD limit. this means that a diver must select X number of dives and the combined DD limit must be no more than the limit set by the competition/organisation etc. Until the mid 1990s the tariff was decided by the FINA diving committee, and divers could only select from the range of dives in the published tariff table. Since then, the tariff is calculated by a formula based on various factors such as the number of twist and somersaults, the height, the group etc., and divers are free to submit new combinations. This change was implemented due to the fact that new dives were being invented too frequently for an annual meeting to accommodate the progress of the sport. Mechanics of diving Tomb of the Diver, Paestum, Italy, a Greek fresco dated 470 BC At the moment of take-off, two critical aspects of the dive are determined, and cannot subsequently be altered during the execution. One is the trajectory of the dive, and the other is the magnitude of the angular momentum. The speed of rotation - and therefore the total amount of rotation - may be varied from moment to moment by changing the shape of the body, in accordance with the law of conservation of angular momentum. The center of mass of the diver follows a parabolic path in free-fall under the influence of gravity (ignoring the effects of air resistance, which are negligible at the speeds involved). Trajectory Since the parabola is symmetrical, the travel away from the board as the diver passes it is twice the amount of the forward travel at the peak of the flight. Excessive forward distance to the entry point is penalized when scoring a dive, but obviously an adequate clearance from the diving board is essential on safety grounds. The greatest possible height that can be achieved is desirable for several reasons: The height attained is itself one of the factors that the judges will reward. A greater height gives a longer flight time and therefore more time to execute moves. For any given clearance when passing the board, the forward travel distance to the entry point will be less for a higher trajectory. Control of rotation The magnitude of angular momentum remains constant throughout the dive, but since angular momentum = rotational velocity × moment of inertia, and the moment of inertia is larger when the body has an increased radius, the speed of rotation may be increased by moving the body into a compact shape, and reduced by opening out into a straight position. Since the tucked shape is the most compact, it gives the most control over rotational speed, and dives in this position are easier to perform. Dives in the straight position are hardest, since there is almost no scope for altering the speed, so the angular momentum must be created at take-off with a very high degree of accuracy. (A small amount of control is available by moving the position of the arms and by a slight hollowing of the back). Notice that the opening of the body for the entry does not stop the rotation, but merely slows it down. The vertical entry achieved by expert divers is largely an illusion created by starting the entry slightly short of vertical, so that the legs are vertical as they disappear beneath the surface. A small amount of additional tuning is available by 'entry save' techniques, whereby underwater movements of the upper body and arms against the viscosity of the water affect the position of the legs. Twisting A twisting dive performed from a 1 meter springboard. Dives with multiple twists and somersaults are some of the most spectacular movements, as well as the most challenging to perform. The rules state that twisting 'must not be generated manifestly on take-off'. Consequently, divers must use some of the somersaulting angular momentum to generate twisting movements. The physics of twisting can be explained by looking at the components of the angular momentum vector. As the diver leaves the board, the total angular momentum vector is horizontal, pointing directly to the left for a forward dive for example. For twisting rotation to exist, it is necessary to tilt the body sideways after takeoff, so that there is now a small component of this horizontal angular momentum vector along the body's long axis. The tilt can be seen in the photo. The tilting is done by the arms, which are outstretched to the sides just before the twist. When one arm is moved up and the other is moved down (like turning a big steering wheel), the body reacts by tilting to the side, which then begins the twisting rotation. At the completion of the required number of twist rotations, the arm motion is reversed (the steering wheel is turned back), which removes the body's tilt and stops the twisting rotation. An alternative explanation is that the moving arms have precession torque on them which set the body into twisting rotation. Moving the arms back produces opposite torque which stop the twisting rotation. Entry The rules state that the body should be vertical, or nearly so, for entry. The arms must be beside the body for feet-first dives, which are typically competed only on the 1m springboard and only at fairly low levels of competition, and extended forwards in line for "head-first" dives, which are much more common competitively. It used to be common for the hands to be interlocked with the fingers extended towards the water, but a different technique has become favoured during the last few decades. Now the usual practice is for one hand to grasp the other with palms down to strike the water with a flat surface. This creates a vacuum between the hands, arms and head which, with a vertical entry, will pull down and under any splash until deep enough to have minimal effect on the surface of the water (the so-called "rip entry"). Once a diver is completely under the water they may choose to roll or scoop in the same direction their dive was rotating to pull the splash away from the channel which they have just created. United States diving Divers can compete in several venues, which may each have age and experience limitations. Summer diving In the United States, summer diving is usually limited to one meter diving at community or country club pools. Some pools organize to form intra-pool competitions. These competitions are usually designed to accommodate all school-age children. One of the largest and oldest competitions in the United States is found in the Northern Virginia area where 47 pools compete against each other every summer (with over 380 divers in NVSL's "Cracker Jack" meet). High school diving In the United States scholastic diving at the high school level is usually limited to one meter diving (But some schools use 3 meter springboards.). Scores from those one meter dives contribute to the swim team's overall score. High school diving and swimming both conclude their seasons with a state competition. Depending on the state and the amount of athletes competing in the state there are qualifications that must be achieved before competing in the state’s championship meet. There are often regional championships and district championships which are necessary to compete in before reaching the state meet to narrow the field to only the most competitive athletes. Most state championship meets consist of eleven dives. Those eleven dives are usually split up between two categories. There are five required dives and six optional dives. Club diving In the United States, pre-college divers interested in three meter or tower diving should consider a club sanctioned by USA Diving or AAU Diving. There is a group called Future Championship. Top club divers are usually called "junior Olympic", or JO divers. JO divers compete for spots on national teams. Divers over the age of 19 years of age cannot compete in these events as a JO diver. USA Diving sanctions one East-West one and three meter event in the winter time with an Eastern champion and Western champion determined. In the summer USA Diving sanctions a national event with tower competitions offered. AAU Diving sanctions one national event per year in the summer. AAU competes on the one, three, and tower to determine the All-American team. College diving The University of Houston's CRWC Natatorium is home to the United States' largest collegiate swimming pool In the United States scholastic diving at the college level requires one and three meter diving. Scores from the one and three meter competition contribute to the swim team's overall meet score. College divers interested in tower diving may compete in the NCAA separate from swim team events. NCAA Divisions II and III do not usually compete platform; if a diver wishes to compete platform in college, he or she must attend a Division I school. Each of the different divisions also has different rules on number of dives in each competition. Division II schools compete with 10 dives in competition whereas Division III schools compete with 11. Division I schools only compete with 6 dives in competition. These 6 dives consist of either 5 optionals and 1 voluntary, or 6 optionals. If the meet is a 5 optional meet, then the divers will perform 1 optional from each category (Front, Back, Inward, Reverse, and Twister) and then 1 voluntary from the category of their choice. The voluntary in this type of meet is always worth a D.D. (Degree of Difficulty) of 2.0 even if the real D.D. is worth more or less on a D.D. sheet. In a 6 optional meet, the divers will yet again perform one dive from each category, but this time they will perform a 6th optional from the category of their choosing, which is worth its actual D.D. from the D.D. sheet. In NCAA Division 1 collegiate diving there are 2 steps in qualifying for the NCAA National meet, the most elite meet of the year for collegiate divers in the U.S.. The first step is to obtain a high enough score to qualify for Zones. For Men this score is 310 points on the 3 meter springboard and 300 points on the 1 meter springboard in a 5 optional and 1 voluntary meet. If a diver qualifies for zones they are allowed to attend the zone meet to try to qualify for nationals. There are 5 zone meets in the U.S., and they are divided by region of the country. In order to qualify for nationals at a zone meet, the diver must obtain one of the top 3 scores on either 1 meter, 3 meter, or platform. These top 3 on each board and platform from each zone will meet together for the national meet. The winner of the national meet is then considered the national champion for diving on the board or platform they won on. A number of colleges and universities offer scholarships to men and women who have competitive diving skills. These scholarships are usually offered to divers with age-group or club diving experience. The NCAA limits the number of years a college student can represent any school in competitions. The limit is four years, but could be less under certain circumstances. Master Diving In the United States divers who continue diving past their college years can compete in Master Diving programs. Master diving programs are frequently offered by college or club programs. Masters' Diving events are normally conducted in age-groups of 5 or 10 years, and attract competitors of a wide range of ages and experience (many, indeed, are newcomers to the sport); the oldest competitor in a Masters' Diving Championship was Viola Krahn, who at the age of 101 was the first person in any sport, male or female, anywhere in the world, to compete in an age-group of 100+ years in a nationally organized competition. British diving In Britain, diving competitions on all boards run throughout the year. National Masters' Championships are held two or three times per year. Canadian diving The DPC logoIn Canada, elite competitive diving is regulated by DPC (Diving Plongeon Canada), although the individual provinces also have organizational bodies as well. The main competitive season runs from roughly February to July, although some competitions may be held in January or December, and many divers (particularly international level athletes) will train and compete year round. Most provincial level competitions consist of events for 6 different age groups (Groups A, B, C, D, E, and Open) for both genders on each of the three board levels. These age groups roughly correspond to those standardized by FINA, with the addition of a youngest age group for divers 9 and younger, Group E, which does not compete nationally and does not have a tower event (although divers of this age may choose to compete in Group D). The age group Open is so called because divers of any age, including those over 18, may compete in these events, so long as their dives meet a minimum standard of difficulty. Although Canada is internationally a fairly strong country in diving, the vast majority of Canadian high schools and universities do not have diving teams, and many Canadian divers accept athletic scholarships from American colleges. Adult divers who are not competitive at an elite level may compete in masters diving. Typically, masters are either adults who never practiced the sport as children or teenagers, or former elite athletes who have retired but still seek a way to be involved in the sport. Many diving clubs have masters teams in addition to their primary competitive ones, and while some masters dive only for fun and fitness, there are also masters competitions, which range from the local to world championship level. National Championships Divers can qualify to compete at the age group national championships, or junior national championships, in their age groups as assigned by FINA up to the age of 18. This competition is held annually in July. Qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions in the season, although athletes who place very highly at a national championships will be automatically qualified to compete at the next. Divers must qualify at two different competitions, at least one of which must be a level 1 competition, i.e. a competition with fairly strict judging patterns. Such competitions include the Polar Bear Invitational in Winnipeg, the Sting in Victoria, and the Alberta Provincial Championships in Edmonton or Calgary. The qualifying scores are determined by DPC according to the results of the preceding year's national competition, and typically do not have much variation from year to year. Divers older than 18, or advanced divers of younger ages, can qualify for the senior national championships, which are held twice each year, once roughly in March and once in June or July. Once again, qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions (in this case, within the 12 months preceding the national championships, and in an Open age group event), or high placements in previous national championships or international competitions. It is no longer the case that divers may use results from age group events to qualify for senior nationals, or results from Open events to qualify for age group nationals. Famous divers Australia: Matthew Mitcham, Mathew Helm, Chantelle Newbery, Robert Newbery, Dean Pullar, Melissa Wu, Rebecca Gilmore, and Loudy Tourky Canada: Myriam Boileau, Philippe Comtois, Alexandre Despatie, Arturo Miranda, Blythe Hartley, Émilie Heymans, Anne Montminy, Beverly Boys, and Irene MacDonald China: Fu Mingxia, Gao Min, Guo Jingjing, Hu Jia, Lao Lishi, Na Li, Li Ting, Wu Minxia, Peng Bo, Xue Sang, Tian Liang, Hailiang Xiao, Ni Xiong, He Chong, Chen Ruolin, Huo Liang, Wang Xin, Yang Jinghui, and Liang Boxi Germany: Jan Hempel Holland: Edwin Jongejans Italy: Klaus Dibiasi, Giorgio Cagnotto, Tania Cagnotto Mexico: Joaquín Capilla, Carlos Girón, Rommel Pacheco, Fernando Platas, Paola Espinosa, Yahel Castillo Russia: Alexander Dobroskok, Gleb Galperin, Vera Ilina, Igor Lukashin, Ioulia Pakhalina, and Dmitri Sautin United Kingdom: Leon Taylor, Peter Waterfield, Jason Statham, Tom Daley United States: Hobie Billingsley, Lesley Bush, Jennifer Chandler, Mary Ellen Clark, Scott Donie, Michael Galitzen, Bruce Kimball, Micki King, Nathan Kohuth, Dana Kunze, Beatrice Kyle, Sammy Lee, Mark Lenzi, Greg Louganis, Pat McCormick, Cynthia Potter, Aileen Riggin, Laura Wilkinson Non-competitive diving Man and woman jumping off a cliff at Colliding Rivers, Glide, OR. Diving is also popular as a non-competitive activity that is often simply done for pleasure or thrills. Such diving usually emphasizes the airborne experience, and the height of the dive, but does not emphasize what goes on once the diver enters the water. The ability to dive underwater can be a useful emergency skill, and is an important part of watersport and navy safety training. More generally, entering water from a height is an enjoyable leisure activity, as is underwater swimming. A man diving into Lake Michigan. Such non-competitive diving can occur both indoors and outdoors. Outdoor diving typically takes place from cliffs or other rock formations either into fresh or salt water. However, man-made diving platforms are sometimes constructed in popular swimming destinations. Outdoor diving requires knowledge of the water depth and currents as conditions can be dangerous. Despite these risks the activity has proven to be very popular due to its thrilling nature. See also Acrobatics Aquatic timing system Diving at the Summer Olympics List of Olympic medalists in diving Synchronized diving Swimming Shallow Diving References External links FINA USA Diving AAU Diving NCAA USA Masters' Diving. NCAA Woman's Swimming and Diving FINA Table of Degree of Difficulty Hobie Billingsly Diving Mentality | Diving |@lemmatized arvid:1 spångberg:1 summer:7 olympics:3 man:4 dive:171 great:7 south:1 bay:1 long:4 island:1 refers:1 sport:24 perform:21 acrobatics:2 jump:3 fall:2 water:20 platform:20 springboard:13 certain:3 height:13 diving:51 internationally:4 recognize:1 part:3 olympic:8 game:2 addition:3 unstructured:1 non:6 competitive:19 common:7 recreational:1 pastime:1 place:4 swimming:9 popular:6 particularly:2 participant:1 one:29 spectator:2 successful:2 competitor:6 possess:1 many:11 characteristic:1 gymnast:4 dancer:1 include:8 strength:3 flexibility:2 kinaesthetic:1 judgment:1 air:2 awareness:1 tower:10 euro:1 recent:1 past:4 success:1 prominence:2 greg:2 louganis:3 lead:2 american:4 china:3 come:3 several:3 decade:2 ago:1 revolutionize:1 national:24 coach:6 liang:4 boxi:2 intense:1 study:1 dominant:1 lose:2 world:5 title:2 since:7 noted:1 country:4 australia:2 canada:5 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5,810 | Document_type_definition | Document Type Definition (DTD) is one of several SGML and XML schema languages, and is also the term used to describe a document or portion thereof that is authored in the DTD language. A DTD is primarily used for the expression of a schema via a set of declarations that conform to a particular markup syntax and that describe a class, or type, of document, in terms of constraints on the structure of that document. A DTD may also declare constructs that are not always required to establish document structure, but that may affect the interpretation of some documents. XML documents are described using a subset of DTD which imposes a number of restrictions on the document's structure, as required per the XML standard (XML is in itself an application of SGML optimized for automated parsing). DTDs are written in a formal syntax that explains precisely which elements and entities may appear where in the document and what the elements’ contents and attributes are. DTD is native to the SGML and XML specifications, and since its introduction other specification languages such as XML Schema and RELAX NG have been released with additional functionality. As an expression of a schema, a DTD specifies, in effect, the syntax of an "application" of SGML or XML, such as the derivative language HTML or XHTML. This syntax is usually a less general form of the syntax of SGML or XML. In a DTD, the structure of a class of documents is described via element and attribute-list declarations. Element declarations name the allowable set of elements within the document, and specify whether and how declared elements and runs of character data may be contained within each element. Attribute-list declarations name the allowable set of attributes for each declared element, including the type of each attribute value, if not an explicit set of valid value(s). Associating DTDs with documents A DTD is associated with an XML document via a Document Type Declaration, the syntactic fragment doctypedecl, that appears near the start of the XML document. The declaration establishes that the document is an instance of the type defined by the referenced DTD. The declarations in a DTD are divided into an internal subset and an external subset. The declarations in the internal subset are embedded in the Document Type Declaration in the document itself. The declarations in the external subset are located in a separate text file. The external subset may be referenced via a public identifier and/or a system identifier. Programs for reading documents may not be required to read the external subset. Examples 1 Here is an example of a Document Type Declaration containing both public and system identifiers: <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <!DOCTYPE foo [ <!ENTITY greeting "helloworld"> ]> <!DOCTYPE bar [ <!ENTITY greeting "helloworld"> ]> All HTML 4.01 documents are expected to conform to one of three SGML DTDs. The public identifiers of these DTDs are constant and are as follows: -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Frameset//EN The system identifiers of these DTDs, if present in the Document Type Declaration, will be URI references. System identifiers can vary, but are expected to point to a specific set of declarations in a resolvable location. SGML allows for public identifiers to be mapped to system identifiers in catalogs that are optionally made available to the URI resolvers used by document parsing software. Markup Declarations In a DTD markup declarations are used to declare which elements types, attribute lists, entities and notations are allowed in the structure of the corresponding class of XML documents. http://books.google.de/books?id=_NqW2BjQtFIC&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=DTD+Markup-Declarations&source=bl&ots=_3P2DUCXGL&sig=K_Slr8Xj3Mpb_V3zBMPR92tSYOM&hl=de&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA44,M1 Element Type Declarations An Element Type Declaration defines an element and its possible content. A valid XML document only contains elements that are defined in the DTD. An element’s content is specified by some key words and characters: EMPTY for no content ANY for any content , for orders | for alternatives ("either...or") ( ) for groups * for any number (zero or more) + for at least once (one or more) ? mark for optional (zero or one) If there is no *, + or ?, the element must occur exactly one time Examples: <!ELEMENT html (head, body)> <!ELEMENT p (#PCDATA | p | ul | dl | table | h1|h2|h3)*> Attribute List Declarations An Attribute List specifies the name, data type and default value of each attribute associated with a given element type, http://www.stylusstudio.com/w3c/xml11/attdecls.htm#attdecls for example: <!ATTLIST img id ID #IMPLIED src CDATA #REQUIRED > There are the following attribute types: CDATA (Character set of data) ID IDREF and IDREFS NMTOKEN and NMTOKENS ENTITY and ENTITIES NOTATION and NOTATIONS Listings and NOTATION-listings A default value can be used to define whether an attribute must occur (#REQUIRED) or not (#IMPLIED), whether it has a fixed value (#FIXED), and which value should be used as a default value ("…") in case the given attribute is left out in an XML tag. Entity Declarations Entities are variables used to define abbreviations; a typical use is user-readable names for special characters. http://www.w3schools.com/dtd/dtd_entities.asp Thus, entities help to avoid repetition and make editing easier. In general, there are basically two different types: Internal (Parsed) Entities define entity references in order to replace certain strings by a replacement text. The content of the entity is given in the declaration. External (Parsed) Entities refer to external storage objects. Notation Declarations Notations read the file format of unparsed external documents in order to include non-XML data in a XML document. For example a GIF image: <!NOTATION GIF system "image/gif"> XML DTDs and schema validation The XML DTD syntax is one of several XML schema languages. A common misconception is that non-validating XML parsers are not required to read DTDs, when in fact, the DTD must still be scanned for correct syntax as well as for declarations of entities and default attributes. A non-validating parser may, however, elect not to read external entities, including the external subset of the DTD. If the XML document depends on declarations found only in external entities, it should assert standalone="no" in its XML declaration. Identification of the validating DTD may be performed by the use of XML Catalogs. <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <!DOCTYPE people_list SYSTEM "example.dtd"> <people_list> <person> <name>Gofur Halmurat</name> <birthdate>04/02/1977</birthdate> <gender>Male</gender> </person> </people_list> XML DTD Example An example of a very simple XML DTD to describe a list of persons is given below: <!ELEMENT people_list (person*)> <!ELEMENT person (name, birthdate?, gender?, socialsecuritynumber?)> <!ELEMENT name (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT birthdate (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT gender (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT socialsecuritynumber (#PCDATA)> Taking this line by line, it says: people_list is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains any number of person elements. The * denotes there can be 0 or more person elements within the people_list element. person is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains one element named name, followed by one named birthdate (optional), then gender (also optional) and socialsecuritynumber (also optional). The ? indicates that an element is optional. The reference to the name element name has no ?, so a person element must contain a name element. name is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains "parsed character data" (#PCDATA). birthdate is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data. gender is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data. socialsecuritynumber is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data. An example of an XML file which makes use of and conforms to this DTD follows. It assumes the DTD is identifiable by the relative URI reference "example.dtd", and the "people_list" after "!DOCTYPE" tells us that the root tags, or the first element defined in the DTD, is called "people_list": <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <!DOCTYPE people_list SYSTEM "example.dtd"> <people_list> <person> <name>Fred Bloggs</name> <birthdate>27/11/2008</birthdate> <gender>Male</gender> </person> </people_list> It is possible to render this in an XML-enabled browser (such as IE5 or Mozilla) by pasting and saving the DTD component above to a text file named example.dtd and the XML file to a differently-named text file, and opening the XML file with the browser. The files should both be saved in the same directory. However, many browsers do not check that an XML document conforms to the rules in the DTD; they are only required to check that the DTD is syntactically correct. For security reasons, they may also choose not to read the external DTD. Other alternatives to DTDs have become available in the last few years: XML Schema, also referred to as XML Schema Definition (XSD), has achieved Recommendation status within the W3C, and is popular for "data oriented" (that is, transactional non-publishing) XML use because of its stronger typing and easier round-tripping to Java declarations. Most of the publishing world has found that the added complexity of XSD would not bring them any particular benefits, so DTDs are still far more popular there. An XML Schema Definition is itself an XML document while a DTD is not. RELAX NG, which is also a part of DSDL, is an ISO international standard. It is more expressive than XSD, while providing a simpler syntax, but commercial software support has been slow in coming. Document Structure Description (DSD) was another proposed alternative that, as of 2008, has not seen much progress or adoption in several years. See also Document Type Declaration Semantic Web XML Schema Language Comparison - Comparison to other XML Schema languages. References External links Definition of the XML document type declaration from Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fourth Edition) on W3.org XML DTD Quick Reference The XML FAQ has some DTD-specific entries DTD Tutorial from W3schools Zvon DTD Tutorial - in 7 languages Interactive DTD tutorial from XMLzoo Different doctypes for HTML XMLPatterns.com - Design Patterns for developing DTDs dtd2xs Converts a DTD to an XML Schema PlainXML Converts a DTD to POJO objects DTD Statistics | Document_type_definition |@lemmatized document:33 type:17 definition:4 dtd:50 one:8 several:3 sgml:7 xml:43 schema:12 language:9 also:8 term:2 use:12 describe:4 portion:1 thereof:1 author:1 primarily:1 expression:2 via:4 set:6 declaration:28 conform:2 particular:2 markup:5 syntax:8 class:3 constraint:1 structure:6 may:9 declare:2 construct:1 always:1 require:7 establish:2 affect:1 interpretation:1 subset:8 impose:1 number:3 restriction:1 per:1 standard:2 application:2 optimize:1 automated:1 parse:7 dtds:10 write:1 formal:1 explain:1 precisely:1 element:45 entity:16 appear:2 content:6 attribute:13 native:1 specification:2 since:1 introduction:1 relax:2 ng:2 release:1 additional:1 functionality:1 specifies:1 effect:1 derivative:1 html:9 xhtml:3 usually:1 less:1 general:2 form:1 described:1 list:7 name:25 allowable:2 within:4 specify:3 whether:3 declared:2 run:1 character:8 data:9 contain:7 include:3 value:7 explicit:1 valid:8 associate:3 syntactic:1 fragment:1 doctypedecl:1 near:1 start:1 instance:7 define:7 referenced:1 divide:1 internal:3 external:12 embed:1 locate:1 separate:1 text:4 file:8 reference:7 public:6 identifier:8 system:8 program:1 read:6 examples:2 example:10 doctype:7 transitional:5 en:5 http:5 www:4 org:3 tr:2 foo:1 greet:2 helloworld:2 bar:1 expect:2 three:1 constant:1 follow:3 frameset:1 present:1 uri:3 vary:1 point:1 specific:2 resolvable:1 location:1 allow:2 map:1 catalog:2 optionally:1 make:3 available:2 resolvers:1 parsing:1 software:2 notation:7 corresponding:1 book:2 google:1 de:2 id:4 pg:1 lpg:1 dq:1 source:1 bl:1 ots:1 sig:1 hl:1 sa:1 x:1 oi:1 resnum:1 ct:1 result:1 possible:2 key:1 word:1 empty:1 order:3 alternative:3 either:1 group:1 zero:2 least:1 mark:1 optional:5 must:4 occur:2 exactly:1 time:1 head:1 body:1 p:2 pcdata:6 ul:1 dl:1 table:1 default:4 give:4 stylusstudio:1 com:3 attdecls:2 htm:1 attlist:1 img:1 implied:1 src:1 cdata:2 following:1 idref:1 idrefs:1 nmtoken:1 nmtokens:1 listing:1 imply:1 fix:2 case:1 leave:1 tag:2 variable:1 abbreviation:1 typical:1 user:1 readable:1 special:1 asp:1 thus:1 help:1 avoid:1 repetition:1 edit:1 easy:2 basically:1 two:1 different:2 replace:1 certain:1 string:1 replacement:1 refer:2 storage:1 object:2 format:1 unparsed:1 non:4 gif:3 image:2 validation:1 common:1 misconception:1 validate:3 parser:2 fact:1 still:2 scan:1 correct:2 well:1 however:2 elect:1 depend:1 find:2 assert:1 standalone:1 identification:1 perform:1 version:2 encode:2 utf:2 person:11 gofur:1 halmurat:1 birthdate:8 gender:8 male:2 simple:1 socialsecuritynumber:4 take:1 line:2 say:1 denotes:1 indicate:1 contains:3 conforms:2 assume:1 identifiable:1 relative:1 tell:1 u:1 root:1 first:1 call:1 fred:1 bloggs:1 render:1 enable:1 browser:3 mozilla:1 paste:1 save:2 component:1 differently:1 open:1 directory:1 many:1 check:2 rule:1 syntactically:1 security:1 reason:1 choose:1 become:1 last:1 year:2 xsd:3 achieve:1 recommendation:1 status:1 popular:2 orient:1 transactional:1 publishing:2 strong:1 typing:1 round:1 tripping:1 java:1 world:1 added:1 complexity:1 would:1 bring:1 benefit:1 far:1 part:1 dsdl:1 iso:1 international:1 expressive:1 provide:1 simpler:1 commercial:1 support:1 slow:1 come:1 description:1 dsd:1 another:1 propose:1 see:2 much:1 progress:1 adoption:1 semantic:1 web:1 comparison:2 link:1 extensible:1 fourth:1 edition:1 quick:1 faq:1 entry:1 tutorial:3 zvon:1 interactive:1 xmlzoo:1 doctypes:1 xmlpatterns:1 design:1 pattern:1 develop:1 convert:2 plainxml:1 pojo:1 statistic:1 |@bigram xml_schema:9 html_xhtml:1 xml_dtd:5 doctype_html:2 http_www:4 dtd_html:3 id_pg:1 pg_lpg:1 lpg_dq:1 bl_ots:1 ots_sig:1 sig_hl:1 x_oi:1 oi_resnum:1 resnum_ct:1 xml_parser:1 browser_mozilla:1 syntactically_correct:1 external_link:1 |
5,811 | Abigail | Abigail () is a female name occurring in Biblical narratives from the Books of Samuel, and reflected in the Books of Chronicles. The name Abigal occurs on one occasion , and is thought by the vast majority of scholars to be an alternate spelling of Abigail. There appear to be two individuals named Abigail: The mother of Amasa. In the Book of Chronicles, and Septuagint version of the Books of Samuel, Abigail's father is identified as being Jesse, 2 Samuel 17:25, LXX and she therefore would be a sister of David, but in the masoretic text of the Books of Samuel her father is named Nahash; scholars think that Nahash is a typographic error here, Peake's commentary on the Bible Jewish Encyclopedia based on the appearance of the name two verses later. In the Book of Chronicles, Amasa's father is identified as Jether the Ishmaelite, but in the books of Samuel, Amasa's father is identified as Ithra the Israelite; scholars think that the latter case is more likely. The wife of the wicked Nabal, who became a wife of David after Nabal's death. She had gone out to stop David from taking revenge against Nabal for his ingratitude towards David, warning him that vengeance was sinful and God would take care of the issue. Her accuracy in understanding God's will suggests that she was a true follower of God. She became the mother of one of David's sons, who is named in the Book of Chronicles as Daniel, in the masoretic text of the Books of Samuel as Chileab, and in the Septuagint text of the Books of Samuel as Daluyah. 2 Samuel 3:3, LXX It is possible for both these women named Abigail to be different accounts of the same woman, as textual scholars regard the account in the Books of Chronicles as ultimately deriving from the Books of Samuel, and the references there to Abigail as a sister of David occur only in the passages which textual scholars attribute to the court history of David, Jewish Encyclopedia, Books of Samuel a document which doesn't mention an Abigail as one of David's wives. Generic use Abigail's self-styling as a handmaid and following led to Abigail being the traditional term for a waiting-woman, for example, Abigail, the waiting gentlewoman, in Beaumont and Fletcher's The Scornful Lady, published in 1616. Jonathan Swift and Henry Fielding employ Abigail in this generic sense. William Rose Benet notes the notoriety of Abigail Hill, better known as "Mrs Masham", the lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne. The Reader's Encyclopedia, 1948, s.v. "Abigail". Notes References | Abigail |@lemmatized abigail:13 female:1 name:7 occur:2 biblical:1 narrative:1 book:13 samuel:10 reflect:1 chronicle:5 abigal:1 occurs:1 one:3 occasion:1 think:3 vast:1 majority:1 scholar:5 alternate:1 spelling:1 appear:1 two:2 individual:1 mother:2 amasa:3 septuagint:2 version:1 father:4 identify:3 jesse:1 lxx:2 therefore:1 would:2 sister:2 david:8 masoretic:2 text:3 nahash:2 typographic:1 error:1 peake:1 commentary:1 bible:1 jewish:2 encyclopedia:3 base:1 appearance:1 verse:1 later:1 jether:1 ishmaelite:1 ithra:1 israelite:1 latter:1 case:1 likely:1 wife:3 wicked:1 nabal:3 become:2 death:1 go:1 stop:1 take:2 revenge:1 ingratitude:1 towards:1 warn:1 vengeance:1 sinful:1 god:3 care:1 issue:1 accuracy:1 understand:1 suggest:1 true:1 follower:1 son:1 daniel:1 chileab:1 daluyah:1 possible:1 woman:3 different:1 account:2 textual:2 regard:1 ultimately:1 derive:1 reference:2 passage:1 attribute:1 court:1 history:1 document:1 mention:1 generic:2 use:1 self:1 styling:1 handmaid:1 follow:1 lead:1 traditional:1 term:1 wait:3 example:1 gentlewoman:1 beaumont:1 fletcher:1 scornful:1 lady:2 publish:1 jonathan:1 swift:1 henry:1 fielding:1 employ:1 sense:1 william:1 rise:1 benet:1 note:2 notoriety:1 hill:1 good:1 know:1 mr:1 masham:1 queen:1 anne:1 reader:1 v:1 |@bigram vast_majority:1 masoretic_text:2 jonathan_swift:1 henry_fielding:1 |
5,812 | C*-algebra | C*-algebras (pronounced "C-star") are an important area of research in functional analysis, a branch of mathematics. The prototypical example of a C*-algebra is a complex algebra A of linear operators on a complex Hilbert space with two additional properties: A is a topologically closed set in the norm topology of operators. A is closed under the operation of taking adjoints of operators. It is generally believed that C*-algebras were first considered primarily for their use in quantum mechanics to model algebras of physical observables. This line of research began in an extremely rudimentary form with Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and in a more mathematically developed form with Pascual Jordan around 1933. Subsequently John von Neumann attempted to establish a general framework for these algebras which culminated in a series of papers on rings of operators. These papers considered a special class of C*-algebras which are now known as von Neumann algebras. Around 1943, the work of Israel Gelfand, Mark Naimark and Irving Segal yielded an abstract characterisation of C*-algebras making no reference to operators. C*-algebras are now an important tool in the theory of unitary representations of locally compact groups, and are also used in algebraic formulations of quantum mechanics. Abstract characterization We begin with the abstract characterization of C*-algebras given in the 1943 paper by Gel'fand and Naimark. A C*-algebra, A, is a Banach algebra over the field of complex numbers, together with a map, * : A → A, called involution. The image of an element x of A under involution is written x*. Involution has the following properties: For all x, y in A: For every λ in C and every x in A: For all x in A The C*–identity holds for all x in A: Note that the C* identity is equivalent to: for all x in A: Thus any C*-algebra is automatically a Banach*-algebra. However, not every Banach*-algebra is a C*-algebra. The C*-identity is a very strong requirement. For instance, together with the spectral radius formula, it implies the C*-norm is uniquely determined by the algebraic structure: is not invertible A bounded linear map, π : A → B, between B*-algebras A and B is called a *-homomorphism if For x and y in A For x in A In the case of C*-algebras, any *-homomorphism π between C*-algebras is non-expansive, i.e. bounded with norm ≤ 1. Furthermore, an injective *-homomorphism between C*-algebras is isometric. These are consequences of the C*-identity. A bijective *-homomorphism π is called a C*-isomorphism, in which case A and B are said to be isomorphic. Examples Finite-dimensional C*-algebras The algebra Mn(C) of n-by-n matrices over C becomes a C*-algebra if we consider matrices as operators on the Euclidean space, Cn, and use the operator norm ||.|| on matrices. The involution is given by the conjugate transpose. More generally, one can consider finite direct sums of matrix algebras. In fact, all finite dimensional C*-algebras are of this form. The self-adjoint requirement means finite-dimensional C*-algebras are semisimple, from which fact one can deduce the following theorem of Artin–Wedderburn type: Theorem. A finite-dimensional C*-algebra, A, is canonically isomorphic to a finite direct sum where min A is the set of minimal nonzero self-adjoint central projections of A. Each C*-algebra, Ae, is isomorphic (in a noncanonical way) to the full matrix algebra Mdim(e)(C). The finite family indexed on min A given by {dim(e)}e is called the dimension vector of A. This vector uniquely determines the isomorphism class of a finite-dimensional C*-algebra. C*-algebras of operators The prototypical example of a C*-algebra is the algebra B(H) of bounded (equivalently continuous) linear operators defined on a complex Hilbert space H; here x* denotes the adjoint operator of the operator x : H → H. In fact, every C*-algebra, A, is *-isomorphic to a norm-closed adjoint closed subalgebra of B(H) for a suitable Hilbert space, H; this is the content of the Gelfand–Naimark theorem. Commutative C*-algebras Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space. The space C0(X) of complex-valued continuous functions on X that vanish at infinity (defined in the article on local compactness) form a commutative C*-algebra C0(X) under pointwise multiplication and addition. The involution is pointwise conjugation. C0(X) has a multiplicative unit element if and only if X is compact. As does any C*-algebra, C0(X) has an approximate identity. In the case of C0(X) this is immediate: consider the directed set of compact subsets of X, and for each compact K let fK be a function of compact support which is identically 1 on K. Such functions exist by the Tietze extension theorem which applies to locally compact Hausdorff spaces. {fK}K is an approximate identity. The Gelfand representation states that every commutative C*-algebra is *-isomorphic to the algebra C0(X), where X is the space of characters equipped with the weak* topology. Furthermore if C0(X) is isomorphic to C0(Y) as C*-algebras, it follows that X and Y are homeomorphic. This characterization is one of the motivations for the noncommutative topology and noncommutative geometry programs. C*-algebras of compact operators Let H be a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. The algebra K(H) of compact operators on H is a norm closed subalgebra of B(H). It is also closed under involution; hence it is a C*-algebra. Concrete C*-algebras of compact operators admit a characterization similar to Wedderburn's theorem for finite dimensional C*-algebras. Theorem. If A is a C*-subalgebra of K(H), then there exists Hilbert spaces {Hi}i ∈ I such that A is isomorphic to the following direct sum where the (C*-)direct sum consists of elements (Ti) of the Cartesian product Π K(Hi) with ||Ti|| → 0. Though K(H) does not have an identity element, a sequential approximate identity for K(H) can be easily displayed. To be specific, H is isomorphic to the space of square summable sequences l2; we may assume that For each natural number n let Hn be the subspace of sequences of l2 which vanish for indices and let be the orthogonal projection onto Hn. The sequence {en}n is an approximate identity for K(H). K(H) is a two-sided closed ideal of B(H). For separable Hilbert spaces, it is the unique ideal. The quotient of B(H) by K(H) is the Calkin algebra. C*-enveloping algebra Given a B*-algebra A with an approximate identity, there is a unique (up to C*-isomorphism) C*-algebra E(A) and *-morphism π from A into E(A) which is universal, that is, every other B*-morphism factors uniquely through π. The algebra E(A) is called the C*-enveloping algebra of the B*-algebra A. Of particular importance is the C*-algebra of a locally compact group G. This is defined as the enveloping C*-algebra of the group algebra of G. The C*-algebra of G provides context for general harmonic analysis of G in the case G is non-abelian. In particular, the dual of a locally compact group is defined to be the primitive ideal space of the group C*-algebra. See spectrum of a C*-algebra. A complete locally m-convex *algebra A is a topological *algebra that is an inverse limit of Banach *-algebras. In representation theory of these algebras, the enveloping algebra of A provides a solution of the universal problem for continuous *representations of A into bounded Hilbert space operators. This corresponds to the construction of the enveloping C*-algebra of a Banach *-algebra. Proc. Indian Academy Sci. Vol 102 No 3 December 1992 pp 201-215 von Neumann algebras von Neumann algebras, known as W* algebras before the 1960s, are a special kind of C*-algebra. They are required to be closed in the weak operator topology, which is weaker than the norm topology. Their study is a specialized area of functional analysis. Properties of C*-algebras C*-algebras have a large number of properties that are technically convenient. These properties can be established by use the continuous functional calculus or by reduction to commutative C*-algebras. In the latter case, we can use the fact that the structure of these is completely determined by the Gelfand isomorphism. The set of elements of a C*-algebra A of the form x*x forms a closed convex cone. This cone is identical to the elements of the form x x*. Elements of this cone are called non-negative (or sometimes positive, even though this terminology conflicts with its use for elements of R.) The set of self-adjoint elements of a C*-algebra A naturally has the structure of a partially ordered vector space; the ordering is usually denoted ≥. In this ordering, a self-adjoint element x of A satisfies x ≥ 0 if and only if the spectrum of x is non-negative. Two self-adjoint elements x and y of A satisfy x ≥ y if x - y ≥ 0. Any C*-algebra A has an approximate identity. In fact, there is a directed family {eλ}λ ∈ I of self-adjoint elements of A such that In case A is separable, A has a sequential approximate identity. More generally, A will have a sequential approximate identity if and only if A contains a strictly positive element, i.e. a positive element h such that hAh is dense in A. Using approximate identities, one can show that the algebraic quotient of a C*-algebra by a closed proper two-sided ideal, with the natural norm, is a C*-algebra. Similarly, a closed two-sided ideal of a C*-algebra is itself a C*-algebra. Type for C*-algebras A C*-algebra A is of type I if and only if for all non-degenerate representations π of A the von Neumann algebra π(A)′′ (that is, the bicommutant of π(A)) is a type I von Neumann algebra. In fact it is sufficient to consider only factor representations, i.e. representations π for which π(A)′′ is a factor. A locally compact group is said to be of type I if and only if its group C*-algebra is type I. However, if a C*-algebra has non-type I representations, then by results of James Glimm it also has representations of type II and type III. Thus for C*-algebras and locally compact groups, it is only meaningful to speak of type I and non type I properties. C*-algebras and quantum field theory In quantum field theory, one typically describes a physical system with a C*-algebra A with unit element; the self-adjoint elements of A (elements x with x* = x) are thought of as the observables, the measurable quantities, of the system. A state of the system is defined as a positive functional on A (a C-linear map φ : A → C with φ(u u*) > 0 for all u∈A) such that φ(1) = 1. The expected value of the observable x, if the system is in state φ, is then φ(x). See Local quantum physics. See also algebra associative algebra * algebra Hilbert C*-module K-theory References W. Arveson, An Invitation to C*-Algebra, Springer-Verlag, 1976. ISBN 0387901760. An excellent introduction to the subject, accessible for those with a knowledge of basic functional analysis. A. Connes, Non-commutative geometry, ISBN 0-12-185860-X. This book is widely regarded as a source of new research material, providing much supporting intuition, but it is difficult. J. Dixmier, Les C*-algèbres et leurs représentations, Gauthier-Villars, 1969. ISBN 0720407621. This is a somewhat dated reference, but is still considered as a high-quality technical exposition. It is available in English from North Holland press. G. Emch, Algebraic Methods in Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory, Wiley-Interscience, 1972. ISBN 0471239003. Mathematically rigorous reference which provides extensive physics background. S. Sakai, C*-algebras and W*-algebras , Springer (1971) ISBN 3-540-63633-1 | C*-algebra |@lemmatized c:79 algebra:94 pronounced:1 star:1 important:2 area:2 research:3 functional:5 analysis:4 branch:1 mathematics:1 prototypical:2 example:3 complex:5 linear:4 operator:16 hilbert:8 space:15 two:5 additional:1 property:6 topologically:1 close:7 set:5 norm:8 topology:5 operation:1 take:1 adjoints:1 generally:3 believe:1 first:1 consider:7 primarily:1 use:7 quantum:6 mechanic:4 model:1 physical:2 observables:2 line:1 begin:2 extremely:1 rudimentary:1 form:7 werner:1 heisenberg:1 matrix:6 mathematically:2 developed:1 pascual:1 jordan:1 around:2 subsequently:1 john:1 von:6 neumann:6 attempt:1 establish:2 general:2 framework:1 culminate:1 series:1 paper:3 ring:1 special:2 class:2 know:2 work:1 israel:1 gelfand:4 mark:1 naimark:3 irving:1 segal:1 yield:1 abstract:3 characterisation:1 make:1 reference:4 tool:1 theory:6 unitary:1 representation:9 locally:8 compact:14 group:8 also:4 algebraic:4 formulation:1 characterization:4 give:4 gel:1 fand:1 banach:5 field:4 number:3 together:2 map:3 call:6 involution:6 image:1 element:17 x:40 write:1 following:2 every:6 λ:2 identity:14 hold:1 note:1 equivalent:1 thus:2 automatically:1 however:2 strong:1 requirement:2 instance:1 spectral:1 radius:1 formula:1 imply:1 uniquely:3 determine:3 structure:3 invertible:1 bounded:1 π:11 b:12 algebras:1 homomorphism:4 case:6 non:8 expansive:1 e:9 bound:3 furthermore:2 injective:1 isometric:1 consequence:1 bijective:1 isomorphism:4 say:2 isomorphic:8 finite:9 dimensional:7 mn:1 n:4 becomes:1 euclidean:1 cn:1 conjugate:1 transpose:1 one:5 direct:4 sum:4 fact:6 self:7 adjoint:9 mean:1 semisimple:1 deduce:1 theorem:6 artin:1 wedderburn:2 type:11 canonically:1 min:2 minimal:1 nonzero:1 central:1 projection:2 ae:1 noncanonical:1 way:1 full:1 mdim:1 family:2 index:2 dim:1 dimension:1 vector:3 h:20 equivalently:1 continuous:4 define:5 denote:2 subalgebra:3 suitable:1 content:1 commutative:5 let:5 hausdorff:2 value:2 function:3 vanish:2 infinity:1 article:1 local:2 compactness:1 pointwise:2 multiplication:1 addition:1 conjugation:1 multiplicative:1 unit:2 approximate:9 immediate:1 directed:2 subset:1 k:12 fk:2 support:2 identically:1 exist:2 tietze:1 extension:1 apply:1 state:3 character:1 equip:1 weak:3 follow:2 homeomorphic:1 motivation:1 noncommutative:2 geometry:2 program:1 separable:3 infinite:1 hence:1 concrete:1 admit:1 similar:1 hi:2 consist:1 ti:2 cartesian:1 product:1 though:2 sequential:3 easily:1 display:1 specific:1 square:1 summable:1 sequence:3 may:1 assume:1 natural:2 hn:2 subspace:1 orthogonal:1 onto:1 en:1 side:3 closed:4 ideal:5 unique:2 quotient:2 calkin:1 envelop:5 morphism:2 universal:2 factor:3 particular:2 importance:1 g:6 provide:4 context:1 harmonic:1 abelian:1 dual:1 primitive:1 see:3 spectrum:2 complete:1 convex:2 topological:1 inverse:1 limit:1 solution:1 problem:1 correspond:1 construction:1 proc:1 indian:1 academy:1 sci:1 vol:1 december:1 pp:1 w:3 kind:1 require:1 study:1 specialized:1 large:1 technically:1 convenient:1 calculus:1 reduction:1 latter:1 completely:1 cone:3 identical:1 negative:2 sometimes:1 positive:4 even:1 terminology:1 conflict:1 r:1 naturally:1 partially:1 order:1 ordering:2 usually:1 satisfies:1 satisfy:1 eλ:1 contain:1 strictly:1 hah:1 dense:1 show:1 proper:1 similarly:1 degenerate:1 bicommutant:1 sufficient:1 result:1 james:1 glimm:1 ii:1 iii:1 meaningful:1 speak:1 typically:1 describe:1 system:4 think:1 measurable:1 quantity:1 φ:5 u:3 expected:1 observable:1 physic:2 associative:1 module:1 arveson:1 invitation:1 springer:2 verlag:1 isbn:5 excellent:1 introduction:1 subject:1 accessible:1 knowledge:1 basic:1 connes:1 book:1 widely:1 regard:1 source:1 new:1 material:1 much:1 intuition:1 difficult:1 j:1 dixmier:1 les:1 algèbres:1 et:1 leurs:1 représentations:1 gauthier:1 villars:1 somewhat:1 dated:1 still:1 high:1 quality:1 technical:1 exposition:1 available:1 english:1 north:1 holland:1 press:1 emch:1 method:1 statistical:1 wiley:1 interscience:1 rigorous:1 extensive:1 background:1 sakai:1 |@bigram quantum_mechanic:2 werner_heisenberg:1 heisenberg_matrix:1 von_neumann:6 locally_compact:7 formulation_quantum:1 algebra_banach:2 banach_algebra:5 uniquely_determine:2 algebra_homomorphism:1 finite_dimensional:6 conjugate_transpose:1 self_adjoint:7 adjoint_operator:1 compact_hausdorff:2 fk_k:1 gelfand_representation:1 infinite_dimensional:1 cartesian_product:1 orthogonal_projection:1 envelop_algebra:3 locally_convex:1 π_π:1 expected_value:1 φ_φ:1 associative_algebra:1 springer_verlag:1 gauthier_villars:1 statistical_mechanic:1 wiley_interscience:1 |
5,813 | E._H._Shepard | Ernest Howard Shepard (December 10, 1879 – March 24, 1976) was an English artist and book illustrator. He was known especially for his human-like animals in illustrations for The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame and Winnie-the-Pooh by A. A. Milne. Shepard was born in St. John's Wood, London. Having shown some promise in drawing at St. Paul's School, Shepard enrolled in Heatherleys School of Fine Art in Chelsea . Having spent a productive year there, Shepard won a scholarship to the Royal Academy Schools where he would meet Florence Eleanor Chaplin who would become his first wife . By 1906 Shepard had become a successful illustrator, having produced work for illustrated editions of Aesop's Fables, David Copperfield, and Tom Brown's Schooldays. This same year his first illustration for Punch was published. In 1915, Shepard received a commission in the Royal Artillery. By 1916 Shepard started working for the Intelligence Department sketching the combat area within the view of his battery position. In 1918 he was awarded the Military Cross for his service in World War I. Throughout the war he had been contributing to Punch. He was hired as a regular staff cartoonist in 1921. and became lead cartoonist in 1945 but was removed from this post by Malcolm Muggeridge, who became editor in 1953. Shepard was recommended to Milne by another Punch staffer, E. V. Lucas in 1923. Initially, Milne thought Shepard's style was not what he wanted, but used him to illustrate his book of poems When We Were Very Young. Happy with the results, Milne insisted Shepard illustrate Winnie-the-Pooh. Eventually, Shepard grew to resent "that silly old bear" and felt that these illustrations overshadowed his other work. E H Shepard's grave at Lodsworth church Shepard modelled Pooh not on the toy owned by Christopher Robin, Milne's son, but on "Growler", a stuffed bear owned by his own son. (Growler no longer exists, having been given to his granddaughter Minnie Hunt and subsequently destroyed by a neighbour's dog. ) His Pooh work is so famous that 300 of his preliminary sketches were exhibited at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1969, when he was 90 years old. An E.H. Shepard painting of Winnie the Pooh is the only known oil painting of the famous teddy bear. It was purchased at an auction for $285,000 in London late in 2000. The painting is displayed at the Pavilion Gallery in Assiniboine Park, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Shepard wrote two autobiographies: Drawn from Memory (1957) and Drawn From Life (1962). In 1972, Shepard gave his personal collection of papers and illustrations to the University of Surrey. These now form the E.H. Shepard Archive. Shepard lived at Lodsworth in West Sussex. He had two children, Graham (born 1907) and Mary (born 1909). Graham Shepard was at Marlborough College and Oxford with Louis MacNeice and served in the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve during World War II on the North Atlantic convoys. His ship, HMS Polyanthus, was sunk by the German U-Boat U-952 on September 21, 1943 with the loss of all but one crew member. Graham was survived by his wife, Ann Faith Shepard, and a young daughter, Minette Shepard. Mary Shepard also became an illustrator. She is best known for her illustrations of Pamela Travers' Mary Poppins. Works illustrated 1924 - When We Were Very Young 1925 - Playtime and Company, Holly Tree 1926 - Winnie The Pooh, Everybody's Pepys 1927 - Jeremy, Little One's Log, Let's Pretend, Now We Are Six, Fun and Fantasy 1928 - The House at Pooh Corner, The Golden Age 1930 - Everybody's Boswell, Dream Days 1931 - The Wind in the Willows, Christmas Poems, Bevis, Mother Goose 1932 - Sycamore Square 1933 - Everybody's Lamb, The Cricket in the Cage 1934 - Victoria Regina 1935 - Perfume from Provence 1936 - The Modern Struwwelpeter 1937 - Golden Sovereign, Chaeddar Gorge, As the Bee Sucks, Extra Perfume from Provence 1939 - The Reluctant Dragon 1941 - Gracious Majesty 1948 - Golden Age, Dream Days, Bertie's Escapade 1949 - York 1950 - Drover's Tale 1951 - Enter David Garrick 1953 - Silver Curlew 1954 - Cuckoo Clock, Susan, Bill and the Wolf-dog 1955 - Glass Slipper, Operation Wild Goose, Crystal Mountain, Frogmorton, The Brownies 1956 - The Islanders, The Pancake 1957 - Drawn from Memory, Briar Rose 1958 - Old Greek Fairy Tales 1959 - Tom Brown's School Days 1960 - Noble Company 1961 - Drawn from Life, Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales 1965 - Ben and Buck 1969 - The Wind in the Willows' (colour re-illustration), The Pooh Cookbook(cover) 1970 - Winnie the Pooh(colour re-illustration), ""House at Pooh Corner(colour re-illustration) 1971 - The Pooh Party Book(cover) References External links Biography of E. H. Shepard at classicpooh.net "The man who hated Pooh", Tim Benson, BBC News, 6 March 2006. »The Man who drew Pooh«: ''Obituary for Ernest Howard Shepard | E._H._Shepard |@lemmatized ernest:2 howard:2 shepard:24 december:1 march:2 english:1 artist:1 book:3 illustrator:3 know:2 especially:1 human:1 like:1 animal:1 illustration:8 wind:3 willow:3 kenneth:1 grahame:1 winnie:5 pooh:13 milne:5 bear:4 st:2 john:1 wood:1 london:2 show:1 promise:1 draw:3 paul:1 school:4 enrol:1 heatherleys:1 fine:1 art:1 chelsea:1 spend:1 productive:1 year:3 win:1 scholarship:1 royal:3 academy:1 would:2 meet:1 florence:1 eleanor:1 chaplin:1 become:5 first:2 wife:2 successful:1 produce:1 work:5 illustrated:1 edition:1 aesop:1 fable:1 david:2 copperfield:1 tom:2 brown:2 schooldays:1 punch:3 publish:1 receive:1 commission:1 artillery:1 start:1 intelligence:1 department:1 sketch:2 combat:1 area:1 within:1 view:1 battery:1 position:1 award:1 military:1 cross:1 service:1 world:2 war:3 throughout:1 contribute:1 hire:1 regular:1 staff:1 cartoonist:2 lead:1 remove:1 post:1 malcolm:1 muggeridge:1 editor:1 recommend:1 another:1 staffer:1 e:5 v:1 lucas:1 initially:1 think:1 style:1 want:1 use:1 illustrate:3 poem:2 young:3 happy:1 result:1 insist:1 eventually:1 grow:1 resent:1 silly:1 old:3 felt:1 overshadow:1 h:4 grave:1 lodsworth:2 church:1 model:1 toy:1 christopher:1 robin:1 son:2 growler:2 stuffed:1 longer:1 exist:1 give:2 granddaughter:1 minnie:1 hunt:1 subsequently:1 destroy:1 neighbour:1 dog:2 famous:2 preliminary:1 exhibit:1 victoria:2 albert:1 museum:1 painting:3 known:1 oil:1 teddy:1 purchase:1 auction:1 late:1 display:1 pavilion:1 gallery:1 assiniboine:1 park:1 winnipeg:1 manitoba:1 canada:1 write:1 two:2 autobiography:1 drawn:3 memory:2 life:2 personal:1 collection:1 paper:1 university:1 surrey:1 form:1 archive:1 live:1 west:1 sussex:1 child:1 graham:3 born:2 mary:3 marlborough:1 college:1 oxford:1 louis:1 macneice:1 serve:1 navy:1 volunteer:1 reserve:1 ii:1 north:1 atlantic:1 convoy:1 ship:1 hm:1 polyanthus:1 sink:1 german:1 u:2 boat:1 september:1 loss:1 one:2 crew:1 member:1 survive:1 ann:1 faith:1 daughter:1 minette:1 also:1 best:1 pamela:1 travers:1 poppins:1 playtime:1 company:2 holly:1 tree:1 everybody:3 pepys:1 jeremy:1 little:1 log:1 let:1 pretend:1 six:1 fun:1 fantasy:1 house:2 corner:2 golden:3 age:2 boswell:1 dream:2 day:3 christmas:1 bevis:1 mother:1 goose:2 sycamore:1 square:1 lamb:1 cricket:1 cage:1 regina:1 perfume:2 provence:2 modern:1 struwwelpeter:1 sovereign:1 chaeddar:1 gorge:1 bee:1 suck:1 extra:1 reluctant:1 dragon:1 gracious:1 majesty:1 bertie:1 escapade:1 york:1 drover:1 tale:3 enter:1 garrick:1 silver:1 curlew:1 cuckoo:1 clock:1 susan:1 bill:1 wolf:1 glass:1 slipper:1 operation:1 wild:1 crystal:1 mountain:1 frogmorton:1 brownie:1 islander:1 pancake:1 briar:1 rise:1 greek:1 fairy:2 noble:1 hans:1 andersen:1 ben:1 buck:1 colour:3 cookbook:1 cover:2 party:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 biography:1 classicpooh:1 net:1 man:2 hat:1 tim:1 benson:1 bbc:1 news:1 obituary:1 |@bigram wind_willow:3 winnie_pooh:5 aesop_fable:1 david_copperfield:1 malcolm_muggeridge:1 teddy_bear:1 winnipeg_manitoba:1 mary_poppins:1 david_garrick:1 fairy_tale:2 andersen_fairy:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
5,814 | John_von_Neumann | John von Neumann (Hungarian: margittai Neumann János Lajos) (December 28, 1903 – February 8, 1957) was a Hungarian American mathematician who made major contributions to a vast range of fields, including set theory, functional analysis, quantum mechanics, ergodic theory, continuous geometry, economics and game theory, computer science, numerical analysis, hydrodynamics (of explosions), and statistics, as well as many other mathematical fields. He is generally regarded as one of the foremost mathematicians of the 20th century. The mathematician Jean Dieudonné called von Neumann "the last of the great mathematicians." Dictionary of Scientific Bibliography, ed. C. C. Gillispie, Scibners, 1981 Even in the city in the time that produced Szilárd (1898), Wigner (1902), and Teller (1908) his brilliance stood out. Doran, p. 2 Most notably, von Neumann was a pioneer of the application of operator theory to quantum mechanics, a principal member of the Manhattan Project and the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton (as one of the few originally appointed), and a key figure in the development of game theory and the concepts of cellular automata and the universal constructor. Along with Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam, von Neumann worked out key steps in the nuclear physics involved in thermonuclear reactions and the hydrogen bomb. Biography The eldest of three brothers, von Neumann was born Neumann János Lajos (in Hungarian the family name comes first) in Budapest, Hungary, to a wealthy non-practicing Jewish family. Doran, p. 1 His father was Neumann Miksa (Max Neumann), a lawyer who worked in a bank. His mother was Kann Margit (Margaret Kann). Von Neumann's ancestors had originally immigrated to Hungary from Russia. János, nicknamed "Jancsi" (Johnny), was a prodigy who showed aptitudes for languages, memorization, and mathematics. He entered the German-speaking Lutheran Fasori Gimnázium in Budapest in the year 1911. Although he attended school at the grade level appropriate to his age, his father hired private tutors to give him advanced instruction in those areas in which he had displayed an aptitude. In 1913, his father was rewarded with ennoblement for his service to the Austro-Hungarian empire. (After becoming semi-autonomous in 1867 Hungary had found itself in need of a vibrant mercantile class.) The Neumann family thus acquiring the name margittai, Neumann János became margittai Neumann János (John Neumann of Margitta), which he later changed to the German Johann von Neumann. He received his Ph.D. in mathematics (with minors in experimental physics and chemistry) from Pázmány Péter University in Budapest at the age of 22. He simultaneously earned his diploma in chemical engineering from the ETH Zurich in Switzerland at the behest of his father, who wanted his son to invest his time in a more financially viable endeavour than mathematics. Between 1926 and 1930 he taught as a privatdozent at the University of Berlin, the youngest in its history. By age 25 he had published 10 major papers, and by 30, nearly 36. Max von Neumann died in 1929. In 1930 von Neumann, his mother, and his brothers emigrated to the United States. He anglicized Johann to John, keeping the Austrian-aristocratic surname of von Neumann, whereas his brothers adopted surnames Vonneumann and Neumann (using the de Neumann form briefly when first in the U.S.). Von Neumann was invited to Princeton University, New Jersey in 1930, and, subsequently, was one of four people selected for the first faculty of the Institute for Advanced Study (two of the others were Albert Einstein and Kurt Gödel), where he was a mathematics professor from its formation in 1933 until his death. In 1937, von Neumann became a naturalized citizen of the US. In 1938 von Neumann was awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize for his work in analysis. Von Neumann married twice. He married Mariette Kövesi in 1930, just prior to emigrating to the United States. They had one daughter (von Neumann's only child), Marina, who is now a distinguished professor of international trade and public policy at the University of Michigan. The couple divorced in 1937. In 1938 von Neumann married Klari Dan, whom he had met during his last trips back to Budapest prior to the outbreak of World War II. The von Neumanns were very active socially within the Princeton academic community, and it is from this aspect of his life that many of the anecdotes which surround von Neumann's legend originate. In 1955, von Neumann was diagnosed with what was either bone or pancreatic cancer, While there is a general agreement that the initially discovered bone tumor was a secondary growth, sources differ as to the location of the primary cancer. While Macrae gives it as pancreatic, the Life magazine article says it was prostate. possibly caused by exposure to radiation during his witnessing of atomic bomb tests. Von Neumann died a year and a half following the initial diagnosis, in great pain. While at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C., he invited a Roman Catholic priest, Father Anselm Strittmatter, O.S.B., to visit him for consultation (a move which shocked some of von Neumann's friends). The question of whether or not von Neumann had formally converted to Catholicism upon his marriage to Mariette Kövesi (who was Catholic) is addressed by Halmos (ref. 5). He was baptised Roman Catholic but he certainly was not a practicing member of that religion after his divorce. The priest then administered to him the last Sacraments. Halmos, P.R. The Legend of Von Neumann, The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 80, No. 4. (Apr., 1973), pp. 382-394 He died under military security lest he reveal military secrets while heavily medicated. John von Neumann was buried at Princeton Cemetery in Princeton, Mercer County, New Jersey. John von Neumann at Find a Grave Gravestone of John von Neumann Von Neumann wrote 150 published papers in his life; 60 in pure mathematics, 20 in physics, and 60 in applied mathematics. His last work, published in book form as The Computer and the Brain, gives an indication of the direction of his interests at the time of his death. Logic and set theory The axiomatization of mathematics, on the model of Euclid's Elements, had reached new levels of rigor and breadth at the end of the 19th century, particularly in arithmetic (thanks to Richard Dedekind and Giuseppe Peano) and geometry (thanks to David Hilbert). At the beginning of the twentieth century, set theory, the new branch of mathematics discovered by Georg Cantor, and thrown into crisis by Bertrand Russell with the discovery of his famous paradox (on the set of all sets which do not belong to themselves), had not yet been formalized. The problem of an adequate axiomatization of set theory was resolved implicitly about twenty years later (by Ernst Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel) by way of a series of principles which allowed for the construction of all sets used in the actual practice of mathematics, but which did not explicitly exclude the possibility of the existence of sets which belong to themselves. In his doctoral thesis of 1925, von Neumann demonstrated how it was possible to exclude this possibility in two complementary ways: the axiom of foundation and the notion of class. The axiom of foundation established that every set can be constructed from the bottom up in an ordered succession of steps by way of the principles of Zermelo and Fraenkel, in such a manner that if one set belongs to another then the first must necessarily come before the second in the succession (hence excluding the possibility of a set belonging to itself.) In order to demonstrate that the addition of this new axiom to the others did not produce contradictions, von Neumann introduced a method of demonstration (called the method of inner models) which later became an essential instrument in set theory. The second approach to the problem took as its base the notion of class, and defines a set as a class which belongs to other classes, while a proper class is defined as a class which does not belong to other classes. Under the Zermelo/Fraenkel approach, the axioms impede the construction of a set of all sets which do not belong to themselves. In contrast, under the von Neumann approach, the class of all sets which do not belong to themselves can be constructed, but it is a proper class and not a set. With this contribution of von Neumann, the axiomatic system of the theory of sets became fully satisfactory, and the next question was whether or not it was also definitive, and not subject to improvement. A strongly negative answer arrived in September 1930 at the historic mathematical Congress of Königsberg, in which Kurt Gödel announced his first theorem of incompleteness: the usual axiomatic systems are incomplete, in the sense that they cannot prove every truth which is expressible in their language. This result was sufficiently innovative as to confound the majority of mathematicians of the time. But von Neumann, who had participated at the Congress, confirmed his fame as an instantaneous thinker, and in less than a month was able to communicate to Gödel himself an interesting consequence of his theorem: namely that the usual axiomatic systems are unable to demonstrate their own consistency. It is precisely this consequence which has attracted the most attention, even if Gödel originally considered it only a curiosity, and had derived it independently anyway (it is for this reason that the result is called Gödel's second theorem, without mention of von Neumann.) Quantum mechanics At the International Congress of Mathematicians of 1900, David Hilbert presented his famous list of twenty-three problems considered central for the development of the mathematics of the new century. The sixth of these was the axiomatization of physical theories. Among the new physical theories of the century the only one which had yet to receive such a treatment by the end of the 1930s was quantum mechanics. QM found itself in a condition of foundational crisis similar to that of set theory at the beginning of the century, facing problems of both philosophical and technical natures. On the one hand, its apparent non-determinism had not been reduced to an explanation of a deterministic form. On the other, there still existed two independent but equivalent heuristic formulations, the so-called matrix mechanical formulation due to Werner Heisenberg and the wave mechanical formulation due to Erwin Schrödinger, but there was not yet a single, unified satisfactory theoretical formulation. After having completed the axiomatization of set theory, von Neumann began to confront the axiomatization of QM. He immediately realized, in 1926, that a quantum system could be considered as a point in a so-called Hilbert space, analogous to the 6N dimension (N is the number of particles, 3 general coordinate and 3 canonical momentum for each) phase space of classical mechanics but with infinitely many dimensions (corresponding to the infinitely many possible states of the system) instead: the traditional physical quantities (e.g., position and momentum) could therefore be represented as particular linear operators operating in these spaces. The physics of quantum mechanics was thereby reduced to the mathematics of the linear Hermitian operators on Hilbert spaces. For example, the famous uncertainty principle of Heisenberg, according to which the determination of the position of a particle prevents the determination of its momentum and vice versa, is translated into the non-commutativity of the two corresponding operators. This new mathematical formulation included as special cases the formulations of both Heisenberg and Schrödinger, and culminated in the 1932 classic The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. However, physicists generally ended up preferring another approach to that of von Neumann (which was considered elegant and satisfactory by mathematicians). This approach was formulated in 1930 by Paul Dirac. Von Neumann's abstract treatment permitted him also to confront the foundational issue of determinism vs. non-determinism and in the book he demonstrated a theorem according to which quantum mechanics could not possibly be derived by statistical approximation from a deterministic theory of the type used in classical mechanics. This demonstration contained a conceptual error, but it helped to inaugurate a line of research which, through the work of John Stuart Bell in 1964 on Bell's Theorem and the experiments of Alain Aspect in 1982, demonstrated that quantum physics requires a notion of reality substantially different from that of classical physics. Economics and game theory Von Neumann's first significant contribution to economics was the minimax theorem of 1928. This theorem establishes that in certain zero sum games with perfect information (i.e., in which players know at each time all moves that have taken place so far), there exists a strategy for each player which allows both players to minimize their maximum losses (hence the name minimax). When examining every possible strategy, a player must consider all the possible responses of the player's adversary and the maximum loss. The player then plays out the strategy which will result in the minimization of this maximum loss. Such a strategy, which minimizes the maximum loss, is called optimal for both players just in case their minimaxes are equal (in absolute value) and contrary (in sign). If the common value is zero, the game becomes pointless. Von Neumann eventually improved and extended the minimax theorem to include games involving imperfect information and games with more than two players. This work culminated in the 1944 classic Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (written with Oskar Morgenstern). The public interest in this work was such that The New York Times ran a front page story, something which only Einstein had previously elicited. Von Neumann's second important contribution in this area was the solution, in 1937, of a problem first described by Léon Walras in 1874, the existence of situations of equilibrium in mathematical models of market development based on supply and demand. He first recognized that such a model should be expressed through disequations and not equations, and then he found a solution to Walras' problem by applying a fixed-point theorem derived from the work of L. E. J. Brouwer. The lasting importance of the work on general equilibria and the methodology of fixed point theorems is underscored by the awarding of Nobel prizes in 1972 to Kenneth Arrow, in 1983 to Gerard Debreu, and in 1994 to John Nash who had improved von Neumann's theory in his Princeton Ph.D thesis. Von Neumann was also the inventor of the method of proof, used in game theory, known as backward induction (which he first published in 1944 in the book co-authored with Morgenstern, Theory of Games and Economic Behaviour). Nuclear weapons John von Neumann's wartime Los Alamos ID badge photo. Beginning in the late 1930s, von Neumann began to take more of an interest in applied (as opposed to pure) mathematics. In particular, he developed an expertise in explosions—phenomena which are difficult to model mathematically. This led him to a large number of military consultancies, primarily for the Navy, which in turn led to his involvement in the Manhattan Project. The involvement included frequent trips by train to the project's secret research facilities in Los Alamos, New Mexico. Von Neumann's principal contribution to the atomic bomb itself was in the concept and design of the explosive lenses needed to compress the plutonium core of the Trinity test device and the "Fat Man" weapon that was later dropped on Nagasaki. While von Neumann did not originate the "implosion" concept, he was one of its most persistent proponents, encouraging its continued development against the instincts of many of his colleagues, who felt such a design to be unworkable. The lens shape design work was completed by July 1944. In a visit to Los Alamos in September 1944, von Neumann showed that the pressure increase from explosion shock wave reflection from solid objects was greater than previously believed if the angle of incidence of the shock wave was between 90° and some limiting angle. As a result, it was determined that the effectiveness of an atomic bomb would be enhanced with detonation some kilometers above the target, rather than at ground level. Beginning in the spring of 1945, along with four other scientists and various military personnel, von Neumann was included in the target selection committee responsible for choosing the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as the first targets of the atomic bomb. Von Neumann oversaw computations related to the expected size of the bomb blasts, estimated death tolls, and the distance above the ground at which the bombs should be detonated for optimum shock wave propagation and thus maximum effect. The cultural capital Kyoto, which had been spared the firebombing inflicted upon militarily significant target cities like Tokyo in World War II, was von Neumann's first choice, a selection seconded by Manhattan Project leader General Leslie Groves. However, this target was dismissed by Secretary of War Henry Stimson, who had been impressed with the city during a visit while Governor General of the Philippines. On July 16, 1945, with numerous other Los Alamos personnel, von Neumann was an eyewitness to the first atomic bomb blast, conducted as a test of the implosion method device, 35 miles (56 km) southeast of Socorro, New Mexico. Based on his observation alone, von Neumann estimated the test had resulted in a blast equivalent to 5 kilotons of TNT, but Enrico Fermi produced a more accurate estimate of 10 kilotons by dropping scraps of torn-up paper as the shock wave passed his location and watching how far they scattered. The actual power of the explosion had been between 20 and 22 kilotons. After the war, Robert Oppenheimer remarked that the physicists involved in the Manhattan project had "known sin". Von Neumann's response was that "sometimes someone confesses a sin in order to take credit for it". Von Neumann continued unperturbed in his work and became, along with Edward Teller, one of those who sustained the hydrogen bomb project. He then collaborated with Klaus Fuchs on further development of the bomb, and in 1946 the two filed a secret patent on "Improvement in Methods and Means for Utilizing Nuclear Energy", which outlined a scheme for using a fission bomb to compress fusion fuel to initiate a thermonuclear reaction. (Herken, pp. 171, 374). Though this was not the key to the hydrogen bomb — the Teller-Ulam design — it was judged to be a move in the right direction. Computer science Von Neumann's hydrogen bomb work was also played out in the realm of computing, where he and Stanislaw Ulam developed simulations on von Neumann's digital computers for the hydrodynamic computations. During this time he contributed to the development of the Monte Carlo method, which allowed complicated problems to be approximated using random numbers. Because using lists of "truly" random numbers was extremely slow for the ENIAC, von Neumann developed a form of making pseudorandom numbers, using the middle-square method. Though this method has been criticized as crude, von Neumann was aware of this: he justified it as being faster than any other method at his disposal, and also noted that when it went awry it did so obviously, unlike methods which could be subtly incorrect. While consulting for the Moore School of Electrical Engineering on the EDVAC project, von Neumann wrote an incomplete set of notes titled the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. The paper, which was widely distributed, described a computer architecture in which data and program memory are mapped into the same address space. This architecture became the de facto standard and can be contrasted with a so-called Harvard architecture, which has separate program and data memories on a separate bus. Although the single-memory architecture became commonly known by the name von Neumann architecture as a result of von Neumann's paper, the architecture's description was based on the work of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly, inventors of the ENIAC at the University of Pennsylvania. The mistaken name for the architecture is discussed in John W. Mauchly and the Development of the ENIAC Computer, part of the online ENIAC museum, in Robert Slater's computer history book, Portraits in Silicon, and in Nancy Stern's book From ENIAC to UNIVAC . With very few exceptions, all present-day home computers, microcomputers, minicomputers and mainframe computers use this single-memory computer architecture. Von Neumann also created the field of cellular automata without the aid of computers, constructing the first self-replicating automata with pencil and graph paper. The concept of a universal constructor was fleshed out in his posthumous work Theory of Self Reproducing Automata. Von Neumann proved that the most effective way of performing large-scale mining operations such as mining an entire moon or asteroid belt would be by using self-replicating machines, taking advantage of their exponential growth. He is credited with at least one contribution to the study of algorithms. Donald Knuth cites von Neumann as the inventor, in 1945, of the merge sort algorithm, in which the first and second halves of an array are each sorted recursively and then merged together. His algorithm for simulating a fair coin with a biased coin is used in the "software whitening" stage of some hardware random number generators. He also engaged in exploration of problems in numerical hydrodynamics. With R. D. Richtmyer he developed an algorithm defining artificial viscosity that improved the understanding of shock waves. It is possible that we would not understand much of astrophysics, and might not have highly developed jet and rocket engines without that work. The problem was that when computers solve hydrodynamic or aerodynamic problems, they try to put too many computational grid points at regions of sharp discontinuity (shock waves). The artificial viscosity was a mathematical trick to slightly smooth the shock transition without sacrificing basic physics. Politics and social affairs Von Neumann obtained at the age of 29 one of the first five professorships at the new Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey (another had gone to Albert Einstein). He was a frequent consultant for the Central Intelligence Agency, the United States Army, the RAND Corporation, Standard Oil, IBM, and others. Throughout his life von Neumann had a respect and admiration for business and government leaders; something which was often at variance with the inclinations of his scientific colleagues. He enjoyed associating with persons in positions of power, and this led him into government service. see MAA documentary, especially comments by Morgenstern regarding this aspect of von Neumann's personality As President of the Von Neumann Committee for Missiles, and later as a member of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, from 1953 until his death in 1957, he was influential in setting U.S. scientific and military policy. Through his committee, he developed various scenarios of nuclear proliferation, the development of intercontinental and submarine missiles with atomic warheads, and the controversial strategic equilibrium called mutual assured destruction (aka the M.A.D. doctrine). During a Senate committee hearing he described his political ideology as "violently anti-communist, and much more militaristic than the norm". Von Neumann's interest in meteorological prediction led him to propose manipulating the environment by spreading colorants on the polar ice caps in order to enhance absorption of solar radiation (by reducing the albedo), thereby raising global temperatures. He also favored a preemptive nuclear attack on the USSR, believing that doing so could prevent it from obtaining the atomic bomb. See, e.g., Macrae page 332 and Heims, pages 236 - 247. Personality Von Neumann invariably wore a conservative grey flannel business suit - he was even known to play tennis wearing his business suit - and he enjoyed throwing large parties at his home in Princeton, occasionally twice a week. See Macrae pp. 170 -171 Despite being a notoriously bad driver, he nonetheless enjoyed driving (frequently while reading a book) - occasioning numerous arrests as well as accidents. He reported one of his car accidents in this way: "I was proceeding down the road. The trees on the right were passing me in orderly fashion at 60 miles per hour. Suddenly one of them stepped in my path." (The von Neumanns would return to Princeton at the beginning of each academic year with a new car.) A committed hedonist, von Neumann liked to eat and drink heavily; his wife, Klara, said that he could count everything except calories. He enjoyed yiddish and "off-color" humor (especially limericks).. Honors The John von Neumann Theory Prize of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS, previously TIMS-ORSA) is awarded annually to an individual (or group) who have made fundamental and sustained contributions to theory in operations research and the management sciences. The IEEE John von Neumann Medal is awarded annually by the IEEE "for outstanding achievements in computer-related science and technology." The John von Neumann Lecture is given annually at the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM) by a researcher who has contributed to applied mathematics, and the chosen lecturer is also awarded a monetary prize. The crater Von Neumann on the Moon is named after him. The John von Neumann Computing Center in Princeton, New Jersey () was named in his honour. The professional society of Hungarian computer scientists, John von Neumann Computer Society, is named after John von Neumann On May 4, 2005 the United States Postal Service issued the American Scientists commemorative postage stamp series, a set of four 37-cent self-adhesive stamps in several configurations. The scientists depicted were John von Neumann, Barbara McClintock, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Richard Feynman. The John von Neumann Award of The Rajk László College for Advanced Studies was named in his honour, and is given every year from 1995 to professors, who had on outstanding contribution at the field of exact social sciences, and through their work they had a heavy influence to the professional development and thinking of the members of the college. Selected works Jean van Heijenoort, 1967. A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931. Harvard Univ. Press. 1923. On the introduction of transfinite numbers, 346-54. 1925. An axiomatization of set theory, 393-413. 1932. Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Beyer, R. T., trans., Princeton Univ. Press. 1996 edition: ISBN 0-691-02893-1 1944. (with Oskar Morgenstern) Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton Univ. Press. 2007 edition: ISBN 978-0-691-13061-3 1966. (with Arthur W. Burks) Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata. Univ. of Illinois Press. 1963. Collected Works of John von Neumann, 6 Volumes. Pergamon Press See also Stone–von Neumann theorem Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory Von Neumann algebra Von Neumann architecture Von Neumann bicommutant theorem Von Neumann conjecture Von Neumann entropy Von Neumann programming languages Von Neumann regular ring Von Neumann universal constructor Von Neumann universe Self-replicating spacecraft PhD Students Donald B. Gillies, Ph.D. student Israel Halperin, Ph.D. student While Israel Halperin's thesis advisor is often listed as Salomon Bochner, this may be because "Professors at the university direct doctoral theses but those at the Institute do not. Unaware of this, in 1934 I asked von Neumann if he would direct my doctoral thesis. He replied Yes." (Israel Halperin, "The Extraordinary Inspiration of John von Neumann", Proceedings of Symposia in Pure Mathematics, vol. 50 (1990), pp. 15-17). Jim Mayberry, Ph.D. student Biographical material Norman Macrae, 1999. John von Neumann: The Scientific Genius Who Pioneered the Modern Computer, Game Theory, Nuclear Deterrence, and Much More. Reprinted by the American Mathematical Society. Aspray, William, 1990. John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing. Chiara, Dalla, Maria Luisa and Giuntini, Roberto 1997, La Logica Quantistica in Boniolo, Giovani, ed., Filosofia della Fisica (Philosophy of Physics). Bruno Mondadori. Goldstine, Herman, 1980. The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann. Halmos, Paul R., 1985. I Want To Be A Mathematician Springer-Verlag Hashagen, Ulf, 2006: Johann Ludwig Neumann von Margitta (1903-1957). Teil 1: Lehrjahre eines jüdischen Mathematikers während der Zeit der Weimarer Republik. In: Informatik-Spektrum 29 (2), S. 133-141. Hashagen, Ulf, 2006: Johann Ludwig Neumann von Margitta (1903-1957). Teil 2: Ein Privatdozent auf dem Weg von Berlin nach Princeton. In: Informatik-Spektrum 29 (3), S. 227-236. Heim, Steve J., 1980. John von Neumann and Norbert Weiner: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death MIT Press Poundstone, William. Prisoner's Dilemma: John von Neumann, Game Theory and the Puzzle of the Bomb. 1992. Redei, Miklos (ed.), 2005 John von Neumann: Selected Letters American Mathematical Society Ulam, Stanisław, 1983. Adventures of a Mathematician Scribner's Vonneuman, Nicholas A. John von Neumann as Seen by His Brother ISBN 0-9619681-0-9 1958, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 64. 1990. Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society Symposia in Pure Mathematics 50. John von Neumann 1903-1957, biographical memoir by S. Bochner, National Academy of Sciences, 1958 Popular periodicals Good Housekeeping Magazine, September 1956 Married to a Man Who Believes the Mind Can Move the World Life Magazine, February 25, 1957 Passing of a Great Mind Video John von Neumann, A Documentary (60 min.), Mathematical Association of America Notes References External links von Neumann's contribution to economics — International Social Science Review von Neumann biography — University of St. Andrews, Scotland Von Neumann vs. Dirac — from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward Teller talking about von Neumann on Peoples Archive. A Discussion of Artificial Viscosity John von Neumann Postdoctoral Fellowship - Sandia National Laboratories Von Neumann's Universe, audio talk by George Dyson John von Neumann's 100th Birthday, article by Stephen Wolfram on Neumann's 100th birthday. His biography at Hungary.hu Annotated bibliography for John von Neumann from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Budapest Tech Polytechnical Institution - John von Neumann Faculty of Informatics John Von Neumann Memorial at Find A Grave | John_von_Neumann |@lemmatized john:34 von:116 neumann:126 hungarian:5 margittai:3 jános:5 lajos:2 december:1 february:2 american:7 mathematician:9 make:3 major:2 contribution:9 vast:1 range:1 field:4 include:5 set:25 theory:29 functional:1 analysis:3 quantum:10 mechanic:10 ergodic:1 continuous:1 geometry:2 economics:4 game:13 computer:17 science:8 numerical:2 hydrodynamics:2 explosion:4 statistic:1 well:2 many:6 mathematical:14 generally:2 regard:2 one:13 foremost:1 century:6 jean:2 dieudonné:1 call:8 last:4 great:4 dictionary:1 scientific:4 bibliography:2 ed:3 c:3 gillispie:1 scibners:1 even:3 city:4 time:7 produce:3 szilárd:1 wigner:1 teller:5 brilliance:1 stand:1 doran:2 p:3 notably:1 pioneer:2 application:1 operator:4 principal:2 member:4 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5,815 | Charles_Evans_Hughes | Charles Evans Hughes Sr. (April 11, 1862 – August 27, 1948) was a lawyer and Republican politician from the State of New York. He served as Governor of New York (1907-1910), United States Secretary of State (1921-1925), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (1910-1916) and Chief Justice of the United States (1930-1941). He was the Republican candidate in the 1916 U.S. Presidential election, losing to Woodrow Wilson. After attending Madison College (now Colgate University), Hughes graduated from Brown University in 1881 and taught school to earn money for law school. He graduated Columbia Law School in 1884 and entered law practice. A high-profile case in which he uncovered corruption in the New York State utility industry positioned him to win elected office in 1906; he defeated William Randolph Hearst to become Governor of New York. Hughes was offered the vice-presidential nomination in 1908 by William Howard Taft but declined. In October 1910, Hughes was appointed by Taft as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Hughes resigned from the Supreme Court on June 16, 1916 to be the Republican candidate for President of the United States in the U.S. presidential election, 1916; after losing the election he returned to the practice of law, and he re-entered government service as United States Secretary of State under President Harding. Herbert Hoover, who had appointed Hughes' son as the Solicitor General in 1929, appointed Hughes as the Chief Justice of the United States in 1930, in which capacity he served until 1941. On August 27, 1948, Hughes died in Osterville, Massachusetts. His New York City law firm is now known as Hughes Hubbard & Reed LLP. Early life Hughes was born in Glens Falls, New York. In 1859, his family moved to New York City, where his mother enrolled him in a private school. He graduated from college at age 12, first in his class. His great grandfather was a Methodist preacher from Buffalo, who became a Christian following his arrival in Japan, and Charles followed the Christian religion. Hughes went to Madison University (now Colgate University) where he became a member of Delta Upsilon fraternity, then transferred to Brown University, where he continued as a member of Delta Upsilon and graduated in 1881 at age 19, youngest in his class, receiving second-highest honors. For the next two years he worked at Stevens Institute Academy in Davenport, Florida, where he taught the Japanese language, Latin, and Calculus in order to earn money for law school. He entered Columbia Law School in 1882, and he graduated in 1884 with highest honors. In 1885, he met Antoinette Carter, the daughter of a senior partner of the law firm where he worked, and the were married in 1888. They had one son, Charles Evans Hughes, Jr. and two daughters, one of whom was Elizabeth Hughes Gossett, one of the first humans injected with insulin, and who later served as president of the Supreme Court Historical Society. Elizabeth Hughes: Fifty-eight years on animal-insulin In 1891, Hughes left the practice of law to become a professor at the Cornell University Law School, but in 1893 he returned to his old law firm in New York City. At that time, in addition to practicing law he taught at New York Law School with Woodrow Wilson. In 1905, he was appointed as counsel to a New York state legislative committee investigating utility rates. His uncovering of corruption led to lower gas rates in New York City. As a result, he was appointed to investigate the insurance industry in New York Governor of New York Charles Evans Hughes. Hughes served as the Governor of New York from 1907 to 1910. He defeated William Randolph Hearst in the 1906 election to gain the position, and he was the only Republican statewide candidate to win office. In 1908, he was offered the vice-presidential nomination by William Howard Taft, but he declined it to run again for Governor. As Governor, he pushed the passage of the Moreland Act, which gave him the power as governor to oversee civic officials as well officials in state bureaucracies. This allowed him to fire many corrupt officials. He also managed to have the powers of the state's Public Service Commissions increased, and he attempted unsuccessfully to have their decisions exempted from judicial review. When two bills were passed to reduce railroad fares, Hughes vetoed them on that grounds that the rates should be set by expert commissioners rather than by elected ones. In his final year as the Governor, he had the state comptroller draw up an executive budget. This began a rationalization of state government and eventually it led to an enhancement of executive authority. When Hughes left office, a prominent journal remarked "One can distinctly see the coming of a New Statism ... [of which] Gov. Hughes has been a leading prophet and exponent". Nation quoted in Samuel Hendel, Charles Evans Hughes and the Supreme Court (New York: King's Crown Press, 1951), 15, quoted at http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/24.1/henretta.html#FOOT43 In 1909, he led an effort to incorporate Delta Upsilon fraternity. This was the first fraternity to incorporate, and he served as its first international president. In 1926, Hughes was appointed by Governor Alfred E. Smith to be the chairman of a State Reorganization Commission through which Smith's plan to place the Governor as the head of a rationalized state government, was accomplished, bringing to realization what Hughes himself had envisioned. Supreme Court In October 1910, Hughes was appointed as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. He wrote for the court in Bailey v. Alabama , which held that involuntary servitude encompassed more than just slavery, and Interstate Commerce Comm. v. Atchison T & SF R Co. , holding that the Interstate Commerce Commission could regulate intrastate rates if they were significantly intertwined with interstate commerce. Presidential candidate He resigned from the Supreme Court on June 10, 1916, http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/members.pdf Accessed December 13, 2007. to be the Republican candidate for President in 1916. He was also endorsed by the Progressive Party Eisler, a Justice for All, page 39, ISBN 0-671-76787-9 . Hughes was defeated by Woodrow Wilson in a close election (separated by 23 electoral votes and 594,188 popular votes). The election hinged on California, where Wilson managed to win by 3,800 votes and its 13 electoral votes and thus Wilson was returned for a second term. Hughes returned to private law practice, again at his old firm, Hughes, Rounds, Schurman & Dwight, today known as Hughes Hubbard & Reed LLP. Secretary of State Hughes returned to government office in 1921 as Secretary of State under President Harding. As Secretary of State, in 1921 he convened the Washington Naval Conference for the limitation of naval armament among the Great Powers. He continued in office after Harding died and was succeeded by Coolidge, but resigned after Coolidge was elected to a full term. Various appointments In 1907, Gov. Charles Evans Hughes became the first president of newly formed Northern Baptist Convention. After leaving the State Department, he again rejoined his old partners at the Hughes firm, which included his son and future United States Solicitor General Charles E. Hughes, Jr., and was one of the nation's most sought-after advocates. From 1925 to 1930, for example, Hughes argued over 50 times before the U.S. Supreme Court. From 1926 to 1930, Hughes also served as a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration and as a judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague, The Netherlands from 1928 to 1930. He was additionally a delegate to the Pan American Conference on Arbitration and Conciliation from 1928 to 1930. He was one of the co-founders in 1927 of the National Conference on Christians and Jews, now known as the National Conference for Community and Justice (NCCJ), along with S. Parkes Cadman and others, to oppose the Ku Klux Klan, anti-Catholicism, and anti-Semitism in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1928 conservative business interests tried to interest Hughes in the GOP presidential nomination of 1928 instead of Herbert Hoover. Hughes, citing his age, turned down the offer. Chief Justice Herbert Hoover, who had appointed Hughes' son as Solicitor General in 1929, appointed Hughes Chief Justice of the United States in 1930, in which capacity he served until 1941. Hughes replaced former President William Howard Taft, who had also lost a presidential election to Woodrow Wilson (in 1912). Charles Hughes and his wife, Antoinette Hughes, shake hands with supporters at Chicago's Union Station in 1916.His appointment was opposed by progressive elements in both parties who felt that he was too friendly to big business. Idaho Republican William E. Borah said on the United States Senate floor that "placing upon the Court as Chief Justice one whose views are known upon these vital and important questions and whose views, in my opinion however sincere entertained, are not which ought to be incorporated in and made a permanent part of our legal and economic system." Nonetheless Hughes was confirmed as Chief Justice with a vote of 52 to 26. As Chief Justice, he led the fight against Franklin D. Roosevelt's attempt to pack the Supreme Court. He wrote the opinion for the Court in Near v. Minnesota , which held prior restraints against the press are unconstitutional. He was often aligned with Justices Louis Brandeis, Harlan Fiske Stone, and Benjamin Cardozo in finding President Roosevelt's New Deal measures to be Constitutional. Although he wrote the opinion invalidating the National Recovery Administration in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States , he wrote the opinions for the Court in NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. , NLRB v. Friedman-Harry Marks Clothing Co., , and West Coast Hotel v. Parrish which looked favorably on New Deal measures. Later life For many years, he was a member of the Union League Club of New York and served as its president from 1917 to 1919. The Hughes Room in the club is named for him. On August 27, 1948, Hughes died in Osterville, Massachusetts. He was laid to rest in Woodlawn Cemetery in Bronx, New York. Tributes Charles Evans Hughes Junior High School (of Woodland Hills, CA, now closed) was named in his honor, as was the Hughes Range in Antarctica. Charles Evans Hughes High School (of New York, New York) was named in his honor. It was renamed Bayard Rustin High School for the Humanities. Hughes Hall is a dormitory at the Cornell Law School, where he once taught. Charles Evans Hughes Middle School in Long Beach, California, was named in his honor. A bust length portrait of Hughes by the Swiss-born American portrait painter Adolfo Müller-Ury (1862-1947) is in the Michigan Historical Museum, Lansing. It was accessioned by them in 1939-1940, but probably acquired earlier. See also List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States List of United States Chief Justices by time in office List of U.S. Supreme Court Justices by time in office United States Supreme Court cases during the Hughes Court United States Supreme Court cases during the White Court References Further reading Abraham, Henry J., Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court. 3d. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). ISBN 0-19-506557-3. Cushman, Clare, The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies,1789-1995 (2nd ed.) (Supreme Court Historical Society), (Congressional Quarterly Books, 2001) ISBN 1568021267; ISBN 9781568021263. Frank, John P., The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions (Leon Friedman and Fred L. Israel, editors) (Chelsea House Publishers, 1995) ISBN 0791013774, ISBN 978-0791013779. Glad, Betty, Charles Evans Hughes and the illusions of innocence: A study in American diplomacy (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1966). Hall, Kermit L., ed. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. ISBN 0195058356; ISBN 9780195058352. Martin, Fenton S. and Goehlert, Robert U., The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography, (Congressional Quarterly Books, 1990). ISBN 0871875543. Perkins, Dexter, Charles Evans Hughes and American democratic statesmanship (Boston: Little, Brown, 1956). Pusey, Merlo J., Charles Evans Hughes, 2 vol. (New York: Macmillan, 1951). Ross, William G., The Chief Justiceship of Charles Evans Hughes, 1930-1941 (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2007) ISBN 1570036799, ISBN 978-1570036799. Urofsky, Melvin I., The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland Publishing 1994). 590 pp. ISBN 0815311761; ISBN 978-0815311768. Wesser, Robert F., Charles Evans Hughes: Politics and reform in New York, 1905-1910 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967). External links Grave of Charles Evans Hughes at Find a Grave "Mr. Hughes Goes to War" (An alternate history where Hughes is elected President of the United States in 1916) The Hughes Court at Supreme Court Historical Society. Archives Judge Manuscript Information: Charles Evans Hughes. List of archives with documents via Judges of the United States Courts. Retrieved April 15, 2005. Archives at the Supreme Court Historical Society Legal opinions as Chief Justice Near v. Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 283 U.S. 697 (1931). Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935). NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. 1 (1937). West Coast Hotel v. 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5,816 | Christianity_and_homosexuality | Historically, Christianity has generally regarded homosexuality, in the sense of human sexual behavior, to be an immoral practice (or vice). As the concept of homosexuality as one of several possible sexual orientations developed, Christianity has adopted varying views about homosexuality. Denominations that continue to condemn homosexuality include the Roman Catholic Church Catechism of the Catholic Church, § 2357 and Criteria for the Discernment of Vocation for Persons with Homosexual Tendencies , conservative synods of the Lutheran Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches , most Evangelical Protestant churches, the Southern Baptist Convention, and the Christian & Missionary Alliance. Some Christians have come to believe that homosexuality is not an inherently sinful practice. Denominations holding this position include the United Church of Canada, the United Church of Christ, the Moravian Church, the Methodist Church of Great Britain, and the Friends General Conference. Furthermore, the Metropolitan Community Church has been founded to specifically to serve the Christian LGBT community. Other denominations, such as the Presbyterian Church USA, the United Methodist Church, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church, are actively debating the issue. The worldwide Anglican Communion has experienced ongoing debate and controversy regarding homosexuality since the Episcopal Church ordained the first openly gay bishop, Gene Robinson, in 2003. The Bible and homosexuality The Bible, both in the Old and New Testament, includes several passages that have frequently been interpreted to deem homosexuality sinful; those who disagree often interpret the passages differently. Some commonly cited verses are , Leviticus 20:13 and in the Old Testament, and , , , and in the New Testament. Christians generally accept these verses as Scripture, but differ about how to interpret them and how they apply to contemporary situations. Issues include: whether or not Old Testament or Hebrew Bible laws still apply to Christians, see Biblical law in Christianity. whether these Biblical precepts are reflections of Divine or natural law, or the expression of a cultural setting critical of homosexuality. whether the verses address homosexuality in general, or particular sexual practices prevalent at the time they were written. whether the passages refer not to homosexual behavior, but to ritual prostitution as practised by certain religions (e.g. the religion of the Canaanites) in Biblical times. whether or not the Bible is a sufficient and inerrant guide to ethics. whether the Bible is divinely inspired or of human origin. whether obscure Hebrew and Greek terms, such as (arsenokoitai), have been properly translated as referring to homosexuality in recent English translations. why the Bible prohibits male same sex relations, but does not prohibit female same sex relations. whether the binding and loosing clause in Matthew 18:18 allows the Church to either prohibit Lesbian behavior, that the Bible does not prohibit, or to allow male homosexual behavior, that the Bible does prohibit. Particularly, the Genesis account of Sodom and Gomorrah is under severe dispute among Christians and has been for a considerable time, especially because such an interpretation of the story of Sodom and Gomorrah is viewed by some as alien to Jewish tradition. Does it refer to homosexuality at all, or was this interpretation developed during late antiquity and the early Middle Ages for political reasons? See the Sodomy article for more detail on this issue. Historical views on homosexuality The early Christian Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches and, later, the Protestant churches have traditionally explicitly condemned sexual desires of men for men, and this has been extended to condemn homosexuality generally. Note that while the terms "homosexuality" and "homosexual" are of recent invention, the phenomena they represent are not. Whereas the Roman Catholic view is founded on a natural law argument informed by Scripture and largely indebted to Thomas Aquinas, the Protestant view is based solely on scriptural verses because of their doctrine of sola scriptura. Denunciation of homosexuality is also seen in surviving early Christian writings (after 250 AD), such as in the writings of Justin Martyr, Aristides, Cyprian, Eusebius of Caesarea, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, Augustine of Hippo, and in canonical sources such as the Apostolic Constitutions. Eusebius of Caesarea, for example, condemned "the union of women with women and men with men." Many prominent Christian theologians have been critical of homosexual acts and desires (though silent on the subject of sexual orientation) throughout the religion's history. The medieval philosopher and theologian, St. Thomas Aquinas, denounced "the sin of sodomy" (sodomiticum vitium) as second only to bestiality among the worst of all sexual sins, and Hildegard of Bingen's book Sci vias, which was officially approved by Pope Eugene III, also condemned female homosexuality as "perverted". The late Yale University Church historian John Boswell sparked a controversy when he argued for the existence of a rite of adelphopoiesis as a religiously sanctioned same-sex union. Robin Darling Young, "Gay Marriage: Reimagining Church History", First Things 47 (November 1994), p. 43-48. Paul Halsall, Reviewing Boswell (1995). His views have not found wide acceptance, and opponents have argued that this rite sanctified a Platonic brotherly bond, not a homosexual union. He also argued that condemnation of homosexuality began only in the 12th century. John Boswell, The Church and the Homosexual- An Historical Perspective (1979). Critics of Boswell have pointed out that many earlier doctrinal sources condemn homosexuality in ethical terms without prescribing a punishment, and that Boswell's citations reflected a general trend towards harsher penalties from the 12th century onwards. Contemporary views on homosexuality The many Christian denominations vary in their position on homosexuality, from seeing it as sinful, through being divided on the issue, to seeing it as morally acceptable. Even within a denomination, individuals and groups may hold different views. Many of the debates among Christians have roots in questions about the sources of authority different Christians believe represent God's purest or most definitive message. More generally: which kinds of arguments should be persuasive to Christians, and which do not possess the weight necessary to determine opinions and policies. Such is also the case with the issues related to the morality and inclusion of LGBT persons in Christian life. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianities regard Sacred Tradition and Ecumenical councils as co-authoritative with scripture, and the ordinary Magisterium is authoritative in Catholic theology. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Tradition and Living Magisterium Methodism derives doctrine from the Wesleyan Quadrilateral, which consists of an evaluation of the synthesis of Scripture, tradition, reason, and experience. The Wesleyan Quadrilateral — In John Wesley There are also differing positions about how great a role is played by continuing revelation (see Cessationism and Secular theology). In conservative strains of Protestant Christianity, Scripture is understood to be the only truly definitive authority (a position called Sola Scriptura). Exegesis, or the reasoned study of the text to discover its own meaning, is the central concern for believers in Sola Scriptura. The classic formulation of Sola Scriptura regards "good and necessary deduction" from Scripture as authoritative; what these deductions might be is a frequent subject of controversy. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Scripture http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/history/chicago.stm.txt http://www.mbrem.com/bible/sufficn.htm Liberal Christians tend to regard the Bible as the record of human doings, composed of humans encountering the Divine within their specific historical context. They often interpret passages of the Bible as being less a record of actual events, but rather stories illustrating how to live ethically and authentically in relation to God. Some might, for instance, see Christ's death and resurrection in terms not of actual physical reanimation, but in terms of the good news of Jesus' teaching: that God's children are no longer slaves to the power of death. Warren Carter. Matthew and the Margins: a Sociopolitical and Religious Reading. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2000. Some professional exegetes consider the Bible, to a greater or lesser degree, to be a document of its time, taking on attitudes which may not be God's. While they may hold the document as sacred, and most certainly as central to Christianity, they are also aware of the historical and cultural context in which it was originally written through archaeological and from critical study. Some scholars feel that in addition to its spiritual components, portions of the text merely reflect the human authors' beliefs and feelings about God at the time of its writing, and their cultural sensibilities. The influence of such persons may reflect a heightened spiritual consciousness, or may simply represent people attempting to explain the world as best they could given the tools of the time. Such scholars purport that passages in scripture related to slavery, war, genocide, female marginalization, and sex between men may not necessarily be about God's wishes, but rather about the predominant culture's opinions at the time of the passage's writing. Within the remainder of this article, those who say early Christianity denounced homosexuality are called conservative Christians, and likewise those who say the opposite are called liberal Christians. Views critical of homosexuality Many Christians believe that marriage is defined by the union of a man and a woman, and that any sexual act outside of the marriage relationship is inherently sinful. http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/current_events/general_current_events/religious_denominations_weigh_in_on_same_sex_marriage In addition, some Christians interpret biblical verses on homosexuality to mean that the heterosexual family was created by God Social Issues: Marriage and Family and that same-sex relationships contradict God’s design for marriage and violate His will. http://www.apacny.net/The%20Christian%20Case%20Against%20Same-Sex%20Marriage.pdf Christians who oppose homosexual behavior sometimes contend that same-gender sexual activity is unnatural . The Association of Politically Active Christians says that it subverts God's creative intent for human sexuality. Christian objections to homosexual behavior are often based upon interpretations of the Bible. Some Christians note that the book of Leviticus contains prohibitions against male-male sexuality. http://www.leaderu.com/jhs/dallas.html http://www.citizenlink.org/FOSI/homosexuality/theology/A000008030.cfm http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Leviticus%2020:13;&version=31; http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Leviticus%2018:22;&version=31; Some Biblical scholars interpret Genesis 19:5 as indicating that homosexual behavior led to the destruction of the ancient cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. Other Biblical passages that address the issue of homosexuality include Romans 1, I Corinthians 6:8-10, and Jude 1:7; the relevant portion of Romans 1 reads as follows: The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of men … For although they knew God, they neither glorified him as God nor gave thanks to him, but their thinking became futile and their foolish hearts were darkened. Although they claimed to be wise, they became fools and exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images made to look like mortal man and birds and animals and reptiles. Therefore God gave them over in the sinful desires of their hearts to sexual impurity for the degrading of their bodies with one another. They exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshiped and served created things rather than the Creator—who is forever praised. Amen. Because of this, God gave them over to shameful lusts. Even their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones. In the same way the men also abandoned natural relations with women and were inflamed with lust for one another. Men committed indecent acts with other men, and received in themselves the due penalty for their perversion. (Romans 1:18a, 21-27) http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans%201&version=31 Christian author and counselor Joe Dallas notes that the Biblical passages relating to homosexual behavior uniformly prohibit that behavior. http://www.joedallas.com/resources/Relevance%20&R.pdf Exodus International and others take the view that I Corinthians 6:9-11 offers Christian believers freedom from the sin of homosexual behavior. http://exodus.to/content/view/313/87/ http://home.messiah.edu/~chase/h/articles/art1.htm Conservative Christians argue that there were denunciations of homosexuality in the writings of the early Christian era. In response to the argument that such passages have been mistranslated due to certain obscure words whose meanings are unclear, conservatives point out that many passages use commonplace words whose meanings are well-known, such as the passage from the writings of Eusebius of Caesarea which condemns "the union of women with women and men with men", or St. Cyprian's denunciation of "men with frenzied lusts rushing upon men". They are critical of the views that early Christians and Biblical figures had same-sex relationships. Conservatives state that neither the Bible nor ancient Jewish law records such unions and that the term "son-in-law" at the heart of the Jonathan and David dispute could be used symbolically rather than literally. In response to statements that even the medieval Church tolerated homosexuality, some cite documents such as the "Summa Theologica", the cornerstone summary of doctrine in that era, which contains passages denouncing "copulation with an undue sex, male with male, or female with female" (ST: II:II: Q154: Art.11). It is argued that such passages use commonplace terms which are neither obscure nor in dispute. In response to those who say that the Bible and early/medieval saints condemned homosexuality only due to a misconception that homosexual relationships could not be stable and committed, conservatives counter that this is not the form of sex which God had designed - meaning that the issue here is not "commitment", but rather God's purpose for sex: to be practiced as a sacred and good gift in a specific context, i.e., marriage between one man and one woman. According to that position, any deviations from that context are wrong, homosexual or not. Thus homosexuality is condemned along with bestiality, promiscuity, polygamy, extra-marital affairs, and sex outside of marriage. Some Christians not in the Reformation tradition point out that sources such as St. Hildegard's visions quote God as condemning certain forms of sexual intercourse both in same-sex relationships and also when they are practiced by a husband and wife, to the same conclusion as stated above. Conservative Christian scholars believe that the original texts must be translated by abiding by the standard definitions of ancient words as defined both by previous generations of scholars and by the people who lived close to the time periods in which the original languages were in active use, such as the early Church Fathers and ancient Christian writers (see examples of their interpretations above). The Catechism of the Catholic Church states "men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies ... must be accepted with respect, compassion and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided." As an alternative to a school-sponsored Day of Silence supporting homosexuality, conservative Christians organized a Golden Rule Initiative, where they passed out cards saying "As a follower of Christ, I believe that all people are created in the image of God and therefore deserve love and respect." Some Christians who oppose homosexual behavior have formed organizations that encourage and assist those Christians who seek to overcome same-sex attraction. Exodus International is one such organization. A major ally of Exodus International is Focus on the Family, which sponsors the Love Won Out ministry. One study has shown that 34.3% of participants in such groups self-reported significant change in their sexual attractions. Views favorable to homosexuality Liberal Christians believe that Biblical passages have been mistranslated or that these passages do not refer to LGBT orientation as currently understood . Liberal Christian scholars, like conservative Christian scholars, accept earlier versions of the Bible in Hebrew or Greek. However, within these early Bibles there are many terms that liberals have interpreted differently to previous generations of scholars. They are concerned with copying errors, forgery, and biases among the translators of later Bibles. They consider some verses such as those they say support slavery What the Bible says about slavery or the inferior treatment of women ReligiousTolerance.org. as not being valid today, and against the will of God present in the context of the Bible. They cite these issues when arguing for a change in theological views on sexual relationships to what they say is an earlier view. They differentiate among various sexual practices, treating rape, prostitution, or temple sex rituals as immoral and those within committed relationships as positive regardless of sexual orientation. They view certain verses, which they believe refer only to homosexual rape, as not relevant to consensual homosexual relationships. "Jonathan Lovingly Taketh His Leave of David" by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld Some believe that a number of early Christians entered into homosexual relationships, citing the views of John Boswell, or even say that Biblical figures were homosexual couples, Biblical injunctions against sexual relationships between members of the same sex notwithstanding. Often cited are Ruth and her mother-in-law Naomi, Daniel and the court official Ashpenaz, and, most famously, David and King Saul's son Jonathan. ReligiousTolerance.org. Rev. Troy Perry preaching in 2006 at a Metropolitan Community Church. Modern gay Christian leader Justin R. Cannon promotes what he calls "Inclusive Orthodoxy" (not to be confused with the Eastern Orthodox Church). He explains on his ministry website: "Inclusive Orthodoxy is the belief that the Church can and must be inclusive of LGBT individuals without sacrificing the Gospel and the Apostolic teachings of the Christian faith." INCLUSIVE ORTHODOXY: Gay Christian Ministry- Bible and Homosexuality? Cannon's ministry takes a unique approach quite distinct from modern liberal Christians, yet which still supports homosexual relations. His ministry affirms the divine inspiration of the Bible, the authority of Tradition, and says "...that there is a place within the full life and ministry of the Christian Church for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Christians, both those who are called to lifelong celibacy and those who are partnered." http://www.truthsetsfree.net/index.html Choice and free will The mainstream mental health consensus in the United States is that "most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation." An alternative view is presented by some ex-gay groups, who say conversion therapy may be helpful for those who voluntarily seek to change their sexual orientation. The American Psychological Association states that conversion therapy "is based on an understanding of homosexuality that has been rejected by all the major health and mental health professions". The American Psychiatric Association states: "The potential risks of 'reparative therapy' are great, including depression, anxiety and self-destructive behavior, since therapist alignment with societal prejudices against homosexuality may reinforce self-hatred already experienced by the patient." Other ex-gay groups make no claim to change sexual orientation, but instead encourage celibacy. Organizations such as Exodus International and Parents and Friends of Ex-Gays believe that, regardless of one's sexual orientation, "practicing homosexuality" is always a deliberate choice. They present people who have attained "abstinence from homosexual behaviors" as reflecting the result of deliberate attempts at change. Exodus International - What's your "success rate" in changing gays into straights? Similarly, the Roman Catholic Church and the LDS Church regard homosexual sex, but not homosexual attraction, as sinful. The attraction, or sexual orientation, is considered merely as a temptation to sin God Loveth His Children . See also Blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus Homosexuality in the Roman Catholic priesthood List of Christian denominational positions on homosexuality Queer theology LGBT-welcoming church programs Footnotes References Bates, Stephen (2004). A Church at War: Anglicans and Homosexuality. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-480-8. Boswell, John (1980). Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in Western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-06710-6 Crompton, Louis, et al.; Homosexuality and Civilization Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-674-01197-X Gagnon, Robert A.J. (2002). The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics. Abingdon Press. ISBN 0-687-02279-7 Harvey, John F., O.S.F.S. (1996). The Truth about Homosexuality: The Cry of the Faithful, introduction by Benedict J. Groeschel, C.F.R.. Ignatius Press. ISBN 0-89870-583-5. Helminiak, Daniel A. (2000). "Frequently Asked Questions About Being Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender and Catholic" Dignity USA. <<http://www.dignityusa.org/faq.html>> Hildegard of Bingen, "Scivias," Columba Hart and Jane Bishop, translators; New York: Paulist Press, 1990 Johansson, Warren "Whosoever Shall Say To His Brother, Racha." Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, 1992. pp. 212–214 Saletan, William (29 November 2005). "Gland Inquisitor". Slate. Early Teachings on Homosexuality Summa Theologiae - online version Hildegard of Bingen, "Scivias," Columba Hart and Jane Bishop, translators; New York: Paulist Press, 1990 Homosexuality in the Bible The Church & the Homosexual John Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 Christian Passage On St. Serge & St. Bacchus Debate: St. Augustine's Sexuality Gagnon, Robert A.J. (2002). The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics. Abingdon Press. ISBN 0-687-02279-7 RobGagnon.net Author & seminary professor's site with many resources Johansson, Warren 'Whosoever Shall Say To His Brother, Racha.' Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, 1992. pp. 212–214 Smith, Morton "Clement of Alexandria and Secret Mark: The Score at the End of the First Decade." Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. New York & London: Garland, 1992. pp.295–307 Mader, Donald "The Entimos Pais of Matthew 8:5-13 and Luke 7:1-10" Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy. Ed. Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson. 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5,817 | Abdul_Hamid_I | Abdülhamid I, Abdul Hamid I or Abd Al-Hamid I (Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد اول `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i evvel), called the Servant of God (March 20, 1725 April 7, 1789), was the 27th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was the son of sultan Ahmed III (1703–30) and succeeded his brother Mustafa III (1757–74) on January 21, 1774. He was born in Constantinople. His mother was Valide Sultan Rabia Sharmi. Imprisonment Abdülhamid was imprisoned for most of the first forty-three years of his life by his cousins Mahmud I and Osman III and his older brother Mustafa III, as was custom. He received his early education from his mother Rabia Semi Sultana, from whom he studied history and learned calligraphy. His imprisonment made him aloof in regard to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the janissaries. War was, however, forced on him and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat of the Turks at Battle of Kozluja led to the humiliating treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji on July 21 1774. Other Procession of the Sultan to the Sultanahmed mosque c. 1780 In spite of his failures, Abdülhamid was regarded as the most gracious Sultan of the Ottomans. He administrated the fire brigade during the fire in 1782. In Istanbul, he won the admiration of his people as he was so religious that he was called a "Veli" (saint). He also traced a reform policy, followed the governmental administrations closely and worked with statesmen. When Abdülhamid came to the throne the army asked for gratuities and the sultan claimed that: "There are, no longer, gratuities in our treasury, all of our soldier sons should learn". He also began the restoration of the military system. He is credited with better education standards. He tried to renovate the Janissary corps and the naval forces. He established a new artillery troop. He made a census in the Janissary corps. Slight successes against rebellious outbreaks in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea which Russia greatly coveted. War was once more declared against Russia in 1787 and in the following year Russians were joined by Austria. The Swedes and Prussians joined the conflict on the side of the Ottomans, but provided no assistance. While the Ottomans held their own in the conflict -- and even "won" the Battle of Karánsebes without firing a single shot -- they ultimately lost with Ochakov falling in 1788 to the Russians (all of its inhabitants being massacred.) Abdülhamid died four months later at the age of sixty-four in Istanbul. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had built for himself. Family His wives were: Valide Sultan Ayse Seniyeperver, Valide Sultan Naksh-i-Dil Haseki Sultan (there have been speculations that she was a cousin of Napoleon's wife Josephine; Christine Isom-Verhaaren, "Royal French Women in the Ottoman Sultans' Harem: The Political Uses of Fabricated Accounts from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-first Century", Journal of World History, vol. 17, No. 2, 2006 see Aimée du Buc de Rivéry), Hatice Ruh-shah, Huma Shah, Ayse, Binnaz, Dilpezir, Mehtabe, Misl-i Na-yab, Mu'teber, Fatma Sheb-SafaNevres and Mihriban. His concubines were: Nukhet-seza Hanimefendi: First concubine; Ayse Hanımefendi: Second concubine. His sons were: Mustafa IV (1807–08) (his son by Ayse Seniyeperver), Mahmud II (1808–39) (his son by Naksh-i-dil), Murad, Nusret, Mehmed, Ahmed, and Suleyman. His daughters were: Esma, Emine, Rabia, Saliha, Alimsah, Durusehvar, Fatma, Meliksah, Hibetullah and Zekiye Sultans. References | Abdul_Hamid_I |@lemmatized abdülhamid:5 abdul:1 hamid:2 abd:1 al:1 ottoman:6 turkish:1 عبد:1 الحميد:1 اول:1 abdü:1 l:1 ḥamīd:1 evvel:1 call:2 servant:1 god:1 march:1 april:1 sultan:11 empire:1 son:5 ahmed:2 iii:4 succeed:1 brother:2 mustafa:3 january:1 bear:1 constantinople:1 mother:2 valide:3 rabia:3 sharmi:1 imprisonment:2 imprison:1 first:3 forty:1 three:1 year:3 life:1 cousin:2 mahmud:2 osman:1 old:1 custom:1 receive:1 early:1 education:2 semi:1 sultana:1 study:1 history:2 learn:2 calligraphy:1 make:2 aloof:1 regard:2 state:1 affair:1 malleable:1 design:1 advisor:1 yet:1 also:3 religious:2 pacifist:1 nature:1 accession:2 financial:1 strait:1 treasury:2 usual:1 donative:1 could:2 give:1 janissary:3 war:2 however:1 force:2 less:1 complete:1 defeat:1 turk:1 battle:2 kozluja:1 lead:1 humiliate:1 treaty:1 kuchuk:1 kainarji:1 july:1 procession:1 sultanahmed:1 mosque:1 c:1 spite:1 failure:1 gracious:1 administrate:1 fire:3 brigade:1 istanbul:2 win:2 admiration:1 people:1 veli:1 saint:1 trace:1 reform:1 policy:1 follow:1 governmental:1 administration:1 closely:1 work:1 statesman:1 come:1 throne:1 army:1 ask:1 gratuity:2 claim:1 longer:1 soldier:1 begin:1 restoration:1 military:1 system:1 credit:1 good:1 standard:1 try:1 renovate:1 corp:2 naval:1 establish:1 new:1 artillery:1 troop:1 census:1 slight:1 success:1 rebellious:1 outbreak:1 syria:1 morea:1 compensate:1 loss:1 crimea:1 russia:2 greatly:1 covet:1 declared:1 following:1 russian:2 join:2 austria:1 swede:1 prussian:1 conflict:2 side:1 provide:1 assistance:1 hold:1 even:1 karánsebes:1 without:1 single:1 shot:1 ultimately:1 lose:1 ochakov:1 fall:1 inhabitant:1 massacre:1 die:1 four:2 month:1 later:1 age:1 sixty:1 bury:1 bahcekapi:1 tomb:1 build:1 family:1 wife:2 ayse:4 seniyeperver:2 naksh:2 dil:2 haseki:1 speculation:1 napoleon:1 josephine:1 christine:1 isom:1 verhaaren:1 royal:1 french:1 woman:1 harem:1 political:1 us:1 fabricated:1 account:1 sixteenth:1 twenty:1 century:1 journal:1 world:1 vol:1 see:1 aimée:1 du:1 buc:1 de:1 rivéry:1 hatice:1 ruh:1 shah:2 huma:1 binnaz:1 dilpezir:1 mehtabe:1 misl:1 na:1 yab:1 mu:1 teber:1 fatma:2 sheb:1 safanevres:1 mihriban:1 concubine:3 nukhet:1 seza:1 hanimefendi:1 hanımefendi:1 second:1 iv:1 ii:1 murad:1 nusret:1 mehmed:1 suleyman:1 daughter:1 esma:1 emine:1 saliha:1 alimsah:1 durusehvar:1 meliksah:1 hibetullah:1 zekiye:1 reference:1 |@bigram abdul_hamid:1 abd_al:1 ottoman_empire:1 sultan_ahmed:1 mother_valide:1 valide_sultan:3 janissary_corp:2 |
5,818 | Demographics_of_Cambodia | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Cambodia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Between 1874 and 1921, the total population of Cambodia increased from about 946,000 to 2.4 million. By 1950 it had increased to between 3,710, 107 and 4,073,967, and in 1962 it had reached 5.7 million. From the 1960s until 1975, the population of Cambodia increased by about 2.2 % yearly, the lowest increase in Southeast Asia. By 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took power, it was estimated at 7.3 million. Of this total an estimated one to two million reportedly died between 1975 and 1978. In 1981, the PRK gave the official population figure as nearly 6.7 million, although approximately 6.3 million to 6.4 million is probably more accurate. The average annual rate of population growth from 1978 to 1985 was 2.3 % (see table 2, Appendix A). In 1959, Life expectancy at birth was 44.2 years for males and 43.3 years for females. By 1970, life expectancy had increased by about 2.5 years since 1945. The greater longevity for females apparently reflected improved health practices during maternity and childbirth. In 1959, about 45 % of the population was under 15 years of age. By 1962, this had increased slightly to 46 %. In 1962, an estimated 52 % of the population was between 15 and 64 years of age, while 2 % were older than 65. The percentage of males and females in the three groups was almost the same. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics A Khmer woman The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 14,241,640 Note: estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2008 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 33.2% (male 2,389,668/female 2,338,838) 15-64 years: 63.2% (male 4,372,480/female 4,627,895) 65 years and over: 3.6% (male 193,338/female 319,421) (2008 est.) Median age Total: 21.7 years Male: 21 years Female: 22.5 years (2008 est.) Population growth rate 1.752% (2008 est.) Birth rate A wedding in Kep 25.68 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate 8.16 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.04 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.6 male(s)/female Total population: 0.88 male(s)/female (2008 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 98 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 63.76 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 49.1 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 61.69 years Male: 59.65 years Female: 63.83 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate 3.37 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 2.6% (2003 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 170,000 (2003 est.) Deaths: 15,000 (2003 est.) Major infectious diseases Degree of risk: very low, partly due to universal healthcare Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and Japanese encephalitis are high risks in some locations Note: at present, H5N1 avian influenza poses a minimal risk; during outbreaks among birds, rare cases could occur among US citizens who have close contact with infected birds or poultry (2005) Nationality Noun: Cambodian(s) Adjective: Cambodian Ethnic groups Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4%. CIA factbook Note: The population of Cambodia has been fairly homogeneous. In 1962 about 80% of the population was ethnic Khmer; the remaining 20% included Chinese, Vietnamese, Cham, Khmer Loeu, Europeans. By 1981, as a result of the Vietnamese repatriation in 1970 to 1971 and the deaths and emigration of large numbers of Cham and Chinese, ethnic Khmer accounted for about more than 82% of the population. Religions Theravada Buddhist 95%, Muslim 3%, Christianity, Other 2% Languages Khmer (official) 85%, English, French, Vietnamese Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 73.6% Male: 84.7% Female: 64.1% (2004 est.) Overseas Population Countries with notable populations of overseas Cambodians are: References | Demographics_of_Cambodia |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:24 cambodia:4 include:2 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:2 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 total:8 increase:6 million:7 reach:1 yearly:1 low:4 southeast:1 asia:1 khmer:7 rouge:1 take:2 power:1 estimate:3 estimated:1 one:1 two:1 reportedly:1 die:1 prk:1 give:1 official:2 figure:1 nearly:1 although:1 approximately:1 probably:1 accurate:1 average:1 annual:1 rate:10 growth:3 see:1 table:1 appendix:1 life:4 expectancy:4 birth:8 year:17 male:14 female:15 since:1 great:1 longevity:1 apparently:1 reflect:1 improved:1 practice:1 maternity:1 childbirth:1 age:6 slightly:1 old:1 percentage:1 three:1 group:2 almost:1 cia:3 world:2 factbook:3 statistic:2 woman:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:2 indicate:1 note:3 country:2 account:2 effect:1 excess:1 mortality:3 due:2 aid:3 result:2 high:2 infant:2 death:8 change:1 distribution:1 sex:2 would:1 expect:1 july:1 est:15 structure:1 median:1 wedding:1 kep:1 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 ratio:1 live:4 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 hiv:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 people:1 major:1 infectious:1 disease:3 degree:1 risk:3 partly:1 universal:1 healthcare:1 food:1 waterborne:1 bacterial:1 protozoal:1 diarrhea:1 hepatitis:1 typhoid:1 fever:2 vectorborne:1 dengue:1 malaria:1 japanese:1 encephalitis:1 location:1 present:1 avian:1 influenza:1 pose:1 minimal:1 outbreak:1 among:2 bird:2 rare:1 case:1 could:1 occur:1 u:1 citizen:1 close:1 contact:1 infected:1 poultry:1 nationality:1 noun:1 cambodian:3 adjective:1 ethnic:3 vietnamese:4 chinese:3 fairly:1 homogeneous:1 remain:1 cham:2 loeu:1 european:1 repatriation:1 emigration:1 large:1 number:1 religion:1 theravada:1 buddhist:1 muslim:1 christianity:1 language:1 english:1 french:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 overseas:2 notable:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 southeast_asia:1 khmer_rouge:1 life_expectancy:4 expectancy_birth:2 male_female:10 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 excess_mortality:1 infant_mortality:2 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 mortality_rate:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 infectious_disease:1 food_waterborne:1 waterborne_disease:1 bacterial_protozoal:1 protozoal_diarrhea:1 diarrhea_hepatitis:1 hepatitis_typhoid:1 typhoid_fever:1 fever_vectorborne:1 vectorborne_disease:1 dengue_fever:1 avian_influenza:1 nationality_noun:1 cia_factbook:1 theravada_buddhist:1 literacy_definition:1 |
5,819 | Eight-bar_blues | An eight bar blues is a typical blues chord progression, taking eight 4/4 bars to the verse. "Heartbreak Hotel", "How Long Blues", "Trouble in Mind", "Ain't Nobody's Business" and "Cherry Red" are all eight-bar blues standards. One variant using this progression is to couple one eight-bar blues melody with a different eight-bar blues bridge to create a blues variant of the standard 32-bar song. "Walking By Myself", "I Want a Little Girl" and "(Romancing) In The Dark" are examples of this form. See also blues ballad. Eight bar blues progressions have more variations than the more rigidly defined twelve bar format. The move to the IV chord usually happens at bar 3 (as opposed to 5 in twelve bar.) "Worried Life Blues" (probably the most common eight bar blues progression): I IIV IV I V I IVI V "Key to the Highway" (variation with the V at bar 2): I VIVIV I V I V "Walking By Myself" (somewhat unorthodox example of the form): I III IV V I V (The same chord progression can also be called a sixteen bar blues, if each symbol above is taken to be a half note in 2/2 or 4/4 time -- blues has not traditionally been associated with notation, so its form becomes a bit slippery when written down.) Ray Charles's original instrumental "Sweet Sixteen Bars" is an example. See also twelve bar blues sixteen bar blues Thirty-two-bar form | Eight-bar_blues |@lemmatized eight:7 bar:17 blue:15 typical:1 chord:3 progression:5 take:2 verse:1 heartbreak:1 hotel:1 long:1 trouble:1 mind:1 nobody:1 business:1 cherry:1 red:1 standard:2 one:2 variant:2 use:1 couple:1 melody:1 different:1 bridge:1 create:1 song:1 walking:2 want:1 little:1 girl:1 romance:1 dark:1 example:3 form:4 see:2 also:3 ballad:1 variation:2 rigidly:1 define:1 twelve:3 format:1 move:1 iv:3 usually:1 happen:1 oppose:1 worry:1 life:1 probably:1 common:1 iiv:1 v:7 ivi:1 key:1 highway:1 viviv:1 somewhat:1 unorthodox:1 iii:1 call:1 sixteen:3 symbol:1 half:1 note:1 time:1 traditionally:1 associate:1 notation:1 become:1 bit:1 slippery:1 write:1 ray:1 charles:1 original:1 instrumental:1 sweet:1 thirty:1 two:1 |@bigram chord_progression:2 |
5,820 | Carbide | For the software development tool targeting the Symbian OS, see Carbide.c++. Calcium carbide. In chemistry, a carbide is a compound composed of carbon and a less electronegative element. Carbides can be generally classified by chemical bonding type as follows: (i) salt-like, (ii) covalent compounds, (iii) interstitial compounds, and (iv) "intermediate" transition metal carbides. Examples include calcium carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide (often called simply carbide), and cementite , each used in key industrial applications. Salt-like carbides Salt-like carbides are composed of highly electropositive elements such as the alkali metals, alkaline earths, and group 3 metals including (scandium, yttrium and lanthanum. Aluminium from group 13 forms a carbide, but gallium, indium and thallium do not. In these carbon is present in the crystal structures as single atoms, "C4−" in the methanides; two atom units, "C22−" in the acetylides and three atom units "C32−" in the sesquicarbides. These formal anionC4−, sometimes called methanides (or methides) because they hydrolyse to give methane gas. The naming of ionic carbides is not consistent and can be quite confusing. Methanides The monatomic ion C4− would be highly basic, but is unknown except in under extreme conditions. Methanides in principle would react with water to form methane. C4− + 4H+ → CH4 Examples of compounds that are described as methanides include C4− are Be2C and Al4C3. Acetylides The hypothetical polyatomic ion C22− is described by a triple bond between the two carbon atoms. Alkali and alkaline earth metals form acetylides, e.g., Na2C2 and CaC2. Lanthanoids are similar, e.g. LaC2. The C-C bond distance ranges from 109.2pm in CaC2 (similar to ethyne), to 130.3 pm in LaC2 and 134pm in UC2. The bonding in LaC2 has been described in terms of LaIII with the extra electron delocalised into the antibonding orbital on C22−, explaining the metallic conduction. Metals from group 11 tend to form acetylides, such as copper(I) acetylide and silver acetylide. lanthanides when forming MC2 and M2C3 carbides. Actinides, which form materials of the stoichiometry MC2 and M2C3, are described as salt-like derivatives of C22−. Sesquicarbides The polyatomic ion C34− is found in Li4C3, Mg2C3. The ion is linear and is isoelectronic with CO2. The C-C distance in Mg2C3 is 133.2 pm. Crystal Structure of Magnesium Sesquicarbide Fjellvag H. and Pavel K. Inorg. Chem. 1992, 31, 3260 Mg2C3 yields methylacetylene, CH3CCH, on hydrolysis which was the first indication that it may contain C34−. The ion C34− is sometimes called sesquicarbides, they hydrolyse to give methylacetylene. Covalent carbides The carbides of silicon and boron are described as "covalent carbides", although virtually all compounds of carbon exhibit some covalent character. Silicon carbide has two similar crystalline forms, which are both related to the diamond structure. Boron carbide, B4C, on the other hand has an unusual structure which includes icosahedral boron units linked by carbon atoms. In this respect boron carbide is similar to the boron rich borides. Both silicon carbide, SiC, (carborundum) and boron carbide, B4C are very hard materials and refractory. Both materials are important industrially. Boron also forms other covalent carbides, e.g. B25C. Interstitial carbides The carbides of the group 4, 5 and 6 transition metals (with the exception of chromium) are often described as interstitial compounds. These carbides are chemically quite inert, have metallic properties and are refractory. Some exhibit a range of stoichiometries, e.g. titanium carbide, TiC. Titanium carbide and tungsten carbide are important industrially and are used to coat metals in cutting tools. Carbides: transition metal solid state chemistry Peter Ettmayer & Walter Lengauer, Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry Editor in chief R. Bruce King Pub 1994 John Wiley & Sons ISBN 0-471-93620-0 The longheld view is that the carbon atoms fit into octahedral interstices in a close packed metal lattice when the metal atom radius is greater than approximately 135 pm: When the metal atoms are cubic close packed, (ccp), then filling all of the octahedral interstices with carbon achieves 1:1 stoichiometry with the rock salt structure, (note that in rock salt, NaCl, it is the chloride anions that are cubic close packed). When the metal atoms are hexagonal close packed, (hcp), as the octahedral interstices lie directly opposite each other on either side of the layer of metal atoms, filling only one of these with carbon achieves 2:1 stoichiometry with the CdI2 structure. The following tableshows actual structures of the metals and their carbides. (N.B. the body centred cubic structure adopted by vanadium, niobium, tantalum, chromium, molybdenum and tungsten is not a close packed lattice.) The notation "h/2" refers to the M2C type structure described above, which is only an approximate description of the actual structures. The simple view that the lattice of the pure metal "absorbs" carbon atoms can be seen to be untrue as the packing of the metal atom lattice in the carbides is different from the packing in the pure metal. Metal Structure of pure metal Metallic radius (pm)MC - metal atom packing MC structure M2C - metal atom packing M2C structure Other carbides titaniumhcp147ccprock salt zirconiumhcp160ccprock salt hafniumhcp159ccprock salt vanadiumcubic body centered134ccprock salthcph/2V4C3 niobiumcubic body centered 146ccprock salt hcp h/2Nb4C3 tantalumcubic body centered 146ccprock salthcph/2Ta4C3 chromiumcubic body centered128 Cr23C6, Cr3C, Cr7C3, Cr3C2 molybdenumcubic body centered139hexagonalhcph/2Mo3C2 tungstencubic body centered139hexagonalhcph/2 For a long time the non-stoichiometric phases were believed to be disordered with a random filling of the interstices, however short and longer range ordering has been detected. Order and disorder in transition metal carbides and nitrides: experimental and theoretical aspects C.H. de Novion and J.P. Landesman Pure & Appl. Chem., 57, 10,(1985)1391 Intermediate transition metal carbides In these the transition metal ion is smaller than the critical 135 pm and the structures are not interstitial but are more complex. Multiple stoichiometries are common, for example iron forms a number of carbides, Fe3C, Fe7C3 and Fe2C. The best known is cementite, Fe3C, which is present in steels. These carbides are more reactive than the interstitial carbides, for example the carbides of Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni all are hydrolysed by dilute acids and sometimes by water, to give a mixture of hydrogen and hydrocarbons. These compounds share features with both the inert interstitals and the more reactive salt-like carbides. Related materials In addition to the carbides, other groups of related carbon compounds exist, i.e. graphite intercalation compounds alkali metal fullerides endohedral fullerenes, where the metal atom is encapsulated inside a fullerene molecule metallacarbohedrenes(met-cars) which are cluster compounds containing C2 units. References | Carbide |@lemmatized software:1 development:1 tool:2 target:1 symbian:1 see:2 carbide:39 c:6 calcium:2 chemistry:3 compound:10 compose:2 carbon:10 less:1 electronegative:1 element:2 generally:1 classify:1 chemical:1 bond:3 type:2 follow:1 salt:11 like:5 ii:1 covalent:5 iii:1 interstitial:5 iv:1 intermediate:2 transition:6 metal:26 example:4 include:4 silicon:4 tungsten:3 often:2 call:3 simply:1 cementite:2 use:2 key:1 industrial:1 application:1 highly:2 electropositive:1 alkali:3 alkaline:2 earth:2 group:5 scandium:1 yttrium:1 lanthanum:1 aluminium:1 form:9 gallium:1 indium:1 thallium:1 present:2 crystal:2 structure:14 single:1 atom:14 methanides:5 two:3 unit:4 acetylides:4 three:1 sesquicarbides:3 formal:1 sometimes:3 methides:1 hydrolyse:3 give:3 methane:2 gas:1 naming:1 ionic:1 consistent:1 quite:2 confuse:1 monatomic:1 ion:6 would:2 basic:1 unknown:1 except:1 extreme:1 condition:1 principle:1 react:1 water:2 describe:7 hypothetical:1 polyatomic:2 triple:1 e:5 g:4 lanthanoid:1 similar:4 distance:2 range:3 ethyne:1 pm:5 bonding:1 term:1 laiii:1 extra:1 electron:1 delocalised:1 antibonding:1 orbital:1 minus:1 explain:1 metallic:3 conduction:1 tend:1 copper:1 acetylide:2 silver:1 lanthanide:1 actinide:1 material:4 stoichiometry:5 derivative:1 find:1 linear:1 isoelectronic:1 magnesium:1 sesquicarbide:1 fjellvag:1 h:4 pavel:1 k:1 inorg:1 chem:2 yield:1 methylacetylene:2 hydrolysis:1 first:1 indication:1 may:1 contain:2 carbides:2 boron:7 although:1 virtually:1 exhibit:2 character:1 crystalline:1 related:3 diamond:1 hand:1 unusual:1 icosahedral:1 link:1 respect:1 rich:1 borides:1 sic:1 carborundum:1 hard:1 refractory:2 important:2 industrially:2 also:1 exception:1 chromium:2 chemically:1 inert:2 property:1 titanium:2 tic:1 coat:1 cut:1 solid:1 state:1 peter:1 ettmayer:1 walter:1 lengauer:1 encyclopedia:1 inorganic:1 editor:1 chief:1 r:1 bruce:1 king:1 pub:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 isbn:1 longheld:1 view:2 atoms:1 fit:1 octahedral:3 interstice:4 close:5 packed:3 lattice:4 radius:2 great:1 approximately:1 cubic:3 pack:4 ccp:1 fill:2 achieves:2 rock:2 note:1 nacl:1 chloride:1 anion:1 hexagonal:1 hcp:2 lie:1 directly:1 opposite:1 either:1 side:1 layer:1 one:1 following:1 tableshows:1 actual:2 n:1 b:1 body:7 centre:1 adopt:1 vanadium:1 niobium:1 tantalum:1 molybdenum:1 notation:1 refers:1 approximate:1 description:1 simple:1 pure:4 absorb:1 untrue:1 packing:2 different:1 mc:2 vanadiumcubic:1 salthcph:2 niobiumcubic:1 center:2 tantalumcubic:1 chromiumcubic:1 molybdenumcubic:1 tungstencubic:1 long:2 time:1 non:1 stoichiometric:1 phase:1 believe:1 disorder:2 random:1 filling:1 however:1 short:1 ordering:1 detect:1 order:1 nitride:1 experimental:1 theoretical:1 aspect:1 de:1 novion:1 j:1 p:1 landesman:1 appl:1 small:1 critical:1 complex:1 multiple:1 common:1 iron:1 number:1 best:1 known:1 steel:1 reactive:2 cr:1 mn:1 fe:1 co:1 ni:1 dilute:1 acid:1 mixture:1 hydrogen:1 hydrocarbon:1 share:1 feature:1 interstitals:1 addition:1 exist:1 graphite:1 intercalation:1 fullerides:1 endohedral:1 fullerene:2 encapsulate:1 inside:1 molecule:1 metallacarbohedrenes:1 meet:1 car:1 cluster:1 reference:1 |@bigram calcium_carbide:2 silicon_carbide:3 tungsten_carbide:2 electropositive_element:1 alkali_metal:2 gallium_indium:1 polyatomic_ion:2 carbon_atom:3 alkali_alkaline:1 antibonding_orbital:1 inorganic_chemistry:1 wiley_son:1 niobium_tantalum:1 molybdenum_tungsten:1 pure_appl:1 appl_chem:1 intercalation_compound:1 endohedral_fullerene:1 |
5,821 | Jews | A Jew (, Yehudi (sg.); , Yehudim (pl.); Ladino: , Djudio (sg.); , Djudios (pl.); ; , Yidn (pl.)) According to the The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (2000): "It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun. "Jew", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (2000). is a member of the Jewish people, an ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish people and the religion of Judaism are strongly interrelated, and converts to Judaism have been absorbed into the Jewish community throughout the millennia. In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The Jews enjoyed two periods of political autonomy in their national homeland, the Land of Israel, during ancient history. The first era spanned from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second era was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, the diaspora has been the home of most of the world's Jews. Johnson (1987), p. 82. Except in the modern State of Israel, established in 1948, Jews are a minority in every country in which they live and they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries. According to the Jewish Agency, as of 2007 there were 13.2 million Jews worldwide, 5.4 million of whom lived in Israel, 5.3 million in the United States, and the remainder distributed in communities of varying sizes around the world; this represents 0.2% of the current estimated world population. These numbers include all those who consider themselves Jews whether or not affiliated with a Jewish organization. The total world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to halakhic considerations, there are secular, political, and ancestral identification factors in defining who is a Jew that increase the figure considerably. Jews and Judaism The origin of the Jews is traditionally dated to around the second millennium BCE to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Johnson (1987), pp. 10–11. The Merneptah Stele, dated to 1200 BCE, is one of the earliest archaeological records of the Jewish people in the Land of Israel, Johnson (1987), p. 25. where Judaism, the first monotheistic religion, developed over a period of thousands of years. According to Biblical accounts, the Jews enjoyed periods of self-determination first under the Biblical judges from Othniel Ben Kenaz through Samson, then circa 1000 BCE King David established Jerusalem as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah, also known as the United Monarchy, and from there ruled the Twelve Tribes of Israel. Sweeney (2003), p. 22. Elaborated reconstruction of the Temple of Solomon based on the Biblical description In 970 BCE, David's son Solomon became king of Israel. Within a decade, Solomon began to build the Holy Temple known as the First Temple. Upon Solomon's death (c. 930 BCE), the ten northern tribes split off to form the Kingdom of Israel. Sweeney (2003), pp. 22–23. In 722 BCE the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel and exiled its Jews, starting a Jewish diaspora. Johnson (1987), pp. 69–70. At a time of limited mobility and travel, Jews became some of the first and most visible immigrants. The First Temple period ended around 586 BCE as the Babylonians conquered the Kingdom of Judah and destroyed the Jewish Temple. Johnson (1987), p. 78. In 538 BCE, after fifty years of Babylonian captivity, Persian King Cyrus the Great permitted the Jews to return to rebuild Jerusalem and the holy temple. Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE during the reign of Darius the Great seventy years after the destruction of the First Temple. When Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, the Land of Israel fell under Hellenistic Greek control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty who lost it to the Seleucids. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized polis came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias the High Priest and his five sons against Antiochus Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem again as its capital. The Hasmonean Kingdom lasted over one hundred years, but then as Rome became stronger it installed Herod as a Jewish client king. The Herodian Kingdom also lasted over a hundred years. Goldenberg (2007), p. 87. Defeats suffered by the Jews in the First revolt in 70 CE, the first of the Jewish–Roman Wars, and the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE notably contributed to the numbers and geography of the diaspora population. Significant numbers of Jews in the Land of Israel left, were expelled or sold into slavery throughout the Roman Empire. Johnson (1987), pp. 147–148. Since then, Jews have lived in most countries of the world, primarily in Europe, the wider Middle East and later, North America. In the various countries in which they have lived, the Jews have survived periods of discrimination, oppression, poverty, and even genocide (see: Antisemitism, The Holocaust). There have also been periods of cultural, economic, and individual prosperity in various locations; these include Islamic Spain and Portugal, Germany and Poland during Haskalah, and in the traditionally liberal or constitutional democracies of the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia, amongst others. The Hebrew noun "Yehudi" (plural Yehudim) originally referred to the tribe of Judah. Later, when the Northern Kingdom of Israel split from the Southern Kingdom of Israel, the Southern Kingdom of Israel began to refer to itself by the name of its predominant tribe, or as the Kingdom of Judah. Sweeney (2003), p. 23. The term originally referred to the people of the southern kingdom, although the term B'nei Yisrael (Israelites) was still used for both groups. After the Assyrians conquered the northern kingdom leaving the southern kingdom as the only Israelite state, the word Yehudim gradually came to refer to the Jewish people as a whole, rather than those specifically from the tribe or Kingdom of Judah. The English word Jew is ultimately derived from Yehudi (see Etymology). Its first use in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) to refer to the Jewish people as a whole is in the Book of Esther. Etymology The Middle English word Jew is from the Old French giu, earlier juieu, from the Latin iudeus from the Greek Ioudaios (). The Latin simply means Judaean, from the land of Judaea. Judaea is in turn derived from Judah which was the name of the Kingdom of Judah, and one of the Tribes of Israel. The Hebrew word for Jew, יהודי , is pronounced . The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., "Jude" in German, "juif" in French, "jøde" in Danish, "judío" in Spanish, etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jewish person, e.g., in Italian (Ebreo), and , (Yevrey). The German word "Jude" is pronounced and is the origin of the word Yiddish. (See Jewish ethnonyms for a full overview.) Who is a Jew? Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used. Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion. At times conversion has accounted for a substantial part of Jewish population growth. In the first century of the Christian era, for example, the population more than doubled, from 4 to 8–10 million within the confines of the Roman Empire, in good part as a result of a wave of conversion. Bauer, Yehuda. "Problems of Contemporary Anti-Semitism", 2003, p. 2. Retrieved February 24, 2008. Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the oral tradition into the Babylonian Talmud. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1-5, by learned Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews because "[the non-Jewish male spouse] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods of others." Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This contrasts with Ezra 10:2-3, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children. Since the Haskalah, these halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged. Dosick (2007), pp. 56–57. Ethnic divisions Ashkenazi Jews of late 19th century Eastern Europe portrayed in Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur (1878), by Maurycy Gottlieb. Within the world's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities were established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another resulting in effective and often long-term isolation from each other. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments; political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestation of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture. Dosick (2007), p. 60. Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim, or "Germans" (Ashkenaz meaning "Germany" in Medieval Hebrew, denoting their Central European base), and the Sephardim, or "Spaniards" (Sefarad meaning "Spain" or "Iberia" in Hebrew, denoting their Spanish and Portuguese base). The Mizrahim, or "Easterners" (Mizrach being "East" in Hebrew), that is, the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews, constitute a third major group, although they are sometimes termed Sephardi for liturgical reasons. Dosick (2007), p. 59. Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin Jews, and Bene Ephraim; the Romaniotes of Greece; the Italian Jews ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the Teimanim from Yemen and Oman; various African Jews, including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia; and Chinese Jews, most notably the Kaifeng Jews, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities. The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are often as unrelated to each other as they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Iraqi Jews, Egyptian Jews, Berber Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen and Oman are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions. Despite this diversity, Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70% of Jews worldwide (and up to 90% prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Brazil. In France, emigration of Mizrahim from North Africa has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim and Sephardim. Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population. Dosick (2007), p. 61. Genetic studies Despite the evident diversity displayed by the world's distinct Jewish populations, both culturally and physically, genetic studies have demonstrated most of these to be genetically related to one another, having ultimately originated from a common ancient Israelite population that underwent geographic branching and subsequent independent evolutions. A study published by the National Academy of Sciences found that "the paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population", and suggested that "most Jewish communities have remained relatively isolated from neighboring non-Jewish communities during and after the Diaspora". Researchers expressed surprise at the remarkable genetic uniformity they found among modern Jews, no matter where the diaspora has become dispersed around the world. Moreover, DNA tests have demonstrated substantially less inter-marriage in most of the various Jewish ethnic divisions over the last 3,000 years than in other populations. The findings lend support to traditional Jewish accounts accrediting their founding to exiled Israelite populations, and counters theories that many or most of the world's Jewish populations were founded by entirely gentile populations that adopted the Jewish faith, as in the notable case of the historic Khazars. Although groups such as the Khazars could have been absorbed into modern Jewish populations — in the Khazars' case, absorbed into the Ashkenazim — it is unlikely that they formed a large percentage of the ancestors of modern Ashkenazi Jews, and much less that they were the genesis of the Ashkenazim. Even the archetype of Israelite-origin is also beginning to be reviewed for some Jewish populations amid newer studies. Previously, the Israelite origin identified in the world's Jewish populations was attributed only to the males who had migrated from the Middle East and then forged the current known communities with "the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism". Research in Ashkenazi Jews has suggested that, in addition to the male founders, significant female founder ancestry might also derive from the Middle East, with about 40% of the current Ashkenazi population descended matrilineally from just four women, or "founder lineages", that were "likely from a Hebrew/Levantine mtDNA pool" originating in the Near East in the first and second centuries CE. Points in which Jewish groups differ is largely in the source and proportion of genetic contribution from host populations. For example, Teimanim differ from other Mizrahim, as well as from Ashkenazim, in the proportion of sub-Saharan African gene types which have entered their gene pools. Among Yemenites, the average stands at 35% lineages within the past 3,000 years. Yemenite Jews, as a traditionally Arabic-speaking community of local Yemenite and Israelite ancestries, are included within the findings, though they average a quarter of the frequency of the non-Jewish Yemenite sample. The proportion of male indigenous European genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to around 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%." DNA analysis further determined that modern Jews of the priesthood tribe — "Kohanim" — share a common ancestor dating back about 3,000 years. This result is consistent for all Jewish populations around the world. The researchers estimated that the most recent common ancestor of modern Kohanim lived between 1000 BCE (roughly the time of the Biblical Exodus) and 586 BCE, when the Babylonians destroyed the First Temple. They found similar results analyzing DNA from Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews. The scientists estimated the date of the original priest based on genetic mutations, which indicated that the priest lived roughly 106 generations ago, between 2,650 and 3,180 years ago depending whether one counts a generation as 25 or 30 years. Beyond intra-Jewish genetic interrelationships, other findings show that by the yardstick of the Y chromosome, the world's Jewish communities are closely related to Arab Israelis and Palestinians, Hammer, et al. Figure 2: Plot of populations based on Y-chromosome haplotype data. who together as a single population also represent modern "descendants of a core population that lived in the area since prehistoric times", albeit religiously Christianized and later largely Islamized, and both ultimately culturally Arabized. The authors of one of the studies wrote that "the extremely close affinity of Jewish and non-Jewish Middle Eastern populations observed ... supports the hypothesis of a common Middle Eastern origin". Population Significant geographic populations There are an estimated 13.2 million Jews worldwide. The table below lists countries with significant populations. Please note that these populations represent low-end estimates of the worldwide Jewish population, accounting for around 0.2% of the world's population. + Country or RegionJewish populationTotal Population% JewishNotesUnited States5,275,000301,469,0001.7%Israel5,393,0007,117,00075.8%Europe1,506,000710,000,0000.2%France490,00064,102,0000.8%United Kingdom295,00060,609,0000.5%Russia225,000142,400,0000.2%Germany120,00082,310,000 0.1%Ukraine77,00046,481,000 0.2%Hungary49,00010,053,0000.5%Belgium31,20010,419,0000.3%Italy28,60058,884,0000.05%Turkey17,80072,600,000 0.02%Romania10,10021,500,000 0.05%Greece5,50011,100,000 0.05%Canada374,00032,874,0001.1%Argentina184,00039,922,0000.5%Brazil96,000188,078,0000.05%South Africa72,00047,432,000 0.2%Australia104,00020,788,0000.5%Asia (excl. Israel)39,5003,900,000,0000.001%Iran10,80068,467,0000.02%Mexico40,000108,700,000 0.04%Total13,155,0006,453,628,0000.2% State of Israel David Ben Gurion (First Prime Minister of Israel) publicly pronouncing the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948 Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens. Israel was established as an independent democratic state on May 14, 1948. Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset, currently, 12 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel, most representing Arab political parties and one of Israel's Supreme Court judges is a Palestinian Arab. Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million. Currently, Jews account for 75.8% of the Israeli population, or 5.4 million people. The early years of the state of Israel, were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors and Jews fleeing Arab lands. . "And most [Oriental-Sephardic Jews] came... because of Arab persecution resulting from the very attempt to establish a Jewish state in Palestine." Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union. History of Dissident Movement in the USSR by Ludmila Alekseyeva. Vilnius, 1992 This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, Latin America, and the United States Goldstein (1995) p. 24 A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including Indian Jews and others, as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States, Argentina, Australia and South Africa. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, due to economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim. Dosick (2007), p. 340. Diaspora (outside Israel) The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the nineteenth century, the founding of Zionism and later events, including pogroms in Russia, the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, and the founding of the state of Israel, with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the twentieth century. Gartner (2001), p. 213. In this Rosh Hashana greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews would flee the pogroms of the Russian Empire to the safety of the US from 1881–1924. Currently, the largest Jewish community in the world is located in the United States, with almost 5.3 million Jews. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada, Argentina, and Brazil, and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America). Western Europe's largest Jewish community can be found in France, home to 490,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African Arab countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants). Gartner (2001), pp. 410–410. There are 295,000 Jews in the United Kingdom. In Eastern Europe, there are anywhere from 350,000 to one million Jews living in the former Soviet Union, but exact figures are difficult to establish. The fastest-growing Jewish community in the world, outside Israel, is the one in Germany, especially in Berlin, its capital. Tens of thousands of Jews from the former Eastern Bloc have settled in Germany since the fall of the Berlin Wall. The Arab countries of North Africa and the Middle East were home to around 900,000 Jews in 1945. Fueled by anti-Zionism after the founding of Israel, systematic persecution caused almost all of these Jews to flee to Israel, North America, and Europe in the 1950s (see Jewish exodus from Arab lands). Today, around 8,000 Jews remain in all Arab nations combined. Iran is home to around 10,800 Jews, down from a population of 100,000 Jews before the 1979 revolution. After the revolution some of the Iranian Jews emigrated to Israel or Europe but most of them emigrated (with their non-Jewish Iranian compatriots) to the United States (especially Los Angeles, where the principal community is called "Tehrangeles"). Littman (1979), p. 5. Outside Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and the rest of Asia, there are significant Jewish populations in Australia and South Africa. Population changes: Assimilation Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity. Johnson (1987), p. 171. Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods, with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely. The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 1700s (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 1800s, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community. Elazar (2003), p. 434. Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States, they are just under 50%, in the United Kingdom, around 53%, in France, around 30%, and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10%. In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate themselves with Jewish religious practice. The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live. Population changes: Wars against the Jews Right|Jews (identifiable by the distinctive hats that they were required to wear) being killed by Christian knights. French Bible illustration from 1255. Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews; Johnson (1987), pp. 207–208. the Spanish Inquisition (led by Torquemada) and the Portuguese Inquisition, with their persecution and Auto de fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews; Johnson (1987), pp. 226–229. the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine; Johnson (1987), pp. 259–260. the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars; Johnson (1987), pp. 364–365. as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled. Johnson (1987), pp. 213, 229–231. The persecution reached a peak in Adolf Hitler's Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews from 1942 to 1945. Johnson (1987), p. 512. According to James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million." Carroll, James. Constantine's Sword (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p.26 Of course, there are many other complex demographic factors involved; the rate of population growth, epidemics, migration, assimilation, and conversion could all have played major roles in the current size of the global Jewish population. Population changes: Growth Israel is the only country with a consistently growing Jewish population due to natural population increase, though the Jewish populations of other countries in Europe and North America have recently increased due to immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities, whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth. Gartner (2001), pp. 400–401. Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytization to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples. Kaplan (2003), p. 301. There is also a trend of Orthodox movements pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past twenty-five years, there has been a trend of secular Jews becoming more religiously observant, known as the Baal Teshuva movement, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown. Danzger (2003), pp. 495–496. Additionally, there is also a growing movement of Jews by Choice by gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews. de Lange (2002), p. 220. Jewish languages Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the fifth century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea. Grintz, Jehoshua M. "Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple." Journal of Biblical Literature. March, 1960. By the third century BCE, Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek. Feldman (2006), p. 54. Modern Hebrew is now one of the two official languages of the State of Israel along with Arabic. Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda, who arrived in Palestine in 1881. It hadn't been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times. For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath. Parfitt, T. V. "The Use of Hebrew in Palestine 1800–1822." Journal of Semitic Studies , 1972. For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branching off as independent languages. Yiddish is the Judæo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe, and Ladino is the Judæo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab lands, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Gruzinic, Judæo-Arabic, Judæo-Berber, Krymchak, Judæo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use. The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are English, Modern Hebrew, and Russian. Some Romance languages, such as French and Spanish, are also widely used. Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language, closely followed by English and Hebrew (if modern and biblical are counted as one variety). Jewish culture Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life," Neusner (1991) p. 64 which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world, in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah), in Islamic Spain and Portugal, Sharot (1997), pp. 29–30. in North Africa and the Middle East, India, Sharot (1997), pp. 42–43. and China, Sharot (1997), p. 42. or the contemporary United States and Israel, cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities, each as authentically Jewish as the next. History of the Jews See also: Timeline of Jewish history and Schisms among the Jews Jews and migrations Right|Etching of the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt on August 23, 1614. The text says: "1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate" Jewish refugees in Shanghai, China during World War II. Shanghai offered unconditional asylum for tens of thousands of Jewish refugees from Europe escaping the Holocaust. Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, and the areas in which they have resided. This experience as both immigrants and emigrants (see: Jewish refugees) have shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways, and are thus a major element of Jewish history. de Lange (2002), pp. 41–43. An incomplete list of such migrations includes: The patriarch Abraham was a migrant to the land of Canaan from of the Chaldees. Johnson (1987), p. 10. The Children of Israel experienced the Exodus (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from ancient Egypt, as recorded in the Book of Exodus. Johnson (1987), p. 30. The Kingdom of Israel was sent into permanent exile and scattered all over the world (or at least to unknown locations) by Assyria. Johnson (1987), pp. 70–71. The Kingdom of Judah was exiled by Babylonia, Johnson (1987), pp. 78–79. then returned to Judea by Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, Johnson (1987), pp. 85–86. and then many were exiled again by the Roman Empire. Johnson (1987), p. 147. The 2,000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire, as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land, and settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia Johnson (1987), p. 163. to the Iberian Peninsula Johnson (1987), p. 177. to Poland Johnson (1987), p. 231. to the United States Johnson (1987), p. 460. and, as a result of Zionism, to Israel. Gartner (2001), p. 431. Many expulsions during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the (Statute of Jewry); in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in Eastern Europe, especially Poland. Gartner (2001), pp. 11–12. Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and North Africa, others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East. Johnson (1987), pp. 229–231. During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe). Johnson (1987), p. 306. The arrival of millions of Jews in the New World, including immigration of over two million Eastern European Jews to the United States from 1880–1925, see History of the Jews in the United States and History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union. Johnson (1987), p. 370. The Pogroms in Eastern Europe, Johnson (1987), pp. 364–365. the rise of modern Anti-Semitism, Gartner (2001), pp. 213–215. the Holocaust, Gartner (2001), pp. 357–370. and the rise of Arab nationalism Johnson (1987), pp. 529–530. all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent, until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel. The Islamic Revolution of Iran forced many Iranian Jews to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly Los Angeles, CA) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe. When the Soviet Union died, many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been refuseniks) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s. Dosick (2007), p. 340. Kingdoms of Israel and Judah Allotments of Israelite tribes in Eretz Israel. (1695 Amsterdam Haggada) Jews descend mostly from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), who settled in the Land of Israel. The Israelites traced their common lineage to the biblical patriarch Abraham through Isaac and Jacob. A United Monarchy was established under Saul and continued under King David and Solomon. King David conquered Jerusalem (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign, the nation split into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of Israel (in the north) and the Kingdom of Judah (in the south). The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE and spread all over the Assyrian empire, where they were assimilated into other cultures and came to be known as the Ten Lost Tribes. The Kingdom of Judah continued as an independent state until it was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE, destroying the First Temple that was at the centre of Jewish worship. The Judean elite was exiled to Babylonia, but later at least a part of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent conquest of Babylonia by the Persians seventy years later, a period known as the Babylonian Captivity. A new Second Temple was constructed funded by Persian Kings, and old religious practices were resumed. Persian, Greek, and Roman rule See related article Jewish-Roman wars. The Seleucid Kingdom, which arose after the Persians were defeated by Alexander the Great, sought to introduce Greek culture into the Persian world. When the Greeks under Antiochus IV Epiphanes, supported by Hellenized Jews (those who had adopted Greek culture), attempted to convert the Jewish Temple to a temple of Zeus, the Jews revolted under the leadership of the Maccabees. After their victory, the Jews rededicated the Temple to God (hence the origins of Hanukkah) and created an independent Jewish state known as the Hasmonaean Kingdom, which lasted from 165 BCE to 63 BCE, when it came under influence of the Roman Empire. During the early part of Roman rule, the Hasmonaeans remained in power, until the family was annihilated by Herod the Great. Herod came from a wealthy Idumean family and became a very successful client king under the Romans. He significantly expanded the Temple in Jerusalem. Goldenberg (2007), p. 121. Upon his death in 4 BCE the Romans directly ruled Judea and there were frequent changes of policies by conflicting and empire-building Caesars, generals, governors, and consuls who often acted cruelly or attempted to maximize their own wealth and power. Rome's attitudes swung from tolerance to hostility against its Jewish subjects, who had since moved throughout the Empire. The Romans, worshiping a large pantheon, could not readily accommodate the exclusive monotheism of Judaism, and the religious Jews could not accept Roman polytheism. Goldenberg (2007), p. 124–126. (It was in this tumultuous climate that Christianity first emerged, among a small group of Jews. Goldenberg (2007), p. 123. ) After a famine and riots in 66 CE, the Jews in Judea began a revolt against Rome. The revolt was smashed by Titus Flavius, the son and successor of the Roman emperor Vespasian. Goldenberg (2007), p. 127–130. In Rome the Arch of Titus still stands, showing enslaved Judeans and a menorah being brought to Rome. It is customary for Jews to walk around, rather than through, this arch. The Arch of Titus depicts enslaved Judeans and objects from the Temple being brought to Rome. The Romans destroyed most of Jerusalem but left the Western Wall, a retaining wall of the Temple Mount. Goldenberg (2007), p. 122. After the end of this first revolt, the Jews continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion. In the second century the Roman Emperor Hadrian began to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city while restricting some Jewish practices. Angry at this affront, the Jews again revolted led by Simon Bar Kokhba. Goldenberg (2007), p. 134–136. Hadrian responded with overwhelming force, putting down the revolt and killing as many as half a million Jews. Johnson (1987), p. 142. After the Roman Legions prevailed in 135, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem and most Jewish worship was forbidden by Rome. Johnson (1987), p. 143. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, and instead the rabbis took on a more prominent position as teachers and leaders of individual communities. No new books were added to the Jewish Bible after the Roman period, Johnson (1987), pp. 95–96. instead major efforts went into interpreting and developing the Halakhah, or oral law, and writing down these traditions in the Talmud, the key work on the interpretation of Jewish law, written during the first to fifth centuries CE. Johnson (1987), p. 152. In 212, all Jews were made citizens of the Roman empire. Christianity became the sole state religion of the declining Roman empire, when Theodosius I became Emperor in 395 CE. Jewish and Christian life evolved in "diametrically opposite directions" during the final centuries of Roman empire. Jewish life became autonomous, decentralized, and community-centered, in contrast to Christian life, which became a rigid hierarchical system under the supreme authority of the Pope and the Roman Emperor. Baron (1952), p. 200. Jewish life after the fall of Israel was basically democratic. Rabbis in the Talmud interpreted Deuteronomy 29:9, "your heads, your tribes, your elders, and your officers, even all the men of Israel" as "Although I have appointed for you heads, elders, and officers, you are all equal before me" (Tanhuma). The Talmud stressed that rights always entailed responsibilities: "you are all responsible for one another." Jewish survival in the face of external pressures from the now Catholic Roman empire and Persian Zoroastrian empire is seen as "enigmatic" by many historians. Baron (1952), p. 215. For example, Wilhelm von Humboldt wrote "such an extraordinary phenomenon in world history and the history of religion that many a fine mind has doubted whether it can at all be explained in merely human terms". Quoted in Baron (1952), p. 215. According to the famous Jewish historian, Salo Wittmayer Baron, a number of mechanisms of Jewish survival evolved during these crucial centuries between the fall of Israel and the fall of Rome. He describes at least eight factors that strengthened Judaism and Jewish society. Baron (1952), pp. 216–217. Messianic faith. Belief in an ultimately positive outcome and restoration of Israel. Doctrine of the Hereafter was increasingly elaborated. Belief in an afterlife had been largely ignored during Biblical times. Now it was discussed more by the sages. It reconciled Jews with suffering in this world and helped them resist outside temptations to convert. Suffering was given meaning through interpretation of Jewish history and destiny. Doctrine of martyrdom and inescapability of persecution transformed both into a source of communal solidarity. Jewish daily life was very satisfying. Although living throughout the Roman empire and Persian empire and beyond, Jews lived among Jews. In practice, in a lifetime, most Jews encountered overt persecution only on a few dramatic occasions. They mostly lived under discrimination that affected everyone, and to which they were habituated. Daily life was governed by a multiplicity of ritual requirements, so that Jews were constantly aware of their relationship with God throughout the day. "For the most part, he found this all-encompassing Jewish way of life so eminently satisfactory that he was prepared to sacrifice himself ... for the preservation of its fundamentals." Baron (1952), p. 216. Those commandments for which Jews had sacrificed their lives, such as defying idolatry, eating pork, observing circumcision, were the ones most strictly adhered to. The corporate development and segregationist policies of late Roman empire and Persian empire, helped keep Jewish community organization strong. The Talmud provided an extremely effective force to sustain Jewish ethics, law and culture, a benevolent judicial and social welfare system, universal education, to develop and sustain a strong, loving and sexually satisfying family life, and a satisfying religious life from birth to death. The concentration of Jewish masses within "the lower middle class" Baron (1952), p. 217. sustained middle class virtues of sexual self-control. Jews, unlike the cultures around them, followed a moderate path between ascetism and licentiousness. For Jews, marriage formed a strong foundation of ethnic, and ethical, life. Thus, in these times hostility only helped cement Jewish unity and internal strength and commitment. Beginning of the Diaspora Though Jews had settled outside Israel since the time of the Babylonians, the results of the Roman response to the Jewish revolt shifted the center of Jewish life from its ancient home to the diaspora. Goldenberg (2007), p. 134. While some Jews remained in Judea, renamed Palestine by the Romans, some Jews were sold into slavery, while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire. Goldenberg (2007), p. 137. This is the traditional explanation to the Jewish diaspora, almost universally accepted by past and present rabbinical or Talmudical scholars, who believe that Jews are almost exclusively biological descendants of the Judean exiles. In the six centuries before the rise of Islam, there was a mass migration out of Palestine (devastated by war, and after the conversion of Emperor Constantine in 313, the pressure of the Christian mission) and into Syria, Babylonia and the Iranian Plateau, so that these areas "received a tremendous admixture of Jewish blood.” Baron (1952), p. 210. Some secular historians speculate that a majority of the Jews in Antiquity were most likely descendants of converts in the cities of the Græco-Roman world, especially in Alexandria and Asia Minor. Johnson (1987), p. 112. They were only affected by the diaspora in its spiritual sense and by the sense of loss and homelessness which became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Any such policy of conversion, which spread the Jewish religion throughout Hellenistic civilization, seems to have increased following the destruction of the Jewish state, and to have ended only when Christianity came to power. S. Safrai, "The Era of the Mishnah and Talmud (70-640)", in H.H. Ben-Sasson, editor, History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, p. 364. At the time of the Christian era the Jews in Egypt may have come to number about a million out of a total population of about seven and a half millions. F.E. Peters, "The Harvest of Hellenism", p. 296. DNA evidence of this theory has been spotty, but some historians believe based on some historical records that at the dawn of Christianity as many as 10% of the population of the Roman Empire were Jewish, a figure that could only be explained by local conversion. The Amsterdam Esnoga, the synagogue of the Sephardic community During the first few hundred years of the Diaspora, the most important Jewish communities were in Babylonia, where the Babylonian Talmud was written, and where relatively tolerant regimes allowed the Jews freedom. The situation was worse in the Byzantine Empire which treated the Jews much more harshly, refusing to allow them to hold office or build places of worship. Johnson (1987), pp. 162–165. In the belief of restoration to come, the Jews made an alliance with the Persians who invaded Palestine in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the Byzantine garrison in Jerusalem, and for three years governed the city. But the Persians made their peace with the Emperor Heraclius. Christian rule was re-established, and those Jews who survived the consequent slaughter were once more banished from Jerusalem. Goldenberg (2007), pp. 185–186. The conquest of much of the Byzantine Empire and Babylonia by Islamic armies generally improved the life of the Jews, though they were still considered second-class citizens. Johnson (1987), p. 175. In response to these Islamic conquests, the First Crusade of 1096 attempted to reconquer Jerusalem, resulting in the destruction of many of the remaining Jewish communities in the area. The Jews were among the most vigorous defenders of Jerusalem against the Crusaders. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered the Jews in a synagogue and burned them. Setton et al. (1985), p. 71. The Jews almost single-handedly defended Haifa against the Crusaders, holding out in the besieged town for a whole month (June-July 1099). At this time, a full thousand years after the fall of the Jewish state, there were Jewish communities all over the country. Fifty of them are known to historians; they include Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and Gaza. Katz, Shmuel, Battleground (1974). Image of a cantor reading the Passover story in Moorish Iberia, from a 14th century Iberian Haggadah. Middle Ages: Europe Jews settled in Europe during the time of the Roman Empire. Early medieval society, before the Church became fully organized, was tolerant. Johnson (1987), p. 164. Between 800 and 1100 there were 1.5 million Jews in Christian Europe. They were fortunate in not being part of the feudal system as serfs or knights, thus were spared the oppression and constant warfare that made life miserable for most Christians. Carr (2003), pp. 144–145. Unlike lay Christians, most Jews were literate. Carr (2003), p. 151. In relations with the Christian society, they were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: financial, administrative and as doctors. Christian scholars interested in the Bible would even consult with Talmudic rabbis. Carr (2003), pp. 157–158. All this changed with the reforms and strengthening of the Roman Catholic Church, especially the creations of the Franciscan and Dominican preaching monks, and the rise of envious and competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300 the friars and local priests were using the Passion Plays at Easter time, which depicted Jews in contemporary dress killing Christ, to teach the general populace to hate and murder Jews. Johnson (1987), pp. 215–216. It was at this point that persecution and exile became endemic. As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than a half of the population, Jews were taken as scapegoats. Johnson (1987), pp. 216–217. Finally around 1500, Jews found security and a renewal of prosperity in Poland. Norman F. Cantor, The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era, Free Press, 2004. ISBN 0743226887, pp. 28–29 Norman Roth makes the point that more Jews lived in Spain than in all the countries of Europe combined. Some historians have calculated that in the 12th century Sephardi Jews made up 90% of all the world's Jewry, though that percentage declined rapidly. The Crusaders routinely attacked Jewish communities, and increasingly harsh laws restricted Jews from most economic activity and land ownership, leaving open only money-lending and a few other trades. Johnson (1987), pp. 174, 211-213. Jews were subject to expulsions from England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire after 1300, with most of the population moving to Eastern Europe and especially Poland, which was uniquely tolerant of the Jews through the 1700s. By 1764, there were about 750,000 Jews in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The worldwide Jewish population was estimated at 1.2 million. The final mass expulsion of the Jews, and the largest, occurred after the Christian conquest (Reconquista) of Iberia in 1492 (see History of the Jews in Spain and History of the Jews in Portugal). After the end of the expulsions in the 17th century, individual conditions varied from country to country and time to time, but, as rule, Jews in Western Europe generally were forced, by decree or by informal pressure, to live in highly segregated ghettos and shtetls. Johnson (1987), pp. 235, 251. By the beginning of the twentieth century, most European Jews lived in the so-called Pale of Settlement, the Western frontier of the Russian Empire consisting generally of the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and neighboring regions. Johnson (1987), pp. 358–359. Middle Ages: Islamic Europe, North Africa, Middle East In the Iberian Peninsula, under Muslim rule, Jews had the freedom to make great advances in mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, chemistry, and philology. Cowling (2005), p. 265 This era is sometimes referred to as the Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula. Poliakov (1974), pg.91-6 During early Islam, Leon Poliakov writes, Jews enjoyed great privileges, and their communities prospered. There was no legislation or social barriers preventing them from conducting commercial activities. Many Jews migrated to areas newly conquered by Muslims and established communities there. The vizier of Baghdad entrusted his capital with Jewish bankers. The Jews were put in charge of certain parts of maritime and slave trade. Siraf, the principal port of the caliphate in the 10th century CE, had a Jewish governor. Poliakov (1974), pg.68-71 Since the 11th century, there have also been instances of pogroms against Jews. The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries Examples include the 1066 Granada massacre, where the entire Jewish quarter in that Andalucian city was razed. Granada by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia. 1906 ed. In North Africa, there were instances of violence against Jews in the Middle Ages, and in other Arab lands including Egypt, Syria, and Yemen. The Almohads, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, were far more fundamentalist in outlook than the Almoravides, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Jews and Christians were expelled from Morocco and Islamic Spain. The Forgotten Refugees Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, some Jews, such as the family of Maimonides, fled south and east to the more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. Sephardim Kraemer, Joel L., Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait in The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides pp. 16–17 (2005) Enlightenment and emancipation Napoleon emancipating the Jews, represented by the woman with the menorah, an 1804 French print. During the Age of Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The Haskalah movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews began in the 1700s to abandon their exclusiveness and acquire the knowledge, manners, and aspirations typical of the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditionally religious instruction received by students. Interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Gartner (2001), pp. 88–89. The Haskalah movement influenced the birth of all the modern Jewish denominations. Dosick (2007), p. 14. At the same time, Haskalah contributed to encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided, and the nineteenth century Reform movement in Judaism. Dosick (2007), p. 62. About the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, Hasidic Judaism. Hasidic Judaism began in the 1700s by Israel ben Eliezer, the Baal Shem Tov, and quickly gained a following with its exuberant, mystical approach to religion. Dosick (2007), pp. 13–14. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance. Dosick (2007), pp. 61–63. Concurrently, the outside world was changing. In 1791, France became the first European country to emancipate its Jewish population, granting them equal rights under the law. Johnson (1987), p. 306. Napoleon further spread emancipation, inviting Jews to leave the Jewish ghettos in Europe and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes (see Napoleon and the Jews). Gartner (2001), p. 120. Other countries such as Denmark, England, and Sweden also adopted liberal policies toward Jews during the period of Enlightenment, with some resulting immigration. Johnson (1987), p. 321. By the mid-19th century, almost all Western European countries had emancipated their Jewish populations, with the notable exception of the Papal States, but persecution continued in Eastern Europe including massive pogroms at the end of the 19th century and throughout the Pale of Settlement. Johnson (1987), pp. 358–365. The persistence of anti-semitism, both violently in the east and socially in the west, led to a number of Jewish political movements, culminating in Zionism. Gartner (2001), pp. 213–215. Zionism and emigration from Europe Poster from the Zionist Tarbut schools of Poland in the 1930s. Zionist parties were very active in Polish politics. In the 1922 Polish elections, Zionists won 25 out of 35 Jewish parliament seats. Zionism is an international political movement that supports a homeland for the Jewish People in the Land of Israel. Although its origins are earlier, the movement was formally established by the Austrian journalist Theodor Herzl in the late nineteenth century. Johnson (1987), pp. 374, 402. The international movement was eventually successful in establishing the State of Israel in 1948, as the world's first and only modern Jewish State. It continues primarily as support for the state and government of Israel and its continuing status as a homeland for the Jewish people. "An international movement originally for the establishment of a Jewish national or religious community in Palestine and later for the support of modern Israel." ("Zionism," Webster's 11th Collegiate Dictionary). See also "Zionism", Encyclopedia Britannica, which describes it as a "Jewish nationalist movement that has had as its goal the creation and support of a Jewish national state in Palestine, the ancient homeland of the Jews (Hebrew: Eretz Yisra'el, “the Land of Israel”)," and The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, which defines it as "A Jewish movement that arose in the late 19th century in response to growing anti-Semitism and sought to reestablish a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Modern Zionism is concerned with the support and development of the state of Israel." Described as a "diaspora nationalism," Ernest Gellner, 1983. Nations and Nationalism (First edition), p 107-108. its proponents regard it as a national liberation movement whose aim is the self-determination of the Jewish people. A national liberation movement: "Zionism is a modern national liberation movement whose roots go far back to Biblical times." (Rockaway, Robert. Zionism: The National Liberation Movement of The Jewish People, World Zionist Organization, January 21, 1975, accessed August 17, 2006). "The aim of Zionism was principally the liberation and self-determination of the Jewish people...", Shlomo Avineri. (Zionism as a Movement of National Liberation, Hagshama department of the World Zionist Organization, December 12, 2003, accessed August 17, 2006). "Political Zionism, the national liberation movement of the Jewish people, emerged in the 19th century within the context of the liberal nationalism then sweeping through Europe." (Neuberger, Binyamin. Zionism - an Introduction, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, August 20, 2001, accessed August 17, 2006). "The vicious diatribes on Zionism voiced here by Arab delegates may give this Assembly the wrong impression that while the rest of the world supported the Jewish national liberation movement the Arab world was always hostile to Zionism." (Chaim Herzog, Statement in the General Assembly by Ambassador Herzog on the item "Elimination of all forms of racial discrimination", November 10 1975., Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, November 11, 1975, accessed August 17, 2006). Zionism: one of the earliest examples of a national liberation movement, written submission by the World Union for Progressive Judaism to the U.N. Commission on Human Rights, Sixtieth session, Item 5 and 9 of the provisional agenda, January 27, 2004, accessed August 17, 2006. "Zionism is the national liberation movement of the Jewish people and the state of Israel is its political expression." (Avi Shlaim, A debate: Is Zionism today the real enemy of the Jews?, International Herald Tribune, February 4, 2005, accessed August 17, 2006. "But Zionism is the national liberation movement of the Jewish people." (Philips, Melanie. Zionism today is the real enemy of the Jews’: opposed by Melanie Phillips, www.melaniephilips.com, accessed August 17, 2006. "Zionism, the national liberation movement of the Jewish people, brought about the establishment of the State of Israel, and views a Jewish, Zionist, democratic and secure State of Israel to be the expression of the common responsibility of the Jewish people for its continuity and future." (What is Zionism (The Jerusalem Program), Hadassah, accessed August 17, 2006. "Zionism is the national liberation movement of the Jewish people." (Harris, Rob. Ireland's Zionist slurs like Iran, says Israel, Jewish Telegraph, December 16, 2005, accessed August 17, 2006. While Zionism is based in part upon religious tradition linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel, where the concept of Jewish nationhood is thought to have first evolved somewhere between 1200 BCE and the late Second Temple era (that is, up to 70 CE), "...from Zion, where King David fashioned the first Jewish nation" (Friedland, Roger and Hecht, Richard To Rule Jerusalem, p. 27). "By the late Second Temple times, when widely held Messianic beliefs were so politically powerful in their implications and repercussions, and when the significance of political authority, territorial sovereignty, and religious belief for the fate of the Jews as a people was so widely and vehemently contested, it seems clear that Jewish nationhood was a social and cultural reality". (Roshwald, Aviel. "Jewish Identity and the Paradox of Nationalism", in Berkowitz, Michael (ed.). Nationalism, Zionism and Ethnic Mobilization of the Jews in 1900 and Beyond, p. 15). the modern movement was mainly secular, beginning largely as a response by European Jewry to rampant antisemitism across Europe. Largely a response to anti-Semitism: "A Jewish movement that arose in the late 19th century in response to growing anti-Semitism and sought to reestablish a Jewish homeland in Palestine." ("Zionism", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition). "The Political Zionists conceived of Zionism as the Jewish response to anti-Semitism. They believed that Jews must have an independent state as soon as possible, in order to have a place of refuge for endangered Jewish communities." (Wylen, Stephen M. Settings of Silver: An Introduction to Judaism, Second Edition, Paulist Press, 2000, p. 392). "Zionism, the national movement to return Jews to their homeland in Israel, was founded as a response to anti-Semitism in Western Europe and to violent persecution of Jews in Eastern Europe." (Calaprice, Alice. The Einstein Almanac, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004, p. xvi). "The major response to anti-semitism was the emergence of Zionism under the leadership of Theodor Herzl in the late nineteenth century." (Matustik, Martin J. and Westphal, Merold. Kierkegaard in Post/Modernity, Indiana University Press, 1995, p. 178). "Zionism was founded as a response to anti-Semitism, principally in Russia, but took off when the worst nightmare of the Jews transpired in Western Europe under Nazism." (Hollis, Rosemary. , International Affairs 80, 2 (2004), p. 198). In addition to responding politically, during the late 19th century, Jews began to flee the persecutions of Eastern Europe in large numbers, mostly by heading to the United States, but also to Canada and Western Europe. By 1924, almost two million Jews had emigrated to the US alone, creating a large community in a nation relatively free of the persecutions of rising European antisemitism (see History of the Jews in the United States). Over 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 450,000 in czarist Russia and 275,000 in Austria-Hungary. The Jewish Agency for Israel Timeline World War II and the Holocaust This antisemitism reached its most destructive form in the policies of Nazi Germany, which made the destruction of the Jews a priority, culminating in the killing of approximately six million Jews during the Holocaust from 1941 to 1945. At first the Nazis used death squads or Einsatzgruppen to conduct massive open-air killings of Jews and others in territory they conquered. By 1942, the Nazi leadership decided to implement the Final Solution, the genocide of the Jews of Europe, and to increase the pace of the Holocaust by establishing extermination camps specifically to kill Jews. Manvell, Roger Goering New York:1972 Ballantine Books--War Leader Book #8 Ballantine's Illustrated History of the Violent Century Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found This was an industrial method of genocide. Millions of Jews who had been hitherto confined to diseased and massively overcrowded ghettos were transported (often by train) to Nazi death camps where some were herded into a specific location (often a gas chamber), then either gassed or shot. Afterwards, their remains were buried or burned. Others were interned in the camps where they were given little food and disease was common. It is estimated that up to 1.4 million Jews fought in Allied armies; 40% of them in the Red Army. Lador-Lederer, Joseph. World War II: Jews as Prisoners of War, Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, vol.10, Faculty of Law, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 1980, pp. 70-89, p. 75, footnote 15. Israel Jewish prayer at the Western Wall In 1948, the Jewish state of Israel was founded, creating the first Jewish nation since the Roman destruction of Jerusalem. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the majority of the 850,000 Jews previously living in North Africa and the Middle East fled to Israel, joining an increasing number of immigrants from post-War Europe (see Jewish exodus from Arab lands). By the end of the 20th century, Jewish population centers had shifted dramatically, with the United States and Israel being the centers of Jewish secular and religious life. Persecution Related articles: Antisemitism, History of antisemitism, New antisemitism The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history. During late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages the Roman Empire (in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population, first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second-class citizens during the Christian Roman era. Goldenberg (2007), pp. 131, 135–136. Johnson (1987), pp. 164–165. Later in medieval Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews in the name of Christianity occurred, notably during the Crusades—when Jews all over Germany were massacred—and a series of expulsions from England, Germany, France, and, in the largest expulsion of all, Spain and Portugal after the Reconquista (the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula), where both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim Moors were expelled. In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos. Johnson (1987), pp. 243–244. In the 19th and (before the end of World War II) 20th centuries, the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. "A Catholic Timeline of Events Relating to Jews, Anti-Judaism, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust, From the 3rd century to the Beginning of the Third Millennium" Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religions and to administer their internal affairs, but subject to certain conditions. Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20 They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state. Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims. Lewis (1987), p. 9, 27 Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by Bernard Lewis as "most degrading" was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Qur'an or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic. Lewis (1999), p.131 On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession. Lewis (1999), p.131; (1984), pp.8,62 Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and/or forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century, Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p.77 as well as in Islamic Persia, Lewis (1984), pp. 17–18, 94–95; Stillman (1979), p. 27 and the forced confinement of Morrocan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century. Lewis (1984), p. 28. In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi." Muslim Anti-Semitism by Bernard Lewis (Middle East Quarterly) June 1998 The most notable modern day persecution of Jews remains the Holocaust — the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Nazi Germany and its collaborators. Donald L Niewyk, The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, p.45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." However, the Holocaust usually includes all of the different victims who were systematically murdered. The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Johnson (1987), pp. 484–488. Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease. Johnson (1987), pp. 490–492. Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings. Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were killed in gas chambers. Johnson (1987), pp. 493–498. Every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation." Berenbaum, Michael. The World Must Know," United States Holocaust Museum, 2006, p. 103. Jewish leadership There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine. Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues. Notable Jews Jews have made contributions in a broad range of human endeavors, including the sciences, arts, politics, and business. The number of Jewish Nobel prize winners (approximately 160 in all), is far out of proportion to the percentage of Jews in the world's population. See also More complete guides to topics related to the Jews is available from the guide at the top or bottom of this page. Some topics of interest include: Ashkenazi Jews Antisemitism :Category: Jewish ethnic groups :Category: Jewish history by country Israel Basic Laws of Israel Politics of Israel Law of Return Israelites Jewish identity Jewish languages Jewish population Jewish intermarriage Judaism List of Jews Mizrahi Jews Pogrom Sephardi Jews Notes References Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1952). A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8 Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7 Poliakov, Leon (1974). The History of Anti-semitism. New York: The Vanguard Press. Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0 External links General Jewish Virtual Library Judaism 101 Maps related to Jewish history Secular organizations American Jewish Committee American Jewish Congress Anti-Defamation League B'nai B'rith International Hillel: The Foundation for Jewish Campus Life United Jewish Communities: The Federations of North America Religious organizations Aish HaTorah (Orthodox) ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal (Renewal) American Sephardi Federation (Sephardic) Chabad Lubavitch (Chabad) Jewish Reconstructionist Federation (Reconstructionist) The Karaite Korner (Karaite) The Orthodox Union (Orthodox) Society for Humanistic Judaism (Humanistic) Union for Reform Judaism (Reform) The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism (Conservative) Zionist organizations Ameinu Hadassah: the Women's Zionist Organization of America The Jewish Agency for Israel Religious Zionists of America World Mizrachi Movement World Zionist Organization Zionist Organization of America be-x-old:Габрэі | Jews 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5,822 | Brassicales | The Brassicales are an order of flowering plants, belonging to the eurosids II group of dicotyledons under the APG II system. Brassicales sensu APG II includes families classified under Capparales in previous classifications. One character common to many members of the order is the production of glucosinolate (mustard oil) compounds. The APG II system includes the following families Haston et al. (2007) : Family Akaniaceae Family Bataceae (salt-tolerant shrubs from America and Australasia) Family Brassicaceae (mustard and cabbage family) Family Capparaceae (caper family, sometimes included in Brassicaceae) Family Caricaceae (papaya family) Family Gyrostemonaceae Family Koeberliniaceae Family Limnanthaceae (meadowfoam family) Family Moringaceae (thirteen species of trees from Africa and India) Family Pentadiplandraceae Family Resedaceae (mignonette family) Family Salvadoraceae Family Setchellanthaceae Family Tovariaceae Family Tropaeolaceae (nasturtium family) Under the Cronquist system, the Brassicales were called the Capparales, and included among the "Dilleniidae". The only families included were the Brassicaceae and Capparaceae (treated as separate families), the Tovariaceae, Resedaceae, and Moringaceae. Other taxa now included here were placed in various different orders. The circumscriptions of several families are in flux and no consensus has yet emerged; the 1997 Takhtajan system changed allocations once again, inching towards a clearer structure. Several genera included in Capparaceae as traditionally circumscribed have since proven to be more closely related to Brassicaceae Hall et al. (2002) , and because of this the two families were initially merged under Brassicaceae in the APG II system APG (2003) . The subsequent work e.g. Hall et al. (2004) and the APG II update by Haston et al. (2007) resolved the interrelationships of the Capparaceae-Brassicaceae lineages in more detail and allows to reestablish Capparaceae in a more restricted circumscription, either by including Cleome and related genera in Brassicaceae or by recognizing them in the segregate family Cleomaceae. The relationships of several other genera remain unresolved. Footnotes References (2003): An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 141(4): 399-436. PDF fulltext (2007): A linear sequence of Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II families. Taxon 56(1): 7-12. HTML abstract (2002): Phylogeny of Capparaceae and Brassicaceae based on chloroplast sequence data. Am. J. Bot. 89(11): 1826-1842. PDF fulltext (2004): Molecular phylogenetics of core Brassicales, placement of orphan genera Emblingia, Forchhammeria, Tirania, and character evolution. Systematic Botany 29: 654-669. PDF fulltext | Brassicales |@lemmatized brassicales:4 order:4 flower:2 plant:2 belong:1 eurosids:1 ii:8 group:3 dicotyledon:1 apg:7 system:5 sensu:1 include:8 family:30 classify:1 capparales:2 previous:1 classification:2 one:1 character:2 common:1 many:1 member:1 production:1 glucosinolate:1 mustard:2 oil:1 compound:1 following:1 haston:2 et:4 al:4 akaniaceae:1 bataceae:1 salt:1 tolerant:1 shrub:1 america:1 australasia:1 brassicaceae:8 cabbage:1 capparaceae:6 caper:1 sometimes:1 caricaceae:1 papaya:1 gyrostemonaceae:1 koeberliniaceae:1 limnanthaceae:1 meadowfoam:1 moringaceae:2 thirteen:1 specie:1 tree:1 africa:1 india:1 pentadiplandraceae:1 resedaceae:2 mignonette:1 salvadoraceae:1 setchellanthaceae:1 tovariaceae:2 tropaeolaceae:1 nasturtium:1 cronquist:1 call:1 among:1 dilleniidae:1 treat:1 separate:1 taxon:2 place:1 various:1 different:1 circumscription:2 several:3 flux:1 consensus:1 yet:1 emerge:1 takhtajan:1 change:1 allocation:1 inch:1 towards:1 clearer:1 structure:1 genus:4 traditionally:1 circumscribe:1 since:1 prove:1 closely:1 relate:1 hall:2 two:1 initially:1 merge:1 subsequent:1 work:1 e:1 g:1 update:2 resolve:1 interrelationship:1 lineages:1 detail:1 allow:1 reestablish:1 restricted:1 either:1 cleome:1 related:1 recognize:1 segregate:1 cleomaceae:1 relationship:1 remain:1 unresolved:1 footnote:1 reference:1 angiosperm:2 phylogeny:3 botanical:1 journal:1 linnean:1 society:1 pdf:3 fulltext:3 linear:1 sequence:2 html:1 abstract:1 base:1 chloroplast:1 data:1 j:1 bot:1 molecular:1 phylogenetics:1 core:1 placement:1 orphan:1 emblingia:1 forchhammeria:1 tirania:1 evolution:1 systematic:1 botany:1 |@bigram et_al:4 closely_relate:1 angiosperm_phylogeny:2 journal_linnean:1 linnean_society:1 pdf_fulltext:3 molecular_phylogenetics:1 |
5,823 | Arbroath_Abbey | Arbroath Abbey, showing distinctive sandstone colouring. Arbroath Abbey, in the Scottish town of Arbroath, was founded in 1178 by King William the Lion for a group of Tironensian Benedictine monks from Kelso Abbey. It was consecrated in 1197 with a dedication to the deceased Saint Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English court. It was William's only personal foundation — he was buried before the high altar of the church in 1214. The last Abbot was Cardinal David Beaton, who in 1522 succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of St Andrews. The Abbey is cared for by Historic Scotland and is open to the public throughout the year (entrance charge). The distinctive red sandstone ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath. History Abbey seal, depicting murder of St Thomas. King William gave the Abbey independence from its mother church and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more. The Abbey's monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour. King John of England gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in England (except London) toll-free. The Abbey, which was the richest in Scotland, is most famous for its association with the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath, believed to have been drafted by Abbot Bernard, who was the Chancellor of Scotland under King Robert I. Since 1947, a major historical re-enactment commemorating the Declaration's signing has been held within the roofless remains of the Abbey church. The celebration is run by the local Arbroath Abbey Pageant Society, and tells the story of the events which led up to the signing. This is not an annual event (most recent performance 2005; next August 2009. However, a special event to mark the signing is held every year on the 6th of April and involves a street procession and short piece of street theatre. The Abbey fell into ruin after the Reformation. From 1590 onward, its stones were raided for buildings in the town of Arbroath. This continued until 1815 when steps were taken to preserve the remaining ruins. On Christmas Day 1950, the Stone of Destiny was stolen from Westminster Abbey. On April 11, 1951, the missing stone was found lying on the site of the Abbey's altar. In 2005 The Arbroath Abbey campaign was launched. Rampant Scotland Newsletter, 19 November 2005 The campaign seeks to gain World Heritage Status for the iconinc Angus landmark that was the birthplace of one of Scotland's most significant document, The Declaration of Arbroath. Angus Council Website, Arbroath Abbey article (1998-2008) Campaigners believe that the Abbey’s historical pronouncement makes it a prime candidate to achieve World Heritage Status. MSP Alex Johnstone wrote "Clearly, the Declaration of Arbroath is a literary work of outstanding universal significance by any stretch of the imagination" The Arbroath World Heritage Campaign, Points on Nomination (2005) In 2008, the Campaign Group Chairman, Councillor Jim Millar launched a public petition to reinforce the bid explaining "We're simply asking people to, local people especially, to sign up to the campaign to have the Declaration of Arbroath and Arbroath Abbey recognised by the United Nations. Essentially we need local people to sign up to this campaign simply because the United Nations demand it." "Interview with Jim Millar, February 2008", Group Chairman of the Arbroath Abbey Campaign Architectural Description Arbroath Abbey, showing The Round 'O'. The Abbey was built over some sixty years using local red sandstone, but gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly 'Early English' architectural design, though the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late Norman or transitional work. The triforium (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture. It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading. The cruciform church measured long by wide. What remains of it today are the sacristy, added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century, the southern transept, which features Scotland's largest lancet windows, part of the choir and presbytery, the southern half of the nave, parts of the western towers and the western doorway. The church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire. These would once have been visible for many miles over the surrounding countryside, and no doubt once acted as a sea-mark for ships. The soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally. These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, though detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect. The distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a beacon for mariners. It is known locally as the 'Round O', and from this tradition inhabitants of Arbroath are colloquially known as 'Reid Lichties' (Scots reid = red). Little remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot's House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best-preserved of its type in Scotland. In the summer of 2001 a new visitors' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey's west front. This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive 'wave-shaped' organic roof, planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics. The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated 'fly-through' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins. The centre won the 2002 Angus Design Award. An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons' yard while the Abbey was being built. See also Abbot of Arbroath, for a list of abbots and commendators References External links Undiscovered Scotland's detailed history http://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm http://www.arbroathabbeypageant.com 2002 Angus Design Award | Arbroath_Abbey |@lemmatized arbroath:18 abbey:26 show:3 distinctive:4 sandstone:5 colouring:1 scottish:2 town:2 found:1 king:5 william:3 lion:1 group:3 tironensian:1 benedictine:1 monk:2 kelso:1 consecrate:1 dedication:1 decease:1 saint:1 thomas:2 becket:1 meet:1 english:2 court:1 personal:1 foundation:2 bury:1 high:4 altar:2 church:7 last:1 abbot:6 cardinal:1 david:1 beaton:1 succeed:1 uncle:1 james:1 become:1 archbishop:1 st:2 andrew:1 care:1 historic:1 scotland:8 open:3 public:3 throughout:1 year:3 entrance:1 charge:1 red:4 ruin:5 stand:1 top:1 street:4 history:4 seal:1 depict:1 murder:1 give:4 independence:1 mother:1 endow:1 generously:1 include:1 income:1 parish:1 land:1 every:2 royal:1 burgh:1 allow:1 run:2 market:1 build:3 harbour:1 john:1 england:2 permission:1 buy:1 sell:1 good:1 anywhere:1 except:2 london:1 toll:1 free:1 rich:1 famous:1 association:1 declaration:5 believe:2 draft:1 bernard:1 chancellor:1 robert:1 since:1 major:1 historical:2 enactment:1 commemorate:1 signing:3 hold:2 within:1 roofless:1 remain:3 celebration:1 local:4 pageant:1 society:1 tell:1 story:1 event:3 lead:1 annual:1 recent:1 performance:1 next:1 august:1 however:1 special:1 mark:2 april:2 involve:1 procession:1 short:1 piece:1 theatre:1 fell:1 reformation:1 onward:1 stone:3 raid:1 building:6 continue:1 step:1 take:1 preserve:1 christmas:1 day:1 destiny:1 steal:1 westminster:1 miss:1 find:2 lie:1 site:3 campaign:7 launch:2 rampant:1 newsletter:1 november:1 seek:1 gain:1 world:3 heritage:3 status:2 iconinc:1 angus:5 landmark:1 birthplace:1 one:1 significant:1 document:1 council:1 website:1 article:1 campaigner:1 pronouncement:1 make:1 prime:1 candidate:1 achieve:1 msp:1 alex:1 johnstone:1 write:1 clearly:1 literary:1 work:2 outstanding:1 universal:1 significance:1 stretch:2 imagination:1 point:1 nomination:1 chairman:2 councillor:1 jim:2 millar:2 petition:1 reinforce:1 bid:1 explain:1 simply:2 ask:1 people:3 especially:1 sign:2 recognise:1 united:2 nation:2 essentially:1 need:1 demand:1 interview:1 february:1 architectural:4 description:1 round:4 sixty:1 use:1 impression:2 single:1 coherent:1 mainly:1 early:1 design:3 though:2 arched:1 processional:1 doorway:2 western:3 front:2 look:1 back:1 late:1 norman:1 transitional:1 triforium:1 arcade:1 door:1 unique:1 medieval:2 architecture:1 flank:1 twin:1 tower:4 decorate:1 blind:1 arcading:1 cruciform:1 measure:1 long:2 wide:1 today:1 sacristy:1 add:1 paniter:1 century:2 southern:2 transept:2 feature:3 large:1 lancet:1 window:2 part:2 choir:1 presbytery:1 half:1 nave:1 originally:3 central:1 probably:1 spire:1 would:1 visible:1 many:1 mile:1 surround:1 countryside:1 doubt:1 act:1 sea:1 ship:1 soft:1 wall:2 protect:1 plaster:1 internally:1 render:1 externally:1 coating:1 go:1 much:1 detail:1 sadly:1 erode:1 detached:1 fragment:1 consolidation:1 original:1 refine:1 rather:1 austere:1 effect:1 south:2 light:1 night:1 beacon:1 mariner:1 know:2 locally:1 tradition:1 inhabitant:1 colloquially:1 reid:2 lichties:1 scot:1 little:1 remains:1 claustral:1 impressive:1 gatehouse:1 west:2 corner:1 defensive:1 still:1 complete:2 house:2 best:2 preserved:1 type:1 summer:1 new:1 visitor:2 centre:3 beside:1 clad:1 wave:1 shape:1 organic:1 roof:1 plant:1 sedum:1 display:1 surviving:1 stonework:2 relic:1 upper:1 storey:1 scale:1 model:1 complex:1 computer:1 generate:1 fly:1 reconstruction:1 viewing:1 gallery:1 excellent:1 view:1 win:1 award:2 archaeological:1 investigation:1 start:1 reveal:1 precinct:1 gateway:1 discard:1 manufacture:1 area:1 mason:1 yard:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 commendators:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 undiscovered:1 detailed:1 http:2 www:2 gov:1 uk:1 arbabbey:1 htm:1 arbroathabbeypageant:1 com:1 |@bigram arbroath_abbey:8 benedictine_monk:1 thomas_becket:1 declaration_arbroath:4 westminster_abbey:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 |
5,824 | Computer_worm | A computer worm is a self-replicating computer program. It uses a network to send copies of itself to other nodes (computers on the network) and it may do so without any user intervention. Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach itself to an existing program. Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, if only by consuming bandwidth, whereas viruses almost always corrupt or devour files on a targeted computer. Payloads Many worms that have been created are only designed to spread, and don't attempt to alter the systems they pass through. However, as the Morris worm and Mydoom showed, the network traffic and other unintended effects can often cause major disruption. A "payload" is code designed to do more than spread the worm - it might delete files on a host system (e.g., the ExploreZip worm), encrypt files in a cryptoviral extortion attack, or send documents via e-mail. A very common payload for worms is to install a backdoor in the infected computer to allow the creation of a "zombie" computer under control of the worm author - Sobig and Mydoom are examples which created zombies. Networks of such machines are often referred to as botnets and are very commonly used by spam senders for sending junk email or to cloak their website's address. The Seattle Times: Business & Technology: E-mail viruses blamed as spam rises sharply Spammers are therefore thought to be a source of funding for the creation of such worms, Cloaking Device Made for Spammers http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_world/view/68810/1/.html and the worm writers have been caught selling lists of IP addresses of infected machines. heise online - Uncovered: Trojans as Spam Robots Others try to blackmail companies with threatened DoS attacks. BBC NEWS | Technology | Hacker threats to bookies probed Backdoors can be exploited by other malware, including worms. Examples include Doomjuice, which spreads better using the backdoor opened by Mydoom, and at least one instance of malware taking advantage of the rootkit and backdoor installed by the Sony/BMG DRM software utilized by millions of music CDs prior to late 2005. Worms with good intent Beginning with the very first research into worms at Xerox PARC there have been attempts to create useful worms. The Nachi family of worms, for example, tried to download and install patches from Microsoft's website to fix vulnerabilities in the host system – by exploiting those same vulnerabilities. In practice, although this may have made these systems more secure, it generated considerable network traffic, rebooted the machine in the course of patching it, and did its work without the consent of the computer's owner or user. Some worms, such as XSS worms, have been written for research to determine the factors of how worms spread, such as social activity and change in user behavior, while other worms are little more than a prank, such as one that sends the popular image macro of an owl with the phrase "O RLY?" to a print queue in the infected computer. Most security experts regard all worms as malware, whatever their payload or their writers' intentions. Protecting against dangerous computer worms Worms spread by exploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems. All vendors supply regular security updates USN list | Ubuntu (see "Patch Tuesday"), and if these are installed to a machine then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it. If a vendor acknowledges a vulnerability, but has yet to release a security update to patch it, a zero day exploit is possible. However, these are relatively rare. Users need to be wary of opening unexpected email, Information on the Nimda Worm and should not run attached files or programs, or visit web sites that are linked to such emails. However, as with the ILOVEYOU worm, and with the increased growth and efficiency of phishing attacks, it remains possible to trick the end-user into running a malicious code. Anti-virus and anti-spyware software are helpful, but must be kept up-to-date with new pattern files at least every few days. The use of a firewall is also recommended. In the April-June, 2008, issue of IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, computer scientists describe a potential new way to combat internet worms. The researchers discovered how to contain the kind of worm that scans the Internet randomly, looking for vulnerable hosts to infect. They found that the key is for software to monitor the number of scans that machines on a network sends out. When a machine starts sending out too many scans, it is a sign that it has been infected, allowing administrators to take it off line and check it for viruses. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?isnumber=4509574&arnumber=4358715&count=10&index=3 Sellke, SH. Shroff, NB. Bagchi, S (2008). Modeling and Automated Containment of Worms. IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing. 5(2), 71-86 Newswise: A New Way to Protect Computer Networks from Internet Worms Retrieved on June 5, 2008. Mitigation techniques TCP Wrapper/libwrap enabled network service daemons ACLs in routers and switches Packet-filters Nullrouting See also Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms Computer virus Trojan horse (computing) Spam Computer surveillance XSS Worm References External links The Wildlist - List of viruses and worms 'in the wild' (i.e. regularly encountered by anti-virus companies) Jose Nazario discusses worms - Worms overview by a famous security researcher. Computer worm suspect in court Vernalex.com's Malware Removal Guide - Guide for understanding, removing and preventing worm infections John Shoch, Jon Hupp "The "Worm" Programs - Early Experience with a Distributed Computation" RFC 1135 The Helminthiasis of the Internet Surfing Safe - A site providing tips/advice on preventing and removing viruses. Computer Worms Information The Case for Using Layered Defenses to Stop Worms | Computer_worm |@lemmatized computer:16 worm:39 self:1 replicate:1 program:4 use:5 network:9 send:6 copy:1 node:1 may:2 without:2 user:5 intervention:1 unlike:1 virus:10 need:2 attach:1 exist:1 almost:2 always:2 cause:2 least:3 harm:1 consume:1 bandwidth:1 whereas:1 corrupt:1 devour:1 file:5 targeted:1 payloads:1 many:2 create:3 design:2 spread:6 attempt:2 alter:1 system:5 pass:1 however:3 morris:1 mydoom:3 show:1 traffic:2 unintended:1 effect:1 often:2 major:1 disruption:1 payload:3 code:2 might:1 delete:1 host:3 e:4 g:1 explorezip:1 encrypt:1 cryptoviral:1 extortion:1 attack:3 document:1 via:1 mail:2 common:1 install:2 backdoor:4 infected:3 allow:2 creation:2 zombie:2 control:1 author:1 sobig:1 example:3 machine:6 refer:1 botnets:1 commonly:1 spam:4 sender:1 junk:1 email:3 cloak:2 website:2 address:2 seattle:1 time:1 business:1 technology:2 blame:1 rise:1 sharply:1 spammer:2 therefore:1 think:1 source:1 funding:1 device:1 make:2 http:2 www:1 channelnewsasia:1 com:2 story:1 view:1 html:1 writer:2 catch:1 sell:1 list:3 ip:1 heise:1 online:1 uncovered:1 trojan:2 robot:1 others:1 try:2 blackmail:1 company:2 threatened:1 bbc:1 news:1 hacker:1 threat:1 bookie:1 probe:1 exploit:4 malware:4 include:2 doomjuice:1 well:1 open:2 one:2 instance:1 take:2 advantage:1 rootkit:1 instal:2 sony:1 bmg:1 drm:1 software:3 utilize:1 million:1 music:1 cd:1 prior:1 late:1 good:1 intent:1 begin:1 first:1 research:2 xerox:1 parc:1 useful:1 nachi:1 family:1 download:1 patch:4 microsoft:1 fix:1 vulnerability:4 practice:1 although:1 secure:3 generate:1 considerable:1 reboot:1 course:1 work:1 consent:1 owner:1 x:2 write:1 determine:1 factor:1 social:1 activity:1 change:1 behavior:1 little:1 prank:1 popular:1 image:1 macro:1 owl:1 phrase:1 rly:1 print:1 queue:1 security:4 expert:1 regard:1 whatever:1 intention:1 protect:2 dangerous:1 operate:1 vendor:2 supply:1 regular:1 update:2 usn:1 ubuntu:1 see:2 tuesday:1 majority:1 unable:1 acknowledge:1 yet:1 release:1 zero:1 day:2 possible:2 relatively:1 rare:1 wary:1 unexpected:1 information:2 nimda:1 run:2 attached:1 visit:1 web:1 sit:1 link:2 iloveyou:1 increased:1 growth:1 efficiency:1 phishing:1 remain:1 trick:1 end:1 malicious:1 anti:3 spyware:1 helpful:1 must:1 keep:1 date:1 new:3 pattern:1 every:1 firewall:1 also:2 recommend:1 april:1 june:2 issue:1 ieee:3 transaction:2 dependable:2 computing:2 scientist:1 describe:1 potential:1 way:2 combat:1 internet:4 researcher:2 discover:1 contain:1 kind:1 scan:3 randomly:1 look:1 vulnerable:1 infect:2 find:1 key:1 monitor:1 number:1 start:1 sign:1 administrator:1 line:1 check:1 ieeexplore:1 org:1 xpl:1 jsp:1 isnumber:1 arnumber:1 count:1 index:1 sellke:1 sh:1 shroff:1 nb:1 bagchi:1 modeling:1 automate:1 containment:1 newswise:1 retrieve:1 mitigation:1 technique:1 tcp:1 wrapper:1 libwrap:1 enable:1 service:1 daemon:1 acls:1 router:1 switch:1 packet:1 filter:1 nullrouting:1 timeline:1 notable:1 horse:1 compute:1 surveillance:1 reference:1 external:1 wildlist:1 wild:1 regularly:1 encounter:1 jose:1 nazario:1 discus:1 overview:1 famous:1 suspect:1 court:1 vernalex:1 removal:1 guide:2 understanding:1 remove:1 prevent:1 infection:1 john:1 shoch:1 jon:1 hupp:1 early:1 experience:1 distributed:1 computation:1 rfc:1 helminthiasis:1 surf:1 safe:1 site:1 provide:1 tip:1 advice:1 preventing:1 removing:1 case:1 layered:1 defense:1 stop:1 |@bigram http_www:1 ip_address:1 bbc_news:1 sony_bmg:1 xerox_parc:1 ieee_transaction:2 virus_worm:2 trojan_horse:1 external_link:1 |
5,825 | Irish_mythology | The mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity, but much of it was preserved, shorn of its religious meanings, in medieval Irish literature, which represents the most extensive and best preserved of all the branches of Celtic mythology. Although many of the manuscripts have failed to survive, and much more material was probably never committed to writing, there is enough remaining to enable the identification of distinct, if overlapping, cycles: the Mythological Cycle, The Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle and the Historical Cycle. There are also a number of extant mythological texts that don't fit into any of the cycles. Additionally, there are a large number of recorded folk tales that, while not strictly mythological, feature personages from one or more of these four cycles. The sources The three main manuscript sources for Irish mythology are the late 11th/early 12th century Lebor na hUidre which is in the library of the Royal Irish Academy, the early 12th century Book of Leinster in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin, and the Rawlinson manuscript B 502 (Rawl.), housed in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. Despite the dates of these sources, most of the material they contain predates their composition. The earliest of the prose can be dated on linguistic grounds to the 8th century, and some of the verse may be as old as the 6th century. Other important sources include a group of four manuscripts originating in the west of Ireland in the late 14th or early 15th century: The Yellow Book of Lecan, The Great Book of Lecan, The Book of Hy Many, and The Book of Ballymote. The first of these contains part of the earliest known version of the Táin Bó Cúailnge ("The Driving-off of Cattle of Cooley") and is housed in Trinity College. The other three are in the Royal Academy. Other 15th century manuscripts, such as The Book of Fermoy also contain interesting materials, as do such later syncretic works such as Geoffrey Keating's Foras Feasa ar Éirinn (The History of Ireland) (ca. 1640), particularly as these later compilers and writers may have had access to manuscript sources that have since disappeared. When using these sources, it is, as always, important to question the impact of the circumstances in which they were produced. Most of the manuscripts were created by Christian monks, who may well have been torn between the desire to record their native culture and their religious hostility to pagan beliefs resulting in some of the gods being euhemerized. Many of the later sources may also have formed part of a propaganda effort designed to create a history for the people of Ireland that could bear comparison with the mythological descent of their British invaders from the founders of Rome that was promulgated by Geoffrey of Monmouth and others. There was also a tendency to rework Irish genealogies to fit into the known schema of Greek or Biblical genealogy. It was once unquestioned that medieval Irish literature preserved truly ancient traditions in a form virtually unchanged through centuries of oral tradition back to the ancient Celts of Europe. Kenneth Jackson famously described the Ulster Cycle as a "window on the Iron Age", and Garret Olmsted has attempted to draw parallels between Táin Bó Cuailnge, the Ulster Cycle epic, and the iconography of the Gundestrup Cauldron. However, this "nativist" position has been challenged by "revisionist" scholars who believe that much of it was created in Christian times in deliberate imitation of the epics of classical literature that came with Latin learning. The revisionists would indicate passages apparently influenced by the Iliad in Táin Bó Cuailnge, and the existence of Togail Troí, an Irish adaptation of Dares Phrygius' De excidio Troiae historia, found in the Book of Leinster, and note that the material culture of the stories is generally closer to the time of the stories' composition than to the distant past. A consensus has emerged which encourages the critical reading of the material. Mythological cycle The Mythological Cycle, comprising stories of the former gods and origins of the Irish, is the least well preserved of the four cycles. The most important sources are the Metrical Dindshenchas or Lore of Places and the Lebor Gabála Érenn or Book of Invasions. Other manuscripts preserve such Mythological tales as The Dream of Aengus, The Wooing Of Étain and Cath Maige Tuireadh, The (second) Battle of Magh Tuireadh. One of the best known of all Irish stories, Oidheadh Clainne Lir, or The Tragedy of the Children of Lir, is also part of this cycle. Lebor Gabála Érenn is a pseudo-history of Ireland, tracing the ancestry of the Irish back to Noah. It tells of a series of invasions or "takings" of Ireland by a succession of peoples, the fifth of whom was the people known as the Tuatha Dé Danann ("Peoples of Goddess Danu"), who were believed to have inhabited the island before the arrival of the Gaels, or Milesians. They faced opposition from their enemies, the Fomorians, led by Balor of the Evil Eye. Balor was eventually slain by Lug Lámfada (Lug of the Long Arm) at the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. With the arrival of the Gaels, the Tuatha Dé Danann retired underground to become the fairy people of later myth and legend. The Metrical Dindshenchas is the great onomastic work of early Ireland, giving the naming legends of significant places in a sequence of poems. It includes a lot of important information on Mythological Cycle figures and stories, including the Battle of Tailtiu, in which the Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by the Milesians. It is important to note that by the Middle Ages the Tuatha Dé Danann were not viewed so much as gods as the shape-shifting magician population of an earlier Golden Age Ireland. Texts such as Lebor Gabála Érenn and Cath Maige Tuireadh present them as kings and heroes of the distant past, complete with death-tales. However there is considerable evidence, both in the texts and from the wider Celtic world, that they were once considered deities. Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as Lug, the Mórrígan, Aengus and Manannan appear in stories set centuries later, betraying their immortality. A poem in the Book of Leinster lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends "Although [the author] enumerates them, he does not worship them". Goibniu, Creidhne and Luchta are referred to as Trí Dé Dána ("three gods of craftsmanship"), and the Dagda's name is interpreted in medieval texts as "the good god". Nuada is cognate with the British god Nodens; Lug is a reflex of the pan-Celtic deity Lugus, the name of whom may indicate "Light"; Tuireann may be related to the Gaulish Taranis; Ogma to Ogmios; the Badb to Catubodua. Other important Tuatha Dé Danann figures Boann Banba Brigid Creidhne Danu Dian Cecht Donn Ériu Étaín Fódla Macha Nechtan Aes Sídhe Bean Sídhe Ulster cycle The Ulster Cycle is set around the beginning of the Christian era and most of the action takes place in the provinces of Ulster and Connacht. It consists of a group of heroic tales dealing with the lives of Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, the great hero Cúchulainn, the son of Lug, and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are the Ulaid, or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court at Emain Macha (known in English as Navan Fort), close to the modern city of Armagh. The Ulaid had close links with the Irish colony in Scotland, and part of Cúchulainn's training takes place in that colony. The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and training, wooings, battles, feastings, and deaths of the heroes and reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written mainly in prose. The centrepiece of the Ulster Cycle is the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Other important Ulster Cycle tales include The Tragic Death of Aife's only Son, Bricriu's Feast, and The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel. The Exile of the Sons of Usnach, better known as the tragedy of Deirdre and the source of plays by John Millington Synge, William Butler Yeats, and Vincent Woods, is also part of this cycle. This cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle. Some of the characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While we may suspect a few characters, such as Medb or Cú Roí, of once being deities, and Cúchulainn in particular displays superhuman prowess, the characters are mortal and associated with a specific time and place. If the Mythological Cycle represents a Golden Age, the Ulster Cycle is Ireland's Heroic Age. Fenian cycle Like the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle is concerned with the deeds of Irish heroes. The stories of the Fenian Cycle appear to be set around the 3rd century and mainly in the provinces of Leinster and Munster. They differ from the other cycles in the strength of their links with the Irish-speaking community in Scotland and there are many extant Fenian texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly in verse and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic. The stories concern the doings of Fionn mac Cumhaill and his band of soldiers, the Fianna. The single most important source for the Fenian Cycle is the Acallam na Senórach (Colloquy of the Old Men), which is found in two 15th century manuscripts, the Book of Lismore and Laud 610, as well as a 17th century manuscript from Killiney, County Dublin. The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the 12th century. The text records conversations between Caílte mac Rónáin and Oisín, the last surviving members of the Fianna, and Saint Patrick, and consists of about 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories. The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionn Mac Cumhall (often rendered as "Finn MacCool", Finn Son of Cumhall), and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy, Goll mac Morna. Goll killed Fionn's father, Cumhal, in battle and the boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb in order to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures. Two of the greatest of the Irish tales, Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne (The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne) and Oisín in Tír na nÓg form part of the cycle. The Diarmuid and Grainne story, which is one of the few Fenian prose tales, is a probable source of Tristan and Iseult. The world of the Fenian Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. There is not any religious element in these tales unless it is one of hero-worship. Historical cycle It was part of the duty of the medieval Irish bards, or court poets, to record the history of the family and the genealogy of the king they served. This they did in poems that blended the mythological and the historical to a greater or lesser degree. The resulting stories form what has come to be known as the Historical Cycle, or more correctly Cycles, as there are a number of independent groupings. The kings that are included range from the almost entirely mythological Labraid Loingsech, who allegedly became High King of Ireland around 431 BC, to the entirely historical Brian Boru. However, the greatest glory of the Historical Cycle is the Buile Shuibhne (The Frenzy of Sweeney), a 12th century tale told in verse and prose. Suibhne, king of Dál nAraidi, was cursed by St Ronan and became a kind of half man, half bird, condemned to live out his life in the woods, fleeing from his human companions. The story has captured the imaginations of contemporary Irish poets and has been translated by Trevor Joyce and Seamus Heaney. Other tales Adventures The adventures, or echtrae, are a group of stories of visits to the Irish Other World (which may be westward across the sea, underground, or simply invisible to mortals). The most famous, Oisin in Tir na nOg belongs to the Fenian Cycle, but several free-standing adventures survive, including The Adventure of Conle, The Voyage of Bran mac Ferbail, and The Adventure of Lóegaire. Voyages The voyages, or immrama, are tales of sea journeys and the wonders seen on them. These probably grew from the experiences of fishermen combined with the Other World elements that inform the adventures. Of the seven immrama mentioned in the manuscripts, only three survive: the Voyage of Mael Dúin, the Voyage of the Uí Chorra, and the Voyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla. The Voyage of Mael Duin is the forerunner of the later Voyage of St. Brendan. Folk tales During the first few years of the 20th Century, Herminie T. Kavanagh wrote down many Irish folk tales which she published in magazines and in two books. Twenty-six years after her death, the tales from her two books, Darby O'Gill and the Good People, and Ashes of Old Wishes were made in to the film Darby O'Gill and the Little People. Noted Irish playwright Lady Gregory also collected folk stories to preserve Irish history. Eddie Lenihan (b-1950), first author of Meeting the Other Crowd as well as writer of numerous other books, has a growing reputation as a modern Irish folklorist. NPR References Primary sources in English translation Cross, Tom Peete and Clark Harris Slover. Ancient Irish Tales. Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, New Jersey, 1936 repr. 1988. ISBN 1-56619-889-5. Dillon, Myles. The Cycles of the Kings. Oxford University Press, 1946; reprinted Four Courts Press: Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. ISBN 1-85182-178-3. Dillon, Myles. Early Irish Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948; reprinted : Four Courts Press, Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. ISBN 0-7858-1676-3. Joseph Dunn: The Ancient Irish Epic Tale Táin Bó Cúailnge (1914) Winifred Faraday: The Cattle-Raid of Cualng. London, 1904. This is a partial translation of the text in the Yellow Book of Lecan, partially censored by Faraday. Gantz, Jeffrey. Early Irish Myths and Sagas. London: Penguin Books, 1981. ISBN 0-14-044397-5. Kinsella, Thomas. The Tain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970. ISBN 0-19-281090-1. Primary sources in Medieval Irish Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired. Elizabeth A. Gray, Ed. Dublin: Irish Texts Society, 1982. Series: Irish Texts Society (Series) ; v. 52. Irish text, English translation and philological notes. Táin Bo Cuailnge from the Book of Leinster. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1984. Táin Bo Cuailnge Recension I. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 1976. Irish text, English translation and philological notes. Retellings of the myths in English Lady Augusta Gregory: Cuchulain of Muirthemne (1902) Lady Augusta Gregory: Gods and Fighting Men (1904) Juliet Mariller: "Daughter of the Forest", "Son of the Shadows", and "Child of the Prophecy" (Sevenwaters trilogy). Gregory Frost: Tain Gregory Frost: Remscela Morgan Llywelyn: Red Branch Morgan Llywelyn: Finn MacCool Morgan Llywelyn: Bard: The Odyssey of the Irish Secondary sources Coghlan, Ronan Pocket Dictionary of Irish Myth and Legend. Belfast: Appletree, 1985. Mallory, J. P. Ed. Aspects of the Tain. Belfast: December Publications, 1992. ISBN 0-9517068-2-9. O'Rahilly, T. F. Early Irish History and Mythology (1946) O hOgain, Daithi "Myth, Legend and Romance: An Encyclopedia of the Irish Folk Tradition" Prentice Hall Press, (1991) : ISBN 0-13-275959-4 (the only dictionary/encyclopedia with source references for every entry) Rees, Brinley and Alwyn Rees. Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1961; repr. 1989. ISBN 0-500-27039-2. Sjoestedt, M. L. Gods and Heroes of the Celts. 1949; translated by Myles Dillon. repr. Berkeley, CA: Turtle Press, 1990. ISBN 1-85182-179-1. Williams, J. F. Caerwyn. Irish Literary History. Trans. Patrick K. Ford. University of Wales Press, Cardiff, Wales, and Ford and Bailie, Belmont, Massachusetts. Welsh edition 1958, English translation 1992. ISBN 0-926689-03-7. Preservationist works - modern traditional stories Lenihan, Eddie and Carolyn Eve Green. Meeting the Other Crowd: The Fairy Stories of Hidden Ireland. New York. Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. 2004. ISBN 1-58542-307-6 External links Department of Irish Folklore, Dublin. Includes the National Folklore Archives The Celtic Literature Collection - over one hundred ancient texts available to download free Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts Timeless Myths: Celtic Mythology Irish Elements in Yeats's Poetry Winifred Faraday's version of the Tain Joseph Dunn's version of the Tain Another source for Joseph Dunn's version of the Tain Cecile O'Rahilly's version of the Tain A modern version of the Tain by Patrick Brown Gods and Fighting Men Buile Shuibhne Acallamh na Senórach Deirdre of the Sorrows Pretanic World - Pantheons | Irish_mythology |@lemmatized mythology:5 pre:1 christian:4 ireland:14 entirely:3 survive:4 conversion:1 christianity:1 much:5 preserve:6 shorn:1 religious:3 meaning:1 medieval:5 irish:37 literature:5 represent:2 extensive:1 best:2 branch:2 celtic:6 although:2 many:6 manuscript:12 fail:1 material:5 probably:2 never:1 commit:1 write:3 enough:1 remain:1 enable:1 identification:1 distinct:1 overlapping:1 cycle:39 mythological:12 ulster:12 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5,826 | Karate | or (, ) is a martial art developed in Japan. It's originated in the Ryukyu Islands based on Okinawan indigenous fighting methods and Chinese kenpō. http://www.wonder-okinawa.jp/023/eng/001/001/index.html history of Okinawan Karate It is primarily a striking art using punching, kicking, knee and elbow strikes and open-handed techniques such as knife-hands and ridge-hands. Grappling, locks, restraints, throws, and vital point strikes are taught in some styles. Chapter 9 covers Motobu-ryū and Bigeikan, two 'ti' styles with grappling and vital point striking techniques. Page 165, Seitoku Higa: "Use pressure on vital points, wrist locks, grappling, strikes and kicks in a gentle manner to neutralize an attack." A karate practitioner is called a karateka. History Okinawa Karate began as a common fighting system known as "ti" (or "te") among the pechin class of the Ryukyuans. After trade relationships were established with the Ming dynasty of China by King Satto of Chūzan in 1372, some forms of Chinese martial arts were introduced to the Ryukyu Islands by the visitors from China, particularly Fujian Province. A group of 36 Chinese families moved to Okinawa around 1392 for the purpose of cultural exchange, where they established the community of Kumemura and shared their knowledge of a wide variety of Chinese arts and sciences, including the Chinese martial arts. The political centralization of Okinawa by King Shō Hashi in 1429 and the 'Policy of Banning Weapons,' enforced in Okinawa after the invasion of the Shimazu clan in 1609, are also factors that furthered the development of unarmed combat techniques in Okinawa. There were few formal styles of ti, but rather many practitioners with their own methods. One surviving example is the Motobu-ryū school passed down from the Motobu family by Seikichi Uehara. Motobu-ryū & Seikichi Uehara Early styles of karate are often generalized as Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te, named after the three cities from which they emerged. Each area and its teachers had particular kata, techniques, and principles that distinguished their local version of ti from the others. Members of the Okinawan upper classes were sent to China regularly to study various political and practical disciplines. The incorporation of empty-handed Chinese wu shu into Okinawan martial arts occurred partly because of these exchanges. Traditional karate kata bear a strong resemblance to the forms found in Fujian martial arts such as Fujian White Crane, Five Ancestors, and Gangrou-quan (Hard Soft Fist; pronounced "Gōjūken" in Japanese). For example Chōjun Miyagi adapted Rokkushu of White Crane into Tenshō Further influence came from Southeast Asia— particularly Sumatra, Java, and Melaka. Many Okinawan weapons such as the sai, tonfa, and nunchaku may have originated in and around Southeast Asia. Sakukawa Kanga (1782–1838) had studied pugilism and staff (bo) fighting in China (according to one legend, under the guidance of Kosokun, originator of kusanku kata). In 1806 he started teaching a fighting art in the city of Shuri that he called "Tudi Sakukawa," which meant "Sakukawa of China Hand." This was the first known recorded reference to the art of "Tudi," written as 唐手. Around the 1820s Sakukawa's most significant student Matsumura Sōkon (1809–1899) taught a synthesis of te (Shuri-te and Tomari-te) and Shaolin (Chinese 少林) styles. Matsumura's style would later become the Shōrin-ryū style. Ankō Itosu Grandfather of Modern Karate Matsumura taught his art to Itosu Ankō (1831–1915) among others. Itosu adapted two forms he had learned from Matsumara. These are kusanku and chiang nan. He created the ping'an forms ("heian" or "pinan" in Japanese) which are simplified kata for beginning students. In 1901 Itosu helped to get karate introduced into Okinawa's public schools. These forms were taught to children at the elementary school level. Itosu's influence in karate is broad. The forms he created are common across nearly all styles of karate. His students became some of the most well known karate masters, including Gichin Funakoshi, Kenwa Mabuni, and Motobu Chōki. Itosu is sometimes referred to as "the Grandfather of Modern Karate." Patrick McCarthy, footnote #4 In 1881 Higaonna Kanryō returned from China after years of instruction with Ryu Ryu Ko and founded what would become Naha-te. One of his students was the founder of Gojū-ryū, Chōjun Miyagi. Chōjun Miyagi taught such well-known karateka as Seko Higa (who also trained with Higaonna), Meitoku Yagi, Miyazato Ei'ichi, and Seikichi Toguchi, and for a very brief time near the end of his life, An'ichi Miyagi (teacher claimed by Morio Higaonna). In addition to the three early ti styles of karate a fourth Okinawan influence is that of Kanbun Uechi (1877–1948). At the age of 20 he went to Fuzhou in Fujian Province, China, to escape Japanese military conscription. While there he studied under Shushiwa. He was a leading figure of Chinese Nanpa Shorin-ken at that time. Kanbun Uechi history He later developed his own style of Uechi-ryū karate based on the Sanchin, Seisan, and Sanseiryu kata that he had studied in China. Japan Masters of karate in Tokyo (c. 1930s) Kanken Toyama, Hironori Ohtsuka, Takeshi Shimoda, Gichin Funakoshi, Motobu Chōki, Kenwa Mabuni, Genwa Nakasone, and Shinken Taira (from left to right) Gichin Funakoshi, founder of Shotokan karate, is generally credited with having introduced and popularized karate on the main islands of Japan. Actually many Okinawans were actively teaching, and are thus equally responsible for the development of karate. Funakoshi was a student of both Asato Ankō and Itosu Ankō (who had worked to introduce karate to the Okinawa Prefectural School System in 1902). During this time period, prominent teachers who also influenced the spread of karate in Japan included Kenwa Mabuni, Chōjun Miyagi, Motobu Chōki, Kanken Tōyama, and Kanbun Uechi. This was a turbulent period in history in the region. It includes Japan's annexation of the Okinawan island group in 1872, the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), the annexation of Korea, and the rise of Japanese militarism (1905–1945). Japan was invading China at the time, and Funakoshi knew that the art of Tang/China hand would not be accepted; thus the change of the art's name to "way of the empty hand." The dō suffix implies that karatedō is a path to self knowledge, not just a study of the technical aspects of fighting. Like most martial arts practiced in Japan, karate made its transition from -jutsu to -dō around the beginning of the 20th century. The "dō" in "karate-dō" sets it apart from karate "jutsu", as aikido is distinguished from aikijutsu, judo from jujutsu, kendo from kenjutsu and iaido from iaijutsu. Gichin FunakoshiFounder of Shotokan Karate Funakoshi changed the names of many kata and the name of the art itself (at least on mainland Japan), doing so to get karate accepted by the Japanese budō organization Dai Nippon Butoku Kai. Funakoshi also gave Japanese names to many of the kata. The five pinan forms became known as heian, the three naihanchi forms became known as tekki, seisan as hangetsu, Chintō as gankaku, wanshu as empi, and so on. These were mostly political changes, rather than changes to the content of the forms, although Funakoshi did introduce some such changes. Funakoshi had trained in two of the popular branches of Okinawan karate of the time, Shorin-ryū and Shōrei-ryū. In Japan he was influenced by kendo, incorporating some ideas about distancing and timing into his style. He always referred to what he taught as simply karate, but in 1936 he built a dojo in Tokyo and the style he left behind is usually called Shotokan after this dojo. The modernization and systemization of karate in Japan also included the adoption of the white uniform that consisted of the kimono and the dogi or keikogi—mostly called just karategi—and colored belt ranks. Both of these innovations were originated and popularized by Jigoro Kano, the founder of judo and one of the men Funakoshi consulted in his efforts to modernize karate. In 1922, Hironori Ohtsuka attended the Tokyo Sports Festival, where he saw Funakoshi's karate. Ohtsuka was so impressed with this that he visited Funakoshi many times during his stay. Funakoshi was, in turn, impressed by Ohtsuka's enthusiasm and determination to understand karate, and agreed to teach him. In the following years, Ohtsuka set up a medical practice dealing with martial arts injuries. His prowess in martial arts led him to become the Chief Instructor of Shindō Yōshin-ryū jujutsu at the age of 30, and an assistant instructor in Funakoshi's dojo. By 1929, Ohtsuka was registered as a member of the Japan Martial Arts Federation. Okinawan karate at this time was only concerned with kata. Ohtsuka thought that the full spirit of budō, which concentrates on defence and attack, was missing, and that kata techniques did not work in realistic fighting situations. He experimented with other, more combative styles such as judo, kendo, and aikido. He blended the practical and useful elements of Okinawan karate with traditional Japanese martial arts techniques from jujitsu and kendo, which led to the birth of kumite, or free fighting, in karate. Ohtsuka thought that there was a need for this more dynamic type of karate to be taught, and he decided to leave Funakoshi to concentrate on developing his own style of karate: Wadō-ryū. In 1934, Wadō-ryū karate was officially recognized as an independent style of karate. This recognition meant a departure for Ohtsuka from his medical practice and the fulfilment of a life's ambition—to become a full-time martial artist. Ohtsuka's personalized style of Karate was officially registered in 1938 after he was awarded the rank of Renshi-go. He presented a demonstration of Wadō-ryū karate for the Japan Martial Arts Federation. They were so impressed with his style and commitment that they acknowledged him as a high-ranking instructor. The next year the Japan Martial Arts Federation asked all the different styles to register their names; Ohtsuka registered the name Wadō-ryū. In 1944, Ohtsuka was appointed Japan's Chief Karate Instructor. Isshin-ryū is a style of Okinawan karate founded by Shimabuku Tatsuo, a student of Motobu Chōki, and named by him on January 15, 1956. Isshin-ryū karate is largely a synthesis of Shorin-ryū karate, Gojū-ryū karate, and Kobudō. The name means, literally, "one heart method." The style, while not very popular in Okinawa, spread to the United States via the Marines stationed on the island after they returned home, and has also spread to other countries. After the passing of Shimabuku, many variations of the system formed and exist to this day. A new form of karate called Kyokushin was formally founded in 1957 by Masutatsu Oyama (who was born a Korean, Choi Yeong-Eui). Kyokushin is largely a synthesis of Shotokan and Gojū-ryū. It teach a curriculum that emphasize contact, physical toughness, and full contact sparring. Because of its emphasis on physical, full-force sparring, Kyokushin is now often called "full contact karate", or "Knockdown karate" (after the name for its competition rules). Many other karate organizations and styles are descended from the Kyokushin curriculum. The World Karate Federation recognizes these styles of karate in its kata list Shōtōkan-ryū Shitō-ryū Gōjū-ryū Wadō-ryū The World Union of Karate-do Organizations (WUKO) WUKO World Union of Karate-do Organizations recognizes these styles of karate in its kata list. Gōjū-ryū, Shitō-ryū, Shōtōkan-ryū, Wadō-ryū, Shōrin-ryū, Uechi-ryū, Kyokushinkai, Budōkan. Many schools would be affiliated with, or heavily influenced by, one or more of these styles. Practice Karate can be practiced as budō, as a sport, as a combat sport, or as self defense training. Traditional karate places emphasis on self development (budō). International Traditional Karate Federation (ITKF) Modern Japanese style training emphasizes the psychological elements incorporated into a proper kokoro (attitude) such as perseverance, fearlessness, virtue, and leadership skills. Sport karate places emphasis on exercise and competition. Weapons (kobudō) is important training activity in some styles. Karate training is commonly divided into kihon (basics or fundamentals), kata (forms), and kumite (sparring). Kihon Karate styles place varying importance on kihon. Typically this is performance in unison of a technique or a combination of techniques by a group of karateka. Kihon may also be prearranged drills in smaller groups or in pairs. Kata Motobu Chōki in Naihanchi-dachi, one of the basic karate stances Kata (型:かた) means literally "shape" or "model." Kata is a formalized sequence of movements which represent various attack and defense postures. These postures are based on idealized combat applications. Some kata use low and wide stances. This practice develops leg strength, correct posture, and gracefulness. Vigorous arm movements enhance cardiovascular fitness and upper body strength. Kata vary in number of movements and difficulty. The longer kata require the karateka to learn many complex movements. Diligent training and correct mindfulness lead to real understanding of combat principles. Physical routines were a logical way to preserve this type of knowledge. The various moves have multiple interpretations and applications. Because the applicability for actual self-defense is so flexible there is no definitively correct way to interpret all kata. That is why only high ranking practitioners are qualified to judge adequate form for their own style. Some of the criteria for judging the quality of a performance are: Absence of missteps; correct beginning and especially ending; crispness and smoothness; correct speed and power; confidence; and knowledge of application. Kata with the same name are often performed differently in other styles of karate. Kata are taught with minor variations among schools of the same style. Even the same instructor will teach a particular kata slightly differently as the years pass. To attain a formal rank the karateka must demonstrate competent performance of specific required kata for that level. The Japanese terminology for grades or ranks is commonly used. Requirements for examinations vary among schools. Kumite Sparring in Karate is called kumite (組手:くみて). It literally means "meeting of hands." Kumite is practiced both as a sport and as self-defense training. A Karateka executing a flying side kick Levels of physical contact during sparring vary considerably. Full contact karate has several variants. Knockdown karate (such as Kyokushin) uses full power techniques to bring an opponent to the ground. In Kickboxing variants ( for example K-1), the preferred win is by knockout. Sparring in armour (bogu kumite) allows full power techniques with some safety. Sport kumite is free or structured with non-contact (or more correctly limited-contact), light contact, semi contact or full-contact, and points are awarded by a referee. In structured kumite (Yakusoku - prearranged), two participants perform a choreographed series of techniques with one striking while the other blocks. The form ends with one devastating technique (Hito Tsuki). In free sparring (Jiyu Kumite), the two participants have a free choice of scoring techniques. The allowed techniques and contact level are primarily determined by sport or style organization policy, but might be modified according to the age, rank and sex of the participants. Depending upon style, take-downs, sweeps and in some rare cases even time-limited grappling on the ground are also allowed. Free sparring is performed in a marked or closed area. The bout runs for a fixed time (2 to 3 minutes.) The time can run continuously (Iri Kume) or be stopped for referee judgment. In light contact or semi contact kumite, points are awarded based on the criteria: good form, sporting attitude, vigorous application, awareness/zanshin, good timing and correct distance. World Karate Federation Competition Rules In full contact karate kumite, points are based on the results of the impact, rather than the formal appearance of the scoring technique. Dojo Kun In the bushidō tradition dojo kun is a set of guidelines for karateka to follow. These guidelines apply both in the dojo (training hall) and in everyday life. Conditioning Okinawan karate uses supplementary training known as hojo undo. This utilizes simple equipment made of wood and stone. The makiwara is a striking post. The nigiri game is a large jar used for developing grip strength. These supplementary exercises are designed to increase strength, stamina, speed, and muscle coordination. Sport Karate emphasises aerobic exercise, anaerobic exercise, power, agility, flexibility, and stress management. All practices vary depending upon the school and the teacher. Sport Gichin Funakoshi (船越 義珍) said, "There are no contests in karate." In pre-World War II Okinawa, kumite was not part of karate training. Shigeru Egami relates that, in 1940, some karateka were ousted from their dojo because they adopted sparring after having learned it in Tokyo. Karate is divided into style organizations. These organizations sometimes cooperates in non-style specific Sport karate organizations or federations. Examples of sport organizations are WKF, WUKO and WKC World Karate Confederation . Style organizations hold competitions from local to international level, but unlike the sport organizations they tend to be for members of that style organization and specially invited guests, only. Some style organizations, like the many different kyokushinkai style organizations, do not cooperate regularly with any sport organization/federation, but prefer to stay within their own system and compete with their own rules. The World Karate Federation (WKF) is the largest sport karate organization, and it is recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as being responsible for karate competition in the Olympic games. The WKF has developed common rules governing all styles. The national WKF organisations coordinate with their respective National Olympic Committees. Karate does not have 2012 Olympic status. In the 117th IOC Session (July 2005), karate received more than half of the votes, but not the two-thirds majority needed to become an official Olympic sport. WKF karate competition has two disciplines: sparring (kumite) and forms (kata) Competitors may enter either as individuals or as part of a team. Evaluation for kata and kobudō is performed by a panel of judges, whereas sparring is judged by a head referee, usually with assistant referees at the side of the sparring area. Sparring matches are typically divided by weight, age, gender, and experience. The WKF accepts only one organization per country. The World Union of Karate-do Organizations (WUKO) WUKO - World Union of Karate-Do Organizations offers different styles and federations a world body they may join, without having to compromise their style or size. The WUKO accepts more than one federation or association per country. Different karate style and sport organizations use different competition rule systems, ranging from light contact as used in the WKF, WUKO and WKC kumite rule sets, to full contact karate as seen in the Knockdown karate rules variations used by the Kyokushinkai, Ashihara karate, Shidokan and Seidokaikan (and many other) style organizations. Or the Bogu kumite rules variant known as Koshiki karate (full contact with heavy protective padding) used in the All Japan Koshiki Karate-Do Federation http://www.koshiki.org/ World Koshiki Karatedo Federation sport organization. Still other sport organizations like the Shinkaratedo Federation Shinkaratedo Renmei in Japan, use Gloved karate rules (called so because they wear boxing gloves) that resembles kickboxing. Rank A young student graduates up a rank in belt in front of his dojo.In 1924 Gichin Funakoshi, founder of Shotokan Karate, adopted the Dan system from judo founder Jigoro Kano using a rank scheme with a limited set of belt colors. Other Okinawan teachers also adopted this practice. In the Kyū/Dan system the beginner grades start with a higher numbered kyū (e.g., 9th Kyū) and progress toward a lower numbered kyū. The Dan progression continues from 1st Dan (Shodan, or 'beginning dan') to the higher dan grades. Kyū-grade karateka are referred to as "color belt" or mudansha ("ones without dan"). Dan-grade karateka are referred to as yudansha (holders of dan rank). Yudansha typically wear a black belt. Requirements of rank differ among styles, organizations, and schools. Kyū ranks stress stance, balance, and coordination. Speed and power are added at higher grades. Minimum age and time in rank are factors affecting promotion. Testing consists of demonstration of techniques before a panel of examiners. This will vary by school, but testing may include everything learned at that point, or just new information. The demonstration is an application for new rank (shinsa) and may include kata, bunkai, self-defense, routines, tameshiwari (breaking), and/or kumite (sparring). Black belt testing may also include a written examination. Dishonest practice Due to the popularity of martial arts, both in mass media and reality, a large number of disreputable, fraudulent, or misguided teachers and schools have arisen, approximately over the last 40 years. Commonly referred to as a "McDojo" A Chronological History of the Martial Arts: Douglas Coupland's novel Generation X, which defined McJob as "a low-pay, low prestige, low-dignity, low benefit, no-future job in the service sector," appears in paperback, and within weeks, the term "McDojo" appeared at rec.martial-arts as a description of franchise martial art schools run by people with more ego than talent. or a "Black Belt Mill," these schools are commonly headed by martial artists of either dubious skill or business ethics. Philosophy Gichin Funakoshi interpreted the "kara" of Karate-dō to mean "to purge [oneself] of selfish and evil thoughts. For only with a clear mind and conscience can [the practitioner] understand that [knowledge] which he receives." Funakoshi believed that one should be "inwardly humble and outwardly gentle." Only by behaving humbly can one be open to Karate's many lessons. This is done by listening and being receptive to criticism. He considered courtesy of prime importance. He said that "Karate is properly applied only in those rare situations in which one really must either down another or be downed by him." Funakoshi did not consider it unusual for a devotee to use Karate in a real physical confrontation no more than perhaps once in a lifetime. He stated that Karate practitioners must "never be easily drawn into a fight." It is understood that one blow from a real expert could mean death. It is clear that those who misuse what they have learned bring dishonor upon themselves. He promoted the character trait of personal conviction. In "time of grave public crisis, one must have the courage...to face a million and one opponents." He taught that indecisiveness is a weakness. Funakoshi, Gichin. "Karate-dō Kyohan - The Master Text" Tokyo. Kodansha International; 1973. Etymology Hypothetically, any unarmed combat system could accurately be called "karate" since the Japanese phrase literally means "empty hand." This is not necessarily an acceptable conclusion. To separate fact from fancy requires understanding issues of nationalism, lineage, primacy, and philosophy. Chinese Hand Karate was originally written as Chinese hand in kanji. It was later changed to a homophone meaning empty hand. The original use of the word karate in print is attributed to Ankō Itosu. He wrote it with the kanji 唐手:からて (Tang Dynasty hand) rather than the present usage of 空手:からて (empty hand). The Tang Dynasty of China ended in AD 907. The kanji representing it remained in use in Okinawa as a way to refer to China generally. Names of China Thus the word karate was originally a way of expressing "Chinese hand," or "martial art from China." It should be noted that use of the written character is possibly linked to the origins of karate from China. Empty Hand The original use of "Chinese hand," "Tang hand," “Chinese fist,” or "Chinese techniques" (depending on interpretation of 唐手) reflects the documented Chinese influence on karate. The first documented use of a homophone of the logogram pronounced kara by replacing the character meaning Tang Dynasty (唐 から) with the character meaning empty (空 から) took place in Karate Kumite. This is a book by Hanashiro Chōmo (1869–1945) which was published in August 1905. In the early 20th century Japan did not have good relations with China. In 1932 Japan attacked China and occupied its northern territory. At that time referring to Chinese origins of karate was considered politically incorrect. http://www.newpaltzkarate.com/article/Article1SA.html, Levitz, Maurey (1998) What's In A Name? How the meaning of the term karate has changed, New Paltz Karate Academy, Inc. Nomenclature Another nominal development is the addition of dō (道:どう) to the end of the word karate. Dō is a suffix having numerous meanings including road, path, route, and way. It is used in many martial arts that survived Japan's transition from feudal culture to modern times. It implies that these arts are not just fighting systems but contain spiritual elements when promoted as disciplines. In this context dō is usually translated as "the way of." Examples are aikido (合気道:あいきどう), judo (柔道:じゅうどう), and kendo (剣道:けんどう). Thus karatedō is more than just empty hand techniques. It is The Way Of The Empty Hand. Karate outside Japan Korea Due to past conflict between Korea and Japan, most notably during the Japanese occupation in the 20th century, the influence of karate on Korean martial arts is a contentious issue. From 1910 until 1939, many Koreans migrated to Japan and were exposed to Japanese martial arts. After regaining independence from Japan, many Korean martial arts schools were founded by masters with training in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean martial arts. For example, Choi Hong Hi, a significant figure in taekwondo history, studied Shotokan karate in Japan. Karate also provided an important comparative model for the early founders of taekwondo in the formalization of their art inheriting some kata and the belt rank system. It should be noted that contemporary taekwondo is technically very different from karate (e.g. relies much more on legs than hands, involves high kicks on the heels, more jumps, etc). Soviet Union Karate appeared in the Soviet Union in the mid-1960s, during Khruschev's policy of improved international relations. The first Shotokan clubs were opened in Moscow's universities. karate-shotokan.net In 1973, however, the government banned karate—together with all other foreign martial arts—endorsing only the Soviet martial art of sambo. Failing to suppress these uncontrolled groups, the USSR's Sport Committee formed the Karate Federation of USSR in December 1978. [karate-shotokan.net] On 17 May 1984, the Soviet Karate Federation was disbanded and all karate became illegal again. In 1989, karate practice became legal again, but under strict government regulations, only after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1992 did independent karate schools resume functioning, and so federations were formed and national tournaments in authentic styles began. United States After World War II, members of the US military learned karate in Okinawa or Japan and then opened schools in the USA. In 1945 Robert Trias opened the first martial arts school in the United States in Phoenix, Arizona, a Shuri-ryū karate dojo. In the 1950s, Edward Kaloudis, William Dometrich (Chitō-ryū), Ed Parker (Kenpo), Cecil Patterson (Wadō-ryū), Gordon Doversola (Okinawa-te), Louis Kowlowski, Don Nagle (Isshin-ryū), George Mattson (Uechi-ryū), and Peter Urban (Gōjū-kai) all began instructing in the US. Tsutomu Ohshima began studying karate while a student at Waseda University, beginning in 1948, and became captain of the university's karate club in 1952. He trained under Shotokan's founder, Gichin Funakoshi, until 1953. Funakoshi personally awarded Ohshima his sandan (3rd degree black belt) rank in 1952. In 1957 Ohshima received his godan (fifth degree black belt), the highest rank awarded by Funakoshi. This remains the highest rank in SKA. In 1952, Ohshima formalized the judging system used in modern karate tournaments. However, he cautions students that tournaments should not be viewed as an expression of true karate itself. Ohshima left Japan in 1955 to continue his studies at UCLA. He led his first U.S. practice in 1956 and founded the first university karate club in the United States at Caltech in 1957. In 1959 he founded the Southern California Karate Association (SCKA), as additional Shotokan dojos opened. The organization was renamed Shotokan Karate of America in 1969. In the 1960s, Jay Trombley (Gōjū-ryū), Anthony Mirakian (Gōjū-ryū), Steve Armstrong, Bruce Terrill, Richard Kim (Shorinji-ryū), Teruyuki Okazaki (Shotokan), John Pachivas, Allen Steen, Sea Oh Choi (Hapkido), Gosei Yamaguchi (Gōjū-ryū), and J Pat Burleson all began teaching martial arts around the country. The Original Martial Arts Encyclopedia, John Corcoran and Emil Farkas, pgs. 170-197 In 1961 Hidetaka Nishiyama, a co-founder of the JKA and student of Masatoshi Nakayama, began teaching in the United States. nishiyama Takayuki Mikami were sent to New Orleans by the JKA in 1963. All Gojuryu NetworkAll South Karate In 1964, Takayuki Kubota, founder of Gosoku-ryū, relocated the International Karate Association from Tokyo to California. In 1970 Paul Arel founded Kokondo Karate which is a sister style of Jukido Jujitsu developed in 1959. United Kingdom In the 1950s and 1960s, several Japanese karate masters began to teach the art in the United Kingdom. In 1965, Tatsuo Suzuki began teaching Wadō-ryū in London. In 1966, members of the former British Karate Federation established the Karate Union of Great Britain (KUGB) under Hirokazu Kanazawa as chief instructor International Association of Shotokan Karate (IASK) and affiliated to JKA. Keinosuke Enoeda came to England at the same time as Kanazawa, teaching at a dojo in Liverpool. Kanazawa left the UK after 3 years and Enoeda took over. After Enoeda’s death in 2003, the KUGB elected Andy Sherry as Chief Instructor. Shortly after this, a new association split off from KUGB, JKA England.' Film and popular culture Karate spread rapidly in the West through popular culture. In 1950s popular fiction, karate was at times described to readers in near-mythical terms, and it was credible to show Western experts of unarmed combat as unaware of Eastern martial arts of this kind. For example, Ian Fleming's book Goldfinger (1959, p.91-95) describes the protagonist James Bond, an expert in unarmed combat, as utterly ignorant of Karate and its demonstrations, and describes the Korean 'Oddjob' in these terms: Goldfinger said, "Have you ever heard of Karate? No? Well that man is one of the three in the world who have achieved the Black Belt in Karate. Karate is a branch of judo, but it is to judo what a spandau is to a catapult...". Such a description in a popular novel assumed and relied upon Karate being almost unknown in the West. By the 1970s, martial arts films had formed a mainstream genre that propelled karate and other Asian martial arts into mass popularity.The Karate Kid'' (1984) is a film relating the fictional story of an American adolescent's introduction into karate. +Film stars and their stylesPractitionerMartial art styleSonny ChibaGōjū-ryū and KyokushinSean ConneryKyokushinFumio DemuraShitō-ryūDolph LundgrenKyokushinJean-Claude Van DammeShotokanMichael Jai WhiteKyokushin, Shotokan, and Gōjū-ryūRichard NortonGōjū-ryūCynthia LusterGōjū-ryūWesley SnipesShotokan See also Comparison of karate styles Japanese martial arts Karate stances Karate kata Okinawan martial arts List of martial arts Karate chop References External links World Union of Karatedo Federations (Formerly, WUKO) Karate in the Okinawa Prefecture Goju Ryu Information extended to Okinawa and Japanese Karate History of Ranking in Karate Extensive explanation of Rank and Grade in Karate WKF Karate Records Japanese Karate Masters Association 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5,827 | Telecommunications_in_France | Telephones - main lines in use: 35.533 million (year end 2007) Telephones - mobile cellular: 56.719 million (year end 2007) Telephone system: highly developed domestic: extensive cable and microwave radio relay; extensive introduction of fiber-optic cable; domestic satellite system international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (with total of 5 antennas - 2 for Indian Ocean and 3 for Atlantic Ocean), NA Eutelsat, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region); HF radiotelephone communications with more than 20 countries Radio broadcast stations: AM 41, FM about 3,500 (this figure is an approximation and includes many repeaters), shortwave 2 (1998) Radios: 55.3 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 584 (plus 9,676 repeaters) (1995) Televisions: 34.8 million (1997) Internet country code: .fr Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 62 (2000) Internet hosts: 14.256 million (2008) Internet users: 31.295 million (2007) Mobile networks France currently has 3 mobile networks, Orange, Bouygues Télécom and SFR all of which are licensed for GSM and UMTS. By comparison to other parts of Europe, this is few (for the number of actual operators, using their own physical network). For example, Ireland currently has 4 licenced operators with their own networks despite a smaller and sparser population than France's making improved coverage less economically rewarding. However, France has a number of MVNOs which increases competition. In France, the satellite telecommunications system TELECOM 1 (TC1) will provide high-speed, broadband transfer of digital data between different sections of subscribing companies. Conventional telecommunications links between continental France and its overseas departments will also be supplied. Broadband Internet access See also France media in France List of French newspapers External links Communications in France - at Discover France (English) Phone, Fax and Minitel Services in France (English) E-mail and the Internet in France (English) Print and Broadcast Media in France (English) | Telecommunications_in_France |@lemmatized telephone:3 main:1 line:1 use:2 million:6 year:2 end:2 mobile:3 cellular:1 system:3 highly:1 develop:1 domestic:2 extensive:2 cable:2 microwave:1 radio:3 relay:1 introduction:1 fiber:1 optic:1 satellite:3 international:1 earth:1 station:3 intelsat:1 total:1 antenna:1 indian:1 ocean:3 atlantic:2 na:1 eutelsat:1 inmarsat:1 region:1 hf:1 radiotelephone:1 communication:2 country:2 broadcast:3 fm:1 figure:1 approximation:1 include:1 many:1 repeater:2 shortwave:1 television:2 plus:1 internet:6 code:1 fr:1 service:2 provider:1 isps:1 host:1 user:1 network:4 france:12 currently:2 orange:1 bouygues:1 télécom:1 sfr:1 license:1 gsm:1 umts:1 comparison:1 part:1 europe:1 number:2 actual:1 operator:2 physical:1 example:1 ireland:1 licence:1 despite:1 small:1 sparse:1 population:1 make:1 improved:1 coverage:1 less:1 economically:1 reward:1 however:1 mvnos:1 increase:1 competition:1 telecommunication:2 telecom:1 provide:1 high:1 speed:1 broadband:2 transfer:1 digital:1 data:1 different:1 section:1 subscribe:1 company:1 conventional:1 link:2 continental:1 overseas:1 department:1 also:2 supply:1 access:1 see:1 medium:2 list:1 french:1 newspaper:1 external:1 discover:1 english:4 phone:1 fax:1 minitel:1 e:1 mail:1 print:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:1 fiber_optic:1 station_intelsat:1 atlantic_ocean:2 eutelsat_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_atlantic:1 radiotelephone_communication:1 shortwave_radio:1 plus_repeater:1 repeater_television:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 gsm_umts:1 broadband_internet:1 external_link:1 |
5,828 | Foot | The foot is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made up of one or more segments or bones, generally including claws or nails. The human foot Anatomy The human foot is of the plantigrade form. The major bones in the human foot are: Phalanges: The bones in the toes are called phalanges. Metatarsals: The bones in the middle of the foot are called metatarsal bones. Cuneiforms: There are three bones in the middle of the foot, towards the centre of the foot between the navicular bone and the 1-3 metatarsal bone( the three bones are the intermediate, lateral, medial cuneiform bones.) Cuboid: The bone sitting adjacent to the cuneiforms on the outside of the foot is called the cuboid. Navicular: This bone sits behind the cuneiforms. Talus: Also called the ankle bone, the talus sits directly behind the navicular. Calcaneus: Also called the heel bone, the calcaneus sits under the talus and behind the cuboid. The foot also contains sesamoid bones in distal portion of the first metatarsal bone. Anthropometry An anthropometric study of 1197 North American adult Caucasian males (mean age 35.5 years) found that mean foot length was 26.3 cm with a standard deviation of 1.2 cm. In culture Worldwide, different cultures treat and perceive feet very differently: Many societies have "foot taboos": In countries strongly influenced by Buddhism (e.g., Thailand, Nepal), feet are the least respected parts of the body and strong taboos obtain against touching with feet, pointing with feet, or exposing the sole of the foot toward someone. In Thai custom, feet should not be in a higher position than someone's head and must never face someone or an image of the Buddha. In Nepal, sleeping on the floor with someone's feet oriented toward another sleeper is considered entirely unacceptable. Traditional Arab culture also has the same anti-foot bias as in the Nepal or Thailand cultures. In traditional China (10th through 20th Centuries), the practice of female foot binding stunted the growth of the feet of young girls, resulting in a very tiny, intensely painful, and aesthetically desirable (though deformed) foot- this was often nicknamed 'Pink Socking' as it left the foot bright pink. Within several Christian denominations, foot washing is a religious ritual possibly originating in the hospitality customs of the Levant. Foot fetishism is a sexual interest and preoccupation with feet and hosiery. Playing footsie is also a term dealing with rubbing each other's feet, and can have sexual connotations, while a foot job is a sex act involving the feet. Footwear customs The soles of a male and female foot. Customs about footwear while indoors vary significantly from place to place and usually depend on climate, weather, and other factors: It is customary to remove one's footwear when entering a home: in some homes in Europe especially the United Kingdom; as well as countries in the commonwealth including Canada, New Zealand and Australia. It is generally to keep the carpet clean. in some homes in the United States in Korea and Japan the custom is so widespread that floors are often made of materials that are too soft to survive being walked on with shoes. In some cultures, bare feet may be considered unsightly or offensive. In Arab countries and in Thailand, it is considered extremely offensive to show someone the sole of your foot, although the practice of going barefoot is common, due to various reasons including hot climate and tradition. In many religious subgroups of Uzbekistan, touching another's foot is a sign of affection. However, more conservative families consider this to be an act of promiscuity. The feet are one of the most common places to be tickled on the human body. The soles generally tend to be sensitive to tickling. Customary measurement One way to measure short distances on the ground is by placing one foot directly in front of the other; this led to the adoption of the foot as a unit of length, even though not all human feet correspond to this measure. Myths It is a myth that the Imperial "foot" (304.8 mm) is about the length of the average European male foot. The average today is less than 280 mm and 90% of the population is within 20 mm of that. Although many men today have feet that are 11.5 inches long (size 12-13): most are less than size 11. In the past, the average length would have been even less. The overall length of most shoes however, is above one "foot". Tradition has it that the Imperial foot was based upon the size of Hercules' foot or the size of the king of England. Medical aspects Due to their position and function, feet are exposed to a variety of potential infections and injuries, including athlete's foot, bunions, ingrown toenails, Morton's neuroma, plantar fasciitis, plantar warts and stress fractures. In addition, there are several genetic conditions that can affect the shape and function of the feet, including a club foot or flat feet. This leaves humans more vulnerable to medical problems that are caused by poor leg and foot alignments. Also, the wearing of shoes, sneakers and boots can impede proper alignment and movement within the ankle and foot. For example, high heels are known to throw off the natural weight balance (this can also affect the lower back). For the sake of posture, flat soles and heels are advised. A doctor who specializes in the treatment of the feet practices podiatry and is called a podiatrist. A pedorthist specializes in the use and modification of footwear to treat problems related to the lower limbs. External links Anatomical illustrations References | Foot |@lemmatized foot:53 anatomical:2 structure:1 find:2 many:5 vertebrate:1 terminal:2 portion:2 limb:2 bear:1 weight:2 allow:1 locomotion:1 animal:1 separate:1 organ:1 part:2 leg:2 make:2 one:6 segment:1 bone:16 generally:3 include:5 claw:1 nail:1 human:6 anatomy:1 plantigrade:1 form:1 major:1 phalanx:2 toe:1 call:6 metatarsal:4 middle:2 cuneiform:4 three:2 towards:1 centre:1 navicular:3 intermediate:1 lateral:1 medial:1 cuboid:3 sit:4 adjacent:1 outside:1 behind:3 talus:3 also:7 ankle:2 directly:2 calcaneus:2 heel:3 contain:1 sesamoid:1 distal:1 first:1 anthropometry:1 anthropometric:1 study:1 north:1 american:1 adult:1 caucasian:1 male:3 mean:2 age:1 year:1 length:5 cm:2 standard:1 deviation:1 culture:5 worldwide:1 different:1 treat:2 perceive:1 differently:1 society:1 taboo:2 country:3 strongly:1 influence:1 buddhism:1 e:1 g:1 thailand:3 nepal:3 least:1 respected:1 body:2 strong:1 obtain:1 touch:2 point:1 expose:2 sole:2 toward:2 someone:5 thai:1 custom:5 high:2 position:2 head:1 must:1 never:1 face:1 image:1 buddha:1 sleep:1 floor:2 orient:1 another:2 sleeper:1 consider:4 entirely:1 unacceptable:1 traditional:2 arab:2 anti:1 bias:1 china:1 century:1 practice:3 female:2 binding:1 stunt:1 growth:1 young:1 girl:1 result:1 tiny:1 intensely:1 painful:1 aesthetically:1 desirable:1 though:2 deform:1 often:2 nickname:1 pink:2 sock:1 leave:2 bright:1 within:3 several:2 christian:1 denomination:1 washing:1 religious:2 ritual:1 possibly:1 originate:1 hospitality:1 levant:1 fetishism:1 sexual:2 interest:1 preoccupation:1 hosiery:1 play:1 footsie:1 term:1 deal:1 rub:1 connotation:1 job:1 sex:1 act:2 involve:1 footwear:4 sol:3 indoors:1 vary:1 significantly:1 place:4 usually:1 depend:1 climate:2 weather:1 factor:1 customary:2 remove:1 enter:1 home:3 europe:1 especially:1 united:2 kingdom:1 well:1 commonwealth:1 canada:1 new:1 zealand:1 australia:1 keep:1 carpet:1 clean:1 state:1 korea:1 japan:1 widespread:1 material:1 soft:1 survive:1 walk:1 shoe:3 bare:1 may:1 unsightly:1 offensive:2 extremely:1 show:1 although:2 go:1 barefoot:1 common:2 due:2 various:1 reason:1 hot:1 tradition:2 subgroup:1 uzbekistan:1 sign:1 affection:1 however:2 conservative:1 family:1 promiscuity:1 tickle:2 tend:1 sensitive:1 measurement:1 way:1 measure:2 short:1 distance:1 ground:1 front:1 lead:1 adoption:1 unit:1 even:2 correspond:1 myth:2 imperial:2 mm:3 average:3 european:1 today:2 less:3 population:1 men:1 inch:1 long:1 size:4 past:1 would:1 overall:1 base:1 upon:1 hercules:1 king:1 england:1 medical:2 aspect:1 function:2 variety:1 potential:1 infection:1 injury:1 athlete:1 bunion:1 ingrown:1 toenail:1 morton:1 neuroma:1 plantar:2 fasciitis:1 wart:1 stress:1 fracture:1 addition:1 genetic:1 condition:1 affect:2 shape:1 club:1 flat:2 vulnerable:1 problem:2 cause:1 poor:1 alignment:2 wearing:1 sneaker:1 boot:1 impede:1 proper:1 movement:1 example:1 know:1 throw:1 natural:1 balance:1 low:2 back:1 sake:1 posture:1 advise:1 doctor:1 specialize:1 treatment:1 podiatry:1 podiatrist:1 pedorthist:1 specializes:1 use:1 modification:1 relate:1 external:1 link:1 illustration:1 reference:1 |@bigram metatarsal_bone:4 sesamoid_bone:1 male_female:1 external_link:1 |
5,829 | Knute_Rockne | Knute Pronounced "kah-noot"; "noot" is the anglicized nickname. Kenneth Rockne (March 4, 1888 – March 31, 1931) was a Norwegian-born American football player and is regarded as one of the greatest coaches in college football history. His biography at the College Football Hall of Fame (South Bend, IN) calls him "American football's most-renowned coach." He was a native Norwegian, and was trained as a chemist at Notre Dame. He is credited with popularizing the use of the forward pass. Early life Knute Rockne was born Knut Rokne in Voss, Norway, and emigrated with his parents at five to Chicago. He grew up in the Logan Square area of Chicago, on the northwest side of the city. Rockne learned to play football in his neighborhood and later played end in a local group called the Logan Square Tigers. He attended North West Division High School in Chicago playing football and also running track. After Rockne finished high school, he took a job as a mail dispatcher with the Chicago Post Office for four years. When he was 22, he had saved enough money to continue his education. Knute Rockne headed to South Bend, Indiana, to finish his schooling. He was the laboratory assistant to noted polymer chemist Julius Arthur Nieuwland at Notre Dame, but rejected further work in chemistry after receiving an offer to coach football. Notre Dame coach Portions of this section are adapted from Murray Sperber's book Shake Down The Thunder: The Creation of Notre Dame Football As head coach of the University of Notre Dame in South Bend, Indiana from 1918 to 1930, he set the greatest all-time winning percentage of 88.1%, since eclipsed but still the best percentage in Division I-A. During 13 years as head coach, he oversaw 105 victories, 12 losses, 5 ties, and 6 national championships, including 5 undefeated seasons without a tie. His players included George 'Gipper' Gipp and the "Four Horsemen" (Harry Stuhldreher, Don Miller, Jim Crowley, and Elmer Layden), and Frank Leahy. Rockne introduced the "shift", with the backfield lining up in a T formation and then quickly shifting into a box formation to the left or right just as the ball was snapped. It remained a staple in the Notre Dame playbook until it was discarded by Frank Leahy in 1942 in favor of the T. Rockne is also credited with popularizing the forward pass, a seldom used play at the time , although Rocke acknowledged that the play had actually been pioneered by St. Louis University coach Eddie Cochems. Rockne was also shrewd enough to recognize that intercollegiate sports had a show-business aspect. Thus he worked hard promoting Notre Dame football so as to make it financially successful. He used his considerable charm to court favor from the media, which then consisted of newspapers, wire services and radio stations and networks, to obtain free advertising for his Notre Dame football product. He was very successful as an advertising pitchman, for South Bend based Studebaker and other products. For all his success, Rockne made what an Associated Press writer called "one of the greatest coaching blunders in history." Instead of coaching his 1926 team against Carnegie Tech, Rockne traveled to Chicago for the Army–Navy Game in order to "write newspaper articles about it, as well as select an All-America football team." Carnegie Tech used the coach's absence as motivation for a 19–0 win; the upset likely cost the Irish a shot at the national title. Head coaching record Plane crash The wreckage of the Fokker F10A Trimotor in which Knute Rockne was killed. Rockne died in a plane crash in Kansas on March 31, 1931, while en route to participate in the production of the film The Spirit of Notre Dame. Shortly after taking off from Kansas City, where he had stopped to visit his two sons, Bill and Knute Jr., who were in boarding school there at the Pembroke-Country Day School, one of the Fokker Trimotor aircraft's wings separated in flight. The plane crashed into a wheat field near Bazaar, Kansas, killing eight people, including Rockne. The Official Knute Rockne Web Site. URL accessed 03:54, 29 January 2006 (UTC) President Herbert Hoover called Rockne's death "a national loss." Authorities and aviation journalists at first speculated that the plane came apart after penetrating a thunderstorm and experiencing strong turbulence and icing, which, it was suspected, blocked the venturi tube that provided suction to drive the flight instruments. That was thought to have resulted in a graveyard spiral under instrument flight conditions and structural failure from excessive load. But this hypothesis was not backed up by meteorological records and observations; there was no isolated thunderstorm cell or other notable buildup in the area. Also, the failure involved the sturdy wing, not the tail surfaces. A long, thorough and well-publicized investigation concluded that the Fokker, operated by a company of the newly-formed TWA, broke up in clear weather due to fatigue cracks in its famous cantilever stressed plywood wing, around where one of the engine mounting struts joined. The Fokker Super Universal fleet was inspected and grounded after similar cracks were found in many examples, ruining the manufacturer's American reputation (the Dutch designer Anthony Fokker was then in business in Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey). This resulted in a complete overhaul of standards for new transport aircraft and led to the use of all-metal construction in commercial aircraft such as the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-2. The Rockne crash dominated the news for a while and was thus a tragic catalyst in the progress of civil aviation. Knute Rockne memorial on the Kansas Turnpike. On the spot where the plane crashed, a memorial dedicated to the victims stands surrounded by a wire fence with wooden posts. The memorial was maintained for many years by James Easter Heathman, who, at age thirteen in 1931, was one of the first people to arrive at the site of the tragedy. In 2006, he was given an honorary monogram by the University of Notre Dame for his dedication to remembering the life of Rockne. Heathman died on January 29, 2008, following a bout with pneumonia. http://www.kansascity.com/news/breaking_news/story/467532.html Rockne was buried in Highland Cemetery in South Bend, and a student gymnasium building on campus is named in his honor, as well as a street in South Bend, and a travel plaza on the Indiana Toll Road. In addition to these tributes, the town of Rockne, Texas was named to honor him. The Matfield Green travel plaza on the Kansas Turnpike, near Bazaar, contains a memorial to him. Legacy Knute Rockne bronze sculpture in Voss, Norway. Actor Pat O'Brien portrayed Rockne in the 1940 Warner Brothers film Knute Rockne, All American. Rockne was not the first coach to use the forward pass, but he helped popularize it, especially on the East Coast. Most football historians agree that a few schools, notably Saint Louis University, Michigan, and Minnesota, had passing attacks in place well before Rockne arrived at Notre Dame. Few of the major Eastern teams used the pass, however. In the summer of 1913, while he was a life guard on the beach at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, Rockne and his college teammate and roommate Gus Dorais worked on passing techniques. That fall, Notre Dame upset heavily favored Army, 35-13, at West Point thanks to a barrage of Dorais-to-Rockne passes. The game played an important role in displaying the potency of the forward pass and "open offense" and convinced many coaches to consider adding a few pass plays to their play books. The game is dramatized in the movie, "The Long Gray Line." Based on his fame and promotional work with the Studebaker automobile company of South Bend, the firm marketed the Rockne automobile between 1931 and 1933. It was a separate product line of Studebaker and priced in the low cost market segment. While it's generally considered a good vehicle, the depression was not a good time to launch a new automobile. Memorial plaque to Knute Rockne in his birth town of Voss, Norway In 1988, the United States Postal Service honored Rockne with a 22 cent postage stamp in his honor. Scott catalog # 2376. President Ronald Reagan, who played George Gipp in the movie "Knute Rockne, All American," gave an address at the Athletic & Convocation Center at the University of Notre Dame on March 9, 1988, and officially unveiled the Rockne stamp. A biographical musical of Rockne's life premiered at the Theatre at the Center in Munster, IN, on April 3, 2008. The musical is based on a play and mini-series by Buddy Farmer. Playbill News: Notre Dame Coach Gets Spotlight in Knute Rockne Musical in Indiana, April 3-May 11 Rockne was enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame in 1951 as a charter member and in the Indiana Football Hall of Fame. Taylorville, Illinois, dedicated the street next to the football field as "Knute Rockne Road". In Allentown, Pennsylvania, Allentown Central Catholic High School dedicated its gymnasium, Rockne Hall, to Knute Rockne. Personal Rockne was married to Bonnie Skiles. Notes References Knute Rockne, All American (1940; biographical movie portraying the life of Knute Rockne). Murray Sperber, Shake Down the Thunder: The Creation of Notre Dame Football Delos W. Lovelace, Rockne of Notre Dame (1931) External links The Official Knute Rockne Web Site – Hosted by CMG Worldwide, and endorsed by Rockne grandson Nils Rockne The Unofficial Homepage Of Knute Rockne – By Rockne relative Birger Rokne of Voss, Norway ESPN.com article about the site of Rockne's fatal crash – By Ivan Maisel | Knute_Rockne |@lemmatized knute:18 pronounce:1 kah:1 noot:2 anglicized:1 nickname:1 kenneth:1 rockne:48 march:4 norwegian:2 born:1 american:6 football:16 player:2 regard:1 one:5 great:3 coach:12 college:4 history:2 biography:1 hall:4 fame:4 south:7 bend:7 call:4 renowned:1 native:1 train:1 chemist:2 notre:16 dame:16 credit:2 popularize:3 use:7 forward:4 pas:6 early:1 life:5 bear:1 knut:1 rokne:2 voss:4 norway:4 emigrate:1 parent:1 five:1 chicago:5 grow:1 logan:2 square:2 area:2 northwest:1 side:1 city:2 learn:1 play:8 neighborhood:1 later:1 played:1 end:1 local:1 group:1 tiger:1 attend:1 north:1 west:2 division:2 high:3 school:6 playing:1 also:4 run:1 track:1 finish:2 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5,830 | Henry_Ainsworth | Henry Ainsworth, (1571–1622) was an English Nonconformist clergyman and scholar. Life He was born of a farming family of Swanton Morley, Norfolk. He was educated at Caius College, Cambridge, and, after associating with the Puritan party in the Church, eventually joined the Separatists. Driven abroad about 1593, he found a home in "a blind lane at Amsterdam", acting as "porter" to a bookseller, who, on discovering his knowledge of Hebrew, introduced him to other scholars. When part of the London church, of which Francis Johnson (then in prison) was pastor, reassembled in Amsterdam, Ainsworth was chosen as their doctor or teacher. In 1596 he drew up a confession of their faith, reissued in Latin in 1598 and dedicated to the various universities of Europe (including St Andrews, Scotland). Johnson joined his flock in 1597, and in 1604 he and Ainsworth composed An Apology or Defence of such true Christians as are commonly but unjustly called Brownists. Organizing the church was not easy and dissension was rife. Though often involved in controversy, Ainsworth was not arrogant, but was a steadfast and cultured champion of the principles represented by the early Congregationalists. Amid all the controversy, he steadily pursued his studies. The combination was so unique that some have mistaken him for two different individuals. (Confusion has also been occasioned through his friendly controversy with one John Ainsworth, who left the Anglican for the Roman Catholic church.) In 1610 Ainsworth was forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of their church, from Johnson and those who adhered to him. A difference of principle as to the church's right to revise its officers' decisions had been growing between them; Ainsworth taking the more Congregational view. In spirit he remained a man of peace. Works In 1608 Ainsworth answered Richard Bernard's The Separatist Schisme, but his greatest minor work in this field was his reply to John Smyth (commonly called "the Se-Baptist"), entitled Defence of Holy Scripture, Worship and Ministry used in the Christian Churches separated from Antichrist, against the Challenges, Cavils and Contradictions of Mr Smyth (1609). His scholarly works include his Annotations -- on Genesis (1616); Exodus (1617); Leviticus (1618); Numbers (1619); Deuteronomy (1619); Psalms (including a metrical version, 1612); and the Song of Solomon (1623). These were collected in folio in 1627. From the outset the Annotations took a commanding place, especially among continental scholars, establishing a scholarly tradition for English nonconformity. His publication of Psalms, The Book of Psalmes: Englished both in Prose and Metre with Annotations (Amsterdam, 1612), which includes thirty-nine separate monophonic psalm tunes, constituted the Ainsworth Psalter, the only book of music brought to New England in 1620 by the Pilgrim settlers. Although its content was later reworked into the Bay Psalm Book, it had an important influence on the early development of American psalmody. Ainsworth died in 1622, or early in 1623, for in that year was published his Seasonable Discourse, or a Censure upon a Dialogue of the Anabaptists, in which the editor speaks of him as a departed worthy. References | Henry_Ainsworth |@lemmatized henry:1 ainsworth:10 english:2 nonconformist:1 clergyman:1 scholar:3 life:1 bear:1 farming:1 family:1 swanton:1 morley:1 norfolk:1 educate:1 caius:1 college:1 cambridge:1 associate:1 puritan:1 party:1 church:7 eventually:1 join:2 separatist:2 drive:1 abroad:1 find:1 home:1 blind:1 lane:1 amsterdam:3 act:1 porter:1 bookseller:1 discover:1 knowledge:1 hebrew:1 introduce:1 part:2 london:1 francis:1 johnson:3 prison:1 pastor:1 reassemble:1 choose:1 doctor:1 teacher:1 draw:1 confession:1 faith:1 reissue:1 latin:1 dedicate:1 various:1 university:1 europe:1 include:4 st:1 andrew:1 scotland:1 flock:1 compose:1 apology:1 defence:2 true:1 christian:2 commonly:2 unjustly:1 call:2 brownists:1 organize:1 easy:1 dissension:1 rife:1 though:1 often:1 involve:1 controversy:3 arrogant:1 steadfast:1 cultured:1 champion:1 principle:2 represent:1 early:3 congregationalist:1 amid:1 steadily:1 pursue:1 study:1 combination:1 unique:1 mistake:1 two:1 different:1 individual:1 confusion:1 also:1 occasion:1 friendly:1 one:1 john:2 leave:1 anglican:1 roman:1 catholic:1 force:1 reluctantly:1 withdraw:1 large:1 adhere:1 difference:1 right:1 revise:1 officer:1 decision:1 grow:1 take:2 congregational:1 view:1 spirit:1 remain:1 man:1 peace:1 work:3 answer:1 richard:1 bernard:1 schisme:1 great:1 minor:1 field:1 reply:1 smyth:2 se:1 baptist:1 entitle:1 holy:1 scripture:1 worship:1 ministry:1 use:1 separate:2 antichrist:1 challenge:1 cavil:1 contradiction:1 mr:1 scholarly:2 annotation:3 genesis:1 exodus:1 leviticus:1 number:1 deuteronomy:1 psalm:4 metrical:1 version:1 song:1 solomon:1 collect:1 folio:1 outset:1 commanding:1 place:1 especially:1 among:1 continental:1 establish:1 tradition:1 nonconformity:1 publication:1 book:3 psalmes:1 englished:1 prose:1 metre:1 thirty:1 nine:1 monophonic:1 tune:1 constitute:1 psalter:1 music:1 bring:1 new:1 england:1 pilgrim:1 settler:1 although:1 content:1 later:1 rework:1 bay:1 important:1 influence:1 development:1 american:1 psalmody:1 die:1 year:1 publish:1 seasonable:1 discourse:1 censure:1 upon:1 dialogue:1 anabaptist:1 editor:1 speaks:1 departed:1 worthy:1 reference:1 |@bigram caius_college:1 exodus_leviticus:1 |
5,831 | Condition_number | In numerical analysis, the condition number associated with a problem is a measure of that problem's amenability to digital computation, that is, how numerically well-conditioned the problem is. A problem with a low condition number is said to be well-conditioned, while a problem with a high condition number is said to be ill-conditioned. The condition number of a matrix For example, the condition number associated with the linear equation Ax = b gives a bound on how inaccurate the solution x will be after approximate solution. Note that this is before the effects of round-off error are taken into account; conditioning is a property of the matrix, not the algorithm or floating point accuracy of the computer used to solve the corresponding system. In particular, one should think of the condition number as being (very roughly) the rate at which the solution, x, will change with respect to a change in b. Thus, if the condition number is large, even a small error in b may cause a large error in x. On the other hand, if the condition number is small then the error in x will not be much bigger than the error in b. The condition number is defined more precisely to be the maximum ratio of the relative error in x divided by the relative error in b. Let e be the error in b. Then the error in the solution A−1b is A−1e. The ratio of the relative error in the solution to the relative error in b is This is easily transformed to The maximum value (for nonzero b and e) is easily seen to be the product of the two operator norms: The same definition is used for any consistent norm. This number arises so often in numerical linear algebra that it is given a name, the condition number of a matrix. Of course, this definition depends on the choice of norm. If is norm then where and are maximal and minimal singular values of respectively. Hence If is normal then ( are maximal and minimal (by moduli) eigenvalues of respectively) If is unitary then If is norm and is lower triangular non-singular (i.e., ) then The condition number in other contexts Condition numbers for singular-value decompositions, polynomial root finding, eigenvalue and many other problems may be defined. Generally, if a numerical problem is well-posed, it can be expressed as a function ƒ mapping its data, which is an m-tuple of real numbers x, into its solution, an n-tuple of real numbers ƒ(x). Its condition number is then defined to be the maximum value of the ratio of the relative errors in the solution to the relative error in the data, over the problem domain: where ε is some reasonably small value in the variation of data for the problem. If ƒ is also differentiable, this is approximately And the condition number of the inverse of ƒ at ƒ(x) is approximately External links Condition Number of a Matrix at Holistic Numerical Methods Institute | Condition_number |@lemmatized numerical:4 analysis:1 condition:18 number:18 associate:2 problem:9 measure:1 amenability:1 digital:1 computation:1 numerically:1 well:3 low:2 say:2 high:1 ill:1 matrix:4 example:1 linear:2 equation:1 ax:1 b:8 give:2 bound:1 inaccurate:1 solution:7 x:8 approximate:1 note:1 effect:1 round:1 error:13 take:1 account:1 conditioning:1 property:1 algorithm:1 float:1 point:1 accuracy:1 computer:1 use:2 solve:1 corresponding:1 system:1 particular:1 one:1 think:1 roughly:1 rate:1 change:2 respect:1 thus:1 large:2 even:1 small:3 may:2 cause:1 hand:1 much:1 big:1 define:3 precisely:1 maximum:3 ratio:3 relative:6 divide:1 let:1 e:3 easily:2 transform:1 value:5 nonzero:1 see:1 product:1 two:1 operator:1 norm:5 definition:2 consistent:1 arise:1 often:1 algebra:1 name:1 course:1 depend:1 choice:1 maximal:2 minimal:2 singular:3 respectively:2 hence:1 normal:1 modulus:1 eigenvalue:2 unitary:1 triangular:1 non:1 contexts:1 decomposition:1 polynomial:1 root:1 finding:1 many:1 generally:1 pose:1 express:1 function:1 ƒ:5 map:1 data:3 tuple:2 real:2 n:1 domain:1 ε:1 reasonably:1 variation:1 also:1 differentiable:1 approximately:2 inverse:1 external:1 link:1 holistic:1 method:1 institute:1 |@bigram inverse_ƒ:1 ƒ_ƒ:1 external_link:1 holistic_numerical:1 |
5,832 | Monosaccharide | Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar) are the most basic unit of carbohydrates. They are the simplest form of sugar and are usually colorless, water-soluble, crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), galactose, xylose and ribose. Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides such as sucrose and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch). Further, each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group (except for the first and last) is chiral, giving rise to a number of isomeric forms all with the same chemical formula. For instance, galactose and glucose are both aldohexoses, but have different chemical and physical properties. Structure With few exceptions (e.g., deoxyribose), monosaccharides have the chemical formula Cx(H2O)y with the chemical structure H(CHOH)nC=O(CHOH)mH. If n or m is zero, it is an aldehyde and is termed an aldose, otherwise it is a ketone and is termed a ketose. Monosaccharides contain either a ketone or aldehyde functional group, and hydroxyl groups on most or all of the non-carbonyl carbon atoms. Fischer projections Not all of the following monosaccharides are found in nature—some have been synthesized: + Aldoses AldotrioseD-Glyceraldehyde D-Glyceraldehyde AldotetrosesD-ErythroseD-ErythroseD-ThreoseD-Threose AldopentosesD-RiboseD-RiboseD-ArabinoseD-ArabinoseD-xyloseD-XyloseD-lyxoseD-Lyxose AldohexosesD-alloseD-AlloseD-AltroseD-AltroseD-GlucoseD-GlucoseD-mannoseD-MannoseD-GuloseD-GuloseD-IdoseD-IdoseD-GalactoseD-GalactoseD-TaloseD-Talose + Ketoses KetotrioseDihydroxyacetone Dihydroxyacetone ketotetroseD-EerythruloseD-Erythrulose ketopentosesD-RibuloseD-RibuloseD-XyluloseD-Xylulose ketohexoses D-PsicoseD-Psicose D-FructoseD-Fructose D-SorboseD-Sorbose D-TagatoseD-Tagatose Monosaccharides with even longer chains are known, such as the ketoheptoses, mannoheptulose and sedoheptulose. Cyclic structure 100 px.|α-D-Glucopyranose (Haworth projection) β-D-Glucopyranose (Haworth projection) Most monosaccharides will cyclize in aqueous solution, forming hemiacetals or hemiketals (depending on whether they are aldoses or ketoses) between an alcohol and the carbonyl group of the same sugar. Glucose, for example, readily forms a hemiacetal linkage between its carbon1 and oxygen5 to form a 6-membered ring called a pyranoside. The same reaction can take place between carbon1 and oxygen4 to form a 5-membered furanoside. In general, pyranosides are more stable and are the major form of the monosaccharide observed in solution. Since cyclization forms a new stereogenic center at carbon1, two anomers can be formed (α-isomer and β-isomer) from each distinct straight-chain monosaccharide. The interconversion between these two forms is called mutarotation. A common way of representing the structure of monosaccharides is the Haworth projection. In a Haworth projection, the α-isomer has the OH- of the anomeric carbon below the plane of the carbon atoms, and the β-isomer, has the OH- of the anomeric carbon above the plane. Monosaccharides typically adopt a chair conformation, similar to cyclohexane. In this conformation the α-isomer has the OH- of the anomeric carbon in an axial position, whereas the β-isomer has the OH- of the anomeric carbon in equatorial position. Monosaccharide nomenclature Monosaccharides are classified by the number of carbon atoms they contain: Triose, 3 carbon atoms Tetrose, 4 carbon atoms Pentose, 5 carbon atoms Hexose, 6 carbon atoms Heptose, 7 carbon atoms Monosaccharides are classified the type of carbonyl group they contain: Aldose, -CHO (aldehyde) Ketose, C=O (ketone) Isomerism The total number of' possible stereoisomers of one compound (n) is dependent on the number of stereogenic centers (c) in the molecule. The upper limit for the number of possible stereoisomers is n = 2c. The only carbohydrate without an isomer is dihydroxyacetone or DHA. Monosaccharides are classified according to their molecular configuration at the chiral carbon furthest removed from the aldehyde or ketone group. The chirality at this carbon is compared to the chirality of carbon 2 on glyceraldehyde. If it is equivalent to D-glyceraldehyde's C2, the sugar is D; if it is equivalent to L-glyceraldehyde's C2, the sugar is L. Due to the chirality of the sugar molecules, an aqueous solution of a D or L saccharides will rotate light. D-glyceraldehyde causes polarized light to rotate clockwise (dextrorotary); L-glyceraldehyde causes polarized light to rotate counterclockwise (levorotary). Unlike glyceraldehyde, D/L designation on more complex sugars is not associated with their direction of light rotation. Since more complex sugars contain multiple chiral carbons, the direction of light rotation cannot be predicted by the chirality of the carbon that defines D/L nomenclature. D, configuration as in D-glyceraldehyde L, configuration as in L-glyceraldehyde All these classifications can be combined, resulting in names like D-aldohexose or ketotriose''. Derivatives A large number of biologically important modified monosaccharides exist: Amino sugars such as: Galactosamine Glucosamine Sialic acid N-Acetylglucosamine Sulfosugars such as: Sulfoquinovose See also Pyranose Furanose Monosaccharide nomenclature Disaccharides Oligosaccharide Polysaccharides Sugar acid Sugar alcohol References External links Nomenclature of Carbohydrates | Monosaccharide |@lemmatized monosaccharide:19 greek:1 mono:1 single:1 sacchar:1 sugar:11 basic:1 unit:1 carbohydrate:3 simple:1 form:10 usually:1 colorless:1 water:1 soluble:1 crystalline:1 solid:1 sweet:1 taste:1 example:2 include:1 glucose:3 dextrose:1 fructose:2 levulose:1 galactose:2 xylose:1 ribose:1 building:1 block:1 disaccharide:2 sucrose:1 polysaccharide:2 cellulose:1 starch:1 far:1 carbon:18 atom:9 support:1 hydroxyl:2 group:6 except:1 first:1 last:1 chiral:3 give:1 rise:1 number:6 isomeric:1 chemical:4 formula:2 instance:1 aldohexose:2 different:1 physical:1 property:1 structure:4 exception:1 e:1 g:1 deoxyribose:1 cx:1 h:1 choh:2 nc:1 mh:1 n:4 zero:1 aldehyde:4 term:2 aldose:4 otherwise:1 ketone:4 ketose:4 contain:4 either:1 functional:1 non:1 carbonyl:3 fischer:1 projection:5 following:1 find:1 nature:1 synthesize:1 aldotriosed:1 glyceraldehyde:10 aldotetrosesd:1 erythrosed:2 threosed:1 threose:1 aldopentosesd:1 ribosed:2 arabinosed:2 xylosed:2 lyxosed:1 lyxose:1 aldohexosesd:1 allosed:2 altrosed:2 glucosed:2 mannosed:2 gulosed:2 idosed:2 galactosed:2 talosed:1 talose:1 ketotriosedihydroxyacetone:1 dihydroxyacetone:2 ketotetrosed:1 eerythrulosed:1 erythrulose:1 ketopentosesd:1 ribulosed:2 xylulosed:1 xylulose:1 ketohexose:1 psicosed:1 psicose:1 fructosed:1 sorbosed:1 sorbose:1 tagatosed:1 tagatose:1 even:1 long:1 chain:2 know:1 ketoheptoses:1 mannoheptulose:1 sedoheptulose:1 cyclic:1 px:1 α:4 glucopyranose:2 haworth:4 β:4 cyclize:1 aqueous:2 solution:3 hemiacetal:2 hemiketals:1 depend:1 whether:1 alcohol:2 readily:1 linkage:1 membered:2 ring:1 call:2 pyranoside:1 reaction:1 take:1 place:1 furanoside:1 general:1 pyranosides:1 stable:1 major:1 observe:1 since:2 cyclization:1 new:1 stereogenic:2 center:2 two:2 anomers:1 isomer:7 distinct:1 straight:1 interconversion:1 mutarotation:1 common:1 way:1 represent:1 oh:4 anomeric:4 plane:2 typically:1 adopt:1 chair:1 conformation:2 similar:1 cyclohexane:1 axial:1 position:2 whereas:1 equatorial:1 nomenclature:4 classify:3 triose:1 tetrose:1 pentose:1 hexose:1 heptose:1 type:1 cho:1 c:2 isomerism:1 total:1 possible:2 stereoisomers:2 one:1 compound:1 dependent:1 molecule:2 upper:1 limit:1 without:1 dha:1 accord:1 molecular:1 configuration:3 furthest:1 remove:1 chirality:4 compare:1 equivalent:2 l:8 due:1 saccharide:1 rotate:3 light:5 cause:2 polarized:2 clockwise:1 dextrorotary:1 counterclockwise:1 levorotary:1 unlike:1 designation:1 complex:2 associate:1 direction:2 rotation:2 multiple:1 cannot:1 predict:1 define:1 classification:1 combine:1 result:1 name:1 like:1 ketotriose:1 derivative:1 large:1 biologically:1 important:1 modify:1 exist:1 amino:1 galactosamine:1 glucosamine:1 sialic:1 acid:2 acetylglucosamine:1 sulfosugars:1 sulfoquinovose:1 see:1 also:1 pyranose:1 furanose:1 oligosaccharide:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram crystalline_solid:1 sweet_taste:1 disaccharide_sucrose:1 polysaccharide_cellulose:1 carbon_atom:9 ketone_aldehyde:1 haworth_projection:4 aqueous_solution:2 membered_ring:1 anomeric_carbon:4 aldehyde_ketone:1 rotate_clockwise:1 rotate_counterclockwise:1 oligosaccharide_polysaccharide:1 external_link:1 |
5,833 | Maritime_archaeology | Submerged bridge under Lake Murray, South Carolina in of fresh water seen on side-scan sonar imagery using a Humminbird 981c Side Imaging system Maritime archaeology (also known as marine archaeology) is a discipline that studies human interaction with the sea, lakes and rivers through the study of vessels, shore side facilities, cargoes, human remains and submerged landscapes. One speciality is underwater archaeology, which studies the past through any submerged remains. Another specialty within maritime archaeology is nautical archaeology, which studies vessel construction and use. Maritime archaeological sites usually result from shipwrecks or sometimes seismic catastrophes, and thus represent a moment in time rather than a slow deposition of material accumulated over a period of years. This fact has led to shipwrecks being described as time capsules. Archaeological material in the sea or in other underwater environments is typically subject to different factors than artifacts on land. However, as with land archaeology what survives to be investigated by modern archaeologists is a tiny fraction of the material originally deposited. The issue in maritime archaeology is that despite all the material that is lost, there are occasional rare examples of substantial survival, from which a great deal can be learned. There are those in the archaeology community who see maritime archaeology as a segregrated discipline with its own concerns (such as shipwrecks) and requiring the specialised skills of the underwater archaeologist. Others value an integrated approach, stressing that nautical activity has economic and social links to communities on land. Integrating land and sea Prior to the industrial era, travel by water was often easier than over land. As a result, marine channels, navigable rivers and sea crossings formed the trade routes of historic and ancient civilisations. For example, the mediterranean sea was known to the Romans as the inner sea because the Roman empire spread around its coasts. The historic record as well as the remains of harbours, ships and cargoes, testify to the volume of trade that crossed it. Later, nations with a strong maritime culture such as the United Kingdom, Denmark and Spain were able to establish colonies on other continents. Wars were fought at sea over the control of important resources. The material cultural remains that are discovered by maritime archaeologists along former trade routes can be combined with historic documents and material cultural remains found on land to understand the economic, social and political environment of the past. Preservation of material underwater There are significant differences in the survival of archaeological material depending on whether a site is wet or dry, on the nature of the chemical environment, on the presence of biological organisms and on the dynamic forces present. Thus rocky coastlines, especially in shallow water, are typically inimical to the survival of artifacts, which can be dispersed, smashed or ground by the effect of currents and surf, possibly (but not always) leaving an artifact pattern but little if any wreck structure. Saltwater is particularly inimical to iron artefacts including metal shipwrecks, and sea organisms will readily consume organic material such as wooden shipwrecks. On the other hand, out of all the thousands of potential archaeological sites destroyed or grossly eroded by such natural processes, occasionally sites survive with exceptional preservation of a related collection of artifacts. An example of such a collection is the Mary Rose. BBC Radio World Service Broadcast, "What Lies Beneath," first broadcast Friday 22 August 2008 Of the many examples where the sea bed provides an extremely hostile environment for submerged evidence of history, the RMS Titanic, though a relatively young wreck and in deep water so calcium-starved that concretion does not occur, has already incurred irreversible degradation of her steel and iron hull. As such degradation inevitably continues, data is forever lost, objects' context is destroyed and the bulk of the wreck will eventually become nothing more than a stain on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. The USS Monitor, having been found in the 1970s, was subjected to a program of attempted in situ preservation, but deterioration of the vessel progressed at such a rate that the rescue of her turret was undertaken lest nothing be saved from the wreck. Some wrecks, lost to natural obstacles to navigation, are at risk of being smashed by subsequent wrecks sunk by the same hazard, or are deliberately destroyed because they present a hazard to navigation. Even in deep water, commercial activities such as pipe-laying operations and deep sea trawling can place a wreck at risk. Large pipelines can crush sites and render some of their remnants inaccessible as pipe is dropped from the ocean surface to the substrate thousands of feet below. Trawl nets snag and tear superstructures and separate artifacts from their context. The bow of Vasa, a Swedish warship that foundered and sank on its maiden voyage in 1628. It was salvaged in 1961 and is now on permanent display at the Vasa Museum in Stockholm. The wrecks, and other archaeological sites that have been preserved have generally survived because the dynamic nature of the sea bed can result in artifacts becoming rapidly buried in sediments. These sediments then provide an anaerobic environment which protects from further degradation. Wet environments, whether on land in the form of peat bogs and wells, or underwater are particularly important for the survival of organic material, such as wood, leather, fabric and horn. Cold and absence of light also aid survival of artifacts, because there is little energy available for either organic activity or chemical reactions. Salt water provides for greater organic activity than freshwater, and in particular, the shipworm, terredo navalis, lives only in salt water, so some of the best preservation in the absence of sediments has been found in the cold, dark waters of the Great Lakes in North America and in the (low salinity) Baltic Sea (where the Vasa was preserved). While the land surface is continuously reused by man, the sea bed was largely inaccessible until the advent of submarines and scuba equipment in the twentieth century. Salvagers have operated in much earlier times, but much of the material was beyond the reach of anyone. Thus the Mary Rose was subject to salvage from the sixteenth century and later, but a very large amount of material, buried in the sediments, remained to be found by maritime archaeologists of the twentieth century. While preservation in situ is not assured, material that has survived underwater and is then recovered to land is typically in an unstable state and can only be preserved as a result of highly specialised conservation processes. The Holland 1 provides an example of a relatively recent (metal) wreck for which extensive conservation has been necessary, while the wooden structure of the Mary Rose, and the individual artifacts have been undergoing conservation since their recovery. A challenge for the modern archaeologist is to consider whether in-situ preservation or recovery and conservation on land is the preferable option, or to face the fact that preservation in any form, other than as an archaeological record is infeasible. A site that has been discovered has typically been subjected to disturbance of the very factors that caused its survival in the first place, for example, when a covering of sediment has been removed by storms or the action of man. Active monitoring and deliberate protection may mitigate against further rapid destruction making in situ preservation an option, but long term survival can never be guaranteed. For very many sites, the costs are too great for either active measures to ensure in situ preservation or to provide for satisfactory conservation on recovery. Even the cost of proper and complete archaeological investigation may be too great to enable this to occur within a timescale that ensures that an archaeological record is made before data is inevitably lost. Submerged sites Pre-historic landscapes Maritime archaeology studies prehistorical objects and sites that are, because of changes in climate and geology, now underwater. Bodies of water, fresh and saline, have been important sources of food for people for as long as we have existed. It should be no surprise that ancient villages were located at the water's edge. Since the last ice age sea level has risen as much as 400 feet (~120 meters). Therefore, a great deal of the record of human activity throughout the Ice Age is now to be found under water. The flooding of the area now known as the Black Sea (when a land bridge, where the Bosporus is now, collapsed under the pressure of rising water in the Mediterranean Sea) submerged a great deal of human activity that had been gathered round what had been an enormous, fresh-water lake. Significant cave art sites off the coast of western Europe are now reachable only by diving, because the cave entrances are underwater, though the caves themselves are not flooded. Historic sites Throughout history, seismic events have at times caused submergence of human settlements. The remains of such catastrophes exist all over the world, and sites such as Alexandria and Port Royal now form important archaeological sites. As with shipwrecks, archaeological research can follow multiple themes, including evidence of the final catastrophe, the structures and landscape prior to the catastrophe and the culture and economy of which it formed a part. Unlike the wrecking of a ship, the destruction of a town by a seismic event can take place over many years and there may be evidence for several phases of damage, sometimes with rebuilding in between. Coastal and foreshore Seahenge photograph by Andy Burnham http://www.megalithic.co.uk Not all maritime sites are underwater. There are many structures at the margin of land and water that provide evidence of the human societies of the past. Some are deliberately created for access - such as bridges and walkways. Other structures remain from exploitation of resources, such as dams and fish traps. Nautical remains include early harbours, and places where ships were built or repaired. At the end of their life, ships were often beached. Valuable or easily accessed timber has often been salvaged leaving just a few frames and bottom planking. Archaeological sites can also be found on the foreshore today that would have been on dry land when they were constructed. An example of such a site is Seahenge, a Bronze Age timber circle. Ships and Shipwrecks The archaeology of shipwrecks can be divided in a three-tier hierarchy, of which the first tier considers the wrecking process itself: how does a ship break up, how does a ship sink to the bottom, and how do the remains of the ship, cargo and the surrounding environment evolve over time? The second tier studies the ship as a machine, both in itself and in a military or economic system. The third tier consists of the archaeology of maritime cultures, in which nautical technology, naval warfare, trade and shipboard societies are studied. Ships and boats are not necessarily wrecked: some are deliberately abandoned, scuttled or beached. Many such abandoned vessels have been extensively salvaged. Bronze Age The earliest boats discovered date from the Bronze Age and are constructed of hollowed out logs or sewn planks. Vessels have been discovered where they have been preserved in sediments underwater or in waterlogged land sites, such as the discovery of a canoe near St Botolphs.Examples of sewn-plank boats include those found at North Ferriby and the Dover Bronze Age Boat which is now displayed at Dover Museum. These may be an evolution from boats made of sewn hides, but it is highly unlikely that hide boats could have survived. Ships wrecked in the sea have probably not survived, although remains of cargo (particularly bronze material) have been discovered, such as those at the Salcombe B site. A close collection of artefacts on the sea bed may imply that artefacts were from a ship, even if there are no remains of the actual vessel. Late Bronze Age ships, such as the Uluburun Shipwreck have been discovered in the Mediterranean, constructed of edge joined planks. This shipbuilding technology continued through the classical period. Maritime archaeology by region Mediterranean area In the Mediterranean area, maritime archaeologists have investigated several ancient cultures. Notable early Iron Age shipwrecks include two Phoenician ships of c. 750 B.C. that foundered off Gaza with cargoes of wine in amphoras. The crew of the U.S. Navy deep submergence research submarine NR-1 discovered the sites in 1997. In 1999 a team led by Robert Ballard and Harvard University archaeology Professor Lawrence Stager investigated the wrecks. Extensive research has been carried out on the Mediterranean and Aegean coastlines of Turkey. Complete excavations have been performed on several wrecks from the Classical, Hellenistic, Byzantine, and Ottoman periods. Maritime archaeological studies in Italy illuminate the naval and maritime activities of the Etruscans, Greek colonists, and Romans. After the second century B.C., the Roman fleet ruled the Mediterranean and actively suppressed piracy. During this Pax Romana, seaborne trade increased significantly throughout the region. Though sailing was the safest, fastest, and most efficient method of transportation in the ancient world, some fractional percentage of voyages ended in shipwreck. With the significantly increased sea traffic during the Roman era came a corresponding increase in shipwrecks. These wrecks and their cargo remains offer glimpses through time of the economy, culture, and politics of the ancient world. Particularly useful to archaeologists are studies of amphoras, the ceramic shipping containers used in the Mediterranean region from the 15th century B.C. through the Medieval period. In addition to many discoveries in the sea, some wrecks have been examined in lakes. Most notable are Caligula's pleasure barges in Lake Nemi, Italy. The Nemi ships and other shipwreck sites occasionally yield objects of unique artistic value. For instance, the Antikythera wreck contained a staggering collection of marble and bronze statues including the Antikythera Youth. Discovered in 1900 by Greek sponge divers, the ship probably sank in the first century B.C. and may have been dispatched by the Roman general, Sulla, to carry booty back to Rome. The sponge divers also recovered from the wreck the famous Antikythera mechanism, believed to be an astronomical calculator. Further examples of fabulous works of art recovered from the sea floor are the two "bronzi" found in Riace (Calabria), Italy. In the cases of Antikythera and Riace, however, the artifacts were recovered without the direct participation of maritime archaeologists. Recent studies in the Sarno river (near Pompeii) show other interesting elements of ancient life. The Sarno projects suggests that on the Tyrrhenian shore there were little towns with palafittes, similar to ancient Venice. In the same area, the submerged town of Puteoli (Pozzuoli, close to Naples) contains the "portus Julius" created by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in 37 BC, later sunk due to bradyseism. The sea floor elsewhere in the Mediterranean holds countless archaeological sites. In Israel, Herod the Great's port at Caesarea Maritima has been extensively studied. Other finds are consistent with some passages of the Bible (like the so-called Jesus boat, which appears to be similar to those in use during the first century AD). See also Archaeology of shipwrecks Underwater archaeology Nautical Archaeology Society RPM Nautical Foundation Sea Research Society Institute of Nautical Archaeology Submerged historic and pre-historic sites Alexandria Port Royal Port Julius at Puteoli Coastal and foreshore archaeology Seahenge Ships and Boats North Ferriby site of discovery of Bronze Age, sewn plank boats dated by radiocarbon to between 1890 BC to 1700 BC Uluburun Late Bronze Age shipwreck, 14th century BC Cape Gelidonya Late Bronze Age shipwreck, c. 1200 BC Antikythera c 80-50 BC, includes the astronomical computer, the Antikythera mechanism Belle shipwreck French explorer La Salle's ship, lost in 1686 off Texas Hunley, the first submarine in history to actually sink an enemy ship. Lost off Charleston, South Carolina, in 1864, discovered in 1970 by E. Lee Spence, verified by Cussler/NUMA/SCIAA expedition in 1995/1996, raised in 2000. References External links 400,000 records of archaeological sites and architecture in England including maritime sites of all periods, including shipwrecks of which remains are known or assumed within England's territorial waters Overview, context and detail for shipwrecks in the seas surrounding Britain and Ireland with access to information on more than 45,000 wrecks in the Shipwrecks UK resource, mapped thematically for a wide variety of search criteria The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage is an international treaty, fighting the increasing looting and destruction of underwater cultural heritage. It regulates heritage protection and facilitates State cooperation, it does however not regulate ownership of cultural property. General English Heritage Maritime Archaeology The Museum of Underwater Archaeology (MUA) Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime Program (LAMP), St. Augustine, Florida Centre for Maritime Archaeology University of Southampton Maritime Archaeology Programme University of Southern Denmark Centre for Maritime Archaeology, University of Ulster, Coleraine Institute of Nautical Archaeology Nordic Underwater Archaeology Centre for Historical and Maritime Archaeology, University of Bristol Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Program A Code of Ethics for Maritime Archaeologists by Australian AIMA Submerged Landscapes Archaeological Network "Shipwrecks" in Stillwell, Richard, William L. MacDonald, Marian Holland McAllister, eds. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976, Includes alphabetized list of known wreck sites from Classical Antiquity. Resources for maritime archaeologists Maritime Archeology in Israel Bournemouth University Centre for Maritime and Coastal Archaeology UNESCO page on underwater cultural heritage References for Ships and Boats Dover Bronze Age Boat article Dover Museum home of the Dover Bronze Age Boat Bronze age canoe near St Botolphs - 15th Century BC HMS Pandora 1791 | Maritime_archaeology |@lemmatized submerge:6 bridge:3 lake:6 murray:1 south:2 carolina:2 fresh:3 water:15 see:3 side:3 scan:1 sonar:1 imagery:1 use:4 humminbird:1 image:1 system:2 maritime:28 archaeology:29 also:5 know:5 marine:2 discipline:2 study:11 human:6 interaction:1 sea:24 river:3 vessel:6 shore:2 facility:1 cargo:6 remains:10 landscape:4 one:1 speciality:1 underwater:16 past:3 submerged:3 another:1 specialty:1 within:3 nautical:8 construction:1 archaeological:16 site:26 usually:1 result:4 shipwreck:21 sometimes:2 seismic:3 catastrophe:4 thus:3 represent:1 moment:1 time:6 rather:1 slow:1 deposition:1 material:14 accumulate:1 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5,834 | Economy_of_El_Salvador | Overview The Salvadoran economy has experienced significant results from the ARENA government's commitment to free market initiatives and conservative fiscal management that include the privatization of the banking system, telecommunications, public pensions, electrical distribution, and some electrical generation, reduction of import duties, elimination of price controls, and an improved enforcement of intellectual property rights. The GDP variable has been growing at a steady and moderate pace since the signing of peace accords in 1992, in an environment of macroeconomic stability. A problem that the Salvadoran economy faces is the inequality in the distribution of income. In 1999, the richest fifth of the population received 45% of the country's income, while the poorest fifth received only 5.6%. As of December 1999, net international reserves equaled US$1.8 billion or roughly five months of imports. Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran Government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning January 1, 2001, by which the U.S. dollar became legal tender alongside the colón, and all formal accounting was undertaken in U.S. dollars. This way, the government has formally limited its possibility of implementing open market monetary policies to influence short term variables in the economy. Since 2004, the colón stopped circulating and is now never used in the country for any type of transaction; however some stores still have prices in both colones and U.S. dollars. In general, people were unhappy with the shift from the colón to the U.S. dollar, because wages are still the same but the price of everything increased. Some economists claim this rise in prices would have been caused by inflation regardless even had the shift not been made. Some economists also contend that now, according to Gresham's Law, a reversion to the colón would be disastrous to the economy. Some banks however claim that they still do some transactions en colones, keeping this change from being unconstitutional. The change to the dollar also precipitated a trend toward lower interest rates in El Salvador, helping many to secure credit in order to buy a house or a car; over time, displeasure with the change has largely disappeared, though the issue resurfaces as a political tool when elections are on the horizon. A challenge in El Salvador has been developing new growth sectors for a more diversified economy. As many other former colonies, for many years El Salvador was considered a monoexporter economy. This means, an economy that depended heavily on one type of export. During colonial times, the Spanish decided that El Salvador would produce and export indigo, but after the invention of synthetic dyes in the 19th century, Salvadoran authorities and the newly created modern state turned to coffee as the main export of the economy. Since the cultivation of coffee required the highest lands in the country, many of these lands were expropriated from indigenous reserves and given or sold cheaply to those that could cultivate coffee. The government provided little or no compensation to the indigenous peoples. On occasions this compensation implied merely the right to work for seasons in the newly created coffee farms and to be allowed to grow their own food. Such policies provided the basis of conflicts that would shape the political situation of El Salvador in the years to come. For many decades, coffee was one of the only sources of foreign currency in the Salvadoran economy. The civil war in the 80's and the fall of international coffee prices in the 90's, pressured the Salvadoran government to diversify the economy. ARENA governments have followed policies that intend to develop other exporting industries in the country as textiles and sea products. Tourism is another industry Salvadoran authorities regard as a possibility for the country. But rampant crime rates, lack of infrastructure and inadequate social capital have prevented these possibilities from being properly exploited. The government is also developing ports and infrastructure in La Union in the east of the country, in order to use the area as a "dry canal" for transporting goods from Gulf of Fonseca in the Pacific Ocean to Honduras and the Atlantic Ocean in the north. Currently there are fifteen free trade zones in El Salvador. The largest beneficiary has been the maquila industry, which provides 88,700 jobs directly, and consists primarily of cutting and assembling clothes for export to the United States. El Salvador signed the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), negotiated by the five countries of Central America and the Dominican Republic, with the United States in 2004. In order to take advantage of CAFTA, the Salvadoran government is challenged to conduct policies that guarantee better conditions for entrepreneurs and workers to transfer from declining to growing sectors in the economy. El Salvador has already signed free trade agreements with Mexico, Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Panama, and increased its exports to those countries. El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also are negotiating a free trade agreement with Canada, and negotiations started on 2006 for a free trade agreement with Colombia. Fiscal policy has been the biggest challenge for the Salvadoran government. The 1992 peace accords committed the government to heavy expenditures for transition programs and social services. The Stability Adjustment Programs (PAE, for the initials in Spanish) initiated by President Cristiani's administration committed the government to the privatization of banks, the pension system, electric and telephone companies. The total privatization of the pension system has implied a serious burden for the public finances, because the newly created private Pension Association Funds did not absorb coverage of retired pensioners covered in the old system. The government lost the revenues from contributors and absorbed completely the costs of coverage of retired pensioners. This has been the main source of fiscal imbalance. ARENA governments have financed this deficit with the emission of bonds, something the leftist party FMLN has opposed. Debates surrounding the emission of bonds have stalled the approval of the national budget for many months on several occasions, reason for which in 2006 the government will finance the deficit by reducing expenditure in other posts. The emission of bonds and the approval of a loans need a qualified majority (3/4 of the votes) in the parliament. If the deficit is not financed through a loan it is enough with a simple majority to approve the budget (50% of the votes plus 1). This would facilitate an otherwise long process in Salvadoran politics. Despite such challenges to keep public finances in balance, El Salvador still has one of the lowest tax burdens in the American continent (around 11% of GDP). Many specialists claim that it is impossible to advance significant development programs with such a little public sector (the tax burden in the United States is around 25% of the GDP and in other developed countries of the EU it can reach around 50%, like in Sweden). The government has focused on improving the collection of its current revenues with a focus on indirect taxes. Leftist politicians criticize such a structure since indirect taxes (like the value added tax) affect everyone alike, whereas direct taxes can be weighed according to levels of income and are therefore fairer taxes. However, some basic goods are exempt from the indirect taxes. A 10% value-added tax (VAT), implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995. The VAT is the biggest source of revenue, accounting for about 52.3% of total tax revenues in 2004. Remittances from Salvadorans working in the United States sent to family members are a major source of foreign income and offset the substantial trade deficit of around $2.9 billion. Remittances have increased steadily in the last decade and reached an all-time high of $2.9 billion in 2005—approximately 17.1% of gross domestic product (GDP). As of April 2004, net international reserves stood at $1.9 billion. In recent years inflation has fallen to single digit levels, and total exports have grown substantially. Foreign Debt and Assistance El Salvador's external debt decreased sharply in 1993, chiefly as a result of an agreement under which the United States forgave about $461 million of official debt. As a result, total debt service decreased by 16% over 1992. External debt stood at $2.8 billion at the end of 1999. Debt service amounted to 2.5% of GDP in 1998 and is considered moderate. The Government of El Salvador has been successful in obtaining significant new credits from the international financial institutions. Among the most significant loans are a second structural adjustment loan from the World Bank for $52.5 million, another World Bank loan of $40 million for agricultural reform, a $20 million loan from the Central American Bank for Economic Integration to be used to repair roads, and a $60 million Inter-American Development Bank loan for poverty alleviation projects. Total non-U.S. Government aid, excluding NGO assistance and bilateral loan programs, reached $38 million in 1999. Although official figures show relatively small and diminishing aid flows, the total is probably larger. Significant amounts come in through nongovernmental organizations and are channeled to groups not generally included in official statistics, such as political parties, unions, and churches. Some $300 million has been contracted from international institutions and governments for infrastructure works and social programs to be undertaken. The debt profile is expected to increase over the next several years as the international donor community has pledged $1.26 billion to finance El Salvador's reconstruction and modernization. Large loans now being sought to finance reconstruction from the 2001 earthquakes will further alter the country's debt profile. Natural Disasters: Hurricane Mitch (1998) and the Earthquakes (2001) Hurricane Mitch hit El Salvador in late October 1998, generating extreme rainfall of which caused widespread flooding and landslides. Roughly 650 km² were flooded, and the Salvadoran Government pronounced 374 people dead or missing. In addition, approximately 55,900 people were rendered homeless. The areas that suffered the most were the low-lying coastal zones, particularly in the floodplain of the Lempa and San Miguel Grande Rivers. Three major bridges that cross the Lempa were swept away, restricting access to the eastern third of the country and forcing the emergency evacuation of many communities. The heavy rainfall, flooding, and mudslides caused by Hurricane Mitch also severely damaged El Salvador's road network. Along with the three major bridges over the Lempa River, 12 other bridges were damaged or destroyed by the Mitch flooding. The largest single-affected sector was El Salvador's agriculture. Nearly 18% of the total 1998-99 basic grain harvest was lost. Coffee production was hit particularly hard; 3% of the harvest was lost in addition to 8.2% that was lost earlier in the year due to El Niño. Major losses of sugarcane, totaling 9% of the estimated 1998-99 production, were sustained primarily in the coastal regions. Livestock losses amounted to $1 million, including 2,992 head of cattle. In addition to these losses, El Salvador also had to face the threat of disease outbreak. The Ministry of Health recorded a total of 109,038 medical cases related to Hurricane Mitch between October 31 and November 18, 1998; 23% of these cases were respiratory infections, followed by skin ailments, diarrhea, and conjunctivitis. Reconstruction from Mitch was still underway when, in early 2001, the country experienced a series of devastating earthquakes that left nearly 2,000 people dead or missing, 8,000 injured, and caused severe dislocations across all sectors of Salvadoran society. Nearly 25% of all private homes in the country were either destroyed or badly damaged, and 1.5 million persons were left without housing. Hundreds of public buildings were damaged or destroyed, and sanitation and water systems in many communities put out service. The total cost of the damage was estimated at between $1.5 billion and $2 billion, and the devastation thought to equal or surpass that of the 1986 quake that struck San Salvador. Given the magnitude of the disaster, reconstruction and economic recovery will remain the primary focus of the Salvadoran Government for some time to come. The Hurricane Mitch disaster prompted a tremendous response from the international community governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and private citizens alike. Sixteen foreign governments--including the U.S., 19 international NGOs, 20 Salvadoran embassies and consulates, and 20 private firms and individuals provided El Salvador with in-kind assistance. The Government of El Salvador reports that 961 tons of goods and food were received. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimates that contribution in cash given directly to the Salvadoran Government totaled $4.3 million. The U.S. Government has provided $37.7 million in assistance through USAID and the U.S. Departments of Agriculture and Defense. Following the 2001 earthquakes, the U.S. Embassy assumed a leading role in implementing U.S. sponsored assistance. The U.S. Government responded immediately to the emergency, with military helicopters active in initial rescue operations, delivering emergency supplies, rescue workers, and damage assessment teams to stricken communities all over the country. USAIDs Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance had a team of experts working with Salvadoran relief authorities immediately after both quakes, and provided assistance totaling more than $14 million. In addition, the Department of Defense provided an initial response valued at more than $11 million. For long-term reconstruction, the international community offered a total aid package of $1.3 billion, over $110 million of it from the United States. Manufacturing El Salvador historically has been the most industrialized nation in Central America, though a decade of war eroded this position. In 1999, manufacturing accounted for 22% of GDP. The industrial sector has shifted since 1993 from a primarily domestic orientation to include free zone (maquiladora) manufacturing for export. Maquila exports have led the growth in the export sector and in the last 3 years have made an important contribution to the Salvadoran economy. Trade El Salvador's balance of payments continued to show a net surplus. Exports in 1999 grew 1.9% while imports grew 3%, narrowing El Salvador's trade deficit. As in the previous year, the large trade deficit was offset by foreign aid and family remittances. Remittances are increasing at an annual rate of 6.5%, and an estimated $1.35 billion will enter the national economy during 1999. Private foreign capital continued to flow in, though mostly as short-term import financing and not at the levels of previous years. The Central American Common Market continued its dynamic reactivation process, now with most regional commerce duty-free. In September 1996, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras opened free trade talks with Mexico. Although tariff cuts that were expected in July 1996 were delayed until 1997, the Government of El Salvador is committed to a free and open economy. Total U.S. exports to El Salvador reached $2.1 billion in 1999, while El Salvador exported $1.6 billion to the United States. U.S. support for El Salvador's privatization of the electrical and telecommunications markets has markedly expanded opportunities for U.S. investment in the country. More than 300 U.S. companies have established either a permanent commercial presence in El Salvador or work through representative offices in the country. The Department of State maintains a Country Commercial Guide for U.S. businesses seeking detailed information on business opportunities in El Salvador. Agriculture and Land Reform Cotton field, Usulután Department References Article regarding importing thread from US to make apparel: Apparel and Textiles accessed 2008-03-30 See also El Salvador Economy of South America Economy of North America </div> | Economy_of_El_Salvador |@lemmatized overview:1 salvadoran:18 economy:16 experience:2 significant:5 result:3 arena:3 government:27 commitment:1 free:10 market:4 initiative:1 conservative:1 fiscal:3 management:1 include:5 privatization:4 banking:1 system:5 telecommunication:2 public:5 pension:4 electrical:3 distribution:2 generation:1 reduction:1 import:5 duty:2 elimination:1 price:5 control:1 improved:1 enforcement:1 intellectual:1 property:1 right:2 gdp:6 variable:2 grow:6 steady:1 moderate:2 pace:1 since:5 signing:1 peace:2 accord:4 environment:1 macroeconomic:1 stability:2 problem:1 face:2 inequality:1 income:4 rich:1 fifth:2 population:1 receive:3 country:17 poor:1 december:1 net:3 international:9 reserve:3 equal:2 u:18 billion:12 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5,835 | Friedrich_Hayek | Friedrich August von Hayek CH (8 May 189923 March 1992), the son of a municipal doctor in Vienna, is rivaled by only Adam Smith as the preeminent theorist of the market system. Hayek's account of how changing relative prices communicate signals which enable individuals to coordinate their unique plans in an ever changing world is widely regarded as one of the landmark achievements of economic science. This and a host of other important contributions has made Hayek one of the most influential economists of modern times. Skarbek, David, F. A. Hayek’s Influence on Nobel Prize Winners, Review of Austrian Economics 22(1) March 2009 http://www.davidskarbek.com/papers/HayekNobel.pdf One of the great polymaths of the 20th century, Hayek also made significant contributions in jurisprudence, neuroscience, philosophy and the history of ideas. In 1974 Hayek shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with Gunnar Myrdal "for their pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena." He also received the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1991. Hayek lived in Austria, Great Britain, the United States and Germany, and became a British subject in 1938. Early life Hayek was born in Vienna, then capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the son of a doctor in the municipal health service. Hayek's grandfathers were prominent academics working in the fields of statistics and biology. The paternal line had been raised to the ranks of the Austrian nobility, for its services to the state, a generation before his maternal forebears, also raised to the lower noble rank. Hayek's father turned his work on regional botany into a highly esteemed botanical treatise, continuing the family's scholarly traditions. His mother's family belonged to the wealthier bourgeoisie. Also on his mother's side, Hayek was second cousin to the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. His mother often played with Ludwig's sisters. Inspired by the accident of this family connection, Hayek became one of the first to read Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus when the book was published in its original German edition in 1921. Already as a a teenager, and at his father's suggestion, Hayek read the genetic and evolutionary works of Hugo de Vries and the philosophical works of Ludwig Feuerbach. UCLA Oral History 1978 Interviews with Friedrich Hayek, pp. 32-38 In school Hayek was much taken by one instructor's lectures on Aristotle's ethics. In 1917 he joined an artillery regiment in the Austro-Hungarian Army and fought on the Italian front. Much of Hayek's combat experience was spent as a spotter in an aeroplane. He survived the war without serious injury and was decorated for bravery. Hayek then decided to pursue an academic career, determined to help avoid the mistakes that had led to World War I. Hayek said about his experience: "The decisive influence was really World War I. It's bound to draw your attention to the problems of political organization." He vowed to work for a better world. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/tr_show01.html Student and economist At the University of Vienna, he earned doctorates in law and political science in 1921 and 1923 respectively, and he also studied philosophy, psychology and economics with a keen interest. For a short time, when the University of Vienna closed, Hayek studied in Constantin von Monakow's Institute of Brain Anatomy, where Hayek spent much of his time staining brain cells. Hayek's time in Monakow's lab, and his deep interest in the work of Ernst Mach, inspired Hayek's first intellectual project, eventually published as The Sensory Order (1952). It turned Mach's contribution on its head, locating connective learning at the physical, neurological levels in a direct rejection of the "sense data" associationism of the naive empiricists and logical positivists. Hayek presented his work to the private seminar he had created with Herbert Furth called the Geistkreis. "The Viennese Connection: Alfred Schutz and the Austrian School" by Peter Kurrild-Klitgaard. Initially sympathetic to socialism, Hayek's economic thinking began to shift after reading Ludwig von Mises' book Socialism. He was a student of Friedrich von Wieser. Hayek worked as a research assistant to Prof. Jeremiah Jenks of New York University from 1923 to 1924. He then aided the Austrian government with the legal and economic details of the Treaty of Versailles at the close of the First World War. It was at this time that Hayek began attending Ludwig von Mises' private seminars along with several friends, including Fritz Machlup, who had been participating in Hayek's own more general private seminar. After his work for the government, Hayek founded and served as director of the Austrian Institute for Business Cycle Research before joining the faculty of the London School of Economics (LSE) in 1931 at the behest of Lionel Robbins. In the 1930s, Hayek enjoyed a considerable reputation as a leading economic theorist, but his models were not received well by the followers of John Maynard Keynes. Debate between the two schools of thought continues to this day. While at LSE in the 1930s, Hayek tutored David Rockefeller. Interview with David Rockefeller Others who studied with Hayek at the LSE include Arthur Lewis, Ronald Coase, John Kenneth Galbraith, Abba Lerner, Nicholas Kaldor, George Shackle, Thomas Balogh, Vera Smith, L. K. Jah, Arthur Seldon, Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, and Oskar Lange. J. K. Galbraith, "Nicholas Kaldor Remembered", in Nicholas Kaldor and Mainstream Economics: Confrontation or Convergence?, New York: St. Martin's Press. Sir Arthur Lewis Autobiography Alan Ebenstein, Friedrich Hayek: A Biography, p. 62, 248, 284. Unwilling to return to Austria after the Anschluss brought it under the control of Nazi Germany in 1938, Hayek remained in Britain and became a British subject in 1938. He held this status for the remainder of his life, although he did not live in Great Britain after 1950. He lived in the United States from 1950 to 1962 and then mostly in Germany, although briefly in Austria as well. Samuel Brittan, ‘Hayek, Friedrich August (1899–1992)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004, accessed 28 April 2009. The Road to Serfdom It was during this time that The Road to Serfdom was written. Hayek was concerned about the general view in Britain's academia that Fascism was a capitalist reaction against socialism. A chapter in the book is entitled, "The Socialist Roots of Nazism." The book was to be the popular edition of the second volume of a treatise entitled "The Abuse and Decline of Reason". Alan Ebenstein, Friedrich Hayek. A Biography (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 107. It was written between 1940-1943. The title was inspired by the French classical liberal thinker Alexis de Tocqueville's writings on the "road to servitude". Ebenstein, p. 116. It was first published in Britain by Routledge in March 1944 and was quite popular, leading Hayek to call it "that unobtainable book," also due in part to wartime paper rationing. Ebenstein, p. 128. The book was favourably reviewed by George Orwell among others. When it was published in the United States by the University of Chicago in September of that year, it achieved greater popularity than in Britain. At the arrangement of editor Max Eastman, the American magazine Reader's Digest also published an abridged version in April 1945, enabling The Road to Serfdom to reach a far wider audience than academics. The libertarian economist Walter Block has observed critically that while the The Road to Serfdom makes a strong case against centrally-planned economies, it appears only lukewarm in its support of pure laissez-faire capitalism, with Hayek even going so far as to say that "probably nothing has done so much harm to the liberal cause as the wooden insistence of some liberals on certain rules of thumb, above all of the principle of laissez-faire capitalism". Hayek, Constitution of Liberty, University Chicago Press (1960) pp. 502-3 . In the book, Hayek writes that the government has a role to play in the economy through the monetary system, work-hours regulation, and institutions for the flow of proper information. Block W. (1996). "Hayek's Road to Serfdom". Journal of Libertarian Studies. Chicago In 1950, Hayek left the London School of Economics for the University of Chicago, becoming a professor in the Committee on Social Thought. Hayek's first class at Chicago was a faculty seminar on the philosophy of science attended by many of the University's most notable scientists of the time, including Enrico Fermi, Sewall Wright and Leó Szilárd. During his time at Chicago, Hayek worked on the philosophy of science, economics, political philosophy, and the history of ideas. Most of his economic notes from this period have yet to be published. He did not become part of the Chicago School of Economics. F. A. Hayek, Hayek On Hayek: An Autobiographical Dialogue (Liberty Fund, 2008) p. 128. After editing a book on John Stuart Mill's letters he planned to publish two books on the liberal order, The Constitution of Liberty and "The Creative Powers of a Free Civilization" (eventually the title for the second chapter of The Constitution of Liberty). Ebenstein, p. 195. He completed The Constitution of Liberty in May 1959, with publication in February 1960. Hayek was concerned "with that condition of men in which coercion of some by others is reduced as much as is possible in society". F. A. Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960), p. 11. Hayek was disappointed that the book did not receive the same enthusiastic general reception as The Road to Serfdom had sixteen years before. Ebenstein, p. 203. Freiburg and Salzburg From 1962 until his retirement in 1968, he was a professor at the University of Freiburg, West Germany. Hayek regarded his years at Freiburg as "very fruitful". Ebenstein, p. 218. It was here where he wrote most of Law, Legislation and Liberty. This was intended for a technical audience, and it was published in three volumes in 1973, 1976 and 1979. He became professor at the University of Salzburg from 1969 to 1977; he then returned to Freiburg, where he spent the rest of his days. When Hayek left Salzburg in 1977, he wrote that "I made a mistake in moving to Salzburg". The economics department was small and the library facilities were inadequate. Ebenstein, p. 254. Nobel laureate On 9 October, 1974 it was announced that Hayek would be awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, along with Swedish socialist economist Gunnar Myrdal. He was surprised at being given the award and believed that he was given it with Myrdal in order to balance the award with someone from the opposite side of the political spectrum. Ebenstein, p. 263. During the Nobel ceremony in December 1974 Hayek met Russian dissident Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. Hayek later sent him a Russian translation of The Road to Serfdom, with Solzhenitsyn surprised that someone who had not lived in Russia could see so clearly the effects of socialism. Ebenstein, p. 263. The Nobel Prize brought much greater public awareness of Hayek and has been described by his biographer as "the great rejuvenating event in his life". Ebenstein, p. 261. Later life In February 1975 Margaret Thatcher was elected leader of the British Conservative Party. The Institute of Economic Affairs arranged a meeting between Hayek and Thatcher in London soon after. Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable. Think-Tanks and the Economic Counter-Revolution, 1931–1983 (Fontana, 1995), pp. 174-6. During Thatcher's only visit to the Conservative Research Department in the summer of 1975, a speaker had prepared a paper on why the "middle way" was the pragmatic path the Conservative Party should take, avoiding the extremes of left and right. Before he had finished, Thatcher "reached into her briefcase and took out a book. It was Friedrich von Hayek's The Constitution of Liberty. Interrupting our pragmatist, she held the book up for all of us to see. ‘This’, she said sternly, ‘is what we believe’, and banged Hayek down on the table". John Ranelagh, Thatcher's People: An Insider's Account of the Politics, the Power, and the Personalities (Fontana, 1992), p. ix. In 1977 Hayek was critical of the Lib-Lab pact, in which the British Liberal Party agreed to keep the British Labour government in office. Writing to The Times, Hayek said: "May one who has devoted a large part of his life to the study of the history and the principles of liberalism point out that a party that keeps a socialist government in power has lost all title to the name "Liberal". Certainly no liberal can in future vote "Liberal"." "Letters to the Editor: Liberal pact with Labour", The Times (31 March, 1977), p. 15. Hayek was criticised by Liberal politicians Lord Gladwyn and Andrew Phillips, who both claimed that the the purpose of the pact was to discourage socialist legislation. Lord Gladwyn pointed out that the German Free Democrats were in coalition with the German Social Democrats. "Letters to the Editor: Liberal pact with Labour", The Times (2 April, 1977), p. 15. Hayek was defended by Professor Antony Flew who stated that the German Social Democrats, unlike the British Labour Party, had since the late 1950s abandoned public ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange and had instead embraced the social market economy. "Letters to the Editor: German socialist aims", The Times (13 April, 1977), p. 13. In 1978 Hayek came into conflict with the Liberal Party leader David Steel who claimed that liberty was only possible with "social justice and an equitable distribution of wealth and power, which in turn require a degree of active government intervention" and that the Conservative Party were more concerned with the connection between liberty and private enterprise than between liberty and democracy. Hayek claimed that a limited democracy might be better than other forms of limited government at protecting liberty but that an unlimited democracy was worse than other forms of unlimited government because "its government loses the power even to do what it thinks right if any group on which its majority depends thinks otherwise". Hayek stated that if the Conservative leader had said "that free choice is to be exercised more in the market place than in the ballot box, she has merely uttered the truism that the first is indispensable for individual freedom while the second is not: free choice can at least exist under a dictatorship that can limit itself but not under the government of an unlimited democracy which cannot". "Letters to the Editor: The dangers to personal liberty", The Times (11 July, 1978), p. 15. In 1984, he was appointed as a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom on the advice of the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his "services to the study of economics". Hayek had hoped to receive a baronetcy, and after he was awarded the CH he sent a letter to his friends requesting that he be called the English version of Friedrich (Frederick) from now on. After his twenty-minute audience with the Queen, he was "absolutely besotted" with her according to his daughter-in-law, Esca Hayek. Hayek said a year later that he was "amazed by her. That ease and skill, as if she'd known me all my life". The audience with the Queen was followed by a dinner with family and friends at the IEA. When, later that evening, Hayek was dropped off at the Reform Club, he commented: "I've just had the happiest day of my life". Ebenstein, p. 305. In 1991 President George H. W. Bush awarded Hayek the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the two highest civilian awards in the United States, for a "lifetime of looking beyond the horizon". Hayek died in 1992 in Freiburg, Germany. Work The economic calculation problem Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. Hayek believed that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary cooperation) could only be maintained by a central authority of some kind. In his popular book, The Road to Serfdom (1944) and in subsequent works, Hayek claimed that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn had a risk of leading towards totalitarianism, because the central authority would have to be endowed with powers that would have an impact on social life as well, and because the knowledge required for central planning is inherently decentralized. Building on the earlier work of Mises and others, Hayek also argued that while, in centrally planned economies, an individual or a select group of individuals must determine the distribution of resources, these planners will never have enough information to carry out this allocation reliably. The efficient exchange and use of resources, Hayek claimed, can be maintained only through the price mechanism in free markets (see economic calculation problem). In The Use of Knowledge in Society (1945), Hayek argued that the price mechanism serves to share and synchronize local and personal knowledge, allowing society's members to achieve diverse, complicated ends through a principle of spontaneous self-organization. He used the term catallaxy to describe a "self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation." In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. Spontaneous order Hayek viewed the free price system, not as a conscious invention (that which is intentionally designed by man), but as spontaneous order, or what is referred to as "that which is the result of human action but not of human design". Thus, Hayek put the price mechanism on the same level as, for example, language. Such thinking led him to speculate on how the human brain could accommodate this evolved behavior. In The Sensory Order (1952), he proposed, independently of Donald Hebb, the connectionist hypothesis that forms the basis of the technology of neural networks and of much of modern neurophysiology¹. Hayek attributed the birth of civilization to private property in his book The Fatal Conceit (1988). He explained that price signals are the only means of enabling each economic decision maker to communicate tacit knowledge or dispersed knowledge to each other, in order to solve the economic calculation problem. Investment and choice Perhaps more fully than any other economist, Hayek investigated the choice theory of investment involving the inter-relations between non-permanent production goods and "latent" or potentially economic permanent resources, building on the choice theoretical insight that, "processes that take more time will evidently not be adopted unless they yield a greater return than those that take less time." The Pure Theory of Capital (pdf), Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941/2007 (Vol. 12 of the Collected Works): p. 90. Hayek's work on the microeconomics of the choice theoretics of investment, non-permanent goods, potential permanent resources, and economically adapted permanent resources mark a central dividing point between Hayek's work on central planning, trade cycle theory, the division of knowledge, and entrepreneurial adaptation and that of most all other economists, most especially that of the macroeconomic "Marshallian" economists in the tradition of John Maynard Keynes and the microeconomic "Walrasian" economists in the tradition of Abba Lerner. The business cycle Capital, money, and the business cycle are prominent topics in Hayek's early contributions to economics. Mises had earlier explained monetary and banking theory in his Theory of Money and Credit (1912), applying the marginal utility principle to the value of money and then proposing a new theory of industrial fluctuations based on the concepts of the British Currency School and the ideas of the Swedish economist Knut Wicksell. Hayek used this body of work as a starting point for his own interpretation of the business cycle, which defended what later became known as the "Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle". In his Prices and Production (1931) and The Pure Theory of Capital (1941), he explained the origin of the business cycle in terms of central bank credit expansion and its transmission over time in terms of capital misallocation caused by artificially low interest rates. Hayek claimed that: The past instability of the market economy is the consequence of the exclusion of the most important regulator of the market mechanism, money, from itself being regulated by the market process. In accordance with arguments outlined in his essay The Use of Knowledge in Society, he argued that monopolistic governmental agency like central bank can neither possess the relevant information which should govern supply of money, nor have the ability to use it correctly. Social and political philosophy In the latter half of his career Hayek made a number of contributions to social and political philosophy, which he based on his views on the limits of human knowledge The Use of Knowledge in Society , and the idea of spontaneous order in social institutions. He argues in favor of a society organized around a market order, in which the apparatus of state is employed almost (though not entirely) exclusively to enforce the legal order (consisting of abstract rules, and not particular commands) necessary for a market of free individuals to function. These ideas were informed by a moral philosophy derived from epistemological concerns regarding the inherent limits of human knowledge. In his philosophy of science, which has much in common with that of his good friend Karl Popper, Hayek was highly critical of what he termed scientism: a false understanding of the methods of science that has been mistakenly forced upon the social sciences, but that is contrary to the practices of genuine science. Usually scientism involves combining the philosophers' ancient demand for demonstrative justification with the associationists' false view that all scientific explanations are simple two-variable linear relationships. Hayek points out that much of science involves the explanation of complex multi-variable and non-linear phenomena, and that the social science of economics and undesigned order compares favourably with such complex sciences as Darwinian biology. These ideas were developed in The Counter-Revolution of Science: Studies in the Abuse of Reason, 1952 and in some of Hayek's later essays in the philosophy of science such as "Degrees of Explanation" and "The Theory of Complex Phenomena". In The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology (1952), Hayek independently developed a "Hebbian learning" model of learning and memory an idea which he first conceived in 1920, prior to his study of economics. Hayek's expansion of the "Hebbian synapse" construction into a global brain theory has received continued attention in neuroscience, cognitive science, computer science, behavioral science, and evolutionary psychology. Hayek and conservatism Hayek attracted new attention in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of conservative governments in the United States and the United Kingdom. After winning the 1979 election, Margaret Thatcher appointed Keith Joseph, the director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies, as her secretary of state for industry in an effort to redirect parliament’s economic strategies. Likewise, David Stockman, Ronald Reagan’s most influential financial official in 1981 was an acknowledged follower of Hayek. Kenneth R. Hoover, Economics as Ideology: Keynes, Laski, Hayek, and the Creation of Contemporary Politics (2003) p. 213 Hayek wrote an essay titled Why I Am Not a Conservative Why I Am Not a Conservative (included as an appendix to The Constitution of Liberty), in which he disparaged conservatism for its inability to adapt to changing human realities or to offer a positive political program. Although he noted that modern day conservatism shares many opinions on economics with classic liberals, particularly a belief in the free market, he believed it's because conservatism wants to "stand still", whereas liberalism embraces the free market because it "wants to go somewhere". Hayek identified himself as a classical liberal, but noted that in the United States it had become almost impossible to use "liberal" in its original definition, and the term "libertarian" has been used instead. However, for his part Hayek found this term "singularly unattractive" and offered the term “Old Whig” (a phrase borrowed from Edmund Burke) instead. In his later life he said: "I am becoming a Burkean Whig". E. H. H. Green, Ideologies of Conservatism. Conservative Political Ideas in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 259. Influence and recognition Hayek's profound influence on the development of economics is universally acknowledged. Hayek is the second most frequently cited economist (after Kenneth Arrow) in the Nobel lectures of the prize winners in economics – particularly that his lecture was critical of the field of orthodox economics and neo-classical modelization. A number of Nobel winners – such as Vernon Smith and Herbert Simon – recognize Hayek as the greatest economist of the modern period. Hayek is widely recognized for having introduced the time dimension to the equilibrium construction, and for his key role in helping to having inspired the fields of growth theory, information economics, and the theory of spontaneous order. The "informal" economics presented in Milton Friedman's massively influential popular work "Free to Choose" (1980), is explicitly Hayekian in its account of the price system as a system for transmitting and coordinating knowledge. This is hardly an accident – Friedman taught Hayek's famous paper "The Use of Knowledge in Society" (1945) in his graduate seminars. Harvard economist and former Harvard University President Lawrence Summers explains Hayek's place in modern economics this way: "What's the single most important thing to learn from an economics course today? What I tried to leave my students with is the view that the invisible hand is more powerful than the [un]hidden hand. Things will happen in well-organized efforts without direction, controls, plans. That's the consensus among economists. That's the Hayek legacy." Lawrence Summers, quoted in The Commanding Heights: The Battle Between Government and the Marketplace that Is Remaking the Modern World, by Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1998, pp. 150-151. By 1947, Hayek was an organizer of the Mont Pelerin Society, a group of classical liberals who sought to oppose what they saw as socialism in various areas. He was also instrumental in the founding of the Institute of Economic Affairs, the free-market think tank that inspired Thatcherism. Hayek had a long-standing and close friendship with philosopher of science Karl Popper, also from Vienna. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski." (See Hacohen, 2000). Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper, and in 1982 said, "...ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology." See Weimer and Palermo, 1982 Popper also participated in the inaugural meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society. Their friendship and mutual admiration, however, do not change the fact that there are important differences between their ideas. See Birner, 2001, and for the mutual influence they had on each other's ideas on evolution, Birner 2009 Hayek's greatest intellectual debt was to Carl Menger, who pioneered an approach to social explanation similar to that developed in Britain by Bernard Mandeville and the Scottish moral philosophers (cf. Scottish Enlightenment). He had a wide-reaching influence on contemporary economics, politics, philosophy, sociology, psychology and anthropology. For example, Hayek's discussion in The Road to Serfdom (1944) about truth, falsehood and the use of language influenced some later opponents of postmodernism. e.g., Wolin 2004 Legacy and honors Even after his death, Hayek's intellectual presence was noticeable, especially in the universities where he had taught: the London School of Economics, the University of Chicago, and the University of Freiburg. A number of tributes resulted, many posthumous. A student-run group at the LSE Hayek Society, was established in his honor. At Oxford University, the Oxford Libertarian Society was previously known as the Hayek Society. The Cato Institute named its lower level auditorium after Hayek, who had been a Distinguished Senior Fellow at Cato during his later years. Also, the auditorium of the school of economics in Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala is named after him. Hayek's work on price theory has been central to the thinking of Jimmy Wales about how to manage the Wikipedia project. Katherine Mangu-Ward: [http://www.reason.com/news/show/119689.html Wikipedia and Beyond. Jimmy Wales´ sprawling vision, June 2007 Selected bibliography See also: List of books by Friedrich Hayek Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle, 1929. Prices and Production, 1931. Profits, Interest and Investment: And other essays on the theory of industrial fluctuations, 1939. The Road to Serfdom, 1944. Individualism and Economic Order, 1948. The Constitution of Liberty, 1960. Law, Legislation and Liberty (3 volumes) 1) Rules and Order, 1973 2) The Mirage of Social Justice, 1976 3) The Political Order of a Free People, 1979 The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism, 1988. (The content of the book was heavily influenced by William Warren Bartley) Liberty - The Fatal Deceit Notes Bibliography Birner, Jack, 2001, "The mind-body problem and social evolution," CEEL Working Paper 1-02. Birner, Jack, and Rudy van Zijp, eds., Hayek: Co-ordination and Evolution: His legacy in philosophy, politics, economics and the history of ideas (1994) Birner, Jack, 2009, "From group selection to ecological niches. Popper's rethinking of evolutionary theory in the light of Hayek's theory of culture", in S. Parusnikova & R.S. Cohen (eds.), Rethinking Popper, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science Vol. 272, Springer 2009 Brittan, Samuel "Hayek, Friedrich August (1899–1992)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (2006) online Caldwell, Bruce, 2005. Hayek's Challenge: An Intellectual Biography of F.A. Hayek. Cohen, Avi J. "The Hayek/Knight Capital Controversy: the Irrelevance of Roundaboutness, or Purging Processes in Time?" History of Political Economy 2003 35(3): 469-490. Issn: 0018-2702 Fulltext: online in Project Muse, Swetswise and Ebsco Doherty, Brian. 2007. Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement Ebenstein, Alan O., 2001. Friedrich Hayek: A Biography. Frowen, S. ed., (1997) Hayek: economist and social philosopher Gamble, Andrew. (1996) The Iron Cage of Liberty, an analysis of Hayek's ideas Gray, John, 1998. Hayek on Liberty. Hacohen, Malachi, 2000. Karl Popper: The Formative Years, 1902 – 1945. Horwitz, Steven. "Friedrich Hayek, Austrian Economist." Journal of the History of Economic Thought 2005 27(1): 71-85. Issn: 1042-7716 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco Issing, O. (1999) Hayek, currency competition and European monetary union Kasper, Sherryl, 2002, The Revival of Laissez-Faire in American Macroeconomic Theory: A Case Study of Its Pioneers. Chpt. 4. Kley, Roland, 1994. Hayek's Social and Political Thought. Oxford Univ. Press. Muller, Jerry Z., 2002. The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Western Thought. Anchor Books. Pavlík, Ján. 2004 . University of Economics, Prague F. A. von Hayek and The Theory of Spontaneous Order. Professional Publishing 2004, Prague . Rosenof, Theodore, 1974, "Freedom, Planning, and Totalitarianism: The Reception of F. A. Hayek's Road to Serfdom," Canadian Review of American Studies. Samuelson, Richard A. "Reaction to the Road to Serfdom." Modern Age 1999 41(4): 309-317. Issn: 0026-7457 Fulltext: in Ebsco Shearmur; Jeremy, 1996. Hayek and after: Hayekian Liberalism as a Research Programme. Routledge. Touchie, John, 2005. Hayek and Human Rights: Foundations for a Minimalist Approach to Law. Edward Elgar. Vanberg, V. (2001). "Hayek, Friedrich A von (1899–1992)," International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 6482–6486. Abstract. Vernon, Richard. "The 'Great Society' and the 'Open Society': Liberalism in Hayek and Popper." Canadian Journal of Political Science 1976 9(2): 261-276. Issn: 0008-4239 Fulltext: in Jstor Weimer, W., and Palermo, D., eds., 1982. Cognition and the Symbolic Processes. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Contains Hayek's essay, "The Sensory Order after 25 Years" with "Discussion." Wolin, R. 2004. The Seduction of Unreason: The Intellectual Romance with Fascism from Nietzsche to Postmodernism. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Primary sources Hayek, Friedrich. Hayek on Hayek: an autobiographical dialogue, ed. S. Kresge and L. Wenar (1994) Hayek, Friedrich. The collected works of F. A. Hayek, ed. W. W. Bartley and others (1988–) See also External links The Hayek Scholar's Page UCLA Oral History 1978 Interviews with Friedrich Hayek Bio from the Ludwig von Mises Institute List of Articles written by Hayek from the Ludwig von Mises Institute Hayek's influence on Friesian philosophy Official 1974 Nobel Prize page Bio and online works on Econlib The Road to Serfdom in Five Minutes Hayek's book, as illustrated by Look Magazine, condensed into a 5-minute movie Hayek, F. A Directory of links on Hayek from the Open Source Directory F A Hayek on the Adam Smith Institute website Hayek Bio at hayek.de Reason magazine's article on what Hayek might think of gay marriage (describes the conservatism vs. liberalism dispute) Information and Economics: A critique of Hayek essay included in the book Towards a New Socialism reviewed by the hayekian Len Brewster The economics of information, market socialism and Hayek's legacy Hayek and Socialism by Bruce Caldwell The Market Dynamics of Speculation: Hayekian Market Signals and the Rise of the Culture Industries The Connectionist Mind: A Study of Hayekian Psychology by Barry Smith Hayek Links The most extensive list of links on Hayek Oxford Hayek Society "The Road from Serfdom", interview in Reason'' by Thomas W. 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5,836 | Central_moment | In probability theory and statistics, the kth moment about the mean (or kth central moment) of a real-valued random variable X is the quantity μk := E[(X − E[X])k], where E is the expectation operator. For a continuous univariate probability distribution with probability density function f(x) the moment about the mean μ is For random variables that have no mean, such as the Cauchy distribution, central moments are not defined. The first few central moments have intuitive interpretations: The first central moment is zero. The second moment about the mean is called the variance, and is usually denoted σ2, where σ represents the standard deviation. The third and fourth moments about the mean are used to define the standardized moments which are used to define skewness and kurtosis, respectively. Properties The nth central moment is translation-invariant, i.e. for any random variable X and any constant c, we have For all n, the nth central moment is homogeneous of degree n: Only for n ≤ 3 do we have an additivity property for random variables X and Y that are independent: A related functional that shares the translation-invariance and homogeneity properties with the nth central moment, but continues to have this additivity property even when n ≥ 4 is the nth cumulant κn(X). For n = 1, the nth cumulant is just the expected value; for n = either 2 or 3, the nth cumulant is just the nth central moment; for n ≥ 4, the nth cumulant is an nth-degree monic polynomial in the first n moments (about zero), and is also a (simpler) nth-degree polynomial in the first n central moments. Relation to moments about the origin Sometimes it is convenient to convert moments about the origin to moments about the mean. The general equation for converting the nth-order moment about the origin to the moment about the mean is where m is the mean of the distribution, and the moment about the origin is given by For the cases n = 2, 3, 4 — which are of most interest because of the relations to variance, skewness, and kurtosis, respectively — this formula becomes: See also image moments | Central_moment |@lemmatized probability:3 theory:1 statistic:1 kth:2 moment:22 mean:8 central:9 real:1 value:2 random:4 variable:4 x:7 quantity:1 μk:1 e:4 k:1 expectation:1 operator:1 continuous:1 univariate:1 distribution:3 density:1 function:1 f:1 μ:1 cauchy:1 define:3 first:4 intuitive:1 interpretation:1 zero:2 second:1 call:1 variance:2 usually:1 denote:1 σ:1 represent:1 standard:1 deviation:1 third:1 fourth:1 use:2 standardized:1 skewness:2 kurtosis:2 respectively:2 property:4 nth:11 translation:2 invariant:1 constant:1 c:1 n:10 homogeneous:1 degree:3 additivity:2 independent:1 related:1 functional:1 share:1 invariance:1 homogeneity:1 continue:1 even:1 cumulant:4 κn:1 expected:1 either:1 monic:1 polynomial:2 also:2 simpler:1 relation:2 origin:4 sometimes:1 convenient:1 convert:2 general:1 equation:1 order:1 give:1 case:1 interest:1 formula:1 become:1 see:1 image:1 |@bigram random_variable:4 probability_distribution:1 skewness_kurtosis:2 nth_cumulant:4 expected_value:1 |
5,837 | Jet_stream | Jet streams flow from west to east in the upper portion of the troposphere. Jet streams, or just jets in context, are fast flowing, narrow air currents found in the atmosphere of planets at the tropopause, the transition between the troposphere (where temperature decreases with height) and the stratosphere (where temperature increases with height). United States Department of Energy June 26, 2002. Ask a Scientist. Retrieved on 2008-05-05. They are thought to be caused by a combination of atmospheric heating (by solar radiation and/or internal heat) and a planet's rotation on its own axis. On Earth, the strongest jet streams are the polar jets (7-12 km or 23,000-39,000 ft above sea level) and the higher and somewhat weaker subtropical jets (10-16 km or 33,000-52,000 ft). The northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere each have both a polar jet and a subtropical jet. The singular term "jet stream" is often used to describe Earth's northern hemisphere polar jet, since it is the most important one for meteorology and aviation as it covers much of North America, Europe, and Asia, especially in winter, while the southern hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round. Jet streams form near boundaries of adjacent air masses with significant differences in temperature, such as the polar region and the warmer air to the south. University of Illinois. Jet Stream. Retrieved on 2008-05-04. Jet streams are not continuous or circular around the perimeter of a planet: they may start, stop, split into two or more parts, combine into one stream, or flow in various directions including the opposite direction of most of the jet. The path of a jet stream typically has a meandering shape, and these meanders are one manifestation of Rossby waves. Rossby waves propagate westward with respect to the flow in which they are embedded, which translates to a slower eastward migration across the globe than smaller scale short wave troughs. The major jet streams are westerly winds (flowing west to east). During the northern hemisphere summer, easterly jets can form in tropical regions, typically in a region where dry air encounters more humid air at high altitudes. Low level jets can form wherever low level winds are squeezed. Meteorologists use the location of the jet streams as an aid in weather forecasting. The main commercial use of the jet streams is in air travel, as flight time can be dramatically affected by either flying with or against a stream. One type of clear-air turbulence is found in a jet stream's vicinity, which can be a hazard to aircraft. One future benefit of jet streams could be to power airborne wind turbines. Discovery Jet streams may have been first detected in the 1920s by Japanese meteorologist Wasaburo Ooishi. John M. Lewis. Ooishi's Observation: Viewed in the Context of Jet Stream Discovery. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. From a site near Mount Fuji, he tracked pilot balloons, also known as pibals (balloons used to determine upper level winds using a theodolite and the balloon's known ascension rate due to its internal gas), Martin Brenner. Pilot Balloon Resources. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. as they rose into the atmosphere. Ooishi's work largely went unnoticed outside of Japan. American pilot Wiley Post, the first man to fly around the world solo in 1933, is often given some credit for discovery of jet streams. Post invented a pressurized suit that let him fly above . In the year before his death, Post made several attempts at a high-altitude transcontinental flight, and noticed that at times his ground speed greatly exceeded his air speed. Acepilots.com. Wiley Post. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. German meteorologist H. Seilkopf is credited with coining the term "jet stream" (Strahlströmung) in a 1939 paper. John M. Lewis: Clarifying the Dynamics of the General Circulation: Phillips’s 1956 Experiment from: Bulletin of the American Meterological Society, Vol. 79, No. 1, January 1988 Many sources credit real understanding of the nature of jet streams to regular and repeated flight-path traversals during World War II. Flyers consistently noticed tailwinds in excess of 100 mph in flights, for example, between the US and UK. BBC. Weather Basics - Jet Streams. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. Description Cross section of the subtropical and polar jet streams by latitude Polar jet streams are typically located near the 250 hPa (7.38 inHg) pressure level, or to above sea level, while the weaker subtropical jet streams are much higher, between and above sea level. In each hemisphere, both upper-level jet streams form near breaks in the tropopause, which is at a higher altitude near the equator than it is over the poles, with large changes in its height occurring near the location of the jet stream. David R. Cook Jet Stream Behavior. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. B. Geerts and E. Linacre. The Height of the Tropopause. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. The northern hemisphere polar jet stream is most commonly found between latitudes 30°N and 60°N, while the northern subtropical jet stream located close to latitude 30°N. The upper level jet stream is said to "follow the sun" as it moves northward during the warm season, or late spring and summer, and southward during the cold season, or autumn and winter. National Weather Service JetStream. The Jet Stream. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. McDougal Littell. Paths of Polar and Subtropical Jet Streams. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. Jet streams are typically continuous over long distances, but discontinuities are common. Glossary of Meteorology. Jet Stream. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. The path of the jet typically has a meandering shape, and these meanders themselves propagate east, at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow. Each large meander, or wave, within the jet stream is known as a Rossby wave. Rossby waves are caused by changes in the Coriolis effect with latitude, and propagate westward with respect to the flow in which they are embedded, which slows down the eastward migration of upper level troughs and ridges across the globe when compared to their embedded shortwave troughs. Glossary of Meteorology. Rossby Wave. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. Shortwave troughs are smaller packets of upper level energy, on the scale of to long, Glossary of Meteorology. Cyclone wave. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. which move through the flow pattern around large scale, or longwave, ridges and troughs within Rossby waves. Glossary of Meteorology. Short wave. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. Jet streams can split into two due to the formation of an upper-level closed low, which diverts a portion of the jet stream under its base, while the remainder of the jet moves by to its north. The wind speeds vary according to the temperature gradient, exceeding , Glossary of Meteorology. Jet Stream. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. although speeds of over have been measured. Robert Roy Britt. The jet stream moves from West to East bringing hot and cold air. et Streams On Earth and Jupiter. Retrieved on 2008-05-04. Meteorologists now understand that the path of jet streams steers cyclonic storm systems at lower levels in the atmosphere, and so knowledge of their course has become an important part of weather forecasting. For example, in 2007, Britain experienced severe flooding as a result of the polar jet staying south for the summer. Blackburn, Mike; Hoskins, Brian; Slingo, Julia: Cause Upper-level variety General configuration of the polar and subtropical jet streams In general, winds are strongest just under the tropopause (except during tornadoes, hurricanes or other anomalous situations). If two air masses of different temperatures or densities meet, the resulting pressure difference caused by the density difference (which causes wind) is highest within the transition zone. The wind does not flow directly from the hot to the cold area, but is deflected by the Coriolis effect and flows along the boundary of the two air masses. John P. Stimac. Air pressure and wind. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. The polar front and subtropical jets merge at some locations and times, while at other times they are well separated. All these facts are consequences of the thermal wind relation. The balance of forces on an atmospheric parcel in the vertical direction is primarily between the pressure gradient and the force of gravity, a balance referred to as hydrostatic. In the horizontal, the dominant balance outside of the tropics is between the Coriolis effect and the pressure gradient, a balance referred to as geostrophic. Given both hydrostatic and geostrophic balance, one can derive the thermal wind relation: the vertical derivative of the horizontal wind is proportional to the horizontal temperature gradient. The sense of the relation is such that temperatures decreasing polewards implies that winds develop a larger eastward component as one moves upwards. Therefore, the strong eastward moving jet streams are in part a simple consequence of the fact that the equator is warmer than the north and south poles. John P. Stimac. Air pressure and wind. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. The thermal wind relation does not immediately provide an explanation for why the winds are organized in tight jets, rather than distributed more broadly over the hemisphere. There are two factors that contribute to this sharpness of the jets. One is the tendency for developing cyclonic disturbances in midlatitudes to form fronts. A front is a sharp localized gradient in temperature. The polar front jet stream can be thought of as the result of this frontogenesis process in midlatitudes, as the storms concentrate the north-south temperature contrast into relatively narrow regions. Glossary of Meteorology. Jet Stream. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. An alternative explanation is more appropriate for the subtropical jet, which forms at the poleward limit of the tropical Hadley cell. One can visualize this circulation as being symmetric with respect to longitude. Rings of air encircling the Earth move polewards beneath the tropopause from the equator into the subtropics. As they do so they tend to conserve their angular momentum. But they are also moving closer to the axis of rotation, so they must spin faster in the direction of rotation, implying an increased eastward component of the winds. Lyndon State College Meteorology. Jet Stream Formation - Subtropical Jet. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. Jupiter's atmosphere has multiple jet streams, forming the familiar banded color structure, caused by internal heating. Robert Roy Britt. et Streams On Earth and Jupiter. Retrieved on 2008-05-04. The factors that control the number of jet streams in a planetary atmosphere is an active area of research in dynamical meteorology. In models, as one increases the planetary radius, holding all other parameters fixed, the number of jet streams increases. Other jets There are wind maxima in the atmosphere at other levels of the atmosphere that are referred to as jets, including the mid-level African easterly jet which occurs during the Northern Hemisphere summer between 10°N and 20°N above West Africa, and the nocturnal poleward low-level jet in the Great Plains. Dr. Alex DeCaria. Lesson 4 – Seasonal-mean Wind Fields. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. The low-level easterly African jet stream is considered to play a crucial role in the southwest monsoon of Africa, Kerry H. Cook. Generation of the African Easterly Jet and Its Role in Determining West African Precipitation. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. and helps form the tropical waves which march across the tropical Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans during the warm season. Chris Landsea. AOML Frequently Asked Questions. Subject: A4) What is an easterly wave ? Retrieved on 2008-05-08. The formation of the thermal low over northern Africa leads to a low-level westerly jet stream from June into October. B. Pu and K. H. Cook (2008). Dynamics of the Low-Level Westerly Jet Over West Africa. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2008, abstract #A13A-0229. Retrieved on 2009-03-08. A barrier jet in the low levels forms just upstream of mountain chains, with the mountains forcing the jet to be oriented parallel to the mountains. The mountain barrier increases the strength of the low level wind by 45 percent. J. D. Doyle. The influence of mesoscale orography on a coastal jet and rainband. Retrieved on 2008-12-25. A southerly low-level jet in the Great Plains helps fuel overnight thunderstorm activity during the warm season, normally in the form of mesoscale convective systems which form during the overnight hours. Matt Kumijan, Jeffry Evans, and Jared Guyer. The Relationship of the Great Plains Low-Level Jet to Nocturnal MCS Development. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. A similar phenomenon develops across Australia, which pulls moisture poleward from the Coral Sea towards cut-off lows which form mainly across southwestern portions of the continent. L. Qi, L.M. Leslie, and S.X. Zhao. Cut-off low pressure systems over southern Australia: climatology and case study. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. Uses Aviation Flights between Tokyo and Los Angeles using the jet stream eastbound and a great circle route westbound. The location of the jet stream is extremely important for aviation. Commercial use of the jet stream began on November 18, 1952, when Pan Am flew from Tokyo to Honolulu at an altitude of . It cut the trip time by over one-third, from 18 to 11.5 hours. M. D. Klaas. Stratocruiser: Part three. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. Not only does it cut time off the flight, it also nets fuel savings for the airline industry. Ned Rozell. Amazing flying machines allow time travel. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. Within North America, the time needed to fly east across the continent can be decreased by about 30 minutes if an airplane can fly with the jet stream, or increased by more than that amount if it must fly west against it. Associated with jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear air turbulence (CAT), caused by vertical and horizontal windshear connected to the jet streams. BBC. Jet Streams in the UK. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. The CAT is strongest on the cold air side of the jet, M. P. de Villiers and J. van Heerden. Clear air turbulence over South Africa. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. next to and just underneath the axis of the jet. CLARK T. L., HALL W. D., KERR R. M., MIDDLETON D., RADKE L., RALPH F. M., NEIMAN P. J., LEVINSON D. Origins of aircraft-damaging clear-air turbulence during the December 9, 1992 Colorado downslope windstorm : Numerical simulations and comparison with observations. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. Clear air turbulence can be hazardous to aircraft, and has caused fatal accidents, such as United Airlines Flight 826. National Transportation Safety Board. Aircraft Accident Investigation United Airlines flight 826, Pacific Ocean December 28, 1997. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. Future power generation Scientists are investigating ways to harness the wind energy within the jet stream using airborne wind turbines. Kite-like wind generators have been proposed, which would transmit electricity back to the ground via either aluminium cables, copper cables, or beams of microwave energy. Tethered balloons, which reach heights of , have been used to monitor drug trafficking over many years, with no reported airplane incidents until April 21, 2007 when three individuals were killed in the Florida Keys when their Cessna 182 struck a steel cable tethered to a large unpiloted government radar surveillance blimp (aerostat) over Cudjoe Key. Aero-News Network. Three Lost When C-182 Hits Blimp Cable Off FL CoastRetrieved on 2009-05-30 Monroe County Sheriff’s Office Daily Crime and Information Report, April 2007 Keys Plane crash victims identifiedRetrieved on 2009-05-30 According to one estimate, only 1 percent of the potential wind energy in the jet stream could meet the world's current energy needs. The required technology would reportedly take 10–20 years to develop. Keay Davidson. Scientists look high in the sky for power. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. Unpowered aerial attack Changes due to climate cycles Effects of ENSO Impact of El Niño and La Niña on North America The changing of the normal location of upper-level jet streams can be anticipated during phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which leads to consequences precipitation-wise and temperature-wise across North America, affects tropical cyclone development across the eastern Pacific and Atlantic basins. Combined with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, ENSO can also impact cold season rainfall in Europe. Davide Zanchettin, Stewart W. Franks, Pietro Traverso, and Mario Tomasino. On ENSO impacts on European wintertime rainfalls and their modulation by the NAO and the Pacific multi-decadal variability described through the PDO index. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. Changes in ENSO also change the location of the jet stream over South America, which partially effects precipitation distribution over the continent. Caio Augusto dos Santos Coelho and Térico Ambrizzi. 5A.4. Climatological Studies of the Influences of El Niño Southern Oscillation Events in the Precipitation Pattern Over South America During Austral Summer. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. El Niño During El Niño events, increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly, zonal, storm track. John Monteverdi and Jan Null. WESTERN REGION TECHNICAL ATTACHMENT NO. 97-37 NOVEMBER 21, 1997: El Niño and California Precipitation. Retrieved on 2008-02-28. During the El Niño portion of ENSO, increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal, and more southerly, polar jet stream. Climate Prediction Center. El Niño (ENSO) Related Rainfall Patterns Over the Tropical Pacific. Retrieved on 2008-02-28. Snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range, and is well-below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states. Climate Prediction Center. ENSO Impacts on United States Winter Precipitation and Temperature. Retrieved on 2008-04-16. The northern tier of the lower 48 exhibits above normal temperatures during the fall and winter, while the Gulf coast experiences below normal temperatures during the winter season. Climate Prediction Center. Average October-December (3-month) Temperature Rankings During ENSO Events. Retrieved on 2008-04-16. Climate Prediction Center. Average December-February (3-month) Temperature Rankings During ENSO Events. Retrieved on 2008-04-16. The subtropical jet stream across the deep tropics of the Northern Hemisphere is enhanced due to increased convection in the equatorial Pacific, which decreases tropical cyclogenesis within the Atlantic tropics below what is normal, and increases tropical cyclone activity across the eastern Pacific. In the Southern Hemisphere, the subtropical jet stream is displaced equatorward, or north, of its normal position, which diverts frontal systems and thunderstorm complexes from reaching central portions of the continent. Caio Augusto dos Santos Coelho and Térico Ambrizzi. 5A.4. Climatological Studies of the Influences of El Niño Southern Oscillation Events in the Precipitation Pattern Over South America During Austral Summer. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. La Niña Across North America during La Niña, increased precipitation is diverted into the Pacific Northwest due to a more northerly storm track and jet stream. Nathan Mantua. La Niña Impacts in the Pacific Northwest. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. The storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal conditions (in the form of increased snowfall) to the Midwestern states, as well as hot and dry summers. Southeast Climate Consortium. SECC Winter Climate Outlook. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. Reuters. La Nina could mean dry summer in Midwest and Plains. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. Snowfall is above normal across the Pacific Northwest and western Great Lakes. Climate Prediction Center. ENSO Impacts on United States Winter Precipitation and Temperature. Retrieved on 2008-04-16. Across the North Atlantic, the jet stream is stronger than normal, which directs stronger systems with increased precipitation towards Europe. Paul Simons and Simon de Bruxelles. More rain and more floods as La Niña sweeps across the globe. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. Jetstreams possibly moving Between 1979 and 2001, it has been found that the position of the jet stream has been moving northward at a rate of per year across the Northern Hemisphere. Across North America, this type of change could lead to drier conditions across the southern tier of the United States and more frequent and more intense tropical cyclones in the tropics. A similar slow poleward drift was found when studying the Southern Hemisphere jet stream over the same time frame. Associated Press. Jet stream found to be permanently drifting north. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. The Dust Bowl Evidence suggests the jet stream was at least partially responsible for the wide drought conditions during the 1930s Dust Bowl in the Midwest United States. Normally, the jet stream flows east over the Gulf of Mexico and turns northward pulling up moisture and dumping rain onto the Great Plains. During the Dust Bowl, the jet stream weakened and changed course traveling farther south than normal. This starved the Great Plains and other areas of the Midwest of precious rain creating dusty conditions. Weather at About.com. Causes of the Dust Bowl in the United States. Retrieved on 2008-06-10. See also Surface weather analysis Tornado Wind shear Japanese balloon bombing of the United States during World War II Sting jet References External links CRWS Jet stream analyses | Jet_stream |@lemmatized jet:103 stream:74 flow:10 west:7 east:6 upper:10 portion:5 troposphere:2 context:2 fast:1 flowing:1 narrow:2 air:19 current:2 find:6 atmosphere:7 planet:3 tropopause:5 transition:2 temperature:16 decrease:4 height:5 stratosphere:1 increase:11 united:8 state:10 department:1 energy:6 june:2 ask:2 scientist:3 retrieve:50 think:2 cause:9 combination:1 atmospheric:2 heating:2 solar:1 radiation:1 internal:3 heat:1 rotation:3 axis:3 earth:5 strong:6 polar:14 km:2 ft:2 sea:4 level:25 high:7 somewhat:1 weak:2 subtropical:12 northern:10 hemisphere:13 southern:10 singular:1 term:2 often:2 use:9 describe:2 since:1 important:3 one:12 meteorology:9 aviation:3 cover:1 much:2 north:12 america:9 europe:3 asia:1 especially:1 winter:7 mostly:1 circle:2 antarctica:1 year:5 round:1 streams:1 form:13 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5,838 | Attribution_of_recent_climate_change | Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for relatively recent changes observed in the Earth's climate. The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record, when records are most reliable; particularly on the last 50 years, when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the upper atmosphere have become available. The dominant mechanisms to which recent climate change has been attributed all result from human activity. They are: increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface, such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols. Recent reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report have concluded that: "Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations." "From new estimates of the combined anthropogenic forcing due to greenhouse gases, aerosols, and land surface changes, it is extremely likely that human activities have exerted a substantial net warming influence on climate since 1750." "It is virtually certain that anthropogenic aerosols produce a net negative radiative forcing (cooling influence) with a greater magnitude in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. The panel, which represents consensus in the scientific community, defines "very likely," "extremely likely," and "virtually certain" as indicating probabilities greater than 90%, 95%, and 99%, respectively. Key attributions Greenhouse gases Scientific consensus has identified carbon dioxide as the dominant greenhouse gas forcing. (The dominant greenhouse gas overall is water vapor. Water vapor, however, has a very short atmospheric lifetime (about 10 days) and is very nearly in a dynamic equilibrium in the atmosphere, so it is not a forcing gas in the context of global warming. ) Methane and nitrous oxide are also major forcing contributors to the greenhouse effect. The Kyoto Protocol lists these together with Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), which are entirely artificial (i.e. anthropogenic) gases which also contribute to radiative forcing in the atmosphere. The chart at right attributes anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to eight main economic sectors, of which the largest contributors are power stations (many of which burn coal or other fossil fuels), industrial processes (among which cement production is a dominant contributor ), transportation fuels (generally fossil fuels), and agricultural by-products (mainly methane from enteric fermentation and nitrous oxide from fertilizer use). Land use Climate change is attributed to land use for two main reasons. While 66% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions over the last 250 years have resulted from burning fossil fuels, 33% have resulted from changes in land use, primarily deforestation. Deforestation both reduces the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by deforested regions and releases greenhouse gases directly, together with aerosols, through biomass burning that frequently accompanies it. A second reason that climate change has been attributed to land use is that the terrestrial albedo is often altered by use, which leads to radiative forcing. This effect is more significant locally than globally. Livestock and land use Worldwide, livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the ice-free land surface of the Earth. Scientists attribute more than 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to livestock and livestock-related activities such as deforestation and increasingly fuel-intensive farming practices. Specific attributions to the livestock sector include: 9% of global carbon dioxide emissions 35-40% of global methane emissions (chiefly due to enteric fermentation and manure) 64% of global nitrous oxide emissions, chiefly as a result of fertilizer use. Aerosols With virtual certainty, scientific consensus has attributed various forms of climate change, chiefly cooling effects, to aerosols, which are small particles or droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Key sources to which anthropogenic aerosols are attributed include: biomass burning such as slash and burn deforestation. Aerosols produced are primarily black carbon. industrial air pollution, which produces soot and airborne sulfates, nitrates, and ammonium dust produced by land use effects such as desertification Attribution of 20th century climate change One global climate model's reconstruction of temperature change during the 20th century as the result of five studied forcing factors and the amount of temperature change attributed to each. Over the past 150 years human activities have released increasing quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This has led to increases in mean global temperature, or global warming. Other human effects are relevant—for example, sulphate aerosols are believed to lead to cooling—and natural factors also contribute. According to the historical temperature record of the last century, the Earth's near-surface air temperature has risen around 0.74 ± 0.18 °Celsius (1.3 ± 0.32 °Fahrenheit). A historically important question in climate change research has regarded the relative importance of human activity and non-anthropogenic causes during the period of instrumental record. In the 1995 Second Assessment Report (SAR), the IPCC made the widely-quoted statement that "The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate". The phrase "balance of evidence" suggested the (English) common-law standard of proof required in civil as opposed to criminal courts: not as high as "beyond reasonable doubt". In 2001 the Third Assessment Report (TAR) refined this, saying "There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities". The 2007 fourth assessment report (WG1 AR4) strengthened this finding: "Anthropogenic warming of the climate system is widespread and can be detected in temperature observations taken at the surface, in the free atmosphere and in the oceans. Evidence of the effect of external influences, both anthropogenic and natural, on the climate system has continued to accumulate since the TAR." Over the past five decades there has been a global warming of approximately 0.65 °C (1.17 °F) at the Earth's surface (see historical temperature record). Among the possible factors that could produce changes in global mean temperature are internal variability of the climate system, external forcing, an increase in concentration of greenhouse gases, or any combination of these. Current studies indicate that the increase in greenhouse gases, most notably CO2, is mostly responsible for the observed warming. Evidence for this conclusion includes: Estimates of internal variability from climate models, and reconstructions of past temperatures, indicate that the warming is unlikely to be entirely natural. Climate models forced by natural factors and increased greenhouse gases and aerosols reproduce the observed global temperature changes; those forced by natural factors alone do not Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis . "Fingerprint" methods indicate that the pattern of change is closer to that expected from greenhouse gas-forced change than from natural change. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis The plateau in warming from the 1940s to 1960s can be attributed largely to sulphate aerosol cooling. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis In 2001, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences released a report supporting the IPCC’s conclusions regarding the causes of recent climate change. It stated, "Greenhouse gases are accumulating in Earth’s atmosphere as a result of human activities, causing surface air temperatures and subsurface ocean temperatures to rise. Temperatures are, in fact, rising. The changes observed over the last several decades are likely mostly due to human activities, but we cannot rule out that some significant part of these changes are also a reflection of natural variability." http://www4.nationalacademies.org/onpi/webextra.nsf/web/climate?OpenDocument EIA - Greenhouse Gases, Climate Change, and Energy Eldis - Display Detection vs. attribution Per capita greenhouse gas emissions by country including land-use change Detection and attribution of climate signals, as well as its common-sense meaning, has a more precise definition within the climate change literature, as expressed by the IPCC Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis . Detection of a signal requires demonstrating that an observed change is statistically significantly different from that which can be explained by natural internal variability. Attribution requires demonstrating that a signal is: unlikely to be due entirely to internal variability; consistent with the estimated responses to the given combination of anthropogenic and natural forcing not consistent with alternative, physically plausible explanations of recent climate change that exclude important elements of the given combination of forcings. Detection does not imply attribution, and is easier than attribution. Unequivocal attribution would require controlled experiments with multiple copies of the climate system, which is not possible. Attribution, as described above, can therefore only be done within some margin of error. For example, the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report says "it is extremely likely that human activities have exerted a substantial net warming influence on climate since 1750," where "extremely likely" indicates a probability greater than 95%. Following the publication of the Third Assessment Report (TAR) in 2001, "detection and attribution" of climate change has remained an active area of research. Some important results include: A review of detection and attribution studies by the International Ad Hoc Detection and Attribution Group found that "natural drivers such as solar variability and volcanic activity are at most partially responsible for the large-scale temperature changes observed over the past century, and that a large fraction of the warming over the last 50 yr can be attributed to greenhouse gas increases. Thus, the recent research supports and strengthens the IPCC Third Assessment Report conclusion that 'most of the global warming over the past 50 years is likely due to the increase in greenhouse gases.'" Multiple independent reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years confirm that the late 20th century is probably the warmest period in that time Two papers in Science in August 2005 resolve the problem, evident at the time of the TAR, of tropospheric temperature trends. The UAH version of the record contained errors, and there is evidence of spurious cooling trends in the radiosonde record, particularly in the tropics. See satellite temperature measurements for details; and the 2006 US CCSP report. Barnett and colleagues say that the observed warming of the oceans "cannot be explained by natural internal climate variability or solar and volcanic forcing, but is well simulated by two anthropogenically forced climate models," concluding that "it is of human origin, a conclusion robust to observational sampling and model differences" Bratcher and Giese observed conditions that "could be an indication of a climate regime shift to pre-1976 conditions." Bratcher and Giese conclude: "The results presented here do not preclude the possibility that anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases have contributed to global warming. However the results do indicate that the human forced portion of global warming may be less than previously described." Scientific literature and opinion Some examples of published and informal support for the consensus view: The attribution of climate change is discussed extensively, with references to peer-reviewed research, in chapter 12 of the IPCC TAR, which discusses The Meaning of Detection and Attribution, Quantitative Comparison of Observed and Modelled Climate Change, Pattern Correlation Methods and Optimal Fingerprint Methods. An essay BEYOND THE IVORY TOWER: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change - Oreskes 306 (5702): 1686 - Science in Science surveyed 928 abstracts related to climate change, and concluded that most journal reports accepted the consensus. This is discussed further in scientific opinion on climate change. A recent paper (Estimation of natural and anthropogenic contributions to twentieth century temperature change, Tett SFB et al., JGR 2002), says that "Our analysis suggests that the early twentieth century warming can best be explained by a combination of warming due to increases in greenhouse gases and natural forcing, some cooling due to other anthropogenic forcings, and a substantial, but not implausible, contribution from internal variability. In the second half of the century we find that the warming is largely caused by changes in greenhouse gases, with changes in sulphates and, perhaps, volcanic aerosol offsetting approximately one third of the warming." http://groups-beta.google.com/group/sci.environment/msg/aa8521b67cd216ac?dmode=source In 1996, in a paper in Nature titled "A search for human influences on the thermal structure of the atmosphere", Benjamin D. Santer et al. wrote: "The observed spatial patterns of temperature change in the free atmosphere from 1963 to 1987 are similar to those predicted by state-of-the-art climate models incorporating various combinations of changes in carbon dioxide, anthropogenic sulphate aerosol and stratospheric ozone concentrations. The degree of pattern similarity between models and observations increases through this period. It is likely that this trend is partially due to human activities, although many uncertainties remain, particularly relating to estimates of natural variability." Some scientists noted for their somewhat skeptical view of global warming accept that recent climate change is mostly anthropogenic. John Christy has said that he supports the American Geophysical Union (AGU) declaration, and is convinced that human activities are the major cause of the global warming that has been measured. Earth warming at faster pace, say top science group's leaders / Statement by American Geophysical Union's council warns temperature change is real and human-caused Some scientists do disagree with the consensus: see list of scientists opposing global warming consensus. For example Willie Soon and Richard Lindzen say that there is insufficient proof for anthropogenic attribution. Generally this position requires new physical mechanisms to explain the observed warming; for example "Climate hypersensitivity to solar forcing?", Soon W et al., 2000, Annales Geophysicae-Atmospheres Hydrospheres and Space Sciences 18(5). Findings that complicate attribution to CO2 Warming sometimes leads CO2 increases Factors other than increased CO2 concentrations can initiate warming or cooling episodes (see, e.g., orbital forcing). The ice core record shows that on some occasions temperature starts rising hundreds of years before CO2 increases. Such results confirm that the relationship between CO2 and climate can go in both directions: changes in CO2 concentrations affect climate, while changes in climate can affect CO2 concentrations. One proposed mechanism for this effect is increased release of sequestered CO2 from oceans as circulation patterns shift, perhaps abruptly, in response to climate change. A more speculative and polemical inference sometimes drawn is that the causal relationship between temperature rises and global CO2 concentrations is only one-way, so that historical increases in CO2 have been nothing more than the product of independently rising temperatures. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle However, a strictly "one-way" view of the relationship between CO2 and temperature contradicts basic results in physics, specifically the fact that the absorption and emission of infrared radiation by CO2 increases as its atmospheric concentration increases. First principles as well as empirical observation suggest that positive feedbacks from CO2 concentrations amplify warming initially caused by other factors: Close analysis of the relationship between the two curves [i.e., temperature and CO2] shows that, within the uncertainties of matching their timescales, the temperature led by a few centuries. This is expected, since it was changes in the Earth’s orbital parameters (including the shape of its orbit around the Sun, and the tilt of Earth’s axis) that caused the small initial temperature rise. This then raised atmospheric CO2 levels, in part by outgassing from the oceans, causing the temperature to rise further. By amplifying each other’s response, this "positive feedback" can turn a small initial perturbation into a large climate change. There is therefore no surprise that the temperature and CO2 rose in parallel, with the temperature initially in advance. In the current case, the situation is different, because human actions are raising the CO2 level, and we are starting to observe the temperature response. News Story - BAS Statement about Channel 4 programme on Global Warming - British Antarctic Survey Present CO2 levels greatly exceed the range found in the ice core data. Isotopic analysis of atmospheric CO2 confirms that fossil fuel burning is the source of most of the CO2 increase, unlike during prior interglacial periods. As noted above, models that include increased CO2 levels when simulating recent climate match the observed data far better than those that do not. Warming on other planets? Over the last two decades proxy evidence of local or planetary warming has been observed on Mars, Pluto, Jupiter, and Neptune's largest moon Triton. It has sometimes been asserted in the popular press that this points to a solar explanation for the recent warming on Earth. Physicist Khabibullo Abdusamatov claims that solar variation has caused global warming on Earth, and that the coincident warmings "can only be a straightline consequence of the effect of the one same factor: a long-time change in solar irradiance." This view is not accepted by other scientists. Planetary physicist Colin Wilson responded, "His views are completely at odds with the mainstream scientific opinion," and climate scientist Amato Evan stated, "the idea just isn't supported by the theory or by the observations." Charles Long of Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, who studies radiative transfer, says "That's nuts ... It doesn't make physical sense that that's the case." Jay Pasachoff, an astronomy professor at Williams College, said that Pluto's global warming was "likely not connected with that of the Earth. The major way they could be connected is if the warming was caused by a large increase in sunlight. But the solar constant — the amount of sunlight received each second — is carefully monitored by spacecraft, and we know the Sun's output is much too steady to be changing the temperature of Pluto." Instead, scientific opinion is that these changes are caused by other factors, such as orbital irregularities or (in the case of Mars) changes in albedo as a result of dust storms . References Le Quéré, How much of the recent CO2 increase is due to human activities?, 2005 RealClimate Footnotes See also Aviation and climate change External links RealClimate - Blog on current climate change issues by active climatologists "The Climate of Man", The New Yorker (2005): Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 Anthropogenic or Solar? by Shaviv Recent oppositely directed trends in solar climate forcings and the global mean surface air temperature by Mike Lockwood and Claus Frohlich US EPA climate change and global warming website | Attribution_of_recent_climate_change |@lemmatized attribution:18 recent:13 climate:53 change:58 effort:2 scientifically:1 ascertain:1 mechanism:4 responsible:3 relatively:1 observe:7 earth:11 focus:1 period:5 instrumental:2 temperature:35 record:9 reliable:1 particularly:3 last:7 year:7 human:19 activity:14 grow:1 fast:1 observation:5 upper:1 atmosphere:10 become:1 available:1 dominant:4 attribute:10 result:12 increase:24 atmospheric:6 concentration:11 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5,839 | Emulsion | A. Two immiscible liquids, not yet emulsified; B. An emulsion of Phase II dispersed in Phase I; C. The unstable emulsion progressively separates; D. The surfactant (purple outline) positions itself on the interfaces between Phase II and Phase I, stabilizing the emulsion An emulsion (IPA: /ɪˈmʌlʃən/ Emulsion - Definitions from Dictionary.com ) is a mixture of two or more immiscible (unblendable) liquids. One liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase). Many emulsions are oil/water emulsions, with dietary fats being one common type of oil encountered in everyday life. Examples of emulsions include butter and margarine, milk and cream, and vinaigrettes; the photo-sensitive side of photographic film, magmas and cutting fluid for metal working. In butter and margarine, fat surrounds droplets of water (a water-in-oil emulsion). In milk and cream, water surrounds droplets of fat (an oil-in-water emulsion). In certain types of magma, globules of liquid NiFe may be dispersed within a continuous phase of liquid silicates. Emulsification is the process by which emulsions are prepared. Emulsion is also a term used in the oil field as untreated well production that consists primarily of crude oil and water. Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearance, because the many phase interfaces (the boundary between the phases is called the interface) scatter light that passes through the emulsion. Emulsions are unstable and thus do not form spontaneously. Energy input through shaking, stirring, homogenizing, or spray processes are needed to form an emulsion. Over time, emulsions tend to revert to the stable state of the phases comprising the emulsion. Surface active substances (surfactants) can increase the kinetic stability of emulsions greatly so that, once formed, the emulsion does not change significantly over years of storage. Vinaigrette is an example of an unstable emulsion that will quickly separate unless shaken continuously. This phenomenon is called coalescence, and happens when small droplets recombine to form bigger ones. Emulsions can also suffer from creaming, the migration of one of the substances to the top of the emulsion under the influence of buoyancy or centripetal force when a centrifuge is used. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion tends to imply that both the dispersed and the continuous phase are liquid. There are three types of emulsion instability: flocculation, where the particles form clumps; creaming, where the particles concentrate towards the surface (or bottom, depending on the relative density of the two phases) of the mixture while staying separated; and breaking and coalescence where the particles coalesce and form a layer of liquid. Whether an emulsion turns into a water-in-oil emulsion or an oil-in-water emulsion depends on the volume fraction of both phases and on the type of emulsifier. Generally, the Bancroft rule applies: emulsifiers and emulsifying particles tend to promote dispersion of the phase in which they do not dissolve very well; for example, proteins dissolve better in water than in oil and so tend to form oil-in-water emulsions (that is they promote the dispersion of oil droplets throughout a continuous phase of water). The basic color of emulsions is white. If the emulsion is dilute, the Tyndall effect will scatter the light and distort the color to blue; if it is concentrated, the color will be distorted towards yellow. This phenomenon is easily observable on comparing skimmed milk (with no or little fat) to cream (high concentration of milk fat). Microemulsions and nanoemulsions tend to appear clear due to the small size of the disperse phase. Emulsifier An emulsifier (also known as an emulgent) is a substance which stabilizes an emulsion, frequently a surfactant. Examples of food emulsifiers are egg yolk (where the main emulsifying chemical is lecithin), honey, and mustard, where a variety of chemicals in the mucilage surrounding the seed hull act as emulsifiers; proteins and low-molecular weight emulsifiers are common as well. In some cases, particles can stabilize emulsions as well through a mechanism called Pickering stabilization. Both mayonnaise and Hollandaise sauce are oil-in-water emulsions that are stabilized with egg yolk lecithin. Detergents are another class of surfactant, and will physically interact with both oil and water, thus stabilizing the interface between oil or water droplets in suspension. This principle is exploited in soap to remove grease for the purpose of cleaning. A wide variety of emulsifiers are used in pharmacy to prepare emulsions such as creams and lotions. Common examples include emulsifying wax, cetearyl alcohol, polysorbate 20, and ceteareth 20. Sometimes the inner phase itself can act as an emulsifier, and the result is nanoemulsion - the inner state disperses into nano-size droplets within the outer phase. A well-known example of this phenomenon, the ouzo effect, happens when water is poured in a strong alcoholic anise-based beverage, such as ouzo, pastis or raki. The anisolic compounds, which are soluble in ethanol, now form nano-sized droplets and emulgate within the water. The colour of such diluted drink is opaque and milky. In medicine 20 ml ampule of 1% propofol emulsion suitable for intravenous injection. The manufacturers emulsify the lipid soluble propofol in a mixture of water, soy oil and egg lecithin. In medicine, microscopic emulsions are used to deliver vaccines and kill microbes. Typically, the emulsions used in these techniques are nanoemulsions of soybean oil, with particles 400-600 nanometers in diameter. The process is not chemical, as with other types of anti-pathogenic treatments, but physical. The smaller the droplet, the greater the surface tension and thus the greater the force to merge with other lipids. The oil is emulsified with detergents to stabilize the emulsion (the droplets won't merge with one another), so when they encounter lipids on a bacterial membrane or a virus envelope, they force the lipids to merge with themselves. On a mass scale, this effectively disintegrates the membrane and kills the pathogen. Remarkably, the soybean oil emulsion does not harm normal human cells nor the cells of most other higher organisms. The exceptions are sperm cells and blood cells, which are vulnerable to nanoemulsions due to their membrane structures. For this reason, nanoemulsions of this type are not yet ready to be used intravenously. The most effective application of this type of nanoemulsion is for the disinfection of surfaces. Some types of nanoemulsions have been shown to effectively destroy HIV-1 and various tuberculosis pathogens, for example, on non-porous surfaces. 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5,840 | Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions | Thomas Jefferson. James Madison. In United States history, the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (or Resolves) were political statements in favor of states' rights and Strict Constructionism. They were written secretly by Vice President Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Philosophy The resolutions opposed the federal Alien and Sedition Acts, that extended the powers of the federal government. They argued that the Constitution was a "compact" or agreement among the states. Therefore, the federal government had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to it and that if the federal government assumed such powers, acts under them would be void. So, states could decide the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress. A key provision of the Kentucky Resolutions was Resolution 2, that denied Congress more than a few penal powers: That the Constitution of the United States, having delegated to Congress a power to punish treason, counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States, piracies, and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations, and no other crimes, whatsoever; and it being true as a general principle, and one of the amendments to the Constitution having also declared, that "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, not prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people," therefore the act of Congress, passed on the 14th day of July, 1798, and intituled "An Act in addition to the act intituled An Act for the punishment of certain crimes against the United States," as also the act passed by them on the -- day of June, 1798, intituled "An Act to punish frauds committed on the bank of the United States," (and all their other acts which assume to create, define, or punish crimes, other than those so enumerated in the Constitution,) are altogether void, and of no force; and that the power to create, define, and punish such other crimes is reserved, and, of right, appertains solely and exclusively to the respective States, each within its own territory. Legislative History Thomas Jefferson wrote the Kentucky Resolutions. The Kentucky state legislature passed the first resolution on November 16, 1798 and the second on December 3, 1799. James Madison wrote the Virginia Resolution. The Virginia state legislature passed it on December 24, 1798. The Resolutions joined the foundational beliefs of Jefferson's party and were used as party documents in the 1800 election. As they had been shepherded to passage in the Virginia House of Delegates by John Taylor of Caroline, they became part of the heritage of the "Old Republicans." Taylor, unlike James Madison, rejoiced in what the House of Delegates had made of private citizen Madison's draft: it had read the claim that the Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional as meaning that they had "no force or effect" in Virginia – that is, that they were void. Numerous scholars (including Koch and Ammon) have noted that Madison had the words "void, and of no force or effect" excised from the Resolutions before adoption. Future Virginia Governor and U.S. Secretary of War James Barbour concluded that "unconstitutional" included "void, and of no force or effect." Barbour concluded that Madison's textual change did not affect the meaning. Their long-term importance lies not in their attack on the Sedition law, but rather in their strong statements of states' rights theory, which led to rather different concepts of nullification and interposition. Jefferson at one point drafted a threat for Virginia to secede, but dropped it from the text. In January 1800, the Virginia General Assembly passed the Report of 1800, a document by Madison affirming the principles of the Resolutions and responding to criticism they had received. The resolutions were submitted to the other states for approval but with no success. In New Hampshire, newspapers treated them as military threats and replied with foreshadowings of civil war. "We think it highly probable that Virginia and Kentucky will be sadly disappointed in their infernal plan of exciting insurrections and tumults," proclaimed one. The state legislature's unanimous reply was blunt: Alexander Hamilton, then building up the army, suggested sending it into Virginia, on some "obvious pretext." Measures would be taken, Hamilton hinted to an ally in Congress, "to act upon the laws and put Virginia to the Test of resistance." February 2, 1799, Hamilton Papers vol 22 pp 452-53. All the New England states rejected the resolutions. However, the state governments of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island threatened to ignore the Embargo Act of 1807 based on the authority of states to stand up to laws deemed by those states to be unconstitutional. Rhode Island justified its position on the embargo act based on the explicit language of interposition. Within five years, Massachusetts and Connecticut asserted their right to test constitutionality when instructed to send their militias to defend the coast during the War of 1812. Connecticut and Massachusetts questioned another embargo passed in 1813. The supreme courts of both states objected, including this statement from the Massachusetts General Court: During the "nullification crisis" of 1828-1833, South Carolina threatened to nullify a federal law regarding tariffs. Andrew Jackson issued a proclamation against the doctrine of nullification, stating: "I consider...the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." He also denied the right to secede: "The Constitution...forms a government not a league...To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation." Later, Abraham Lincoln also rejected the compact theory saying the Constitution was a binding contract among the states and no contract can be changed unilaterally by one party. In 2009, Dan Itse, a member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives from Fremont, New Hampshire, led a national movement to restore the powers of the states through the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. Importance of the Resolutions Historians differ on the importance of the resolutions. Some are ambivalent because of their long-term impact. As Jefferson's biographer explains: Bibliography Gutzman, Kevin, "'O, What a Tangled Web We Weave ...': James Madison and the Compound Republic," _Continuity 22 (1998), 19-29. Gutzman, Kevin, "A Troublesome Legacy: James Madison and the 'Principles of '98,'" Journal of the Early Republic 15 (1995), 569-89. Gutzman, Kevin., "The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Reconsidered: 'An Appeal to the _Real Laws_ of Our Country,'" Journal of Southern History 66 (2000), 473-96. . References External links Text of the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 Text of the Kentucky Resolutions of 1799 Text of Virginia Resolutions | Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions |@lemmatized thomas:3 jefferson:6 james:7 madison:10 united:8 state:29 history:3 kentucky:9 virginia:14 resolution:19 resolve:1 political:1 statement:3 favor:1 right:6 strict:1 constructionism:1 write:3 secretly:1 vice:1 president:1 philosophy:1 oppose:1 federal:5 alien:2 sedition:3 act:13 extend:1 power:9 government:5 argue:1 constitution:8 compact:2 agreement:1 among:2 therefore:2 exercise:1 specifically:1 delegate:5 assume:3 would:2 void:5 could:1 decide:1 constitutionality:2 law:7 pass:7 congress:5 key:1 provision:1 deny:2 penal:1 punish:4 treason:1 counterfeit:1 security:1 current:1 coin:1 piracy:1 felony:1 commit:2 high:1 sea:1 offense:1 nation:2 crime:4 whatsoever:1 true:1 general:3 principle:4 one:5 amendment:1 also:4 declare:1 prohibit:1 reserve:2 respectively:1 people:1 day:2 july:1 intituled:3 addition:1 punishment:1 certain:1 june:1 frauds:1 bank:1 create:2 define:2 enumerate:1 altogether:1 force:4 appertain:1 solely:1 exclusively:1 respective:1 within:2 territory:1 legislative:1 legislature:3 first:1 november:1 second:1 december:2 join:1 foundational:1 belief:1 party:3 use:1 document:2 election:1 shepherd:1 passage:1 house:3 john:1 taylor:2 caroline:1 become:1 part:1 heritage:1 old:1 republican:1 unlike:1 rejoice:1 make:1 private:1 citizen:1 draft:2 read:1 claim:1 unconstitutional:3 mean:1 effect:3 numerous:1 scholar:1 include:3 koch:1 ammon:1 note:1 word:1 excise:1 adoption:1 future:1 governor:1 u:1 secretary:1 war:3 barbour:2 conclude:2 textual:1 change:2 affect:1 meaning:1 long:2 term:2 importance:3 lie:1 attack:1 rather:2 strong:1 theory:2 lead:2 different:1 concept:1 nullification:3 interposition:2 point:1 threat:2 secede:3 drop:1 text:4 january:1 assembly:1 report:1 affirm:1 respond:1 criticism:1 receive:1 submit:1 approval:1 success:1 new:4 hampshire:3 newspaper:1 treat:1 military:1 reply:2 foreshadowing:1 civil:1 think:1 highly:1 probable:1 sadly:1 disappoint:1 infernal:1 plan:1 exciting:1 insurrection:1 tumult:1 proclaim:1 unanimous:1 blunt:1 alexander:1 hamilton:3 build:1 army:1 suggest:1 send:2 obvious:1 pretext:1 measure:1 take:1 hint:1 ally:1 upon:1 put:1 test:2 resistance:1 february:1 paper:1 vol:1 pp:1 england:1 reject:2 however:1 massachusetts:4 connecticut:3 rhode:2 island:2 threaten:2 ignore:1 embargo:3 base:2 authority:1 stand:1 deem:1 justify:1 position:1 explicit:1 language:1 five:1 year:1 assert:1 instruct:1 militia:1 defend:1 coast:1 question:1 another:1 supreme:1 court:2 object:2 crisis:1 south:1 carolina:1 nullify:1 regard:1 tariff:1 andrew:1 jackson:1 issue:1 proclamation:1 doctrine:1 consider:1 annul:1 incompatible:1 existence:1 union:2 contradict:1 expressly:1 letter:1 unauthorized:1 spirit:1 inconsistent:1 every:1 found:1 destructive:1 great:1 form:2 league:1 say:3 may:1 pleasure:1 later:1 abraham:1 lincoln:1 binding:1 contract:2 unilaterally:1 dan:1 itse:1 member:1 representative:1 fremont:1 national:1 movement:1 restore:1 historian:1 differ:1 ambivalent:1 impact:1 biographer:1 explains:1 bibliography:1 gutzman:3 kevin:3 tangled:1 web:1 weave:1 compound:1 republic:2 troublesome:1 legacy:1 journal:2 early:1 reconsider:1 appeal:1 country:1 southern:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram thomas_jefferson:3 vice_president:1 alien_sedition:2 sedition_act:2 virginia_secede:1 connecticut_rhode:1 rhode_island:2 supreme_court:1 andrew_jackson:1 abraham_lincoln:1 external_link:1 |
5,841 | Kabir_Bedi | Kabir Bedi is an Indian international actor who began his career in Bollywood, worked in Hollywood, and became a star in Europe, as is particularly popular in Italy. Biography Early life Kabir Bedi was one of three children that was born into a Punjabi family in India, that had devoted itself to India's fight for independence from British colonial rule. His mother, Freda Bedi, later converted to Tibetan Buddhism. Freda Bedi His father, Baba Phyare Lal Bedi, was an author and philosopher. Kabir Bedi Biography (1946-) Kabir went to school at Sherwood College, Nainital. Career Kabir Bedi is an international actor from India who has originated from Bollywood, worked in Hollywood, and become a big star in Europe. In the James Bond film Octopussy, he played the villain Gobinda who battled Roger Moore from start to finish. In Europe, his greatest success was Sandokan, the saga of a romantic Asian pirate during British colonial times; an Italian-German-French TV series which broke viewership records across Europe. For over a year, Kabir starred in The Bold And The Beautiful, the second most-watched television show in the world, seen by over a billion people in 149 countries. As a stage actor, Kabir has performed Shakespeare’s Othello as well as a mad historical Indian king, "Tughlaq"; and a self-destructive alcoholic in "The Vultures". In London he also starred in "The Far Pavilions", the West End musical adaptation of M. M. Kaye’s novel, at the Shaftesbury Theatre. Kabir has acted in over 60 Indian Bollywood films. In the historical epic Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story, Kabir starred as the Emperor Shah Jahan. Other starring Bollywood roles include Raj Khosla’s "Kuchche Dhaage", Rakesh Roshan's "Khoon Bhari Maang" and "Main Hoon Na". He recently had his own cinematic talk show on Indian TV, Director's Cut, a 13-part special series interviewing the country's leading directors. Currently, Kabir is shooting with Hrithik Roshan (Kites), Govinda Ahuja (Showman), and Akshay Kumar (Blue). http://www.zimbio.com/Kabir+Bedi/articles In Italy, Kabir recently starred in a prime-time Italian television series, Un Medico In Famiglia, on RAI TV, the country's biggest broadcaster. Kabir’s extensive roles on American television - primetime and daytime, series and mini-series include Hallmark’s African epic Forbidden Territory, and Ken Follett’s On Wings of Eagles and also Red Eagle. He played Friar Sands in "The Lost Empire", for NBC. Kabir also played roles on Dynasty, Murder She Wrote, Magnum, P.I., Hunter, Knight Rider and Highlander: The Series amongst others. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001934/ Kabir played pivotal roles in Columbia Pictures' The Beast of War, a film on the Russian war in Afghanistan, directed by Kevin Reynolds, as well as the acclaimed Italian film Andata Ritorno, by Marco Ponti, winner of the prestigious David di Donatello Award. Kabir is a voting member of the Oscar Academy (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences). He is based in India, and lives on Juhu Beach, Mumbai, India. In summary, Kabir’s on-going career spans 3 continents, 3 decades in 3 performing mediums: film, television and theatre. He is starring in Deepa Mehta's next film, Kamagata Maru with Amitabh Bachchan and John Abraham. Kabir Bedi is a firm supporter of freedom in Burma and has become an official Ambassador of the Burma Campaign UK. DNA - After Hrs - Kabir Bedi’s voice for Burma’s Mandela - Daily News & Analysis Personal life Bedi married three times and has three children, Pooja, Siddarth and Adam. He was married to the late Protima Bedi, an Odissi dancer, and their daughter Pooja Bedi was an actress in Hindi films and now is a magazine/newspaper columnist. Their son Siddarth who went to University in the USA had a long history of schizophrenia and committed suicide in 1997 at the age of 26. As his marriage with Protima began to break down he famously started a relationship with the late Parveen Babi. They never married. He later married British born fashion designer Susan Humphreys and their son, international model Adam Bedi, Adam Bedi made his debut in Bollywood with a thriller, Hello? Kaun Hai!. This marriage ended in divorce. In the late 1990s, Bedi married TV & radio presenter Nikki Bedi. They had no children and divorced in 2005. Most recently, Bedi has been linked to a London-based woman, Parveen Dusanj.. Filmography Kites (2008) (Under Production) Showman (2008) (Under Production) Director's Cut (2007) (TV special series) Ch@t (2007-08) (Radio Due - Italian Fiction) Un Medico in Famiglia (2007) (Italian TV Series) Do Raha (2006) (Under Production) Jaanleva (2006) (Post-Production) ... Rakesh Khullar A All About Her (2006) (Stuck/On Hold) Take 3 Girls (2006) (Stuck/On Hold) ... Mo Taj Mahal - An Eternal Love Story (November 18, 2005) (Released) The Bold and the Beautiful (May 4, 2005) (TV series) ... Prince Omar Bewafaa (February 25, 2005) (Released) ... Anjali's Father Main Hoon Na (April 30, 2004) (Released) ... Gen. Amarjeet Bakshi A/R Andata & Ritorno (April 2, 2004) (Released) ...Tolstoj Kismat (February 20, 2004) (Released) ... Raj Mallya Rudraksh (February 13, 2004) (Released) ... Ved Pujan The Hero (April 11, 2003) (Released) ... Mr. Zakaria Talaash (January 3, 2003) (Released) ... Chhote Pathan Maine Dil Tujhko Diya (August 23, 2002) (Released) ... Mr. Varma (Ayesha's Father) Kranti (March 15, 2002) (Released) ... Mahendra Pratap Rana The Lost Empire (March 11, 2001) (Released) ... Friar Sand Kohram (August 13, 1999) (Released) ... Brig. Bedi Mashamal - Ritorno al Deserto (June 19, 1998) (Released) Team Knight Rider (February 9, 1998) (TV series) ... Aristotle Drago Figlio di Sandokan, II (Stuck/On hold) (1998) ... Sandokan Forbidden Territory: Stanley's Search for Livingstone (December 7, 1997) (TV series) ... Khamis Bin Abdullah Noi siamo angeli (February 16, 1997) (TV mini series) ... Gen. Napoleon Ritorno di Sandokan, II (October 6, 1996) (TV mini series) ... Sandokan Highlander (November 20, 1995) (TV series) ... Kamir Aatank Hi Aatank (August 4, 1995) (Released) ... Police Inspector OP Centre (February 26, 1995) (Released) ... Abdul Kismat (June 16, 1995) (Released) ... Rajan Lie Down with Lions(June 12, 1994) (Released) ... Kabir Salaami (film) (March 18, 1994) (Released) ... Captain The Maharaja's Daughter (1994) (Released) ... Chandragupta Kshatriya (March 29, 1993) (Released) ... Thakur Ganga Singh (Police Officer) Yugandhar (1993) (Released) Dil Aashna Hai (December 25, 1992) (Released) ... Digvijay Singh Yalgaar (October 23, 1992) (Released) ... Raj Pratap Singhal Beyond Justice (1992), (Released) ... Moulet Lambu Dada (1992) (Released) Kurbaan (May 31, 1991) (Released) ... Inspector Suraj Singh Yeh Aag Kab Bujhegi (April 19, 1991) (Released) Vishkanya (1991) (Released) ... Forest Officer Vikram Singh Misteri della Giungla Nera, I - aka The Mysteries of the Dark Jungle (1991) (TV mini series) ... Kammamuri Police Public (May 11, 1990) (Released) ... Senior Inspector Shah Nawaz Khan Haar Jeet (1990) (Released) Shera Shamshera (1990) (Released) Khoon Bhari Maang (August 12, 1988) (Released) ... Sanjay Verma Mera Shikar (1988) (Released) Asambhav (1984) (Released) Octopussy (1983) (Released) ... Gobinda Yuvraj (October 5, 1979) (Released) Aakhri Kasam (1979) (Released) ... Kishan/Badal The Thief of Baghdad (1978) (Released) La tigre è ancora viva: Sandokan alla riscossa! (1977) Daku Aur Mahatma (1977) (Released) Bullet (1977) (Released) ... Durga Prasad/D.P. Nagin (January 22, 1976) (Released) ... Uday Daaku (1976) (Released) Harfan Maula (1976) (Released) Vishwasghaat (1976) (Released) ... Uday Anari (1975) (Released) Manzilen Aur Bhi Hain (1974) (Released) Maa Bahen Aur Biwi (1974) (Released) Ishq Ishq Ishq (1974) (Released) ... Diwana/Ravikant Vyas Kachche Dhaage (1973) (Released) ... Roopa Yauwan (1973) (Released) Rakhi Aur Hathkadi (1972) (Released) ... Suraj Sazaa (1972) (Released) Anokha Daan (1972) (Released) Hulchal (1971) (Released) ... Mahesh Jetley Seema (1971) (Released) Under production Kites Showman Voting memberships The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (commonly known as the Oscar Academy) The Screen Actors Guild The American Federation of Television and Radio Artists The British Actors' Equity Association References External links Official Website Special Feature - "Global Appeal - Kabir Bedi" in The Stage Bedi's voice for Burma at the House of Commons Candid In-depth Interview 2007 Extensive Interview with Filmfare in October 2001 Interviewed by Indian Express in 1999 ''Images from the 1976 Sandokan miniseries | Kabir_Bedi |@lemmatized kabir:21 bedi:21 indian:5 international:3 actor:5 begin:2 career:3 bollywood:5 work:2 hollywood:2 become:3 star:8 europe:4 particularly:1 popular:1 italy:2 biography:2 early:1 life:2 one:1 three:3 child:3 bear:1 punjabi:1 family:1 india:5 devote:1 fight:1 independence:1 british:4 colonial:2 rule:1 mother:1 freda:2 later:2 convert:1 tibetan:1 buddhism:1 father:3 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5,842 | Chinese_input_methods_for_computers | Since the Chinese language uses a logographic script — that is, a script where one or more "characters" corresponds roughly to one "word" or meaning — there are vastly more characters, or glyphs, than there are keys on a standard computer keyboard. Overview Some Chinese input methods proposed for typewriters before 1950s, Lin Yutang spent much money on it. 中文與計算機 Little or none is used before the computer age, then a variety of keyboard input method editors (IME) have been designed to allow the input of Chinese characters using standard keyboards. Keyboard input methods can be classified in three main types: by encoding by pronunciation by structure of the characters. The following are just some samples of Chinese input methods. Many of those input methods have variations. Full Pinyin and Double Pinyin are variations of the pinyin input method. In addition, the methods which require the user to select a character from a menu generally have sophisticated methods for guessing which characters the user intends based on context. Each standard has its strengths and weaknesses and usage varies between people. For example, for someone who is already familiar with pinyin, the pinyin method can be learned instantly. However, the maximum typing rate is limited, and learning the system can be difficult for those not familiar with pinyin. Wubi takes much effort to learn, but expert typists can enter text much faster with it than with the phonetic methods. Because of these factors, there is very little likelihood of a "standard" method evolving. An experimental Chinese keyboard with many keys. Other means of entering Chinese characters include handwriting recognition, OCR and voice recognition. The first and last of these usually must be “trained” before use; that is, the user must first use the system in a special “learning mode” so that the system can get accustomed to the user’s handwriting or speech pattern, and failure to do so will increase the recognition error rate. These, especially the latter two, are less frequently used than keyboard-based input methods and, as with even the most advanced English language systems, suffer from relatively high error rates, especially when used without proper “training”, though the error rates are an acceptable trade-off to many users. Particular mention should be given to handwriting recognition systems: although mostly associated with stylus and tablet-based systems, it is in fact one of the built-in input methods in Windows XP systems. Handwriting recognition systems for Chinese are generally far more reliable. Finally, some systems allow Chinese characters to be entered by typing their equivalent English words. Pronunciation Pinyin method (拼音) (used in mainland China and also increasingly in Taiwan) Zhuyin (注音) (used in Taiwan only) Cantonese phonetic method (粤拼) (used in Hong Kong) Character structure Cangjie method (倉頡; 仓颉) Simplified Cangjie (簡易倉頡, known as 速成 on Windows systems) CKC Chinese Input System (縱橫輸入法) Boshiamy method (嘸蝦米) Dayi method (大易) Array method (行列) Four corner method (四角碼; 四角码) Q9 method (九方) Shouwei method (首尾字型) Stroke count method (筆畫; 笔画) Stroke method (筆劃; 笔划) Wubi method (五筆字型; 五笔字型) Wubihua method (五筆畫; 五笔画) Zheng code method (鄭碼; 郑码) Shou-wei Hao-ma method (首尾號碼) Knot DNA method (筆結碼) Combination of pronunciation and character structure Tze-loi method (子來; 子来) Renzhi code method (認知碼; 认知码) See also Smart Common Input Method Japanese language and computers Japanese input methods Korean language and computers Han unification List of FEP software for Symbian S60 3rd Edition Chinese character encodings: Big5 Guobiao code (GB) Neima (内码) Unicode Telegraph code (电报码) External links Information What Does a Chinese Keyboard Look Like?, article by Slate.com Overview of Input Methods, by Sebastien Bruggeman. 中文輸入法世界 Chinese input method news. Tutorials What is an Input Method Editor and how do I use it?, a Microsoft article about Windows XP's Input Method Editor. Enabling International Support in Windows XP/Server 2003 Family, a Microsoft tutorial on how to install input methods on Windows XP. Tutorial on typing Chinese using PinYin method - based on HanWJ Chinese Inoput Engine IME Tutorial, tutorial on how to use Microsoft Global IME for pre-Windows 2000 systems. Tools Typing Chinese Online with Optional Tone Input Online Cantonese Input SCIM's homepage InputKing Online Chinese Input System CantonWP, Colloquial Cantonese and Mandarin Editor and Learning Tool. online zhuyin fuhao keyboard which can convert them into characters chinese-tools.com/tools/mouse.html , "writing with mouse" input method Notes | Chinese_input_methods_for_computers |@lemmatized since:1 chinese:17 language:4 use:13 logographic:1 script:2 one:3 character:12 correspond:1 roughly:1 word:2 meaning:1 vastly:1 glyph:1 key:2 standard:4 computer:4 keyboard:8 overview:2 input:21 method:40 propose:1 typewriter:1 lin:1 yutang:1 spend:1 much:3 money:1 中文與計算機:1 little:2 none:1 age:1 variety:1 editor:4 ime:3 design:1 allow:2 classify:1 three:1 main:1 type:4 encode:1 pronunciation:3 structure:3 following:1 sample:1 many:3 variation:2 full:1 pinyin:8 double:1 addition:1 require:1 user:5 select:1 menu:1 generally:2 sophisticate:1 guess:1 intend:1 base:4 context:1 strength:1 weakness:1 usage:1 varies:1 people:1 example:1 someone:1 already:1 familiar:2 learn:5 instantly:1 however:1 maximum:1 typing:1 rate:4 limit:1 system:13 difficult:1 wubi:2 take:1 effort:1 expert:1 typist:1 enter:3 text:1 faster:1 phonetic:2 factor:1 likelihood:1 evolve:1 experimental:1 mean:1 include:1 handwrite:4 recognition:5 ocr:1 voice:1 first:2 last:1 usually:1 must:2 train:1 special:1 mode:1 get:1 accustom:1 speech:1 pattern:1 failure:1 increase:1 error:3 especially:2 latter:1 two:1 less:1 frequently:1 even:1 advanced:1 english:2 suffer:1 relatively:1 high:1 without:1 proper:1 training:1 though:1 acceptable:1 trade:1 particular:1 mention:1 give:1 although:1 mostly:1 associate:1 stylus:1 tablet:1 fact:1 build:1 windows:2 xp:4 far:1 reliable:1 finally:1 equivalent:1 拼音:1 mainland:1 china:1 also:2 increasingly:1 taiwan:2 zhuyin:2 注音:1 cantonese:3 粤拼:1 hong:1 kong:1 cangjie:2 倉頡:1 仓颉:1 simplify:1 簡易倉頡:1 know:1 速成:1 window:4 ckc:1 縱橫輸入法:1 boshiamy:1 嘸蝦米:1 dayi:1 大易:1 array:1 行列:1 four:1 corner:1 四角碼:1 四角码:1 九方:1 shouwei:1 首尾字型:1 stroke:2 count:1 筆畫:1 笔画:1 筆劃:1 笔划:1 五筆字型:1 五笔字型:1 wubihua:1 五筆畫:1 五笔画:1 zheng:1 code:4 鄭碼:1 郑码:1 shou:1 wei:1 hao:1 首尾號碼:1 knot:1 dna:1 筆結碼:1 combination:1 tze:1 loi:1 子來:1 子来:1 renzhi:1 認知碼:1 认知码:1 see:1 smart:1 common:1 japanese:2 korean:1 han:1 unification:1 list:1 fep:1 software:1 symbian:1 edition:1 encoding:1 guobiao:1 gb:1 neima:1 内码:1 unicode:1 telegraph:1 电报码:1 external:1 link:1 information:1 look:1 like:1 article:2 slate:1 com:2 sebastien:1 bruggeman:1 中文輸入法世界:1 news:1 tutorial:5 microsoft:3 enable:1 international:1 support:1 server:1 family:1 install:1 hanwj:1 inoput:1 engine:1 global:1 pre:1 tool:4 online:4 optional:1 tone:1 scim:1 homepage:1 inputking:1 cantonwp:1 colloquial:1 mandarin:1 fuhao:1 convert:1 mouse:2 html:1 write:1 note:1 |@bigram strength_weakness:1 handwrite_recognition:3 windows_xp:1 hong_kong:1 external_link:1 window_xp:3 cantonese_mandarin:1 |
5,843 | Expander_graph | In combinatorics, an expander graph is a sparse graph which has high connectivity properties, quantified using vertex or edge expansion as described below. Expander constructions have spawned research in pure and applied mathematics, with several applications to theoretical computer science, design of robust computer networks, and the theory of error-correcting codes. Definitions There are several different ways to measure the expansion properties of a finite, undirected multigraph . Edge expansion The edge expansion (also isoperimetric number) of a graph is defined as where the minimum is over all nonempty sets of at most vertices, and stands for the set of edges with exactly one endpoint in . It is closely related to the conductance. Vertex expansion The -vertex expansion of a graph is defined as where stands for the set of vertices with at least one neighbor in . In a variant of this definition (called unique neighbor expansion) stands for the set of vertices in with exactly one neighbor in . Spectral expansion When is regular, a linear algebraic definition of expansion is possible based on the eigenvalues of the adjacency matrix of (where is the number of loops at the th vertex). Because is symmetric, the Spectral theorem implies that has real-valued eigenvalues . Because is regular, where is the degree of regularity of . In some contexts, the spectral gap of is defined to be . In other contexts, the spectral gap refers to , where . The normalized version of this definition, where we consider the matrix and get eigenvalues between -1 and 1, is also widely used and more convenient in the statement of some results. Frequently one will refer to the second-largest eigenvalue of a graph G, which refers to the max of and . Depending on the context it may be either the normalized version (taking value between 0 and 1) or the un-normalized version (taking value between 0 and d). Expander families A family of -regular graphs is an edge expander family if there is a constant such that for each . Typically we want to be constant, though it is sometimes also interesting to consider or even . Similarly, is a vertex expander family if there is a constant such that for each , and is a spectral expander family if some positive constant is a lower bound for the spectral gap of each . These definitions can be extended to the case of directed graphs. A directed graph can also be interpreted as a balanced bipartite graph (with all edges going from one copy of to another copy). The definition of bipartite expanders can further be generalized to the case of unbalanced bipartite graphs. Relationship between the different definitions The expansion parameters defined above are related to each other. In particular, for any graph , . Consequently, every vertex expander family is also an edge expander family. Similarly, when is -regular, there is a relationship between and the spectral gap of . An inequality due to "Cheeger and Buser in the continuous case and Tanner, Alon, and Milman in the discrete case" states that As a result, a family of graphs is an edge expander family if and only if is a spectral expander family. Examples of expanders A random -regular graph has good expansion, with high probability. Ramanujan graphs are a family of -regular expander graphs with being constant and with explicit constructions, that have essentially the largest possible spectral gap. Algebraic constructions based on Cayley graphs are known for various variants of expander graphs. Most recently, combinatorial constructions of expanders have also been discovered. Applications and useful properties The original motivation for expanders is to build economical robust networks (phone or computer): an expander with bounded valence is precisely an asymptotic robust graph with number of edges growing linearly with size (number of vertices), for all subsets. Expander graphs have found extensive applications in computer science, in designing algorithms, error correcting codes, extractors, pseudorandom generators, sorting networks and robust computer networks. They have also been used in proving many important results in computational complexity theory, such as SL=L and the PCP theorem. In cryptography too, expander graphs are used to construct hash functions. The following are some properties of expander graphs that have proven useful in many areas. Expander mixing lemma The expander mixing lemma states that, for any two subsets of the vertices , the number of edges between and is approximately what you would expect in a random -regular graph, i.e. . Expander walk sampling The Chernoff bound states that, when sampling many independent samples from a random variables in the range , with high probability the average of our samples is close to the expectation of the random variable. The expander walk sampling lemma, due to Gillman and Ajtai–Komlós-Szemerédi, states that this also holds true when sampling from a walk on an expander graph. This is particularly useful in the theory of derandomization, since sampling according to an expander walk uses much fewer random bits than sampling independently. References External links Brief introduction in Notices of the American Mathematical Society Introductory paper by Michael Nielsen A thorough survey of the field by Hoory, Linial & Wigderson Lecture notes from a course on expanders Lecture notes from yet another course on expanders Definition and application of spectral gap | Expander_graph |@lemmatized combinatorics:1 expander:22 graph:23 sparse:1 high:3 connectivity:1 property:4 quantify:1 use:5 vertex:11 edge:10 expansion:11 describe:1 construction:4 spawn:1 research:1 pure:1 applied:1 mathematics:1 several:2 application:4 theoretical:1 computer:5 science:2 design:2 robust:4 network:4 theory:3 error:2 correcting:1 code:2 definition:8 different:2 way:1 measure:1 finite:1 undirected:1 multigraph:1 also:8 isoperimetric:1 number:5 define:4 minimum:1 nonempty:1 set:4 stand:3 exactly:2 one:5 endpoint:1 closely:1 relate:2 conductance:1 least:1 neighbor:3 variant:2 call:1 unique:1 spectral:10 regular:7 linear:1 algebraic:2 possible:2 base:2 eigenvalue:4 adjacency:1 matrix:2 loop:1 th:1 symmetric:1 theorem:2 implies:1 real:1 value:3 degree:1 regularity:1 context:3 gap:6 refers:1 normalized:3 version:3 consider:2 get:1 widely:1 convenient:1 statement:1 result:3 frequently:1 refer:2 second:1 large:2 g:1 max:1 depend:1 may:1 either:1 take:2 un:1 family:11 constant:5 typically:1 want:1 though:1 sometimes:1 interest:1 even:1 similarly:2 positive:1 low:1 bound:2 extend:1 case:4 direct:1 directed:1 interpret:1 balanced:1 bipartite:3 go:1 copy:2 another:2 expanders:6 far:1 generalize:1 unbalanced:1 relationship:2 parameter:1 particular:1 consequently:1 every:1 inequality:1 due:2 cheeger:1 buser:1 continuous:1 tanner:1 alon:1 milman:1 discrete:1 state:4 example:1 random:5 good:1 probability:2 ramanujan:1 explicit:1 essentially:1 cayley:1 know:1 various:1 recently:1 combinatorial:1 discover:1 useful:3 original:1 motivation:1 build:1 economical:1 phone:1 bounded:1 valence:1 precisely:1 asymptotic:1 grow:1 linearly:1 size:1 subset:2 find:1 extensive:1 algorithm:1 correct:1 extractor:1 pseudorandom:1 generator:1 sort:1 prove:2 many:3 important:1 computational:1 complexity:1 sl:1 l:1 pcp:1 cryptography:1 construct:1 hash:1 function:1 following:1 area:1 mix:2 lemma:3 two:1 approximately:1 would:1 expect:1 e:1 walk:4 sample:8 chernoff:1 independent:1 variable:2 range:1 average:1 close:1 expectation:1 gillman:1 ajtai:1 komlós:1 szemerédi:1 hold:1 true:1 particularly:1 derandomization:1 since:1 accord:1 much:1 bit:1 independently:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 brief:1 introduction:1 notice:1 american:1 mathematical:1 society:1 introductory:1 paper:1 michael:1 nielsen:1 thorough:1 survey:1 field:1 hoory:1 linial:1 wigderson:1 lecture:2 note:2 course:2 yet:1 |@bigram expander_graph:7 pure_applied:1 applied_mathematics:1 error_correcting:1 correcting_code:1 closely_relate:1 directed_graph:1 computational_complexity:1 random_variable:2 external_link:1 |
5,844 | Negligence | Negligence (Lat. negligentia, from negligere, to neglect, literally "not to pick up") is a legal concept in the common law legal systems usually used to achieve compensation for injuries (not accidents). Negligence is a type of tort or delict (also known as a civil wrong). However, the concept is sometimes used in criminal law as well. "Negligence" is not the same as "carelessness", because someone might be exercising as much care as they are capable of, yet still fall below the level of competence expected of them. It is the opposite of "diligence". It can be generally defined as conduct that is culpable because it falls short of what a reasonable person would do to protect another individual from foreseeable risks of harm. In the words of Lord Blackburn, " citation needed those who go personally or bring property where they know that they or it may come into collision with the persons or property of others have by law a duty cast upon them to use reasonable care and skill to avoid such a collision." Through civil litigation, if an injured person proves that another person acted negligently to cause his injury, he can recover damages to compensate for his harm. Proving a case for negligence can potentially entitle the injured plaintiff to compensation for harm to their body, property, mental well-being, financial status, or intimate relationships. However, because negligence cases are very fact-specific, this general definition does not fully explain the concept of when the law will require one person to compensate another for losses caused by accidental injury. Further, the law of negligence at common law is only one aspect of the law of liability. Although resulting damages must be proven in order to recover compensation in a negligence action, the nature and extent of those damages are not the primary focus of negligence cases. Elements of negligence claims Negligence suits have historically been analyzed in stages, called elements, similar to the analysis of crimes. Common law jurisdictions may differ slightly in the exact classification of the elements of negligence, but the elements that must be established in every negligence case are: duty, breach, causation, and damages. Each is defined and explained in greater detail in the paragraphs below. Negligence can be conceived of as having just three elements - conduct, causation and damages. More often, it is said to have four (duty, breach, causation and pecuniary damages) or five (duty, breach, actual cause, proximate cause, and damages). Each would be correct, depending on how much specificity someone is seeking. "The broad agreement on the conceptual model," writes Professor Robertson of the University of Texas, "entails recognition that the five elements are best defined with care and kept separate. But in practice," he goes on to warn, "several varieties of confusion or conceptual mistakes have sometimes occurred." Deakin, Tort Law, 218 Duty of care A decomposed snail in Scotland was the humble beginning of the modern English law of negligence The case of Donoghue v. Stevenson Donoghue v. Stevenson [1932] AC 532 [1932] illustrates the law of negligence, laying the foundations of the fault principle around the Commonwealth. Plaintiff Donoghue drank ginger beer given to her by a friend, who bought it from a shop. The beer was supplied by a manufacturer under a certain Stevenson in Scotland. While drinking the drink, Ms. Donoghue discovered the remains of an allegedly decomposed snail. She then sued Stevenson, though there was no relationship of contract, as the friend had made the payment. As there was no contract the doctrine of privity prevented a direct action against the manufacturer, David Stevenson. In his ruling, justice Lord MacMillan defined a new category of tort, (which is really not based on negligence but on what is now known as the "implied warranty of fitness of a product" in a completely different category of tort--"products liability") because it was analogous to previous cases about people hurting each other. Lord Atkin interpreted the biblical passages to 'love thy neighbour,' as the legal requirement to 'not harm thy neighbour.' He then went on to define neighbour as "persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions that are called in question." Reasonably foreseeable harm must be compensated. This is the first principle of negligence. In England the more recent case of Caparo v. Dickman [1990] introduced a 'threefold test' for a duty of care. Harm must be (1) reasonably foreseeable (2) there must be a relationship of proximity between the plaintiff and defendant and (3) it must be 'fair, just and reasonable' to impose liability. However, these act as guidelines for the courts in establishing a duty of care; much of the principle is still at the discretion of judges. Breach of duty In Bolton v. Stone the English court was sympathetic to cricket players Once it is established that the defendant owed a duty to the plaintiff/claimant, the matter of whether or not that duty was breached must be settled. The test is both subjective and objective. The defendant who knowingly (subjective) exposes the plaintiff/claimant to a substantial risk of loss, breaches that duty. The defendant who fails to realize the substantial risk of loss to the plaintiff/claimant, which any reasonable person in the same situation would clearly have realized, also breaches that duty. Breach of duty is not restricted to professionals or persons under written or oral contract; all members of society have a duty to exercise reasonable care toward others and their property. A person who engages in activities that pose an unreasonable risk toward others and their property that actually results in harm, breaches their duty of reasonable care. An example is shown in the facts of Bolton v. Stone Bolton v. Stone, [1951] A.C. 850 , a 1951 legal case decided by the House of Lords which established that a defendant is not negligent if the damage to the plaintiff was not a reasonably foreseeable consequence of his conduct. In the case, a Miss Stone was struck on the head by a cricket ball while standing outside her house. Cricket balls were not normally hit a far enough distance to pose a danger to people standing as far away as was Miss Stone. Although she was injured, the court held that she did not have a legitimate claim because the danger was not sufficiently foreseeable. As stated in the opinion, 'Reasonable risk' cannot be judged with the benefit of hindsight. As Lord Denning said in Roe v. Minister of Health Roe v Minister of Health (1954) 2 AER 131 , the past should not be viewed through rose coloured spectacles. Therefore, there was no negligence on the part of the medical professionals in a case faulting them for using contaminated medical jars because the scientific standards of the time indicated a low possibility of medical jar contamination. Even if some were harmed, the professionals took reasonable care for risk to their patients. United States v. Carroll Towing Co. 159 F.2d 169 (2d. Cir. 1947) For the rule in the U.S., see: Calculus of negligence Factual causation For a defendant to be held liable, it must be shown that the particular acts or omissions were the cause of the loss or damage sustained. Although the notion sounds simple, the causation between one's breach of duty and the harm that results to another can at times be very complicated. The basic test is to ask whether the injury would have occurred but for, or without, my breach of duty. Even more precisely, if a breaching party materially increases the risk of harm to another, then the breaching party can be sued to the value of harm that he caused. Asbestos litigations which have been ongoing for decades revolve around the issue of causation. Interwoven with the simple idea of a party causing harm to another are issues on insurance bills and compensations, which sometimes drove compensating companies out of business. Legal causation or remoteness Negligence can lead to this sort of accident - a train wreck at Gare Montparnasse in 1895. Sometimes factual causation is distinguished from 'legal causation' to avert the danger of defendants being exposed to, in the words of Cardozo, J., "liability in an indeterminate amount for an indeterminate time to an indeterminate class." Ultramares Corp. v. Touche(1931) 255 N.Y. 170, 174 N.E. 441 It is said a new question arises of how remote a consequence a person's harm is from another's negligence. We say that one's negligence is 'too remote' (in England) or not a 'proximate cause' (in the U.S.) of another's harm if one would 'never' reasonably foresee it happening. Note that a 'proximate cause' in U.S. terminology (to do with the chain of events between the action and the injury) should not be confused with the 'proximity test' under the English duty of care (to do with closeness of relationship). The idea of legal causation is that if no one can foresee something bad happening, and therefore take care to avoid it, how could anyone be responsible? For instance, in Palsgraf v. Long Island Rail Road Co. Palsgraf v. Long Island Rail Road Co. (1928) 162 N.E. 99 the judge decided that the defendant, a railway was not liable for an injury suffered by a distant bystander. The plaintiff, Palsgraf, was hit by scales that fell on her as she waited on a train platform. The scales fell because of a far-away commotion. A train conductor had run to help a man into a departing train. The man was carrying a package as he jogged to jump in the train door. The package had fireworks in it. The conductor mishandled the passenger or his package, causing the package to fall. The fireworks slipped and exploded on the ground causing shockwaves to travel through the platform. As a consequence, the scales fell. Interestingly, the plaintiff's physical injuries were minor and more likely caused by a stampede of travelers on the platform rather than the concussion of the exploding fireworks. These details have not, however, stopped the case from becoming the source of extensive debate in American tort law. Because Palsgraf was hurt by the falling scales, she sued the train company who employed the conductor for negligence. She could have sued the man or the conductor himself, but they did not have as much money as the company. Often, in litigation, where two defendants are equally liable but one is more able to satisfy a judgment, he will be the preferred defendant and is referred to as the "deep pocket." . The defendant train company argued it should not be liable as a matter of law, because despite the fact that they employed the employee, who was negligent, his negligence was too remote from the plaintiff's injury. On appeal, the court agreed, however, it was divided when it came time to explain the reason why the defendant was not liable. One view was that the defendant owed no duty of care to the plaintiff, because a duty was owed only to foreseeable plaintiffs. This was the view advanced by Judge Cardozo. The other view was that the defendant owed a duty to the plaintiff, regardless of foreseeability, because all men owe one another a duty not to act negligently. This was the view advanced by Judge Andrews. According to Andrews, however, the defendant still should not be liable because, despite having owed a duty, and breached it, the breach was not the proximate cause of the injury. Such disparity of views on the element of remoteness continues to trouble the judiciary. Courts follow Cardozo's view have greater control in negligence cases. If the court can find that, as a matter of law, the defendant owed no duty of care to the plaintiff, the plaintiff will lose his case for negligence before having a chance to present to the jury. Cardozo's view is the majority view. However, some courts follow the position put forth by Judge Andrews. In jurisdictions following the minority rule, defendants must phrase their remoteness arguments in terms of proximate cause if they wish the court to take the case away from the jury. Remoteness takes another form, seen in the Wagon Mound No. 2 Overseas Tankship (UK) Ltd v Miller Steamship Co Pty [1966] 2 All E.R. 709 . The Wagon Mound was a ship in Sydney harbour. The Wagon Mound was a ship which leaked oil creating a slick in part of the harbour. The wharf owner asked the ship owner about the danger and was told he could continue his work because the slick would not burn. The wharf owner allowed work to continue on the wharf, which sent sparks onto a rag in the water which ignited and created a fire which burnt down the wharf. The UK House of Lords determined that the wharf owner 'intervened' in the causal chain, creating a responsibility for the fire which canceled out the liability of the ship owner. In Australia, the concept of remoteness, or proximity, was tested with the case of Jaensch v. Coffey. Jaensch v. Coffee (1984) 155 CLR 578 The wife of a policeman, Mrs Coffey suffered a nervous shock injury from the aftermath of a motor vehicle accident although she was not actually at the scene at the time of the accident. The court upheld in addition to it being reasonably foreseeable that his wife might suffer such an injury, it also required that there be sufficient proximity between the plaintiff and the defendant who caused the accident. Here there was sufficient causal proximity. Damage Even though there is breach of duty, and the cause of some injury to the defendant, a plaintiff may not recover unless he can prove that the defendant's breach caused a pecuniary injury. This should not be mistaken with the requirements that a plaintiff prove harm to recover. As a general rule, a plaintiff can only rely on a legal remedy to the point that he proves that he suffered a loss. It means something more that pecuniary loss is a necessary element of the plaintiff's case in negligence. When damages are not a necessary element, a plaintiff can win his case without showing that he suffered any loss; he would be entitled to nominal damages and any other damages according to proof. Negligence is different in that the plaintiff must prove his loss, and a particular kind of loss, to recover. In some cases, a defendant may not dispute the loss, but the requirement is significant in cases where a defendant cannot deny his negligence, but the plaintiff suffered no loss as a result. If the plaintiff can prove pecuniary loss, then he can also obtain damages for non-pecuniary injuries, such as emotional distress. The requirement of pecuniary loss can be shown in a number of ways. A plaintiff who is physically injured by allegedly negligent conduct may show that he had to pay a medical bill. If his property is damaged, he could show the income lost because he could not use it, the cost to repair it, although he could only recover for one of these things. The damage may be physical, purely economic, both physical and economic (loss of earnings following a personal injury), or reputational (in a defamation case). In English law, the right to claim for purely economic loss is limited to a number of 'special' and clearly defined circumstances, often related to the nature of the duty to the plaintiff as between clients and lawyers, financial advisers, and other professions where money is central to the consultative services. Emotional distress has been recognized as an actionable tort. Generally, emotional distress damages had to be parasitic. That is, the plaintiff could recover for emotional distress caused by injury, but only if it accompanied a physical or pecuniary injury. A claimant who suffered only emotional distress and no pecuniary loss would not recover for negligence. However, courts have recently allowed recovery for a plaintiff to recover for purely emotional distress under certain circumstances. The state courts of California allowed recovery for emotional distress alone even in the absence of any physical injury, when the defendant physically injures a relative of the plaintiff, and the plaintiff witnesses it. See Dillon v. Legg, 68 Cal. 2d 728 (1968) and Molien v. Kaiser Foundation Hospitals, 27 Cal. 3d 916 (1980). Damages Damages place a monetary value on the harm done, following the principle of restitutio in integrum (the Latin for "restoration to the original condition"). Thus, for most purposes connected with the quantification of damages, the degree of culpability in the breach of the duty of care is irrelevant. Once the breach of the duty is established, the only requirement is to compensate the victim. But, particularly in the U.S., punitive or exemplary damages may be awarded in addition to compensatory damages to reflect the egregious nature of the defendant's conduct, e.g. that the defendant was malicious or callously indifferent. One of the main tests that is posed when deliberating whether a defendant is entitled to compensation for a tort, is the "reasonable person." The test is self-explanatory: would a reasonable person (as determined by a judge or jury) be damaged by the breach of duty. Simple as the "reasonable person" test sounds, it is very complicated. It is a risky test because it involves the opinion of either the judge or the jury that can be based on limited facts. However, as vague as the "reasonable person" test seems, it is extremely important in deciding whether or not a defendant is entitled to compensation for a negligence tort. Damages are, in general, compensatory and not punitive in nature. This means that the amount paid matches the plaintiff/claimant's actual loss (in cases involving physical injury, the amount awarded should aim to compensate for the pain and suffering). It is not the court's intention to punish the defendant. The award should be sufficient so as to put the plaintiff/claimant back in the position he or she was before the tort was committed and no more, because otherwise the plaintiff/claimant would actually profit from the tort. The award of damages may include the following heads of damage: Special damages - losses suffered from the date of the tort up until the date of trial and which can be precisely quantified in monetary terms. General damages - losses that cannot be quantified exactly in monetary terms (the actual pain, suffering, and loss of amenity caused by the negligent act), as well as expected future losses from the date of trial (e.g. continuing pain and suffering, and loss of earnings). Where the plaintiff/claimant proves only negligible loss or damage, or the court is unable to quantify the losses, the court may award nominal damages. Punitive damages - are awards of amounts greater than those needed to compensate the victim and are intended to deter intentional, usually malicious, wrongdoing. They are not available where only negligence has been proved. Procedure in the United States The plaintiff must prove each element to win his case. Therefore, if it is highly unlikely that the plaintiff can prove one of the elements, the defendant may request judicial resolution early on, to prevent the case from going to a jury. This can be by way of a demurrer, motion to dismiss, or motion for summary judgment. The ability to resolve a negligence case without trial is very important to defendants. Without the specific limits provided by the four elements, any plaintiff could claim any defendant was responsible for any loss, and subject him to a costly trial. The breadth of negligence is often associated with an "in terrorem effect" . The elements allow a defendant to test a plaintiff's accusations before trial, as well as providing a guide to the finder of fact to decide whether the defendant is or is not liable, after the trial. Whether the case is resolved with or without trial again depends heavily on the particular facts of the case, and the ability of the parties to frame the issues to the court. The duty and causation elements in particular give the court the greatest opportunity to take the case from the jury, because they directly involve questions of policy. The court can find that regardless of the disputed facts, if any, the case can be resolved as a matter of law from undisputed facts, because two people in the position of the plaintiff and defendant simply cannot be legally responsible to one another for negligent injury. On appeal, the court reviewing a decision in a negligence case will analyze in terms of at least one of these elements, depending on the disposition of the case and the question on appeal. For example, if it is an appeal from a final judgment after a jury verdict, the reviewing court will look to see that the jury was properly instructed on each contested element, and that the record shows sufficient evidence for the jury's findings. On an appeal from a dismissal or judgment against the plaintiff without trial, the court will review de novo whether the court below properly found that the plaintiff could not prove any or all of his case. See also Carelessness Criminal negligence Intentionality Malpractice Medical negligence Mens rea Negligence in English Law Footnotes References External links Britannica 1911's account of negligence: an interesting historical read, preceding the era of Buick Motor and Donoghue v. Stevenson. Negligence - Encyclopedic Article Perry, Ronen, "Relational Economic Loss: An Integrated Economic Justification for the Exclusionary Rule", Rutgers Law Review, Vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 711-88, Spring 2004 | Negligence |@lemmatized negligence:40 lat:1 negligentia:1 negligere:1 neglect:1 literally:1 pick:1 legal:8 concept:4 common:3 law:18 system:1 usually:2 use:5 achieve:1 compensation:6 injury:20 accident:5 type:1 tort:11 delict:1 also:5 know:3 civil:2 wrong:1 however:9 sometimes:4 criminal:2 well:4 carelessness:2 someone:2 might:2 exercise:2 much:4 care:14 capable:1 yet:1 still:3 fall:4 level:1 competence:1 expect:2 opposite:1 diligence:1 generally:2 define:5 conduct:5 culpable:1 short:1 reasonable:12 person:14 would:10 protect:1 another:11 individual:1 foreseeable:7 risk:7 harm:16 word:2 lord:6 blackburn:1 citation:1 need:2 go:4 personally:1 bring:1 property:6 may:10 come:2 collision:2 others:3 duty:30 cast:1 upon:1 skill:1 avoid:2 litigation:3 injured:2 prove:13 act:7 negligently:2 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5,845 | Guam | This article is about the Island of Guam and the United States territory of Guam. For the Mariana Archipelago, see Mariana Islands. For the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, see Northern Mariana Islands. For GUAM, an eastern European international organization, see GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development. Guam (; Chamorro: ), is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States. It is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government.<ref name="oia">"U.S. Territories." DOI Office of Insular Affairs. February 9, 2007.</ref> "DEFINITIONS OF INSULAR AREA POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS." Office of Insular Affairs. Accessed October 31, 2008. The island's capital is Hagåtña (formerly Agana). Guam is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands. The Chamorros, Guam's indigenous inhabitants, first populated the island approximately 4,000 years ago. http://www.chamorro.com/kantontasi/commonw.html The island has a long history of European colonialism beginning in 1668 with the arrival of Spanish settlers including Padre San Vitores, a Catholic missionary. The island was controlled by Spain until 1898, when it was taken over by the United States during the Spanish American War. As the largest island in Micronesia and the only American-held island in the region before World War II, Guam was occupied by the Japanese in December 1941, and was subject to fierce fighting when American troops recaptured the island in July 1944. Today, Guam's economy is mainly supported by tourism (primarily from Japan) and United States military bases. History It is believed that Guam was first discovered by seafaring people who migrated from southeastern Indonesia around 2000 B.C. Most of what is known about Pre-Contact ("Ancient") Chamorros comes from legends and myths, archaeological evidence, Jesuit missionary accounts, and observations from visiting scientists like Otto von Kotzebue and Louis de Freycinet. When Europeans first arrived on Guam, Chamorro society roughly fell into three classes: matua (upper class), achaot (middle class), and mana'chang (lower class). The matua were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds while the mana'chang were located in the interior of the island. Matua and mana'chang rarely communicated with each other, and matua often used achaot as a go-between. There were also "makana" (shamans), skilled in healing and medicine. Belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called Taotao Mona still persists as a remnant of pre-European society. Early European explorers noted the Chamorros' fast sailing vessels used for trading with other islands of Micronesia. Guam—the only European outpost in the Pacific Ocean beyond the Philippines, the regular stopping-place between Mexico and Manila from 1565 to 1815, and (since Philippine independence) the farthest outpost of actual United States territory in the Pacific—is the biggest single segment of Micronesia, the largest island between Kyushu and New Guinea, between the Philippines and the Hawaiian Islands. Latte Stones Latte stone set on Guam The Latte Stones familiar to Guam residents and visitors alike were in fact a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society. The latte stone consists of a head and a base shaped out of limestone. Archaeologists using carbon-dating have broken Pre-Contact Guam (i.e. Chamorro) history into three periods: "Pre-Latte" (B.C. 2000? to A.D. 1) "Transitional Pre-Latte" (A.D. 1 to A.D. 1000), and "Latte" (A.D. 1000 to A.D. 1521). Archaeological evidence also suggests that Chamorro society was on the verge of another transition phase by 1521, as latte stones became bigger. Assuming the stones were used for chiefly houses, it can be argued that Chamorro society was becoming more stratified, either from population growth or the arrival of new people. The theory remains tenuous, however, due to lack of evidence, but if proven correct, will further support the idea that Pre-Contact Chamorros lived in a vibrant and dynamic environment. Spanish Colonization and the Manila Galeons Engraving showing the death of Padre San Vitores, the first missionary to Guam. Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan, sailing for the King of Spain, reached the island in 1521 during his circumnavigation of the globe. General Miguel López de Legazpi claimed Guam for Spain in 1565. Spanish colonization commenced in 1668 with the arrival of Padre San Vitores, who established the first Catholic mission. The islands were then governed as part of the Spanish East Indies from the Philippines. Between 1668 and 1815, Guam was an important resting stop for the Spanish Manila galleons, a fleet that covered the trade route between Mexico and the Philippines. Guam, along with the rest of the Mariana and Caroline Islands, was treated by Spain as part of their colony in the Philippines. While Guam's Chamorro culture is unique, the cultures of both Guam and the Northern Marianas were heavily influenced by Spanish culture and traditions. The Spanish American War and World War II The United States took control of the island in the 1898 Spanish-American War. Guam came to serve as a station for American ships traveling to and from the Philippines, while the northern Mariana islands passed to Germany then Japan. During World War II, Guam was attacked, and invaded, by the armed forces of Japan on December 8, 1941. Before the attack, most of the United States citizens were transported from the island and away from imminent danger. The Northern Mariana Islands had become a Japanese protectorate before the war. It was the Chamorros from the Northern Marianas who were brought to Guam to serve as interpreters and in other capacities for the occupying Japanese force. The Guamanian Chamorros were treated as an occupied enemy by the Japanese military. After the war, this would cause some resentment by the Guamanian Chamorros towards the Chamorros in the Northern Marianas. Guam's Japanese occupation lasted for approximately thirty-one months. During this period, the indigenous people of Guam were subjected to forced labor, family separation, incarceration, execution, concentration camps and prostitution. Approximately one thousand people died during the occupation according to Congressional Testimony in 2004. The United States returned and fought the Battle of Guam on July 21, 1944, to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation. To this day, Guam remains the only U.S. soil with a sizable population ever to have been occupied by a foreign military power, other than the limited British occupation of U.S. territory during the War of 1812. The United States also captured and occupied the Northern Marianas. After the war, the Guam Organic Act of 1950, which established Guam as an unincorporated organized territory of the United States, provided for the structure of the island's civilian government and granted the people U.S. citizenship. Geography Map of Guam Beach scenery in Guam. Guam lies between 13.2°N and 13.7°N and between 144.6°E and 145.0°E, and has an area of , making it the 32nd largest island of the United States. It is the southernmost island in the Mariana island chain and is the largest island in Micronesia. This island chain was created by the colliding Pacific and Philippine tectonic plates. The Mariana Trench, a deep subduction zone, lies beside the island chain to the east. Challenger Deep, the deepest surveyed point in the Oceans, is southwest of Guam at deep. The highest point in Guam is Mount Lamlam, which is 1,332 feet (406 m). The island of Guam is long and to wide. The island experiences occasional earthquakes due to its location on the western edge of the Pacific Plate and near the Philippine Plate. In recent years, earthquakes with epicenters near Guam have had magnitudes ranging from 5.0 to 8.7. Unlike the Anatahan volcano in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam is not volcanically active. "Geography of Guam," Official site of Guam, November 8, 2007Retrieved November 8, 2007. However, due to its proximity to Anatahan, vog does occasionally affect Guam. "Home page of the Anahatan volcano," USGS-CNMI, November 8, 2007Retrieved November 8, 2007. The northern part of the island is a forested coralline limestone plateau while the south contains volcanic peaks covered in forest and grassland. A coral reef surrounds most of the island, except in areas where bays exist that provide access to small rivers and streams that run down from the hills into the Pacific Ocean and Philippine Sea. "Guam," CIA World Factbook, April 17, 2007, Retrieved April 19, 2007. The island's population is most dense in the northern and central regions. Climate The climate is characterized as tropical marine. The weather is generally hot and very humid with little seasonal temperature variation. The mean high temperature is 86 °F (30 °C) and mean low is 76 °F (24 °C) with an average annual rainfall of 96 inches (2,180 mm). The dry season runs from December through June. The remaining months constitute the rainy season. The months of January and February are considered the coolest months of the year with night time temperatures in the mid to low 70's and generally lower humidity levels. The highest risk of typhoons is during October and November. They can occur, however, year-round. An average of three tropical storms and one typhoon pass within of Guam each year. The most intense typhoon to pass over Guam recently was Super Typhoon Pongsona, with sustained winds of 125 miles per hour, which slammed Guam on December 8, 2002, leaving massive destruction. Since Super Typhoon Pamela in 1976 wooden structures have been largely replaced by concrete structures. During the 1980s wooden utility poles began to be replaced by typhoon-resistant concrete and steel poles. After the local Government enforced stricter construction codes, many home and business owners built their structures out of reinforced concrete with installed typhoon shutters. Demographics According to the U.S. census conducted in 2000, the population of Guam was 154,805. . "Guam Summary File," American FactFinder, Census 2000 Guam, Retrieved April 19, 2007. The 2007 population estimate for Guam is 173,460. As of 2005, the annual population growth is 1.76%. The largest ethnic group are the native Chamorros, accounting for 57% of the total population. Other significant ethnic groups include those of Filipino (25.5%), White (10%) indicates of both European often of Spanish and white American ancestry, and the rest are of Chinese, Japanese and Korean ancestry. Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion, with 85% of the population claiming an affiliation with it. The programmed U.S. military buildup (2010-2014) will cause an unprecedented population increase (approximately 24-25% or 40,000 plus residents) which will significantly impact Guam's very limited and aging infrastructure. The official languages of the island are English and Chamorro. Culture Dulce Nombre de Maria Cathedral Basilica in Hagåtña, faced by a statue of Pope John Paul II. Roman Catholicism is the main religion in Guam. Traditional Chamorro culture is visually manifested in dance, sea navigation, unique cuisine, fishing, games (such as batu, chonka, estuleks, and bayogu), songs and fashion influenced by the immigration of peoples from other lands. Spanish policy during colonial rule (1668-1898) was one of conquest and conversion to Roman Catholicism. This led to the gradual elimination of Guam's male warriors and displacement of the Chamorro people from their lands. The Chamorros today have some Spanish, Mexican, Filipino, and white American ancestry. Also, Chamorros have Spanish surnames because of their conversion to Roman Catholic Christianity through Catálogo alfabético de apellidos. In spite of the social upheavals, Guam's matriarchs — known as "" — continued the indigenous culture, language, and traditions. A lot of the Chamorro culture today is a spin off of Spanish, Mexican, and Filipino cultures. In fact, cockfighting, a sport that's also popular in Mexico and the Philippines, has been accepted as a cultural tradition dating back to the Spanish rule and continues to this day. Historian Lawrence Cunningham in 1992 wrote, "In a Chamorro sense, the land and its produce belong to everyone. , or interdependence, is the key, or central value, in Chamorro culture … depends on a spirit of cooperation and sharing. This is the armature, or core, that everything in Chamorro culture revolves around. It is a powerful concern for mutuality rather than individualism and private property rights." Chief Gadao is featured in many legends about Guam before European colonization. The core culture or Pengngan Chamorro is based on complex social protocol centered upon respect: From the kissing of the hands of the elders (inspired by the kissing of a Roman Catholic bishop's ring by those whom he oversees), passing of legends, chants, and courtship rituals, to a person requesting forgiveness from spiritual ancestors when entering a jungle or ancient battle grounds. Other practices predating Spanish conquest include galaide' canoe-making, making of the belembaotuyan (a string musical instrument made from a gourd), fashioning of slings and slingstones, tool manufacture, burial rituals and preparation of herbal medicines by Suruhanu. Master craftsmen and women specialize in weavings, including plaited work (niyok- and åkgak-leaf baskets, mats, bags, hats, and food containments), loom-woven material (kalachucha-hibiscus and banana fiber skirts, belts and burial shrouds), and body ornamentation (bead and shell necklaces, bracelets, earrings, belts and combs made from tortoise shells). The cosmopolitan nature of modern Guam poses challenges for Chamorros struggling to preserve their culture and identity amidst forces of acculturation. The increasing numbers of Chamorros, especially Chamorro youth, relocating to the U.S. Mainland has further complicated both definition and preservation of Chamorro identity. While only a few masters exist to continue traditional art forms, the resurgence of interest among the Chamorros to preserve the language and culture has resulted in a growing number of young Chamorros who seek to continue the ways of the Chamorro people. Government and politics War in the Pacific National Historical Park, Asan, Guam. Guam is governed by a popularly elected governor and a unicameral 15-member legislature, whose members are known as senators. Guam elects one non-voting delegate, currently Madeleine Z. Bordallo, to the United States House of Representatives. U.S. citizens in Guam vote in a straw poll for their choice in the U.S. Presidential general election, but since Guam has no votes in the Electoral College, the poll has no real effect. However, in sending delegates to the Republican and Democratic national conventions, Guam does have influence in the national presidential race, though these convention delegates are elected by local party conventions rather than voters in primaries. In the 1980s and early 1990s, there was a significant movement in favor of the territory becoming a commonwealth, which would give it a level of self-government similar to Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands. However, the federal government rejected the version of a commonwealth that the government of Guam proposed, due to it having clauses incompatible with the Territorial Clause (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 2) of the U.S. Constitution. Competing movements with less significant influence exist that advocate political independence from the United States, statehood, union with the Northern Mariana Islands as a single territory, or union with the current U.S. state of Hawaii. Villages and military bases Aerial photo of Apra Harbor. Guam is divided into municipalities commonly called villages: Agana Heights, Agat, Asan‑Maina, Barrigada, ChalanPago‑Ordot, Dededo, Hagåtña, Inarajan, Mangilao, Merizo, Mongmong‑Toto‑Maite, Piti, Santa Rita, Sinajana, Talofofo, Tamuning, Umatac, Yigo, Yona. The U.S. military maintains jurisdiction over its bases, which cover approximately , or 29% of the island's total land area: U.S. Naval Base Guam, U.S. Navy – Sumay U.S. Coast Guard Sector Guam, – Sumay Andersen Air Force Base, U.S. Air Force – Yigo Apra Harbor, U.S. Navy – Orote peninsula Ordnance Annex, U.S. Navy – South Central Highlands (formerly known as Naval Magazine) Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station, U.S. Navy – Barrigada and Finegayan Joint Force Headquarters-Guam, Guam National Guard – Radio Barrigada and Fort Juan Muna Economy Guam's economy depends primarily on tourism, Department of Defense installations, and locally owned businesses. Although Guam receives no foreign aid, it does receive large transfer payments from the general revenues of the U.S. federal treasury into which Guam pays no income or excise taxes; under the provisions of a special law of Congress, the Guam treasury, rather than the U.S. treasury, receives federal income taxes paid by local taxpayers to include military and civilian federal employees assigned to Guam. America in Asia Commonly referred to as "America in Asia", Guam is a popular destination for Japanese tourists. Its tourist hub, Tumon, features over 20 large hotels, a Duty Free Shoppers Galleria, Pleasure Island district, indoor aquarium, Sandcastle Las Vegas–styled shows and other shopping and entertainment venues. It is a relatively short flight from Asia or Australia compared to Hawaii, with hotels and ten golf courses accommodating over a million tourists per year. Although 90 percent of the tourists are Japanese, Guam receives a sizable number of tourists from South Korea, Philippines, and Taiwan. Guam Visitors Bureau Tourist Statistics Significant sources of revenue include duty-free designer shopping outlets, and the American-style malls: Micronesia Mall, Guam Premier Outlets, and the Agana Shopping Center. The economy had been stable since 2000 due to increased tourism, but took a recent downturn along with most of Asia. It is expected to stabilize well ahead of the U.S. Marine Corps' 3rd Marine Expeditionary Force, currently in Okinawa (approximately 8000 Marines, along with their 10,000 dependents), transfer to Guam between 2010–2014 but will cause an unprecedented 25% increase in the island's overall population. In 2003, Guam had a 14% unemployment rate, and the government suffered a $314 million shortfall. The Compacts of Free Association between the United States, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Republic of Palau accorded the former entities of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands a political status of "free association" with the United States. The Compacts give citizens of these island nations generally no restrictions to reside in the United States (also its territories), and many were attracted to Guam due to its proximity, environmental, and cultural familiarity. Over the years, it was claimed by some in Guam that the territory has had to bear the brunt of this agreement in the form of public assistance programs and public education for those from the regions involved, and the federal government should compensate the states and territories affected by this type of migration. Over the years, Congress had appropriated "Compact Impact" aids to Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and Hawaii, and eventually this appropriation was written into each renewed Compact. Some, however, continue to claim the compensation is not enough or that the distribution of actual compensation received is significantly disproportionate. Transportation and communications Most of the island has state of the art mobile phone services while digital cable and high speed internet are now widely available through either cable or DSL. Guam was added to the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) in 1997 (country code 671 became NANP area code 671), removing the barrier of high cost international long-distance calls to the U.S. Mainland. As Guam is also part of the U.S. Postal System ("state" code: GU, ZIP code range: 96910–96932), mail to Guam from the U.S. mainland is considered domestic and no additional charges are required. Private shipping companies, such as UPS, DHL or FedEx, however, have no obligation to and do not regard Guam as domestic. The speed of mail traveling between Guam and the states varies depending on size. Light, first-class items generally take less than a week to or from the mainland, but larger first-class or Priority items can take a week or two. Fourth-class mail, such as magazines, are transported by surface after reaching Hawaii. Most residents use post office boxes or private mail boxes, although residential delivery is becoming increasingly available. Incoming mail not from the Americas should be addressed to "Guam" instead of "USA" to avoid being routed the long way through the U.S. mainland and possibly charged a higher rate (especially from Asia). The Commercial Port of Guam is the island's lifeline since just about every product must be shipped into Guam for its consumers. The Port is also the regional transhipment hub for over 500,000 customers throughout the Micronesian region. The Port also is the shipping and receiving point for containers designated for the island's DoD installations, Andersen Air Force Base and Commander, Naval Forces Marianas and eventually the Third Marine Expeditionary Force. Guam is served by the Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport, which is a regional hub for Continental Micronesia. The island is outside the United States customs zone and maintains its own customs agency and jurisdiction. Therefore, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection only carries immigration (but not customs) functions for incoming flights. Since Guam is under federal immigration jurisdiction, passengers arriving directly from the States skip immigration and directly proceed to customs. However, due to the Guam-only visa waiver program for certain Asian tourists, an eligibility pre-clearance check is carried on Guam for flights to the States. For travel to and from the Northern Mariana Islands (which are outside of U.S. immigration jurisdiction), a full inspection is performed though American citizens do not need a passport. Traveling between Guam and the States through a foreign point (for example, a Japanese airport), however, requires a passport. Most residents travel within Guam using personally owned vehicles. The local government currently outsources the only public bus system (Guam Mass Transit Authority), and some commercial companies operated buses between tourist-frequented locations. Ecological issues Guam exemplifies the effects of bioinvasion. The brown tree snake Brown Tree Snake. Thought to be a stowaway on a U.S. military transport near the end of World War II, the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) came to Guam and killed virtually all of the native bird population on an island that has no native species of snake; this snake has no natural predators on the island. While slightly venomous, the brown tree snake is relatively harmless to human beings. Although some studies have suggested a high density of the brown tree snake, residents rarely see these nocturnal snakes. Prodigious climbers, the snakes cause frequent blackouts by shorting across lines and transformers. Coconut Rhinoceros Beetle An infestation of the coconut rhinoceros beetle (CRB), Oryctes rhinoceros, was detected on Guam on September 12, 2007. CRB is not known to occur in the United States except in American Samoa. Delimiting surveys performed September 13-25, 2007 indicated that the infestation was limited to Tumon Bay and Faifai Beach, an area of approximately . Guam Department of Agriculture (GDA) placed quarantine on all properties within the Tumon area on October 5 and later expanded the quarantine to about on October 25; approximately radius in all directions from all known locations of CRB infestation. CRB is native to Southern Asia and distributed throughout Asia and the Western Pacific including Sri Lanka, Upolu, Western Samoa, American Samoa, Palau Islands, New Britain, West Irian, New Ireland, Pak Island and Manus Island (New Guinea), Fiji, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Mauritius, and Reunion. Adults are the injurious stage of the insect. They are generally night-time fliers and when they alight on a host, they chew down into the folded, emerging fronds of coconut palms to feed on sap. V-shaped cuts in the fronds and holes through the midrib are visible when the leaves grow out and unfold. If the growing tip is injured, the palm may be killed or severe loss of leaf tissue may cause decreased nut set. Feeding wounds may also serve as an infection pathway for pathogens or other pests. The effects of adult boring may be more severe on younger palms where spears are narrower. Mortality of young palms has already been observed on Guam. Oviposition and larval development typically occurs in decaying coconut logs or stumps. Control measures have been developed for CRB and the current strategy on Guam is to implement an integrated eradication program using pheromone-baited, attractive traps to capture adults, various methods to eliminate infested and susceptible host material, and pesticides to kill larvae and adults. Pesticides may also be applied to uninfested trees as a preventive treatment. USDA-APHIS has completed an Environmental Assessment for the coconut rhinoceros beetle eradication program on Guam (EA Number: GU-08-1, http://www.guaminsects.net/uogces/kbwiki/images/d/dc/CRB_EA.pdf). The eradication program is a cooperative effort between USDA (APHIS and Forest Service), GDA and the University of Guam (UOG). This document follows the Forest Service Pest Risk Assessment (Kliejunas et al. 2001)format and is intended to provide information regarding the current status of CRB on Guam, its potential to spread to uninfested locales, and the consequences of establishment. The high, moderate or low riskvalues are based on available biological information and the subjective judgment of the authors. Other invasive animal species A Cane toad. From the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries, the Spanish introduced pigs, dogs, chickens, the Philippine deer (Cervus mariannus), black francolins, and water buffalo. Water buffalo, known as carabao locally, have cultural significance. Herds of these animals obstruct military base operations and harm native ecosystems. After birth control and adoption efforts were ineffective, the U.S. military began euthanizing the herds in 2002 leading to organized protests from island residents. Other introduced species include cane toads imported in 1937, the giant African snail (an agricultural pest introduced during WWII by Japanese occupation troops) and more recently frog species which could threaten crops in addition to providing additional food for the brown tree snake population. Reports of loud chirping frogs native to the Caribbean and known as coquí, that may have arrived from Hawaii, have led to fears that the noise could threaten Guam's tourism. Introduced feral pigs and deer, over-hunting, and habitat loss from human development are also major factors in the decline and loss of Guam's native plants and animals. Threats to indigenous plants Invading animal species are not the only threat to Guam's native flora. Tinangaja, a virus affecting coconut palms, was first observed on the island in 1917 when copra production was still a major part of Guam's economy. Though coconut plantations no longer exist on the island, the dead and infected trees that have resulted from the epidemic are seen throughout the forests of Guam. Also during the past century, the dense forests of northern Guam have been largely replaced by thick tangan tangan brush (Leucaena-native to the Americas). Much of Guam's foliage was lost during World War II. In 1947, the U.S. military introduced tangan tangan'' by seeding the island from the air to prevent erosion. In southern Guam, non-native grass species also dominate much of the landscape. Wildfires Guam's grassland. Wildfires plague the forested ("boonie" or "jungle") areas of Guam every dry season despite the island's humid climate. Most fires are man-caused with 80 percent resulting from arson. Territory of Guam Fire Assessment January 2004, Pgs. 6-7 Poachers often start fires to attract deer to the new growth. Invasive grass species that rely on fire as part of their natural life cycle grow in many regularly burned areas. Grasslands and "barrens" have replaced previously forested areas leading to greater soil erosion. During the rainy season sediment is carried by the heavy rains into the Fena Lake Reservoir and Ugum River leading to water quality problems for southern Guam. Eroded silt also destroys the marine life in reefs around the island. Soil stabilization efforts by volunteers and forestry workers to plant trees have had little success in preserving natural habitats. Aquatic preserves As a vacation spot for scuba divers, efforts have been made to protect Guam's coral reef habitats from pollution, eroded silt, and overfishing that have led to decreased fish populations. In recent years the Department of Agriculture, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has established several new marine preserves where fish populations are monitored by biologists. Prior to adopting U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards, portions of Tumon bay were dredged by the hotel chains in order to provide a better experience for hotel guests. Tumon Bay has since been made into a preserve. A federal Guam National Wildlife Refuge in northern Guam protects the decimated sea turtle population in addition to a small colony of Mariana fruit bats. Reef fish of Guam Education Colleges and universities The University of Guam, and Guam Community College, both fully-accredited by Western Association of Schools and Colleges, offer courses in higher education. Primary and secondary schools University of Guam The Guam Public School System Welcome to the Guam Public School System! serves the entire island of Guam. In 2000, 32,000 students attended Guam's public schools. Guam Public Schools have struggled with problems such as high dropout rates and poor test scores. Guam's educational system has always faced unique challenges as a small community located from the U.S. mainland with a very diverse student body including many students who come from backgrounds without traditional American education. An economic downturn in Guam since the mid-1990s has compounded the problems in schools. Prior to September 1997, the U.S. Department of Defense partnered with Guam Board of Education. "Rats, other problems face Guam schools." Pacific Stars and Stripes. October 3, 1993. In September 1997 the DoDEA opened its own schools for children of military personnel. http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=12381 DoDEA schools, which also serve children of some federal civilian employees, had an attendance of 2,500 in 2000. DoDEA Guam operates three elementary/middle schools and one high school. Public libraries Guam Public Library System operates the Nieves M. Flores Memorial Library in Hagåtña and five branch libraries. http://gpls.guam.gov/Portals/50/GPLS_LOC/GPLS_Location_2007Apr12.xml Health care The Government of Guam maintains Guam Memorial Hospital in Tamuning. http://www.gmha.org/ In addition the U.S. Naval Hospital is located in Agana Heights. http://www.usnhguam.med.navy.mil/home.htm See also List of Guam-related topics References External links Government Official Portal for the Island of Guam Office of the Governor Congresswoman Madeleine Z. Bordallo, Delegate, U.S. Congress Guam Customs and Quarantine Agency Guam Election Commission Guam Code Annotated Guam Department of Revenue and Taxation Guam's Original Webpage General information allthingsguam A Guam History resource--virtual textbook, virtual workbook and more Guampedia, Guam's Online Encyclopedia from the Guam Humanities Council and the University of Guam Portals to the World: Guam from the U.S. Library of Congress Guam Connection - Guam directory and internet portal. News media Marianas Variety Guam Edition Pacific Daily News KUAM TV/AM/FM Pacific News Center Military and history Commander, Naval Forces Marianas (COMNAVMAR) Guam Andersen Air Force Base (AAFB) Guam War in the Pacific - Liberation of Guam Congressional Testimony - Guam War Claims Government of Guam's website for the upcoming military buildup Travel Guam Visitors Bureau Guam Portal Guam Review Invasive species (Potentially) Invasive plant species on Guam (info from the Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk project (PIER)) Brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) information from the [http://www.hear.org/ Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR) Other Guam Chamber of Commerce Maps - Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection National Weather Service - Guam Guam.com - Guam be-x-old:Гуам | Guam |@lemmatized article:1 island:65 guam:166 united:18 state:27 territory:14 mariana:16 archipelago:1 see:6 commonwealth:3 northern:17 eastern:1 european:8 international:3 organization:3 democracy:1 economic:2 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5,846 | Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany) | The Free Democratic Party (Freie Demokratische Partei, FDP) is a liberal political party in Germany. The party's ideology emphasises the value of individual liberty under a government "as extensive as necessary, and as limited as possible" (German: so viel Staat wie nötig, so wenig Staat wie möglich). It promotes a market economy that retains reformed features of the German social welfare system. In foreign policy the FDP supports European integration and transatlantic partnership between the European Union and the United States. The FDP is currently the third largest party in the Bundestag. The party has generally distinguished itself from the more dominant Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) by taking a more strongly pro-business orientation. It has been associated with the label "Partei der Besserverdienenden" ("Party of the Higher Earning [people]"), which the party coined in a draft manifesto for the 1994 federal elections; opponents seized on the term to portray the FDP as preeminently concerned with the causes of the most affluent. Alliance 90/The Greens, Germany's green party, and The Left, a democratic socialist party, usually follow lines quite distinct from the FDP's. The FDP-supporting electorate has traditionally been composed mainly of middle-class and upper-class people who consider themselves to be independents and proponents of European liberalism. The party has usually been the third or fourth largest party in Germany, historically having gained between 5.8 and 12.8% of the votes in federal elections. The FDP has held the balance of power for most of the federal republic's existence. It was the junior partner in coalition governments with the Christian Democrats from 1949 to 1956, from 1961 to 1966 and from 1982 to 1998, and with the Social Democrats from 1969 to 1982, thereby participating in governments more often than other German parties. History The FDP was founded on 11 December 1948 through the merger of regional liberal parties formed in 1945 from the remnants of the German People's Party (DVP) and the German Democratic Party (DDP), which had been active in the Weimar Republic. The FDP's first Chairman, Theodor Heuss, was a former member of the DDP. Throughout its history, the party's policies have shifted between emphases on social liberalism and market liberalism. Since the 1980s, the FDP has maintained a consistent pro-business stance. However, its orientation to a free market is qualified by the principle that certain desirable objectives cannot be achieved solely through market mechanisms. The FDP supports a minimum standard of welfare protection for all and strong competition laws, for example. In federal election campaigns since the 1980s, the party has generally sided with the CDU and CSU, the main conservative and (relatively) pro-business parties in Germany; an exception was made in the the 2002 campaign, in which it adopted a position of "equidistance" to the CDU and SPD. Following German reunification in 1990, the FDP merged with the Association of Free Democrats, a grouping of liberals from East Germany. During the 1990s, the FDP won between 6.2 and 11 percent of the vote in Bundestag elections. Between 1982 and 1998, it served as the junior partner in the government of Chancellor Helmut Kohl of the CDU. 2005 federal election In the 2005 general election the party won 9.8 percent of the vote and 61 federal deputies, an unpredicted improvement from prior opinion polls. It is believed that this was partly due to tactical voting by CDU-CSU supporters who supported strong economic reforms. However, because the CDU did less well than predicted, the FDP and the CDU were unable to form a coalition government (a contrast to the situation after the 2002 federal election where a coalition between the two parties was impossible primarily because of the weak results of the FDP). Disagreements over social issues (the FDP taking a liberal stance, the CDU more conservative) also complicated a coalition agreement. The party was considered as a potential member of various possible political coalitions, following the election. One possibility was a partnership between the FDP, the Social Democrats and the Greens (called a "traffic light coalition" because the colours of the three parties are those displayed on traffic lights), but most Free Democrats felt that the Social Democrats were sufficiently committed to economic reform. Also considered was a CDU-FDP-Green coalition (called a "Jamaica coalition" because the colours of the respective parties are those of the Jamaican flag), but the Greens quickly ruled out participation in any coalition with the CDU-CSU. Instead, the CDU formed a grand coalition with the SPD, and the FDP entered the opposition. FDP leader Guido Westerwelle became the unofficial Leader of the Opposition by virtue of the Free Democrats' position as the largest party in the Bundestag. Leadership Chairmen of the party since 1948: Theodor Heuss 1948-1949 Franz Blücher 1949-1954 Thomas Dehler 1954-1957 Reinhold Maier 1957-1960 Erich Mende 1960-1968 Walter Scheel 1968-1974 Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1974-1985 Martin Bangemann 1985-1988 Otto Graf Lambsdorff 1988-1993 Klaus Kinkel 1993-1995 Wolfgang Gerhardt 1995-2001 Guido Westerwelle 2001- See also Liberalism in Germany Friedrich Naumann Foundation Young Liberals (Germany) Liberal Students Association References External links Official website | Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany) |@lemmatized free:5 democratic:5 party:26 freie:1 demokratische:1 partei:2 fdp:20 liberal:6 political:2 germany:8 ideology:1 emphasise:1 value:1 individual:1 liberty:1 government:5 extensive:1 necessary:1 limited:1 possible:2 german:6 viel:1 staat:2 wie:2 nötig:1 wenig:1 möglich:1 promote:1 market:4 economy:1 retain:1 reform:3 feature:1 social:7 welfare:2 system:1 foreign:1 policy:2 support:4 european:3 integration:1 transatlantic:1 partnership:2 union:2 united:1 state:1 currently:1 third:2 large:3 bundestag:3 generally:2 distinguish:1 dominant:1 christian:2 cdu:11 spd:3 take:2 strongly:1 pro:3 business:3 orientation:2 associate:1 label:1 der:1 besserverdienenden:1 high:1 earning:1 people:3 coin:1 draft:1 manifesto:1 federal:7 election:8 opponent:1 seize:1 term:1 portray:1 preeminently:1 concern:1 cause:1 affluent:1 alliance:1 green:5 left:1 socialist:1 usually:2 follow:2 line:1 quite:1 distinct:1 electorate:1 traditionally:1 compose:1 mainly:1 middle:1 class:2 upper:1 consider:3 independent:1 proponent:1 liberalism:4 fourth:1 historically:1 gain:1 vote:3 hold:1 balance:1 power:1 republic:2 existence:1 junior:2 partner:2 coalition:10 democrat:7 thereby:1 participate:1 often:1 history:2 found:1 december:1 merger:1 regional:1 form:3 remnant:1 dvp:1 ddp:2 active:1 weimar:1 first:1 chairman:2 theodor:2 heuss:2 former:1 member:2 throughout:1 shift:1 emphasis:1 since:3 maintain:1 consistent:1 stance:2 however:2 qualify:1 principle:1 certain:1 desirable:1 objective:1 cannot:1 achieve:1 solely:1 mechanism:1 minimum:1 standard:1 protection:1 strong:2 competition:1 law:1 example:1 campaign:2 side:1 csu:3 main:1 conservative:2 relatively:1 exception:1 make:1 adopt:1 position:2 equidistance:1 following:1 reunification:1 merge:1 association:2 grouping:1 east:1 win:2 percent:2 serve:1 chancellor:1 helmut:1 kohl:1 general:1 deputy:1 unpredicted:1 improvement:1 prior:1 opinion:1 poll:1 believe:1 partly:1 due:1 tactical:1 voting:1 supporter:1 economic:2 less:1 well:1 predict:1 unable:1 contrast:1 situation:1 two:1 impossible:1 primarily:1 weak:1 result:1 disagreement:1 issue:1 also:3 complicate:1 agreement:1 potential:1 various:1 one:1 possibility:1 call:2 traffic:2 light:2 colour:2 three:1 display:1 felt:1 sufficiently:1 commit:1 jamaica:1 respective:1 jamaican:1 flag:1 quickly:1 rule:1 participation:1 instead:1 grand:1 enter:1 opposition:2 leader:2 guido:2 westerwelle:2 become:1 unofficial:1 virtue:1 leadership:1 franz:1 blücher:1 thomas:1 dehler:1 reinhold:1 maier:1 erich:1 mende:1 walter:1 scheel:1 han:1 dietrich:1 genscher:1 martin:1 bangemann:1 otto:1 graf:1 lambsdorff:1 klaus:1 kinkel:1 wolfgang:1 gerhardt:1 see:1 friedrich:1 naumann:1 foundation:1 young:1 student:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram weimar_republic:1 theodor_heuss:2 cdu_csu:3 chancellor_helmut:1 helmut_kohl:1 opinion_poll:1 tactical_voting:1 coalition_spd:1 dietrich_genscher:1 external_link:1 |
5,847 | Millennialism | This article covers all forms of Christian and non-Christian Millennialism. You may be looking for the specific articles on Christian Premillennialism, Amillennialism or Postmillenialism. Millennialism (from millennium, Latin for "thousand years"), or chiliasm in Greek, is a belief held by some Christian denominations that there will be a Golden Age or Paradise on Earth in which "Christ will reign" prior to the final judgment and future eternal state (the New Heavens and New Earth). This belief is derived primarily from the book of . Millennialism as such is a specific form of Millenarianism. Among Christians who hold this belief, this is not the "end of the world", but rather the penultimate age, the age just prior to the end of the world when the present heavens and earth will flee away (Rev. 21:1). Some believe that between the millennium proper and the end of the world there will be a brief period in which a final battle with Satan will take place. After this follows the Last Judgment. Millennialism is also a doctrine of medieval Zoroastrianism concerning successive thousand-year periods, each of which will end in a cataclysm of heresy and destruction, until the final destruction of evil and of the spirit of evil by a triumphant king of peace at the end of the final millennial age (supposed by some to be the year 2000). "Then Saoshyant makes the creatures again pure, and the resurrection and future existence occur" (Zand-i Vohuman Yasht 3:62). Various other social and political movements, both religious and secular, have also been linked to millennialist metaphors by scholars. Early church and premillennialism (chiliasm) If millenarian beliefs are ignored, dismissed, or ridiculed in mainstream Christian theology today, this was not the case during the early Christian centuries. At least during the first four centuries, millennialism was normative in both East and West Theology Today, January 1996, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 464-476. On-line version here. . Tertullian, Commodian, Lactantius, Methodius, and Apollinaris of Laodicea all advocated premillennial doctrine. JOUR295 In addition, according to religious scholar the Rev. Dr. Francis Nigel Lee The Works of Rev. Prof. Dr. F.N. Lee the following is true, "Justin's 'Occasional Chiliasm' sui generis which was strongly anti-pretribulationistic was followed possibly by Pothinus in A.D. 175 and more probably (around 185) by Irenaeus -- although Justin Martyr, discussing his own premillennial beliefs in his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, Chapter 110, observed that they were not necessary to Christians: I admitted to you formerly, that I and many others are of this opinion, and [believe] that such will take place, as you assuredly are aware; but, on the other hand, I signified to you that many who belong to the pure and pious faith, and are true Christians, think otherwise." Dialogue with Trypho (Chapters 80-81) Melito of Sardis is frequently listed as a second century proponent of premillennialism. Taylor, Voice of the Church, P. 66; Peters, Theocratic Kingdom, 1:495; Walvoord, Millennial Kingdom, p. 120; et al. The support usually given for the supposition is that Jerome [Comm. on Ezek. 36 ] and Gennadius [De Dogm. Eccl., Ch. 52] both affirm that he was a decided millenarian.” Richard Cunningham Shimeall, Christ’s Second Coming: Is it Pre-Millennial or Post-Millennial? (New York: John F. Trow, 1865), p. 67. See also, Taylor, p. 66; Peters, 1:495; Jesse Forest Silver, The Lord’s Return (New York, et al.: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1914), p. 66; W. Chillingworth, The Works of W. Chillingworth, 12th ed. (London: B. Blake, 1836), p.714; et al.) In the early third century, Hippolytus of Rome wrote: And 6, 000 years must needs be accomplished, in order that the Sabbath may come, the rest, the holy day "on which God rested from all His works." For the Sabbath is the type and emblem of the future kingdom of the saints, when they "shall reign with Christ," when He comes from heaven, as John says in his Apocalypse: for "a day with the Lord is as a thousand years."Since, then, in six days God made all things, it follows that 6, 000 years must be fulfilled (Hippolytus. On the HexaËmeron, Or Six Days' Work. From Fragments from Commentaries on Various Books of Scripture). Around 220, there were some similar influences on Tertullian though only with very important and extremely optimistic (if not perhaps even postmillennial modifications and implications). On the other hand, 'Christian Chiliastic' ideas were indeed advocated in 240 by Commodian; in 250 by the Egyptian Bishop Nepos in his Refutation of Allegorists; in 260 by the almost unknown Coracion; and in 310 by Lactantius. Into the late fourth century, the Bishop known as Ambrose of Milan had millennial leanings (Ambrose of Milan. Book II. On the Belief in the Resurrection, verse 108). The first known opponent of Christian chiliasm was Marcion, in the second century, who most Christians feel was an early heretic (Brown HOJ. Heresies: Heresy and Orthodoxy in the History of the Church. Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody (MA), 1988, p. 65). The Catholic Encyclopedia noted that in the second century proponents of "Gnosticism rejected millenarianism"(Kirsch J.P. Transcribed by Donald J. Boon. Millennium and Millenarianism. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume X. Copyright © 1911 by Robert Appleton Company. Online Edition Copyright © 2003 by K. Knight. Nihil Obstat, October 1, 1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York). Chiliasm was, however, according to the interpretation of non-chiliasts, condemned as a heresy in the 4th century by the Church, which included the phrase whose Kingdom shall have no end in the Nicene Creed in order to rule out the idea of a Kingdom of God which would last for only 1000 literal years. Luke 1:33 and Stuart Hall, Doctrine and Practice of the Early Church (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992), 171. Despite some writers' belief in millennialism, it was a decided minority view, as expressed in the nearly universal condemnation of the doctrine over a gradual period of time, beginning with Augustine of Hippo. It is vigorously disputed whether or not caesaropapism had a role in the virtual annihilation of millennialism from the 4th Century onwards. Reformation and beyond Comparison of Christian millennial interpretations Christian views on the future order of events diversified after the Protestant reformation. In particular, new emphasis was placed on the passages in the Book of Revelation which seemed to say that Satan would be locked away for 1000 years, but then released on the world in a final battle (Rev. 20:1-6). Previous Catholic and Orthodox theologians had no clear or consensus view on what this actually meant (only the concept of an end of the world coming unexpected, "like a thief in a night", and the concept of "the antichrist" were almost universally held). Millennialist theories try to explain what this "1000 years of Satan in chains" would be like. Various types of millennialism exist with regard to Christian Eschatology, especially within Protestantism, such as Premillennialism, Postmillennialism, and Amillennialism. The first two refer to different views of the relationship between the "millennial Kingdom" and Christ's second coming. Premillennialism sees Christ's second advent as preceding the millennium, thereby separating the second coming from the final judgment. In this view, "Christ's reign" will be physical. Postmillennialism sees Christ's second coming as subsequent to the millennium and consequent with the final judgment. In this view "Christ's reign" (during the millennium) will be spiritual in and through the church. Amillennialism basically denies a future literal 1000 year Kingdom and sees the church age metaphorically described in Rev. 20:1-6. In this view, "Christ's reign" is current in and through the church. The Catholic Church now strongly condemns millennialism as the following shows: The Antichrist's deception already begins to take shape in the world every time the claim is made to realize within history that messianic hope which can only be realized beyond history through the eschatological judgment. The Church has rejected even modified forms of this falsification of the kingdom to come under the name of millenarianism, especially the "intrinsically perverse" political form of a secular messianism. (Catechism of the Catholic Church. Imprimatur Potest +Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger. Doubleday, NY 1995, p. 194). Pre-Christianity Although never officially recognized by the Catholic Church, millennialism, which had clearly already existed in Jewish thought, received a new interpretation and fresh impetus with the arrival of Christianity. A millennium is a period of one thousand years, and, in particular, Christ's thousand-year rule on this earth, either directly preceding or immediately following the Second Coming (and the Day of Judgement). The millennium reverses the previous period of evil and suffering; it rewards the virtuous for their courage while punishing the evil-doers, with a clear separation of saints and sinners. The vision of a thousand-year period of bliss for the faithful, to be enjoyed here on earth ("heaven on earth"), exerted an irresistible power. Although the picture of life in the millennial era is almost willfully obscure and hardly more appealing than that of, say, the Golden Age, what has made the millennium much more powerful than the Golden Age or Paradise myths are the activities of the sects and movements that it has inspired. Throughout the ages, hundreds of sects were convinced that the millennium was imminent, about to begin in the very near future, with precise dates given on many occasions. Premillennial sects look for signs of Christ's imminent return. Other chiliast sects, such as the prophetic Anabaptist followers of Thomas Müntzer, have believed that the millennium had already begun, with only their own members having realized this fact. Consequently, they have attempted to live out their own vision of millennial life, radically overturning the beliefs and practices of the surrounding society. In doing so, they offered a model of the good life and expressed their hope that soon the rest of the world would follow and live like they did. See Christian eschatology for a discussion of "premillennialism" and "postmillennialism". Transition Millennial sects have typically believed that the transition from the present age to the millennium would be anything but smooth, with the Antichrist having to be defeated and Jesus' reign on earth having to be established. Millennial theories differ as to whether the battle with the Antichrist will occur before or after the 1000 years. Based on Revelation 20:3, some believe Satan's "Millennial Rebellion" will occur after the 1000 year peace. On the other hand, those who did not believe in the millennium also imagined the end of the world as chaotic and catastrophic. The word Apocalypse has been used for this final phase of human history as we know it, with Armageddon as the site of the last decisive battle on the Day of Judgement. An (or the) Apocalypse [from Greek apo "off", "from", "away", "un-" and kalyptein "cover"] is, in the Judeo-Christian tradition, a revelation of God's purposes with the main intention of encouraging an oppressed and suffering minority to have faith in God and of proclaiming his ultimate triumph; in particular, the revelation of the future granted to John of the isle of Patmos, the author of the Bible's book of Revelation. Many consider this to be the same person as St John (one of the four evangelists), but this is now widely disputed by scholars. Revelation was written in Greek in the 1st century AD and burning with the conviction that the world is about to be destroyed and that Christ's Second Coming is at hand; hence, the last book of the New Testament (the "Revelation of St John", the Book of Revelation), which contains it; hence, the total destruction and end of the world. The Book of Revelation is not easy to interpret. Numerous painters and sculptors have produced works of art dealing with the Apocalypse. For example, they portrayed the four horsemen of the Apocalypse, symbolizing pestilence, , famine, and death. Utopianism The early Christian concept had ramifications far beyond strictly religious concern during the centuries to come, as it was blended and enhanced with ideas of utopia. In the wake of early millennial thinking, the Three Ages philosophy (Drei-Reiche-Lehre) developed. Making use of the dogma of the Trinity, the Italian monk and theologian Joachim of Fiore (died 1202) claimed that all of human history was a succession of three ages: the Age of the Father (the Old Testament) the Age of the Son (the New Testament) the Age of the Holy Spirit (the age of love, peace, and freedom) It was believed that the Age of the Holy Spirit would begin at around 1260, and that from then on all believers would be living as monks, mystically transfigured and full of praise for God, for a thousand years until Judgement Day would put an end to the history of our planet. In the Modern Era, with the impact of religion on everyday life gradually decreasing and eventually almost vanishing, some of the concepts of millennial thinking have found their way into various secular ideas, usually in the form of a belief that a certain historical event will fundamentally change human society (or has already done so). For example, the French Revolution seemed to many to be ushering in the millennial age of reason. Also, the philosophies of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (d. 1831) and Karl Marx (d. 1883) carried strong millennial overtones. As late as 1970, Yale law teacher Charles A. Reich coined the term "Consciousness III" in his best seller The Greening of America, in which he spoke of a new age ushered in by the hippie generation. However, these secular theories generally have little or nothing to do with the original millennial thinking, or with each other. Judaism There is a not dissimilar belief in Judaism. Time is split into 3 periods (1) The world started in year 1 (= 3761 BCE), the epoch. For almost two thousand years there was nothing, most people were idolatrous and God's presence was not seen in the world. (2) In 1812 BCE, 1948 in Jewish years, Abraham was born. The birth of the first forefather heralded two thousand years of Godliness. This is the period of the Bible, the temples in Jerusalem etc. (3) In 70 CE the Second Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, Jews were banned from Jerusalem and exiled from Israel. This started a further two thousand years of non-Godliness. Some Jews believe that the Messiah must come before the end of this period which should end in about 2270 CE. Nazism The most controversial interpretation of the Three Ages philosophy and of millennialism in general is Hitler's "Third Reich" ("Drittes Reich", "Tausendjähriges Reich"), which, in his vision, would last for a thousand years - but which in reality only lasted for 12 years (1933-1945). The phrase "Third Reich" was coined by the German thinker Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, who in 1923 published a book entitled Das Dritte Reich, which eventually became a catchphrase that survived the Nazi regime. Looking back at German history, two periods were distinguished, and identified with the ages of Joachim of Fiore: the Holy Roman Empire (beginning with Charlemagne in AD 800) -- (the "First Reich"), --The Age of the Father and the German Empire -- under the Hohenzollern dynasty (1871 - 1918) (the "Second Reich") -- The Age of the Son. These were now to be followed—after the interval of the Weimar Republic (1918 - 1933), during which constitutionalism, parliamentarism and even pacifism ruled—by: the "Third Reich" -- The Age of the Holy Ghost. Although van den Bruck was unimpressed by Adolf Hitler when he met him in 1922 and did not join the Nazi Party, nevertheless the phrase was adopted by the Nazis to describe the totalitarian state they wanted to set up when they gained power, which they succeeded in doing in 1933. During the early part of the Third Reich, many Germans referred to Hitler as being the German Messiah, especially when he conducted the Nuremberg Rallies, which came to be held at a date somewhat before the Autumn Equinox in Nuremberg, Germany. In a speech held on 27 November 1937, Hitler commented on his plans to have major parts of Berlin torn down and rebuilt: [...] einem tausendjährigen Volk mit tausendjähriger geschichtlicher und kultureller Vergangenheit für die vor ihm liegende unabsehbare Zukunft eine ebenbürtige tausendjährige Stadt zu bauen [...]. [...] to build a millennial city adequate [in splendour] to a thousand year old people with a thousand year old historical and cultural past, for its never-ending [glorious] future [...] It may be of interest to note that after it was clear that Adolph Hitler was not going to successfully implement a thousand year reign, that the Vatican issued a statement that millennial teachings could not be safely taught and that the related scriptures in Revelation (also called the Apocalypse) should be understood spiritually. Catholic author Bernard LeFrois wrote: Millenium {sic}: Since the Holy Office decreed (July 21, 1944) that it cannot safely be taught that Christ at His Second Coming will reign visibly with only some of His saints (risen from the dead) for a period of time before the final and universal judgment, a spiritual millennium is seen in Apoc. 20:4-6. St. John gives a spiritual recapitulation of the activity of Satan, and the spiritual reign of the saints with Christ in heaven and in His Church on earth (LeFrois, Bernard J. Eschatological Interpretation of the Apocalypse. The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, Vol. XIII, pp. 17-20; Cited in Culleton RG. The Reign of Antichrist, 1951. Reprint TAN Books, Rockford (IL), 1974, p. 9). Social movements Millennial social movements are a specific form of Millenarianism that are based on some concept of a one thousand year cycle. Sometimes the two terms are used as synonyms, but this is not entirely accurate for a purist. Millennial social movements need not be religious, but they must have a vision of an apocalypse that can be utopian or dystopian. See also Summary of Christian eschatological differences 2012 Book of Revelation Christian eschatology caesaropapism Rapture Apocalypse Apocalypticism Utopianism Preterism Millenarianism Premillennialism Postmillennialism Amillennialism Earth changes Center for Millennial Studies References Further reading Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages, revised and expanded (New York: Oxford University Press, [1957] 1970). Michael Barkun, Disaster and the Millennium (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974) (ISBN 0-300-01725-1) Mois Navon, "One Thousand Years of Shabbat", http://www.divreinavon.com/pdf/one_thousand_years_of_shabbat.pdf James M. Rhodes, The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution (Stanford, Calif: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 1980). (ISBN 0-8179-7131-9) Robert Wistrich, Hitler’s Apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi Legacy (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985). (ISBN 0-312-38819-5) Richard K. Fenn, The End of Time: Religion, Ritual, and the Forging of the Soul (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 1997). (ISBN 0-8298-1206-7 or ISBN 0-281-04994-7) Jeffrey Kaplan, Radical Religion in America: Millenarian Movements from the Far Right to the Children of Noah (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997). (ISBN 0-8156-2687-8 or ISBN 0-8156-0396-7) Jon R. Stone (ed.), Expecting Armageddon: Essential Readings in Failed Prophecy (London & NY: Routledge, 2000). (ISBN 0-415-92331-X) Robert Ellwood, ‘Nazism as a Millennialist Movement’, in Catherine Wessinger (ed.), Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical Cases (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2000). (ISBN 0-8156-2809-9 or ISBN 0-8156-0599-4) J. Dwight Pentecost, "Things to Come", subtitled "A study in Biblical Eschatology; ©1958; Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49506; ISBN 0310308909 and ISBN 9780310308904. David Redles, Hitler's Millennial Reich: Apocalyptic Belief and the Search for Salvation (New York: New York University Press, 2005). (ISBN 9780814776216 or ISBN 9780814775240) External links Centre for Millennialism Studies at Liverpool Hope University Did The Early Church Teach Millenarianism and the 6,000 Year Plan? 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5,848 | Grammatical_conjugation | In linguistics, conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a verb, noun or adjective from its principal parts by inflection (regular alteration according to rules of grammar). Conjugation may be affected by person, number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, voice, or other grammatical categories. All the different forms of the same verb constitute a lexeme and the form of the verb that is conventionally used to represent the canonical form of the verb is a lemma. Conjugated forms of a verb are called finite forms. In many languages there are also one or more forms that remain unchanged with all or most of grammatical categories: the non-finite forms, such as the infinitive or the gerund. A table giving all the conjugated variants of a verb in a given language is called a conjugation table or a verb paradigm. A regular verb has a paradigm of conjugation that derives all forms from a few specific forms or principal parts (maybe only one, such as the infinitive in English). When a verb cannot be conjugated straightforwardly like this, it is said to be irregular. Typically the principal parts are the root and/or several modifications of it (stems). Conjugation is also the traditional name of a group of verbs that share a similar conjugation pattern in a particular language (a verb class). This is the sense in which teachers say that Latin has four conjugations of verbs. This means that any regular Latin verb can be conjugated in any person, number, tense, mood, and voice by knowing which of the four conjugation groups it belongs to, and its principal parts. Examples Indo-European languages usually inflect verbs for several grammatical categories in complex paradigms, although some, like English, have simplified verb conjugation to a large extent. Afrikaans and Swedish have gone even further and virtually abandoned verb conjugation altogether. Below is the conjugation of the verb to be in the present tense, indicative mood, active voice, in English, German, Dutch, Afrikaans, Icelandic, Swedish, Latvian, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Polish, Hindi, Persian, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Albanian, Armenian, Ancient Attic Greek and Modern Greek. This is usually the most irregular verb. You may notice the similarities in corresponding verb forms. Some of the conjugations may be disused, like the English thou-form, or have additional meanings, like the English you-form, which can also stand for 2nd. person singular, or be impersonal. "To be" in several Indo-European languagesBranchGermanicItalicLanguageEnglishGermanDutchAfrikaansIcelandicSwedishLatinItalianFrenchSpanishPortugueseRomanianInfinitivebeseinzijnweesveravaraesseessereêtreserserfi I (1st. sing.)ambinbeniserärsumsonosuissoysousunt thou (2nd. sing.)artbistben(t)/zijt12isertäresseieseresésești he/she/it (3rd. sing.)isistisiserärestèesteséeste we (1st. plur.)aresindzijniserumär (äro1)sumussiamosommessomos somossuntem you (2nd. plur.)areseidzijn/zijt12iseruðär (äro1)estissieteêtessoissoissunteți they (3rd. plur.)aresindzijniseruär (äro1)suntsonosontsonsãosunt BranchGreekAlbanianArmenian<sup>9<sup>SlavicBalticIndo-IranianLanguageAncient (Attic)2Modern3PolishSerbo-Croatian4Bulgarian5Macedonian13LatvianLithuanianPersianHindiInfinitiveeînai(eínai)7none8ĕllal10/linel11byćbiti(biti)1ebūtbūtibudanhona I (1st. sing.)eimíeímaijamemjestemjesam, samsămsumesmuesuhastam, -amhũũ thou (2nd. sing.)eîeísaijeesjesteśjesi, sisisiesiesihasti, -ihai he/she/it (3rd. sing.)estíeínaiështë/asht6ējestjest(e), jeeeiryrahast, ast, -ehai we (1st. plur.)esméneímastejemienk‘jesteśmyjesmo, smosmesmeesam esamehastim, -imhãĩ you (2nd. plur.)estéeístejeniēk‘10, ek‘11jesteściejeste, stestesteesatesatehastid, -idho they (3rd. plur.)eisíeínaijanëensąjesu, susăseiryrahastand, -andhãĩ 1 Disused in the modern language. 2 The verbs have been transliterated, to facilitate the comparison with other languages. In the Greek alphabet, they are written as follows, from top to bottom: , , , , , , . 3 The verbs have been transliterated, to facilitate the comparison with other languages. In the Greek alphabet, they are written as follows, from top to bottom: είμαι, είσαι, είναι, είμαστε, είστε, είναι. 4 The verbs have been transliterated, to facilitate the comparison with other languages. In the Cyrillic alphabet, they are written as follows, from top to bottom: бити, јесам/сам, јеси/си, јест(е)/је, јесмо/смо, јесте/сте, јесу/су. The latter forms are clitics. 5 The verbs have been transliterated, to facilitate the comparison with other languages. In the Cyrillic alphabet, they are written as follows, from top to bottom: бити, съм, си, е, сме, сте, са. 6 In the Tosk and Geg dialects, respectively. 7 Used as a noun ("being, existence"). 8 Ptc: qenë. 9 The verbs have been transliterated, to facilitate the comparison with other languages. In the Armenian alphabet, they are written as follows, from top to bottom: եմ, ես, է, ենք, էք10/եք11, են 10Denotes Western Armenian forms 11Denotes Eastern Armenian forms 12In Flemish dialects. 13 The verbs have been transliterated, to facilitate the comparison with other languages. In the Cyrillic alphabet, they are written as follows, from top to bottom: е, сум, си, е, сме, сте, се. Verbal agreement Verbal agreement or concord is a morpho-syntactic construct in which properties of the subject and/or objects of a verb are indicated by the verb form. Verbs are then said to agree with their subjects (resp. objects). Many English verbs exhibit subject agreement of the following sort: whereas I go, you go, we go, they go are all grammatical in standard English, she go is not. Instead, a special form of the verb to go has to be used to produce she goes. On the other hand I goes, you goes etc. are not grammatical in standard English. (Things are different in some English dialects that lack agreement.) A few English verbs have no special forms that indicate subject agreement (I may, you may, she may), and the verb to be has an additional form am that can only be used with the pronoun I as the subject. Verbs in written French exhibit a richer agreement morphology than English verbs: je suis (I am), tu es ("you are", singular informal), elle est (she is), nous sommes (we are), vous êtes ("you are", plural), ils sont (they are). Historically, English used to have a similar verbal paradigm. Some historic verb forms are used by Shakespeare as slightly archaic or more formal variants (I do, thou dost, she doth, typically used by nobility) of the modern forms. Some languages with verbal agreement can leave certain subjects implicit when the subject is fully determined by the verb form. In Spanish, for instance, certain subject pronouns do not need to be explicitly present, even though in French, its close relative, they are obligatory. The Spanish equivalent to the French je suis (I am) can be simply soy (lit. "am"). The pronoun yo (I) in the explicit form yo soy is only required for emphasis or to clear ambiguity in complex texts. Some languages have a richer agreement system in which verbs also agree with some or all of their objects. Ubykh exhibits verbal agreement for the subject, direct object, indirect object, benefaction and ablative objects (a.w3.s.xe.n.t'u.n, you gave it to him for me). Basque can show agreement not only for subject, direct object and indirect object, but it also on occasion exhibits agreement for the listener as the implicit benefactor: autoa digute means "they brought us the car" (neuter agreement for listener), but autoa zigunate means "they brought us the car" (agreement for feminine singular listener). Languages with a rich agreement morphology facilitate relatively free word order without leading to increased ambiguity. The canonical word order in Basque is Subject-Object-Verb. However, all permutations of subject, verb and object are permitted as well. Factors that affect conjugation Common grammatical categories according to which verbs can be conjugated are the following: Finite verb forms: Grammatical person Grammatical number Grammatical gender Grammatical tense Grammatical aspect Grammatical mood Grammatical voice Non-finite verb forms. Other factors which may affect conjugation are: Degree of formality (see T-V distinction, Honorific speech in Japanese) Inclusiveness and exclusiveness in the 1st. person plural Transitivity Valency See also Conjugations by language :Category:Conjugations Indo-European copula Related topics Agreement (linguistics) Inflection Redundancy (language) Screeve Strong inflection Verb Verb argument Weak inflection Verbix - automated verb conjugation External links Conjugations at Wiktionary, Wikipedia's sister project Lexicon of Linguistics: Conjugation Multi-Language conjugation (English and Portuguese) French conjugation (More 12000 verbs) | Grammatical_conjugation |@lemmatized linguistics:3 conjugation:21 creation:1 derived:1 form:26 verb:46 noun:2 adjective:1 principal:4 part:4 inflection:4 regular:3 alteration:1 accord:2 rule:1 grammar:1 may:7 affect:3 person:5 number:3 gender:2 tense:4 aspect:2 mood:4 voice:4 grammatical:13 category:5 different:2 constitute:1 lexeme:1 conventionally:1 use:7 represent:1 canonical:2 lemma:1 conjugate:4 call:2 finite:4 many:2 language:17 also:6 one:2 remain:1 unchanged:1 non:2 infinitive:2 gerund:1 table:2 give:3 conjugated:1 variant:2 paradigm:4 derive:1 specific:1 maybe:1 english:13 cannot:1 straightforwardly:1 like:4 say:3 irregular:2 typically:2 root:1 several:3 modification:1 stem:1 traditional:1 name:1 group:2 share:1 similar:2 pattern:1 particular:1 class:1 sense:1 teacher:1 latin:3 four:2 mean:3 know:1 belong:1 example:1 indo:3 european:3 usually:2 inflect:1 complex:2 although:1 simplify:1 large:1 extent:1 afrikaans:2 swedish:2 go:10 even:2 far:1 virtually:1 abandon:1 altogether:1 present:2 indicative:1 active:1 german:1 dutch:1 icelandic:1 latvian:1 bulgarian:1 serbo:1 croatian:1 polish:1 hindi:1 persian:1 french:5 italian:1 spanish:3 portuguese:2 albanian:1 armenian:4 ancient:1 attic:2 greek:4 modern:3 notice:1 similarity:1 correspond:1 disused:2 thou:4 additional:2 meaning:1 stand:1 singular:3 impersonal:1 languagesbranchgermanicitaliclanguageenglishgermandutchafrikaansicelandicswedishlatinitalianfrenchspanishportugueseromanianinfinitivebeseinzijnweesveravaraesseessereêtreserserfi:1 sing:6 ambinbeniserärsumsonosuissoysousunt:1 artbistben:1 isistisiserärestèesteséeste:1 plur:6 aresindzijniserumär:1 sumussiamosommessomos:1 somossuntem:1 areseidzijn:1 estissieteêtessoissoissunteți:1 aresindzijniseruär:1 suntsonosontsonsãosunt:1 branchgreekalbanianarmenian:1 sup:2 slavicbalticindo:1 iranianlanguageancient:1 eínai:1 biti:1 eimíeímaijamemjestemjesam:1 samsămsumesmuesuhastam:1 amhũũ:1 eîeísaijeesjesteśjesi:1 sisisiesiesihasti:1 ihai:1 estíeínaiështë:1 e:2 jeeeiryrahast:1 ast:1 ehai:1 esméneímastejemienk:1 jesteśmyjesmo:1 smosmesmeesam:1 esamehastim:1 imhãĩ:1 estéeístejeniēk:1 ek:1 stestesteesatesatehastid:1 idho:1 eisíeínaijanëensąjesu:1 susăseiryrahastand:1 andhãĩ:1 transliterate:6 facilitate:7 comparison:6 alphabet:6 write:7 follow:6 top:6 bottom:6 είμαι:1 είσαι:1 είναι:2 είμαστε:1 είστε:1 cyrillic:3 бити:2 јесам:1 сам:1 јеси:1 си:3 јест:1 е:4 је:1 јесмо:1 смо:1 јесте:1 сте:3 јесу:1 су:1 latter:1 clitics:1 съм:1 сме:2 са:1 tosk:1 geg:1 dialect:3 respectively:1 existence:1 ptc:1 qenë:1 եմ:1 ես:1 է:1 ենք:1 են:1 western:1 eastern:1 flemish:1 сум:1 се:1 verbal:5 agreement:15 concord:1 morpho:1 syntactic:1 construct:1 property:1 subject:12 object:10 indicate:2 agree:2 resp:1 exhibit:4 following:2 sort:1 whereas:1 standard:2 instead:1 special:2 produce:1 hand:1 etc:1 thing:1 lack:1 pronoun:3 rich:3 morphology:2 je:2 suis:2 tu:1 informal:1 elle:1 est:1 nous:1 somme:1 vous:1 êtes:1 plural:2 il:1 sont:1 historically:1 historic:1 shakespeare:1 slightly:1 archaic:1 formal:1 dost:1 doth:1 nobility:1 leave:1 certain:2 implicit:2 fully:1 determine:1 instance:1 need:1 explicitly:1 though:1 close:1 relative:1 obligatory:1 equivalent:1 simply:1 soy:2 lit:1 yo:2 explicit:1 require:1 emphasis:1 clear:1 ambiguity:2 text:1 system:1 ubykh:1 direct:2 indirect:2 benefaction:1 ablative:1 xe:1 n:2 u:3 basque:2 show:1 occasion:1 listener:3 benefactor:1 autoa:2 digute:1 bring:2 car:2 neuter:1 zigunate:1 feminine:1 relatively:1 free:1 word:2 order:2 without:1 lead:1 increase:1 however:1 permutation:1 permit:1 well:1 factor:2 common:1 degree:1 formality:1 see:2 v:1 distinction:1 honorific:1 speech:1 japanese:1 inclusiveness:1 exclusiveness:1 transitivity:1 valency:1 copula:1 relate:1 topic:1 redundancy:1 screeve:1 strong:1 argument:1 weak:1 verbix:1 automate:1 external:1 link:1 wiktionary:1 wikipedia:1 sister:1 project:1 lexicon:1 multi:1 |@bigram noun_adjective:1 conjugation_verb:3 verb_conjugate:2 indo_european:3 verb_conjugation:3 tense_indicative:1 indicative_mood:1 serbo_croatian:1 sup_sup:1 verb_transliterate:6 transliterate_facilitate:6 cyrillic_alphabet:3 je_suis:2 feminine_singular:1 grammatical_gender:1 external_link:1 |
5,849 | Executive_Order_9066 | Sign posted notifying people of Japanese descent to report to for relocation. United States Executive Order 9066 was a presidential executive order issued during World War II by U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on February 19, 1942 to send Japanese Americans to internment camps. This order authorized the Secretary of War and U.S. armed forces commanders to declare areas of the United States as military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded," although it did not name any nationality or ethnic group. It was eventually applied to one-third of the land area of the U.S. (mostly in the West) and was used against those with "Foreign Enemy Ancestry" — Japanese, Italians, and Germans. The order led to the Japanese American internment in which some 120,000 ethnic Japanese people were held in internment camps for the duration of the war. Of the Japanese interned, 62 percent were Nisei (American-born, second-generation Japanese American) or Sansei (third-generation Japanese American) and the rest were Issei (Japanese immigrants and resident aliens, first-generation Japanese American). In addition, 11,000 people of German ancestry were also interned as were 3,000 people of Italian ancestry, along with some Jewish refugees. The Jewish refugees who were interned came out of Germany and the U.S. Government didn't differentiate between ethnic Jew and ethnic German. Some of these internees of European descent were interned for a brief time and others were interned for several years beyond the War's end. Like the Japanese internees, these smaller groups had American born Citizens in their numbers, especially children. It is also reported that a few members of ethnicities of minor Axis countries were interned, but documentation is limited on that aspect. According to Stephen Fox's Uncivil Liberties, Executive Order 9066 also forced uncounted thousand of Italian permanent residents and American Citizens to have to leave their homes through relocation. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was to assist those residents of such an area who were excluded with transport, food, shelter, and other accommodations. Americans of Japanese ancestry were by far the most widely-affected, as all persons with Japanese ancestry were removed from the West Coast and southern Arizona, including orphan infants. In Hawaii, however, where there were 140,000 Japanese nationals (constituting 37 percent of the population), only selected individuals of heightened perceived risk were interned. Even though such actions would have appeared even more congruent with strategic concerns, the political and economic implications of such a move would have been overwhelming. The Japanese were only vulnerable on the mainland. Americans of Italian and German ancestry were also targeted by these restrictions, including internment. As then California Attorney General Earl Warren put it, "When we are dealing with the Caucasian race we have methods that will test the loyalty of them. But when we deal with the Japanese, we are on an entirely different field." http://www.santacruzpl.org/history/ww2/male.shtml Opposition Notably, one of the few voices in Washington opposed to internment was FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover. Hoover opposed the interment not on constitutional grounds, but because he believed that the most likely spies had already been arrested by the FBI shortly after the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Curt Gentry, J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets, W. frank. Norton & Company, 2020, p. 244. ISBN 978-0393321289. First lady Eleanor Roosevelt was also opposed to Executive Order 9066. She spoke privately many times with her husband, but was unsuccessful in convincing him not to sign it. Maurine H. Beasley, Holly C. Shulman, and Henry R. Beasley (eds.), The Quinn and Taqi Encyclopedia, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, p. 278–280. ISBN 0313301816. Post-World War II Executive Order 9066 was finally rescinded by Gerald Ford on February 19, 1976. President Gerald R. Ford's Proclamation 4417. In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed legislation to create the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC). The CWRIC was appointed to conduct an official governmental study of Executive Order 9066, related wartime orders and their impact on Japanese Americans in the West and Alaska Natives in the Pribilof Islands. In December 1982, the CWRIC issued its findings in Personal Justice Denied, concluding that the incarceration of Japanese Americans had not been justified by military necessity. Rather, the report determined that the decision to incarcerate was based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership." Lastly, the Commission recommended legislative remedies consisting of an official Government apology; redress payments of $20,000 to each of the survivors; and a public education fund to help ensure that this would not happen again (Public Law 100-383). On August 10, 1988, the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, based on the CWRIC recommendations, was signed into law by Ronald Reagan. On November 21, 1989, George H.W. Bush signed an appropriation bill authorizing payments to be paid out between 1990 and 1998. In 1990, surviving internees began to receive individual redress payments and a letter of apology. References See also War Relocation Authority Korematsu v. United States Hirabayashi v. United States Ex parte Endo German American internment Italian American internment External links Text of Executive Order No. 9066 Instructional poster for San Francisco (April 1) Instructional poster for Los Angeles (May 3) “The War Relocation Centers of World War II: When Fear Was Stronger than Justice”, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan | Executive_Order_9066 |@lemmatized sign:5 post:2 notifying:1 people:4 japanese:19 descent:2 report:3 relocation:5 united:4 state:4 executive:7 order:10 presidential:1 issue:2 world:3 war:10 ii:3 u:4 president:2 franklin:1 delano:1 roosevelt:2 february:2 send:1 american:14 internment:8 camp:2 authorize:2 secretary:2 armed:1 force:2 commander:1 declare:1 area:4 military:2 person:2 may:2 exclude:2 although:1 name:1 nationality:1 ethnic:4 group:3 eventually:1 apply:1 one:2 third:2 land:1 mostly:1 west:3 use:1 foreign:1 enemy:1 ancestry:6 italian:5 german:5 lead:1 hold:1 duration:1 interned:1 percent:2 nisei:1 born:1 second:1 generation:3 sansei:1 rest:1 issei:1 immigrant:1 resident:3 alien:1 first:2 addition:1 also:6 intern:6 along:1 jewish:2 refugee:2 come:1 germany:1 government:2 differentiate:1 jew:1 internee:3 european:1 brief:1 time:2 others:1 several:1 year:1 beyond:1 end:1 like:1 small:1 bear:1 citizen:2 number:1 especially:1 child:1 member:1 ethnicity:1 minor:1 axis:1 country:1 documentation:1 limit:1 aspect:1 accord:1 stephen:1 fox:1 uncivil:1 liberty:2 uncounted:1 thousand:1 permanent:1 leave:1 home:1 henry:2 l:1 stimson:1 assist:1 transport:1 food:1 shelter:1 accommodation:1 far:1 widely:1 affected:1 remove:1 coast:1 southern:1 arizona:1 include:2 orphan:1 infant:1 hawaii:1 however:1 national:2 constitute:1 population:1 select:1 individual:2 heighten:1 perceive:1 risk:1 even:2 though:1 action:1 would:3 appear:1 congruent:1 strategic:1 concern:1 political:2 economic:1 implication:1 move:1 overwhelm:1 vulnerable:1 mainland:1 target:1 restriction:1 california:1 attorney:1 general:1 earl:1 warren:1 put:1 deal:2 caucasian:1 race:2 method:1 test:1 loyalty:1 entirely:1 different:1 field:1 http:1 www:1 santacruzpl:1 org:1 history:1 male:1 shtml:1 opposition:1 notably:1 voice:1 washington:1 oppose:3 fbi:2 director:1 j:2 edgar:2 hoover:3 interment:1 constitutional:1 ground:1 believe:1 likely:1 spy:1 already:1 arrest:1 shortly:1 surprise:1 attack:1 pearl:1 harbor:1 curt:1 gentry:1 man:1 secret:1 w:2 frank:1 norton:1 company:1 p:2 isbn:2 lady:1 eleanor:1 speak:1 privately:1 many:1 husband:1 unsuccessful:1 convince:1 maurine:1 h:2 beasley:2 holly:1 c:1 shulman:1 r:2 eds:1 quinn:1 taqi:1 encyclopedia:1 greenwood:1 publishing:1 finally:1 rescind:1 gerald:2 ford:2 proclamation:1 jimmy:1 carter:1 legislation:1 create:1 commission:2 wartime:2 civilian:1 cwric:4 appoint:1 conduct:1 official:2 governmental:1 study:1 relate:1 impact:1 alaska:1 native:1 pribilof:1 island:1 december:1 finding:1 personal:1 justice:2 deny:1 conclude:1 incarceration:1 justify:1 necessity:1 rather:1 determine:1 decision:1 incarcerate:1 base:2 prejudice:1 hysteria:1 failure:1 leadership:1 lastly:1 recommend:1 legislative:1 remedy:1 consist:1 apology:2 redress:2 payment:3 survivor:1 public:2 education:1 fund:1 help:1 ensure:1 happen:1 law:2 august:1 civil:1 act:1 recommendation:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 november:1 george:1 bush:1 appropriation:1 bill:1 pay:1 survive:1 begin:1 receive:1 letter:1 reference:1 see:1 authority:1 korematsu:1 v:2 hirabayashi:1 ex:1 parte:1 endo:1 external:1 link:1 text:1 instructional:2 poster:2 san:1 francisco:1 april:1 los:1 angeles:1 center:1 fear:1 strong:1 park:1 service:1 teach:1 historic:1 place:1 twhp:1 lesson:1 plan:1 |@bigram franklin_delano:1 delano_roosevelt:1 internment_camp:2 http_www:1 edgar_hoover:2 pearl_harbor:1 curt_gentry:1 eleanor_roosevelt:1 greenwood_publishing:1 gerald_ford:1 jimmy_carter:1 pribilof_island:1 ronald_reagan:1 w_bush:1 ex_parte:1 external_link:1 san_francisco:1 los_angeles:1 place_twhp:1 twhp_lesson:1 |
5,850 | Anbar_(town) | Anbar () was a town in Iraq, at lat. 33 deg. 22' N., long. 43 deg. 49' E, on the east bank of the Euphrates, just south of the Nahr 'Isa, or Sakhlawieh canal, the northernmost of the canals connecting that river with the Tigris. Anbar was originally called Firuz Shapur, or Perisapora and was founded circa 350 AD by Shapur II, Sassanid king of Persia. Perisapora was captured and destroyed by Emperor Julian in 363, but speedily rebuilt. The town became a refuge for the Arab, Christian, and Jewish colonies of that region. Anbar was adjacent or identical to the Babylonian Jewish center of Nehardea (Hebrew: ), and lies a short distance from the present-day town of Fallujah, formerly the Babylonian Jewish center of Pumbeditha (Hebrew: '''). The name of the town was then changed to Anbar ("granaries"). Abu al-Abbas as-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid caliphate, made it his capital, and such it remained until the founding of Baghdad in 762. It continued to be a place of much importance throughout the Abbasid period, but now it is entirely deserted, occupied only by ruin mounds. The great number of these indicates the former importance of the city. See also Nehardea Fallujah Pumbeditha References | Anbar_(town) |@lemmatized anbar:4 town:4 iraq:1 lat:1 deg:2 n:1 long:1 e:1 east:1 bank:1 euphrates:1 south:1 nahr:1 isa:1 sakhlawieh:1 canal:2 northernmost:1 connect:1 river:1 tigris:1 originally:1 call:1 firuz:1 shapur:2 perisapora:2 found:1 circa:1 ad:1 ii:1 sassanid:1 king:1 persia:1 capture:1 destroy:1 emperor:1 julian:1 speedily:1 rebuild:1 become:1 refuge:1 arab:1 christian:1 jewish:3 colony:1 region:1 adjacent:1 identical:1 babylonian:2 center:2 nehardea:2 hebrew:2 lie:1 short:1 distance:1 present:1 day:1 fallujah:2 formerly:1 pumbeditha:2 name:1 change:1 granary:1 abu:1 al:1 abbas:1 saffah:1 founder:1 abbasid:2 caliphate:1 make:1 capital:1 remain:1 founding:1 baghdad:1 continue:1 place:1 much:1 importance:2 throughout:1 period:1 entirely:1 desert:1 occupy:1 ruin:1 mound:1 great:1 number:1 indicate:1 former:1 city:1 see:1 also:1 reference:1 |@bigram shapur_ii:1 abbasid_caliphate:1 |
5,851 | Blind_Lemon_Jefferson | "Blind" Lemon Jefferson (September 24, 1893 Govenar and Brakefield, 62. or October 26, 1894 World War I Draft Registration records; Dallas County, Texas; Roll: 1952850; Draft Board: 2 or July 1897 Dicaire, 140. – December 1929 Dicaire, 143. ) was a blues singer and guitarist from Texas. He was one of the most popular blues singers of the 1920s, and has been titled "Father of the Texas Blues." Dicaire, 140, 143. Jefferson's singing and self-accompaniment were distinctive as a result of his high-pitched voice and originality on the guitar. Dicaire, 144. He was not influential on some younger blues singers of his generation, as they did not seek to imitate him as they did other commercially successful artists. Charters. However, later blues and rock and roll musicians attempted to imitate both his songs and his musical style. Dicaire, 144. Biography Early life Jefferson was born blind near Coutchman, Texas in Freestone County, near present-day Wortham, Texas. Jefferson was one of eight children born to sharecroppers Alex and Clarissa Jefferson. Disputes regarding his exact birth date derive from contradictory census records and draft registration records. By 1900, the family was farming southeast of Streetman, Texas, and Lemon Jefferson's birth date is indicated as September 1893 in the 1900 census. 1900 US Census; Census Place: Justice Precinct 5, Freestone, Texas; Roll: T623 1636; Page: 3A; Enumeration District: 37. The 1910 census, taken in May before his birthday, further confirms his birth year as 1893, and indicated the family was farming northwest of Wortham, near Lemon Jefferson's birthplace. 1910 US Census; Census Place: Justice Precinct 6, Navarro, Texas; Roll: T624_1580; Page: 17B; Enumeration District: 98; Image: 982. In his 1917 draft registration, Jefferson gave his birth date as October 26, 1894, further stating that he then lived in Dallas, Texas, and that he had been blind from birth. World War I Draft Registration records; Dallas County, Texas; Roll: 1952850; Draft Board: 2 In the 1920 Census, he is recorded as having returned to the Freestone County area, and he was living with his half-brother Kit Banks on a farm between Wortham and Streetman. 1920 US Census;Census Place: Kirvin, Freestone, Texas; Roll: T625_1805; Page: 3A; Enumeration District: 24; Image: 231. Jefferson began playing the guitar in his early teens, and soon after he began performing at picnics and parties. He also became a street musician, playing in East Texas towns in front of barbershops and on corners. According to his cousin, Alec Jefferson, quoted in the notes for Blind Lemon Jefferson, Classic Sides: They was rough. Men was hustling women and selling bootleg and Lemon was singing for them all night... he'd start singing about eight and go on until four in the morning... mostly it would be just him sitting there and playing and singing all night. By the early 1910s, Jefferson began traveling frequently to Dallas, where he met and played with fellow blues musician Leadbelly. Dicaire, 141. In Dallas, Jefferson was one of the earliest and most prominent figures in the blues movement developing in Dallas' Deep Ellum area. Jefferson likely moved to Deep Ellum in a more permanent fashion by 1917, where he met Aaron Thibeaux Walker, also known as T-Bone Walker. Jefferson taught Walker the basics of blues guitar, in exchange for Walker's occasional services as a guide. Also, by the early 1920s, Jefferson was earning enough money for his musical performances to support a wife, and possibly a child. However, firm evidence for both his marriage and any offspring is unavailable. The beginning of the recording career Unlike many artists who were "discovered" and recorded in their normal venues, in December 1925 or January 1926, he was taken to Chicago, Illinois, to record his first tracks. Uncharacteristically, Jefferson's first two recordings from this session were gospel songs ("I Want to be like Jesus in my Heart" and "All I Want is that Pure Religion"), released under the name Deacon L. J. Bates. This led to a second recording session in March 1926. His first releases under his own name, "Booster Blues" and "Dry Southern Blues," were hits; this led to the release of the other two songs from that session, "Got the Blues" and "Long Lonesome Blues," which became a runaway success, with sales in six figures. He recorded about 100 tracks between 1926 and 1929; 43 records were issued, all but one for Paramount Records. Unfortunately, Paramount Records' studio techniques and quality were infamously bad, and the resulting recordings sound no better than if they had been recorded in a hotel room. In fact, in May 1926, Paramount had Jefferson re-record his hits "Got the Blues" and "Long Lonesome Blues" in the superior facilities at Marsh Laboratories, and subsequent releases used that version. Both versions appear on compilation albums and may be compared. Success with Paramount Records Label of a Blind Lemon Jefferson Paramount record from 1926 It was largely due to the popularity of artists such as Blind Lemon Jefferson and contemporaries such as Blind Blake and Ma Rainey that Paramount became the leading recording company for the blues in the 1920s. Jefferson's earnings reputedly enabled him to buy a car and employ chauffeurs (although there is debate over the reliability of this as well); he was given a Ford car "worth over $700" by Mayo Williams, Paramount's connection with the black community. This was a frequently seen compensation for recording rights in that market. Jefferson is known to have done an unusual amount of traveling for the time in the American South, which is reflected in the difficulty of pigeonholing his music into one regional category. He sticks to no musical conventions, varying his riffs and rhythm and singing complex and expressive lyrics in a manner exceptional at the time for a "simple country blues singer." According to North Carolina musician Walter Davis, Jefferson played on the streets in Johnson City, Tennessee during the early 1920s at which time Davis and fellow entertainer Clarence Greene learned the art of blues guitar. "Walter Davis: Fist and Skull Banjo," by Wayne Erbsen, Bluegrass Unlimited: March 1981, 22-26 Jefferson was reputedly unhappy with his royalties (although Williams said that Jefferson had a bank account containing as much as $1500). In 1927, when Williams moved to OKeh Records, he took Jefferson with him, and OKeh quickly recorded and released Jefferson's "Matchbox Blues" backed with "Black Snake Moan," which was to be his only OKeh recording, probably because of contractual obligations with Paramount. Jefferson's two songs released on Okeh have considerably better sound quality than on his Paramount records at the time. When he had returned to Paramount a few months later, "Matchbox Blues" had already become such a hit that Paramount re-recorded and released two new versions, under producer Arthur Laibly. In 1927, Jefferson recorded another of his now classic songs, the haunting "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean" (once again using the pseudonym Deacon L. J. Bates) along with two other uncharacteristically spiritual songs, "He Arose from the Dead" and "Where Shall I Be." Of the three, "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean" became such a big hit that it was re-recorded and re-released in 1928. Stories As his fame grew, so did the tales regarding his life, often personally involving the teller. T-Bone Walker states that as a boy, he was employed by Jefferson to lead him around the streets of Dallas; he would have been of the appropriate age at the time. A Paramount employee told biographer Orrin Keepnews that Jefferson was a womanizing sloppy drunk; on the other hand, Jefferson's neighbor in Chicago, Romeo Nelson, reports him as being "warm and cordial," and singer Rube Lacy states that Jefferson always refused to play on a Sunday, "even if you give me two hundred." He is claimed to have earned money wrestling before his musical success, which is further claimed as proof that he was not blind at the time (something of a non sequitur). Victoria Spivey elliptically credits Jefferson as someone who "could sure feel his way around." Death and grave Jefferson died in Chicago in December 1929. The cause of death is unknown, and though rumors swirled that a jealous lover poisoned his coffee, a more likely scenario is that he died due to a heart attack after being disoriented during a snowstorm (another scenario is that he froze to death). The book "Tolbert's Texas" claims that he was killed while being robbed of a large royalty cash payment by a guide taking him to Union Station to catch a train home to Texas. Paramount Records paid for the return of his body to Texas by train, accompanied by pianist Will Ezell. Jefferson was buried at Wortham Negro Cemetery (now Wortham Black Cemetery). Far from his grave being kept clean, it was unmarked until 1967, when a Texas Historical Marker was erected in the general area of his plot, the precise location being unknown. By 1996, the cemetery and marker were in poor condition, but a new granite headstone was erected in 1997. In 2007 the cemetery's name was changed to Blind Lemon Memorial Cemetery and keeping his wishes his gravesite is being kept clean by a cemetery committee in Wortham Texas. Discography and awards Jefferson had an intricate and fast style of guitar playing and a particularly high-pitched voice. He was a founder of the Texas blues sound and an important influence on other blues singers and guitarists, including Lead Belly and Lightnin' Hopkins. The white North Carolina performer Arthel "Doc" Watson credited listening to Jefferson's recordings as his first exposure to the blues, which would powerfully influence his own style. He was the author of many tunes covered by later musicians, including the classic "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean." Another of his tunes, "Matchbox Blues," was recorded more than 30 years later by the Beatles, albeit in a rockabilly version credited to Carl Perkins, who himself did not credit Jefferson on his 1955 recording. Given this influence, it is unfortunate that many of the details of his life remain shrouded in mystery, perhaps forever; even the only known picture of him, shown here, is heavily retouched, with a fake tie painted in by hand. However, at the time, "race music" and its white cousin, "hillbilly music," were not considered to be worthy of consideration as art, rather as a low-cost product to be sold and soon forgotten. Blind Lemon Jefferson is the featured musician on a State of Texas license plate. B. B. King has always maintained that Jefferson was a huge influence on his singing and guitar playing. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed one song by Blind Lemon Jefferson of the 500 songs that shaped rock and roll. 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll Year Recorded Title 1927 Matchbox Blues Jefferson was among the inaugural class of blues musicians inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame. Musical influences Covers of Blind Lemon Jefferson The White Stripes's "De Ballot of De Boll Weevil" is a cover version of "Boll Weevil Blues." Bob Dylan's "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean" on Bob Dylan. The Beatles's "Match Box" was a cover version of "Matchbox Blues." B. B. King's "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean" on One Kind Favor Counting Crows lead singer Adam Duritz accidentally claimed credit for the song "Mean Jumper Blues" in the liner notes of the re-release of August And Everything After (Deluxe Edition). The cover is featured as part of a selection of early demo tracks recorded by the Counting Crows. Duritz apologized immediately after this error was brought to his attention in his personal blog. Countingcrows.com B.B. King covers "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean" on his 2008 release "One Kind Favor," which is named after a line in the song. References to Blind Lemon Jefferson King Solomon Hill recorded the song "My Buddy Blind Papa Lemon" as a tribute to Jefferson in 1932. Van Morrison refers to Jefferson in the song "Cleaning Windows" on the 1982 album Beautiful Vision. Francis Cabrel refers to Jefferson in the song "Cent Ans de Plus" on the 1999 album Hors-Saison. Geoff Muldaur refers to Jefferson with the song "Got To Find Blind Lemon" on the album The Secret Handshake Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds recorded the song "Blind Lemon Jefferson" on the album The Firstborn Is Dead. The 2007 film Black Snake Moan refers to the title of Jefferson's song "Black Snake Moan" In the 2003 movie Masked and Anonymous, Bobby Cupid (Luke Wilson) gives his friend Jack Fate (Bob Dylan) Blind Lemon's original guitar, on which he claims Matchbox Blues was first recorded. Patrick Sky parodied Jefferson as "Blind Funk Earwax" playing "Child Molesting Blues" on his 1973 album Songs That Made America Famous Cheech and Chong parodied Jefferson as "Blind Melon Chitlin'" on their self-titled 1971 album Cheech and Chong (album), their 1985 album Get Out of My Room, and in a stage routine that can be seen in their 1983 movie Still Smokin'. A bar called Blind Lemon appears in the Philip K. Dick novel The Game-Players of Titan. An episode of Sanford and Son titled "The Blind Mellow Jelly Collection" refers to Jefferson's name. Michael Martin Murphy refers to Jefferson in the song "Rolling Hills' on his 1973 album Cosmic Cowboy Souvenir. Lead Belly refers to Jefferson in his song "My Friend Blind Lemon." On VeggieTales, Larry tries to sing the blues with the help of Blind Lemon Lincoln. Blind Melon may be a reference to his name and/or style. Chet Atkins calls Jefferson "one of my first finger-picking influences" in the song "Nine Pound Hammer", The Atkins - Travis Traveling Show In his novel, Bud, Not Buddy, Christopher Paul Curtis' character Miss Tyla refers to Blind Lemon Jefferson when she realizes that Bud's head is swollen due to stings from the hornets earlier in the book. She says, "Dark or not, even Blind Lemon Jefferson could see something's wrong with this baby's eye." Curtis, Christopher P. Bud, Not Buddy. Scholastic Inc. 1999 See also List of nicknames of blues musicians References Notes Bibliography Charters, Samuel. The Blues Makers. New York: Da Capo Press, 1977. ISBN 0-306-80438-7. Govenar, Alan, and Jay F. Brakefield. Deep Ellum and Central Track: Where the Black and White Worlds of Dallas Converged. Denton, Texas: University of North Texas Press, 1998. ISBN 1-57441-051-2. Dicaire, David. Blues Singers: Biographies of 50 Legendary Artists of the Early 20th Century. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland and Company, Inc., 1999. ISBN 0-7864-0606-2. External links "Jefferson, Blind Lemon" in the Handbook of Texas Online Blues Foundation Hall of Fame induction Exclusive article on Blind Lemon Jefferson AllMusic.com | Blind_Lemon_Jefferson |@lemmatized blind:28 lemon:23 jefferson:62 september:2 govenar:2 brakefield:2 october:2 world:3 war:2 draft:6 registration:4 record:30 dallas:8 county:4 texas:22 roll:10 board:2 july:1 dicaire:7 december:3 blue:36 singer:8 guitarist:2 one:9 popular:1 title:4 father:1 singing:3 self:2 accompaniment:1 distinctive:1 result:1 high:2 pitch:1 voice:2 originality:1 guitar:7 influential:1 young:1 generation:1 seek:1 imitate:2 commercially:1 successful:1 artist:4 charter:2 however:3 later:3 rock:4 musician:8 attempt:1 song:21 musical:5 style:4 biography:2 early:8 life:3 bear:2 near:3 coutchman:1 freestone:4 present:1 day:1 wortham:6 eight:2 child:3 sharecropper:1 alex:1 clarissa:1 dispute:1 regard:2 exact:1 birth:5 date:3 derive:1 contradictory:1 census:10 family:2 farm:3 southeast:1 streetman:2 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5,852 | Dartmoor_wildlife | Dartmoor and the fact that a great deal of it is undisturbed for much of the year is an encouragement to the wildlife. The more common mammals include: Dartmoor ponies, rabbits, foxes, otters, badgers, grey squirrels, weasels, stoats, hares and deer. Rumours abound of large wild cats such as cougars roaming wild on the moor, but little evidence has been forthcoming and until anything more substantial is available these reports should be filed under the general heading of cryptozoology. Herds of cattle and domestic sheep can be seen apparently roaming free on the moor. All are owned by farmers and let out to graze. Each is branded - the sheep with a coloured patch on its coat, unique to its owner. The livestock will naturally remain within the territory in which they are released, although walls and cattle grids (a pit in the road covered with metal bars - impassable to hoofed animals) provide an additional level of control. Dartmoor has given its name to two breeds of sheep - Whiteface Dartmoor and Greyface Dartmoor - which are descended from breeds which have roamed on the moor since at least the 17th century. They are still to be found there, but are now vastly outnumbered by the Scottish Blackface. Less common species such as Exmoor Horn and Cheviot are also to be found on Dartmoor. The most common cattle are the Galloway and Aberdeen Angus. Reptiles include: Grass Snakes, adders, slow worms and Common Lizards. Amphibians include: Common frog; Common toad With its range of high grassy moorland, bogs, farmland and deep wooded valleys, Dartmoor also provides a range of habitats for a variety of birds, some quite rare. With their preferred habitat these include: Buzzard (trees and hedgerows) Coal tit (pine plantations) Cormorant (reservoirs) Crossbill (pine plantations) Cuckoo (upland heathland) Curlew (valley bogs) Dipper (rivers and streams) Dunlin (bogs) Goldcrest (pine plantations) Golden Plover (bogs) Goosander (rivers and streams) Grasshopper Warbler (farmland) Grey Heron (rivers and streams) House martin (farm buildings) Meadow pipit (upland heathland) Nightjar (pine plantations) Owl (farm buildings) Peregrine falcon (tors and rocky outcrops) Pied flycatcher (woodland) Raven (tors and rocky outcrops) Redstart (woodland) Reed bunting (farmland) Ring ouzel (tors and rocky outcrops) Siskin (pine plantations) Skylark (upland heathland) Snipe (farmland and valley bogs) Song thrush (hedgerows and dry stone walls) Stonechat (upland heathland) Swallow (farm buildings) Wheatear (grass moorland, tors and rocky outcrops) Whinchat (grass moorland) Whitethroat (grass moorland) Wild duck (reservoirs) Wood warbler (woodland) Yellowhammer (grass moorland) Many of the rivers and streams support the fish species commonly to be found in Britain and Ireland; salmon and trout are also to be found in some, though less frequently than in previous times. External links Devon Wildlife Trust Devon Pets and Wildlife | Dartmoor_wildlife |@lemmatized dartmoor:7 fact:1 great:1 deal:1 undisturbed:1 much:1 year:1 encouragement:1 wildlife:3 common:6 mammal:1 include:4 pony:1 rabbit:1 fox:1 otter:1 badger:1 grey:2 squirrel:1 weasel:1 stoat:1 hare:1 deer:1 rumour:1 abound:1 large:1 wild:3 cat:1 cougar:1 roam:3 moor:3 little:1 evidence:1 forthcoming:1 anything:1 substantial:1 available:1 report:1 file:1 general:1 heading:1 cryptozoology:1 herd:1 cattle:3 domestic:1 sheep:3 see:1 apparently:1 free:1 farmer:1 let:1 graze:1 brand:1 coloured:1 patch:1 coat:1 unique:1 owner:1 livestock:1 naturally:1 remain:1 within:1 territory:1 release:1 although:1 wall:2 grid:1 pit:1 road:1 cover:1 metal:1 bar:1 impassable:1 hoof:1 animal:1 provide:2 additional:1 level:1 control:1 give:1 name:1 two:1 breed:2 whiteface:1 greyface:1 descend:1 since:1 least:1 century:1 still:1 find:4 vastly:1 outnumber:1 scottish:1 blackface:1 le:1 specie:2 exmoor:1 horn:1 cheviot:1 also:3 galloway:1 aberdeen:1 angus:1 reptile:1 grass:5 snake:1 adder:1 slow:1 worm:1 lizard:1 amphibian:1 frog:1 toad:1 range:2 high:1 grassy:1 moorland:5 bog:5 farmland:4 deep:1 wooded:1 valley:3 habitat:2 variety:1 bird:1 quite:1 rare:1 preferred:1 buzzard:1 tree:1 hedgerow:2 coal:1 tit:1 pine:5 plantation:5 cormorant:1 reservoir:2 crossbill:1 cuckoo:1 upland:4 heathland:4 curlew:1 dipper:1 river:4 stream:4 dunlin:1 goldcrest:1 golden:1 plover:1 goosander:1 grasshopper:1 warbler:2 heron:1 house:1 martin:1 farm:3 building:3 meadow:1 pipit:1 nightjar:1 owl:1 peregrine:1 falcon:1 tor:4 rocky:4 outcrop:4 pied:1 flycatcher:1 woodland:3 raven:1 redstart:1 reed:1 bunting:1 ring:1 ouzel:1 siskin:1 skylark:1 snipe:1 song:1 thrush:1 dry:1 stone:1 stonechat:1 swallow:1 wheatear:1 whinchat:1 whitethroat:1 duck:1 wood:1 yellowhammer:1 many:1 support:1 fish:1 commonly:1 britain:1 ireland:1 salmon:1 trout:1 though:1 less:1 frequently:1 previous:1 time:1 external:1 link:1 devon:2 trust:1 pet:1 |@bigram herd_cattle:1 vastly_outnumber:1 wooded_valley:1 pine_plantation:5 owl_farm:1 peregrine_falcon:1 rocky_outcrop:4 salmon_trout:1 external_link:1 |
5,853 | John_Thompson | John Thompson may refer to: Academics Sir John Eric Sidney Thompson (1898–1975), English archeologist and Mayan scholar John G. Thompson (b. 1932), mathematician John Thompson (sociologist), professor at Cambridge Business figures John Thompson (banker) (1802–1891), American banker John A. "Snowshoe" Thompson (1827–1876), mail carrier across the Sierras John Thompson (TD banker) (b. 1942), IBMer and non-executive Chairman of the Board of Toronto-Dominion Bank John W. Thompson (b. 1949), Chairman of the Board of Symantec John Philp Thompson, Sr. (1925–2003), American businessman with 7-Eleven Media figures J. W. M. Thompson, English journalist who edited The Sunday Telegraph John L. Thompson, publisher of the Iowa Bystander John E. Thompson, cartoonist, graphic artist and printmaker John Thompson Productions, a German pornographic film studio Political figures John Thompson (1749-1823), US Congressman from New York John Thompson (1809-1890), US Congressman from New York John Burton Thompson (1810–1874), Whig politician from Kentucky John Hall Thompson (1810–1893), Canadian court commissioner and political figure John McCandless Thompson (1829–1903), US Congressman from Pennsylvania John R. Thompson (1834–1894), a founder of the Grange Sir John Sparrow David Thompson (1845–1894), Prime Minister of Canada John W. Thompson (Manitoba politician) (1858–?), politician in Manitoba, Canada John T. Thompson (1860–1940), inventor of the Thompson submachine gun John Thompson (Manitoba politician) (1908–1986), Manitoba provincial cabinet minister John Thompson (UK politician) (b.1928), British Labour MP for Wansbeck John W. Thompson (mayor) (b. 1949), mayor of Davenport, Iowa Sports figures John A. Thompson (football coach), head football coach at University of Kentucky, 1892–1893 John "Cat" Thompson (1906–1990), basketball player John Thompson (basketball), Jr. (b. 1941), former basketball coach at Georgetown University John Thompson III (b. 1966), his son, current coach at Georgetown John Thompson (American football), former defensive coordinator for the Ole Miss football team John Thompson (English footballer), former Manchester United F.C. player in the 1930s John Thompson (Irish footballer) (b. 1981), Irish professional footballer Jon Thompson (beach volleyball) (b. 1977), American beach volleyball player Others John Bruce Thompson, Florida lawyer John Thompson (actor), member of the King's Men in the 1621–31 era John Thompson (Medal of Honor), American Civil War soldier and Medal of Honor recipient John Thompson (Medal of Honor, 1869), American Indian Wars soldier and Medal of Honor recipient John Thompson (poet) (1938–1976), Canadian poet John G. Thompson (Ohio), Sergeant at Arms of the U.S. House of Representatives John J. Thompson, editor of True Tunes News John Ashburton Thompson (1846–1915), British-Australian physician John Edward Thompson, American artist John Edd Thompson, chief meteorologist for WALA-TV in Mobile, Alabama John Marlow Thompson, British second world war ace and Battle of Britain pilot Johnny Thompson, Las Vegas illusionist See also Jon Thompson, (1936 - ), British artist Jonathan Thompson, British TV presenter Jack Thompson (disambiguation) John Thomson (disambiguation) | John_Thompson |@lemmatized john:43 thompson:49 may:1 refer:1 academic:1 sir:2 eric:1 sidney:1 english:3 archeologist:1 mayan:1 scholar:1 g:2 b:9 mathematician:1 sociologist:1 professor:1 cambridge:1 business:1 figure:5 banker:3 american:7 snowshoe:1 mail:1 carrier:1 across:1 sierra:1 td:1 ibmer:1 non:1 executive:1 chairman:2 board:2 toronto:1 dominion:1 bank:1 w:4 symantec:1 philp:1 sr:1 businessman:1 eleven:1 medium:1 j:2 journalist:1 edit:1 sunday:1 telegraph:1 l:1 publisher:1 iowa:2 bystander:1 e:1 cartoonist:1 graphic:1 artist:3 printmaker:1 production:1 german:1 pornographic:1 film:1 studio:1 political:2 u:4 congressman:3 new:2 york:2 burton:1 whig:1 politician:5 kentucky:2 hall:1 canadian:2 court:1 commissioner:1 mccandless:1 pennsylvania:1 r:1 founder:1 grange:1 sparrow:1 david:1 prime:1 minister:2 canada:2 manitoba:4 inventor:1 submachine:1 gun:1 provincial:1 cabinet:1 uk:1 british:5 labour:1 mp:1 wansbeck:1 mayor:2 davenport:1 sport:1 football:4 coach:4 head:1 university:2 cat:1 basketball:3 player:3 jr:1 former:3 georgetown:2 iii:1 son:1 current:1 defensive:1 coordinator:1 ole:1 miss:1 team:1 footballer:3 manchester:1 unite:1 f:1 c:1 irish:2 professional:1 jon:2 beach:2 volleyball:2 others:1 bruce:1 florida:1 lawyer:1 actor:1 member:1 king:1 men:1 era:1 medal:4 honor:4 civil:1 war:3 soldier:2 recipient:2 indian:1 poet:2 ohio:1 sergeant:1 arm:1 house:1 representative:1 editor:1 true:1 tune:1 news:1 ashburton:1 australian:1 physician:1 edward:1 edd:1 chief:1 meteorologist:1 wala:1 tv:2 mobile:1 alabama:1 marlow:1 second:1 world:1 ace:1 battle:1 britain:1 pilot:1 johnny:1 la:1 vega:1 illusionist:1 see:1 also:1 jonathan:1 presenter:1 jack:1 disambiguation:2 thomson:1 |@bigram prime_minister:1 thompson_submachine:1 submachine_gun:1 davenport_iowa:1 defensive_coordinator:1 manchester_unite:1 beach_volleyball:2 la_vega:1 |
5,854 | History_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey | The Republic of Turkey is the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, created after the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new Republican assembly of Turkey in 1922. This new regime delivered the coup de grâce to the Ottoman state which had been practically wiped away from the world stage following the First World War. War of Independence, 1919-1923 Mustafa Kemal with the Turkish revolutionaries. Turkish nationalists established modern Turkey as an outcome of the Turkish War of Independence, mostly on what was to become Turkish territory, as of the Treaty of Lausanne. The war resulted in the defeat of Greece in western Turkey (see Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)), the East Armenian state on the east; (2 November 1920 Gümrü Treaty), Britain, France, and Georgia. The Treaty of Lausanne, signed on July 24, 1923, and negotiated by İsmet İnönü on behalf of the Ankara government, established most of the modern boundaries of the country (except the province of Hatay, formerly the Syrian province of Alexandretta, which joined Turkey following a referendum organized in 1939 after having gained its independence from France in 1938). The Treaty of Lausanne also led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey as the successor state of the defunct Ottoman Empire. The Republic of Turkey was founded as a nation-state on the French Revolutionary model. Single-party period, 1923-1946 President Atatürk leaving the Turkish Parliament after a meeting. The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on October 29, 1923, with Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) as its first president. The government was formed from the Ankara-based revolutionary group, led by Atatürk. The second constitution was ratified by the Grand National Assembly on April 20, 1924. For about the next 10 years, the country saw a steady process of secular Westernization through Atatürk's Reforms, which included the unification of education; the discontinuation of religious and other titles; the closure of Islamic courts and the replacement of Islamic canon law with a secular civil code modeled after Switzerland's and a penal code modeled after the Italian Penal Code; recognition of the equality between the sexes and the granting of full political rights to women on 5 December, 1934; the language reform initiated by the newly founded Turkish Language Association; replacement of the Ottoman Turkish alphabet with the new Turkish alphabet derived from the Latin alphabet; the dress law (the wearing of a fez, a traditional Muslim hat, is outlawed); the law on family names; and many others. However, the first party to be established in the newly formed republic was Women's Party (Kadınlar Halk Fırkası). Zihnioğlu, Yaprak. Kadınsız İnkılap. Metis Yayınları, 2003. It was founded by Nezihe Muhiddin and several other women but was stopped from its activities, since during the time women were not yet legally allowed to engage in politics. Çakır, Serpil. Osmanlı Kadın Hareketi. Metis Yayınları, 1994. The actual passage to multi-party period was first attempted with the Liberal Republican Party by Ali Fethi Okyar. However, the Liberal Republican Party was dissolved on 17 November, 1930 and no further attempt for a multi-party democracy was made until 1945. Turkey was admitted to the League of Nations in July 1932. Atatürk's successor after his death on November 10, 1938 was İsmet İnönü. He started his term in the office as a respected figure of the Independence War but because of internal fights between power groups and external events like the World War which caused a lack of goods in the country, he lost some of his popularity and support. During World War II, Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until near the end of war. In February 1945, Turkey declared war on Germany and Japan, although this was largely symbolic. On October 24 1945 Turkey signed the United Nations Charter as one of the fifty original members. In 1946, İnönü's government organized multi-party elections, which were won by his party. He remained as the president of the country until 1950. He is still remembered as one of the key figures of Turkey. Multi-party period, 1946 - recent The real multi-party period begins with the election of the Democratic Party. The government of Adnan Menderes was very popular at first, relaxing the restrictions on Islam and presiding over a booming economy. In the later half of the decade, however, the economy began to fail and the government introduced censorship laws limiting dissent. The government became plagued by high inflation and a massive debt. On May 27 1960 General Cemal Gürsel led a military coup d'état removing President Celal Bayar and Prime Minister Menderes, the second of whom was executed. The system returned to civilian control in October 1961. The political system that emerged in the wake of the 1960 coup was a fractured one, producing a series of unstable government coalitions in parliament alternating between the Justice Party of Süleyman Demirel on the right and the Republican People's Party of İsmet İnönü and Bülent Ecevit on the left. The army gave a memorandum warning the civilian government in 1971, leading to another coup which resulted in the fall of the Demirel government and the establishment of interim governments. In 1974, under Prime Minister Ecevit in coalition with the religious National Salvation Party, Turkey carried out an invasion of Cyprus. The governments of National Front, a series of coalitions between rightist parties, followed as Ecevit was not able to remain in office despite ranking first in the elections. The fractured political scene and poor economy led to mounting violence between ultranationalists and communists in the streets of Turkey's cities. A military coup d'état, headed by General Kenan Evren, took place in 1980. Within two years, the military returned the government to civilian hands, although retaining close control of the political scene. The political system came under one-party governance under Turgut Özal's Motherland Party (ANAP), which combined a globally-oriented economic program with conservative social values. Under Özal, the economy boomed, converting towns like Gaziantep from small provincial capitals into mid-sized economic boomtowns. On the other hand, administrative reforms against terrorism were enacted by the government, which passed a state of emergency law in 1983 and established in 1985 village guards, local paramilitary militias, to struggle against the conflict with the PKK, an independantist Kurdish terrorist group. Starting in July 1987, the South-East was submitted to state of emergency legislation, a measure which lasted until November 2002. With the turn of the 1990s, political instability returned. The 1995 elections brought a short-lived coalition between Yılmaz's ANAP and the True Path Party, now with Tansu Çiller at the helm. In 1997, the military, citing his government's support for religious policies deemed dangerous to Turkey's secular nature, sent a memorandum to Prime Minister Necmettin Erbakan requesting that he resign, which he did. This was named a postmodern coup. Shortly thereafter, the Welfare Party (RP) was banned and re-born as the Virtue Party (FP). A new government was formed by ANAP and Ecevit's Democratic Left Party (DSP) supported from the outside by the center-left Republican People's Party (CHP), led by Deniz Baykal. The DSP won big in the 1999 elections. Second place went to the far-right Nationalist Action Party (MHP). These two parties, alongside Yılmaz's ANAP formed a government. The government was somewhat effective, if not harmonious, bringing about much-needed economic reform, instituting human rights legislation, and bringing Turkey ever closer to the European Union. A series of economic shocks led to new elections in 2002, bringing into power the religiously conservative Justice and Development Party (AKP) of former mayor of Istanbul, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. AKP again won the 2007 elections, which followed the controversial August 2007 presidential election, during which AKP member Abdullah Gül was elected President at the third round. Recent developments in Iraq (explained under positions on terrorism and security), secular and religious concerns, the intervention of the military in political issues, relations with the EU, the United States, and the Muslim world were the main issues. The outcome of this election, which brought the Turkish and Kurdish ethnic/nationalist parties (MHP and DTP) into the parliament, will affect Turkey's bid for European Union membership, as Turkish perceptions of the current process (or lack thereof) affected the results and will continue to affect policy making in coming years. References Further reading See also History of Anatolia | History_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey |@lemmatized republic:5 turkey:18 successor:3 state:8 ottoman:4 empire:2 create:1 overthrow:1 sultan:1 mehmet:1 vi:1 vahdettin:1 new:6 republican:5 assembly:2 regime:1 deliver:1 coup:6 de:1 grâce:1 practically:1 wipe:1 away:1 world:5 stage:1 follow:4 first:6 war:10 independence:4 mustafa:2 kemal:2 turkish:11 revolutionary:3 nationalist:3 establish:4 modern:3 outcome:2 mostly:1 become:2 territory:1 treaty:5 lausanne:3 result:3 defeat:1 greece:1 western:1 see:2 greco:1 east:3 armenian:1 november:4 gümrü:1 britain:1 france:2 georgia:1 sign:3 july:3 negotiate:1 smet:3 nönü:4 behalf:1 ankara:2 government:17 boundary:1 country:4 except:1 province:2 hatay:1 formerly:1 syrian:1 alexandretta:1 join:1 referendum:1 organize:2 gain:1 also:2 lead:7 international:1 recognition:2 sovereignty:1 defunct:1 found:3 nation:3 french:1 model:3 single:1 party:27 period:4 president:5 atatürk:5 leave:2 parliament:3 meeting:1 history:2 begin:3 foundation:1 october:3 form:4 base:1 group:3 second:3 constitution:1 ratify:1 grand:1 national:3 april:1 next:1 year:3 saw:1 steady:1 process:2 secular:4 westernization:1 reform:4 include:1 unification:1 education:1 discontinuation:1 religious:4 title:1 closure:1 islamic:2 court:1 replacement:2 canon:1 law:5 civil:1 code:3 switzerland:1 penal:2 italian:1 equality:1 sex:1 granting:1 full:1 political:7 right:4 woman:4 december:1 language:2 initiate:1 newly:2 association:1 alphabet:3 derive:1 latin:1 dress:1 wearing:1 fez:1 traditional:1 muslim:2 hat:1 outlaw:1 family:1 name:2 many:1 others:1 however:3 kadınlar:1 halk:1 fırkası:1 zihnioğlu:1 yaprak:1 kadınsız:1 nkılap:1 metis:2 yayınları:2 nezihe:1 muhiddin:1 several:1 stop:1 activity:1 since:1 time:1 yet:1 legally:1 allow:1 engage:1 politics:1 çakır:1 serpil:1 osmanlı:1 kadın:1 hareketi:1 actual:1 passage:1 multi:5 attempt:2 liberal:2 ali:1 fethi:1 okyar:1 dissolve:1 democracy:1 make:2 admit:1 league:1 death:1 start:2 term:1 office:2 respected:1 figure:2 internal:1 fight:1 power:2 external:1 event:1 like:2 cause:1 lack:2 good:1 lose:1 popularity:1 support:3 ii:1 peace:1 germany:2 officially:1 remain:3 neutral:1 near:1 end:1 february:1 declare:1 japan:1 although:2 largely:1 symbolic:1 united:2 charter:1 one:4 fifty:1 original:1 member:2 election:9 win:3 still:1 remember:1 key:1 recent:2 real:1 democratic:2 adnan:1 menderes:2 popular:1 relax:1 restriction:1 islam:1 presiding:1 booming:1 economy:4 late:1 half:1 decade:1 fail:1 introduce:1 censorship:1 limit:1 dissent:1 plague:1 high:1 inflation:1 massive:1 debt:1 may:1 general:2 cemal:1 gürsel:1 military:5 état:2 remove:1 celal:1 bayar:1 prime:3 minister:3 execute:1 system:3 return:3 civilian:3 control:2 emerge:1 wake:1 fractured:2 produce:1 series:3 unstable:1 coalition:4 alternate:1 justice:2 süleyman:1 demirel:2 people:2 bülent:1 ecevit:4 left:2 army:1 give:1 memorandum:2 warn:1 another:1 fall:1 establishment:1 interim:1 salvation:1 carry:1 invasion:1 cyprus:1 front:1 rightist:1 able:1 despite:1 rank:1 scene:2 poor:1 mount:1 violence:1 ultranationalists:1 communist:1 street:1 city:1 head:1 kenan:1 evren:1 take:1 place:2 within:1 two:2 hand:2 retain:1 close:1 come:1 governance:1 turgut:1 özal:2 motherland:1 anap:4 combine:1 globally:1 oriented:1 economic:4 program:1 conservative:2 social:1 value:1 boom:1 convert:1 town:1 gaziantep:1 small:1 provincial:1 capital:1 mid:1 sized:1 boomtowns:1 administrative:1 terrorism:2 enact:1 pass:1 emergency:2 village:1 guard:1 local:1 paramilitary:1 militia:1 struggle:1 conflict:1 pkk:1 independantist:1 kurdish:2 terrorist:1 south:1 submit:1 legislation:2 measure:1 last:1 turn:1 instability:1 bring:5 short:1 lived:1 yılmaz:2 true:1 path:1 tansu:1 çiller:1 helm:1 cite:1 policy:2 deem:1 dangerous:1 nature:1 send:1 necmettin:1 erbakan:1 requesting:1 resign:1 postmodern:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 welfare:1 rp:1 ban:1 bear:1 virtue:1 fp:1 dsp:2 outside:1 center:1 chp:1 deniz:1 baykal:1 big:1 go:1 far:2 action:1 mhp:2 alongside:1 somewhat:1 effective:1 harmonious:1 much:1 need:1 institute:1 human:1 ever:1 closer:1 european:2 union:2 shock:1 religiously:1 development:2 akp:3 former:1 mayor:1 istanbul:1 recep:1 tayyip:1 erdoğan:1 controversial:1 august:1 presidential:1 abdullah:1 gül:1 elect:1 third:1 round:1 iraq:1 explain:1 position:1 security:1 concern:1 intervention:1 issue:2 relation:1 eu:1 main:1 ethnic:1 dtp:1 affect:3 bid:1 membership:1 perception:1 current:1 thereof:1 continue:1 coming:1 reference:1 read:1 anatolia:1 |@bigram ottoman_empire:2 sultan_mehmet:1 de_grâce:1 mustafa_kemal:2 treaty_lausanne:3 greco_turkish:1 smet_nönü:3 kemal_atatürk:1 penal_code:2 booming_economy:1 coup_état:2 prime_minister:3 short_lived:1 shortly_thereafter:1 presidential_election:1 lack_thereof:1 |
5,855 | Demographics_of_Eritrea | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Eritrea, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Eritrean women Eritrea's population comprises nine ethnic groups, most of which speak Semitic or Cushitic languages. The Tigrinya and Tigre make up four-fifths of the population and speak different, but related and somewhat mutually intelligible, Semitic languages. Tigrinya and Arabic are the most frequently used languages for commercial and official transactions, but English is widely spoken and is the language used for secondary and university education. In general, most of the Christians live in the highlands, while Muslims and adherents of other beliefs live in the lowland regions. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: Men in Agordat Age structure: 0-14 years: 42.9% (male 1,085,116/female 1,072,262) 15-64 years: 53.5% (male 1,332,349/female 1,355,494) 65 years and over: 3.6% (male 88,068/female 95,186) (2008 est.) Population growth rate: 2.447% (2008 est.) Birth rate: 33.62 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate: 9.15 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate: NA (2008 est.) * 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.93 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2008 est.) Infant mortality rate: 44.22 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth: total population: 60.05 years male: 58.29 years female: 61.87 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate: 4.84 children born/woman (2008 est.) Nationality: noun: Eritrean(s) adjective: Eritrean Ethnic groups: There are 9 ethnic groups: Afar, Bilen, Hedareb (Beja), Kunama, Nara, Rashaida, Saho, Tigre and Tigrinya. Planning Office, Ministry of Education, Asmara, Eritrea (1996) Tekle M. Woldemikael, "Language, Education, and Public Policy in Eritrea" in African Studies Review, vol. 46, p. 120, 2003. : Tigrinya 50%, Tigre 31.0%, Saho 5.0%, Afar 5.0%, Hedareb (Beja) 2.5%, Rashaida 2.4%, Bilen 2.0%, Kunama 2.0%, and Nara 1.5%. Religions: Coptic Christian, Sunni Muslim, Roman Catholic, Protestant (see Religion in Eritrea) Languages: Afar, Arabic (spoken by the Rashaida), Beja (spoken by the Hedareb), Blin, Kunama, Nara, Saho, Tigre, Tigrinya, English as a second language. Tigrinya and Arabic are the foremost second languages. Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 58.6% male: 69.9% female: 47.6% (2003 est.) References See also Eritrea Languages of Eritrea Culture of Eritrea External links Languages in Eritrea Ethnic groups in Eritrea | Demographics_of_Eritrea |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:13 eritrea:10 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:4 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 eritrean:3 woman:2 comprises:1 nine:1 ethnic:4 group:4 speak:5 semitic:2 cushitic:1 language:9 tigrinya:6 tigre:4 make:1 four:1 fifth:1 different:1 related:1 somewhat:1 mutually:1 intelligible:1 arabic:3 frequently:1 use:2 commercial:1 official:1 transaction:1 english:2 widely:1 secondary:1 university:1 general:1 christian:2 live:3 highland:1 muslim:2 adherent:1 belief:1 lowland:1 region:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 men:1 agordat:1 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 est:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 na:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 afar:3 bilen:2 hedareb:3 beja:3 kunama:3 nara:3 rashaida:3 saho:3 planning:1 office:1 ministry:1 asmara:1 tekle:1 woldemikael:1 public:1 policy:1 african:1 study:1 review:1 vol:1 p:1 religion:2 coptic:1 sunni:1 roman:1 catholic:1 protestant:1 see:2 languages:1 blin:1 second:2 foremost:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 also:1 culture:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 mutually_intelligible:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 sunni_muslim:1 literacy_definition:1 external_link:1 |
5,856 | Katal | The katal (symbol: kat) is the unit of catalytic activity. It is a derived unit for expressing quantity values of catalytic activity of enzymes and other catalysts. Its use is recommended by the General Conference on Weights and Measures and other international organizations. It replaces the non-SI enzyme unit. Enzyme units are, however, still more commonly used than the katal in practice at present, especially in biochemistry. The katal is not used to express the rate of a reaction; that is expressed in moles per second. Rather, it is used to express catalytic activity which is a property of the catalyst. The katal is invariant of the measurement procedure, but the numerical quantity value is not and depends on the experimental conditions. Therefore, in order to define the quantity of a catalyst, the rate of conversion of a defined chemical reaction has to be specified, preferably of the first order, under strictly controlled conditions. One katal of trypsin, for example, is that amount of trypsin which breaks a mole of peptide bonds per second under specified conditions. Definition 1 kat = 1 mol/s SI multiples Origin The name katal has been used for decades and it became an official SI unit in 1999. References External links Unit "katal" for catalytic activity (IUPAC Technical Report) Pure Appl. Chem. Vol. 73, No. 6, pp. 927-931 (2001) be-x-old:Катал | Katal |@lemmatized katal:7 symbol:1 kat:2 unit:6 catalytic:4 activity:4 derived:1 express:4 quantity:3 value:2 enzyme:3 catalyst:3 use:5 recommend:1 general:1 conference:1 weight:1 measure:1 international:1 organization:1 replace:1 non:1 si:3 however:1 still:1 commonly:1 practice:1 present:1 especially:1 biochemistry:1 rate:2 reaction:2 mole:2 per:2 second:2 rather:1 property:1 invariant:1 measurement:1 procedure:1 numerical:1 depend:1 experimental:1 condition:3 therefore:1 order:2 define:1 conversion:1 defined:1 chemical:1 specify:2 preferably:1 first:1 strictly:1 control:1 one:1 trypsin:2 example:1 amount:1 break:1 peptide:1 bond:1 definition:1 mol:1 multiple:1 origin:1 name:1 decade:1 become:1 official:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 iupac:1 technical:1 report:1 pure:1 appl:1 chem:1 vol:1 pp:1 x:1 old:1 катал:1 |@bigram peptide_bond:1 external_link:1 pure_appl:1 appl_chem:1 |
5,857 | Occult | The word occult comes from the Latin word occultus (clandestine, hidden, secret), referring to "knowledge of the hidden". Crabb, G. (1927). English synonyms explained, in alphabetical order, with copious illustrations and examples drawn from the best writers. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co. In the medical sense it is used to refer to a structure or process that is hidden, e.g. an "occult bleed" Harvard Medical School Family Health Guide. Harvard Medical School 2005. 1272 pages ISBN 0684863731 may be one detected indirectly by the presence of otherwise unexplained anaemia. The word has many uses in the English language, popularly meaning "knowledge of the paranormal", as opposed to "knowledge of the measurable", Underhill, E. (1974). Mysticism, Meridian, New York,. http://www.icrcanada.org/kundandpara.html usually referred to as science. The term is sometimes popularly taken to mean "knowledge meant only for certain people" or "knowledge that must be kept hidden", but for most practicing occultists it is simply the study of a deeper spiritual reality that extends beyond pure reason and the physical sciences. Blavatsky, H. P. (1897). Occultism of the secret doctrine. [Whitefish, Mont.]: Kessinger Pub., LLC. The terms esoteric and arcane can have a very similar meaning, and the three terms are often interchangeable. Houghton Mifflin Company. (2004). The American Heritage College Thesaurus. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Page 530. Wright, C. F. (1895). An outline of the principles of modern theosophy. Boston: New England Theosophical Corp. The term occult is also used as a label given to a number of magical organizations or orders, and the teachings and practices as taught by them. The name also extends to a large body of literature and spiritual philosophy. Occultism Occultism is the study of occult or hidden wisdom. To the occultist it is the study of "Truth", a deeper truth that exists beneath the surface: 'The truth is always hidden in plain sight'. It can involve such subjects as magic (alternatively spelled and defined as magick), alchemy, extra-sensory perception, astrology, spiritualism and numerology. There is often a strong religious element to these studies and beliefs, and many occultists profess adherence to religions such as Gnosticism, Hermeticism, Luciferianism, Thelema, and Neopaganism. While Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam are generally not considered occult, some of their modern interpretations can be, as the interpretation of Hinduism within Theosophy or the various occult interpretations of the Jewish Kabbalah. Orthodox members of such religions are likely to consider such interpretations false; For example, the Kabbalah Centre has been criticised by Jewish scholars. ABC News: What's Behind Hollywood's Fascination with Kabbalah? Baphomet is typically associated with the occult. The word "occult" is somewhat generic, in that almost everything that isn't claimed by any of the major religions can be considered the occult. Even religious scientists have difficulties in defining occultism. A broad definition is offered by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke: "OCCULTISM has its basis in a religious way of thinking, the roots of which stretch back into antiquity and which may be described as the Western esoteric tradition. Its principal ingredients have been identified as Gnosticism, the Hermetic treatises on alchemy and magic, Neo-Platonism, and the Kabbalah, all originating in the eastern Mediterranean area during the first few centuries AD." Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism (1985), p.17 From the 15th to 17th century, these kinds of ideas that are alternatively described as Western esotericism had a brief revival. Alchemy used to be common among highly important seventeenth-century scientists, such as Isaac Newton Newton's Dark Secrets. and Gottfried Leibniz. Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716) Isaac Newton was accused of introducing occult agencies into natural science when he postulated gravity as a force capable of acting over vast distances. Edelglass et al., Matter and Mind, ISBN 0940262452. p. 54 This revival of alchemy and other occult studies was halted by the triumph of empirical sciences and the Age of Enlightenment. "By the eighteenth century these unorthodox religious and philosophical concerns were well defined as 'occult', inasmuch as they lay on the outermost fringe of accepted forms of knowledge and discourse," Goodrick-Clarke (1985): 18 and were only preserved by a few antiquarians and mystics. However, from about 1770 onwards, a renewed desire for mystery, an interest in the Middle Ages and a romantic temper encouraged a revival of occultism in Europe, "a reaction to the rationalist Enlightenment." Based on his research into the modern German occult revival 1890-1910, Goodrick-Clarke puts forward a thesis on the driving force behind occultism. Behind its many varied forms apparently lies a uniform function, "a strong desire to reconcile the findings of modern natural science with a religious view that could restore man to a position of centrality and dignity in the universe. Goodrick-Clarke (1985): 29 That the Kabbalah has been considered an occult study is also perhaps because of its popularity among magi (the biblical wise men who visited the Infant Jesus are said to have been magi of Zoroastrianism) and Thelemites. Kabbalah was later adopted by the Golden Dawn and brought out into the open by Aleister Crowley and his protégé Israel Regardie. Since that time many authors have emphasized a syncretic approach by drawing parallels between different disciplines. IAO131. Thelema & Buddhism in Journal of Thelemic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32 Direct insight into or perception of the occult does not usually consist of access to physically measurable facts, but is arrived at through the mind or the spirit. The term can refer to mental, psychological or spiritual training. It is important to note, however, that many occultists will also study science (perceiving science as an adjunct to Alchemy) to add validity to occult knowledge in a day and age where the mystical can easily be undermined as flights-of-fancy. An oft-cited means of gaining insight into the occult is the use of a focus; a physical object, a ritualistic action (for example, meditation or chanting), or a medium in which one becomes wholly immersed. These are just a few examples of the vast and numerous avenues that can be explored. Science and the occult Occultism is conceived of as the study of the inner nature of things, as opposed to the outer characteristics that are studied by science. The German Kantian philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer designates this 'inner nature' with the term 'Will', and suggests that science and mathematics are unable to penetrate beyond the relationship between one thing and another in order to explain the 'inner nature' of the thing itself, independent of any external causal relationships with other 'things'. Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation Schopenhauer also points towards this inherently relativistic nature of mathematics and conventional science in his formulation of the 'World as Will'. By defining a thing solely in terms of its external relationships or effects we only find its external, or explicit nature. Occultism, on the other hand, is concerned with the nature of the 'thing-in-itself'. This is often accomplished through direct perceptual awareness, known as mysticism. Occult qualities In the Middle Ages, occult qualities were physical properties that had no rational explanation. At that time magnetism was sometimes called an occult quality. Religion, Science, and Worldview: Essays in Honor of Richard S. Westfall, Margaret J. Osler, Paul Lawrence Farber, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0521524938 Academia & Occultism There have been various attempts to integrate occultism into an academic framework including a master's program at the University of Amsterdam. IAO131. Thelema in the Classroom in Journal of Thelemic Studies, Vol. 2, No. 2, Spring 2009, pp. 32-40 Religion and the occult Some religious denominations view the occult as being anything supernatural or paranormal which is not achieved by or through God (as defined by those religious denominations), and is therefore the work of an opposing and malevolent entity. The word has negative connotations for many people, and while certain practices considered by some to be "occult" are also found within mainstream religions, in this context the term "occult" is rarely used and is sometimes substituted with "esoteric". In Judaism, special spiritual studies such as Kabbalah have been allowed for certain individuals (such as rabbis and their chosen students). Also, some forms of Islam allow spirits to be commanded in the name of Allah to do righteous works and assist steadfast Muslims. Furthermore, there are branches of Esoteric Christianity that practice divination, blessings, or appealing to angels for certain intervention, which they view as perfectly righteous, often supportable by gospel (for instance, claiming that the old commandment against divination was superseded by Christ's birth, and noting that the Magi used astrology to locate Bethlehem). Rosicrucianism, one of the most celebrated of Christianity's mystical offshoots, has lent aspects of its philosophy to most Christian-based occultism since the 17th century. Tantra, originating in India, includes amongst its various branches a variety of ritualistic practices ranging from visualisation exercises and the chanting of mantras to elaborate rituals involving sex or animal sacrifice, sometimes performed in forbidden places such as cremation grounds. Tantric texts were at one stage unavailable for mass public consumption due to the social stigma attached to the practices. In general, tantra was predominantly associated with black magic and the tantriks were held in great dishonor. See also Ariosophy Esotericism List of magical terms and traditions Magic (paranormal) Nazi occultism Spiritualism Theosophy Notes References Further reading Bardon, Franz (1971). Initiation into Hermetics. Wuppertal: Ruggeberg. Fortune, Dion (2000). The Mystical Qabala. Weiser Books. ISBN 1578631505 Gettings, Fred, Vision Of The Occult, Century Hutchinson Ltd, 1987. ISBN 0712614389 Regardie, I., Cicero, C., & Cicero, S. T. (2001). The Tree of Life: An Illustrated Study in Magic. St. Paul, Minn: Llewellyn Publications. Rogers, L. W. (1909). 'Hints to Young Students of Occultism. Albany, N.Y.: The Theosophical Book Company. Shepard, Leslie (editor), Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology'', Detroit, Mich. : Gale Research Co., 1978 Spence, Lewis, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, 1920. External links Journal of Thelemic Studies - the first non-partisan, academic journal investigating the occult tradition of Thelema, founded by the infamous Aleister Crowley University of Amsterdam Center for Study of Western Esotericism University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO) ESSWE European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism, with many links to associated organizations, libraries, scholars etc. Joseph H. Peterson , Twilit Grotto: Archives of Western Esoterica (Esoteric Archives: Occult Literature) Asiya, Magical Athenaeum (Collection of occult works in PDF Format) eLibrary of ancient books on occultism, spiritism, spiritualism, séances, development of mediumship in the Western and Oriental Traditions. Many technical advice on ITC and EVP, and practical tips concerning the development of different forms of Mediumship provided by medium Maryse Locke. the MYSTICA.ORG An on-line encyclopedia of the occult | Occult |@lemmatized word:5 occult:31 come:1 latin:1 occultus:1 clandestine:1 hidden:4 secret:3 refer:4 knowledge:7 crabb:1 g:2 english:2 synonym:1 explain:2 alphabetical:1 order:3 copious:1 illustration:1 example:4 draw:2 best:1 writer:1 new:3 york:2 thomas:1 crowell:1 co:2 medical:3 sense:1 use:5 structure:1 process:1 hide:2 e:2 bleed:1 harvard:2 school:2 family:1 health:1 guide:1 page:2 isbn:5 may:2 one:5 detect:1 indirectly:1 presence:1 otherwise:1 unexplained:1 anaemia:1 many:8 us:1 language:1 popularly:2 mean:4 paranormal:3 oppose:2 measurable:2 underhill:1 mysticism:2 meridian:1 http:1 www:1 icrcanada:1 org:2 kundandpara:1 html:1 usually:2 science:12 term:9 sometimes:4 take:1 certain:4 people:2 must:1 keep:1 practicing:1 occultist:4 simply:1 study:17 deep:2 spiritual:4 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5,858 | Electricity | Lightning is one of the most dramatic effects of electricity Electricity (from the New Latin ēlectricus, "amber-like") is a general term that encompasses a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena such as lightning and static electricity, but in addition, less familiar concepts such as the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic induction. In general usage, the word 'electricity' is adequate to refer to a number of physical effects. However, in scientific usage, the term is vague, and these related, but distinct, concepts are better identified by more precise terms: Electric charge – a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. Electric current – a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically measured in amperes. Electric field – an influence produced by an electric charge on other charges in its vicinity. Electric potential – the capacity of an electric field to do work on a electric charge, typically measured in volts. Electromagnetism – a fundamental interaction between the magnetic field and the presence and motion of an electric charge. Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though advances in the science were not made until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Practical applications for electricity however remained few, and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society. Electricity's extraordinary versatility as a source of energy means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. The backbone of modern industrial society is, and for the foreseeable future can be expected to remain, the use of electrical power. History Thales, the earliest researcher into electricity Long before any knowledge of electricity existed people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BC referred to these fish as the "Thunderer of the Nile", and described them as the "protectors" of all other fish. They were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Several ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by catfish and torpedo rays, and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects. Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning (raad) applied to the electric ray. The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge (1918), New York: Encyclopedia Americana Corp That certain objects such as rods of amber could be rubbed with cat's fur and attract light objects like feathers was known to ancient cultures around the Mediterranean. Thales of Miletos made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BC, from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast to minerals such as magnetite, which needed no rubbing. Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. According to a controversial theory, the Parthians may have had knowledge of electroplating, based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery, which resembles a galvanic cell, though it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical in nature. Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research on electricity in the 18th century Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English physician William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the New Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from ήλεκτρον [elektron], the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646. Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray and C. F. du Fay. In the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and flown the kite in a storm-threatened sky. It is uncertain if Franklin personally carried out this experiment, but it is popularly attributed to him. He observed a succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand, showing that lightning was indeed electrical in nature. In 1791 Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectricity, demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which nerve cells passed signals to the muscles. Alessandro Volta's battery, or voltaic pile, of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and copper, provided scientists with a more reliable source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used. The recognition of electromagnetism, the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena, is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André-Marie Ampère in 1819-1820; Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821, and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827. While it had been the early 19th century that had seen rapid progress in electrical science, the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical engineering. Through such people as Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, Ottó Bláthy, George Westinghouse, Ernst Werner von Siemens, Alexander Graham Bell and Lord Kelvin, electricity was turned from a scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life, becoming a driving force for the Second Industrial Revolution. Concepts Electric charge Electric charge is a property of certain subatomic particles, which gives rise to and interacts with, the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Charge originates in the atom, in which its most familiar carriers are the electron and proton. It is a conserved quantity, that is, the net charge within an isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system. Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact, or by passing along a conducting material, such as a wire. The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other. Charge on a gold-leaf electroscope causes the leaves to visibly repel each other The presence of charge gives rise to the electromagnetic force: charges exert a force on each other, an effect that was known, though not understood, in antiquity. A lightweight ball suspended from a string can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth. If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod, it is found to repel the first: the charge acts to force the two balls apart. Two balls that are charged with a rubbed amber rod also repel each other. However, if one ball is charged by the glass rod, and the other by an amber rod, the two balls are found to attract each other. These phenomena were investigated in the late eighteenth century by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms. This discovery led to the well-known axiom: like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract. The force acts on the charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by Coulomb's law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse-square relation to the distance between them. "The repulsive force between two small spheres charged with the same type of electricity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centres of the two spheres." Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Histoire de l'Academie Royal des Sciences, Paris 1785. The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the strong interaction, but unlike that force it operates over all distances. In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 1042 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together. The charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign, hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive. By convention, the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive, a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin. The amount of charge is usually given the symbol Q and expressed in coulombs; . The Q originally stood for 'quantity of electricity', the term 'electricity' now more commonly expressed as 'charge'. each electron carries the same charge of approximately −1.6022×10−19 coulomb. The proton has a charge that is equal and opposite, and thus +1.6022×10−19 coulomb. Charge is possessed not just by matter, but also by antimatter, each antiparticle bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle. Charge can be measured by a number of means, an early instrument being the gold-leaf electroscope, which although still in use for classroom demonstrations, has been superseded by the electronic electrometer. Electric current The movement of electric charge is known as an electric current, the intensity of which is usually measured in amperes. Current can consist of any moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current. By historical convention, a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part. Current defined in this manner is called conventional current. The motion of negatively-charged electrons around an electric circuit, one of the most familiar forms of current, is thus deemed positive in the opposite direction to that of the electrons. However, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once. The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation. An electric arc provides an energetic demonstration of electric current The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second, the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light, enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires. Current causes several observable effects, which historically were the means of recognising its presence. That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800, a process now known as electrolysis. Their work was greatly expanded upon by Michael Faraday in 1833. Current through a resistance causes localised heating, an effect James Prescott Joule studied mathematically in 1840. One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, when, while preparing a lecture, he witnessed the current in a wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass. Accounts differ as to whether this was before, during, or after a lecture. He had discovered electromagnetism, a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics. In engineering or household applications, current is often described as being either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). These terms refer to how the current varies in time. Direct current, as produced by example from a battery and required by most electronic devices, is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative. If, as is most common, this flow is carried by electrons, they will be travelling in the opposite direction. Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repeatedly; almost always this takes the form of a sinusoidal wave. Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time. The time-averaged value of an alternating current is zero, but it delivers energy in first one direction, and then the reverse. Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under steady state direct current, such as inductance and capacitance. These properties however can become important when circuitry is subjected to transients, such as when first energised. Electric field The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field. The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses, and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance. However, there is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker. Field lines emanating from a positive charge above a plane conductor An electric field generally varies in space, Almost all electric fields vary in space. An exception is the electric field surrounding a planar conductor of infinite extent, the field of which is uniform. and its strength at any one point is defined as the force (per unit charge) that would be felt by a stationary, negligible charge if placed at that point. The conceptual charge, termed a 'test charge', must be vanishingly small to prevent its own electric field disturbing the main field and must also be stationary to prevent the effect of magnetic fields. As the electric field is defined in terms of force, and force is a vector, so it follows that an electric field is also a vector, having both magnitude and direction. Specifically, it is a vector field. The study of electric fields created by stationary charges is called electrostatics. The field may be visualised by a set of imaginary lines whose direction at any point is the same as that of the field. This concept was introduced by Faraday, whose term 'lines of force' still sometimes sees use. The field lines are the paths that a point positive charge would seek to make as it was forced to move within the field; they are however an imaginary concept with no physical existence, and the field permeates all the intervening space between the lines. Field lines emanating from stationary charges have several key properties: first, that they originate at positive charges and terminate at negative charges; second, that they must enter any good conductor at right angles, and third, that they may never cross nor close in on themselves. A hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface. The field is therefore zero at all places inside the body. This is the operating principal of the Faraday cage, a conducting metal shell which isolates its interior from outside electrical effects. The principles of electrostatics are important when designing items of high-voltage equipment. There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may be withstood by any medium. Beyond this point, electrical breakdown occurs and an electric arc causes flashover between the charged parts. Air, for example, tends to arc across small gaps at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre. Over larger gaps, its breakdown strength is weaker, perhaps 1 kV per centimetre. The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning, caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air, and raises the electric field in the air to greater than it can withstand. The voltage of a large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge energies as great as 250 kWh. The field strength is greatly affected by nearby conducting objects, and it is particularly intense when it is forced to curve around sharply pointed objects. This principle is exploited in the lightning conductor, the sharp spike of which acts to encourage the lightning stroke to develop there, rather than to the building it serves to protect. Electric potential A pair of AA cells. The + sign indicates the polarity of the potential differences between the battery terminals. The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work. The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point. It is usually measured in volts, and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity. This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference, and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points. An electric field has the special property that it is conservative, which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated. The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees greater everyday usage. For practical purposes, it is useful to define a common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared. While this could be at infinity, a much more useful reference is the Earth itself, which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere. This reference point naturally takes the name earth or ground. Earth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge, and is therefore electrically uncharged – and unchargeable. Electric potential is a scalar quantity, that is, it has only magnitude and not direction. It may be viewed as analogous to height: just as a released object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field, so a charge will 'fall' across the voltage caused by an electric field. As relief maps show contour lines marking points of equal height, a set of lines marking points of equal potential (known as equipotentials) may be drawn around an electrostatically charged object. The equipotentials cross all lines of force at right angles. They must also lie parallel to the object's surface, otherwise this would produce a force on the charge carriers and the field would fail to be static. The electric field was formally defined as the force exerted per unit charge, but the concept of potential allows for a more useful and equivalent definition: the electric field is the local gradient of the electric potential. Usually expressed in volts per metre, the vector direction of the field is the line of greatest gradient of potential, and where the equipotentials lie closest together. Electromagnetism Magnetic field circles around a current Ørsted's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. Moreover, the interaction seemed different from gravitational and electrostatic forces, the two forces of nature then known. The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current-carrying wire, but acted at right angles to it. Ørsted's slightly obscure words were that "the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner." The force also depended on the direction of the current, for if the flow was reversed, then the force did too. Ørsted did not fully understand his discovery, but he observed the effect was reciprocal: a current exerts a force on a magnet, and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current. The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampère, who discovered that two parallel current-carrying wires exerted a force upon each other: two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each other, while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart. The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international definition of the ampere. The electric motor exploits an important effect of electromagnetism: a current through a magnetic field experiences a force at right angles to both the field and current This relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important, for it led to Michael Faraday's invention of the electric motor in 1821. Faraday's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury. A current was allowed through a wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the mercury. The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire, making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was maintained. Experimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends. Further analysis of this process, known as electromagnetic induction, enabled him to state the principle, now known as Faraday's law of induction, that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop. Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831, in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy. Faraday's disc was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator, but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work. Faraday's and Ampère's work showed that a time-varying magnetic field acted as a source of an electric field, and a time-varying electric field was a source of a magnetic field. Thus, when either field is changing in time, then a field of the other is necessarily induced. Such a phenomenon has the properties of a wave, and is naturally referred to as an electromagnetic wave. Electromagnetic waves were analysed theoretically by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864. Maxwell developed a set of equations that could unambiguously describe the interrelationship between electric field, magnetic field, electric charge, and electric current. He could moreover prove that such a wave would necessarily travel at the speed of light, and thus light itself was a form of electromagnetic radiation. Maxwell's Laws, which unify light, fields, and charge are one of the great milestones of theoretical physics. Electric circuits A basic electric circuit. The voltage source V on the left drives a current I around the circuit, delivering electrical energy into the resistance R. From the resistor, the current returns to the source, completing the circuit. An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components, usually to perform some useful task, with a return path to enable the charge to return to its source. The components in an electric circuit can take many forms, which can include elements such as resistors, capacitors, switches, transformers and electronics. Electronic circuits contain active components, usually semiconductors, and typically exhibit non-linear behavior, requiring complex analysis. The simplest electric components are those that are termed passive and linear: while they may temporarily store energy, they contain no sources of it, and exhibit linear responses to stimuli. The resistor is perhaps the simplest of passive circuit elements: as its name suggests, it resists the current through it, dissipating its energy as heat. The resistance is a consequence of the motion of charge through a conductor: in metals, for example, resistance is primarily due to collisions between electrons and ions. Ohm's law is a basic law of circuit theory, stating that the current passing through a resistance is directly proportional to the potential difference across it. The resistance of most materials is relatively constant over a range of temperatures and currents; materials under these conditions are known as 'ohmic'. The ohm, the unit of resistance, was named in honour of Georg Ohm, and is symbolised by the Greek letter Ω. 1 Ω is the resistance that will produce a potential difference of one volt in response to a current of one amp. The capacitor is a device capable of storing charge, and thereby storing electrical energy in the resulting field. Conceptually, it consists of two conducting plates separated by a thin insulating layer; in practice, thin metal foils are coiled together, increasing the surface area per unit volume and therefore the capacitance. The unit of capacitance is the farad, named after Michael Faraday, and given the symbol F: one farad is the capacitance that develops a potential difference of one volt when it stores a charge of one coulomb. A capacitor connected to a voltage supply initially causes a current as it accumulates charge; this current will however decay in time as the capacitor fills, eventually falling to zero. A capacitor will therefore not permit a steady state current, but instead blocks it. The inductor is a conductor, usually a coil of wire, that stores energy in a magnetic field in response to the current through it. When the current changes, the magnetic field does too, inducing a voltage between the ends of the conductor. The induced voltage is proportional to the time rate of change of the current. The constant of proportionality is termed the inductance. The unit of inductance is the henry, named after Joseph Henry, a contemporary of Faraday. One henry is the inductance that will induce a potential difference of one volt if the current through it changes at a rate of one ampere per second. The inductor's behaviour is in some regards converse to that of the capacitor: it will freely allow an unchanging current, but opposes a rapidly changing one. Production and uses Generation and transmission Wind power is of increasing importance in many countries Thales' experiments with amber rods were the first studies into the production of electrical energy. While this method, now known as the triboelectric effect, is capable of lifting light objects and even generating sparks, it is extremely inefficient. It was not until the invention of the voltaic pile in the eighteenth century that a viable source of electricity became available. The voltaic pile, and its modern descendant, the electrical battery, store energy chemically and make it available on demand in the form of electrical energy. The battery is a versatile and very common power source which is ideally suited to many applications, but its energy storage is finite, and once discharged it must be disposed of or recharged. For large electrical demands electrical energy must be generated and transmitted continuously over conductive transmission lines. Electrical power is usually generated by electro-mechanical generators driven by steam produced from fossil fuel combustion, or the heat released from nuclear reactions; or from other sources such as kinetic energy extracted from wind or flowing water. Such generators bear no resemblance to Faraday's homopolar disc generator of 1831, but they still rely on his electromagnetic principle that a conductor linking a changing magnetic field induces a potential difference across its ends. The invention in the late nineteenth century of the transformer meant that electrical power could be transmitted more efficiently at a higher voltage but lower current. Efficient electrical transmission meant in turn that electricity could be generated at centralised power stations, where it benefited from economies of scale, and then be despatched relatively long distances to where it was needed. Since electrical energy cannot easily be stored in quantities large enough to meet demands on a national scale, at all times exactly as much must be produced as is required. This requires electricity utilities to make careful predictions of their electrical loads, and maintain constant co-ordination with their power stations. A certain amount of generation must always be held in reserve to cushion an electrical grid against inevitable disturbances and losses. Demand for electricity grows with great rapidity as a nation modernises and its economy develops. The United States showed a 12% increase in demand during each year of the first three decades of the twentieth century, a rate of growth that is now being experienced by emerging economies such as those of India or China. Historically, the growth rate for electricity demand has outstripped that for other forms of energy. Environmental concerns with electricity generation have led to an increased focus on generation from renewable sources, in particular from wind- and hydropower. While debate can be expected to continue over the environmental impact of different means of electricity production, its final form is relatively clean. Uses The light bulb, an early application of electricity, operates by Joule heating: the passage of current through resistance generating heat Electricity is an extremely flexible form of energy, and has been adapted to a huge, and growing, number of uses. The invention of a practical incandescent light bulb in the 1870s led to lighting becoming one of the first publicly available applications of electrical power. Although electrification brought with it its own dangers, replacing the naked flames of gas lighting greatly reduced fire hazards within homes and factories. Public utilities were set up in many cities targeting the burgeoning market for electrical lighting. The Joule heating effect employed in the light bulb also sees more direct use in electric heating. While this is versatile and controllable, it can be seen as wasteful, since most electrical generation has already required the production of heat at a power station. A number of countries, such as Denmark, have issued legislation restricting or banning the use of electric heating in new buildings. Electricity is however a highly practical energy source for refrigeration, with air conditioning representing a growing sector for electricity demand, the effects of which electricity utilities are increasingly obliged to accommodate. Electricity is used within telecommunications, and indeed the electrical telegraph, demonstrated commercially in 1837 by Cooke and Wheatstone, was one of its earliest applications. With the construction of first intercontinental, and then transatlantic, telegraph systems in the 1860s, electricity had enabled communications in minutes across the globe. Optical fibre and satellite communication technology have taken a share of the market for communications systems, but electricity can be expected to remain an essential part of the process. The effects of electromagnetism are most visibly employed in the electric motor, which provides a clean and efficient means of motive power. A stationary motor such as a winch is easily provided with a supply of power, but a motor that moves with its application, such as an electric vehicle, is obliged to either carry along a power source such as a battery, or by collecting current from a sliding contact such as a pantograph, placing restrictions on its range or performance. Electronic devices make use of the transistor, perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century, and a fundamental building block of all modern circuitry. A modern integrated circuit may contain several billion miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square. Electricity and the natural world Physiological effects A voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the tissues, and although the relationship is non-linear, the greater the voltage, the greater the current. The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current, but is about 0.1 mA to 1 mA for mains-frequency electricity, though a current as low as a microamp can be detected as an electrovibration effect under certain conditions. If the current is sufficiently high, it will cause muscle contraction, fibrillation of the heart, and tissue burns. The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard. The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense, leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of torture. Death caused by an electric shock is referred to as electrocution. Electrocution is still the means of judicial execution in some jurisdictions, though its use has become rarer in recent times. Electrical phenomena in nature The electric eel, Electrophorus electricus Electricity is not a human invention, and may be observed in several forms in nature, a prominent manifestation of which is lightning. Many interactions familiar at the macroscopic level, such as touch, friction or chemical bonding, are due to interactions between electric fields on the atomic scale. The Earth's magnetic field is thought to arise from a natural dynamo of circulating currents in the planet's core. Certain crystals, such as quartz, or even sugar, generate a potential difference across their faces when subjected to external pressure. This phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity, from the Greek piezein (πιέζειν), meaning to press, and was discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie. The effect is reciprocal, and when a piezoelectric material is subjected to an electric field, a small change in physical dimensions take place. Some organisms, such as sharks, are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as electroreception, while others, termed electrogenic, are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory or defensive weapon. The order Gymnotiformes, of which the best known example is the electric eel, detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated from modified muscle cells called electrocytes. All animals transmit information along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called action potentials, whose functions include communication by the nervous system between neurons and muscles. An electric shock stimulates this system, and causes muscles to contract. Action potentials are also responsible for coordinating activities in certain plants and mammals. Cultural perception In the 19th and early 20th century, electricity was not part of the everyday life of many people, even in the industrialised Western world. The popular culture of the time accordingly often depicts it as a mysterious, quasi-magical force that can slay the living, revive the dead or otherwise bend the laws of nature. This attitude is manifest in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1819), which originated the cliché of a mad scientist reviving a patchwork creature with electrical power. As the public familiarity with electricity as the lifeblood of the Second Industrial Revolution grew, its wielders were more often cast in a positive light, Van Riper, op.cit., p. 71. such as the workers who "finger death at their gloves' end as they piece and repiece the living wires" in Rudyard Kipling's 1907 poem The Sons of Martha. Electrically powered vehicles of every sort featured large in adventure stories such as those of Jules Verne or the Tom Swift books. The masters of electricity, whether fictional or real—including scientists such as Thomas Edison, Charles Steinmetz or Nikola Tesla—were popularly conceived of as having wizard-like powers. With electricity ceasing to be a novelty and becoming a necessity of everyday life in the later half of the 20th century, it required particular attention by popular culture only when it stops flowing, an event that usually signals disaster. The people who keep it flowing, such as the nameless hero of Jimmy Webb’s song "Wichita Lineman" (1968), are still often cast as heroic, wizard-like figures. See also Ampere's rule, connects the direction of an electric current and its associated magnetic currents. Electrical energy, the potential energy of a system of charges Electricity market, the sale of electrical energy Electrical phenomena, observable events which illuminate the physical principles of electricity Electric power, the rate at which electrical energy is transferred Electronics, the study of the movement of charge through certain materials and devices Hydraulic analogy, an analogy between the flow of water and electric current Native American contributions#E Moche electricity Notes a. the New Latin ēlectricus, "amber-like", came from from the classical Latin electrum, itself coming from the Greek ἤλεκτρον, (elektron), meaning amber References Bibliography Benjamin, P. (1898). A history of electricity (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. 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5,859 | Politics_of_Burundi | Politics of Burundi takes place in a framework of a transitional presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Burundi is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Senate and the National Assembly. Political landscape after the civil war The political landscape of Burundi has been dominated in recent years by the civil war and a long peace process and move to democracy. The current President of Burundi is Pierre Nkurunziza, a former rebel leader of the Hutu National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy who was elected unopposed as the new President of Burundi by the parliament on 19 August 2005. Nkurunziza was the first president chosen through democratic means since the start of the civil war in 1993 and was sworn in on 26 August, replacing transitional president Domitien Ndayizeye. In November 1995, the presidents of Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zaire (currently Democratic Republic of Congo) announced a regional initiative for a negotiated peace in Burundi facilitated by former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere. In July 1996, former Burundian President Buyoya returned to power in a bloodless coup. He declared himself president of a transitional republic, even as he suspended the National Assembly, banned opposition groups, and imposed a nationwide curfew. Widespread condemnation of the coup ensued, and regional countries imposed economic sanctions pending a return to a constitutional government. Buyoya agreed in 1996 to liberalize political parties. Nonetheless, fighting between the army and Hutu militias continued. In June 1998, Buyoya promulgated a transitional constitution and announced a partnership between the government and the opposition-led National Assembly. After facilitator Julius Nyerere's death in October 1999, the regional leaders appointed Nelson Mandela as Facilitator of the Arusha peace process. Under Mandela the peace process has revived and important progress has taken place. Executive branch |President |Pierre Nkurunziza |CNDD-FDD |26 August 2005 |- |rowspan=2 valign=top|Vice-presidents |Yves Sahinguvu |UPRONA |09 November 2007 |- |Gabriel Ntisezerana | |9 February 2007 |} The president is elected by the people. He nominates two vice-presidents, who form together with the Council of Ministers the executive branch. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assemblée nationale) has 118 members, elected for a five year term by proportional representation with a 2% barrier. The Senate (Sénat) has 49 members, elected for a five year term by electoral colleges of communal councilors. Extra seats in both chambers can be added to ensure that ethnic and gender quotas are met. Burundi has a multi-party system, with two or three strong parties and a third party that is electorally successful. Parties are usually based on ethnic background. Political parties and elections Administrative divisions Burundi has 17 provinces: Bubanza, Bujumbura Mairie, Bujumbura Rural, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Mwaro, Ngozi, Rutana and Ruyigi. International relations Burundi is member of ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO. 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5,860 | Office_of_Strategic_Services | The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was a United States intelligence agency formed during World War II. It was the wartime intelligence agency, and it was the predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Origins and Activities Prior to the formation of the OSS (the counterpart of the British Secret Intelligence Service and Special Operations Executive), American intelligence had been conducted on an ad-hoc basis by the various departments of the executive branch, including the State, Treasury, Navy, and War Departments. They had no overall direction, coordination, or control. The US Army and US Navy had separate code-breaking departments (Signals Intelligence Service and OP-20-G) that not only competed, but refused to share break-throughs. Also, the original code-breaking operation of the State Department, MI-8, run by Herbert Yardley, had been shut down in 1929 by Secretary of State Henry Stimson, deeming it an inappropriate function for the diplomatic arm, because "gentlemen don't read each other's mail". Stimson, Henry L. On Active Service in Peace and War (1948). per Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, 16th ed. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was concerned about American intelligence deficiencies. On the suggestion of Canadian spymaster William Stephenson, the senior representative of British intelligence in the western hemisphere, Roosevelt requested that William J. Donovan, a World War I veteran, Medal of Honor recipient, attorney, and former Republican candidate for Governor of New York, draft a plan for an intelligence service. Gen. Donovan was employed to evaluate the global military position in order to offer suggestions concerning American intelligence requirements because the US did not have a central intelligence agency. After submitting his work, "Memorandum of Establishment of Service of Strategic Information," Gen. Donovan was appointed as the "Co-ordinator of Information" in July 1941. The Office of Strategic Services was established by a Presidential military order issued by President Roosevelt on 13 June 1942, to collect and analyze strategic information required by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and to conduct special operations not assigned to other agencies. During the War, the OSS supplied policy makers with facts and estimates, but the OSS never had jurisdiction over all foreign intelligence activities. The FBI was responsible for intelligence work in Latin America, and the Army and Navy guarded their areas of responsibility. General William J. Donovan reviews Operational Group members in Bethesda, Maryland, prior to their departure for China in 1945 From 1943-1945, the OSS played a major role in training Nationalist Chinese troops in China and Burma, and recruited Kachin, and other indigenous irregular forces for sabotage as well as guides for Allied forces in Burma fighting the Japanese Army. Among other activities, the OSS helped arm, train and supply resistance movements, including Mao Zedong's Red Army in China and the Viet Minh in French Indochina, in areas occupied by the Axis powers during the Second World War. The OSS also recruited and ran one of the war's most important spies, the German diplomat Fritz Kolbe. Other functions of the OSS included the use of propaganda, espionage, subversion, and post-war planning. The OSS purchased Soviet code and cipher material (or Finnish information on them) from the émigré Finnish army officers in late 1944. Secretary of State Edward Stettinius, Jr., protested that this violated an agreement President Roosevelt made with the Soviet Union not to interfere with Soviet cipher traffic from the USA. Gen. Donovan might have copied the papers before returning them the following January, but there is no record of Arlington Hall's receiving them, and CIA and NSA archives have no surviving copies. This codebook was in fact used as part of the Venona decryption effort, which helped uncover large-scale Soviet espionage in North America. The Mitrokhin Archive, Volume 1: The KGB in Europe and the West, by Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, 1999. One of the greatest accomplishments of the OSS during World War II was its penetration of Germany by OSS operatives. The OSS was responsible for training German and Austrian individuals for missions inside Germany. Some of these agents included exiled communists and Socialist party members, labor activists, anti-Nazi prisoners-of-war, and German and Jewish refugees. At the height of its influence during World War II, the OSS employed almost 24,000 people. Chef Julia Child, others part of WWII spy network, CNN, 2008-08-14 In 1943, during the Second World War, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) set up operations in Istanbul. Hassell, A, and MacRae, S: Alliance of Enemies: The Untold Story of the Secret American and German Collaboration to End World War II, page 158. Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. Turkey, as a neutral country during the Second World War, was a place where both the Axis and Allied powers sought to set up networks of spies. The railroads connecting central Asia with the West as well as Turkey’s close proximity to the Balkan states placed it at a crossroads of intelligence gathering. The goal of the OSS Istanbul operation called Project Net-1 was to infiltrate and extenuate subversive action in the old Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Hassell, A, and MacRae, S: Alliance of Enemies: The Untold Story of the Secret American and German Collaboration to End World War II, page 158. Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. Head of operations at OSS Istanbul was a banker from Chicago named Lanning “Packy” Macfarland who maintained the cover story as a banker for the American lend-lease program. Hassell, A, and MacRae, S: Alliance of Enemies: The Untold Story of the Secret American and German Collaboration to End World War II, page 159. Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. Macfarland hired Alfred Schwarz who was a Czechoslovakian engineer and businessman who came to be known as “Dogwood” and ended up establishing the notorious Dogwood information chain. Hassell, A, and MacRae, S: Alliance of Enemies: The Untold Story of the Secret American and German Collaboration to End World War II, page 166. Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. Dogwood in turn hired as a personal assistant named Walter Arndt and established himself as an employee of the Istanbul Western Electrik Kompani. Hassell, A, and MacRae, S: Alliance of Enemies: The Untold Story of the Secret American and German Collaboration to End World War II, page 166. Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. Through Schwartz and Arndt the OSS was able to infiltrate Anti-Nazi groups in Austria, Hungary and Germany. Schwartz was able to convince Romanian, Bulgarian, Hungarian and Swiss diplomatic couriers to smuggle American Intelligence Information into these territories and establish contact with elements antagonistic to the Nazi regime. Hassell, A, and MacRae, S: Alliance of Enemies: The Untold Story of the Secret American and German Collaboration to End World War II, page 167. Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. Couriers and agents memorized information and produced analytical reports; when they were not able to memorize effectively they recorded information on microfilm and hid it in their shoes or hollowed pencils. Rubin, B: Istanbul Intrigues, page 168. Pharos Books, 1992. Through this process information about the Nazi regime made its way to Macfarland and the OSS in Istanbul and eventually to Washington. While the OSS “Dogwood-chain” produced a lot of information, its reliability was increasingly questioned by British Intelligence. Eventually by May 1944 through collaboration between OSS, British Intelligence, Cairo and Washington the entire “Dogwood-chain” was found to be unreliable and dangerous. Rubin, B: Istanbul Intrigues, page 192. Pharos Books, 1992. Planting phony information into the OSS was intended to misdirect the resources of the Allies. Schwartz’s “Dogwood - chain” which was the largest American intelligence gathering tool in occupied territory, was shortly thereafter shut down. Hassell, A, and MacRae, S: Alliance of Enemies: The Untold Story of the Secret American and German Collaboration to End World War II, page 184. Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. Transformation into the CIA One month after the war was won in the Pacific Theater of Operations, on September 20, 1945, the 33rd U.S. President Harry S Truman signed an Executive Order which came into effect as of October 1 of 1945. Thus in the following days from September 20th of 1945 the functions of the OSS were split between the Department of State and the Department of War. The State Department received the Research and Analysis Branch of OSS which was renamed the Interim Research and Intelligence Service or (IRIS) and headed by U.S. Army Colonel Alfred McCormack. The War Department took over the Secret Intelligence (SI) and Counter-espionage (X-2) Branches, which were then housed in a new office created for just this purpose - The Strategic Services Unit (SSU). The Secretary of War appointed Brigadier General John Magruder (formerly Donovan's Deputy Director for Intelligence in OSS) as the director to oversee the liquidation of the OSS, and more importantly, the preservation of the clandestine intelligence capability of the OSS. Yet (??) transferred to the CIG in mid-1946 and reconstituted as the Office of Special Operations (OSO). Next, the National Security Act of 1947 established the United States's first permanent peacetime intelligence agency, the Central Intelligence Agency, which then took up the functions of the OSS. The direct descendant of the paramilitary component of the OSS is Special Activities Division of the CIA. Waller, Douglas (2003) CIA's Secret Army, Time Magazine, Time Inc. Branches Secret Intelligence Research and Analysis Special Operations X-2 (counterespionage) Research & Development Morale Operations Maritime Units Operational Groups Communications Medical Services Facilities Prince William Forest Park (then known as Chopawamsic Recreational Demonstration Area) was the site of an OSS training camp that operated from 1942 to 1945. Area "C", consisting of approximately 6,000 acres (24 km²), was used extensively for communications training, whereas Area "A" was use for training some of the OGs. Catoctin Mountain Park, now the location of Camp David, was the site of OSS training Area "B." Congressional Country Club (Area F) in Bethesda, MD was the primary OSS training facility. The Facilities of the Catalina Island Marine Institute at Toyon Bay on Santa Catalina Island, Calif., are composed (in part) of a former OSS survival training camp. The National Park Service commissioned a study of OSS National Park training facilities by Professor John Chambers of Rutgers University. US Army units attached to the OSS 2671st Special Reconnaissance Battalion 2677th Office of Strategic Services Regiment Personnel The names of all OSS personnel and documents of their OSS service, previously a closely guarded secret, were released by the US National Archives on August 14, 2008. Among the 24,000 names were those of Julia Child, Arthur Goldberg, Moe Berg, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., Bruce Sundlun, and John Ford Brett J. Blackledge and Randy Herschaft, "Documents: Julia Child part of WW II-era spy ring", Associated Press "Chef Julia Child, others part of WW II spy network", CNN . The 750,000 pages in the 35,000 personnel files include applications of people who were not recruited or hired, as well as the service records of those who were. In popular culture The 1946 Paramount film O.S.S., starring Alan Ladd and Geraldine Fitzgerald, showed agents training and on a dangerous mission. The 1946 film 13 Rue Madeleine stars James Cagney as an OSS agent who must find a mole in French partisan operations. The 1947 film Cloak and Dagger stars Gary Cooper as a scientist recruited to OSS to exfiltrate a german scientist defecting to the allies with the help of a woman guerrilla and her partisans. Author W.E.B. Griffin's "Honor Bound" and "Men At War" series revolves around fictional OSS operations during World War II. Most games in the Medal of Honor video game franchise feature a fictional OSS agent as the main character. The Venture Bros. T.V. series character Brock Samson is recruited by the O.S.I., an O.S.S.-like department of the United States government. In Commandos: Strike Force. Colonel Brown, the spy, states that he is with the O.S.S. In the Season 6 X-Files episode "Triangle", the woman from the 1939 scenes portrayed by Gillian Anderson as Scully is a member of OSS. In the Spy Kids films, the fictional organization that the Cortez family work for is called the OSS, derived from the above mentioned organization. In the 2006 film The Good Shepherd Edward Wilson (Matt Damon) plays a Skull & Bones recruit who joins the OSS shortly after to help with a mission in London. He quickly gains rank as the head of the newly formed CIA's Counterintelligence service. The OSS is referenced in the 2007 film Smokin' Aces. In The 2008 film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, it is indicated that Indiana Jones did work for the OSS, attaining the rank of Colonel. See also British Special Operations Executive CIA's Special Activities Division OSS Detachment 101 operated in the China Burma India Theater of World War II. United States Army Special Forces 1st Marine Parachute Regiment {detachment} Special Allied Airborne Reconnaissance Force References Notes Bibliography Stanley P. Lovell, Of Spies and Stratagems (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963). Anthony Cave Brown, The Last Hero: Wild Bill Donovan, 1982, ISBN 0686959752. Anthony Cave Brown, Secret War Report of the OSS, ISBN 0425032531. Dan Pinck's Journey to Peking: A Secret Agent in Wartime China (Naval Institute Press, 2003), tells the true story of an OSS agent sent behind enemy lines in China. W.E.B. Griffin described the book as a "valuable addition to history." External links The OSS Society "The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency" The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency, Michael Warner, CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, United States Central Intelligence Agency (2000) OSS Blog OSS psychological profile report on Hitler OSS Psychological Warfare Study Office of Strategic Services Operational Groups OSS - The Psychology of War Research and Analysis Branch (R&A) Secret Norwegian intelligence sites in Sweden 1944-1945 financially supported by the OSS The Office of Strategic Services Operatives, Spies and Saboteurs - The Stories of the Men and Women of the OSS Office of Strategic Services (PSC/PMC) OSS - Roll of honour, awards and images. 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5,861 | Eurystheus | Eurystheus hiding in a storage jar as Heracles brings him the Erymanthian boar. Side A from a red-figure kylix by Oltos, ca. 510 BC, (Louvre) In Greek mythology, Eurystheus (Εὐρυσθεύς meaning "wide strength" in folk etymology) was king of Tiryns, one of three Mycenaean strongholds in the Argolid: Sthenelus was his father and the "victorious horsewoman" Nicippe his mother, and he was a grandson of the hero Perseus, as was his opponent Heracles. He was married to Antimache, Antimache, "strife of opposites" does not feature further in Greek myth, aside from a list of names of her sons and a genealogy for her, given in Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 2.5.9, 2.8.1, 3.9.2. daughter of Amphidamas. In the contest of wills between Hera and Zeus over whose candidate would be hero, fated to defeat the remaining creatures representing an old order and bring about the reign of the Twelve Olympians, Eurystheus was Hera's candidate and Heracles — though his name implies that at one archaic stage of myth-making he had carried "Hera's fame" — was the candidate of Zeus. See Carl A.P. Ruck and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth (1994) VII. "Herakles: Making the New Olympia", pp.163-202. The arena for the actions that would bring about this deep change are the Twelve Labors imposed on Heracles by Eurystheus. The immediate necessity for the Labours of Heracles is as penance for Heracles' murder of his own family, in a fit of madness, which had been sent by Hera; however, further human rather than mythic motivation is supplied by mythographers who note that their respective families had been rivals for the throne of Mycenae. Details of the individual episodes may be found in the article on the Labours of Heracles, but Hera was connected with all of the opponents Heracles had to overcome. Heracles' human stepfather Amphitryon was also a grandson of Perseus, and since Amphitryon's father (Alcaeus) was older than Eurystheus' father (Sthenelus), he might have received the kingdom, but Sthenelus had banished Amphitryon for accidentally killing (a familiar mytheme) the eldest son in the family (Electryon). When, shortly before his son Heracles was born, Zeus proclaimed the next-born descendant of Perseus should get the kingdom, Hera thwarted his ambitions by delaying Alcmene's labour and having her candidate Eurystheus born prematurely. Heracles' first task was to slay the Nemean Lion and bring back its skin, which Heracles decided to wear. Eurystheus was so scared by Heracles' fearsome guise that he hid in a subterranean bronze winejar, and from that moment forth all labors were communicated to Heracles through a herald, Copreus. For his second labour, to slay the Lernaean Hydra, Heracles took with him his nephew, Iolaus, as a charioteer. When Eurystheus found out that Heracles' nephew had helped him he declared that the labour had not been completed alone and as a result did not count towards the ten labours set for him. Eurystheus' third task did not involve killing a beast, but to capture the Cerynian Hind, a golden-horned stag sacred to Artemis. Heracles knew that he had to return the hind, as he had promised, to Artemis, so he agreed to hand it over on the condition that Eurystheus himself come out and take it from him. Eurystheus did come out, but the moment Heracles let the hind go, she sprinted back to her mistress, and Heracles departed, saying that Eurystheus had not been quick enough. When Heracles returned with the Erymanthian Boar, Eurystheus was frightened and hid again in his jar and begged Heracles to get rid of the beast; Heracles obliged. The fifth labour proposed by Eurystheus was to clear out the numerous stables of Augeias. Striking a deal with Augeias, Heracles proposed a payment of a tenth of Augeias' cattle if the labour was completed successfully. Not believing the task feasible, Augeias agreed, asking his son Phyleus to witness. Heracles rerouted two nearby rivers (Alpheis and Peneios) through the stable, clearing out the dung rapidly. When Augeias learned of Heracles' bargain for the task, he refused payment. Heracles brought the case to court, and Phyleus testified against his father. Enraged, Augeias banished both Phyleus and Heracles from the land before the court had cast their vote. However, Eurystheus refused to credit the labour to Heracles, as he had performed it for payment. For his seventh labour Heracles captured the Cretan Bull. Heracles used a lasso and rode it back to his cousin. Eurystheus wanted to sacrifice the bull to Hera his patron, who hated Heracles. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull. When Heracles brought back the man-eating Mares of Diomedes successfully, Eurystheus dedicated the horses to Hera and allowed them to roam freely in the Argolid. Bucephalus, Alexander the Great's horse, was said to be descended from these mares. To acquire the belt of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons was Heracles's ninth task. This task was at the request of Eurystheus' daughter, Admete. To extend what may have once been ten Labours to the canonical dozen, it was said that Eurystheus didn't count the Hydra, as he was assisted, nor the Augean stables, as Heracles received payment for his work. For the eleventh labour Heracles had to steal the Apples of the Hesperides; his final labour was to capture Cerberus, the three-headed hound that guarded the entrance to Hades. After Heracles died, Eurystheus attempted to destroy his many children (the Heracleidae, led by Hyllus), who fled to Athens. He attacked the city, but was soundly defeated, and he and his sons were killed. The stories about the killer of Eurystheus and the fate of his corpse vary, Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 3.8.1 and Diodorus Siculus 4.57 give Hyllus as the slayer, Pausanias 1.44.10 and Strabo 7.6.19 give Iolaus. but the Athenians believed the burial site of Heracles remained on their soil and served to protect the country against the descendants of Heracles, who traditionally included the Spartans and Argives. After Eurystheus' death, the brothers Atreus and Thyestes, whom he had left in charge during his absence, took over the city, the former exiling the latter and assuming the kingship, while Tiryns returned to the overlordship of Argos. Eurystheus in Euripides Eurystheus was a character in Heracleidae, a play by Euripides. Macaria, one of the daughters of Heracles, and her brothers and sisters hid from Eurystheus in Athens, ruled by King Demophon. As Eurystheus prepared to attack, an oracle told Demophon that he would win if and only if a noble woman was sacrificed to Persephone. Macaria volunteered for the sacrifice and a spring was named the Macarian spring in her honor. Notes Sources Kerenyi, Karl. The Heroes of the Greeks. 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5,862 | McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II | The McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II The aircraft was originally designated the AH, and later re-designated F4H. The F-4 designation came about in 1962 when the designation systems for all branches of the military were unified by the order of U.S. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara. Within McDonnell Aircraft, the F-4 was referred to as Model 98. is a tandem two-seat, twin-engined, all-weather, long-range supersonic jet interceptor fighter/fighter-bomber originally developed for the U.S. Navy by McDonnell Aircraft. Swanborough and Bowers 1976, p. 301. Proving highly adaptable, it became a major part of the air wings of the United States Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force. It was used extensively by all three of these services during the Vietnam War, serving as the principal air superiority fighter for both the Navy and Air Force, as well as being important in the ground-attack and reconnaissance roles by the close of U.S. involvement in the war. Integrated Defense Systems: F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th. Boeing. Retrieved: 19 January 2008. First entering service in 1960, the Phantom continued to form a major part of U.S. military air power throughout the 1970s and 1980s, being gradually replaced by more modern aircraft such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon in the U.S. Air Force; the F-14 Tomcat and F/A-18 Hornet in the U.S. Navy; and the F/A-18 in the U.S. Marine Corps. It remained in use by the U.S. in the reconnaissance and Wild Weasel roles in the 1991 Gulf War, finally leaving service in 1996. The Phantom was also operated by the armed forces of 11 other nations. Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat in several Arab–Israeli conflicts, while Iran used its large fleet of Phantoms in the Iran–Iraq War. Phantoms remain in front line service with seven countries, and in use as an unmanned target in the U.S. Air Force. Phantom production ran from 1958 to 1981, with a total of 5,195 built. This extensive run makes it the second most-produced Western jet fighter, behind the F-86 Sabre at just under 10,000 examples. Overview The F-4 Phantom was designed as a fleet defense fighter for the U.S. Navy, and first entered service in 1960. By 1963, it had been adopted by the U.S. Air Force for the fighter-bomber role. When production ended in 1981, 5,195 Phantom IIs had been built, making it the most numerous American supersonic military aircraft. F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th: First to Last. Boeing Integrated Defense Systems. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Until the advent of the F-15 Eagle, the F-4 also held a record for the longest continuous production for a fighter with a run of 24 years. Innovations in the F-4 included an advanced pulse-doppler radar and extensive use of titanium in its airframe. F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th: Current Uses of Titanium: F-4 Boeing Integrated Defense Systems. 1971. "F-4B/C 1,006 lb. 7.7% of Structure, F-J/E 1,261 lb. 8.5% of Structure". Retrieved: 14 February 2008. Despite the imposing dimensions and a maximum takeoff weight of over 60,000 lb (27,000 kg), Donald and Lake 1996, p. 268. the F-4 had a top speed of Mach 2.23 and an initial climb of over 41,000 ft/min (210 m/s). Dorr and Donald 1990, p. 198. Shortly after its introduction, the Phantom set 15 world records, Integrated Defense Systems: F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th - Phantom "Phirsts". Boeing. Retrieved: 14 December 2007. including an absolute speed record of 1,606.342 mph (2,585.086 km/h), and an absolute altitude record of 98,557 ft (30,040 m). Integrated Defense Systems: F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th - World Record Holder. Boeing. Retrieved: 14 December 2007. Although set in 1959–1962, five of the speed records were not broken until 1975 when the F-15 Eagle came into service. The Blue Angels flew F-4Js from 1969 to 1974. The F-4 could carry up to 18,650 pounds (8,480 kg) of weapons on nine external hardpoints, including air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles, and unguided, guided, and nuclear bombs. McDonnell Douglas F-4D “Phantom II”. National Museum of the USAF. Retrieved: 20 January 2008 Since the F-8 Crusader was to be used for close combat, the F-4 was designed, like other interceptors of the day, without an internal cannon. Angelucci 1987, p. 310. In a dogfight, the RIO or WSO (commonly called "backseater" or "pitter") assisted in spotting opposing fighters, visually as well as on radar. It became the primary fighter-bomber of both the Navy and Air Force by the end of the Vietnam War. Due to its distinctive appearance and widespread service with United States military and its allies, the F-4 is one of the best-known icons of the Cold War. It served in the Vietnam War and Arab–Israeli conflicts, with American F-4 crews claiming 277 aerial victories in Southeast Asia and completing countless ground attack sorties. Angelucci 1987, p. 312. A formation of F-4 Phantom IIs fly during a heritage flight demonstration to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of the U.S. Air Force. The F-4 Phantom has the distinction of being the last United States fighter flown to attain ace status in the 20th century. During the Vietnam War, the USAF had one pilot and two WSOs, and the USN one pilot and one RIO, become aces in air-to-air combat. It was also a capable tactical reconnaissance and Wild Weasel (suppression of enemy air defenses) platform, seeing action as late as 1991, during Operation Desert Storm. Donald Spring 1991, p. 26. Donald Summer 1991, p. 22. The F-4 Phantom II was also the only aircraft used by both US flight demonstration teams. The USAF Thunderbirds (F-4E) and the USN Blue Angels (F-4J) both switched to the Phantom for the 1969 season; the Thunderbirds flew it for five seasons, Lake 1992, p. 190. the Blue Angels for six. Lake 1992, p. 203. The baseline performance of a Mach 2-class fighter with long range and a bomber-sized payload would be the template for the next generation of large and light/middle-weight fighters optimized for daylight air combat. The Phantom would be replaced by the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon in the U.S. Air Force. In the U.S. Navy, it would be replaced by the F-14 Tomcat and the F/A-18 Hornet which revived the concept of a dual-role attack fighter. Donald, David. Warplanes of the Fleet. London: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 2004. ISBN 1-880588-81-1. Design and development Origins In 1952, McDonnell's Chief of Aerodynamics, Dave Lewis, was appointed by CEO Jim McDonnell to be the company’s Preliminary Design Manager. Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 13. With no new aircraft competitions on the horizon, internal studies concluded the Navy had the greatest need for a new and different aircraft type: an attack fighter. Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 11. In 1953, McDonnell Aircraft began work on revising its F3H Demon naval fighter, seeking expanded capabilities and better performance. The company developed several projects including a variant powered by a Wright J67 engine, Dorr 2008, p. 61. and variants powered by two Wright J65 engines, or two General Electric J79 engines. F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th - Phantom Development 1978 Commemorative Book. Boeing Integrated Defense Systems. Retrieved 14 February 2008 The J79-powered version promised a top speed of Mach 1.97. On 19 September 1953, McDonnell approached the United States Navy with a proposal for the "Super Demon". Uniquely, the aircraft was to be modular—it could be fitted with one- or two-seat noses for different missions, with different nose cones to accommodate radar, photo cameras, four 20 mm (.79 in) cannon, or 56 FFAR unguided rockets in addition to the nine hardpoints under the wings and the fuselage. The Navy was sufficiently interested to order a full-scale mock-up of the F3H-G/H, but felt that the upcoming Grumman XF9F-9 and Vought XF8U-1 already satisfied the need for the supersonic fighter. Lake 1992, p. 15. The McDonnell design was therefore reworked into an all-weather fighter-bomber with 11 external hardpoints for weapons and on 18 October 1954, the company received a letter of intent for two YAH-1 prototypes. On 26 May 1955, four Navy officers arrived at the McDonnell offices and, within an hour, presented the company with an entirely new set of requirements. Because the Navy already had the A-4 Skyhawk for ground attack and F-8 Crusader for dogfighting, the project now had to fulfill the need for an all-weather fleet defense interceptor. A second crewman was added to operate the powerful radar. XF4H-1 prototype The XF4H-1 was designed to carry four semi-recessed AAM-N-6 Sparrow III radar-guided missiles, and to be powered by two J79-GE-8 engines. As in the F-101 Voodoo, the engines sat low in the fuselage to maximize internal fuel capacity and ingested air through fixed geometry intakes. The thin-section wing had a leading edge sweep of 45° and was equipped with a boundary layer control system for better low-speed handling. Wind tunnel testing had revealed lateral instability requiring the addition of 5° dihedral to the wings. Donald and Lake 2002 To avoid redesigning the titanium central section of the aircraft, McDonnell engineers angled up only the outer portions of the wings by 12°, which averaged to the required 5° over the entire wingspan. The wings also received the distinctive "dogtooth" for improved control at high angles of attack. The all-moving tailplane was given 23° of anhedral to improve control at high angles of attack while still keeping the tailplane clear of the engine exhaust. In addition, air intakes were equipped with movable ramps to regulate airflow to the engines at supersonic speeds. All-weather intercept capability was achieved thanks to the AN/APQ-50 radar. To accommodate carrier operations, the landing gear was designed to withstand landings with a sink rate of 23 ft/s (7 m/s), while the nose strut could extend by some 20 in (50 cm) to increase angle of attack at takeoff. Naming the aircraft There were proposals to name the F4H "Satan" and "Mithras", the Persian god of light. Kunsan Airbase F-4 Phantom II In the end, the aircraft was given the less controversial name "Phantom II", the first "Phantom" being another McDonnell jet fighter, the FH-1 Phantom. The Phantom II was briefly given the designation F-110A and the name "Spectre" by the USAF, but neither title was used. Angelucci 1987, p. 316. Prototype testing On 25 July 1955, the Navy ordered two XF4H-1 test aircraft and five YF4H-1 pre-production fighters. The Phantom made its maiden flight on 27 May 1958 with Robert C. Little at the controls. A hydraulic problem precluded retraction of the landing gear but subsequent flights went more smoothly. Early testing resulted in redesign of the air intakes, including the distinctive addition of 12,500 bleed air holes on each ramp; and the aircraft soon squared off against the XF8U-3 Crusader III. Due to operator workload, the Navy wanted a two-seat aircraft and on 17 December 1958 the F4H was declared a winner. Delays with the J79-GE-8 engines meant that the first production aircraft were fitted with J79-GE-2 and -2A engines, each having 16,100 lbf (71.8 kN) of afterburning thrust. In 1959, the Phantom began carrier suitability trials with the first complete launch-recovery cycle performed on 15 February 1960 from . Production A flight of USAF F-4Cs refuel from a KC-135 tanker before making a strike against targets in North Vietnam. The Phantoms are fully loaded with 750-pound general purpose bombs, Sparrow missiles and external fuel tanks. Early in production, the radar was upgraded to a larger AN/APQ-72, necessitating the bulbous nose, and the canopy was reworked to improve visibility and make the rear cockpit less claustrophobic. Lake 1992, p. 21. The Phantom underwent a great many changes during its career, summarized in the "Variants" section below. The USAF received Phantoms as the result of Defense Secretary Robert McNamara's push to create a unified fighter for all branches of the military. After an F-4B won the "Operation Highspeed" fly-off against the F-106 Delta Dart, the USAF borrowed two Naval F-4Bs, temporarily designating them F-110A "Spectre" in January 1962, and developed requirements for their own version. Unlike the Navy focus on interception, the USAF emphasized a fighter-bomber role. With McNamara's unification of designations on 18 September 1962, the Phantom became the F-4 with the Naval version designated F-4B and USAF F-4C. The first Air Force Phantom flew on 27 May 1963, exceeding Mach 2 on its maiden flight. Knaack 1978, p. 266. Phantom II production ended in the United States in 1979 after 5,195 had been built (5,057 by McDonnell Douglas and 138 in Japan by Mitsubishi), making it the second-most produced and exported American military-jet; the F-86 Sabre still remains the most numerous jet-powered warplane produced and exported by the United States. Of these, 2,874 went to the USAF, 1,264 to the Navy and Marine Corps, and the rest to foreign customers. Integrated Defense Systems: F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th. Boeing. Retrieved: 22 May 2007. The last U.S.-built F-4 went to Turkey, while the last F-4 ever built was completed in 1981 as an F-4EJ by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in Japan. , 631 Phantoms remained in active service worldwide, while the Phantom also remains in use as a drone operated by the U.S. military. World records To show off their new fighter, the Navy led a series of record-breaking flights early in Phantom development: Operation Top Flight: On 6 December 1959, the second XF4H-1 performed a zoom climb to a world record 98,557 ft (30,040 m). The previous record of 94,658 ft (28,852 m) was set by a Soviet Sukhoi T-43-1 prototype. Commander Lawrence E. Flint, Jr., USN accelerated his aircraft to Mach 2.5 at 47,000 ft (14,330 m) and climbed to 90,000 ft (27,430 m) at a 45° angle. He then shut down the engines and glided to the peak altitude. As the aircraft fell through 70,000 ft (21,300 m), Flint restarted the engines and resumed normal flight. Lake 1992, pp. 16, 17. On 5 September 1960, an F4H-1 averaged 1,216.78 mph (1,958.16 km/h) over a 500 km (311 mi) closed-circuit course. On 25 September 1960, an F4H-1 averaged 1,390.21 mph (2,237.26 km/h) over a 100 km (62 mi) closed-circuit course. Operation LANA: To celebrate the 50th anniversary of Naval aviation (L is the Roman numeral for 50 and ANA stood for Anniversary of Naval Aviation) on 24 May 1961, Phantoms flew across the continental United States in under three hours and included several tanker refuelings. The fastest of the aircraft averaged 869.74 mph (1,400.28 km/h) and completed the trip in 2 hours 47 minutes, earning the pilot (and future NASA Astronaut), Lieutenant Richard Gordon, USN and RIO, Lieutenant Bobbie Long, USN, the 1961 Bendix trophy. Stein, Alan J.Seattle native Dick Gordon orbits the moon on November 18, 1969. HistoryLink.org. 13 June 1999. Retrieved: 13 February 2008. Grossnick, Roy A. "Part 9 - The Sixth Decade 1960–1969". United States Naval Aviation 1910-1995, Naval Historical Center, 1997. Operation Sageburner: On 28 August 1961, a Phantom averaged 902.769 mph (1,452.826 km/h) over a 3 mi (4.82 km) course flying below 125 ft (40 m) at all times. Commander J.L. Felsman, USN was killed during the first attempt at this record on 18 May 1961 when his aircraft disintegrated in the air after pitch damper failure. McDonnell F-4A (F4H-1) Phantom II "Sageburner" National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved: 13 February 2008. Operation Skyburner: On 22 December 1961, a modified Phantom with water injection set an absolute world record speed of 1,606.342 mph (2,585.086 km/h). On 5 December 1961, another Phantom set a sustained altitude record of 66,443.8 ft (20,252.1 m). Operation High Jump: A series of time-to-altitude records was set in early 1962; 34.523 seconds to 3,000 m (9,840 ft), 48.787 seconds to 6,000 m (19,680 ft), 61.629 seconds to 9,000 m (29,530 ft), 77.156 seconds to 12,000 m (39,370 ft), 114.548 seconds to 15,000 m (49,210 ft), 178.5 seconds to 20,000 m (65,600 ft), 230.44 seconds to 25,000 m (82,000 ft), and 371.43 seconds to 30,000 m (98,400 ft). Although not officially recognized, the Phantom zoom-climbed to over 100,000 ft (30,480 m) during the last attempt. Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 15. All in all, the Phantom set 16 world records. With the exception of Skyburner, all records were achieved in unmodified production aircraft. Five of the speed records remained unbeaten until the F-15 Eagle appeared in 1975. Flight characteristics In air combat, the Phantom's greatest advantage was its thrust, which permitted a skilled pilot to engage and disengage from the fight at will. Goebel, Greg. Phantom Over Southeast Asia. Vectorsite.net. Retrieved: 18 January 2008. The massive aircraft, designed to fire radar-guided missiles from beyond visual range, lacked the agility of its Soviet opponents and was subject to adverse yaw during hard maneuvering. Although thus subject to irrecoverable spins during aileron rolls, pilots reported the aircraft to be very communicative and easy to fly on the edge of its performance envelope. In 1972, the F-4E model was upgraded with leading edge slats on the wing, greatly improving high-angle-of-attack maneuverability at the expense of top speed. The J79 engines produced copious amounts of black smoke at military power which made the Phantoms easy to spot from a distance, a severe disadvantage in air combat against smaller aircraft. Pilots could eliminate the smoke by using afterburner, but at the cost of fuel efficiency. McDonnell Douglas F-4S Phantom. MAPS Air Museum at Akron-Canton Airport. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Some pilots adopted the procedure of running one engine in dry thrust at normal power setting, and the other in afterburner, resulting in the same total thrust as using both engines at full rated military power without generating the tell-tale smoke trail. The F-4's biggest weakness, as it was initially designed, was its lack of an internal cannon. For a brief period, doctrine held that turning combat would be impossible at supersonic speeds and little effort was made to teach pilots air combat maneuvering. In reality, engagements quickly became subsonic. Furthermore, the relatively new heat-seeking and radar-guided missiles at the time were frequently reported as unreliable and pilots had to use multiple shots just to hit one target. To compound the problem, rules of engagement in Vietnam precluded long-range missile attacks in most instances, as visual identification was normally required. Many pilots found themselves on the tail of an enemy aircraft but too close to fire short-range Falcons or Sidewinders. Although in 1967 USAF F-4Cs began carrying SUU-16 or SUU-23 external gunpods containing a 20 mm (.79 in) M61 Vulcan Gatling cannon, USAF cockpits were not equipped with lead-computing gunsights, virtually assuring a miss in a maneuvering fight. Some Marine Corps aircraft carried two pods for strafing. In addition to the loss of performance due to drag, combat showed the externally mounted cannon to be inaccurate unless frequently boresighted, yet far more cost-effective than missiles. The lack of cannon was finally addressed by adding an internally mounted 20 mm (.79 in) M61 Vulcan on the F-4E. Higham and Williams 1978 Costs F-4CRF-4CF-4DF-4EUnit R&D cost - 61,200 (1965) by 1973 (2008) by 1973 - 22,700 (1965) by 1973 (2008) by 1973Airframe 1,388,725 (1965) 1,679,000 (1965) (2008) 1,018,682 (1965) (2008) 1,662,000 (1965) (2008)Engines 317,647 (1965) (2008) 276,000 (1965) (2008) 260,563 (1965) (2008) 393,000 (1965) (2008)Electronics 52,287 (1965) (2008) 293,000 (1965) (2008) 262,101 (1965) (2008) 299,000 (1965) (2008)Armament 139,706 (1965) (2008) 73,000 (1965) (2008) 133,430 (1965) (2008) 111,000 (1965) (2008)Ordnance - - 6,817 (1965) (2008) 8,000 (1965) (2008)Flyaway cost 1.9 million (1965) million (2008) 2.3 million (1965) million (2008) 1.7 million (1965) million (2008) 2.4 million (1965) million (2008)Modification costs 116,289 (1965) by 1973 (2008) by 1973 55,217 (1965) by 1973 (2008) by 1973 233,458 (1965) by 1973 (2008) by 1973 7,995 (1965) by 1973 (2008) by 1973 Cost per flying hour 924 (1965) (2008) 867 (1965) (2008) 896 (1965) (2008) 867 (1965) (2008)Maintenance cost per flying hour 545 (1965) (2008) Note: Original amounts were in 1965 United States dollars. Knaack 1978 The figures in these tables have been adjusted for inflation. Operational history United States Navy A US Navy F-4J Phantom II BuNo 153769 of VF-31 lands on the . On 30 December 1960, the VF-121 "Pacemakers" at NAS Miramar became the first Phantom operator with its F4H-1Fs (F-4As). The VF-74 "Be-devilers" at NAS Oceana became the first deployable Phantom squadron when it received its F4H-1s (F-4Bs) on 8 July 1961. Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 260. The squadron completed carrier qualifications in October 1961 and Phantom’s first full carrier deployment between August 1962 and March 1963 aboard . Lake 1992, p. 199. The second deployable US Atlantic Fleet squadron to receive F-4Bs was the VF-102 "Diamondbacks", who promptly took their new aircraft on the shakedown cruise of . Lake 1992, p. 200. The first deployable US Pacific Fleet squadron to receive the F-4B was the VF-114 "Aardvarks", which participated in the September 1962 cruise aboard . By the time of the Tonkin Gulf incident, 13 of 31 deployable Navy squadrons were armed with the type. F-4Bs from made the first Phantom combat sortie of the Vietnam War on 5 August 1964, flying bomber escort in Operation Pierce Arrow. Dorr 1995, p. 196. The first Phantom air-to-air victory of the war took place on 9 April 1965 when an F-4B from VF-96 "Fighting Falcons" piloted by Lieutenant (junior grade) Terence M. Murphy and his RIO, Ensign Ronald Fegan, shot down a Chinese MiG-17 'Fresco'. The Phantom was then shot down, apparently by an AIM-7 Sparrow from one of its wingmen. There continues to be controversy over whether the Phantom was shot down by MiG guns or whether, as enemy reports later indicated, an AIM-7 Sparrow III from one of Murphy's and Fegan's wingmen. Burgess 1985, p. 388. On 17 June 1965, an F-4B from VF-21 "Freelancers" piloted by Commander Thomas C. Page and Lieutenant John C. Smith shot down the first North Vietnamese MiG of the war. Dorr and Bishop 1996, p. 44. On 10 May 1972, Lieutenant Randy "Duke" Cunningham and Lieutenant (junior grade) William P. Driscoll flying an F-4J, call sign "Showtime 100", shot down three MiG-17s to become the first flying aces of the war. Their fifth victory was believed at the time to be over a mysterious North Vietnamese ace, Colonel Nguyen Toon, now considered mythical. On the return flight, the Phantom was damaged by an enemy surface-to-air missile. To avoid being captured, Cunningham and Driscoll flew their burning aircraft upside down (the damage made the aircraft uncontrollable in a conventional attitude) until they could eject over water. Dorr and Bishop 1996, pp. 188–189. During the war, Navy Phantom squadrons participated in 84 combat tours with F-4Bs, F-4Js, and F-4Ns. The Navy claimed 40 air-to-air victories at the cost of 71 Phantoms lost in combat (5 to aircraft, 13 to SAMs, and 53 to AAA). An additional 54 Phantoms were lost in accidents. Of the 40 aircraft shot down by Navy and Marine Phantom crews, 22 were MiG-17s, 14 MiG-21s, two Antonov An-2s, and two MiG-19s. Of these, eight aircraft were downed by AIM-7 Sparrow missiles and 31 by AIM-9 Sidewinders. Grossnick 1997. By 1983, the F-4Ns had been completely replaced by F-14 Tomcats, and by 1986 the last F-4Ss were exchanged for F/A-18 Hornets. On 25 March 1986, an F-4S belonging to VF-151 Vigilantes became the last Navy Phantom to launch from an aircraft carrier, in this case, the . On 18 October 1986, an F-4S from the VF-202 "Superheats", a Naval Reserve fighter squadron, made the last-ever Phantom carrier landing while operating aboard . In 1987, the last of the Naval Reserve-operated F-4Ss were replaced by F-14As. The last Phantoms in service with the Navy were QF-4 target drones operated by the Naval Air Warfare Centers. These were retired in 2004. Hunter, Jamie and Collens, Richard. "In Relentless Pursuit of Excellence:VX-30 Bloodhounds" (PDF). Naval Aviation News, September–October 2004, p. 26–29. Retrieved: 18 December 2007. United States Marine Corps The Marines received their first F-4Bs in June 1962, with the "Black Knights" of VMFA-314 at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro, California becoming the first operational squadron. In addition to attack variants, the Marines also operated several tactical reconnaissance RF-4Bs. Marine Phantoms from VMFA-531 arrived in Vietnam on 10 April 1965, flying close air support missions from land bases as well as from America. Marine F-4 pilots claimed three enemy MiGs (two while on exchange duty with the USAF) at the cost of 75 aircraft lost in combat, mostly to ground fire, and four in accidents. On 18 January 1992, the last Marine Phantom, an F-4S, was retired by the "Cowboys" of VMFA-112. The squadron was re-equipped with F/A-18 Hornets. Crowther, M.J. and Baker, Rusty. The History of VMFA-112 Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 112, U.S. Marine Corps. Retrieved: 13 February 2008. United States Air Force USAF F-4 Summary for Vietnam War action <tr><th>Aircraft<th>Weapons/Tactics<th>MiG-17<th>MiG-19<th>MiG-21Total <tr><td>F-4C<td>AIM-7 Sparrow<td>4<td>0<td>10<td>14 <tr><td><td>AIM-9 Sidewinder<td>12<td>0<td>10<td>22 <tr><td><td>20 mm gun<td>3<td>0<td>1<td>4 <tr><td><td>Maneuvering tactics<td>2<td>0<td>0<td>2 <tr><td>F-4D<td> AIM-4 Falcon<td>4<td> 0<td>1<td>5 <tr><td><td>AIM-7 Sparrow<td>4<td>2<td>20<td>26 <tr><td><td>AIM-9 Sidewinder<td>0<td>2<td>3<td>5 <tr><td><td>20 mm gun<td>4.5<td>0<td>2<td>6.5 <tr><td><td>Maneuvering tactics<td>0<td>0<td>2<td>2 <tr><td>F-4E<td> AIM-7 Sparrow<td>0<td>2<td>8<td>10 <tr><td><td>AIM-9 Sidewinder<td>0<td>0<td>4<td>4 <tr><td><td>AIM-9+20 mm gun<td>0<td>0<td>1<td>1 <tr><td><td>20 mm gun<td>0<td>1<td>4<td>5 <tr><td><td>Maneuvering tactics<td>0<td>1<td>0<td>1 <tr><td>Total<td><td>33.5<td>8<td>66<td>107.5 In USAF service the F-4 was initially designated the F-110 Spectre National Museum of the U.S. Air Force fact sheet discussing the F-110, retrieved 05/26/2008 prior to the introduction of the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system. At first reluctant to adopt a Navy fighter, the USAF quickly embraced the design and became the largest Phantom user. The first Air Force Phantoms in Vietnam were F-4Cs from the 555th "Triple Nickel" Tactical Fighter Squadron, 555th Tactical Fighter Squadron "Triple Nickel", 31st Fighter Wing Public Affairs Office, Aviano Air Base, U.S. Air Force. Retrieved: 25 January 2008. which arrived in December 1964. Dorr and Bishop 1996, p. 37. Unlike the Navy, which flew the Phantom with a Naval Aviator (pilot) in the front seat and a Naval Flight Officer as a radar intercept officer (RIO) in the back seat, the Air Force initially flew its Phantoms with a rated pilot in the back seat. This policy was later changed to using a navigator qualified as a weapon/targeting systems officer (later designated as weapon systems officer or WSO) in the rear seat. However, because they originally flew with pilots in the rear seat, all USAF Phantoms retained dual flight controls throughout their service life. An RF-4C-21-MC (AF Serial No. 64-1019) with auxiliary fuel tanks in flight August 1968. This aircraft was assigned to the 192nd Tactical Reconnaissance Group, Nevada Air National Guard. It was retired to AMARC on 27 January 1982 On 10 July, 1965 F-4Cs of the 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron, on temporary assignment in Vietnam, scored the USAF's first victories against North Vietnamese MiG-17s using AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. Dorr and Bishop 1996, p. 48–49. On 24 July 1965, another Phantom from the 45th Tactical Fighter Squadron became the first American aircraft to be downed by an enemy SAM, and on 5 October 1966 an 8th Tactical Fighter Wing F-4C became the first U.S. jet lost to an air-to-air missile, fired by a MiG-21 "Fishbed". Early aircraft suffered from leaks in wing fuel tanks that required re-sealing after each flight and 85 aircraft were found to have cracks in outer wing ribs and stringers. There were also problems with aileron control cylinders, electrical connectors, and engine compartment fires. Reconnaissance RF-4Cs made their debut in Vietnam on 30 October 1965, flying the hazardous post-strike reconnaissance missions. Although the F-4C was essentially identical to the Navy F-4B in flight performance and carried the Navy-designed Sidewinder missiles, USAF-tailored F-4Ds initially arrived in June 1967 equipped with AIM-4 Falcons. However, the Falcon, like its predecessors, was designed to shoot down bombers flying straight and level. Its reliability proved no better than others, and its complex firing sequence and limited seeker-head cooling time made it virtually useless in combat against agile fighters. The F-4Ds reverted to using Sidewinders under the "Rivet Haste" program in early 1968, and by 1972 the AIM-7E-2 "Dogfight Sparrow" had become the preferred missile for USAF pilots. Like other Vietnam War Phantoms, the F-4Ds were urgently fitted with radar homing and warning (RHAW) antennae to detect the Soviet-built SA-2 Guideline SAMs. Knaack 1974, p. 274. From the initial deployment of the F-4C to Southeast Asia, USAF Phantoms performed both air superiority and ground attack roles, supporting not only ground troops in South Vietnam but also conducting bombing sorties in Laos and North Vietnam. As the F-105 force underwent severe attrition between 1965 and 1968, the bombing role of the F-4 proportionately increased until after November 1970 (when the last F-105D was withdrawn from combat) it became the primary USAF ordnance delivery system. In October 1972 the first squadron of EF-4C Wild Weasel aircraft deployed to Thailand on temporary duty. Swanborough and Bowers 1976, p. 188. The "E" prefix was later dropped and the aircraft were simply known as F-4C Wild Weasels. Sixteen squadrons of Phantoms were permanently deployed between 1965 and 1973, and 17 others deployed on temporary combat assignments. Baugher, Joe. Baugher's Phantom Service with USAF. Joe Baugher's Home Page. Retrieved 25 January 2008 Peak numbers of combat F-4s occurred in 1972, when 353 were based in Thailand. A total of 445 Air Force Phantom fighter-bombers were lost, 370 in combat and 193 of those over North Vietnam (33 to MiGs, 30 to SAMs, and 307 to AAA). The RF-4C was operated by four squadrons, Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 222. and of the 83 losses, 72 were in combat including 38 over North Vietnam (seven to SAMs and 65 to AAA). Correll, John T. "The Vietnam War Almanac", (PDF), AIR FORCE Magazine, September 2004. (with attribution to USAF Operations Report, 30 November 1973). Retrieved: 19 November 2007. By war's end the U.S. Air Force had lost a total of 528 F-4 and RF-4C Phantoms. When combined with US Naval/Marine losses of 233 Phantoms, 761 F-4/RF-4 Phantoms were lost in the Vietnam War. F-4E-43-MC (AF Serial No. 69-7234) "Wild Weasel" modified to the F-4G configuration with an AGM-88 HARM missile under the wing. This aircraft was assigned to the 37th TFW, George AFB, California, April 1982 On 28 August 1972, Capt Steve Ritchie became the first USAF ace of the war. Dorr and Bishop 1996, pp. 200–201. On 9 September 1972, WSO Capt Charles B. DeBellevue became the highest-scoring American ace of the war with six victories. and WSO Capt Jeffrey Feinstein became the last USAF ace of the war on 13 October 1972. Dorr and Bishop 1996, pp. 198–199. Upon return to the United States, DeBellevue and Feinstein were given vision waivers, assigned to pilot training and requalified as USAF pilots in the F-4. According to the USAF, its F-4s scored 107½ MiG kills in Southeast Asia (50 by Sparrow, 31 by Sidewinder, five by Falcon, 15.5 by gun, and six by other means). On 31 January 1972, the 170th Tactical Fighter Squadron/183d Tactical Fighter Group of the Illinois Air National Guard became the first Air National Guard unit to transition to Phantoms. 183rd Fighter Wing (183rd FW). Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. The F-4's ANG service lasted until 31 March 1990, when it was replaced by the F-16 Fighting Falcon. On 15 August 1990, 24 F-4G Wild Weasel Vs and six RF-4Cs were mobilized to the Middle East for Operation Desert Storm. The reason for this was that the F-4G was the only aircraft in the USAF inventory equipped for the suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) role since the EF-111 Raven lacked the offensive capability of the AGM-88 HARM missile, while the RF-4C was the only aircraft equipped with the ultra-long-range KS-127 LOROP (long-range oblique photography) camera. In spite of flying almost daily missions, only one RF-4C was lost in a fatal accident before the start of hostilities. One F-4G was lost when enemy fire damaged the fuel tanks and the aircraft ran out of fuel near a friendly airbase. The last USAF Phantoms, F-4G Wild Weasel Vs from 561st Fighter Squadron, were retired on 26 March 1996. The last operational flight of the F-4G Wild Weasel was from the 190th Fighter Squadron, Idaho Air National Guard, in April 1996. Integrated Defense Systems: F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th - Last to Serve. Boeing. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. The last operational USAF/ANG F-4 to land was flown by Maj Mike Webb and Maj Gary Leeder, Idaho ANG. Like the Navy, the Air Force continues to operate QF-4 target drones, serving with the 82d Aerial Targets Squadron, Bosco, Albert. 'Team Target' keeps Air Force on mark. Air Force Press Release (23 October 2002). Retrieved: 14 December 2007. it being expected that the F-4 will remain in the target role with the 82d ATRS until 2013/14. Carrara 2006, p. 48. Non-U.S. air forces The Phantom served with the air forces of many countries, including Australia, Egypt, Germany, United Kingdom, Greece, Iran, Israel, Japan, Spain, South Korea and Turkey. Australia The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) leased 24 USAF F-4Es from 1970 to 1973 while waiting for their order for the General Dynamics F-111C to be delivered. They were so well-liked that the RAAF considered adopting the F-4E instead. Lake 1992, p. 209. They were operated from RAAF Amberley by No.1 Squadron and No.6 Squadron. "RAAF Aircraft Series 3 A69 Phantom". RAAF Museum Point Cook. Retrieved 14 November 2008 Egypt In 1979, the Egyptian Air Force purchased 35 former USAF F-4Es along with a number of Sparrow, Sidewinder, and Maverick missiles from the US for $594 million as part of the "Peace Pharaoh" program. Fricker 2000, p. 59. An additional seven surplus USAF aircraft were purchased in 1988. Fricker 2000, p. 60. Three attrition replacements had been received by the end of the 1990s. + Phantoms in non-U.S. service. Baugher, Joseph F. Index of Phantom Variants and Operators. Retrieved on 2008-01-29. "DIRECTORY: WORLD AIR FORCES". Flight International, 11-17 November 2008.pp.52-76. ReceivedIn service as of 2001In service Australia24 F-4ENone (returned to USA)NoneEgypt45 F-4E30 F-4E34Germany88 RF-4E175 F-4F145 F-4F(110 upgraded to ICE)59Greece121 F-4E and RF-4E62 F-4E and RF-4E(39 upgraded to Peace Icarus 2000)53Iran32 F-4D177 F-4E16 RF-4E15 F-4D29 F-4E3 RF-4E65Israel274 F-4E12 RF-4E40 F-4E53 Kurnass 2000 (all retired)NoneJapan140 F-4EJ14 RF-4EJ109 F-4EJ12 RF-4EJ91 F-4EJ/EF-4J26 RF-4JSouth Korea27 RF-4C92 F-4D103 F-4E60 F-4D70 F-4E18 RF-4E138Spain40 F-4C18 RF-4C14 RF-4C (F-4Cs employed as spares since 1989)NoneTurkey233 F-4E and RF-4E163 F-4E(54 upgraded to Terminator 2020)44 RF-4E165United Kingdom15 F-4J(UK)50 F-4K116 F-4MNoneNone Germany The German Luftwaffe initially ordered the reconnaissance RF-4E in 1969, receiving a total of 88 aircraft which were delivered from January 1971. Lake 1992, p. 210. In 1982, the initially unarmed RF-4Es were given a secondary ground attack capability, and were retired in 1994. Fricker 2000, p. 80. In 1973, under the "Peace Rhine" program, the Luftwaffe purchased the lightened and simplified F-4F which was upgraded in the mid-1980s. Green and Swanborough 2001. 24 German-owned F-4Fs were operated by the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing of the USAF at Holloman AFB to train Luftwaffe crews until 2002. In 1975, Germany also received 10 F-4Es for training in the U.S. In the late 1990s, these were withdrawn from service, being replaced by F-4Fs. Fricker 2000, p. 81. Germany also initiated the "ICE" (Improved Combat Efficiency) program in 1983. The 110 ICE-upgraded F-4Fs entered service in 1992, and are expected to remain in service until 2012. List 2006, p. 51. Greece In 1971, the Hellenic Air Force ordered brand new F-4E Phantoms, with deliveries starting in 1974. In the early 1990s the Hellenic AF acquired surplus RF-4Es and F-4Es from the Luftwaffe and U.S. ANG. Following the success of the German ICE program, on 11 August 1997, DASA of Germany received a contract to upgrade 39 aircraft to the very similar "Peace Icarus 2000" standard. The Hellenic AF operates 35 upgraded F-4E-PI2000 (338 and 339 Squadrons) and 22 RF-4E aircraft (348 Squadron) as of May 2008. Iran In the 1960s and 1970s, then U.S.-friendly Iran purchased 225 F-4D, F-4E and RF-4E Phantoms. The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force Phantoms saw action in the Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s and are kept operational by overhaul and servicing from Iran’s aerospace industry. Fricker 2000, p. 64. Israel The Israeli Air Force has been the largest foreign user of the Phantom, flying both newly built and ex-USAF aircraft, as well as several one-off special reconnaissance variants. The first F-4Es, nicknamed "Kurnass" (Heavy hammer), and RF-4Es, nicknamed "Orev" (Raven), were delivered in 1969 under the "Peace Echo I" program. Additional Phantoms arrived during the 1970s under "Peace Echo II" through "Peace Echo V" and "Nickel Grass" programs. Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat during Arab–Israeli conflicts, first seeing action during the War of Attrition. Nordeen 1991, p. 99. In the 1980s, Israel began the "Kurnass 2000" modernization program which significantly updated avionics. The last Israeli F-4s were retired in 2004. Directory: world air forces: Israel Flight International, 16-22 November 2004. Retrieved: 14 February 2008. Japan From 1968, the Japan Air Self-Defense Force purchased a total of 140 F-4EJ Phantoms without aerial refueling and ground attack capabilities. Fricker 2000, p. 85. Mitsubishi built 138 under license in Japan and 14 unarmed reconnaissance RF-4Es were imported. Of these, 96 F-4EJs have since been modified to the F-4EJ Kai (改、"modified") standard. 15 F-4EJs have been converted to reconnaissance aircraft designated RF-4EJ, with similar upgrades as the F-4EJ Kai. Japan has a fleet of 90 F-4s in service as of 2007 and studies are underway to replace them with either the Eurofighter Typhoon, Grevatt, Jon. "Japan narrows next-generation fighter requirement choice." Jane's Defence Industry, 21 March 2007. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Dassault Rafale, or one of several others. South Korea The Republic of Korea Air Force purchased its first batch of ex-USAF F-4D Phantoms in 1968 under the "Peace Spectator" program. The ex-USAF F-4Ds continued to be delivered until 1988. The "Peace Pheasant II" program also provided newly-built and ex-USAF F-4Es. Lake 1992, p. 218. Currently F-4Ds are being replaced in service by new F-15K Slam Eagles. Spain The Spanish Air Force acquired its first batch of ex-USAF F-4C Phantoms in 1971 under the "Peace Alfa" program. Designated C.12, the aircraft were retired in 1989. At the same time, the SAF received a number of ex-USAF RF-4Cs, designated CR.12. In 1995–1996, these aircraft received extensive avionics upgrades. Spain retired its RF-4s in 2002. "McDonnell Douglas F-4C -Phantom II". Ejército del Aire, Ministerio de Defensa, España. Google translation. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Wierenga, Eddy. Spanish Air Arms Other Air Forces, Ejército del Aire, FAMET, Armada, Scramble Magazine. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Turkey The Turkish Air Force received 40 F-4Es in 1974, with a further 32 F-4Es and 8 RF-4Es in 1977-78 under the "Peace Diamond III" program, followed by 40 ex-USAF aircraft in "Peace Diamond IV" in 1987, and a further 40 ex-U.S. Air National Guard Aircraft in 1991. Fricker 2000, p. 88. A further 32 RF-4Es were transferred to Turkey after being retired by the Luftwaffe between 1992 and 1994. In 1995, IAI of Israel implemented an upgrade similar to Kurnass 2000 on 54 Turkish F-4Es which were dubbed the F-4E 2020 Terminator. United Kingdom Phantom FG.1 of No. 43 Sqn. Royal Air Force The United Kingdom bought versions based on the USN F-4J for use with the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm. The main differences were the use of the British Rolls-Royce Spey engines and of British-made avionics. The RN and RAF versions were given the designation F-4K and F-4M respectively, and entered service as the Phantom FG.1 (fighter/ground attack) and Phantom FGR.2 (fighter/ground attack/reconnaissance). Donald 1999, p. 11. Donald 1999, p. 5. After the Falklands War, 15 upgraded ex-USN F-4Js, known as the F-4J(UK) entered RAF service to compensate for one interceptor squadron redeployed to the Falklands. Around 15 RAF squadrons received various marks of Phantom, many of them based in Germany. The first to be equipped was 6 Squadron at RAF Leuchars in July 1969. One noteworthy deployment was to 43 Squadron where Phantom FG1s remained the squadron equipment for a remarkable twenty years, arriving in September 1969 and departing in July 1989. During this period the squadron was based throughout at Leuchars. Jefford 2001. The interceptor Phantoms were replaced by the Panavia Tornado F3 from the late 1980s onwards, and the last British Phantoms were retired in October 1992 when 74 Squadron disbanded. Civilian use Sandia National Laboratories used an F-4 mounted on a "rocket sled" in a crash test to see the results of an aircraft hitting a reinforced concrete structure, such as a nuclear power plant. Fact sheet (PDF). Sandia National Laboratories (2004). Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Note: Although the fuselage was secured to a rocket sled, it could be facetiously considered possibly the one and only "rocket-powered" F-4. One aircraft, an F-4D (civilian registration NX749CF), is operated by the Massachusetts-based non-profit organization Collings Foundation as a "living history" exhibit. Collings Foundation website, Collings Foundation. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Funds to maintain and operate the aircraft, which is based in Houston, Texas, are raised through donations/sponsorships from public and commercial parties. Collings Foundation Background. Collings Foundation. Retrieved: 11 January 2008. Sponsors, Collings Foundation. Retrieved: 11 January 2008. NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center acquired an F-4A Phantom II on 3 December 1965. It made fifty-five flights in support of short programs, chase on X-15 missions and lifting body flights. The F-4A also supported a biomedical monitoring program involving 1,000 flights by NASA Flight Research Center aerospace research pilots and students of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School flying high-performance aircraft. The pilots were instrumented to record accurate and reliable data of electrocardiogram, respiration rate and normal acceleration. In 1967, the F-4A supported a brief military-inspired program to determine whether an airplane's sonic boom could be directed and whether it could possibly be used as a weapon of sorts, or at least an annoyance. NASA also flew an F-4C in a spanwise blowing study from 1983 to 1985, after which it was returned to the Air Force. Variants QF-4E AF Serial No. 74-1652, the second "Q" flown by the 82d Aerial Targets Squadron, c.2005 F-4A, B, J, N and S Variants for the US Navy and the US Marines. F-4B was upgraded to F-4N, and F-4J was upgraded to F-4S. F-110 Spectre, F-4C, D and E Variants for the U.S. Air Force. F-4E introduced an internal M61 Vulcan cannon. F-4D and E were widely exported. F-4G Wild Weasel V A dedicated SEAD variant with updated radar and avionics, converted from F-4E. The designation F-4G was applied earlier to an entirely different Navy Phantom. F-4K and M Variants for British military re-engined with Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans. F-4EJ Simplified F-4E exported to and license-built in Japan. F-4F Simplified F-4E exported to Germany. QF-4E AF Serial No. 74-0626 at McGuire AFB, 12 May 2007 with an A-10 in the background QF-4B, E, G, N and S Retired aircraft converted into remote-controlled target drones used for weapons and defensive systems research. RF-4B, C, and E Tactical reconnaissance variants. Culture Nicknames An F-4F on display described as the "World's largest distributor of MiG parts", because of the high number of this type of enemy aircraft shot down The Phantom gathered a number of nicknames during its career. Some of these names included "Rhino", "Double Ugly", the "Flying Anvil", "Flying Footlocker", "Flying Brick", "Lead Sled", the "Big Iron Sled" and the "Louisville Slugger". Basic Aircraft Wisdom and Aircraft Nicknames. Bluejacket.com. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. In recognition of its record of downing large numbers of Soviet-built MiGs, Thornborough and Davies, 1994. p. 202. it was called the "World’s Leading Distributor of MiG Parts" Integrated Defense Systems: F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th - Gee Whiz! Boeing. Retrieved: 20 January 2008. As a reflection of excellent performance in spite of bulk, it was dubbed "the triumph of thrust over aerodynamics." More QF-4s - And A New Trick for Old Dogs? Defence Industry Daily, 22 January 2008. "These large 2-seat multi-role fighters were a triumph of thrust over aerodynamics, and formed the mainstay of the USAF and US Navy fleets for many years." Retrieved: 26 January 2008. German Luftwaffe crews called their F-4s the Eisenschwein ("Iron Pig"), Fliegender Ziegelstein ("Flying Brick") and Luftverteidigungsdiesel ("Air Defense Diesel"). Zwei Alarmrotten mit dem "Luftverteidigungsdiesel" Hamburger Abendblatt. 25 November 2004. Google Translation. Retrieved: 26 January 2008. Imitating the spelling of the aircraft’s name, McDonnell issued a series of patches. Pilots became "Phantom Phlyers", backseaters became "Phantom Pherrets", fans of the F-4 "Phantom Phanatics", and call it the "Phabulous Phantom". Ground crewmen who worked on the aircraft are known as "Phantom Phixers". The Spook The Spook The aircraft's emblem is a whimsical cartoon ghost called "The Spook", which was created by McDonnell Douglas technical artist, Anthony "Tony" Wong, for shoulder patches. The name "Spook" was coined by the crews of either the 12th Tactical Fighter Wing or the 4453rd Combat Crew Training Wing at MacDill AFB. The figure is ubiquitous, appearing on every imaginable item associated with the F-4. The Spook has followed the Phantom around the world adopting local fashions; for example, the British adaptation of the U.S. "Phantom Man" F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th, Gee Whiz, Boeing Integrated Defense Systems. Retrieved: 13 February 2008. is a Spook that sometimes wears a bowler hat and smokes a pipe. F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th, UK Spook, Boeing Integrated Defense Systems. Retrieved: 13 February 2008. Survivors The Collings Foundation F-4D Phantom II, with Vietnam-era "Ritchie/DeBellevue" markings, taxis at Selfridge ANGB, May 2005. There are a number of F-4 Phantom IIs on display in the USA and worldwide. For example, a Phantom II F-4C-15-MC 37699, which is on loan from the USAF Museum, is on display at the Midland Air Museum, Coventry, England; "Midland Air Museum, Our Aircraft - Full Listing." Midland Air Museum. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. a Phantom II F4H-1, BuNo 145310, U.S. Navy, "The McDonnell F4H-1 Phantom II BuNo 145310." Wings and Rotors Air Museum. Retrieved: 11 January 2008. is located at French Valley Airport, Murrieta, California; "Wings and Rotors Air Museum proudly presents the McDonnell F4H-1 Phantom II BUNO 145310." Wings and Rotors Air Museum. Retrieved: 11 January 2008. and there is a dwindling number of reserve F-4s stored at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. "The Davis-Monthan Air Force 'Boneyard' via Google Maps/Google Earth." Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, smaller field. Retrieved: 16 February 2008. "The Davis-Monthan Air Force 'Boneyard' via Google Maps/Google Earth." Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, larger field. Retrieved: 16 February 2008. One aircraft, an F-4D, is operated by the Massachusetts-based non-profit organization Collings Foundation as a "living history" exhibit. Collings Foundation website. Collings Foundation. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Funds to maintain and operate the aircraft, which is based in Houston, Texas, are raised through donations/sponsorships from public and commercial parties. Sponsors. Collings Foundation. Retrieved: 11 January 2008. Specifications (F-4E) Orthographically projected diagram of the F-4B Phantom II. See also References Notes Bibliography Angelucci, Enzo. The American Fighter. Sparkford, Somerset: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987. ISBN 0-85429-635-2. Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin. The Israeli Connection: Whom Israel Arms and Why. London: I.G Tauris, 1987. ISBN 1-85043-069-1. Bowers, Peter M. and Enzo Angellucci. The American Fighter. New York: Orion Books, 1987. ISBN 0-517-56588-9. Burgess, Richard E. The Naval Aviation Guide, 4th ed. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1985. ISBN 0-87021-409-8. Calvert, Denis. "Le Tigri della RAF (RAF's Tigers)"(in Italian). Aerei magazine N.5, Parma, Italy: Delta editrice, 1991. Carrara, Dino. "Phantom Targets – The USAFs Last F-4 Squadron". Air International Volume 71, no. 5, November 2006. Stamford, Linconshire, UK: Key Publishing, pp. 42–48. ISSN 0306-5634. Donald, David. "RAF Phantoms". Wings of Fame. London: Aerospace. Volume 15, 1999. pp. 4–21. ISBN 1-86184-033-0. Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. "Desert Storm – The First Phase". World Air Power Journal. London: Aerospace, Volume 5, Spring 1991. ISSN 0959-0750. Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. "Desert Storm: Gulf Victory". World Air Power Journal. London: Aerospace, Volume 6, Summer 1991. ISSN 0959-0750. Donald, David and Lake Jon, eds. Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft. London: AIRtime Publishing, 1996. ISBN 1-880588-24-2. Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Spirit in the Skies. London: AIRtime Publishing, 2002. ISBN 1-880588-31-5. Dorr, Robert F. "Navy Phantoms in Vietnam". Wings of Fame. Volume 1. 1995. London: Aerospace Publishing. ISBN 1-874023-68-9. Dorr, Robert F. "McDonnell F3H Demon". Aeroplane. Volume 36, No. 3, March 2008. London: IBC, pp. 58–61. Dorr, Robert F. and Chris Bishop, eds. Vietnam Air War Debrief. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1996. ISBN 1-874023-78-6. Dorr, Robert F. and Jon Lake. Fighters of the United States Air Force. London: Temple Press, 1990. ISBN 0-600-55094-X. Fricker, John. "Boeing /McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II Current Operators". World Air Power Journal. London: Aerospace, Volume 40, Spring 2000. ISBN 1-86184-043-8. Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. The Great Book of Fighters. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1194-3. Grossnick, Roy and William J. Armstrong. United States Naval Aviation, 1910-1995. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Historical Center, 1997. ISBN 0-16049-124-X. Higham, Robin and Carol Williams. Flying Combat Aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.2). Manhattan, Kansas: Sunflower University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-8138-0375-6. Hobson, Chris. Vietnam Air Losses, USAF, USN, USMC, Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia 1961–1973. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001. ISBN 1-85780-1156. Jefford, C.G. RAF Squadrons. Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing, 2nd edition, 2001. ISBN 1-84037-141-2 Jones, Lloyd S. U.S. Fighters: 1925–1980s. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, Inc., 1975. ISBN 0-8168-9200-8. Knaack, Marcelle Size. Encyclopedia of US Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems: Volume 1 Post-World War II Fighters 1945-1973. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1978. ISBN 0-912799-59-5. Lake Jon. Phantom Spirit in the Skies. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1992. ISBN 1-880588-04-8. List, Friedrich. "German Air Arms Review". Air International Volume 70, No. 5, May 2006. Stamford, Linconshire, UK: Key Publishing, pp. 50–57. ISSN 0306-5634. Nordeen, Lon. Fighters Over Israel. London: Guild Publishing, 1991. ISBN 1-85367-098-7. Swanborough, Gordon and Peter Bowers. United States Military Aircraft Since 1909. Washington, District of Columbia: Smithsonian, 1989. ISBN 0-87474-880-1. Swanborough, Gordon and Peter Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1911. London: Putnam, 1976. ISBN 0-370-10054-9. Taylor, Michael J.H. Jane’s American Fighting Aircraft of the 20th Century. New York: Mallard Press, 1991. ISBN 0-7924-5627-0. Thetford, Owen. British Naval Aircraft since 1912. London: Putnam. Fourth Edition, 1994, pp. 254–255. ISBN 0-85177-861-5. Thornborough, Anthony M. and Peter E. Davies. The Phantom Story. London: Arms and Armour Press, 1994. ISBN 1-85409-121-2. Wagner, Ray. American Combat Planes, Third Enlarged Edition. New York: Doubleday, 1982. ISBN 0-385-13120-8. External links F-4 Phantom II history page on Boeing.com The F-4 site F-4 Phantom II Society site Phantom F4K - Fleet Air Arm - Royal Navy site F-4 Phantom II page on Scramble site The Phantom Turns 50 Article at Fence Check 8th Tactical Fighter Wing site "Silver Lobos" fly into retirement F-4 Phantom page on Aerospaceweb.org The McDonnell F-4 Phantom on Vectorsite.net RAF Phantom Losses The Phantom Zone Aircraft.co.za - McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II Multiple photos about Spanish Air Force F-4C (In spanish language) | McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II |@lemmatized mcdonnell:25 douglas:8 f:245 phantom:145 ii:28 aircraft:81 originally:3 designate:9 ah:1 later:5 designation:7 come:2 system:19 branch:3 military:13 unify:1 order:6 u:41 defense:19 secretary:2 robert:7 mcnamara:3 within:2 refer:1 model:2 tandem:1 two:14 seat:9 twin:1 engined:2 weather:4 long:7 range:7 supersonic:5 jet:6 interceptor:5 fighter:52 bomber:9 develop:3 navy:38 swanborough:6 bower:5 p:46 prove:2 highly:1 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5,863 | Rhyming_slang | Rhyming slang is a form of slang in which a word is replaced by a rhyming word, typically the second word of a two-word phrase (so stairs becomes "apples and pears"). The second word is then often dropped entirely ("I'm going up the apples"), meaning that the association of the original word to the rhyming phrase is not obvious to the uninitiated. For example: "Sherman" for an American (Sherman tank = Yank). Chris Roberts, Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme, Thorndike Press,2006 (ISBN 0-7862-8517-6) The exact origin of rhyming slang is unclear, partly because it exists to some extent in many languages. In English, rhyming slang is strongly associated with Cockney speech from the East End of London. John Camden Hotten in his 1859 Dictionary of Modern Slang, Cant and Vulgar Words states that (English) rhyming slang originated in the 1840s with costermongers. The Victorian Web It remains a matter of speculation as to whether rhyming slang was a linguistic accident, a game, or a cryptolect developed intentionally to confuse non-locals. If deliberate, it may have been used to maintain a sense of community. It is possible that it was used in the marketplace to allow vendors to talk amongst themselves in order to facilitate collusion, without customers knowing what they were saying. Another suggestion is that it may have been used by criminals (see thieves' cant) to confuse the police. The proliferation of rhyming slang allowed many of its traditional expressions to pass into common usage. Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in Britain, for example "to have a butcher's", which means to have a look, from "butcher's hook". Examples of this kind are often now used without awareness of their origins. Many English speakers are oblivious of the fact that the term "use your loaf" is derived from "loaf of bread", meaning head. This also holds for varieties of rhyming slang in other parts of the world: in the United States a common slang expression, "brass tacks", may be a rhyme for "the facts" and to blow a raspberry may come from "raspberry tart" to rhyme with fart; the most common Australian slang term for an English person is "pommy", which is believed to have originated as rhyming slang for immigrant. The Oxford English Dictionary cites a well-known Australian weekly, The Bulletin, which on 14 November 1912 reported: "The other day a Pummy Grant (assisted immigrant) was handed a bridle and told to catch a horse." Online Oxford English Dictionary entry for "Pomegranate". Some words are much less taboo than their etymology would suggest. Some popular terms have their origins in obscenity, like "berk" (often used to mean "foolish person") and "cobblers" (often used to mean "what you just said is rubbish"), are actually from Berkeley Hunt, meaning "cunt," and "cobbler's awls", meaning "balls", respectively. The non-native speaker needs to be cautious in using rhyming slang to "fit in". The extent of the use of the slang is often exaggerated. In addition, since the original purpose was to encode or disguise speech from the comprehension of bystanders, terms that become too 'well-known' still have a tendency to lose actual currency fairly quickly, putting whatever usage the slang enjoys into a constant flux. This style of rhyming has spread through many English-speaking countries, where the original phrases are supplemented by rhymes created to fit local needs. Creation of rhyming slang has become a word game for people of many classes and regions. The term 'Cockney' rhyming slang is generally applied to these expansions to indicate the rhyming style; though arguably the term only applies to phrases used in the East End of London. Similar formations do exist in other parts of the United Kingdom; for example, in the East Midlands, the local accent has formed "Derby Road", which rhymes with "cold": a conjunction that would not be possible in any other dialect of the UK. A good introduction to the phenomenon is found in "Up the frog: the road to Cockney rhyming slang", by Sydney Thomas Kendall. ISBN 978-0723401384 Rhyming slang in popular culture The British comedy series Mind Your Language (1977) features a character (caretaker Sid) who uses Cockney rhyming slang extensively. The show also had a whole episode dedicated to Cockney rhyming slang. Musical artists from South London such as Audio Bullys and Chas & Dave (and even some from other parts of the UK like The Streets who are from Birmingham), regularly use rhyming slang in their songs. The UK punk scene of the late 70s brought along bands that glorified their working-class heritage: Sham 69 had a hit song "The Cockney Kids are Innocent;" often audience members would chant the words "If you're proud to be a Cockney, clap your hands" in between songs. The term "Chas and Dave" is also rhyming slang for "shave". Ian Dury who used rhyming slang throughout his career, even wrote a song for his solo debut New Boots and Panties! entitled Blackmail Man, an anti-racist song that utilized numerous derogatory rhyming slang for various ethnic minorities. The idiom even briefly made an appearance in the UK-based DJ reggae music of the 80s, in the hit "Cockney Translation" by Smiley Culture of South London; this was followed a couple of years later by Domenick & Peter Metro's "Cockney and Yardie". Rhyming slang is often used in feature films, such as Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998) (the United States DVD version comes with a glossary to assist the viewer), and on television (e.g., Minder, Only Fools and Horses, EastEnders) to lend authenticity to an East End setting. In To Sir With Love, Sidney Poitier's students baffle him with their use of rhyming slang. Austin Powers in Goldmember features a dialogue between Powers and his father Nigel entirely in rhyming slang. The theme song to The Italian Job, composed by Quincy Jones, contains many rhyming slang expressions; the lyrics by Don Black amused and fascinated the composer. The film Green Street Hooligans (2005) features a brief explanation of the process by which rhyming slang is derived. Ocean's Eleven (2001) contains a piece of made-up rhyming slang, when a character uses "barney" to mean "trouble," and is derived from Barney Rubble. However, the use of "barney" to mean an argument or a fight far precedes the Flintstones cartoon character Barney Rubble though the origin is unclear. Re: Having a barney While the usage of "barney" to mean altercation may or may not have originally been rhyming slang, its usage in the movie in a way that is dependent on a 1960s era cartoon to get to the meaning of "trouble" is a good example of the ever-changing nature of speech. The film The Limey (1999) features Terence Stamp as Wilson, a Cockney man recently released from prison who spices his conversations with rhyming slang: Wilson: Can't be too careful nowadays, y'know? Lot of tea leaves about, know what I mean? Warehouse Foreman: Excuse me? Wilson: "Tea leaves"... "thieves". Wilson: Eddy... yeah, he's me new china. Elaine: What? Wilson: "China plate"... "mate". In the film The Football Factory (2004) the character of Zebedee is berated for his occasional use of "that fucking muggy rhyming slang" by Billy Bright. Anthony Burgess uses rhyming slang as a part of the fictitious "Nadsat" argot in his book A Clockwork Orange. Cockney rhyming slang is used frequently in the novels and short stories of Kim Newman, for instance in the short story collections The Man from the Diogenes Club (2006) and Secret Files of the Diogenes Club (2007), where it is even explained at the end of each book. Shambles in Belgravia . In the Discworld novel Going Postal, rhyming slang is parodied with "Dimwell arrhythmic rhyming slang," which is like rhyming slang, but doesn't rhyme. An example of this is a wig being a prune, as wig doesn't, possibly by a complex set of unspoken rules, rhyme with "syrup of prunes." (In Britain a widely used example of real rhyming slang is syrup = syrup of fig(s) = wig). In the film Mr. Lucky (1943), Cary Grant's character teaches rhyming slang to his female companion. However, the character describes this as Australian rhyming slang. On September 19, 2006, the comic strip Get Fuzzy introduced a new character: Mac Manc McManx, a Manx cat and cousin of Bucky Katt. McManx uses a speech pattern heavily based around Cockney rhyming slang and other London slang, despite being from Manchester. These speech patterns often make it almost impossible for the other characters, especially Satchel, to understand him. The title character in the China Miéville novel King Rat (1998 novel) uses Cockney rhyming slang in the vast majority of his dialogue. Ronnie Barker wrote a classic sketch for the comedy series The Two Ronnies in which a vicar delivers an entire sermon in rhyming slang, a large portion of which refers to a "small brown Richard the Third", the true meaning of which remains unclear until the vicar reports that it flew back to its nest. Cockney rhyming slang is occasionally featured as a category on Jeopardy!. The Irish series of books and columns Ross O'Carroll-Kelly frequently uses variations on rhyming slang popular (or allegedly so) among members of the Dublin 4 population (for example, "battle cruiser" = "boozer"). The Disney movie One Hundred and One Dalmatians features some Cockney rhyming slang by the two puppy thieves. Note that the rhyming word is also included, for example "A lovely pair of turtle doves". In Garth Ennis' The Boys, Billy Butcher refers to Americans as Septics, then explains "Septic Tank: Yank". On the London Weekend Television situation comedy from the 70s, No, Honestly, air-headed character Clara referred to one woman "with the big Birminghams." Her romantic partner, C.D., incredulous, asked her what she meant, not recognizing a valid rhyming slang reference (Birmingham City = Titty). Clara's explanation was, "Oh, C.D., it's rhyming slang - Birmingham town bosoms!" which, of course, neither rhymes nor is slang. This is a play on words from the real rhyming slang word for Titty which is "Bristols" derived from another English place beginning with B - Bristol City. In the novel The Woman Between the Worlds by F. Gwynplaine MacIntyre, the protagonist purchases two railway tickets to Bristol Temple Meads by requesting "a pair of Bristols". This is an oblique reference to the rhyming slang term "Bristol Cities" = "titties". In the new series of Doctor Who, in episode one of the 2nd season, "New Earth", originally broadcast on April 15 2006, Cassandra (who is 'inhabiting' Rose's body) asks Chip how Rose speaks. He replies, "Old earth Cockney." She then uses several examples of Cockney rhyming slang, including "I'm proceeding up the apples and pears" (stairs) and "I just don't Adam and Eve it" (believe it) Sex Pistol Steve Jones, on his Indie 103.1 radio program Jonesy's Jukebox, refers to advertising breaks as "visiting the Duke." (Duke of Kent = pay the rent.) The Kinks' album Something Else By The Kinks features a song called "Harry Rag" (the correct spelling is "Harry Wragg" who is a famous, long deceased jockey), which is slang for a "fag" or cigarette. (Other rhyming slang for a cigarette is 'smoked trout' meaning 'snout' which is another term for tobacco, often 'paid' to informants, particularly inside Prisons). In the TV series 'The Sweeney', the character played by Denis Waterman would ask the character played by John Thaw "How we doin' for snout Guv?" meaning "how are we doing for cigarettes boss?" In most versions of the game Dungeons and Dragons, the language 'thieves tongue' by description uses rhyming slang. In the book The Mystery of the Dead Man's Riddle by William Arden, a man left a riddle in his will containing clues in Cockney rhyming slang directing his heirs to his treasure. In episode 5 of Alan Partridge Knowing Me Knowing You series, Alan uses several cockney rhyming terms when interviewing character Terry Norton and uses several well known terms such as Dog and bone (phone) and Bowler Hat (chat). Alan uses his own new term of Antique Edwardian Tea Chest to describe the term Guest when first introducing Terry. A Spike Jones song called "So 'Elp Me" featured a Cockney telling a story laden with examples of rhyming slang, the translations for which would be yelled in the background by members of the City Slickers as they occurred: "I went up the apples and pairs..." ("Stairs!") The 2009 film Crank High Voltage features rhyming slang, with the main character referring to his heart as his "strawberry tart" at different points during the film. The 1950s BBC radio programme The Goon Show featured a character called Hugh Jampton, whose name is a pun on the rhyming slang for penis (from "Hampton Wick", meaning "prick"). Common examples Complete rhyming phrase Meaning Adam and Eve Believe Chris Roberts, Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme, Thorndike Press,2006 (ISBN 0-7862-8517-6) Apples and pears Stairs Barnet Fair Hair Barney Rubble Trouble Bees and honey Money Billy lids Kids Boat race Face Boracic lint Skint Bowler hat Chat Brass cart Tart (prostitute) Bristol City or, pluralised, bristols Titty (breasts) Bubble bath Laugh Butcher's hook Look China plate Mate (friend) Cobbler's awls Balls Dog and bone Telephone Duke of York Fork Dutch (for Duchess of Fife) Wife Eartha Kitt Shit Farmer Giles Piles (hemorrhoids) Frog and toad Road God forbid(s) Kid(s) Hampton Wick Prick (penis) Hobb Ten bob J. Arthur Rank Wank (to masturbate) Jam jar Car Khyber pass Arse Piccadilly Silly Pig's ear Beer Plates of meat Feet Pony and trap Crap (both to defecate and of poor quality) Pork pies or porkies Lies Raspberry tart Fart Gypsy Rose Lee Tea or gypsy Ruby Murray Curry Saucepan lid Kid Skin and blister Sister Tom Tit Shit (both to defecate and of poor quality) Tomfoolery Jewellery Trouble and strife Wife Water bottle Throttle Whistle and flute Suit References Ayto, John. 2002. The Oxford Dictionary of Rhyming Slang. Oxford University Press. Franklyn, Julian. 1960. A Dictionary of Rhyming Slang. Routledge. Green, Jonathon. 2000. Cassell's Rhyming Slang. Cassell. Lillo, Antonio (full name, Antonio Lillo Buades). 1996. "Drinking and Drug-Addiction Terms in Rhyming Slang". In Comments on Etymology 25 (6): pp. 1–23. Lillo, Antonio. 1998. "Origin of Cockney Slang Dicky Dirt". In Comments on Etymology 27 (8): pp. 16–20. Lillo, Antonio. 1999. "More on Sausage and Mash 'Cash'". In Gerald L. Cohen and Barry Popik (eds.), Studies in Slang. Part VI. Peter Lang, pp. 87–89. Lillo, Antonio. 2000. "Bees, Nelsons, and Sterling Denominations: A Brief Look at Cockney Slang and Coinage". In Journal of English Linguistics 28 (2): pp. 145–172. Lillo, Antonio. 2001. "The Rhyming Slang of the Junkie". In English Today 17 (2): pp. 39–45. Lillo, Antonio. 2001. "From Alsatian Dog to Wooden Shoe: Linguistic Xenophobia in Rhyming Slang". In English Studies 82 (4): pp. 336–348. Lillo, Antonio. 2004. "A Wee Keek at Scottish Rhyming Slang". In Scottish Language 23: pp. 93–115. Lillo, Antonio. 2004. "Exploring Rhyming Slang in Ireland". In English World-Wide 25 (2): pp. 273–285. Lillo, Antonio. 2006. "Cut-down Puns". In English Today 22 (1): pp. 36–44. 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5,864 | Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union | The Central Committee, abbreviated in Russian as ЦК, "Tse-ka", was the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). Its full name was Центральный комитет Коммунистической партии Советского Союза = ЦК КПСС; Tsentralnyy Komitet Kommunistitcheskoy Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza = TsK KPSS, or the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. According to Party rules, the Central Committee directed all Party and government activities between each Party Congress. Members of the committee were elected at the Party Congress every five years. The Politburo was elected by and reporting to the Central Committee. Besides the Politburo the Central Committee also elected the Secretaries of the Central Committee which comprised the Secretariate of the Central Committee. The Central Committee elected the General Secretary of the CPSU as well. In 1919-1952 the Orgburo was also elected in the same manner as the Politburo and the Secretariat by the plenums of the Central Committee. For most of its existence, the power of the Central Committee was limited by its infrequent meetings and large membership, and true power lay with the Politburo. The Committee functioned as a rubber-stamp to legitimise and give an aura of consensus to Politburo decisions. The Committee would meet only twice a year, with sessions lasting one or two days. Special plenary sessions would be held before a major event, such as a new long-term plan or the selection of a new General Secretary. The elections were façades too, with the membership being selected in advance by the leaders. From 1917 to 1934, the Central Committee acted more or less as a "parliament" where political discussions took place. But the occasional opposition of many of its members to Stalin led to a purge of the body between the 17th and 18th Party Congresses (1934-39). Until Stalin's death, its role was therefore almost non-existent. After Stalin's death, there was a period of collective leadership, which revitalised the Committee before it was returned to its compliant role. However the Committee did play a critical role in the career of Nikita Khrushchev. In 1957, the Central Committee overturned a decision by the Presidium (the renamed Politburo) to remove Nikita Khrushchev as party leader. Khrushchev, with the assistance of Marshal Georgy Zhukov, rallied the support of the Central Committee against what he called the Anti-Party Group. Seven years later, on October 14, 1964 it was a meeting of the Central Committee that deposed Khrushchev. The Central Committee also made a landmark decision in March 1985 when it elected the reformist Mikhail Gorbachev as the next General Secretary of the CPSU with the margin of just one vote more than the hardliner Viktor Grishin. Following the failed coup of August 1991, the Central Committee was dissolved as was the Communist Party itself. Apparatus of the Central Committee The Secretariat headed the CPSU's central apparatus and was solely responsible for the development and implementation of party policies. The Secretariat also carried political weight because many of its members sat on the Politburo. The members of the Secretariat supervised the work of the Central Committee departments. Department chiefs, who normally sat on the Central Committee, were subordinate to the secretaries. A variety of departments made up the CPSU's central apparatus. Some departments were worthy of note. The Party Building and Cadre Work Department assigned party personnel in the nomenklatura system. The State and Legal Department supervised the armed forces, KGB, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the trade unions, and the Procuracy. Before 1989 the apparatus contained many more departments responsible for the economy. These departments included one for the economy as a whole, one for machine building, and one for the chemical industry, among others. The party abolished these departments in an effort to remove itself from the day-to-day management of the economy in favor of government bodies and a greater role for the market, as a part of the perestroika process. 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5,865 | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FT_-_W | symbols - B -- C - D -- E - H -- I - K -- L - N -- O - Q -- R - S -- T - W -- X - Z -- FOLDOC Status Page T1 DONE T1 line NO IMPORT T1 rate NO IMPORT T3 NO IMPORT T3 line NO IMPORT TA NO IMPORT - insignificant TAA NO IMPORT - insignificant TAB NO IMPORT - duplicate info table NO IMPORT - insignificant table locking NO IMPORT - insignificant TABLET NO IMPORT - insignificant TABLOG NO IMPORT - esoteric tab-separated values TABSOL NO IMPORT - esoteric Tabulating Machine Company NO IMPORT - duplicate info TAC NO IMPORT - esoteric TACL DONE TACPOL NO IMPORT - insignificant tag NO IMPORT - insignificant Tagged Image File Format DONE tagged queueing DONE tagged types NO IMPORT - insignificant tag name NO IMPORT - jargon tail circuit NO IMPORT - insignificant tail recursion DONE tail recursion modulo cons tail recursion optimisation tail-strict TAL DONE TALE NO IMPORT - esoteric Taligent DONE talk talk bomb talker system talk mode TALL tall card Tandem Application Language Tandem Computers Tandy DONE Tanenbaum, Andrew DONE tanked TANSTAAFL TAO TAOS TAP tap NO IMPORT tape NO IMPORT tape archive tape drive tape head Tape Operating System TAPI DONE tar DONE tar and feather tarball targa Targa Graphics Adaptor target Target-Machine Description Language TARTAN Task Control Block task scheduling TASM TASS taste NO IMPORT - jargon tautological probability tautological set tautology TAWK NO IMPORT - insignificant Taxis tayste taz TBF TBIL TBK Tbl tc T-carrier system DONE TCB TCGS TC/IX Tcl DONE Tcl Consortium tcl-debug Tcl-DP tclhttpd tclx TCM TCO Tcode TCOL TCOL.Ada TCP DONE TCPIP DONE TCP/IP DONE tcsh Tcsim TCVN 5773 TCVN 6056 td TDD TDF TDFL TDI TDM DONE TDMA DONE TDR Teamwork Technical/Office Protocol Technion technology NO IMPORT Technology Enabled Relationship Manager Technology of Object-Oriented Languages and Systems TechRef TECO DONE tee TEI telco TELCOMP Telecommunication Display Device Telecommunications Device for the Deaf Telecommunications Industry Association telecommuting teledildonics telematics TelEnet TELEPAC Telephone Application Program Interface DONE telephony DONE Telephony Application Programming Interface DONE Telerat Telescript Teletype DONE teletype DONE Teletype Corporation teletypewriter DONE TeleUSE television DONE Television Interface Adaptor TELNET DONE Telocator Alphanumeric Protocol Telon TELOS TELSIM template code TEMPLOG TEMPO Tempo temporal database temporal logic Tempura Ten15 tendinitis ten-finger interface tennis elbow tense tensor product DONE tenured graduate student tera- DONE terabyte DONE teraflop teraflop club TERM TERMAC termcap terminak terminal DONE Terminal Access Controller terminal adapter DONE Terminal Adaptor NO IMPORT terminal brain death terminal emulation NO IMPORT terminal emulator DONE terminal illness terminal junkie terminal node Terminal Oriented Social Science Terminal Productivity eXecutive terminal server Terminate and Stay Resident DONE termination analysis terminator term rewriting system Terms Of Service ternary DONE terpri terrabyte Terse test DONE Test coverage testing NO IMPORT TET TeX -- 'DONE' TeX-78 TeX-82 Texas Instruments DONE Texinfo text text-based text editor DONE Text Encoding Initiative text file Text Processing Utility Text Reckoning And Compiling text segment Text To Speech texture tf TFDL TFTP DONE tg TGA T-gen TGS-II TGS Systems tgz DONE th thanks in advance That's not a bug, that's a feature! T.H.E The Cuckoo's Egg The Force The Internet Account The MathWorks, Inc. The Metadata Company The Microsoft Network The Mythical Man-Month DONE The Network THEO theology theory theory change There's More Than One Way To Do It Theseus The story of Mel, a Real Programmer The World Of Cryton the X that can be Y is not the true X thicket thicknet DONE thin client DONE ThingLab Think C Thinking Machines Corporation thinko thinnet third generation computer third generation language -- 'DONE' third normal form This can't happen this dictionary This time, for sure! thn Thomas thrash thrashing thread DONE threaded threaded code DONE threading Thread Language Zero thread-safe DONE three-finger salute DONE three-letter acronym DONE three-tier DONE throughput DONE thud Thumb thumb thumbnail thunk TIA tick TickIT Tickle tickle a bug tick-list features TIFF tiger team tight loop tilde TILE Forth Tim Berners-Lee DONE time bomb time complexity Time Complex Simulator time division multiple access DONE time division multiplexing DONE Time Domain Reflectometer DONE timeout time quantum time-sharing DONE Time Sharing Option Time Simulator time sink time slice times-or-divided-by time T Time to Live -- 'DONE' time zone DONE TINC DONE Tinman tinman+ TINT tint Tiny Tiny BASIC Tiny Basic Interpreter Language Tiny Clos TIP TIPL tip of the ice-cube tired iron tits on a keyboard tj Tk DONE tk DONE TK-90X TK-95 T. Kohonen TK!Solver TL0 TL1 TLA DONE TLAs NO IMPORT TLB TLD TLI TL/I T Lisp TM tm (TM) TMDL TMG TMRC DONE TMRCie TMS 9900 tn tn3270 TNC TNSTAAFL TNX TNXE6 to to a first approximation toast toaster toasternet to a zeroth approximation toeprint toggle TOK token token bus token ring DONE Tom Knight tone Tony Hoare tool tool bar toolbook Toolbuilder Tool Builder Kit Tool Command Language TOOLS toolsmith TOP top-down design Top-Down Model DONE topic drift topic group topic thread top-level domain DONE topology DONE TOPS-10 TOPS-20 DONE Tornado Toronto Euclid TOS TOSS total function DONE totally ordered totally ordered set DONE total ordering toto touchpad touch screen DONE tourist touristic tourist information Tower Technology Corporation toy Toy/Ada toy language toy problem toy program tp TPF DONE TP/IX TPL TPO TPS tptc TPU TPX tr TRAC traceroute -- 'DONE' trace scheduling track track ball tracker ball tracking trackpad Trackpoint tractor feed TrafoLa Trafola-H trampoline TRANDIR TRANQUIL TRANS transaction Transaction Application Language DONE Transaction Processing Facility transceiver DONE TRANSCODE transducer transfer syntax transfinite induction DONE transformation DONE transient transistor DONE Transistor-Transistor Logic TRANSIT transitive DONE transitive closure transit network Translation Look-aside Buffer Transmission Control Protocol DONE transparent Transport Driver Interface transport layer Transport Layer Interface Transport Level Interface Transport Service Access Point transputer DONE as INMOS Transputer TRANS-USE trap trap door trap-door function trash Trash-80 traveling salesman problem DONE travelling salesman problem NO IMPORT trawl tree tree-killer TREET TREETRAN Tree Transformation Language treeware Trellis Trellis Code Modulation Trident trigger trigger finger TRIGMAN trillion DONE Trilogy triple DES DONE tri state trit Triton DONE Triton II DONE Triton VX DONE Trivial File Transfer Protocol DONE TRO troff DONE troglodyte troglodyte mode Trojan horse DONE TROLL troll DONE TRON tron Trouble Came Back TRS TRS-80 DONE True BASIC true colour true hacker TrueType DONE Trumpet TRUSIX truth table DONE TS TSAP TSEE TSIA Tsim TSL-1 TSO TSP TSR DONE TSV tt TTD TTFN TTL DONE TTS tty DONE TTYL TUB TUBA tube tube time Tuckals Tui Tuki tunafish tune tunnelling TUPLE tuple DONE tuple calculus Tuple Space Smalltalk tupling Turbo C DONE Turbo Debugger turbo nerd Turbo Pascal DONE Turbo Prolog DONE Turing Turing Machine Turingol Turing Plus Turing tar-pit Turing test DONE turist TURN turn-key TUTOR TUXEDO TV DONE tv DONE tw TWAIN DONE tweak tweening tweeter TWENEX DONE Twente Compiler Generator System Twentel twiddle TWIG twilight zone twink twinning twip twirling baton twisted pair DONE twisted pair only NO IMPORT twm .twmrc two-binary, one-quaternary DONE twonkie two-phase commit twos complement two-to-the-N two-valued logic TX-0 TXL TYMCOM-X TYMNET Tymshare, Inc. type type assignment type class typed lambda-calculus TypedProlog typeface DONE type inference type scheme typo typographical error TYPOL TZ tz ua UAN UART DONE UAW UBASIC UBD ubiquitous computing DONE uC++ UCB DONE U-Code UCS DONE UCSD Pascal DONE UCX udb UDF DONE UDMA DONE UDP DONE uemacs UFO ug UGLIAC UHELP UI uid UIDL UIL UIMS UIMX UIS uk UKC UKERNA UKUUG ULCC Ulm's Modula-2 System ULP Ultra64 Ultra-ATA Ultra DMA Ultra-SCSI Ultrix um UMB UMB Scheme UMDL UML DONE uML DONE UMTS DONE unary DONE UNC UNCL UNCOL uncompression uncountable DONE uncurrying undefined external reference underflow Undernet underscore under the hood undocumented feature DONE U-NET Limited unfold unfold/fold UNI Unicode DONE UniCOMAL unicos Uniface unification Unified Han Unified Modeling Language DONE unifier UNIFORM Uniform Naming Convention Uniform Resource Citation Uniform Resource Locater Uniform Resource Locator Uniform Resource Name Uniform Resource Number Unify unify Unify Corporation Unihan uninstaller uninteresting Uninterruptible Power Supply DONE Unipalm Group plc Unipress Software, Inc. uniprocessor UNIQUE Unique ID Listing unique key unique sales point UNISAP Unisys Corporation DONE United Technologies Research Cente Unit Separator UNITY Univac NO IMPORT Universal algebra DONE Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter Universal Character Set Universal Communications X Universal Debugger Universal Disk Format universal quantifier DONE Universal Resource Identifier Universal Resource Locator Universal Serial Bus DONE universal thunk Universal Time DONE Universal Time Coordinated DONE University of ArizonaDONE University of California at Berkeley DONE University of Durham DONE University of East London University of Edinburgh DONE University of Hawaii University of Iceland University of London Computing Centre University of Michigan DONE University of Michigan Digital Library Project University of Minnesota DONE University of Nijmegen DONE University of Pennsylvania DONE University of Tasmania University of Twente Unix DONE Unix box Unix brain damage Unix conspiracy Unix International Unixism Unix man page Unix manual page Unix System V Unix to Unix Copy UnixWare Unix weenie Unix wizard unnormalised unproto unshar unshielded twisted pair unswizzle unwind-protect unwind the stack UN*X unzip up dowon uparrow uparrow UPenn upgradability upgrade upgradeability upload DONE UPMAIL Tricia Prolog upper bound DONE Upper Layer Protocol upper memory block Upper Side-Band modulation UPS DONE upstream upthread upward closure Uranus urban legend DONE URC urchin URI DONE URL DONE URL forwarding URL redirection URN URouLette US DONE us DONE usability DONE USAModSim usa.net US-ASCII USB DONE USE Usenet DONE Usenet news NO IMPORT Usenetter NO IMPORT USENIX user DONE user base User Brain Damage User Datagram Protocol DONE user-friendly DONE user id user identifier user interface DONE user interface copyright User Interface Language user name DONE User Network Interface user-obsequious user-unctuous Use the Source Luke USG Unix usim USL USP USR usr US Robotics U.S. Robotics, Inc. USSA UTC DONE UTF NO IMPORT UTF-8 DONE utility-coder UTOPIST UTP UTRC UTSL uucp UUCPNET uudecode uuencode UUNET PIPEX UUPC uy uz V V.21 V.22 V.22bis V.23 V.24 V.25 V.28 V.32 V.32bis V.32ter V.34 V.35 V.42 V.42bis V.90 V.91 va vacuum tube DONE vadding DONE VAL Valencia Simple Tasker valency DONE Valid validation DONE value Value Added Network value added reseller value added retailer valve DONE VAN vanilla vanity domain vannevar Vannevar Bush DONE vaporware DONE VAR Variational Graphics eXtended VAX DONE VAX DOCUMENT VAXectomy VAXen vaxherd vaxism VAX MIPS vaxocentrism VAXset VAXstation VAX/VMS VB VBA DONE vbell VBScript vbx vc VCC filtering VCID VCL VCODE VCPI VCR DONE vdiff VDL VDM VDM++ VDM-SL VDSL VDT VDU DONE ve vector DONE Vector C vector font vector graphics DONE vector processor DONE vector space DONE VECTRAN VEE veeblefeetzer veeblefester veeblefetzer VEL Vendor Independent Messaging ventilator card Ventura Publisher Venus flytrap verbage verbiage Verdi DONE verification Verilog DONE Verilog SA Veronica Versa Module Europa version Version 7 vertical application vertical bar vertical encoding vertical loop combination vertical microcode Vertical Redundancy Check vertical refresh rate vertical scan rate Very high bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line Very Large Database Very Large Memory Very Large Scale Integration DONE Very Long Instruction Word Very Small Aperture Terminal VESA DONE VESA Local Bus DONE V.FAST VFAT DONE V.FC vg VGA DONE VGQF vgrep VGX VHDL DONE VHE VHLL vhost VHS DONE vi DONE VIC-20 video adapter video card video compression DONE video conference video conferencing video dial tone video display terminal Video Electronics Standards Association DONE Video Graphics Adapter Video Graphics Adaptor Video Graphics Array video memory Video on Demand video RAM video random access memory video terminal videotex DONE Vienna Definition Language Vienna Definition Method Vienna Development Method Vienna Development Method Specification Language Vienna Fortran Vietnamese DONE viewer ViewPoints Views VIF Vi Improved VIM DONE vines Vine Technology Vint Cerf DONE Vinton Cerf Viola virgin virgule Viron virtual virtual 86 mode virtual address virtual cache virtual circuit DONE Virtual Circuit Identifier virtual connection Virtual Control Program Interface Virtual Device Driver Virtual Device Location virtual disk Virtual Home Environment virtual host Virtual LAN Virtual Loadable Module Virtual Local Area Network Virtual Machine virtual machine DONE Virtual Machine/Conversational Monitor System Virtual Machine Environment Virtual Machine/ESA Virtual Machine/System Product Virtual Machine/XA virtual memory DONE Virtual Memory System DONE virtual path virtual point of presence virtual PoP Virtual Private Network virtual reality DONE Virtual Reality Modeling Language Virtual Sequential Access Method virtual shredder Virtual Software Factory Virtual Storage Extended Virtual Telecommunications Access Method virus DONE viruses DONE visible bell 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DONE WWWW WYGIWYNTYH WYSIAYG DONE WYSIWYG DONE See also : Free On-line Dictionary of Computing | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FT_-_W |@lemmatized symbol:1 b:1 c:7 e:2 h:3 k:1 l:1 n:2 q:1 r:1 w:2 x:6 z:1 foldoc:1 status:1 page:5 line:4 import:42 rate:4 ta:2 insignificant:10 taa:1 tab:2 duplicate:2 info:2 table:4 lock:1 tablet:1 tablog:1 esoteric:4 separate:1 value:6 tabsol:1 tabulate:1 machine:12 company:2 tac:1 tacl:1 tacpol:1 tag:5 image:1 file:3 format:2 queue:1 type:9 name:5 jargon:2 tail:5 circuit:3 recursion:3 modulo:1 con:1 optimisation:1 strict:1 tal:1 tale:1 taligent:1 talk:3 bomb:2 talker:1 system:16 mode:4 tall:2 card:4 tandem:2 application:8 language:19 computer:2 tandy:1 tanenbaum:1 andrew:1 tanked:1 tanstaafl:1 tao:2 tap:2 tape:5 archive:1 drive:2 head:2 operate:1 tapi:1 tar:3 feather:1 tarball:1 targa:2 graphic:6 adaptor:4 target:2 description:1 tartan:1 task:2 control:3 block:2 schedule:2 tasm:1 taste:1 tautological:2 probability:1 set:6 tautology:1 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5,866 | Gypsy_(musical) | Gypsy is a 1959 musical with music by Jule Styne, lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and a book by Arthur Laurents. It is usually referred to as simply Gypsy. Gypsy is based on the 1957 memoirs of Gypsy Rose Lee, the famous striptease artist, and focuses on her mother, Rose, whose name has become synonymous with "the ultimate show business mother." In particular, it follows the dreams and efforts of Rose to raise two daughters to perform onstage and casts an affectionate eye on the hardships of show business life. The character of Louise is based on Lee, and the character of June is based on Lee's sister, the actress June Havoc. The musical contains many songs that became popular standards, including "Small World," "Everything's Coming up Roses", "You'll Never Get Away from Me," and "Let Me Entertain You." It is frequently considered one of the crowning achievements of the mid-20th century's conventional musical theatre art form, often called the "book musical." Gypsy has been referred to as the greatest American musical by numerous critics and writers, among them Ben Brantley Brantley, Ben. "New Momma Takes Charge" New York Times May 2, 2003 and Frank Rich; Rich, Frank. The Hot Seat. Random House, 1998. Rich even goes so far as to call it the American musical theatre's answer to King Lear. Theater critic Clive Barnes wrote that "Gypsy is one of the best of musicals...." He described the character of Rose as "one of the few truly complex characters in the American musical...." Barnes, Clive. "Gypsy Bounces Back With Zest and Lilt" New York Times, September 24, 1974. Background and analysis A musical based on the memoirs of Gypsy Rose Lee was a project of producer David Merrick and actress Ethel Merman. Merrick had read a chapter of Lee's memoirs in Harper's Magazine and approached Lee to obtain the rights. Jerome Robbins was interested, and wanted Leland Hayward as co-producer; Merman also wanted Hayward to produce her next show. New York Times, May 17, 1959 Merrick and Hayward approached Arthur Laurents to write the book. As he relates, Laurents initially was not interested until he saw that the story was one of parents living their children's lives. Composers Irving Berlin and Cole Porter turned the show down. Finally, Robbins asked Stephen Sondheim, who agreed to do it. Sondheim had worked with Robbins and Laurents on the musical West Side Story. However, Merman did not want an unknown composer, and wanted Jule Styne to write the music. Although Sondheim initially refused to write only the lyrics, he was persuaded by Oscar Hammerstein to accept the job. The creative team was in place. Zadan, Craig.Sondheim & Co., Second Edition (1986), pp37-39, pp50-51, ISBN 0-06015649X In analyzing the character of Rose, Clive Barnes described her as "bossy, demanding, horrific...." Rich described Rose as "a monster". Critic Walter Kerr commented that though Rose is a monster, she must be liked and understood. Kerr, Walter. "Two Musicals We Need Have Checked In" New York Times, December 17, 1989 Patti LuPone describes Rose as follows: "She has tunnel vision, she's driven, and she loves her kids.... And she is a survivor. I do not see her as a monster at all — she may do monstrous things, but that does not make a monster." NPR story, 4/13/08 Sondheim has said of the character: "The fact that she's monstrous to her daughters and the world is secondary.... She's a very American character, a gallant figure and a life force." Rich, Frank. NewYork Times, May 4, 2003, "Theatre – 'Gypsy': Then, Now and Always" Retrieved 5-6-2008 Sondheim also noted, "Yet the end of Gypsy is not entirely bleak. Louise comes out a star and forgives her mother. There is hope for her. Rose does confront who she is in 'Rose's Turn.' There is a catharsis. It's not Rodgers and Hammerstein, but you feel maybe the mother and daughter will come to an understanding and maybe triumph over Rose's craziness and Louise's bitterness." Plot summary Act I Rose and her two daughters, Baby June and Louise, play the vaudeville circuit around the United States during the Great Depression. Rose, the archetype of a stage mother, is aggressive and domineering, pushing her children to perform. While June is an extroverted, talented child star, the older girl, Louise, is shy. The kiddie act has one song, "Let Me Entertain You", that they sing over and over again, with June always as the center-piece and Louise often as one of the "boys". Rose has big dreams for the girls but encounters setbacks, as she tells her father: When I think of all the sights that I gotta see and, All the places I gotta play, All the things that I gotta be and— Come on, Poppa, whaddaya say? ("Some People") See Gypsy, Book by Arthur Laurents, Lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, Music by Jule Styne, 1994, p. 11 Theatre Communications Group, ISBN 1559360860 and CD booklet, Song lyrics accompanying the CD "Gypsy, The New Broadway Cast Recording", August 19, 2003, Angel Records When Rose meets a former agent, Herbie, she persuades him to become their manager using her seductive and feminine wiles ("Small World"). The girls grow up, and June, now billed as Dainty June, is offered a shot at an Performing Arts school after an audition. However, Rose turns this down immeditately, refusing to break up the act. Louise and June fantasize what life would be like if Rose were married and finished with show business ("If Mama was Married"). June finally tires of life on the road and her mother's smothering pushiness, and she elopes with one of the boys in the act. Rose optimistically vows that she will make Louise a star, proclaiming that "Everything's Coming up Roses." Act II Louise is now a young woman, and Rose has built a pale imitation of the Dainty June Act for her. Using all girls, instead of boys, Rose and Herbie try valiantly to sell "Madame Rose's Toreadorables" to a fading vaudeville industry. With no vaudeville venues left, Louise and her second-rate act wind up accidentally booked at a burlesque house in Wichita, Kansas. Rose is anguished, as she sees what a booking in burlesque means to her dreams of success. Herbie proposes to Rose. He asks her to break up the act and let Louise have a normal life, and she reluctantly accepts. During the run, three of the strippers on the bill advise Louise on what it takes to be a successful stripper, a "gimmick", something that "makes your strip special" ("You Gotta Get a Gimmick"). On the last day of the booking, the star stripper in the burlesque show is arrested for solicitation. Desperate, Rose cannot resist the urge to give Louise another nudge toward stardom, and she volunteers Louise to do the strip tease as a last-minute replacement. Disgusted at Rose's blind ambition for her daughter, Herbie walks out on Rose forever. Although reluctant, Louise wants to please her mother and she goes on. Shy and hesitant, she sings a titillating version of "Let Me Entertain You", the song that their kiddie act had used. She removes only her glove. The audience goes wild, and this becomes Louise's "gimmick". In the months that follow she becomes secure, always following her mother's advice to "Make 'em beg for more, and then don't give it to them!" This is demonstrated in a montage in which the song becomes brasher and brassier, and more and more articles of clothing come off. Ultimately, Louise becomes a major burlesque star and does not need her mother any longer. After a bitter argument between Rose and Louise, who has become the sophisticated "Gypsy Rose Lee", Rose realizes Herbie and June are both gone, and now Louise as well. Rose, feeling sad, useless and bitter asks "Why did I do it? When is it my turn?" ("Rose's Turn"). It is during this number that all of Rose's unrequited dreams of her own stardom and her personal demons surface. She fantasizes about her own lit-up runway and cheering audience, but finally admits "I did it for me." After her admission to Louise, Mother and daughter tentatively step toward reconciliation in the end. However, in the 1974 and 2008 Broadway revivals, there is not a happy ending, but rather a bleak, sad one as Rose and Louise do not reconcile. The audience is then left with a Rose whose dream of her own lit up marquee slowly fades away to her craziness within taking over. Songs Act I Overture - Orchestra Let Me Entertain You - Baby June and Baby Louise Some People - Rose Small World - Rose and Herbie Baby June and Her Newsboys - Baby June and Newsboys Mr. Goldstone, I Love You † - Rose, Herbie, Ensemble Little Lamb - Louise You'll Never Get Away From Me - Rose and Herbie Dainty June and Her Farmboys - June and Farmboys If Momma Was Married - June and Louise All I Need is the Girl - Tulsa and Louise Everything's Coming up Roses - Rose Act II Madame Rose's Toreadorables - Louise, Rose and the Hollywood Blondes Together Wherever We Go - Rose, Herbie, and Louise You Gotta Get a Gimmick - Mazeppa, Electra, and Tessie Tura Let Me Entertain You †† - Louise Rose's Turn - Rose Notes on the songs † Titled "Have an Eggroll, Mr. Goldstone" in the 2008 revival †† Titled "The Strip" in the 2008 revival IBDB for 2008 revival and on the recording of the 1989 revival. 1989 Album tracklist During the pre-Broadway tryout tour, several songs were cut, including a song for Herbie called "Nice She Ain't" (cut because it was given to Jack Klugman one week prior to opening and he could not memorize the keys and staging one week before. ), and a song for Baby June and Baby Louise titled "Mama's Talkin' Soft". The latter song was cut because the staging required the little girls to stand on a platform elevated above the stage. The young actress playing Baby Louise was terrified and the song was cut. "Mama's Talkin' Soft" was later recorded by Petula Clark and released as a single in the UK in 1959. Productions 1959 Original Broadway production The original production opened on May 21, 1959, at The Broadway Theatre, moved to the Imperial Theatre, and ran for 702 performances after 2 previews. Produced by David Merrick it starred Ethel Merman, Jack Klugman, Maria Karnilova, and Sandra Church in the title role. Direction and choreography were by Jerome Robbins; critic Frank Rich has referred to Robbins's work as one of the most influential stagings of a musical in American theatrical history. The original production received eight Tony Award nominations, including best musical, best musical actress, best featured actor, best featured actress, best scenic design, best costume design, and best direction of a musical, but failed to win any. After the show closed on Broadway in March 1961, two national touring companies toured the United States. The first company starred Merman and opened in March 1961 at the Rochester, New York Auditorium, and closed in December 1961 at the American, St. Louis, Missouri. The second national company starred Mary McCarty as Rose and a young Bernadette Peters in various ensemble roles; it opened in September 1961 at the Shubert Theatre, Detroit and closed in January 1962 at the Hanna, Cleveland, Ohio. 1973 London and 1974 Broadway revival Produced by Edgar Lansbury, Gypsy opened in London's West End on May 29, 1973, at the Piccadilly Theatre and played for 300 performances. The director was Arthur Laurents, and the choreography was reproduced by Robert Tucker. It starred Angela Lansbury as Rose, with Zan Charisse as Louise, Barry Ingham as Herbie, Debbie Bowen as the older June, and Bonnie Langford as Dainty June. On September 23, 1974, the same production opened at Broadway's Winter Garden Theatre for a planned limited run of 120 performances after 4 previews. The cast remained mostly the same in New York, but Rex Robbins was Herbie, Maureen Moore (later Bernadette Peters' understudy as Rose in the 2003 revival) played the adult June, and Mary Louise Wilson was Tessie Tura. Lansbury received her third Tony for Best Actress in a Musical. Cast lists at Sondheimguide 1989 Broadway revival Opened on November 16, 1989, at the St. James Theatre, moved to the Marquis Theatre, and ran for 476 performances after 23 previews. Laurents again directed. Tyne Daly played Rose (later replaced by Linda Lavin), with Jonathan Hadary (later replaced by Jamie Ross) and Crista Moore. It won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival. 1998 Paper Mill Playhouse A 1998 production featuring Betty Buckley and Deborah Gibson at the Paper Mill Playhouse in Millburn, New Jersey was rumored to be Broadway bound, but a production did not materialize. 2003 Broadway revival The revival opened on May 1, 2003, at the Shubert Theatre and closed on May 30, 2004, after 451 performances and 33 previews. It was directed by Sam Mendes with original choreography by Jerome Robbins and additional choreography by Jerry Mitchell. Bernadette Peters starred as Rose, with Tammy Blanchard (Louise/Gypsy), John Dossett (Herbie), Kate Reinders (Dainty June) and David Burtka (Tulsa) co-starring. New York Times theatre critic Ben Brantley wrote that Peters' performance was the first "to have broken the Merman mold." This production became somewhat controversial when Peters missed performances during previews and early in the run due to illness, and the show closed at a loss despite running more than a year. The production was expected to recoup a little more than half its $8 million investment. This revival was nominated for four Tony Awards, including Best Revival of a Musical and Best Actress (for Peters). McKinley, Jesse."Gypsy to Close Feb. 28, At a Loss of Millions", New York Times, February 3, 2004 2006 Ravinia Festival (Chicago) From August 11-13, 2006, Patti LuPone played Rose in Chicago's Ravinia Festival semi-staged production. 2007 Encores! City Center (New York) Gypsy was presented by Encores! from July 9 to 29, with Patti LuPone again playing Rose, and direction by Arthur Laurents. News from NYCityCenter.org Principal casting included Laura Benanti in the title role of "Gypsy/Louise", with Boyd Gaines as "Herbie", Leigh Ann Larkin as "Dainty June", Alison Fraser as "Tessie Tura", Nancy Opel as "Mazeppa"/"Miss Cratchitt", and Marilyn Caskey as "Electra". Playbill News: Momma's Doin' Fine: LuPone Gypsy , Directed by Laurents, Begins City Center Run 2007-2008 North American tour Gypsy was presented by Phoenix Entertainment with Kathy Halenda starring as Rose and Missy Dowse as Louise. The production was directed by Sam Viverto and assisted by Aja Kane. Principal casting also included Ruby Lewis as June, Rachel Abrams as Mazeppa, Loriann Freda as Tessie Tura, Nick Hamel as Herbie, and Maria Egler as Electra. Baby Louise was Kristina Lachaga, and Baby June was Claire Norden. The tour ended in May 2008. MB Productions Gypsy listing 2008 Broadway revival The Encores! production was produced on Broadway at the St. James Theatre. Previews started March 3, 2008, with the official opening March 27. The production closed on January 11, 2009 after 332 performances and 27 previews "GYPSY to Close Early on January 11, 2009",broadwayworld.com, December 14, 2008 . Patti LuPone (Rose), Boyd Gaines (Herbie), Laura Benanti (Louise) and Leigh Ann Larkin (Dainty June) reprised their roles, with Arthur Laurents again directing and Bonnie Walker reproducing the original choreography by Jerome Robbins. They were joined by Tony Yazbeck as Tulsa, Marilyn Caskey as Electra, Alison Fraser as Tessie, and Lenora Nemetz as Mazeppa with Sami Gayle as Baby June and Emma Rowley as Baby Louise. The set was designed by James Youmans, costumes by Martin Pakledinaz and lighting by Howell Binkley Gans, Andrew. "Let Them Entertain You: Gypsy, with LuPone, Gaines and Benanti, Arrives on Broadway March 3," playbill.com, March 3, 2008 On the eve before the final curtain call, Patti LuPone made news when she literally stopped the show to scold a patron for taking illegal photographs during the matinee performance. New York Times critic Ben Brantley gave the production a rave review, praising LuPone, Laurents and the rest of the principal cast, and describing the characterizations achieved in the production as follows: "You see, everyone's starved for attention in 'Gypsy.' That craving, after all, is the motor that keeps showbiz puttering along. And Mr. Laurents makes sure that we sense that hunger in everyone.... I was so caught up in the emotional wrestling matches between the characters (and within themselves), that I didn't really think about the songs as songs.... There is no separation at all between song and character, which is what happens in those uncommon moments when musicals reach upward to achieve their ideal reasons to be." Brantley, Ben. "Curtain Up! It’s Patti’s Turn", New York Times, March 28, 2008 This production won three Tony Awards 2008 Tony Award winners and three Drama Desk Awards, playbill article, Gans, Andrew, April 28, 2008, "Drama Desk Nominees Announced; Catered Affair Garners 12 Noms" Retrieved 4-28-200 in each case for the performances by LuPone, Gaines and Benanti. Film and TV versions Rosalind Russell, Karl Malden, and Natalie Wood starred in the 1962 Warner Bros. film version of the musical. This film adaptation was somewhat controversial due to Russell's casting. Many were upset that Merman wasn't given the chance to reprise her role for the screen, and felt that Russell wasn't up to the task. Russell was very much a non-singer and, despite recording all of the songs herself, was dubbed in the final film by singer Lisa Kirk. Russell's original audio still exists. Gypsy was also adapted as a television movie in 1993 with Bette Midler playing Rose. Cynthia Gibb portrayed Louise and Jennifer Beck portrayed Dainty June. Bette Midler won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV; Michael Rafter won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Direction. This production is known for being a rare example of a film/TV project in which some the songs are sung "live", and not sync'd to a prerecorded track. Broadway casts Principal casts of the Broadway productions of Gypsy (Original Broadway Cast and Revivals) (this list shows original cast only, not replacements): +Casts of Broadway productions of Gypsy Productions Rose Louise Dainty June Herbie Director 1959 OBC Ethel Merman Sandra Church Lane Bradbury Jack Klugman Jerome Robbins 1974 Revival Angela Lansbury Zan Charisse Maureen Moore Rex Robbins Arthur Laurents 1989 Revival Tyne Daly Crista Moore Tracy Venner Jonathan Hadary Arthur Laurents 2003 Revival Bernadette Peters Tammy Blanchard Kate Reinders John Dossett Sam Mendes 2008 Revival Patti LuPone Laura Benanti Leigh Ann Larkin Boyd Gaines Arthur Laurents Recordings There are recordings of each of the Broadway and London productions, as well as the film and television productions. The original 1959 and revival 2003 cast albums each won the Grammy Award, Best Original Cast Show Album. The original Broadway cast album is notable as Ethel Merman's first recording in the then-new stereophonic sound technology. Motion pictures recorded in stereo had been steadily made since 1953, and stereo was first used on magnetic tape in 1954, but it was not until 1958, a year before Gypsy opened, that it became possible to use this technology on records. The 1974 Broadway recording was not an actual recording of the Broadway revival, but a remix of the London Cast recording of 1973 with a new recording of "Some People". The 2008 Broadway cast recording was released August 28, 2008. Awards and nominations Note: Winners indicated by an asterisk (*). 1959 Original ProductionTony Awards Best Musical Leading Actress (Ethel Merman) Featured Actor (Jack Klugman) Featured Actress (Sandra Church) Scenic Design (Jo Mielziner) Costume Design (Raoul Pène Du Bois) Best Direction Best Director (Jerome Robbins)Note: The 1959 Tony Award for Best Musical was won jointly by Fiorello and The Sound of Music, the latter of which dominated the Awards. 1974 Revival Tony Awards Leading Actress (Angela Lansbury)* Featured Actress (Zan Charisse) Direction Drama Desk Awards Outstanding Actress (Lansbury)* Outstanding Featured Actress (Bonnie Langford)* Outstanding Director* Theatre World Awards Zan Charisse* John Sheridan* 1989 Revival Tony Awards Best Revival* Leading Actress (Tyne Daly)* Featured Actor (Jonathan Hadary) Featured Actress (Crista Moore)Drama Desk Award Outstanding Actress (Daly)* Outstanding Featured Actor (Hadary) Outstanding Featured Actress (Moore) Outstanding Revival* Theatre World Award Robert Lambert* Crista Moore* 2003 Revival Tony Awards Best Revival Leading Actress (Bernadette Peters) Featured Actor (John Dossett) Featured Actress (Tammy Blanchard) Drama Desk Awards Outstanding Revival Outstanding Actress (Peters) Outstanding Featured Actor (Dossett) Theatre World Award Tammy Blanchard* 2008 RevivalTony Awards Best Revival Leading Actress (Lupone) * Featured Actor (Gaines) * Featured Actress (Benanti) * Costume Design (Martin Pakledinaz) Sound Design (Dan Moses Schreier) Direction (Laurents)Drama Desk Awards Outstanding Revival Outstanding Actress (LuPone) * Outstanding Featured Actor (Gaines) * Outstanding Featured Actress (Benanti) *Outer Critics Circle Award Outstanding Revival of a Musical Outstanding Director of a Musical (Laurents) Outstanding Actor in a Musical (Gaines) Outstanding Actress in a Musical (LuPone) * Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical (Yazbeck) Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical (Benanti) * References External links Gypsy at sondheim.com Internet Movie Database for Gypsy, 1993 TV movie ''Gypsy at sondheimguide.com | Gypsy_(musical) |@lemmatized gypsy:31 musical:27 music:5 jule:3 styne:3 lyric:4 stephen:3 sondheim:9 book:5 arthur:9 laurents:17 usually:1 refer:3 simply:1 base:4 memoir:3 rise:56 lee:7 famous:1 striptease:1 artist:1 focus:1 mother:10 whose:2 name:1 become:10 synonymous:1 ultimate:1 show:11 business:3 particular:1 follow:5 dream:5 effort:1 raise:1 two:4 daughter:6 perform:2 onstage:1 cast:15 affectionate:1 eye:1 hardship:1 life:6 character:9 louise:40 june:29 sister:1 actress:27 havoc:1 contains:1 many:2 song:17 popular:1 standard:1 include:6 small:3 world:7 everything:3 come:7 rose:3 never:2 get:4 away:3 let:7 entertain:6 frequently:1 consider:1 one:11 crown:1 achievement:2 mid:1 century:1 conventional:1 theatre:17 art:2 form:1 often:2 call:4 great:2 american:7 numerous:1 critic:7 writer:1 among:1 ben:5 brantley:5 new:16 momma:3 take:4 charge:1 york:11 time:9 may:9 frank:4 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5,867 | Being | In ontology (the study of being) being is anything that can be said to be, either transcendentally or immanently. The nature of being varies by philosophy, given different interpretations in the frameworks of Parmenides, Leucippus, Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Plotinus, Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Hegel, Heidegger, and Sartre. Being in continental philosophy and existentialism Some philosophers deny that the concept of "being" has any meaning at all, since we only define an object's existence by its relation to other objects, and actions it undertakes. The term "I am" has no meaning by itself; it must have an action or relation appended to it. This in turn has led to the thought that "being" and nothingness are closely related, developed in existential philosophy. Existentialist philosophers such as Sartre, as well as continental philosophers such as Hegel and Heidegger have also written extensively on the concept of being. Hegel distinguishes between the being of objects (being in itself) and the being of people (Geist). Hegel, however, did not think there was much hope for delineating a "meaning" of being, because being stripped of all predicates is simply nothing. Heidegger, in his quest to re-pose the original pre-Socratic questions of Being (of why is there something rather than nothing), wondered at how to meaningfully ask the question of the meaning of being, since it is both the greatest, as it includes everything that is, and the least, since no particular thing can be said of it. He distinguishes between different modes of beings: a privative mode is present-at-hand, whereas beings in a fuller sense are described as ready-to-hand. The one who asks the question of Being is described as Da-sein ("there/here-being") or being-in-the-world. Sartre, popularly understood as misreading Heidegger (an understanding supported by Heidegger's essay "Letter on Humanism" which responds to Sartre's famous address, "Existentialism is a Humanism"), employs modes of being in an attempt to ground his concept of freedom ontologically by distinguishing between being-in-itself and being-for-itself. Being in Islamic philosophy The nature of "being" has also been debated and explored in Islamic philosophy, notably by Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi, and Mulla Sadra. Iranian Personalities Quotations As far as we can discern, the sole purpose of human existence is to kindle a light of meaning in the darkness of mere being. - Carl Jung Under the heading ‘Individuality in Thought and Desire’, Karl Marx, (German Ideology 1845), says: "It depends not on consciousness, but on being; not on thought, but on life; it depends on the individual's empirical development and manifestation of life, which in turn depends on the conditions existing in the world." See also Atman Category of being Cogito ergo sum Creature Entity Essence Existence Existentialism Human being Hypostasis Infosphere Noumenon Object (philosophy) Ontology Ousia Phenomenon Substance theory Supreme being Fromm To Have Or To Be? 1976 Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit Heidegger, Being and Time Sartre, Essays in Existentialism and Being and Nothingness Pranopasana External links Being in philosophy and linguistics References | Being |@lemmatized ontology:2 study:1 anything:1 say:3 either:1 transcendentally:1 immanently:1 nature:2 varies:1 philosophy:7 give:1 different:2 interpretation:1 framework:1 parmenides:1 leucippus:1 plato:1 aristotle:1 augustine:1 plotinus:1 aquinas:1 descartes:1 spinoza:1 leibniz:1 hegel:5 heidegger:6 sartre:5 continental:2 existentialism:4 philosopher:3 deny:1 concept:3 meaning:5 since:3 define:1 object:4 existence:3 relation:2 action:2 undertake:1 term:1 must:1 append:1 turn:2 lead:1 thought:3 nothingness:2 closely:1 related:1 develop:1 existential:1 existentialist:1 well:1 also:3 write:1 extensively:1 distinguishes:1 people:1 geist:1 however:1 think:1 much:1 hope:1 delineate:1 strip:1 predicate:1 simply:1 nothing:2 quest:1 pose:1 original:1 pre:1 socratic:1 question:3 something:1 rather:1 wonder:1 meaningfully:1 ask:2 great:1 include:1 everything:1 least:1 particular:1 thing:1 distinguish:2 mode:3 privative:1 present:1 hand:2 whereas:1 fuller:1 sense:1 describe:2 ready:1 one:1 da:1 sein:1 world:2 popularly:1 understood:1 misreading:1 understanding:1 support:1 essay:2 letter:1 humanism:2 respond:1 famous:1 address:1 employ:1 attempt:1 grind:1 freedom:1 ontologically:1 islamic:2 debate:1 explore:1 notably:1 ibn:1 sina:1 suhrawardi:1 mulla:1 sadra:1 iranian:1 personality:1 quotation:1 far:1 discern:1 sole:1 purpose:1 human:2 kindle:1 light:1 darkness:1 mere:1 carl:1 jung:1 heading:1 individuality:1 desire:1 karl:1 marx:1 german:1 ideology:1 depend:2 consciousness:1 life:2 individual:1 empirical:1 development:1 manifestation:1 depends:1 condition:1 exist:1 see:1 atman:1 category:1 cogito:1 ergo:1 sum:1 creature:1 entity:1 essence:1 hypostasis:1 infosphere:1 noumenon:1 ousia:1 phenomenon:1 substance:1 theory:1 supreme:1 fromm:1 phenomenology:1 spirit:1 time:1 pranopasana:1 external:1 link:1 linguistics:1 reference:1 |@bigram plato_aristotle:1 spinoza_leibniz:1 closely_related:1 existentialist_philosopher:1 pre_socratic:1 existentialism_humanism:1 ibn_sina:1 carl_jung:1 karl_marx:1 cogito_ergo:1 ergo_sum:1 hegel_phenomenology:1 phenomenology_spirit:1 external_link:1 |
5,868 | Convex_set | A convex set. A non-convex set. In Euclidean space, an object is convex if for every pair of points within the object, every point on the straight line segment that joins them is also within the object. For example, a solid cube is convex, but anything that is hollow or has a dent in it, for example, a crescent shape, is not convex. In Euclidean geometry A function (in blue) is convex if and only if the region above its graph (in green) is a convex set. Let C be a set in a real or complex vector space. C is said to be convex if, for all x and y in C and all t in the interval [0,1], the point (1 − t ) x + t y is in C. In other words, every point on the line segment connecting x and y is in C. This implies that a convex set in a real or complex topological vector space is path-connected, thus connected. A set C is called absolutely convex if it is convex and balanced. The convex subsets of R (the set of real numbers) are simply the intervals of R. Some examples of convex subsets of Euclidean 2-space are regular polygons and bodies of constant width. Some examples of convex subsets of Euclidean 3-space are the Archimedean solids and the Platonic solids. The Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra are examples of non-convex sets. Properties If is a convex set, for any in , and any nonnegative numbers such that , then the vector is in . A vector of this type is known as a convex combination of . The intersection of any collection of convex sets is itself convex, so the convex subsets of a (real or complex) vector space form a complete lattice. This also means that any subset A of the vector space is contained within a smallest convex set (called the convex hull of A), namely the intersection of all convex sets containing A. Closed convex sets can be characterised as the intersections of closed half-spaces (sets of point in space that lie on and to one side of a hyperplane). From what has just been said, it is clear that such intersections are convex, and they will also be closed sets. To prove the converse, i.e., every convex set may be represented as such intersection, one needs the supporting hyperplane theorem in the form that for a given closed convex set C and point P outside it, there is a closed half-space H that contains C and not P. The supporting hyperplane theorem is a special case of the Hahn-Banach theorem of functional analysis. Star-convex sets Let C be a set in a real or complex vector space. C is star convex if there exists an in C such that the line segment from to any point y in C is contained in C. Hence a non-empty convex set is always star-convex but a star-convex set is not always convex. Generalizations and extensions for convexity The notion of convexity in the Euclidean space may be generalized by modifying the definition in some or other aspects. The common name "generalized convexity" is used, because the resulting objects retain certain properties of convex sets. Orthogonal convexity An example of generalized convexity is orthogonal convexity. Rawlins G.J.E. and Wood D, "Ortho-convexity and its generalizations", in: Computational Morphology, 137-152. Elsevier, 1988. A set S in the Euclidean space is called orthogonally convex or orthoconvex, if any segment parallel to any of the coordinate axes connecting two points of S lies totally within S. It is easy to prove that an intersection of any collection of orthoconvex sets is orthoconvex. Some other properties of convex sets are valid as well. See "Orthogonal convex hull" for more. Non-Euclidean geometry The definition of a convex set and a convex hull extends naturally to non-Euclidean geometry by defining a geodesically convex set to be one that contains the geodesics joining any two points in the set. Order topology Convexity can be extended for a space endowed with the order topology, using the total order of the space. Munkres, James; Topology, Prentice Hall; 2nd edition (December 28, 1999). ISBN 0-13-181629-2. Let . The subspace is a convex set if for each pair of points such that , the interval is contained in . That is, is convex if and only if . Abstract (axiomatic) convexity The notion of convexity may be generalised to other objects, if certain properties of convexity are selected as axioms. Given a set X, a convexity over X is a collection of subsets of X satisfying the following axioms: Soltan, Valeriu, Introduction to the Axiomatic Theory of Convexity, Ştiinţa, Chişinău, 1984 (in Russian). The empty set and X are in The intersection of any collection from is in . The union of a chain (with respect to the inclusion relation) of elements of is in . The elements of are called convex sets and the pair (X, ) is called a convexity space. For the ordinary convexity, the first two axioms hold, and the third one is trivial. For an alternative definition of abstract convexity, more suited to discrete geometry, see the convex geometries associated with antimatroids. See also Convex function Pseudoconvexity Convex metric space Concave set References External links Lectures on Convex Sets, notes by Niels Lauritzen, at Aarhus University, March 2009. | Convex_set |@lemmatized convex:47 set:34 non:5 euclidean:8 space:17 object:5 every:4 pair:3 point:10 within:4 straight:1 line:3 segment:4 join:2 also:4 example:6 solid:3 cube:1 anything:1 hollow:1 dent:1 crescent:1 shape:1 geometry:5 function:2 blue:1 region:1 graph:1 green:1 let:3 c:13 real:5 complex:4 vector:7 say:2 x:8 interval:3 word:1 connect:4 imply:1 topological:1 path:1 thus:1 call:5 absolutely:1 balance:1 subset:6 r:2 number:2 simply:1 regular:1 polygon:1 body:1 constant:1 width:1 archimedean:1 platonic:1 kepler:1 poinsot:1 polyhedron:1 property:4 nonnegative:1 type:1 know:1 combination:1 intersection:7 collection:4 form:2 complete:1 lattice:1 mean:1 contain:6 small:1 hull:3 namely:1 closed:4 characterise:1 half:2 lie:2 one:4 side:1 hyperplane:3 clear:1 close:1 prove:2 converse:1 e:2 may:3 represent:1 need:1 support:2 theorem:3 give:2 p:2 outside:1 h:1 special:1 case:1 hahn:1 banach:1 functional:1 analysis:1 star:4 exist:1 hence:1 empty:2 always:2 generalization:2 extension:1 convexity:16 notion:2 generalize:2 modify:1 definition:3 aspect:1 common:1 name:1 use:2 resulting:1 retain:1 certain:2 orthogonal:3 generalized:1 rawlins:1 g:1 j:1 wood:1 ortho:1 computational:1 morphology:1 elsevier:1 orthogonally:1 orthoconvex:3 parallel:1 coordinate:1 ax:1 two:3 totally:1 easy:1 valid:1 well:1 see:3 extend:2 naturally:1 define:1 geodesically:1 geodesic:1 order:3 topology:3 endow:1 total:1 munkres:1 james:1 prentice:1 hall:1 edition:1 december:1 isbn:1 subspace:1 abstract:2 axiomatic:2 generalise:1 select:1 axiom:3 satisfy:1 following:1 soltan:1 valeriu:1 introduction:1 theory:1 ştiinţa:1 chişinău:1 russian:1 union:1 chain:1 respect:1 inclusion:1 relation:1 element:2 ordinary:1 first:1 hold:1 third:1 trivial:1 alternative:1 suited:1 discrete:1 associate:1 antimatroids:1 pseudoconvexity:1 metric:1 concave:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 lecture:1 note:1 niels:1 lauritzen:1 aarhus:1 university:1 march:1 |@bigram euclidean_geometry:3 regular_polygon:1 archimedean_solid:1 platonic_solid:1 kepler_poinsot:1 poinsot_polyhedron:1 convex_hull:3 hahn_banach:1 prentice_hall:1 external_link:1 |
5,869 | Charlemagne | {{Infobox French Royalty|monarch |title=rex Francorum (King of the Franks)rex Langobardorum (King of the Lombards)imperator Romanorum (Emperor of the Romans) |image=Charlemagne denier Mayence 812 814.jpg|400px |caption=A coin of Charlemagne's with the inscription KAROLVS IMP AVG ("Carolus Imperator Augustus") |reign=768 – 814 |coronation=25 December 800 |full name= |predecessor=Pippin the Short |successor=Louis the Pious |royal house=Carolingian |father=Pippin the Short |mother=Bertrada of Laon |date of birth= |place of birth=Liège |date of death= |place of death=Aachen |place of burial=Aachen Cathedral |}} Charlemagne (; , meaning Charles the Great) (2 April 742 – 28 January 814) was King of the Franks from 768 to his death. He expanded the Frankish kingdoms into a Frankish Empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800 as a rival of the Byzantine Emperor in Constantinople. His rule is also associated with the Carolingian Renaissance, a revival of art, religion, and culture through the medium of the Catholic Church. Through his foreign conquests and internal reforms, Charlemagne helped define both Western Europe and the Middle Ages. He is numbered as Charles I in the regnal lists of France, Germany, and the Holy Roman Empire. The son of King Pippin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, he succeeded his father and co-ruled with his brother Carloman I. The latter got on badly with Charlemagne, but war was prevented by the sudden death of Carloman in 771. Charlemagne continued the policy of his father towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in Italy, and waging war on the Saracens, who menaced his realm from Spain. It was during one of these campaigns that Charlemagne experienced the worst defeat of his life, at the Battle of Roncesvalles (778) memorialised in the Song of Roland. He also campaigned against the peoples to his east, especially the Saxons, and after a protracted war subjected them to his rule. By forcibly converting them to Christianity, he integrated them into his realm and thus paved the way for the later Ottonian dynasty. Today he is regarded not only as the founding father of both French and German monarchies, but also as the father of Europe: his empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, and the Carolingian renaissance encouraged the formation of a common European identity. Riché, Preface xviii, Pierre Riché reflects: Background By the 6th century, the Franks were Christianised, and Francia ruled by the Merovingians had become the most powerful of the kingdoms which succeeded the Western Roman Empire. But following the Battle of Tertry, the Merovingians declined into a state of powerlessness, for which they have been dubbed do-nothing kings (rois fainéants). Almost all government powers of any consequence were exercised by their chief officer, the mayor of the palace or major domus. In 687, Pippin of Herstal, mayor of the palace of Austrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his victory at Tertry and became the sole governor of the entire Frankish kingdom. Pippin himself was the grandson of two most important figures of the Austrasian Kingdom, Saint Arnulf of Metz and Pippin of Landen. Pippin the Middle was eventually succeeded by his illegitimate son Charles, later known as Charles Martel (the Hammer). After 737, Charles governed the Franks without a king on the throne but desisted from calling himself "king." Charles was succeeded by his sons Carloman and Pippin the Short, the father of Charlemagne. To curb separatism in the periphery of the realm, the brothers placed on the throne Childeric III, who was to be the last Merovingian king. After Carloman resigned his office, Pippin had Childeric III deposed with Pope Zachary's approval. In 751, Pippin was elected and anointed King of the Franks and in 754, Pope Stephen II again anointed him and his young sons, now heirs to the great realm which already covered most of western and central Europe. Thus was the Merovingian dynasty replaced by the Carolingian dynasty, named after Pippin's father Charles Martel. Under the new dynasty, the Frankish kingdom spread to encompass an area including most of Western Europe. The division of that kingdom formed France and Germany; Oman, Charles. The Dark Ages 476–919 Rivingtons: London, 1914. Regards Charlemagne's grandsons as the first kings of France and Germany, which at the time comprised the whole of the Carolingian Empire save Italy. and the religious, political, and artistic evolutions originating from a centrally-positioned Francia made a defining imprint on the whole of Western Europe. Personal traits Date and place of birth Charlemagne is believed to have been born in 742; however, several factors have led to a reconsideration of this date. First, the year 742 was calculated from his age given at death, rather than from attestation in primary sources. Another date is given in the Annales Petaviani, that of 2 April 747. "The year is given as 747 in Annales Petaviani ["Et ipso anno fuit natus Karolus rex." Annales Petaviani, s.a. 747, MGH SS 1:11. . In that year, April 2 was at Easter. The birth of an emperor at eastertime is a coincidence likely to provoke comment, but there was no such comment documented in 747, leading some to suspect that the Easter birthday was a pious fiction concocted as a way of honoring the Emperor. Other commentators weighing the primary records have suggested that his birth was one year later, in 748. At present, it is impossible to be certain of the date of the birth of Charlemagne. The best guesses include April 1, 747, after April 15, 747, or April 1, 748, in Herstal (where his father was born, a town close to Liège in modern day Belgium), the region from where both the Merovingian and Carolingian families originate. He went to live in his father's villa in Jupille when he was around seven, which caused Jupille to be listed as a possible place of birth in almost every history book. Other cities have been suggested, including, Prüm, Düren, Gauting and Aachen. Charlemagne (left) and Pippin the Hunchback. Tenth-century copy of a lost original from about 830. Dubbed Charles le Magne "Charles the Great", he was named after his grandfather, Charles Martel. The name derives from Germanic *karlaz "free man, commoner", Etymology of "Charles/Karl/Karel" which gave German Kerl "man, guy" and English churl. His name, however, is first attested in its Latin form, "Carolus" or "Karolus." In many eastern European languages, the very word for "king" derives from Charles' name. (e.g., , , , , ) Language Charlemagne's native language is a matter of controversy. It was probably a Germanic dialect of the Ripuarian Franks, but linguists differ on its identity and chronology. Some linguists go so far as to say that he did not speak Old Frankish as he was born in 742 or 747, by which time Old Frankish had become extinct. Old Frankish is reconstructed from its descendant, Old Low Franconian, and from loanwords in Old French. Linguists know very little about Old Frankish, as it is attested mainly as phrases and words in the law codes of the main Frankish tribes (especially those of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks), which are written in Latin interspersed with Germanic elements. Original text of the Salic law. The area of Charlemagne's birth does not make determination of his native language easier. Most historians agree he was born around Liège, like his father, but some say he was born in or around Aachen, some 50 km away. At that time, this was an area of great linguistic diversity. If we take Liège (around 750) as the centre, we find: Old East Low Franconian (the forerunner of Limburgish) in the city, north and northwest; the closely related Old Ripuarian Franconian (a central Old High German dialect) to the east and in Aachen; and Gallo-Romance (the ancestor of the Walloon dialect of Old French) in the south and southwest. The names he gave his children are also good indicators of the language he spoke, as all of his daughters received Old High German names. Apart from his native language he also spoke Latin "as fluently as his own tongue" and understood a bit of Greek: Grecam vero melius intellegere quam pronuntiare poterat, "He understood Greek better than he could pronounce it." Einhard, Life, 25. Personal appearance Though no description from Charlemagne's lifetime exists, his personal appearance is known from a good description by Einhard, author of the biographical Vita Karoli Magni. Einhard tells in his twenty-second chapter: Charlemagne By Alessandro Barbero, Allan Cameron P. 116 He was heavily built, sturdy, and of considerable stature, although not exceptionally so, given that he stood seven feet tall. He had a round head, large and lively eyes, a slightly larger nose than usual, white but still attractive hair, a bright and cheerful expression, a short and fat neck, and a slightly protruding stomach. His voice was clear, but a little higher than one would have expected for a man of his build. He enjoyed good health, except for the fevers that affected him in the last few years of his life. Toward the end he dragged one leg. Even then, he stubbornly did what he wanted and refused to listen to doctors, indeed he detested them, because they wanted to persuade him to stop eating roast meat, as was his wont, and to be content with boiled meat. The physical portrait provided by Einhard is confirmed by contemporary depictions of the emperor, such as coins and his 8-inch bronze statue kept in the Louvre. Charles description of Charlemagne's height at 7 feet (6 feet 3 inches, or 190.50 centimeters) was not far off. Though it was Herculean stature, particularly in a period in which people were a little shorter than we are today, archaeology has confirmed his tallness: in 1861, Charlemagne's tomb was opened by scientists who reconstructed his skeleton and found that it indeed measured 74.9 inches (192 centimeters). Charlemagne By Alessandro Barbero, Allan Cameron P. 118 Charles is well known to have been fair-haired, tall, and stately, with a disproportionately thick neck. The Roman tradition of realistic personal portraiture was in complete eclipse in his time, where individual traits were submerged in iconic typecastings. Charlemagne, as an ideal ruler, ought to be portrayed in the corresponding fashion, any contemporary would have assumed. The images of enthroned Charlemagne, God's representative on Earth, bear more connections to the icons of Christ in majesty than to modern (or antique) conceptions of portraiture. Charlemagne in later imagery (as in the Dürer portrait) is often portrayed with flowing blond hair, due to a misunderstanding of Einhard, who describes Charlemagne as having canitie pulchra, or "beautiful white hair", which has been rendered as blonde or fair in many translations. Dress Part of the treasure in Aachen Charlemagne wore the traditional, inconspicuous and distinctly non-aristocratic costume of the Frankish people, described by Einhard thus: He used to wear the national, that is to say, the Frank dress: next to his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet, and he protected his shoulders and chest in winter by a close-fitting coat of otter or marten skins. He wore a blue cloak and always carried a sword with him. The typical sword was of a golden or silver hilt. He wore fancy jewelled swords to banquets or ambassadorial receptions. Nevertheless: He despised foreign costumes, however handsome, and never allowed himself to be robed in them, except twice in Rome, when he donned the Roman tunic, chlamys, and shoes; the first time at the request of Pope Hadrian, the second to gratify Leo, Hadrian's successor. He could rise to the occasion when necessary. On great feast days, he wore embroidery and jewels on his clothing and shoes. He had a golden buckle for his cloak on such occasions and would appear with his great diadem, but he despised such apparel, according to Einhard, and usually dressed like the common people. Rise to power Early life Charlemagne was the eldest child of Pippin the Short (714 – 24 September 768, reigned from 751) and his wife Bertrada of Laon (720 – 12 July 783), daughter of Caribert of Laon and Bertrada of Cologne. Records name only Carloman, Gisela, and a short-lived child named Pippin as his younger siblings. The semi-mythical Redburga, wife of King Egbert of Wessex, is sometimes claimed to be his sister (or sister-in-law or niece), and the legendary material makes him Roland's maternal uncle through a lady Bertha. Much of what is known of Charlemagne's life comes from his biographer, Einhard, who wrote a Vita Caroli Magni (or Vita Karoli Magni), the Life of Charlemagne. Einhard says of the early life of Charles: It would be folly, I think, to write a word concerning Charles' birth and infancy, or even his boyhood, for nothing has ever been written on the subject, and there is no one alive now who can give information on it. Accordingly, I determined to pass that by as unknown, and to proceed at once to treat of his character, his deed, and such other facts of his life as are worth telling and setting forth, and shall first give an account of his deed at home and abroad, then of his character and pursuits, and lastly of his administration and death, omitting nothing worth knowing or necessary to know. On the death of Pippin, the kingdom of the Franks was divided—following tradition—between Charlemagne and Carloman. Charles took the outer parts of the kingdom, bordering on the sea, namely Neustria, western Aquitaine, and the northern parts of Austrasia, while Carloman retained the inner parts: southern Austrasia, Septimania, eastern Aquitaine, Burgundy, Provence, and Swabia, lands bordering on Italy. Joint rule On 9 October, immediately after the funeral of their father, both the kings withdrew from Saint Denis to be proclaimed by their nobles and consecrated by the bishops, Charlemagne in Noyon and Carloman in Soissons. The first event of the brothers' reign was the rising of the Aquitainians and Gascons, in 769, in that territory split between the two kings. Years before Pippin had suppressed the revolt of Waifer, Duke of Aquitaine. Now, one Hunald (seemingly other than Hunald the duke) led the Aquitainians as far north as Angoulême. Charlemagne met Carloman, but Carloman refused to participate and returned to Burgundy. Charlemagne went to war, leading an army to Bordeaux, where he set up a camp at Fronsac. Hunold was forced to flee to the court of Duke Lupus II of Gascony. Lupus, fearing Charlemagne, turned Hunold over in exchange for peace. He was put in a monastery. Aquitaine was finally fully subdued by the Franks. The brothers maintained lukewarm relations with the assistance of their mother Bertrada, but in 770 Charlemagne signed a treaty with Duke Tassilo III of Bavaria and married a Lombard Princess (commonly known today as Desiderata), the daughter of King Desiderius, in order to surround Carloman with his own allies. Though Pope Stephen III first opposed the marriage with the Lombard princess, he would soon have little to fear from a Frankish-Lombard alliance. Less than a year after his marriage, Charlemagne repudiated Desiderata, and quickly remarried to a 13-year-old Swabian named Hildegard. The repudiated Desiderata returned to her father's court at Pavia. The Lombard's wrath was now aroused and he would gladly have allied with Carloman to defeat Charles. But before war could break out, Carloman died on 5 December 771. Carloman's wife Gerberga fled to Desiderius' court with her sons for protection. Italian campaigns Conquest of Lombardy The Frankish king Charlemagne was a devout Catholic who maintained a close relationship with the papacy throughout his life. In 772, when Pope Hadrian I was threatened by invaders, the king rushed to Rome to provide assistance. Shown here, the pope asks Charlemagne for help at a meeting near Rome At the succession of Pope Hadrian I in 772, he demanded the return of certain cities in the former exarchate of Ravenna as in accordance with a promise of Desiderius' succession. Desiderius instead took over certain papal cities and invaded the Pentapolis, heading for Rome. Hadrian sent embassies to Charlemagne in autumn requesting he enforce the policies of his father, Pippin. Desiderius sent his own embassies denying the pope's charges. The embassies both met at Thionville and Charlemagne upheld the pope's side. Charlemagne promptly demanded what the pope had demanded and Desiderius promptly swore never to comply. Charlemagne and his uncle Bernard crossed the Alps in 773 and chased the Lombards back to Pavia, which they then besieged. Charlemagne temporarily left the siege to deal with Adelchis, son of Desiderius, who was raising an army at Verona. The young prince was chased to the Adriatic littoral and he fled to Constantinople to plead for assistance from Constantine V, who was waging war with Bulgaria. The siege lasted until the spring of 774, when Charlemagne visited the pope in Rome. There he confirmed his father's grants of land, with some later chronicles claiming—falsely—that he also expanded them, granting Tuscany, Emilia, Venice, and Corsica. The pope granted him the title patrician. He then returned to Pavia, where the Lombards were on the verge of surrendering. In return for their lives, the Lombards surrendered and opened the gates in early summer. Desiderius was sent to the abbey of Corbie and his son Adelchis died in Constantinople a patrician. Charles, unusually, had himself crowned with the Iron Crown and made the magnates of Lombardy do homage to him at Pavia. Only Duke Arechis II of Benevento refused to submit and proclaimed independence. Charlemagne was now master of Italy as king of the Lombards. He left Italy with a garrison in Pavia and few Frankish counts in place that very year. There was still instability, however, in Italy. In 776, Dukes Hrodgaud of Friuli and Hildeprand of Spoleto rebelled. Charlemagne rushed back from Saxony and defeated the duke of Friuli in battle. The duke was slain. The duke of Spoleto signed a treaty. Their co-conspirator, Arechis, was not subdued and Adelchis, their candidate in Byzantium, never left that city. Northern Italy was now faithfully his. Southern Italy In 787 Charlemagne directed his attention towards Benevento, where Arechis was reigning independently. He besieged Salerno and Arechis submitted to vassalage. However, with his death in 792, Benevento again proclaimed independence under his son Grimoald III. Grimoald was attacked by armies of Charles' or his sons' many times, but Charlemagne himself never returned to the Mezzogiorno and Grimoald never was forced to surrender to Frankish suzerainty. Charles and his children During the first peace of any substantial length (780–782), Charles began to appoint his sons to positions of authority within the realm, in the tradition of the kings and mayors of the past. In 781 he made his two younger sons kings, having them crowned by the Pope. The elder of these two, Carloman, was made king of Italy, taking the Iron Crown which his father had first worn in 774, and in the same ceremony was renamed "Pippin." The younger of the two, Louis, became king of Aquitaine. Charlemagne ordered Pippin and Louis to be raised in the customs of their kingdoms, and he gave their regents some control of their subkingdoms, but real power was always in his hands, though he intended each to inherit their realm some day. Nor did he tolerate insubordination in his sons: in 792, he banished his eldest, though illegitimate, son, Pippin the Hunchback, to the monastery of Prüm, because the young man had joined a rebellion against him. The sons fought many wars on behalf of their father when they came of age. Charles was mostly preoccupied with the Bretons, whose border he shared and who insurrected on at least two occasions and were easily put down, but he was also sent against the Saxons on multiple occasions. In 805 and 806, he was sent into the Böhmerwald (modern Bohemia) to deal with the Slavs living there (Czechs). He subjected them to Frankish authority and devastated the valley of the Elbe, forcing a tribute on them. Pippin had to hold the Avar and Beneventan borders, but also fought the Slavs to his north. He was uniquely poised to fight the Byzantine Empire when finally that conflict arose after Charlemagne's imperial coronation and a Venetian rebellion. Finally, Louis was in charge of the Spanish March and also went to southern Italy to fight the duke of Benevento on at least one occasion. He took Barcelona in a great siege in the year 797 (see below). Charlemagne's attitude toward his daughters has been the subject of much discussion. He kept them at home with him, and refused to allow them to contract sacramental marriages – possibly to prevent the creation of cadet branches of the family to challenge the main line, as had been the case with Tassilo of Bavaria – yet he tolerated their extramarital relationships, even rewarding their common-law husbands, and treasured the bastard grandchildren they produced for him. He also, apparently, refused to believe stories of their wild behaviour. After his death the surviving daughters were banished from the court by their brother, the pious Louis, to take up residence in the convents they had been bequeathed by their father. At least one of them, Bertha, had a recognised relationship, if not a marriage, with Angilbert, a member of Charlemagne's court circle. Spanish campaigns Roncesvalles campaign Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne in an illustration taken from a manuscript of a chanson de geste According to the Muslim historian Ibn al-Athir, the Diet of Paderborn had received the representatives of the Muslim rulers of Zaragoza, Gerona, Barcelona, and Huesca. Their masters had been cornered in the Iberian peninsula by Abd ar-Rahman I, the Umayyad emir of Córdoba. These Moorish or "Saracen" rulers offered their homage to the great king of the Franks in return for military support. Seeing an opportunity to extend Christendom and his own power and believing the Saxons to be a fully conquered nation, he agreed to go to Spain. In 778, he led the Neustrian army across the Western Pyrenees, while the Austrasians, Lombards, and Burgundians passed over the Eastern Pyrenees. The armies met at Zaragoza and Charlemagne received the homage of the Muslim rulers, Sulayman al-Arabi and Kasmin ibn Yusuf, but the city did not fall for him. Indeed, Charlemagne was facing the toughest battle of his career where the Muslims had the upper hand and forced him to retreat. He decided to go home, since he could not trust the Basques, whom he had subdued by conquering Pamplona. He turned to leave Iberia, but as he was passing through the Pass of Roncesvalles one of the most famous events of his long reign occurred. The Basques fell on his rearguard and baggage train, utterly destroying it. The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, less a battle than a mere skirmish, left many famous dead: among which were the seneschal Eggihard, the count of the palace Anselm, and the warden of the Breton March, Roland, inspiring the subsequent creation of the Song of Roland (La Chanson de Roland). Wars with the Moors Harun al-Rashid receiving a delegation of Charlemagne in Baghdad, by Julius Köckert. The conquest of Italy brought Charlemagne in contact with the Saracens who, at the time, controlled the Mediterranean. Pippin, his son, was much occupied with Saracens in Italy. Charlemagne conquered Corsica and Sardinia at an unknown date and in 799 the Balearic Islands. The islands were often attacked by Saracen pirates, but the counts of Genoa and Tuscany (Boniface) kept them at bay with large fleets until the end of Charlemagne's reign. Charlemagne even had contact with the caliphal court in Baghdad. In 797 (or possibly 801), the caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented Charlemagne with an Asian elephant named Abul-Abbas and a clock. Gene W. Heck When worlds collide: exploring the ideological and political foundations of the clash of civilizations Rowman & Littlefield, 2007 ISBN 0742558568, p. 172 In Hispania the struggle against the Moors continued unabated throughout the latter half of his reign. His son Louis was in charge of the Spanish border. In 785, his men captured Gerona permanently and extended Frankish control into the Catalan littoral for the duration of Charlemagne's reign (and much longer, it remained nominally Frankish until the Treaty of Corbeil in 1258). The Muslim chiefs in the northeast of Islamic Spain were constantly revolting against Córdoban authority and they often turned to the Franks for help. The Frankish border was slowly extended until 795, when Gerona, Cardona, Ausona, and Urgel were united into the new Spanish March, within the old duchy of Septimania. In 797 Barcelona, the greatest city of the region, fell to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against Córdoba and, failing, handed it to them. The Umayyad authority recaptured it in 799. However, Louis of Aquitaine marched the entire army of his kingdom over the Pyrenees and besieged it for two years, wintering there from 800 to 801, when it capitulated. The Franks continued to press forwards against the emir. They took Tarragona in 809 and Tortosa in 811. The last conquest brought them to the mouth of the Ebro and gave them raiding access to Valencia, prompting the Emir al-Hakam I to recognise their conquests in 812. Eastern campaigns Saxon Wars Map showing Charlemagne's additions (in blue) to the Frankish Kingdom. Charlemagne was engaged in almost constant battle throughout his reign, often at the head of his elite scara bodyguard squadrons, with his legendary sword Joyeuse in hand. After thirty years of war and eighteen battles—the Saxon Wars—he conquered Saxonia and proceeded to convert the conquered to Roman Catholicism, using force where necessary. The Saxons were divided into four subgroups in four regions. Nearest to Austrasia was Westphalia and furthest away was Eastphalia. In between these two kingdoms was that of Engria and north of these three, at the base of the Jutland peninsula, was Nordalbingia. In his first campaign, Charlemagne forced the Engrians in 773 to submit and cut down an Irminsul pillar near Paderborn. The campaign was cut short by his first expedition to Italy. He returned in the year 775, marching through Westphalia and conquering the Saxon fort of Sigiburg. He then crossed Engria, where he defeated the Saxons again. Finally, in Eastphalia, he defeated a Saxon force, and its leader Hessi converted to Christianity. He returned through Westphalia, leaving encampments at Sigiburg and Eresburg, which had, up until then, been important Saxon bastions. All Saxony but Nordalbingia was under his control, but Saxon resistance had not ended. Following his campaign in Italy subjugating the dukes of Friuli and Spoleto, Charlemagne returned very rapidly to Saxony in 776, where a rebellion had destroyed his fortress at Eresburg. The Saxons were once again brought to heel, but their main leader, duke Widukind, managed to escape to Denmark, home of his wife. Charlemagne built a new camp at Karlstadt. In 777, he called a national diet at Paderborn to integrate Saxony fully into the Frankish kingdom. Many Saxons were baptised. In the summer of 779, he again invaded Saxony and reconquered Eastphalia, Engria, and Westphalia. At a diet near Lippe, he divided the land into missionary districts and himself assisted in several mass baptisms (780). He then returned to Italy and, for the first time, there was no immediate Saxon revolt. In 780 Charlemagne decreed the death penalty for all Saxons who failed to be baptised, who failed to keep Christian festivals, and who cremated their dead. Saxony had peace from 780 to 782. He returned in 782 to Saxony and instituted a code of law and appointed counts, both Saxon and Frank. The laws were draconian on religious issues, and the indigenous forms of Germanic polytheism were gravely threatened by Christianisation. This stirred a renewal of the old conflict. That year, in autumn, Widukind returned and led a new revolt, which resulted in several assaults on the church. In response, at Verden in Lower Saxony, Charlemagne allegedly ordered the beheading of 4,500 Saxons who had been caught practising their native paganism after conversion to Christianity, known as the Massacre of Verden. The massacre triggered three years of renewed bloody warfare (783-785). During this war the Frisians were also finally subdued and a large part of their fleet was burned. The war ended with Widukind accepting baptism. Thereafter, the Saxons maintained the peace for seven years, but in 792 the Westphalians once again rose against their conquerors. The Eastphalians and Nordalbingians joined them in 793, but the insurrection did not catch on and was put down by 794. An Engrian rebellion followed in 796, but Charlemagne's personal presence and the presence of Christian Saxons and Slavs quickly crushed it. The last insurrection of the independence-minded people occurred in 804, more than thirty years after Charlemagne's first campaign against them. This time, the most unruly of them, the Nordalbingians, found themselves effectively disempowered from rebellion. According to Einhard: The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the King; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people. Saxon resistance to Charlemagne's rule was at an end. Submission of Bavaria In 788, Charlemagne turned his attention to Bavaria. He claimed Tassilo was an unfit ruler on account of his oath-breaking. The charges were trumped up, but Tassilo was deposed anyway and put in the monastery of Jumièges. In 794, he was made to renounce any claim to Bavaria for himself and his family (the Agilolfings) at the synod of Frankfurt. Bavaria was subdivided into Frankish counties, like Saxony. Avar campaigns In 788, the Avars, a pagan Asian horde which had settled down in what is today Hungary (Einhard called them Huns), invaded Friuli and Bavaria. Charles was preoccupied until 790 with other things, but in that year, he marched down the Danube into their territory and ravaged it to the Raab. Then, a Lombard army under Pippin marched into the Drava valley and ravaged Pannonia. The campaigns would have continued if the Saxons had not revolted again in 792, breaking seven years of peace. For the next two years, Charles was occupied with the Slavs against the Saxons. Pippin and Duke Eric of Friuli continued, however, to assault the Avars' ring-shaped strongholds. The great Ring of the Avars, their capital fortress, was taken twice. The booty was sent to Charlemagne at his capital, Aachen, and redistributed to all his followers and even to foreign rulers, including King Offa of Mercia. Soon the Avar tuduns had thrown in the towel and travelled to Aachen to subject themselves to Charlemagne as vassals and Christians. This Charlemagne accepted and sent one native chief, baptised Abraham, back to Avaria with the ancient title of khagan. Abraham kept his people in line, but in 800 the Bulgarians under Krum swept the Avar state away. In the 10th century, the Magyars settled the Pannonian plain and presented a new threat to Charlemagne's descendants. Slav expeditions In 789, in recognition of his new pagan neighbours, the Slavs, Charlemagne marched an Austrasian-Saxon army across the Elbe into Obotrite territory. The Slavs immediately submitted under their leader Witzin. He then accepted the surrender of the Wiltzes under Dragovit and demanded many hostages and the permission to send, unmolested, missionaries into the pagan region. The army marched to the Baltic before turning around and marching to the Rhine with much booty and no harassment. The tributary Slavs became loyal allies. In 795, the peace broken by the Saxons, the Abotrites and Wiltzes rose in arms with their new master against the Saxons. Witzin died in battle and Charlemagne avenged him by harrying the Eastphalians on the Elbe. Thrasuco, his successor, led his men to conquest over the Nordalbingians and handed their leaders over to Charlemagne, who greatly honoured him. The Abotrites remained loyal until Charles' death and fought later against the Danes. Charlemagne also directed his attention to the Slavs to the south of the Avar khaganate: the Carantanians and Carniolans. These people were subdued by the Lombards and Bavarii and made tributaries, but never incorporated into the Frankish state. Imperium Imperial diplomacy Charlemagne's chapel at Aachen Cathedral. In 799, Pope Leo III had been mistreated by the Romans, who tried to put out his eyes and tear out his tongue. Leo escaped, and fled to Charlemagne at Paderborn, asking him to intervene in Rome and restore him. Charlemagne, advised by Alcuin of York, agreed to travel to Rome, doing so in November 800 and holding a council on December 1. On December 23 Leo swore an oath of innocence. At Mass, on Christmas Day (December 25), when Charlemagne knelt at the altar to pray, the pope crowned him Imperator Romanorum ("Emperor of the Romans") in Saint Peter's Basilica. In so doing, the pope was effectively attempting to transfer the office from Constantinople to Charles. Einhard says that Charlemagne was ignorant of the pope's intent and did not want any such coronation: [H]e at first had such an aversion that he declared that he would not have set foot in the Church the day that they [the imperial titles] were conferred, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope. Many modern scholars suggest that Charlemagne was indeed aware of the coronation; certainly he cannot have missed the bejeweled crown waiting on the altar when he came to pray. In any event, he would now use these circumstances to claim that he was the renewer of the Roman Empire, which had apparently fallen into degradation under the Byzantines. In his official charters from 801 onward, Charles preferred the style Karolus serenissimus Augustus a Deo coronatus magnus pacificus imperator Romanum gubernans imperium ("Charles, most serene Augustus crowned by God, the great, peaceful emperor ruling the Roman empire") to the more direct Imperator Romanorum ("Emperor of the Romans"). Cf. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Diplomata Karolinorum I, 77ff. The Iconoclasm of the Isaurian Dynasty and resulting religious conflicts with the Empress Irene, sitting on the throne in Constantinople in 800, were probably the chief causes of the pope's desire to formally acclaim Charles as Roman Emperor. He also most certainly desired to increase the influence of the papacy, honour his saviour Charlemagne, and solve the constitutional issues then most troubling to European jurists in an era when Rome was not in the hands of an emperor. Thus, Charlemagne's assumption of the imperial title was not an usurpation in the eyes of the Franks or Italians. It was, however, in Byzantium, where it was protested by Irene and her successor Nicephorus I—neither of whom had any great effect in enforcing their protests. The Byzantines, however, still held several territories in Italy: Venice (what was left of the Exarchate of Ravenna), Reggio (in Calabria), Brindisi (in Apulia), and Naples (the Ducatus Neapolitanus). These regions remained outside of Frankish hands until 804, when the Venetians, torn by infighting, transferred their allegiance to the Iron Crown of Pippin, Charles' son. The Pax Nicephori ended. Nicephorus ravaged the coasts with a fleet and the only instance of war between the Byzantines and the Franks, as it was, began. It lasted until 810, when the pro-Byzantine party in Venice gave their city back to the Byzantine Emperor and the two emperors of Europe made peace: Charlemagne received the Istrian peninsula and in 812 the emperor Michael I Rhangabes recognised his status as Emperor, eum imperatorem et basileum appellantes, cf. Royal Frankish Annals, a. 812. although not necessarily as "Emperor of the Romans". E. Eichmann, Die Kaiserkrönung im Abendland I (Würzburg: 1942), 33. Danish attacks After the conquest of Nordalbingia, the Frankish frontier was brought into contact with Scandinavia. The pagan Danes, "a race almost unknown to his ancestors, but destined to be only too well known to his sons" as Charles Oman described them, inhabiting the Jutland peninsula had heard many stories from Widukind and his allies who had taken refuge with them about the dangers of the Franks and the fury which their Christian king could direct against pagan neighbours. In 808, the king of the Danes, Godfred, built the vast Danevirke across the isthmus of Schleswig. This defence, last employed in the Danish-Prussian War of 1864, was at its beginning a 30 km long earthenwork rampart. The Danevirke protected Danish land and gave Godfred the opportunity to harass Frisia and Flanders with pirate raids. He also subdued the Frank-allied Wiltzes and fought the Abotrites. Godfred invaded Frisia and joked of visiting Aachen, but was murdered before he could do any more, either by a Frankish assassin or by one of his own men. Godfred was succeeded by his nephew Hemming, who concluded the Treaty of Heiligen with Charlemagne in late 811. Death Persephone sarcophagus of Charlemagne In 813, Charlemagne called Louis the Pious, king of Aquitaine, his only surviving legitimate son, to his court. There Charlemagne crowned his son with his own hands as co-emperor and sent him back to Aquitaine. He then spent the autumn hunting before returning to Aachen on 1 November. In January, he fell ill with pleurisy. Einhard, Life, p. 59 He took to his bed on 21 January and as Einhard tells it: He died January twenty-eighth, the seventh day from the time that he took to his bed, at nine o'clock in the morning, after partaking of the Holy Communion, in the seventy-second year of his age and the forty-seventh of his reign. Frederick II's gold and silver casket for Charlemagne He was buried on the day of his death, in Aachen Cathedral, although the cold weather and the nature of his illness made such a hurried burial unnecessary. The earliest surviving planctus, the Planctus de obitu Karoli, was composed by a monk of Bobbio, which he had patronised. Peter Godman (1985), Latin Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press), 206–211. A later story, told by Otho of Lomello, Count of the Palace at Aachen in the time of Otto III, would claim that he and Emperor Otto had discovered Charlemagne's tomb: the emperor, they claimed, was seated upon a throne, wearing a crown and holding a sceptre, his flesh almost entirely incorrupt. In 1165, Frederick I re-opened the tomb again, and placed the emperor in a sarcophagus beneath the floor of the cathedral. Chamberlin, Russell, The Emperor Charlemagne, pp. 222–224 In 1215 Frederick II would re-inter him in a casket made of gold and silver. Charlemagne's death greatly affected many of his subjects, particularly those of the literary clique who had surrounded him at Aachen. An anonymous monk of Bobbio lamented: He was succeeded by his surviving son, Louis, who had been crowned the previous year. His empire lasted only another generation in its entirety; its division, according to custom, between Louis's own sons after their father's death laid the foundation for the modern states of France and Germany. Administration As an administrator, Charlemagne stands out for his many reforms: monetary, governmental, military, cultural and ecclesiastical. He is the main protagonist of the "Carolingian Renaissance." Economic and monetary reforms Monogram of Charlemagne, from the subscription of a royal diploma: "" Charlemagne had an important role in determining the immediate economic future of Europe. Pursuing his father's reforms, Charlemagne abolished the monetary system based on the gold , and he and the Anglo-Saxon King Offa of Mercia took up the system set in place by Pippin. There were strong pragmatic reasons for this abandonment of a gold standard, notably a shortage of gold itself, a direct consequence of the conclusion of peace with Byzantium and the ceding of Venice and Sicily, and the loss of their trade routes to Africa and to the east. This standardisation also had the effect of economically harmonising and unifying the complex array of currencies in use at the commencement of his reign, thus simplifying trade and commerce. He established a new standard, the (from the Latin , the modern pound), and based upon a pound of silver – a unit of both money and weight – which was worth 20 sous (from the Latin [which was primarily an accounting device, and never actually minted], the modern shilling) or 240 (from the Latin , the modern penny). During this period, the and the were counting units, only the was a coin of the realm. Charlemagne instituted principles for accounting practice by means of the Capitulare de villis of 802, which laid down strict rules for the way in which incomes and expenses were to be recorded. The lending of money for interest was prohibited, strengthened in 814, when Charlemagne introduced the Capitulary for the Jews, a draconian prohibition on Jews engaging in money-lending. In addition to this macro-management of the economy of his empire, Charlemagne also performed a significant number of acts of micro-management, such as direct control of prices and levies on certain goods and commodities. Charlemagne applied the system to much of the European continent, and Offa's standard was voluntarily adopted by much of England. After Charlemagne's death, continental coinage degraded and most of Europe resorted to using the continued high quality English coin until about 1100. Education reforms A part of Charlemagne's success as warrior and administrator can be traced to his admiration for learning. His reign and the era it ushered in are often referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance because of the flowering of scholarship, literature, art, and architecture which characterise it. Charlemagne, brought into contact with the culture and learning of other countries (especially Visigothic Spain, Anglo-Saxon England and Lombard Italy) due to his vast conquests, greatly increased the provision of monastic schools and scriptoria (centres for book-copying) in Francia. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars. Indeed, the earliest manuscripts available for many ancient texts are Carolingian. It is almost certain that a text which survived to the Carolingian age survives still. The pan-European nature of Charlemagne's influence is indicated by the origins of many of the men who worked for him: Alcuin, an Anglo-Saxon from York; Theodulf, a Visigoth, probably from Septimania; Paul the Deacon, Lombard; Peter of Pisa and Paulinus of Aquileia, Italians; and Angilbert, Angilramm, Einhard and Waldo of Reichenau, Franks. Charlemagne took a serious interest in scholarship, promoting the liberal arts at the court, ordering that his children and grandchildren be well-educated, and even studying himself (in a time when even leaders who promoted education did not take time to learn themselves )under the tutelage of Paul the Deacon, from whom he learned grammar, Alcuin, with whom he studied rhetoric, dialect and astronomy (he was particularly interested in the movements of the stars), and Einhard, who assisted him in his studies of arithmetic. His great scholarly failure, as Einhard relates, was his inability to write: when in his old age he began attempts to learn – practicing the formation of letters in his bed during his free time on books and wax tablets he hid under his pillow – "his effort came too late in life and achieved little success", and his ability to read – which Einhard is silent about, and which no contemporary source supports – has also been called into question. Dutton, Paul Edward, Charlemagne's Mustache Church reforms Writing reforms Page from the Lorsch Gospels of Charlemagne's reign During Charles' reign, the Roman half uncial script and its cursive version, which had given rise to various continental minuscule scripts, were combined with features from the insular scripts that were being used in Irish and English monasteries. Carolingian minuscule was created partly under the patronage of Charlemagne. Alcuin of York, who ran the palace school and scriptorium at Aachen, was probably a chief influence in this. The revolutionary character of the Carolingian reform, however, can be over-emphasised; efforts at taming the crabbed Merovingian and Germanic hands had been underway before Alcuin arrived at Aachen. The new minuscule was disseminated first from Aachen, and later from the influential scriptorium at Tours, where Alcuin retired as an abbot. Political reforms Charlemagne engaged in many reforms of Frankish governance, but he continued also in many traditional practices, such as the division of the kingdom among sons. Organisation The Carolingian king exercised the bannum, the right to rule and command. He had supreme jurisdiction in judicial matters, made legislation, led the army, and protected both the Church and the poor. His administration was an attempt to organise the kingdom, church and nobility around him, however, it was entirely dependent upon the efficiency, loyalty and support of his subjects. Imperial coronation Throne of Charlemagne and the subsequent German Kings in Aachen Cathedral Historians have debated for centuries whether Charlemagne was aware of the Pope's intent to crown him Emperor prior to the coronation (Charlemagne declared that he would not have entered Saint Peter's had he known), but that debate has often obscured the more significant question of why the Pope granted the title and why Charlemagne chose to accept it once he did. Roger Collins points out Collins, Charlemagne, p. 147. "That the motivation behind the acceptance of the imperial title was a romantic and antiquarian interest in reviving the Roman empire is highly unlikely." For one thing, such romance would not have appealed either to Franks or Roman Catholics at the turn of the ninth century, both of whom viewed the Classical heritage of the Roman Empire with distrust. The Franks took pride in having "fought against and thrown from their shoulders the heavy yoke of the Romans" and "from the knowledge gained in baptism, clothed in gold and precious stones the bodies of the holy martyrs whom the Romans had killed by fire, by the sword and by wild animals", as Pippin III described it in a law of 763 or 764 (Collins 151). Furthermore, the new title—carrying with it the risk that the new emperor would "make drastic changes to the traditional styles and procedures of government" or "concentrate his attentions on Italy or on Mediterranean concerns more generally"—risked alienating the Frankish leadership. Collins, Charlemagne, p. 149. For both the Pope and Charlemagne, the Roman Empire remained a significant power in European politics at this time, and continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with borders not very far south of the city of Rome itself—this is the empire historiography has labelled the Byzantine Empire, for its capital was Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and its people and rulers were Greek; it was a thoroughly Hellenic state. Indeed, Charlemagne was usurping the prerogatives of the Roman Emperor in Constantinople simply by sitting in judgement over the Pope in the first place: Coronation of an idealised king, depicted in the Sacramentary of Charles the Bald (about 870) For the Pope, then, there was "no living Emperor at the that time" (Norwich 379), though Henri Pirenne (Mohammed and Charlemagne, pg. 234n) disputes this saying that the coronation "was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople." Nonetheless, the Pope took the extraordinary step of creating one. The papacy had since 727 been in conflict with Irene's predecessors in Constantinople over a number of issues, chiefly the continued Byzantine adherence to the doctrine of iconoclasm, the destruction of Christian images; while from 750, the secular power of the Byzantine Empire in central Italy had been nullified. By bestowing the Imperial crown upon Charlemagne, the Pope arrogated to himself "the right to appoint ... the Emperor of the Romans, ... establishing the imperial crown as his own personal gift but simultaneously granting himself implicit superiority over the Emperor whom he had created." And "because the Byzantines had proved so unsatisfactory from every point of view—political, military and doctrinal—he would select a westerner: the one man who by his wisdom and statesmanship and the vastness of his dominions ... stood out head and shoulders above his contemporaries." With Charlemagne's coronation, therefore, "the Roman Empire remained, so far as either of them [Charlemagne and Leo] were concerned, one and indivisible, with Charles as its Emperor", though there can have been "little doubt that the coronation, with all that it implied, would be furiously contested in Constantinople." (Norwich, Byzantium: The Apogee, pg. 3) How realistic either Charlemagne or the Pope felt it to be that the people of Constantinople would ever accept the King of the Franks as their Emperor, we cannot know; Alcuin speaks hopefully in his letters of an Imperium Christianum ("Christian Empire"), wherein, "just as the inhabitants of the [Roman Empire] had been united by a common Roman citizenship", presumably this new empire would be united by a common Christian faith (Collins 151), certainly this is the view of Pirenne when he says "Charles was the Emperor of the ecclesia as the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church" (Pirenne 233). 19th century depiction of the imperial coronation of Charlemagne What we do know, from the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes (Collins 153), is that Charlemagne's reaction to his coronation was to take the initial steps toward securing the Constantinopolitan throne by sending envoys of marriage to Irene, and that Irene reacted somewhat favorably to them. Only when the people of Constantinople reacted to Irene's failure to immediately rebuff the proposal by deposing her and replacing her with one of her ministers, Nicephorus I, did Charlemagne drop any ambitions toward the Byzantine throne and begin minimising his new Imperial title, and instead return to describing himself primarily as rex Francorum et Langobardum. The title of emperor remained in his family for years to come, however, as brothers fought over who had the supremacy in the Frankish state. The papacy itself never forgot the title nor abandoned the right to bestow it. When the family of Charles ceased to produce worthy heirs, the pope gladly crowned whichever Italian magnate could best protect him from his local enemies. This devolution led, as could have been expected, to the dormancy of the title for almost forty years (924-962). Finally, in 962, in a radically different Europe from Charlemagne's, a new Roman Emperor was crowned in Rome by a grateful pope. This emperor, Otto the Great, brought the title into the hands the kings of Germany for almost a millennium, for it was to become the Holy Roman Empire, a true imperial successor to Charles, if not Augustus. Divisio regnorum In 806, Charlemagne first made provision for the traditional division of the empire on his death. For Charles the Younger he designated Austrasia and Neustria, Saxony, Burgundy, and Thuringia. To Pippin he gave Italy, Bavaria, and Swabia. Louis received Aquitaine, the Spanish March, and Provence. There was no mention of the imperial title however, which has led to the suggestion that, at that particular time, Charlemagne regarded the title as an honorary achievement which held no hereditary significance. This division may have worked, but it was never to be tested. Pippin died in 810 and Charles in 811. Charlemagne then reconsidered the matter, and in 813, crowned his youngest son, Louis, co-emperor and co-King of the Franks, granting him a half-share of the empire and the rest upon Charlemagne's own death. The only part of the Empire which Louis was not promised was Italy, which Charlemagne specifically bestowed upon Pippin's illegitimate son Bernard. The Coronation of Charlemagne, by assistants of Raphael , circa 1516-1517 Cultural significance Charlemagne had an immediate afterlife. The author of the Visio Karoli Magni written around 865 uses facts gathered apparently from Einhard and his own observations on the decline of Charlemagne's family after the dissensions of civil war (840–43) as the basis for a visionary tale of Charles' meeting with a prophetic spectre in a dream. Charlemagne, being a model knight as one of the Nine Worthies, enjoyed an important afterlife in European culture. One of the great medieval literary cycles, the Charlemagne cycle or the Matter of France, centres on the deeds of Charlemagne—the King with the Grizzly Beard of Roland fame—and his historical commander of the border with Brittany, Roland, and the paladins who are analogous to the knights of the Round Table or King Arthur's court. Their tales constitute the first chansons de geste. Charlemagne himself was accorded sainthood inside the Holy Roman Empire after the twelfth century. His canonisation by Antipope Paschal III, to gain the favour of Frederick Barbarossa in 1165, was never recognised by the Holy See, which annulled all of Paschal's ordinances at the Third Lateran Council in 1179. However, he has been acknowledged as cultus confirmed. In the Divine Comedy the spirit of Charlemagne appears to Dante in the Heaven of Mars, among the other "warriors of the faith." Charlemagne is sometimes credited with supporting the insertion of the filioque into the Nicene Creed. The Franks had inherited a Visigothic tradition of referring to the Holy Spirit as deriving from God the Father and Son (Filioque), and under Charlemagne, the Franks challenged the 381 Council of Constantinople proclamation that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone. Pope Leo III rejected this notion, and had the Nicene Creed carved into the doors of Old St. Peter's Basilica without the offending phrase; the Frankish insistence lead to bad relations between Rome and Francia. Later, the Roman Catholic Church would adopt the phrase, leading to dispute between Rome and Constantinople. Some see this as one of many pre-cursors to the East-West Schism centuries later. Riche, Pierre, The Carolingians, p.124 French volunteers in the Wehrmacht and later Waffen-SS during the World War II were organised in a unit called 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French). A German Waffen-SS unit used "Karl der Große" for some time in 1943, but then chose the name 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg instead. The city of Aachen has, since 1949, awarded an international prize (called the Karlspreis der Stadt Aachen) in honour of Charlemagne. It is awarded annually to "personages of merit who have promoted the idea of western unity by their political, economic and literary endeavours." Chamberlin, Russell, The Emperor Charlemagne, p. ??? Winners of the prize include Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, the founder of the pan-European movement, Alcide De Gasperi, and Winston Churchill. Charlemagne is memorably quoted by Dr Henry Jones Sr. (played by Sean Connery) in the film, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Immediately after using his umbrella to induce a flock of seagulls to smash through the glass cockpit of a pursuing German fighter plane, Henry Jones remarks "I suddenly remembered my Charlemagne: 'Let my armies be the rocks and the trees and the birds in the sky'." Despite the quote's popularity since the movie, there is no evidence that Charlemagne actually said this. Quid plura? | "Flying birds, excellent birds..." The Economist, the weekly news and international affairs newspaper, features a one page article every week entitled "Charlemagne", focusing on European government. Ancestry </center> Family Marriages and heirs Charlemagne had twenty children over the course of his life with eight of his ten known wives or concubines. Nonetheless, he only had four legitimate grandsons, the four sons of his third son Louis, plus a grandson who was born illegitimate, but included in the line of inheritance in any case (Bernard of Italy, only son of Charlemagne's third son Pepin of Italy), so that the claimants to his inheritance remained few. His first relationship was with Himiltrude. The nature of this relationship is variously described as concubinage, a legal marriage or as a Friedelehe. Charlemagne's biographer Einhard (Vita Karoli Magni, ch. 20) calls her a "concubine" and Paulus Diaconus speaks of Pippin's birth "before legal marriage", whereas a letter by Pope Stephen III refers to Charlemagne and his brother Carloman as being already married (to Himiltrude and Gerberga), and advises them not to dismiss their wives. Historians have interpreted the information in different ways. Some, such as Pierre Riché (The Carolingians, p.86.), follow Einhard in describing Himiltrude as a concubine. Others, for example Dieter Hägemann (Karl der Große. Herrscher des Abendlands, p. 82f.), consider Himiltrude a wife in the full sense. Still others subscribe to the idea that the relationship between the two was "something more than concubinage, less than marriage" and describe it as a Friedelehe, a form of marriage unrecognized by the Church and easily dissolvable. Russell Chamberlin (The Emperor Charlemagne, p. 61.), for instance, compared it with the English system of common-law marriage. This form of relationship is often seen in a conflict between Christian marriage and more flexible Germanic concepts. (Charlemagne put her aside when he married Desiderata.) The union with Himiltrude produced two children: Amaudru, a daughter Gerd Treffer, Die französischen Königinnen. Von Bertrada bis Marie Antoinette (8.-18. Jahrhundert) p. 30. Pippin the Hunchback (c. 769-811) After her, his first wife was Desiderata, daughter of Desiderius, king of the Lombards; married in 770, annulled in 771 His second wife was Hildegard (757 or 758-783), married 771, died 783. By her he had nine children: Charles the Younger (c.772-4 December 811), Duke of Maine, and crowned King of the Franks on 25 December 800 Carloman, renamed Pippin (April 773-8 July 810), King of Italy Adalhaid (774), who was born whilst her parents were on campaign in Italy. She was sent back to Francia, but died before reaching Lyons Rotrude (or Hruodrud) (775-6 June 810) Louis (778-20 June 840), twin of Lothair, King of Aquitaine since 781, crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 813, senior Emperor from 814 Lothair (778-6 February 779/780), twin of Louis, he died in infancy "By [Hildigard] Charlemagne had four sons and four daughters, according to Paul the Deacon: one son, the twin of Lewis, called Lothar, died as a baby and is not mentioned by Einhard; two daughters, Hildigard and Adelhaid, died as babies, so that Einhard appears to err in one of his names, unless there were really five daughters." Thorpe, Lewis, Two Lives of Charlemagne, p.185 Bertha (779-826) Gisela (781-808) Hildegarde (782-783) His third wife was Fastrada, married 784, died 794. By her he had: Theodrada (b.784), abbess of Argenteuil Hiltrude (b.787) His fourth wife was Luitgard, married 794, died childless Concubinages and illegitimate children His first known concubine was Gersuinda. By her he had: Adaltrude (b.774) His second known concubine was Madelgard. By her he had: Ruodhaid (775-810), abbess of Faremoutiers His third known concubine was Amaltrud of Vienne. By her he had: Alpaida (b.794) His fourth known concubine was Regina. By her he had: Drogo (801-855), Bishop of Metz from 823 and abbot of Luxeuil Abbey Hugh (802-844), archchancellor of the Empire His fifth known concubine was Ethelind. By her he had: Richbod (805-844), Abbott of Saint-Riquier Theodoric (b. 807) References Notes Bibliography Riché, Pierre (1993). The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1342-4 Comprises the Annales regni Francorum and The History of the Sons of Louis the PiousCharlemagne: Biographies and general studies, from Encyclopædia Britannica'', full-article, latest edition. External links Charlemagne's biography The Life of Charlemagne by Einhard. At Medieval Sourcebook Vita Karoli Magni by Einhard. Latin text at The Latin Library A reconstructed portrait of Charlemagne, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style. The Sword of Charlemagne (myArmoury.com article) Charlemagne Picture Gallery Charter given by Charlemagne for St. Emmeram's Abbey showing the Emperor's seal, 22.2.794 . 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5,870 | Mathematics | Mathematics is the study of quantity, structure, space, relation, change, and various topics of pattern, form and entity. Mathematicians seek out patterns and other quantitative dimensions, whether dealing with numbers, spaces, natural science, computers, imaginary abstractions, or other entities. Steen, L.A. (April 29, 1988). The Science of Patterns. Science, 240: 611–616. and summarized at Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Devlin, Keith, Mathematics: The Science of Patterns: The Search for Order in Life, Mind and the Universe (Scientific American Paperback Library) 1996, ISBN 9780716750475 Mathematicians formulate new conjectures and establish truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions. Jourdain There is debate over whether mathematical objects exist objectively by nature of their logical purity, or whether they are manmade and detached from reality. The mathematician Benjamin Peirce called mathematics "the science that draws necessary conclusions". Peirce, p.97 Albert Einstein, on the other hand, stated that "as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality." Through the use of abstraction and logical reasoning, mathematics evolved from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Knowledge and use of basic mathematics have always been an inherent and integral part of individual and group life. Refinements of the basic ideas are visible in mathematical texts originating in the ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Indian, Chinese, Greek and Islamic worlds. Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. The development continued in fitful bursts until the Renaissance period of the 16th century, when mathematical innovations interacted with new scientific discoveries, leading to an acceleration in research that continues to the present day. Eves Today, mathematics is used throughout the world as an essential tool in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, and the social sciences such as economics and psychology. Applied mathematics, the branch of mathematics concerned with application of mathematical knowledge to other fields, inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and sometimes leads to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind, although practical applications for what began as pure mathematics are often discovered later. Peterson Etymology The word "mathematics" comes from the Greek μάθημα (máthēma), which means learning, study, science, and additionally came to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical study", even in Classical times. Its adjective is μαθηματικός (mathēmatikós), related to learning, or studious, which likewise further came to mean mathematical. In particular, (mathēmatikḗ tékhnē), in Latin ars mathematica, meant the mathematical art. The apparent plural form in English, like the French plural form les mathématiques (and the less commonly used singular derivative la mathématique), goes back to the Latin neuter plural mathematica (Cicero), based on the Greek plural τα μαθηματικά (ta mathēmatiká), used by Aristotle, and meaning roughly "all things mathematical". The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Oxford English Dictionary In English, however, the noun mathematics takes singular verb forms. It is often shortened to math in English-speaking North America and maths elsewhere. History The evolution of mathematics might be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The first abstraction, which is shared by many animals S. Dehaene, G. Dehaene-Lambertz and L. Cohen, Abstract representations of numbers in the animal and human brain, Trends in Neuroscience, Vol. 21 (8), Aug 1998, 355-361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(98)01263-6. , was probably that of numbers: the realization that two apples and two oranges (for example) have something in common. In addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time — days, seasons, years. Elementary arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) naturally followed. Further steps needed writing or some other system for recording numbers such as tallies or the knotted strings called quipu used by the Inca to store numerical data. Numeral systems have been many and diverse, with the first known written numerals created by Egyptians in Middle Kingdom texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus. The Indus Valley civilization developed the modern decimal system, including the concept of zero. From the beginning of recorded history, the major disciplines within mathematics arose out of the need to do calculations relating to taxation and commerce, to understand the relationships among numbers, to measure land, and to predict astronomical events. These needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics into the studies of quantity, structure, space, and change. Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries have been made throughout history and continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, "The number of papers and books included in the Mathematical Reviews database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs." Sevryuk Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics Mathematics arises wherever there are difficult problems that involve quantity, structure, space, or change. At first these were found in commerce, land measurement and later astronomy; nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematics itself. For example, the physicist Richard Feynman invented the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics using a combination of mathematical reasoning and physical insight, and today's string theory, a still-developing scientific theory which attempts to unify the four fundamental forces of nature, continues to inspire new mathematics. Some mathematics is only relevant in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that area. But often mathematics inspired by one area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. The remarkable fact that even the "purest" mathematics often turns out to have practical applications is what Eugene Wigner has called "the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics." Eugene Wigner, 1960, "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences," Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics 13(1): 1–14. As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization in mathematics. One major distinction is between pure mathematics and applied mathematics: most mathematicians focus their research solely on one of these areas, and sometimes the choice is made as early as their undergraduate studies. Several areas of applied mathematics have merged with related traditions outside of mathematics and become disciplines in their own right, including statistics, operations research, and computer science. For those who are mathematically inclined, there is often a definite aesthetic aspect to much of mathematics. Many mathematicians talk about the elegance of mathematics, its intrinsic aesthetics and inner beauty. Simplicity and generality are valued. There is beauty in a simple and elegant proof, such as Euclid's proof that there are infinitely many prime numbers, and in an elegant numerical method that speeds calculation, such as the fast Fourier transform. G. H. Hardy in A Mathematician's Apology expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. Mathematicians often strive to find proofs of theorems that are particularly elegant, a quest Paul Erdős often referred to as finding proofs from "The Book" in which God had written down his favorite proofs. The popularity of recreational mathematics is another sign of the pleasure many find in solving mathematical questions. Notation, language, and rigor Most of the mathematical notation in use today was not invented until the 16th century. Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols (Contains many further references) Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process that limited mathematical discovery. In the 18th century, Euler was responsible for many of the notations in use today. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often find it daunting. It is extremely compressed: a few symbols contain a great deal of information. Like musical notation, modern mathematical notation has a strict syntax and encodes information that would be difficult to write in any other way. Mathematical language can also be hard for beginners. Words such as or and only have more precise meanings than in everyday speech. Additionally, words such as open and field have been given specialized mathematical meanings. Mathematical jargon includes technical terms such as homeomorphism and integrable. But there is a reason for special notation and technical jargon: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as "rigor". Rigor is fundamentally a matter of mathematical proof. Mathematicians want their theorems to follow from axioms by means of systematic reasoning. This is to avoid mistaken "theorems", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject. See false proof for simple examples of what can go wrong in a formal proof. The history of the Four Color Theorem contains examples of false proofs accidentally accepted by other mathematicians at the time. The level of rigor expected in mathematics has varied over time: the Greeks expected detailed arguments, but at the time of Isaac Newton the methods employed were less rigorous. Problems inherent in the definitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and formal proof in the 19th century. Today, mathematicians continue to argue among themselves about computer-assisted proofs. Since large computations are hard to verify, such proofs may not be sufficiently rigorous. Ivars Peterson, The Mathematical Tourist, Freeman, 1988, ISBN 0-7167-1953-3. p. 4 "A few complain that the computer program can't be verified properly," (in reference to the Haken-Apple proof of the Four Color Theorem). Axioms in traditional thought were "self-evident truths", but that conception is problematic. At a formal level, an axiom is just a string of symbols, which has an intrinsic meaning only in the context of all derivable formulas of an axiomatic system. It was the goal of Hilbert's program to put all of mathematics on a firm axiomatic basis, but according to Gödel's incompleteness theorem every (sufficiently powerful) axiomatic system has undecidable formulas; and so a final axiomatization of mathematics is impossible. Nonetheless mathematics is often imagined to be (as far as its formal content) nothing but set theory in some axiomatization, in the sense that every mathematical statement or proof could be cast into formulas within set theory. Patrick Suppes, Axiomatic Set Theory, Dover, 1972, ISBN 0-486-61630-4. p. 1, "Among the many branches of modern mathematics set theory occupies a unique place: with a few rare exceptions the entities which are studied and analyzed in mathematics may be regarded as certain particular sets or classes of objects." Mathematics as science Carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences". Waltershausen In the original Latin Regina Scientiarum, as well as in German Königin der Wissenschaften, the word corresponding to science means (field of) knowledge. Indeed, this is also the original meaning in English, and there is no doubt that mathematics is in this sense a science. The specialization restricting the meaning to natural science is of later date. If one considers science to be strictly about the physical world, then mathematics, or at least pure mathematics, is not a science. Albert Einstein has stated that "as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality." Einstein, p. 28. The quote is Einstein's answer to the question: "how can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?" He, too, is concerned with The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences. Many philosophers believe that mathematics is not experimentally falsifiable, and thus not a science according to the definition of Karl Popper. However, in the 1930s important work in mathematical logic showed that mathematics cannot be reduced to logic, and Karl Popper concluded that "most mathematical theories are, like those of physics and biology, hypothetico-deductive: pure mathematics therefore turns out to be much closer to the natural sciences whose hypotheses are conjectures, than it seemed even recently." Popper 1995, p. 56 Other thinkers, notably Imre Lakatos, have applied a version of falsificationism to mathematics itself. An alternative view is that certain scientific fields (such as theoretical physics) are mathematics with axioms that are intended to correspond to reality. In fact, the theoretical physicist, J. M. Ziman, proposed that science is public knowledge and thus includes mathematics. Ziman In any case, mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences, notably the exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. Intuition and experimentation also play a role in the formulation of conjectures in both mathematics and the (other) sciences. Experimental mathematics continues to grow in importance within mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing an increasing role in both the sciences and mathematics, weakening the objection that mathematics does not use the scientific method. In his 2002 book A New Kind of Science, Stephen Wolfram argues that computational mathematics deserves to be explored empirically as a scientific field in its own right. The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven liberal arts; others feel that to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and engineering has driven much development in mathematics. One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is created (as in art) or discovered (as in science). It is common to see universities divided into sections that include a division of Science and Mathematics, indicating that the fields are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at finer levels. This is one of many issues considered in the philosophy of mathematics. Mathematical awards are generally kept separate from their equivalents in science. The most prestigious award in mathematics is the Fields Medal, "The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most influential award in mathematics." Monastyrsky Riehm established in 1936 and now awarded every 4 years. It is often considered the equivalent of science's Nobel Prizes. The Wolf Prize in Mathematics, instituted in 1978, recognizes lifetime achievement, and another major international award, the Abel Prize, was introduced in 2003. These are awarded for a particular body of work, which may be innovation, or resolution of an outstanding problem in an established field. A famous list of 23 such open problems, called "Hilbert's problems", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician David Hilbert. This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved. A new list of seven important problems, titled the "Millennium Prize Problems", was published in 2000. Solution of each of these problems carries a $1 million reward, and only one (the Riemann hypothesis) is duplicated in Hilbert's problems. Fields of mathematics The major disciplines within mathematics first arose out of the need to do calculations in commerce, to understand the relationships between numbers, to measure land, and to predict astronomical events. These four needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics into the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e. arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and analysis). In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to logic, to set theory (foundations), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences (applied mathematics), and more recently to the rigorous study of uncertainty. Quantity The study of quantity starts with numbers, first the familiar natural numbers and integers ("whole numbers") and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in arithmetic. The deeper properties of integers are studied in number theory, from which come such popular results as Fermat's Last Theorem. Number theory also holds two widely-considered unsolved problems: the twin prime conjecture and Goldbach's conjecture. As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognized as a subset of the rational numbers ("fractions"). These, in turn, are contained within the real numbers, which are used to represent continuous quantities. Real numbers are generalized to complex numbers. These are the first steps of a hierarchy of numbers that goes on to include quarternions and octonions. Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the transfinite numbers, which formalize the concept of counting to infinity. Another area of study is size, which leads to the cardinal numbers and then to another conception of infinity: the aleph numbers, which allow meaningful comparison of the size of infinitely large sets. {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | || || || || |- | Natural numbers|| Integers || Rational numbers || Real numbers || Complex numbers |} Space The study of space originates with geometry – in particular, Euclidean geometry. Trigonometry combines space and numbers, and encompasses the well-known Pythagorean theorem. The modern study of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional geometry, non-Euclidean geometries (which play a central role in general relativity) and topology. Quantity and space both play a role in analytic geometry, differential geometry, and algebraic geometry. Within differential geometry are the concepts of fiber bundles and calculus on manifolds. Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects as solution sets of polynomial equations, combining the concepts of quantity and space, and also the study of topological groups, which combine structure and space. Lie groups are used to study space, structure, and change. Topology in all its many ramifications may have been the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics, and includes the long-standing Poincaré conjecture and the controversial four color theorem, whose only proof, by computer, has never been verified by a human. {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || || || || |- |Geometry || Trigonometry || Differential geometry || Topology || Fractal geometry |} Change Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the natural sciences, and calculus was developed as a powerful tool to investigate it. Functions arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous study of real numbers and functions of a real variable is known as real analysis, with complex analysis the equivalent field for the complex numbers. The Riemann hypothesis, one of the most fundamental open questions in mathematics, is drawn from complex analysis. Functional analysis focuses attention on (typically infinite-dimensional) spaces of functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is quantum mechanics. Many problems lead naturally to relationships between a quantity and its rate of change, and these are studied as differential equations. Many phenomena in nature can be described by dynamical systems; chaos theory makes precise the ways in which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still deterministic behavior. Calculus Vector calculus Differential equations Dynamical systems Chaos theory Structure Many mathematical objects, such as sets of numbers and functions, exhibit internal structure. The structural properties of these objects are investigated in the study of groups, rings, fields and other abstract systems, which are themselves such objects. This is the field of abstract algebra. An important concept here is that of vectors, generalized to vector spaces, and studied in linear algebra. The study of vectors combines three of the fundamental areas of mathematics: quantity, structure, and space. Vector calculus expands the field into a fourth fundamental area, that of change. Tensor calculus studies symmetry and the behavior of vectors under rotation. A number of ancient problems concerning Compass and straightedge constructions were finally solved using Galois theory. {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || || || |- | Number theory || Abstract algebra || Group theory || Order theory |} Foundations and philosophy In order to clarify the foundations of mathematics, the fields of mathematical logic and set theory were developed, as well as category theory which is still in development. The phrase "crisis of foundations" describes the search for a rigorous foundation for mathematics that took place from approximately 1900 to 1930. Luke Howard Hodgkin & Luke Hodgkin, A History of Mathematics, Oxford University Press, 2005. Some disagreement about the foundations of mathematics continues to present day. The crisis of foundations was stimulated by a number of controversies at the time, including the controversy over Cantor's set theory and the Brouwer-Hilbert controversy. Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics on a rigorous axiomatic framework, and studying the results of such a framework. As such, it is home to Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, perhaps the most widely celebrated result in logic, which (informally) implies that any formal system that contains basic arithmetic, if sound (meaning that all theorems that can be proven are true), is necessarily incomplete (meaning that there are true theorems which cannot be proved in that system). Gödel showed how to construct, whatever the given collection of number-theoretical axioms, a formal statement in the logic that is a true number-theoretical fact, but which does not follow from those axioms. Therefore no formal system is a true axiomatization of full number theory. Modern logic is divided into recursion theory, model theory, and proof theory, and is closely linked to theoretical computer science. {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || || |- | Mathematical logic || Set theory || Category theory || |} Discrete mathematics Discrete mathematics is the common name for the fields of mathematics most generally useful in theoretical computer science. This includes computability theory, computational complexity theory, and information theory. Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most powerful known model - the Turing machine. Complexity theory is the study of tractability by computer; some problems, although theoretically solvable by computer, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solving them is likely to remain practically unfeasible, even with rapid advance of computer hardware. Finally, information theory is concerned with the amount of data that can be stored on a given medium, and hence deals with concepts such as compression and entropy. As a relatively new field, discrete mathematics has a number of fundamental open problems. The most famous of these is the "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems. Clay Mathematics Institute P=NP {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | || || || |- | Combinatorics || Theory of computation || Cryptography || Graph theory |} Applied mathematics Applied mathematics considers the use of abstract mathematical tools in solving concrete problems in the sciences, business, and other areas. Applied mathematics has significant overlap with the discipline of statistics, whose theory is formulated mathematically, especially with probability theory. Statisticians (working as part of a research project) "create data that makes sense" with random sampling and with randomized experiments; the design of a statistical sample or experiment specifies the analysis of the data (before the data be available). When reconsidering data from experiments and samples or when analyzing data from observational studies, statisticians "make sense of the data" using the art of modelling and the theory of inference---with model selection and estimation; the estimated models and consequential predictions should be tested on new data. Like the mathematical science physics and computer science, statistics is an autonomous discipline, and not a branch of applied mathematics. Like physicists and computer scientists, research statisticians are mathematical scientists. Many statisticians have an degree in mathematics, and some statisticians are also mathematicians. Computational mathematics proposes and studies methods for solving mathematical problems that are typically too large for human numerical capacity. Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis using ideas of functional analysis and techniques of approximation theory; numerical analysis includes the study of approximation and discretization broadly with special concern for rounding errors. Other areas of computational mathematics include computer algebra and symbolic computation. Common misconceptions Mathematics is not a closed intellectual system, in which everything has already been worked out. There is no shortage of open problems. Every month, mathematicians publish many thousands of papers that embody new discoveries in the field. Mathematics is not numerology; it is not concerned with "supernatural" properties of numbers. It is not accountancy; nor is it restricted to arithmetic. Pseudomathematics is a form of mathematics-like activity undertaken outside academia, and occasionally by mathematicians themselves. It often consists of determined attacks on famous questions, consisting of proof-attempts made in an isolated way (that is, long papers not supported by previously published theory). The relationship to generally accepted mathematics is similar to that between pseudoscience and real science. The misconceptions involved are normally based on: misunderstanding of the implications of mathematical rigor; attempts to circumvent the usual criteria for publication of mathematical papers in a learned journal after peer review, often in the belief that the journal is biased against the author; lack of familiarity with, and therefore underestimation of, the existing literature. Like astronomy, mathematics owes much to amateur contributors such as Fermat and Mersenne. See also Definitions of mathematics Dyscalculia List of basic mathematics topics Lists of mathematics topics Logics Mathematical anxiety Mathematical game Mathematical model Mathematical problem Mathematical structure Mathematics and art Mathematics competitions Mathematics education Mathematics portal Pattern Philosophy of mathematics Notes References Benson, Donald C., The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies, Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (December 14, 2000). ISBN 0-19-513919-4. Boyer, Carl B., A History of Mathematics, Wiley; 2 edition (March 6, 1991). ISBN 0-471-54397-7. — A concise history of mathematics from the Concept of Number to contemporary Mathematics. Courant, R. and H. Robbins, What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods, Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (July 18, 1996). ISBN 0-19-510519-2. Davis, Philip J. and Hersh, Reuben, The Mathematical Experience. Mariner Books; Reprint edition (January 14, 1999). ISBN 0-395-92968-7. — A gentle introduction to the world of mathematics. Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Sixth Edition, Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0. Gullberg, Jan, Mathematics — From the Birth of Numbers. W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition (October 1997). ISBN 0-393-04002-X. — An encyclopedic overview of mathematics presented in clear, simple language. Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000. — A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten (expensive) volumes, the most complete and authoritative work available. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online . Jourdain, Philip E. B., The Nature of Mathematics, in The World of Mathematics, James R. Newman, editor, Dover, 2003, ISBN 0-486-43268-8. Kline, Morris, Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, Oxford University Press, USA; Paperback edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN 0-19-506135-7. Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, ed. John Simpson and Edmund Weiner, Clarendon Press, 1989, ISBN 0-19-861186-2. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 1983 reprint. ISBN 0-19-861112-9. Pappas, Theoni, The Joy Of Mathematics, Wide World Publishing; Revised edition (June 1989). ISBN 0-933174-65-9. JSTOR. Peterson, Ivars, Mathematical Tourist, New and Updated Snapshots of Modern Mathematics, Owl Books, 2001, ISBN 0-8050-7159-8. External links Free Mathematics books Free Mathematics books collection. Applications of High School Algebra Encyclopaedia of Mathematics online encyclopadia from Springer, Graduate-level reference work with over 8,000 entries, illuminating nearly 50,000 notions in mathematics. HyperMath site at Georgia State University FreeScience Library The mathematics section of FreeScience library Rusin, Dave: The Mathematical Atlas. A guided tour through the various branches of modern mathematics. (Can also be found here.) Polyanin, Andrei: EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations. An online resource focusing on algebraic, ordinary differential, partial differential (mathematical physics), integral, and other mathematical equations. Cain, George: Online Mathematics Textbooks available free online. Math & Logic: The history of formal mathematical, logical, linguistic and methodological ideas. In The Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Mathematician Biographies. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive Extensive history and quotes from all famous mathematicians. Metamath. A site and a language, that formalize mathematics from its foundations. Nrich, a prize-winning site for students from age five from Cambridge University Open Problem Garden, a wiki of open problems in mathematics Planet Math. An online mathematics encyclopedia under construction, focusing on modern mathematics. Uses the GFDL, allowing article exchange with Wikipedia. Uses TeX markup. Some mathematics applets, at MIT Weisstein, Eric et al.: MathWorld: World of Mathematics. An online encyclopedia of mathematics. 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5,871 | Meuse_(river) | The Meuse (Maas) at Maastricht Meuse near Grave Meuse river seen from Spot Satellite The Meuse (in Dutch and in German: "Maas", in Latin: "Mosa", in Celtic:"Mus" (the rootword, presumingly related to: "moist")), is a major European river, rising in France and flowing through Belgium and the Netherlands before draining into the North Sea. It has a total length of 925 km (575 miles). The Meuse marked the Western border of the Holy Roman Empire from its creation in the 9th century until the annexation of most of Alsace and Lorraine by France through the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), and to some extent until 1792 when the Prince-Bishopric of Liège was also annexed to France. Its Belgian (accurately its Walloon) portion, part of the sillon industriel, was the first fully industrialized area in continental Europe. The Meuse is mentioned nostalgically in Das Lied der Deutschen. Geography The Meuse rises in Pouilly-en-Bassigny, commune of Le Châtelet-sur-Meuse on the Langres plateau in France from where it flows northwards past Sedan (the head of navigation) and Charleville-Mézières into Belgium. At Namur it is joined by the River Sambre. Beyond Namur the Meuse winds eastwards, skirting the Ardennes, and passes Liège before turning north. The river then forms part of the Belgian-Dutch border, except that at Maastricht the border lies further to the west. In the Netherlands it continues northwards through Venlo closely along the border to Germany, then turns towards the west, where the Waal river joins it, before it starts being part of an extensive delta, together with the mouths of especially the Scheldt river in its south and the main part of the Rhine river in the north. Before, the river has divided near Heusden into the Afgedamde Maas on the right and the Bergse Maas on the left. The Bergse Maas continues under the name of Amer, which is part of the Biesbosch, and is joined by the Nieuwe Merwede, after which it flows on under the name of Hollands Diep, before finally flowing into the North Sea as Haringvliet. The Meuse is crossed by railway bridges between the following stations (on the left and right banks respectively): Netherlands: Roermond - Weert Blerick – Venlo Cuijk – Nijmegen Heyendaal Ravenstein – Wijchen 's-Hertogenbosch – Zaltbommel There are also numerous road bridges and around 32 ferry crossings. The Meuse is navigable over a substantial part of its total length: In the Netherlands and Belgium, the river is part of the major inland navigation infrastructure, connecting the Rotterdam-Amsterdam-Antwerp port areas to the industrial areas upstream: 's Hertogenbosch, Venlo, Maastricht, Liège, Namur. Between Maastricht and Maasbracht, an unnavigable section of the Meuse is bypassed by the 36 km Juliana Canal. South of Namur, further upstream, the river can only carry more modest vessels, although a barge as long as 100 m. can still reach the French border town of Givet. From Givet, the river is canalized over a distance of 272 kilometers. The canalized Meuse used to be called the "Canal de l'Est — Branche Nord" but was recently rebaptized into "Canal de la Meuse". The waterway can be used by the smallest barges that are still in use commercially (almost 40 meters long and just over 5 meters wide). Just upstream of the town of Commercy, the Canal de la Meuse connects with the Canal de la Marne au Rhin by means of a short diversion canal. (Source: NoorderSoft Waterways database) The Cretaceous sea reptile Mosasaur is named after the river Meuse. The first fossils of it were discovered outside Maastricht 1780. Tributaries The main tributaries of the river Meuse are listed below in downstream-upstream order, with the town where the tributary meets the river: Dieze (near 's-Hertogenbosch) Aa (in 's-Hertogenbosch) Dommel (in 's-Hertogenbosch) Gender (in Eindhoven) Niers (in Gennep) Swalm (in Swalmen) Rur/Roer (in Roermond) Wurm (in Heinsberg, Germany) Merzbach (in Linnich, Germany) Inde (in Jülich, Germany) Geleenbeek (near Maasbracht) Geul (near Meerssen) Geer/Jeker (in Maastricht) Voer/Fouron (in Eijsden) Berwinne/Berwijn (near Moelingen, part of Voeren) Ourthe (in Liège) Weser/Vesdre (near Liège) Amel/Amblève (in Comblain-au-Pont) Salm (in Trois-Ponts) Warche (near Malmedy) Hoyoux (in Huy) Mehaigne (in Wanze) Sambre (in Namur) Bocq (in Yvoir) Molignée (in Anhée) Lesse (in Anseremme, part of Dinant) Viroin (in Vireux-Molhain) Semois or Semoy (in Monthermé) Sormonne (in Warcq) Bar (near Dom-le-Mesnil) Chiers (in Bazeilles) Othain (in Montmédy) Départements, provinces and towns The Meuse flows through the following departments of France, provinces of Belgium, provinces of the Netherlands and towns: Haute-Marne Vosges: Neufchâteau Meuse: Commercy, Saint-Mihiel, Verdun, Stenay Ardennes: Sedan, Charleville-Mézières, Givet Namur: Dinant, Namur Liège: Huy, Liège, Visé Limburg: Maastricht, Roermond, Venlo Limburg: Maaseik North Brabant: Boxmeer, Cuijk, Grave, Ravenstein, Lith, Heusden, Aalburg, Woudrichem Gelderland: Maasdriel South Holland: Rotterdam, Dordrecht, Maassluis See also Das Lied der Deutschen ("The Song of the Germans"), also known as Das Deutschlandlied ("The Song of Germany"), written in 1841, describes a then–yet-to-unite Germany, with the Maas as the Western border, as the river runs closely along the border to the Netherlands and parts of the Holy Roman Empire (the duchies of Jülich and Cleves and the prince-bishopric of Liège) bordered river Maas before the Great French War from 1795. References External links Peace Palace Library's Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law regarding Meuse River be-x-old:Маас | Meuse_(river) |@lemmatized meuse:20 maas:7 maastricht:7 near:9 grave:2 river:17 see:2 spot:1 satellite:1 dutch:2 german:2 latin:1 mosa:1 celtic:1 mu:1 rootword:1 presumingly:1 relate:1 moist:1 major:2 european:1 rise:2 france:5 flow:5 belgium:4 netherlands:6 drain:1 north:5 sea:3 total:2 length:2 km:2 mile:1 mark:1 western:2 border:8 holy:2 roman:2 empire:2 creation:1 century:1 annexation:1 alsace:1 lorraine:1 treaty:1 westphalia:1 extent:1 prince:2 bishopric:2 liège:8 also:4 annexed:1 belgian:2 accurately:1 walloon:1 portion:1 part:10 sillon:1 industriel:1 first:2 fully:1 industrialized:1 area:3 continental:1 europe:1 mention:1 nostalgically:1 da:2 lie:2 der:2 deutschen:2 geography:1 pouilly:1 en:1 bassigny:1 commune:1 le:2 châtelet:1 sur:1 langres:1 plateau:1 northward:2 past:1 sedan:2 head:1 navigation:2 charleville:2 mézières:2 namur:7 join:3 sambre:2 beyond:1 wind:1 eastward:1 skirt:1 ardennes:2 pass:1 turn:2 form:1 except:1 far:1 west:2 continue:2 venlo:4 closely:2 along:2 germany:6 towards:1 waal:1 start:1 extensive:1 delta:1 together:1 mouth:1 especially:1 scheldt:1 south:3 main:2 rhine:1 divide:1 heusden:2 afgedamde:1 right:2 bergse:2 left:2 name:3 amer:1 biesbosch:1 nieuwe:1 merwede:1 holland:2 diep:1 finally:1 haringvliet:1 cross:1 railway:1 bridge:2 following:2 station:1 bank:1 respectively:1 roermond:3 weert:1 blerick:1 cuijk:2 nijmegen:1 heyendaal:1 ravenstein:2 wijchen:1 hertogenbosch:5 zaltbommel:1 numerous:1 road:1 around:1 ferry:1 crossing:1 navigable:1 substantial:1 inland:1 infrastructure:1 connect:1 rotterdam:2 amsterdam:1 antwerp:1 port:1 industrial:1 upstream:4 maasbracht:2 unnavigable:1 section:1 bypass:1 juliana:1 canal:6 carry:1 modest:1 vessel:1 although:1 barge:2 long:2 still:2 reach:1 french:2 town:4 givet:3 canalize:1 distance:1 kilometer:1 canalized:1 use:3 call:1 de:4 l:1 est:1 branche:1 nord:1 recently:1 rebaptized:1 la:3 waterway:2 small:1 commercially:1 almost:1 meter:2 wide:1 commercy:2 connects:1 marne:2 au:2 rhin:1 mean:1 short:1 diversion:1 source:1 noordersoft:1 database:1 cretaceous:1 reptile:1 mosasaur:1 fossil:1 discover:1 outside:1 tributaries:1 tributary:2 list:1 downstream:1 order:1 meet:1 dieze:1 aa:1 dommel:1 gender:1 eindhoven:1 niers:1 gennep:1 swalm:1 swalmen:1 rur:1 roer:1 wurm:1 heinsberg:1 merzbach:1 linnich:1 inde:1 jülich:2 geleenbeek:1 geul:1 meerssen:1 geer:1 jeker:1 voer:1 fouron:1 eijsden:1 berwinne:1 berwijn:1 moelingen:1 voeren:1 ourthe:1 weser:1 vesdre:1 amel:1 amblève:1 comblain:1 pont:1 salm:1 trois:1 ponts:1 warche:1 malmedy:1 hoyoux:1 huy:2 mehaigne:1 wanze:1 bocq:1 yvoir:1 molignée:1 anhée:1 lesse:1 anseremme:1 dinant:2 viroin:1 vireux:1 molhain:1 semois:1 semoy:1 monthermé:1 sormonne:1 warcq:1 bar:1 dom:1 mesnil:1 chiers:1 bazeilles:1 othain:1 montmédy:1 départements:1 province:3 towns:1 department:1 haute:1 vosges:1 neufchâteau:1 saint:1 mihiel:1 verdun:1 stenay:1 visé:1 limburg:2 maaseik:1 brabant:1 boxmeer:1 lith:1 aalburg:1 woudrichem:1 gelderland:1 maasdriel:1 dordrecht:1 maassluis:1 das:1 lied:1 song:2 know:1 deutschlandlied:1 write:1 describe:1 yet:1 unite:1 run:1 duchy:1 clef:1 great:1 war:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 peace:1 palace:1 library:1 bibliography:1 water:1 resource:1 international:1 law:1 regard:1 x:1 old:1 маас:1 |@bigram alsace_lorraine:1 bishopric_liège:2 der_deutschen:2 downstream_upstream:1 external_link:1 |
5,872 | George_Orwell | Eric Arthur Blair (25 June, 1903 – 21 January, 1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English author. His work is marked by a profound consciousness of social injustice, an intense opposition to totalitarianism, a passion for clarity in language and a belief in democratic socialism. Why I Write" in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 - An Age Like This 1945-1950 p.23 (Penguin) Considered "perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture," "Still the Moon Under Water", Economist.com, 28 Jul 2008 he wrote works in many different genres including novels, essays, polemic journalism, literary reviews, and poetry. His most famous works are the satirical novel Animal Farm (1945) and the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949). Biography Early life and education Blair family home at Shiplake Eric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903 in Motihari, Bengal Presidency, British India. Michael O'Connor (2003). Review of Gordon Bowker's "Inside George Orwell". His great-grandfather Charles Blair had been a wealthy plantation owner in Jamaica and his grandfather a clergyman. Although the gentility was passed down the generations, the prosperity was not; Eric Blair described his family as "lower-upper-middle class". The Road to Wigan Pier pg 1, Ch. 8 His father, Richard Walmesley Blair, worked in the Opium Department of the Indian Civil Service. His mother, Ida Mabel Blair (née Limouzin), grew up in Burma where her French father was involved in speculative ventures. Eric had two sisters; Marjorie, five years older, and Avril, five years younger. When Eric was one year old, Ida Blair took him to England. Bernard Crick George Orwell: A Life Secker & Warburg 1980. Several earlier biographers suggested that Mrs Blair moved to England in 1907 based on information given by Avril Blair reminiscing of a time before she was born. The evidence to the contrary is the diary of Ida Blair for 1905 and a photograph of Eric aged 3 in an English suburban garden. The earlier date also coincides with a difficult posting for Blair senior, and Marjorie (6) needing an English education. In 1905, Blair's mother settled at Henley-on-Thames. Eric was brought up in the company of his mother and sisters, and apart from a brief visit he did not see his father again until 1912. His mother's diary for 1905 indicates a lively round of social activity and artistic interests. The family moved to Shiplake before World War I, and Eric became friendly with the Buddicom family, especially Jacintha Buddicom. When they first met, he was standing on his head in a field, and on being asked why he said, "You are noticed more if you stand on your head than if you are right way up". Jacintha and Eric read and wrote poetry and dreamed of becoming famous writers. He told her that he might write a book in similar style to that of H. G. Wells's A Modern Utopia. During this period, he enjoyed shooting, fishing, and birdwatching with Jacintha’s brother and sister. Jacintha Buddicom Eric and Us Frewin 1974. At the age of six, Eric Blair attended the Anglican parish school in Henley-on-Thames, remaining until he was eight.<ref>Letters home September 1914 quoted in Bernard Crick George Orwell: A Life".</ref> His mother wanted him to have a public school education, but his family was not wealthy enough to afford the fees, making it necessary for him to obtain a scholarship. Ida Blair's brother Charles Limouzin, who lived on the South Coast, recommended St Cyprian's School, Eastbourne, Sussex. The headmaster undertook to help Blair to win the scholarship, and made a private financial arrangement which allowed Blair's parents to pay only half the normal fees. Later, and with publication delayed until after his death, Orwell was to write Such, Such Were the Joys, an account of his unhappy time at the school. At St. Cyprian's, Blair first met Cyril Connolly, who would himself become a noted writer and who, as the editor of Horizon magazine, would publish many of Orwell's essays. While at the school Blair wrote two poems that were published in the Henley and South Oxfordshire Standard, the local newspaper, Henley and South Oxfordshire Standard 2 October 1914 Henley and South Oxfordshire Standard 21 July 1916 came second to Connolly in the Harrow History Prize, had his work praised by the school's external examiner, and earned scholarships to Wellington and Eton. After a term at Wellington College, Blair transferred to Eton College, where he was a King's Scholar (1917–1921). His tutor was A. S. F. Gow, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge who remained a source of advice later in his career. Blair was briefly taught French by Aldous Huxley who spent a short interlude teaching at Eton, but outside the classroom there was no contact between them. Cyril Connolly followed Blair to Eton, but because they were in separate years they did not associate with each other. Blair's academic performance reports suggest that he neglected his academic studies, but during his time he worked with Roger Mynors to produce a college magazine and participated in the Eton Wall Game. His parents could not afford to send him to university without another scholarship, and they concluded from his poor results that he would not be able to obtain one. However Stephen Runciman, who was a close contemporary, noted that he had a romantic idea about the East Stephen Runciman in Stephen Wadhams' Remembering Orwell Penguin 1984 and, for whatever reason, it was decided that Blair should join the Indian Imperial Police. To do this, it was necessary to pass an entrance examination. His father had retired to Southwold, Suffolk by this time and Blair was enrolled at a "crammer" there called "Craighurst" where he brushed up on his classics, English and History. Blair passed the exam, coming seventh out of twenty-seven. Burma Blair's grandmother lived at Moulmein, and with family connections in the area, his choice of posting was Burma. In October 1922, he sailed on board SS Herefordshire via the Suez Canal and Ceylon to join the Indian Imperial Police in Burma. A month later he arrived at Rangoon and made the journey to Mandalay, the site of the police training school. After a short posting at Maymyo, Burma's principal hill station, he was posted to the frontier outpost of Myaungmya in the Irrawaddy Delta at the beginning of 1924. British Club in Kathar (In Orwell's time it consisted of only the ground floor) His imperial policeman's life gave him considerable responsibilities for a young man of his age while his contemporaries were still at university in England, and when he was posted to Twante as a sub-divisional officer he was responsible for the security of some 200,000 people. At the end of 1924 he was promoted to Assistant District Superintendent and posted to Syriam, which was closer to Rangoon. In September 1925 he went to Insein, the home of the second-largest jail in Burma. At Insein he had "long talks on every conceivable subject" with a journalist friend, Elisa Maria Langford-Rae — later Kasini Eliza Maria, who noted his "sense of utter fairness in minutest details". Michael Shelden Orwell: The Authorised Biography William Heinemann 1991 In April 1926 he moved to Moulmein, where his grandmother lived, and at the end of that year went on to Katha. There he contracted Dengue fever in 1927. He was entitled to leave in England in that year and in view of his illness was allowed to go home in July. While on leave in England in 1927, he reappraised his life and resigned from the Indian Imperial Police with the intention of becoming a writer. The Burma police experience yielded the novel Burmese Days (1934) and the essays "A Hanging" (1931) and "Shooting an Elephant" (1936). London and Paris In England, he settled back in the family home at Southwold, renewing acquaintance with local friends and attending an Old Etonian dinner. He visited his old tutor Gow at Cambridge for advice on becoming a writer, Bernard Crick George Orwell: A Life, quote from interview with Gow and as a result he decided to move to London. Ruth Pitter, a family acquaintance, helped him find lodgings and by the end of 1927 he had moved into rooms in Portobello Road Ruth Pitter BBC Overseas Service broadcast, 3 January 1956 (a blue plaque commemorates his residence there). Pitter took a vague interest in his writing as he set out to collect literary material on a social class as different from his own as were the natives of Burma. Following the precedent of Jack London, whom he admired, he started his exploratory expeditions to the poorer parts of London. On his first outing he set out to Limehouse Causeway spending his first night in a common lodging house, possibly George Levy's 'kip'. For a while he "went native" in his own country, dressing like a tramp and making no concessions to middle class mores and expectations; he recorded his experiences of the low life for later use in "The Spike", his first published essay, and the latter half of his first book, Down and Out in Paris and London (1933). In the spring of 1928, he moved to Paris, where the comparatively low cost of living and bohemian lifestyle offered an attraction for many aspiring writers. His Aunt Nellie Limouzin also lived there and gave him social and, if necessary, financial support. He worked on novels, but only Burmese Days survives from that activity. More successful as a journalist, he published articles in Monde (not to be confused with Le Monde), G. K.'s Weekly and Le Progres Civique (founded by the left-wing coalition Le Cartel des Gauches). He fell seriously ill in March 1929 and shortly afterwards had all his money stolen from the lodging house. Whether through necessity or simply to collect material, he undertook menial jobs like dishwashing in a fashionable hotel on the rue de Rivoli providing experiences to be used in Down and Out in Paris and London. In August 1929 he sent a copy of "The Spike" to New Adelphi magazine in London. This was owned by John Middleton Murry who had released editorial control to Max Plowman and Sir Richard Rees. Plowman accepted the work for publication. Southwold Southwold - North Parade In December 1929, after a year and three quarters in Paris, Blair returned to England and went directly to his parents' house in Southwold, which was to remain his base for the next five years. The family was well established in the local community, and his sister Avril was running a tea house in the town. He became acquainted with many local people including a local gym teacher, Brenda Salkield, the daughter of a clergyman. Although Salkield rejected his offer of marriage she was to remain a friend and regular correspondent about his work for many years. He also renewed friendships with older friends such as Dennis Collings, whose girlfriend Eleanor Jacques was also to play a part in his life. D J Taylor Orwell: The Life Chatto & Windus 2003 In the spring he had a short stay in Leeds with his sister Marjorie and her husband Humphrey Dakin whose regard for Blair was as unappreciative then as when he knew him as a child. Blair was undertaking some review work for Adelphi and acting as a private tutor to a handicapped child at Southwold. He followed this up by tutoring a family of three boys one of whom, Richard Peters, later became a distinguished academic. R. S. Peters A Boy's View of George Orwell Psychology and Ethical Development Allen & Unwin 1974 He went painting and bathing on the beach, and there he met Mabel and Francis Fierz who were later to influence his career. Over the next year he visited them in London often meeting their friend Max Plowman. Other homes available to him were those of Ruth Pitter and Richard Rees. These acted as places for him to "change" for his sporadic tramping expeditions where one of his jobs was to do domestic work at a lodgings for half a crown a day. Stella Judt I once met George Orwell in I once Met 1996</ref> Meanwhile, Blair now contributed regularly to Adelphi, with "A Hanging" appearing in August 1931. In August and September 1931 his explorations extended to following the East End tradition of working in the Kent hop fields (an activity which his lead character in A Clergyman's Daughter also engages in). At the end of this, he ended up in the Tooley Street kip, but could not stand it for long and with a financial contribution from his parents moved to Windsor Street where he stayed until Christmas. "Hop Picking", by Eric Blair, appeared in in the October 1931 issue of New Statesman, where Cyril Connolly was on the staff. Mabel Fierz put him in contact with Leonard Moore who was to become his literary agent. At this time Jonathan Cape rejected A Scullion's Diary, the first version of Down and Out. On the advice of Richard Rees he offered it to Faber & Faber, whose editorial director, T. S. Eliot, also rejected it. To conclude the year Blair attempted another exploratory venture of getting himself arrested so that he could spend Christmas in prison, but the relevant authorities did not cooperate and he returned home to Southwold after two days in a police cell. Teaching Blair then took a job teaching at the Hawthorne High School for Boys in Hayes, West London. This was a small school that provided private schooling for local tradesmen and shopkeepers and comprised only 20 boys and one other master. Bernard Crick Interview with Geoffrey Stevens in George Orwell: A Life While at the school he became friendly with the local curate and became involved with the local church. Mabel Fierz had pursued matters with Moore, and at the end of June 1932, Moore told Blair that Victor Gollancz was prepared to publish A Scullion's Diary for a £40 advance, for his recently founded publishing house, Victor Gollancz Ltd, which was an outlet for radical and socialist works. At the end of the school summer term in 1932 Blair returned to Southwold, where his parents had been able to buy their own home as a result of a legacy. Blair and his sister Avril spent the summer holidays making the house habitable while he also worked on Burmese Days. Avril Dunn My Brother George Orwell Twentieth Century 1961 He was also spending time with Eleanor Jacques but her attachment to Dennis Collings remained an obstacle to his hopes of a more serious relationship. Correspondence in Collected Essays Journalism and Letters Secker & Warburg 1968 "Clink", an essay describing his failed attempt to get sent to prison, appeared in the August 1932 number of Adelphi. He returned to teaching at Hayes and prepared for the publication of his work now known as Down and Out in Paris and London which he wished to publish under an assumed name. In a letter to Moore (dated 15 November 1932) he left the choice of pseudonym to him and to Gollancz. Four days later, he wrote to Moore, suggesting the pseudonyms P. S. Burton (a name he used when tramping), Kenneth Miles, George Orwell, and H. Lewis Allways. Orwell, Sonia and Angus, Ian (eds.)Orwell: An Age Like This, letters 31 and 33 (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World) He finally adopted the nom de plume George Orwell because, as he told Eleanor Jacques, "It is a good round English name." Down and Out in Paris and London was published on 9 January 1933 but Blair was back at the school at Hayes. He had little free time and was still working on Burmese Days. Down and Out was successful and it was published by Harper and Brothers in New York. In the summer Blair finished at Hawthornes to take up a teaching job at Frays College, at Uxbridge, Middlesex. This was a much larger establishment with 200 pupils and a full complement of staff. He acquired a motorcycle and took trips through the surrounding countryside. On one of these expeditions he became soaked and caught a chill which developed into pneumonia. He was taken to Uxbridge Cottage Hospital where for a time his life was believed to be in danger. When he was discharged in January 1934, he returned to Southwold to convalesce and, supported by his parents, never returned to teaching. He was disappointed when Gollancz turned down Burmese Days, mainly on the grounds of potential libel actions but Harpers were prepared to publish it in the United States. Meanwhile back at home Blair started work on the novel A Clergyman's Daughter drawing upon his life as a teacher and on life in Southwold. Eleanor Jacques was now married and had gone to Singapore and Brenda Salkield had left for Ireland, so Blair was relatively lonely in Southwold — pottering on the allotments, walking alone and spending time with his father. Eventually in October, after sending A Clergyman's Daughter to Moore, he left for London to take a job that had been found for him by his Aunt Nellie Limouzin. Hampstead One of Orwell's Hampstead homes at 77 Parliament Hill This job was as a part-time assistant in "Booklover's Corner", a second-hand bookshop in Hampstead run by Francis and Myfanwy Westrope who were friends of Nellie Limouzin in the Esperanto movement. The Westropes had an easy-going outlook and provided him with comfortable accommodation at Warwick Mansions, Pond Street. He was job-sharing with Jon Kimche who also lived with the Westropes. Blair worked at the shop in the afternoons, having the mornings free to write and the evenings to socialise. These experiences provided background for the novel Keep the Aspidistra Flying (1936). As well as the various guests of the Westropes, he was able to enjoy the company of Richard Rees and the Adelphi writers and Mabel Fierz. The Westropes and Kimche were members of the Independent Labour Party although at this time Blair was not seriously politically aligned. He was writing for the Adelphi and dealing with pre-publication issues with A Clergymans Daughter and Burmese Days. At the beginning of 1935 he had to move out of Warwick Mansions, and Mabel Fierz found him a flat in Parliament Hill. A Clergyman's Daughter was published on the 11 March 1935. In the spring of 1935 Blair met his future wife Eileen O'Shaughnessy when his landlady, who was studying at the University of London, invited some of her fellow students. Around this time, Blair had started to write reviews for the New English Weekly. In July, Burmese Days was published and following Connolly's review of it in the New Statesman, the two re-established contact. In August Blair moved into a flat in Kentish Town, which he shared with Michael Sayer and Rayner Heppenstall. He was working on Keep the Aspidistra Flying, and also tried to write a serial for the News Chronicle, which was an unsuccessful venture. By October 1935 his flat-mates had moved out, and he was struggling to pay the rent on his own. The Road to Wigan Pier At this time, Victor Gollancz suggested Orwell spend a short time investigating social conditions in economically depressed northern England. The conventional view that this was a specific commission with a £500 advance is based on a recollection by George Gorer. However Taylor argues that Orwell's subsequent circumstances showed no indication of such largesse, Gollancz was not a person to part with such a sum on speculation, and Gollancz took little proprietorial interest in progress — D. J. Taylor Orwell: The Life Chatto & Windus 2003 Two years earlier J. B. Priestley had written of England north of the Trent and this had stimulated an interest in reportage. Furthermore the depression had spawned a number of working-class writers from the north of England. On 31 January 1936, Orwell set out by public transport and on foot via Coventry, Stafford, the Potteries and Macclesfield, reaching Manchester. Arriving after the banks had closed, he had to stay in a common lodging house. Next day he picked up a list of contact addresses sent by Richard Rees. One of these, trade union official Frank Meade, suggested Wigan, where Orwell spent February staying in dirty lodgings over a tripe shop. At Wigan he gained entry to many houses to see how people lived, took systematic notes of housing conditions and wages earned, went down a coal mine, and spent days at the local public library consulting public health records and reports on working conditions in mines. During this time he was distracted by dealing with libel and stylistic issues relating to Keep the Aspidistra Flying. He made a quick visit to Liverpool and spent March in South Yorkshire, spending time in Sheffield and Barnsley. As well as visiting mines and observing social conditions, he attended meetings of the Communist Party and of Oswald Mosley where he saw the tactics of the Blackshirts. He punctuated his stay with visits to his sister at Headingley, during which he visited the Bronte Parsonage at Haworth. His investigations gave rise to The Road to Wigan Pier, published by Gollancz for the Left Book Club in 1937. The first half of this work documents his social investigations of Lancashire and Yorkshire. It begins with an evocative description of working life in the coal mines. The second half is a long essay of his upbringing, and the development of his political conscience, which includes criticism of some of the groups on the left. Gollancz feared the second half would offend readers and inserted a mollifying preface to the book while Orwell was in Spain. Orwell needed somewhere where he could concentrate on writing his book, and once again help was provided by Aunt Nellie who was living in a cottage at Wallington, Hertfordshire. It was a very small cottage called the "Stores" with almost no modern facilities in a tiny village. Orwell took over the tenancy and had moved in by 2 April 1936. He started work on the book by the end of April, and as well as writing, he spent hours working on the garden and investigated the possibility of reopening the Stores as a village shop. Orwell married Eileen O'Shaughnessy on 9 June 1936. Shortly afterwards, the political crisis began in Spain and Orwell followed developments there closely. At the end of the year, concerned by Francisco Franco's Falangist uprising, Orwell decided to go to Spain to take part in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side. Under the erroneous impression that he needed papers to cross the frontier, on John Strachey's recommendation Orwell applied unsuccessfully to Harry Pollitt, leader of the British Communist Party, who suggested joining the International Brigade and advised him to get safe passage from the Spanish Embassy in Paris. "Notes on the Spanish Militia" in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 - An Age Like This 1945-1950 p.352 (Penguin) Not wishing to commit himself until he'd seen the situation in situ, Orwell instead used his ILP contacts to get a letter of introduction to John McNair in Barcelona. The Spanish Civil War and Catalonia Orwell set out for Spain on about 23 December, dining with Henry Miller in Paris on the way. A few days later at Barcelona, he met John McNair of the ILP Office who quoted him: "I've come to fight against Fascism". John McNair — Interview with Ian Angus UCL 1964 Orwell stepped into a complex political situation in Catalonia. The Republican government was supported by a number of factions with conflicting aims, including the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM — Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista), the anarcho-syndicalist CNT and the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia (a wing of the Spanish Communist Party, which was backed by Soviet arms and aid). The Independent Labour Party was linked to the POUM and so Orwell joined the POUM. After a time at the Lenin Barracks in Barcelona he was sent to the relatively quiet Aragon Front under Georges Kopp. By January 1937 he was at Alcubierre 1500 feet above sea level in the depth of winter. There was very little military action, and the lack of equipment and other deprivations which made it uncomfortable. Orwell, with his Cadet Corps and police training was quickly made a corporal. On the arrival of a British ILP Contingent about three weeks later, Orwell and the other English militiaman, Williams, were sent with them to Monte Oscuro. The newly-arrived ILP contingent included Bob Smillie, Bob Edwards, Stafford Cottman and Jack Branthwaite. The unit was then sent on to Huesca. Meanwhile, back in England, Eileen had been handling the issues relating to the publication of The Road to Wigan Pier before setting out for Spain herself, leaving Aunt Nellie Limouzin to look after The Stores. Eileen volunteered for a post in John McNair's office and with the help of Georges Kopp paid visits to her husband, bringing him English tea, chocolate and cigars. Letter to Eileen Blair April 1937 in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 - An Age Like This 1945-1950 p.296 (Penguin) Orwell had to spend some days in hospital with a poisoned hand and had most of his possessions stolen by the staff. He returned to the front and saw some action in night attack on the Nationalist trenches where he chased an enemy soldier with a bayonet and bombed an enemy rifle position. In April, Orwell returned to Barcelona where he applied to join the International Brigades to become involved in fighting closer to Madrid. However this was the time of Barcelona May Days and Orwell was caught up in the factional fighting. He spent much of the time on a roof, with a stack of novels, but encountered Jon Kimche from his Hampstead days during the stay. The subsequent campaign of lies and distortion carried out by the Communist press, in which the POUM was accused of collaborating with the fascists, had a dramatic effect on Orwell. Instead of joining the International Brigades as he had intended, he decided to return to the Aragon Front. Once the May fighting was over, he was approached by a Communist friend who asked if he still intended transferring to the International Brigades. Orwell expressed surprise that they should still want him, because according to the Communist press he was a fascist. Newsinger, John "Orwell and the Spanish Revolution" International Socialism Journal Issue 62 Spring 1994 After his return to the front, a sniper's bullet caught him in the throat. Orwell was considerably taller than the Spanish fighters "Harry Milton - The Man Who Saved Orwell" The Hoover Institute. Retrieved on 2008-12-23 and had been warned against standing against the trench parapet. Unable to speak, and with blood pouring from his mouth, Orwell was stretchered to Siétamo, loaded on an ambulance and after a bumpy journey via Barbastro arrived at the hospital at Lerida. He recovered sufficiently to get up and on the 27 May 1937 was sent on to Tarragona and two days later to a POUM sanatorium in the suburbs of Barcelona. The bullet had missed his main artery by the barest margin and his voice was barely audible. He received electrotherapy treatment and was declared medically unfit for service. By the middle of June the political situation in Barcelona had deteriorated and the POUM — seen by the pro-Soviet Communists as a Trotskyist organisation — was outlawed and under attack. Members, including Kopp, were arrested and others were in hiding. Orwell and his wife were under threat and had to lay low, The author states that evidence discovered at the National Historical Archives in Madrid in 1989 of a security police report to the Tribunal for Espionage and High Treason described 'Eric Blair and his wife Eileen Blair, as 'known Trotskyists' and as 'linking agents of the ILP and the POUM'. Newsinger goes on to state that given Orwell's precarious health, "there can be little doubt that if he had been arrested he would have died in prison." although they broke cover to try to help Kopp. Finally with their passports in order, they escaped from Spain by train, diverting to Banyuls-sur-Mer for a short stay before returning to England. Orwell's experiences in the Spanish Civil War gave rise to Homage to Catalonia (1938). Rest and recuperation Orwell returned to England in June 1937, and stayed at the O'Shaughnessy home at Greenwich. He found his views on the Spanish Civil War out of favour. Kingsley Martin rejected two of his works and Gollancz was equally cautious. At the same time, the communist Daily Worker was running an attack on The Road to Wigan Pier, misquoting Orwell as saying "the working classes smell"; a letter to Gollancz from Orwell threatening libel action brought a stop to this. Orwell was also able to find a more sympathetic publisher for his views in Frederic Warburg of Secker & Warburg. Orwell returned to Wallington, which he found in disarray after his absence. He acquired goats, a rooster he called "Henry Ford", and a poodle he called "Marx" and settled down to animal husbandry and writing Homage to Catalonia. There were thoughts of going to India to work on a local newspaper there, but by March 1938 Orwell's health had deteriorated. He was admitted to a sanitorium at Aylesford, Kent to which his brother-in-law Laurence O'Shaughnessy was attached. He was thought initially to be suffering from tuberculosis and stayed in the sanitorium until September. A stream of visitors came to see him including Common, Heppenstall, Plowman and Cyril Connolly. Connolly brought with him Stephen Spender, a cause of some embarrassment as Orwell had referred to Spender as a "pansy friend" some time earlier. Homage to Catalonia was published by Secker & Warburg and was a commercial flop. In the latter part of his stay at the clinic Orwell was able to go for walks in the countryside and study nature. The novelist L.H. Myers secretly funded a trip to French Morocco for half a year for Orwell to avoid the English winter and recover his health. The Orwells set out in September 1938 via Gibraltar and Tangier to avoid Spanish Morocco and arrived at Marrakech. They rented a villa on the road to Casablanca and during that time Orwell wrote Coming Up for Air. They arrived back in England on 30 March 1939 and Coming Up for Air was published in June. Time was spent between Wallington and Southwold working on Orwell's Dickens essay and it was in July 1939 that Orwell's father, Richard Blair, died. World War II and Animal Farm On the outbreak of World War II, Orwell's wife Eileen started work in the Censorship Department in London, staying during the week with her family in Greenwich. Orwell also submitted his name to the Central Register for war effort but nothing transpired. He returned to Wallington, and in the autumn of 1939 he wrote essays for Inside the Whale. For the next year he was occupied writing reviews for plays, films and books for The Listener, Time and Tide and New Adelphi. At the beginning of 1940, the first edition of Connolly's Horizon appeared, and this provided a new outlet for Orwell's work as well as new literary contacts. In May the Orwells took lease of a flat in London at Dorset Chambers, Chagford Street, Marylebone. It was the time of the Dunkirk evacuation and the death in France of Eileen's brother Lawrence caused her considerable grief and long term depression. Orwell was declared "Unfit for any kind of military service" by the Medical Board in June, but soon afterwards found an opportunity to become involved in war activities by joining the Home Guard. He shared Tom Wintringham's socialist vision for the Home Guard as a revolutionary People's Militia. Sergeant Orwell managed to recruit Frederic Warburg to his unit. During the Battle of Britain he used to spend weekends with Warburg and his new friend Zionist Tosco Fyvel at Twyford, Berkshire. At Wallington he worked on "England Your England" and in London wrote reviews for various periodicals. Visiting Eileen's family in Greenwich brought him face-to-face with the effects of the blitz on East London. Early in 1941 he started writing for the American Partisan Review and contributed to Gollancz' anthology The Betrayal of the Left, written in the light of the Hitler-Stalin pact. He also applied unsuccessfully for a job at the Air Ministry. In the Home Guard his mishandling of a mortar put two of his unit in hospital. Meanwhile he was still writing reviews of books and plays and at this time met the novelist Anthony Powell. He also took part in a few radio broadcasts for the Eastern Service of the BBC. In March the Orwells moved to St John's Wood in a 7th floor flat at Langford Court, while at Wallington Orwell was "digging for victory" by planting potatoes. In August 1941, Orwell finally obtained "war work" when he was taken on full time by the BBC's Eastern Service. He supervised cultural broadcasts to India in the context of propaganda from Nazi Germany designed to undermine Imperial links. This was Orwell's first experience of the rigid conformity of life in an office. However it gave him an opportunity to create cultural programmes with contributions from T. S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, E. M. Forster, Mulk Raj Anand, and William Empson among others. At the end of August he had a dinner with H. G. Wells which degenerated into a row because Wells had taken offence at observations Orwell made about him in a Horizon article. In October Orwell had a bout of bronchitis and the illness recurred frequently. David Astor was looking for a provocative contributor for The Observer and invited Orwell to write for him — the first article appearing in March 1942. In spring of 1942 Eileen changed jobs to work at the Ministry of Food and Orwell's mother and sister Avril took war work in London and came to stay with them. They all moved to a basement at Mortimer Crescent in Kilburn in the summer. At the BBC, Orwell introduced Voice a literary programme for his Indian broadcasts, and by now was leading an active social life with literary friends, particularly on the political left. Late in 1942, he started writing for the left-wing weekly Tribune directed by Labour MPs Aneurin Bevan and George Strauss. In March 1943 Orwell's mother died and around the same time he told Moore he was starting work on a new book, which would turn out to be Animal Farm. In September 1943, Orwell resigned from the BBC post that he had occupied for two years. His resignation followed a report confirming his fears that few Indians listened to the broadcasts, Malcolm Muggeridge recalls that when he asked Orwell about the usefulness of such broadcasts, he replied "Perhaps not, he said, somewhat crestfallen. He added, more cheerfully, that anyway, no one could pick up the broadcasts except on short-wave sets which cost about the equivalent of an Indian laborer's earnings over 10 years. At this thought he began to chuckle: a dry, vibrant, somehow rusty chuckle, very characteristic and very endearing." http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Burmese_Days/english/e_mm_int Malcolm Muggeridge: “Introduction” Published: Time Incorporation Book Division, USA, New York. — 1962. Burmese Days but he was also keen to concentrate on writing Animal Farm. At this time he was also discharged from the Home Guard. In November 1943, Orwell was appointed literary editor at Tribune, where his assistant was his old friend Jon Kimche. Orwell was on staff until early 1945, writing over 80 book reviews Orwell, G. & Davison, P. I Have Tried to Tell the Truth Secker & Warburg, 1999 ISBN 0436203707, 9780436203701 as well as the regular column "As I Please". He was still writing reviews for other magazines, and becoming a respected pundit among left-wing circles but also close friends with people on the right like Powell, Astor and Malcolm Muggeridge. By April 1944 Animal Farm was ready for publication. Gollancz refused to publish it, considering it an attack on the Soviet regime which was a crucial ally in the war. A similar fate was met from other publishers (including T. S. Eliot at Faber and Faber) until Jonathan Cape agreed to take it. In May the Orwells had the opportunity to adopt a child, thanks to the contacts of Eileen's sister Gwen O'Shaughnassy, then a doctor in Newcastle upon Tyne. In June a V-1 flying bomb landed on Mortimer Crescent and the Orwells had to find somewhere else to live. Orwell had to scrabble around in the rubble for his collection of books, which he had finally managed to transfer from Wallington, and carting them away in a wheelbarrow. Another bombshell was Cape's withdrawal of support of Animal Farm. The decision is believed to be due to the influence of Peter Smollett, who worked at the Ministry of Information and was later disclosed to be a Soviet agent. Timothy Garton Ash: "Orwell's List" in "The New York Review of Books", Number 14, 25 September 2003 The Orwells spent some time in the North East dealing with matters in the adoption of a boy whom they named Richard Horatio. In October 1944 they had set up home in Islington in a flat on the 7th floor of a block. Baby Richard joined them there, and Eileen gave up work to look after her family. Secker and Warburg had agreed to publish Animal Farm, planned for the following March, although it did not appear in print until August 1945. By February 1945 David Astor had invited Orwell to become a war correspondent for the Observer. Orwell had been looking for the opportunity throughout the war, but his failed medical reports prevented him from being allowed anywhere near action. He went to Paris after the liberation of France and to Cologne once it had been occupied. It was while he was there that Eileen went into hospital for a hysterectomy and died under anaesthetic on 29 March 1945. She had not given Orwell much notice about this operation because of worries about the cost and because she expected to make a speedy recovery. Orwell returned home for a while and then went back to Europe. He returned finally to London to cover the 1945 UK General Election at the beginning of July. Animal Farm: A Fairy Story was published in Britain on 17 August 1945, and a year later in the U.S., on 26 August 1946. Jura and Nineteen Eighty-FourAnimal Farm struck a particular resonance in the post-war climate and its worldwide success made Orwell a sought-after figure. For the next four years Orwell mixed journalistic work — mainly for the Tribune, the Observer and the Manchester Evening News, though he also contributed to many small-circulation political and literary magazines — with writing his best-known work, Nineteen Eighty-Four, which was published in 1949. In the year following Eileen's death he published around 130 articles and was active in various political lobbying campaigns. He employed a housekeeper, Susan Watson, to look after his adopted son at the Islington flat, which visitors now described as "bleak". In September he spent a fortnight on the island of Jura in the Inner Hebrides and saw it as a place to escape from the hassle of London literary life. David Astor was instrumental in arranging a place for Orwell at Jura. Astor's family owned Scottish estates in the area and a fellow Old Etonian Robert Fletcher had a property on the island. During the winter of 1945 to 1946 Orwell made several hopeless and unwelcome marriage proposals to younger women, including Celia Kirwan (Arthur Koestler's sister-in-law), Ann Popham who happened to live in the same block of flats and Sonia Brownell, one of Connolly's coterie at the Horizon office. Orwell suffered a tubercular haemorrhage in February 1946 but disguised his illness. In 1945 or early 1946, while still living at Canonbury Square, Orwell wrote an article on "British Cookery", complete with recipes, commissioned by the British Council. Given the post-war shortages, both parties agreed not to publish it. His sister Marjorie died of kidney disease in May and shortly after, on 22 May 1946, Orwell set off to live at Jura. Barnhill Barnhill is located at 56° 06' 39" N 5° 41' 30" W (British national grid reference system NR705970) was an abandoned farmhouse with outbuildings near the northern end of the island, situated at the end of a five-mile (8 km), heavily rutted track from Ardlussa, where the owners lived. Conditions at the farmhouse were primitive but the natural history and the challenge of improving the place appealed to Orwell. His sister Avril accompanied him there and young novelist Paul Potts made up the party. In July Susan Watson arrived with his son Richard. Tensions developed and Potts departed after one of his manuscripts was used to light the fire. Orwell meanwhile set to work on Nineteen Eighty-Four. Later Susan Watson's boyfriend David Holbrook arrived. A fan of Orwell since schooldays, he found the reality very different, with Orwell hostile and disagreeable probably because of Holbrook's membership of the Communist Party. David Holbrook in Stephen Wadham's Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 Susan Watson could no longer stand being with Avril and she and her boyfriend left. Orwell returned to London in late 1946 and picked up his literary journalism again. Now a well-known writer, he was swamped with work. Apart from a visit to Jura in the new year he stayed in London for one of the coldest British winters on record and with such a national shortage of fuel that he burnt his furniture and his child's toys. The heavy smog in the days before the Clean Air Act 1956 did little to help his health about which he was reticent, keeping clear of medical attention. Meanwhile he had to cope with rival claims of publishers Gollancz and Warburg for publishing rights. About this time he co-edited a collection titled British Pamphleteers with Reginald Reynolds. In April 1947 he left London for good, ending the leases on the Islington flat and Wallington cottage. Back on Jura in gales and rainstorms he struggled to get on with Nineteen Eighty-Four but through the summer and autumn made good progress. During that time his sister's family visited, and Orwell led a disastrous boating expedition which nearly led to loss of life and a soaking which was not good for his health. In December a chest specialist was summoned from Glasgow who pronounced Orwell seriously ill and a week before Christmas 1947 he was in Hairmyres hospital in East Kilbride, then a small village in the countryside, on the outskirts of Glasgow. Tuberculosis was diagnosed and the request for permission to import streptomycin to treat Orwell went as far as Aneurin Bevan, now Minister of Health. By the end of July 1948 Orwell was able to return to Jura and by December he had finished the manuscript of Nineteen Eighty-Four. In January 1949, in a very weak condition, he set off for a sanatorium in Gloucestershire, escorted by Richard Rees. The sanatorium at Cranham consisted of a series of small wooden chalets or huts in a remote part of the Cotswolds near Stroud. Visitors were shocked by Orwell's appearance and concerned by the short-comings and ineffectiveness of the treatment. Friends were worried about his finances, but by now he was comparatively well-off and making arrangements with his accountants to reduce his tax bill. He was writing to many of his friends, including Jacintha Buddicom, who had "rediscovered" him, and in March 1949, was visited by Celia Kirwan. Kirwan had just started working for a Foreign Office unit, the Information Research Department, set up by the Labour government to publish anti-communist propaganda, and Orwell gave her a list of people he considered to be unsuitable as IRD authors because of their pro-communist leanings. Orwell's list, not published until 2003, consisted mainly of writers but also included actors and Labour MPs. The Guardian John Ezard Blair's babe Did love turn Orwell into a government stooge? Saturday 21 June 2003 Orwell received more streptomycin treatment and improved slightly. In June 1949 Nineteen Eighty-Four was published to immediate critical and popular acclaim. Final months and death There was a second courtship of Sonia Brownell during the summer, and a marriage announced in September, shortly before Orwell was removed to University College Hospital in London. Sonia took charge of Orwell's affairs and attended diligently in hospital causing concern to some old friends like Muggeridge. The wedding took place in the hospital room on 13 October 1949, with David Astor as best man. Orwell was in decline and visited by an assortment of visitors including Muggeridge, Connolly, Lucian Freud, Stephen Spender, Paul Potts, Anthony Powell and his Eton tutor Anthony Gow. Plans to go to the Swiss Alps were mooted, but Orwell was getting weaker by Christmas. Early on the morning of 21 January 1950, an artery burst in his lungs, killing him at age 46. George Orwell's grave Orwell had requested to be buried in accordance with the Anglican rite in the graveyard of the closest church to wherever he happened to die. The graveyards in central London had no space, and fearing that he might have to be cremated, against his wishes, his widow appealed to his friends to see if any of them knew of a church with space in its graveyard. David Astor lived in Sutton Courtenay, Oxfordshire and negotiated with the vicar for Orwell to be interred in All Saints' Churchyard there, although he had no connection with the village. Andrew Anthony, 'Review: George Orwell's Books', The Observer, 11 May 2003, Observer Review Pages, Pg. 1. His gravestone bore the simple epitaph: "Here lies Eric Arthur Blair, born 25 June 1903, died 21 January 1950"; no mention is made on the gravestone of his more famous pen-name. Orwell's son, Richard Blair, was raised by an aunt after his father's death. He maintains a low public profile, though he has occasionally given interviews about the few memories he has of his father. Richard Blair worked for many years as an agricultural agent for the British government. Legacy Work During most of his career, Orwell was best known for his journalism, in essays, reviews, columns in newspapers and magazines and in his books of reportage: Down and Out in Paris and London (describing a period of poverty in these cities), The Road to Wigan Pier (describing the living conditions of the poor in northern England, and the class divide generally) and Homage to Catalonia. According to Irving Howe, Orwell was "the best English essayist since Hazlitt, perhaps since Dr Johnson." Irving Howe considered Orwell "the best English essayist since Hazlitt" George Orwell: “As the bones know” by Irving Howe, Harper's Magazine January 1969; reprinted in Newsweek as "was the finest journalist of his day and the foremost architect of the English essay since Hazlitt.". Modern readers are more often introduced to Orwell as a novelist, particularly through his enormously successful titles Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four. The former is often thought to reflect developments in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution; the latter, life under totalitarian rule. Nineteen Eighty-Four is often compared to Brave New World by Aldous Huxley; both are powerful dystopian novels warning of a future world where the state exerts complete control. In 1984, Nineteen Eighty-Four and Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 were honored with the Prometheus Award for their contributions to dystopian literature.Coming Up for Air, his last novel before World War II is the most English of his novels; alarums of war mingle with images of idyllic Thames-side Edwardian childhood of protagonist George Bowling. The novel is pessimistic; industrialism and capitalism have killed the best of Old England, and there were great, new external threats. In homely terms, Bowling posits the totalitarian hypotheses of Borkenau, Orwell, Silone and Koestler: "Old Hitler's something different. So's Joe Stalin. They aren't like these chaps in the old days who crucified people and chopped their heads off and so forth, just for the fun of it ... They're something quite new — something that's never been heard of before". Literary influences In an autobiographical sketch Orwell sent to the editors of Twentieth Century Authors in 1940, he wrote: The writers I care about most and never grow tired of are: Shakespeare, Swift, Fielding, Dickens, Charles Reade, Flaubert and, among modern writers, James Joyce, T. S. Eliot and D. H. Lawrence. But I believe the modern writer who has influenced me most is Somerset Maugham, whom I admire immensely for his power of telling a story straightforwardly and without frills. Elsewhere, Orwell strongly praised the works of Jack London, especially his book The Road. Orwell's investigation of poverty in The Road to Wigan Pier strongly resembles that of Jack London's The People of the Abyss, in which the American journalist disguises himself as an out-of-work sailor in order to investigate the lives of the poor in London. In the essay "Politics vs. Literature: An Examination of Gulliver's Travels" (1946) he wrote: "If I had to make a list of six books which were to be preserved when all others were destroyed, I would certainly put Gulliver's Travels among them." Other writers admired by Orwell included Ralph Waldo Emerson, G. K. Chesterton, George Gissing, Graham Greene, Herman Melville, Henry Miller, Tobias Smollett, Mark Twain, Joseph Conrad and Yevgeny Zamyatin. Letter to Gleb Struve, 17 February 1944, Orwell: Essays, Journalism and Letters Vol 3, ed Sonia Brownell and Ian Angus He was both an admirer and a critic of Rudyard Kipling, praising Kipling as a gifted writer and a "good bad poet" whose work is "spurious" and "morally insensitive and aesthetically disgusting," but undeniably seductive and able to speak to certain aspects of reality more effectively than more enlightened authors. Orwell as literary critic Throughout his life Orwell continually supported himself as a book reviewer, writing works so long and sophisticated they have had an influence on literary criticism. He wrote in the conclusion to his 1940 essay on Charles Dickens, "When one reads any strongly individual piece of writing, one has the impression of seeing a face somewhere behind the page. It is not necessarily the actual face of the writer. I feel this very strongly with Swift, with Defoe, with Fielding, Stendhal, Thackeray, Flaubert, though in several cases I do not know what these people looked like and do not want to know. What one sees is the face that the writer ought to have. Well, in the case of Dickens I see a face that is not quite the face of Dickens's photographs, though it resembles it. It is the face of a man of about forty, with a small beard and a high colour. He is laughing, with a touch of anger in his laughter, but no triumph, no malignity. It is the face of a man who is always fighting against something, but who fights in the open and is not frightened, the face of a man who is generously angry — in other words, of a nineteenth-century liberal, a free intelligence, a type hated with equal hatred by all the smelly little orthodoxies which are now contending for our souls." George Woodcock suggested that the last two sentences characterised Orwell as much as his subject. George Woodcock Introduction to Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin 1984 Rules for writers In "Politics and the English Language," George Orwell provides six rules for writers: Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print. Never use a long word where a short one will do. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out. Never use the passive voice where you can use the active. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent. Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous. Criticism of Orwell's work While Koestler mentioned Orwell's "uncompromising intellectual honesty [which] made him appear almost inhuman at times", Orwell Today in the words of Ben Wattenberg, "Orwell’s writing pierced intellectual hypocrisy wherever he found it." "Orwell’s Century" Think Tank with Ben Wattenberg. PBS Like many writers whose extensive work includes critical essays, polemics, and fiction that brings into question certain political views, Orwell was and is the subject of controversy. It seems difficult to find purely neutral appraisals of him and his work. Orwell has often been quoted out of context, or simply misquoted to support the beliefs or further the interests of one ‘side’ or the other. Thus, all sorts of people with differing viewpoints have been able to quote Orwell as backing for their own cause. An explanation for that would be that he constantly assessed and re-assessed his own viewpoints and changed them over time. So, quoting from one work, a contradiction might easily be found in a later work. However, as historian John Rodden pointed out: "John Podhoretz did claim that if Orwell were alive today, he’d be standing with the neo-conservatives and against the Left. And the question arises, to what extent can you even begin to predict the political positions of somebody who’s been dead three decades and more by that time?" In Orwell's Victory, Christopher Hitchens argues "In answer to the accusation of inconsistency Orwell as a writer was forever taking his own temperature. In other words, here was someone who never stopped testing and adjusting his intelligence". Editorial review of Orwell's Victory by Christopher Hitchens John Rodden points out the "undeniable conservative features in the Orwell physiognomy" and remarks on how "to some extent Orwell facilitated the kinds of uses and abuses by the Right that his name has been put to. In other ways there has been the politics of selective quotation." Rodden refers to the essay “Why I Write”, in which Orwell refers to the Spanish Civil War as being his "watershed political experience". “The Spanish War and other events in 1936-37, turned the scale. Thereafter I knew where I stood. Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written directly or indirectly against totalitarianism and for Democratic Socialism as I understand it.” And the word “for” is italicized. Rodden goes on to explain how, during the McCarthy era, the introduction to the Signet edition of Animal Farm, which sold more than twenty million copies, makes use of "the politics of ellipsis": “If the book itself, Animal Farm, had left any doubt of the matter, Orwell dispelled it in his essay “Why I Write”: 'Every line of serious work that I’ve written since 1936 has been written directly or indirectly against Totalitarianism... dot, dot, dot, dot,.' “For Democratic Socialism” is vaporized, just like Winston Smith did it at the Ministry of Truth, and that’s very much what happened beginning of the McCarthy era and just continued, Orwell being selectively quoted." Other accusations, such as those of antisemitism, are not reflected in the large body of work describing his life and works. Public figures such as Gollancz, Warburg, Kimche and Fyvel, all close Jewish friends of his, would certainly not agree with the suggestion that he was antisemitic, while any close reading of his works would indeed suggest the opposite. His famous essay "Notes on Nationalism", written in May 1945 and published in the first issue of Polemic (October 1945) contains the following (in chronological order): Indifference to Reality. [...] For quite six years the English admirers of Hitler contrived not to learn of the existence of Dachau and Buchenwald. [...] Many English people have heard almost nothing about the extermination of German and Polish Jews during the present war. Their own antisemitism has caused this vast crime to bounce off their consciousness. (On Positive Nationalism) Zionism. [...] All English people of goodwill are also pro-Jew in the sense of disapproving of Nazi persecution... (On Negative Nationalism) Antisemitism. There is little evidence about this at present, because the Nazi persecutions have made it necessary for any thinking person to side with the Jews against their oppressors... Orwell's work has taken a prominent place in the school literature curriculum with Animal Farm often being seen as an examination topic for early the early teens (GCSE in the UK), and Nineteen Eighty-Four as a topic for pre university examinations (A Levels in the UK). Alan Brown noted that this brings to the forefront questions about the political content of teaching practices. Study aids, in particular with potted biographies have helped propagate the Orwell myth so that as an embodiment of human values he is presented as a "trustworthy guide", while examination questions sometimes suggest a "right ways of answering" in line with the myth. Alan Brown Examining Orwell: Political and Literary Values in Education in Christopher Norris Inside the Myth Orwell:Views from the Left Lawrence and Wishart 1984 As recently as 1981, a Baptist minister in Jackson County, Florida challenged the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four suitability as proper reading for young Americans, arguing it contained pro-Communist, anti-Semitic, and sexually explicit material. In short, according to historian Piers Brendon, "Orwell was the saint of common decency who would in earlier days, said his BBC boss Rushbrook Williams, 'have been either canonised - or burnt at the stake'. "The saint of common decency" by Piers Brendon The Guardian, 7 June 2003 Influence on the English language Some of Nineteen Eighty-Four's lexicon has entered into the English language. The word 'Orwellian' refers specifically to this novel, when used about totalitarian countries or tendencies. Orwell expounded on the importance of honest and clear language (and, conversely, on how misleading and vague language can be a tool of political manipulation) in his 1946 essay "Politics and the English Language". The language of Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is Newspeak: a thoroughly politicised and obfuscatory language designed to make independent thought impossible by limiting acceptable word choices. Another phrase is 'Big Brother', or 'Big Brother is watching you'. Today, security cameras are often thought to be modern society's big brother. The current television reality show Big Brother carries that title because of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The same novel spawned the title of another television series, Room 101. The phrase Thought Police is also derived from Nineteen Eighty-Four, and might be used to refer to any alleged violation of the right to the free expression of opinion. It is particularly used in contexts where free expression is proclaimed and expected to exist. Doublethink is a Newspeak term from Nineteen Eighty-Four, and is the act of holding two contradictory beliefs simultaneously, fervently believing both. Airstrip One, an ironical reference to Britain's subservient status to America after the Second World War, is also derived from Nineteen Eighty-Four. Variations of the slogan "all animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others", from Animal Farm, are sometimes used to satirise situations where equality exists in theory and rhetoric but not in practice with various idioms. For example, an allegation that rich people are treated more leniently by the courts despite legal equality before the law might be summarised as "all criminals are equal, but some are more equal than others". This appears to echo the phrase Primus inter pares — the Latin for "First amongst equals", which is usually applied to the head of a democratic state. Although the origins of the term are debatable, Orwell may have been the first to use the term cold war. He used it in an essay titled "You and the Atomic Bomb" on 19 October 1945 in Tribune, he wrote:"We may be heading not for general breakdown but for an epoch as horribly stable as the slave empires of antiquity. James Burnham's theory has been much discussed, but few people have yet considered its ideological implications — this is, the kind of world-view, the kind of beliefs, and the social structure that would probably prevail in a State which was at once unconquerable and in a permanent state of 'cold war' with its neighbours."Personal life Childhood Jacintha Buddicom's account Eric & Us provides an insight into the Blair's childhood. Jacintha Buddicom Eric & Us Frewin 1974. She quoted his sister Avril that "he was essentially an aloof, undemonstrative person" and said herself of his friendship with the Buddicoms "I do not think he needed any other friends beyond the schoolfriend he occasionally and appreciatively referred to as 'CC'". Cyril Connolly provides an account of Blair as a child in Enemies of Promise. Cyril Connolly, Enemies of Promise, 1938 ISBN 0-233-97936-0 Years later, Blair mordantly recalled his Prep School in the essay "Such, Such Were the Joys" claiming among other things that he "was made to study like a dog" to earn a scholarship, which he alleged that was solely to enhance the school's prestige with parents. Jacintha Buddicom repudiated Orwell's schoolboy misery described in the essay stating that "he was a specially happy child". Connolly remarked of him as a schoolboy "The remarkable thing about Orwell was that alone among the boys he was an intellectual and not a parrot for he thought for himself". At Eton his former headmaster's son observed "He was extremely argumentative — about anything — and criticising the masters and criticising the other boys...We enjoyed arguing with him. He would generally win the arguments — or think he had anyhow."<ref>John Wilkes in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell" Penguin Books 1984. Roger Mynors concurs "Endless arguments about all sorts of things, in which he was one of the great leaders. He was one of those boys who thought for himself..." Roger Mynors in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984. Blair liked to carry out practical jokes. Buddicom recalls him swinging from the luggage rack in a railway carriage like an orang-utang to frighten a woman passenger out of the compartment. At Eton he played tricks on his master in house, among which was to enter a spoof advertisement in a College magazine implying pederasty. Christopher Hollis A Study of George Orwell Gow, his tutor said he "made himself as big a nuisance as he could" and "was a very unattractive boy". Interview with Bernard Crick in George Orwell: A life Later Blair was expelled from the crammer at Southwold for sending a dead rat as a birthday present to the town surveyor. Audrey Coppard and Bernard Crick Orwell Remembered 1984 In one of his As I Please essays he refers to a protracted joke when he answered an advertisement for a woman who claimed a cure for obesity. Collected Essays Journalism and Letters Secker & Warburg 1968 Blair had an enduring interest in natural history which stemmed from his childhood. In letters from school he wrote about caterpillars and butterflies. Bernard Crick George Orwell: A Life Secker & Warburg 1980 and Buddicom recalls his keen interest in ornithology. He also enjoyed fishing and shooting rabbits, and conducting experiments as in cooking a hedgehog or shooting down a jackdaw from the Eton roof to dissect it. His zeal for scientific experiments extended to explosives — again Buddicom recalls a cook giving notice because of the noise. Later in Southwold his sister Avril recalled him blowing up the garden. When teaching he enthused his students with his nature-rambles both at Southwold R. S. Peters A Boy's View of George Orwell in Psychology and Ethical Development Allen & Unwin 1974 and Hayes. Geoffrey Stevens in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin 1984 His adult diaries are permeated with his observations on nature. Relationships Buddicom and Blair lost touch shortly after he went to Burma, and she became unsympathetic towards him. She wrote that it was because of the letters he wrote complaining about his life, but an addendum to Eric & Us by Venables reveals that he may have lost sympathy through an incident which was at best a clumsy seduction. Mabel Fierz, who later became his confidante, said "He used to say the one thing he wished in this world was that he'd been attractive to women. He liked women and had many girlfriends I think in Burma. He had a girl in Southwold and another girl in London. He was rather a womaniser, yet he was afraid he wasn't attractive." Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 Brenda Salkield (Southwold) preferred friendship to any deeper relationship and maintained a correspondence with Blair for many years, particularly as a sounding board for his ideas. She wrote "He was a great letter writer. Endless letters, And I mean when he wrote you a letter he wrote pages." His correspondence with Eleanor Jacques (London) was more prosaic, dwelling on a closer relationship and referring to past assignments or planning future ones in London and Burnham Beeches. Correspondence in Collected Essays Journalism and Letters, Secker & Warburg 1968 When Orwell was in the sanitorium in Kent his wife's friend Lydia Jackson visited. He invited her for a walk and out of sight "an awkward situation arose." Peter Davison ed. George Orwell: Complete Works XI 336 Jackson was to be the most critical of Orwell's marriage to Eileen O'Shaughnessy but their later correspondence hints a complicity. Eileen at the time was more concerned about Orwell's closeness to Brenda Salkeld. Orwell was to have an affair with his secretary at Tribune which caused Eileen much distress, and others have been mooted. In a letter to Ann Popham he wrote: 'I was sometimes unfaithful to Eileen, and I also treated her badly, and I think she treated me badly, too, at times, but it was a real marriage, in the sense that we had been through awful struggles together and she understood all about my work, etc.' George Orwell: A Life, Bernard Crick, p.480 , Similarly he suggested to Celia Kirwan that they had both been unfaithful. Celia Goodman interview with Shelden June 1989 in Michael Shelden Orwell:The Authorised Biography There are several testaments that it was a well-matched and happy marriage Henry Dakin in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Patrica Donahue in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Michael Meyer Not Prince Hamlet: Literary and Theatrcal Memoirs 1989 Orwell was very lonely after Eileen's death, and desperate for a wife, both as companion for himself and as mother for Richard. He proposed marriage to four women, and eventually Sonia Brownell accepted. Political views While Orwell liked to provoke argument by challenging the "status quo", he was also a deep traditionalist with a love of old English values. He criticised and satirised, from the inside, the various social milieu in which he found himself - provincial town life in A Clergyman's Daughter; middle class pretention in Keep the Aspidistra Flying; preparatory schools in Such Such were the Joys; the "atmosphere" of colonialism in Burmese Days, and Socialist groups in the Road to Wigan Pier. In his Adelphi days he described himself as a "Tory-anarchist". Richard Rees, Orwell: Fugitive from the Camp of Victory, Secker & Warburg 1961 Rayner Heppenstall, Four Absentees, Barrie and Rockcliff 1960 The Road to Wigan Pier, published by the Left Book Club, gave Orwell's his biggest sales of a work to date and in Part 2 he stated his credentials by raising the class issue, describing his disillusionment as a colonial policeman and explaining his days on the road with tramps. In this work he states his idea of socialism as "a real Socialist is one who wishes - not merely conceives it as desirable, but actively wishes - to see tyranny overthrown". However it was the Spanish Civil War that played the most important part in defining his socialism. He wrote to Cyril Connolly from Barcelona on 8 June 1937: "I have seen wonderful things and at last really believe in Socialism, which I never did before". Cyril Connolly George Orwell 3 in The Evening Colonnade David Bruce and Watson 1973 The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 - An Age Like This 1945-1950 p.301 (Penguin) Having witnessed the success of the anarcho-syndicalist communities, and the subsequent brutal suppression of the anarcho-syndicalists and other revolutionaries by the Soviet-backed Communists, Orwell returned from Catalonia a staunch anti-Stalinist and joined the Independent Labour Party, his card being issued on 13 June 1938. Bernard Crick George Orwell: A Life Secker & Warburg 1980 In his 1938 essay, "Why I joined the Independent Labour Party", published in the ILP-affiliated New Leader, Orwell wrote "For some years past I have managed to make the capitalist class pay me several pounds a week for writing books against capitalism. But I do not delude myself that this state of affairs is going to last forever", The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 - An Age Like This 1945-1950 p.373 (Penguin) going on to add "the only régime which, in the long run, will dare to permit freedom of speech is a Socialist régime. If Fascism triumphs I am finished as a writer - that is to say, finished in my only effective capacity. That of itself would be a sufficient reason for joining a Socialist party." And towards the end of the essay, "I do not mean I have lost all faith in the Labour Party. My most earnest hope is that the Labour Party will win a clear majority in the next General Election." "Why I Write" in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 - An Age Like This 1945-1950 p.374 (Penguin) He was later to add, in "Why I Write" (1946), "Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it." "Why I Write" in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 - An Age Like This 1945-1950 p.23 (Penguin) At the time, like most other left-wingers in the United Kingdom, he was still opposed to rearmament against Nazi Germany — but after the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact and the outbreak of the Second World War, he changed his mind. He left the ILP over its pacifism and adopted a political position of "revolutionary patriotism". He supported the war effort but detected (wrongly as it turned out) a mood that would lead to a revolutionary socialist movement among the British people. "We are in a strange period of history in which a revolutionary has to be a patriot and a patriot has to be a revolutionary," he wrote in Tribune, the Labour left's weekly, in December 1940. During the war, Orwell was highly critical of those in Britain who believed an Anglo-Soviet alliance would be the basis of a post-war world of peace and prosperity (a popular idea in many circles at the time). In 1942, Orwell commenting on the out-spoken pro-Soviet leaders in The Times written by E. H. Carr stated that: “all the appeasers, e.g. Professor E. H. Carr, have switched their allegiance from Hitler to Stalin”. In his reply, dated 15 November 1943, to a letter from the Duchess of Atholl inviting him to speak for the League of European Freedom, he stated that he was not in agreement with that body’s ultimate objectives. He admitted that what they said was "more truthful than the lying propaganda found in most of the press" but added that he could not "associate himself with an essentially Conservative body” that claimed to "defend democracy in Europe" but had "nothing to say about British imperialism". His closing paragraph stated "I belong to the Left and must work inside it, much as I hate Russian totalitarianism and its poisonous influence in this country." Orwell, Sonia and Angus, Ian (eds.). The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 4: In Front of Your Nose (1945-1950) (Penguin) He joined the staff of Tribune as literary editor, and from then until his death was a left-wing (though hardly orthodox) Labour-supporting democratic socialist. He canvassed for the Labour Party in the 1945 general election and was broadly supportive of its actions in office, though he was sharply critical of its timidity on certain key questions and despised the pro-Soviet stance of many Labour left-wingers. According to biographer John Newsinger, although Orwell "was always critical of the 1945-51 Labour government's moderation, his support for it began to pull him to the right politically. This did not lead him to embrace conservatism, imperialism or reaction, but to defend, albeit critically, Labour reformism." John Newsinger in Socialist Review Issue 276 July/August 2003 Newsinger also considers that "the other crucial dimension to Orwell's socialism was his recognition that the Soviet Union was not socialist. Unlike many on the left, instead of abandoning socialism once he discovered the full horror of Stalinist rule in the Soviet Union, Orwell abandoned the Soviet Union and instead remained a socialist--indeed he became more committed to the socialist cause than ever." Between 1945 and 1947, together with A. J. Ayer and Bertrand Russell, he contributed a series of articles and essays to Polemic, a short-lived British "Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics" edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater. David Buckman, Art-Historical Notes: "Where are the Hirsts of the 1930s now?", The Independent, 13 Nov 1998 Stefan Collini, Absent Minds: Intellectuals in Britain, Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN 9780199291052 Although he was never a Trotskyist, he was strongly influenced by the Trotskyist and anarchist critiques of the Soviet regime and by the anarchists' emphasis on individual freedom. He wrote in The Road to Wigan Pier that 'I worked out an anarchistic theory that all government is evil, that the punishment always does more harm than the crime and the people can be trusted to behave decently if you will only let them alone.' In typical Orwellian style, he continues to deconstruct his own opinion as 'sentimental nonsense'. He continues 'it is always necessary to protect peaceful people from violence. In any state of society where crime can be profitable you have got to have a harsh criminal law and administer it ruthlessly'. Orwell had little sympathy with Zionism and opposed the creation of the state of Israel. In 1945, Orwell wrote that "few English people realise that the Palestine issue is partly a colour issue and that an Indian nationalist, for example, would probably side with the Arabs". While Orwell was concerned that the Palestinian Arabs be treated fairly, he was equally concerned with fairness to Jews in general: writing in the spring of 1945 a long essay titled "Antisemitism in Britain," for the "Contemporary Jewish Record." Antisemitism, Orwell warned, was "on the increase," and was "quite irrational and will not yield to arguments." He thought "the only useful approach" would be a psychological one, to discover "why" antisemites could "swallow such absurdities on one particular subject while remaining sane on others." As I Please: 1943–1945, pp 332–341. In his magnum opus, Nineteen Eighty-Four, he showed the Party enlisting antisemitic passions in the Two Minute Hates for Goldstein, their archetypal traitor. Orwell was also a proponent of a federal socialist Europe, a position outlined in his 1947 essay 'Toward European Unity', which first appeared in Partisan Review. Orwell publicly defended P. G. Wodehouse against charges of being a Nazi sympathiser; a defence based on Wodehouse's lack of interest in and ignorance of politics. Intelligence The Special Branch in the UK, the police intelligence group, maintained a file on Orwell more than twenty years of his life. The dossier, published by Britain's National Archives, mentions that according to one investigator he had "advanced Communist views and several of his Indian friends say that they have often seen him at Communist meetings". However, MI5, the intelligence department of the Home Office, developed the information to note that "It is evident from his recent writings — 'The Lion and the Unicorn' — and his contribution to Gollancz's symposium The Betrayal of the Left that he does not hold with the Communist Party nor they with him." Social interactions Orwell was noted for very close and enduring friendships with a few friends, but these were generally people with a similar background or with a similar level of literary ability. Ungregarious, he was out of place in a crowd and his discomfort was exacerbated when he was outside his own class. Though representing himself as a spokesman for the common man he often appeared out of place with real working people. His brother-in-law Humphrey Dakin, a "Hail fellow, well met" type, who took him to a local pub in Leeds, said that he was told by the landlord: "Don't bring that bugger in here again". Ian Angus Interview 23–25 April 1965 quoted in Stansky and Abrahams The Unknown George Orwell Adrian Fierz commented "He wasn't interested in racing or greyhounds or pub crawling or shove ha'penny. He just did not have much in common with people who did not share his intellectual interests". Adrian Fierz in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Awkwardness attended many of his encounters with working class representatives as with Pollitt and McNair. John McNair George Orwell: The Man I knew MA Thesis — Newcastle University Library 1965 quoted in Bernard Crick George Orwell: A Life but his courtesy and good manners were often commented on. Jack Common observed on meeting him for the first time "Right away manners, and more than manners — breeding — showed through". Jack Common Collection Newcastle University Library quoted in Bernard Crick George Orwell: A Life Secker & Warburg 1980 In his tramping days, he did domestic work for a time. His extreme politeness was recalled by a member of the family he worked for; she declared that the family referred to him as "Laurel" after the film comedian. Stella Judt I once met George Orwell in I once Met 1996</ref> With his gangling figure and awkwardness, Orwell's friends often saw him as a figure of fun. Geoffrey Gorer commented "He was awfully likely to knock things off tables, trip over things. I mean, he was a gangling, physically badly co-ordinated young man. I think his feelings that even the inanimate world was against him..." Geoffrey Gorer - recorded for Melvyn Bragg BBC Omnibus production The Road to the Left 1970 When he shared a flat with Heppenstall and Sayer, he was treated in a patronising manner by the younger men. Rayner Heppenstall Four Absentees in Audrey Coppard and Bernard Crick Orwell Remembered 1984 At the BBC, in the 1940s, "everybody would pull his leg" Sunday Wilshin in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 and Spender described him as having real entertainment value "like, as I say, watching a Charlie Chaplin movie". Stephen Spender in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 A friend of Eileen's reminisced about her tolerance and humour, often at Orwell's expense. Orwell has often been accused of having had an authoritarian streak. In Burma, he struck out at a Burmese boy who while "fooling around" with his friends "accidentally bumped into him" at a station so that he "fell heavily" down some stairs. Maung Htin Aung George Orwell and Burma in Miriam Goss The World of George Orwell Weidenfield & Nicholson 1971 One of his former pupils recalled being beaten so hard he could not sit down for a week. Geoffrey Stevens, Bernard Crick Interview in George Orwell: A Life Secker & Warburg 1980 When sharing a flat with Orwell, Heppenstall came home late one night in an advanced stage of loud inebriation. The upshot was that Heppenstall ended up with a bloody nose and was locked in a room. When he complained, Orwell hit him a crack across the legs with a shooting stick and Heppenstall then had to defend himself with a chair. Years later, after Orwell's death,Heppenstall wrote a dramatic account of the incident called "The Shooting Stick"<ref>Heppenstall "The Shooting Stick Twentieth Century April 1955 and Mabel Fierz confirmed that Heppenstall came to her in a sorry state the following day. Mabel Fierz, Bernard Crick Interview (1973) in George Orwell: A Life Secker & Warburg 1980 However, Orwell got on well with young people. The pupil he beat considered him the best of teachers, and the young recruits in Barcelona tried to drink him under the table — though without success. His nephew recalled Uncle Eric laughing louder than anyone in the cinema at a Charlie Chaplin film. In the wake of his most famous works, he attracted many uncritical hangers-on, but many others who sought him found him aloof and even dull. With his soft voice, he was sometimes shouted down or excluded from discussions. Michael Meyer Not Prince Hamlet: Literary and Theatrical Memoirs Secker and Warburg 1989 At this time, he was severely ill; it was wartime or the austerity period after it; during the war his wife suffered from depression; and after her death he was lonely and unhappy. In addition to that, he always lived frugally and seemed unable to care for himself properly. As a result of all this, people found his circumstances bleak. T. R. Fyval George Orwell: A Personal Memoir 1982 Some, like Michael Ayrton, called him "Gloomy George", but others developed the idea that he was a "secular saint". Lifestyle Orwell was a heavy smoker, rolling his own cigarettes from strong shag tobacco, in spite of his bronchial condition, and he even smoked in sanatoriums and hospitals, which was permitted in those days. He undermined his health with a penchant for the rugged life which often put him in cold and damp situations both in the long term as in Catalonia and Jura, and short term, for example in motorcycling in the rain and a shipwreck of his own creation. His love of strong tea was legendary — he had Fortnum & Mason's tea brought to him in Catalonia D J Taylor Orwell: The Life Chatto & Windus 2003 and in 1946 published "A Nice Cup of Tea" on how to make it. He appreciated English beer, taken regularly and moderately, and despised drinkers of lager. Lettice Cooper in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 Not being particular about food, he enjoyed the wartime "Victory Pie" Julian Symonds in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 extolled canteen food at the BBC and once ate the cat's dinner by mistake. Patricia Donahue in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 However he preferred traditional English dishes such as roast beef and kippers George Orwell: A Life, Bernard Crick, p.502 and reports of his Islington days refer to the cosy afternoon tea table. His dress sense was unpredictable and usually casual. George Orwell: A Life, Bernard Crick, p.504 In Southwold he had the best cloth from the local tailor, Jack Denny in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 but was equally happy in his tramping outfit. His attire in the Spanish Civil War, along with his size 12 boots was a source of amusement. Bob Edwards in Audrey Coppard and Bernard Crick Orwell Remembered 1984 Jennie Lee in Peter Davison Complete Works XI 5 David Astor described him as looking like a prep school master, David Astor Interview in Michael Shelden while according to the Special Branch dossier, Orwell's tendency of clothing himself "in Bohemian fashion" revealed that the author was "a Communist". Orwell's confusing approach to matters of social decorum — on the one hand expecting a working class guest to dress for dinner, Jack Braithwaite in Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 and on the other hand slurping tea out of a saucer at the BBC canteen John Morris Some are more equal than others Penguin New Writing No. 40 1950 — helped stoke his reputation as an English eccentric. Biographies Muggeridge, reading Orwell's obituaries, noted "how the legend of a human being is created". Malcolm Muggeridge Journals 1948–50 Fyvel introduced the term "saint" T R Fyvel A Writer's Life World Review June 1950 and wrote in such terms T. R. Fyvel, A Case for George Orwell?, Twentieth Century, September 1956, pp.257–8 Orwell's will requested that no biography of him be written, and his wife Sonia Orwell repelled every attempt by those who tried to persuade her to let them write about him. Various recollections and interpretations were published in the 1950s and 1960s but Sonia saw the 1968 Collected Works Collected Essays Journalism and Letters Secker & Warburg 1968 as the record of his life. She did appoint Muggeridge as official biographer, but later biographers have seen this as deliberate spoiling as Muggeridge eventually gave up the work D. J. Taylor Orwell: The Life. Henry Holt and Company. 2003. ISBN 0-8050-7473-2 In 1973 American authors Stansky and Williams Peter Stansky and William Abrahams The Unknown Orwell Constable 1972 produced an unauthorised account of his early years which inevitably lacked Sonia Orwell's input. She then commissioned Bernard Crick, a left-wing professor of politics at London University to complete a biography and asked all Orwell's friends to co-operate. Gordon Bowker - Orwell and the biographers in John Rodden The Cambridge Companion to George Orwell Cambridge University Press 2007 Crick collated a considerable amount of material in his work which was published in 1980, Bernard Crick George Orwell: A Life. Penguin. 1982. ISBN 0-14-005856-7 but his questioning of the literal truth of Orwell's first-person writings led to conflict with Sonia who tried unsuccessfully to suppress the book. Crick concentrated on the facts of Orwell's life rather than his character, and as a professor of politics presented primarily a political perspective on Orwell's life and work. After Sonia Orwell's death many more works were produced in the 1980s with 1984 being a particularly fruitful year for Orwelliana. These included collections of reminiscences by Coppard and Crick Audrey Coppard and Bernard Crick Orwell Remembered 1984 and Stephen Wadhams. In 1991 a biography was produced by Michael Shelden, an American Professor of Literature. Michael Shelden Orwell: The Authorized Biography. HarperCollins. 1991. ISBN 0-06-016709-2. Shelden was more concerned with the literary nature of Orwell’s work seeking explanations for Orwell's character and treating his first person writings as autobiographical. Shelden introduced several new pieces of information correcting some of the errors and omissions in Crick's earlier work. Gordon Bowker - Orwell and the biographers in John Rodden The Cambridge Companion to George Orwell Cambridge University Press 2007 Shelden attributed to Orwell an obsessive belief in his failure and inadequacy. Peter Davison's production of the Complete Works of George Orwell, completed in 2000 Peter Davison The Complete Works of George Orwell Random House, ISBN 0151351015 put most of the Orwell Archive in the public domain. Jeffrey Meyers, a prolific American biographer, was first to take advantage of this and produced a work Jeffrey Meyers Orwell: Wintry Conscience of a Generation W. W. Norton & Company, Incorporated, 2001ISBN 0393322637 that was more willing to investigate the darker side of Orwell and question the saintly image. Gordon Bowker - Orwell and the biographers in John Rodden The Cambridge Companion to George Orwell Cambridge University Press 2007 In 2003, the centenary of Orwell's birth resulted in the two most up-to-date biographies by Gordon Bowker and D. J. Taylor, both academics and writers in the United Kingdom. Taylor notes the stage management which surrounds much of Orwell's behaviour, D. J. Taylor Orwell: The Life. Henry Holt and Company. 2003. ISBN 0-8050-7473-2 and Bowker highlights the essential sense of decency which he considers to have been Orwell' s main driver. Gordon Bowker George Orwell Little, Brown 2003 Observer review: Orwell by DJ Taylor and George Orwell by Gordon Bowker Observer on Sunday 1 June 2003 Bibliography NovelsBurmese Days (1934)A Clergyman's Daughter (1935)Keep the Aspidistra Flying (1936)Coming Up for Air (1939)Animal Farm (1945)Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) Books based on personal experiences While the substance of many of Orwell's novels, particularly Burmese Days, is drawn from his personal experiences, the following are works presented as narrative documentaries, rather than being fictionalised.Down and Out in Paris and London (1933)The Road to Wigan Pier (1937)Homage to Catalonia (1938) About George Orwell Anderson, Paul (ed). Orwell in Tribune: 'As I Please' and Other Writings. Methuen/Politico's 2006. ISBN 1-842-75155-7 Bowker, Gordon. George Orwell. Little Brown. 2003. ISBN 0-316-86115-4 Buddicom, Jacintha. Eric & Us. Finlay Publisher. 2006. ISBN 0-9553708-0-9 Caute, David. Dr. Orwell and Mr. Blair, Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-81438-9 Crick, Bernard. George Orwell: A Life. Penguin. 1982. ISBN 0-14-005856-7 Flynn, Nigel. George Orwell. The Rourke Corporation, Inc. 1990. ISBN 0-86593-018-X Hitchens, Christopher. Why Orwell Matters. Basic Books. 2003. ISBN 0-465-03049-1 Hollis, Christopher. A Study of George Orwell: The Man and His Works. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co. 1956. . Larkin, Emma. Finding George Orwell in Burma. Penguin. 2005. ISBN 1-59420-052-1 Lee, Robert A, Orwell's Fiction. University of Notre Dame Press, 1969. LC 74-75151 Leif, Ruth Ann, Homage to Oceania. The Prophetic Vision of George Orwell. Ohio State U.P. [1969] Meyers, Jeffery. Orwell: Wintry Conscience of a Generation. W.W.Norton. 2000. ISBN 0-393-32263-7 Newsinger, John. Orwell's Politics. Macmillan. 1999. ISBN 0-333-68287-4 Rodden, John (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to George Orwell. Cambridge. 2007. ISBN 987-0-521-85842-7 Shelden, Michael. Orwell: The Authorized Biography. HarperCollins. 1991. ISBN 0-06-016709-2 Smith, D. & Mosher, M. Orwell for Beginners. 1984. London: Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative. Taylor, D. J. Orwell: The Life. Henry Holt and Company. 2003. ISBN 0-8050-7473-2 West, W. J. The Larger Evils. Edinburgh: Canongate Press. 1992. ISBN 0-86241-382-6 (Nineteen Eighty-Four – The truth behind the satire.) West, W. J. (ed.) George Orwell: The Lost Writings. New York: Arbor House. 1984. ISBN 0-87795-745-2 Williams, Raymond, Orwell, Fontana/Collins, 1971 Woodcock, George. The Crystal Spirit''. Little Brown. 1966. ISBN 1-55164-268-9 Orwell's meeting with dos Passos in 1937 Barcelona referenced in Stephen Koch, “The Breaking Point: Hemingway, dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles” See also Bibliography of George Orwell Social criticism Undenk Wigan Pier Sylvia West Władysław Reymont References External links 'Collected Essays of George Orwell' Is Bad Writing Necessary? - An essay comparing Theodor Adorno and George Orwell's lives and writing styles. In Lingua Franca, (December/January 2000). Lesson plans for Orwell's works at Web English Teacher Orwell's Burma, an essay in Time Orwell's Century, Think Tank Transcript George Orwell in Lleida A photograph of a column of the POUM, including a man who appears to be Orwell, about 1936/37. George Orwell: A literary Trotskyist? George Orwell: International Socialist? by Peter Sedgwick George Orwell in the World of Science Fiction The George Orwell Web Source - Essays, novels, reviews and exclusive images of Orwell. The Orwell Diaries: a daily extract from Orwell's diary from the same date seventy years before The Orwell Prize Thesis statements and important quotes from the novel UK National Archives Reveal George Orwell watched by MI5 Works by George Orwell (public domain in Canada) | George_Orwell |@lemmatized eric:19 arthur:4 blair:63 june:18 january:11 well:16 know:11 pen:2 name:8 george:82 orwell:324 english:29 author:7 work:87 mark:2 profound:1 consciousness:2 social:13 injustice:1 intense:1 opposition:1 totalitarianism:5 passion:2 clarity:1 language:9 belief:5 democratic:6 socialism:10 write:68 collected:9 essay:42 journalism:16 letter:27 volume:8 age:12 like:25 p:14 penguin:26 consider:8 perhaps:3 century:8 best:10 chronicler:1 culture:1 still:9 moon:1 water:1 economist:1 com:1 jul:1 many:21 different:4 genre:1 include:16 novel:19 polemic:4 literary:20 review:21 poetry:2 famous:5 satirical:1 animal:17 farm:15 dystopian:3 nineteen:21 eighty:21 four:25 biography:11 early:11 life:49 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5,873 | Fallopian_tube | The Fallopian tubes, named after Gabriel Fallopius (Gabriele Fallopio), also known as oviducts, uterine tubes, and salpinges (singular salpinx) are two very fine tubes lined with ciliated epithelia, leading from the ovaries of female mammals into the uterus. Anatomy There are two Fallopian tubes attached to either side of the cornual end of the uterus at the axilla of Welch. Each terminates at or near one ovary forming a structure called the fimbria. The Fallopian tubes are not directly attached to the ovaries, but open into the peritoneal cavity (essentially the inside of the abdomen); they thus form a direct communication between the peritoneal cavity and the outside via the vagina. In humans, the Fallopian tubes are about 7–14 cm long. If a Fallopian Tube is missing from the pair, then the other fallopian tube that is functional could still be a way of carrying an egg down to the uterus. Regions There are four regions of the fallopian tube from the ovary to the uterus: - "The Female Pelvis: The Oviduct" Infundibulum - contains fimbria Ampulla - usual site of fertilization Isthmus Intramural oviduct - inside wall of uterus Histology |Layers of the wall of the fallopian tube. There are three layers of the fallopian tube: Fallopian tube Mucosa - the distinctive folds of the mucosa are the most unusual feature. The folds contain ciliated cells and "peg cells". Oviduct The region of the fallopian tube can be approximated by looking at the mucosa, because the folds are most elaborate at the ampulla and almost nonexistent at the intramural portion. Muscularis externa Serosa Motility The Fallopian tubes are mobile, and have been observed on time-lapse videography moving about the pelvis. Although anatomical illustrations have them proceeding from the uterine horns to the ovary, this is not the case for most of the menstrual cycle, and a tube may cross to the other side or lie on top of the uterus. Function in fertilization When an ovum is developing in an ovary, it is encapsulated in a sac known as an ovarian follicle. On maturity of the ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is fertilized while in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning of pregnancy. Occasionally the embryo implants into the Fallopian tube instead of the uterus, creating an ectopic pregnancy, commonly known as a "tubal pregnancy". Embryology and homology The Fallopian tubes are not homologous to the vas deferens or any other structure in males. Embryos have two pairs of ducts to let gametes out of the body; one pair (the Müllerian ducts) develops in females into the Fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina, while the other pair (the Wolffian ducts) develops in males into the epididymis and vas deferens. Normally, only one of the pairs of tubes will develop while the other regresses and disappears in the utero. Pathology Pelvic inflammatory disease can strike the fallopian tubes. This might cause a Fallopian tube obstruction. Fallopian tube cancer is a rare neoplasm that can arise from the epithelial lining of the Fallopian tube. This cancer is sometimes misdiagnosed as ovarian cancer http://www.iarc.fr/WHO-BlueBooks/ . However, treatment of both ovarian and Fallopian tube cancer is similar. Surgery The surgical removal of a Fallopian tube is called a salpingectomy. To remove both sides is a bilateral salpingectomy. An operation that combines the removal of a Fallopian tube with removal of at least one ovary is a salpingo-oophorectomy. An operation to restore a fallopian tube obstruction is called a tuboplasty. Etymology and nomenclature They are named after their discoverer, the 16th century Italian anatomist, Gabriele Falloppio. Though the name 'Fallopian tube' is eponymous, some texts spell it with a lower case 'f' from the assumption that the adjective 'fallopian' has been absorbed into modern English as the de facto name for the structure. The Greek word salpinx (σαλπιγξ) means "trumpet". Additional images See also Pelvic inflammatory disease Menstrual cycle References External links | Fallopian_tube |@lemmatized fallopian:27 tube:31 name:4 gabriel:1 fallopius:1 gabriele:2 fallopio:1 also:2 know:3 oviduct:4 uterine:2 salpinx:3 singular:1 two:3 fine:1 line:1 ciliated:2 epithelium:1 lead:1 ovary:8 female:3 mammal:1 uterus:10 anatomy:1 attach:2 either:1 side:3 cornual:1 end:1 axilla:1 welch:1 terminates:1 near:1 one:4 form:2 structure:3 call:3 fimbria:2 directly:1 open:1 peritoneal:2 cavity:2 essentially:1 inside:2 abdomen:1 thus:1 direct:1 communication:1 outside:1 via:1 vagina:2 human:1 cm:1 long:1 miss:1 pair:5 functional:1 could:1 still:1 way:1 carry:1 egg:1 region:3 four:1 pelvis:2 infundibulum:1 contain:2 ampulla:2 usual:1 site:1 fertilization:2 isthmus:1 intramural:2 wall:3 histology:1 layer:2 three:1 mucosa:3 distinctive:1 fold:3 unusual:1 feature:1 cell:2 peg:1 approximate:1 look:1 elaborate:1 almost:1 nonexistent:1 portion:1 muscularis:1 externa:1 serosa:1 motility:1 mobile:1 observe:1 time:1 lapse:1 videography:1 move:1 although:1 anatomical:1 illustration:1 proceed:1 horn:1 case:2 menstrual:2 cycle:2 may:1 cross:1 lie:1 top:1 function:1 ovum:4 develop:4 encapsulate:1 sac:1 ovarian:3 follicle:2 maturity:1 rupture:1 allow:1 escape:1 enter:1 travel:1 toward:1 push:1 along:1 movement:1 cilium:1 inner:1 lining:2 trip:1 take:1 hour:1 day:1 fertilize:1 normally:2 implant:2 endometrium:1 reach:1 signal:1 beginning:1 pregnancy:3 occasionally:1 embryo:2 instead:1 create:1 ectopic:1 commonly:1 tubal:1 embryology:1 homology:1 homologous:1 va:2 deferens:2 male:2 duct:2 let:1 gamete:1 body:1 müllerian:1 ducts:1 wolffian:1 epididymis:1 regress:1 disappears:1 utero:1 pathology:1 pelvic:2 inflammatory:2 disease:2 strike:1 might:1 cause:1 obstruction:2 cancer:4 rare:1 neoplasm:1 arise:1 epithelial:1 sometimes:1 misdiagnosed:1 http:1 www:1 iarc:1 fr:1 bluebooks:1 however:1 treatment:1 similar:1 surgery:1 surgical:1 removal:3 salpingectomy:2 remove:1 bilateral:1 operation:2 combine:1 least:1 salpingo:1 oophorectomy:1 restore:1 tuboplasty:1 etymology:1 nomenclature:1 discoverer:1 century:1 italian:1 anatomist:1 falloppio:1 though:1 eponymous:1 text:1 spell:1 low:1 f:1 assumption:1 adjective:1 absorb:1 modern:1 english:1 de:1 facto:1 greek:1 word:1 σαλπιγξ:1 mean:1 trumpet:1 additional:1 image:1 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram fallopian_tube:26 menstrual_cycle:2 ovarian_follicle:1 inner_lining:1 ectopic_pregnancy:1 ovarian_cancer:1 http_www:1 surgery_surgical:1 surgical_removal:1 gabriele_falloppio:1 de_facto:1 external_link:1 |
5,874 | ISM_band | The industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands were originally reserved internationally for the use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial, scientific and medical purposes other than communications. In general, communications equipment must accept any interference generated by ISM equipment. The ISM bands are defined by the ITU-R in 5.138, 5.150, and 5.280 of the Radio Regulations. Individual countries' use of the bands designated in these sections may differ due to variations in national radio regulations. Because communication devices using the ISM bands must tolerate any interference from ISM equipment, these bands are typically given over to uses intended for unlicensed operation, since unlicensed operation typically needs to be tolerant of interference from other devices anyway. In the United States of America, ISM uses of the ISM bands are governed by Part 18 of the FCC rules, while Part 15 Subpart B contains the rules for unlicensed communication devices, even those that use the ISM frequencies. Thus, designers of equipment for use in the United States in the ISM bands should be familiar with the relevant portions of both Part 18 and Part 15 Subpart B of the FCC Rules. Part 18 ISM rules prohibit using ISM for communications. The ISM bands defined by the ITU-R are: Frequency range [Hz] Center frequency [Hz] Availability 6.765–6.795 MHz 6.780 MHz Subject to local acceptance 13.553–13.567 MHz 13.560 MHz 26.957–27.283 MHz 27.120 MHz 40.66–40.70 MHz 40.68 MHz 433.05–434.79 MHz 433.92 MHz Region 1 only 902–928 MHz 915 MHz Region 2 only 2.400–2.500 GHz 2.450 GHz 5.725–5.875 GHz 5.800 GHz 24–24.25 GHz 24.125 GHz 61–61.5 GHz 61.25 GHz Subject to local acceptance 122–123 GHz 122.5 GHz Subject to local acceptance 244–246 GHz 245 GHz Subject to local acceptance For many people, the most commonly encountered ISM device is the home microwave oven operating at 2.45 GHz. However, in recent years these bands have also been shared with license-free error-tolerant communications applications such as wireless LANs and cordless phones in the 915 MHz, 2450 MHz, and 5800 MHz bands. Because unlicensed devices already are required to be tolerant of ISM emissions in these bands, unlicensed low power uses are generally able to operate in these bands without causing problems for ISM users. According to 47 CFR Part 15.5, low power communication devices must accept interference from licensed users of that frequency band, and the Part 15 device must not cause interference to licensed users. Note that the 915 MHz band should not be used in countries outside Region 2, except those that specifically allow it, such as Australia and Israel, especially those that use the GSM-900 band for cellphones. The ISM band is also widely used for Radio-frequency identification (RFID) applications with the most commonly used band being the 13.56 MHz band used by systems compliant with ISO/IEC 14443 including those used by biometric passports and contactless smart cards. Wireless LAN usage Wireless LAN devices use wavebands as follows: Bluetooth 2450 MHz band HIPERLAN 5800 MHz band IEEE 802.11 2450 MHz and 5800 MHz bands Wireless LANs and cordless phones can also use frequency bands other than the bands shared with ISM, but such uses require approval on a country by country basis. DECT phones use allocated spectrum outside the ISM bands that differs in Europe and North America. Ultra-wideband LANs require more spectrum than the ISM bands can provide, so the relevant standards such as IEEE 802.15.4a are designed to make use of spectrum outside the ISM bands. Despite the fact that these additional bands are outside the official ITU-R ISM bands, because they are used for the same types of low power personal communications, these additional frequency bands are sometimes incorrectly referred to as ISM bands as well. In the United States ISM is governed by Part 18 of the FCC rules. Part 18 ISM rules prohibit using ISM for communications. Also note that several brands of radio control equipment use the 2.4 GHz band range for low power remote control of toys, from gas powered cars to miniature aircraft. Worldwide Digital Cordless Telecommunications or WDCT is an ISM band technology that uses the 2.4GHz radio spectrum. See also Fixed Wireless Data 2.4 GHz interference External links 900 MHz vs. 2.4 GHz Cordless phone frequencies ITU page on definitions of ISM bands ITU page on Radio Regulations European Radiocommunications Office frequency information system In the US, CFR Title 47 Part 18 describes the regulation of the ISM bands. Part 15 Subpart 247 contains regulations for wireless LAN devices operating in the ISM bands. | ISM_band |@lemmatized industrial:2 scientific:2 medical:2 ism:29 radio:7 band:35 originally:1 reserve:1 internationally:1 use:19 rf:1 electromagnetic:1 field:1 purpose:1 communication:9 general:1 equipment:5 must:4 accept:2 interference:6 generate:1 define:2 itu:5 r:3 regulation:5 individual:1 country:4 designate:1 section:1 may:1 differ:1 due:1 variation:1 national:1 device:9 tolerate:1 typically:2 give:1 us:4 intend:1 unlicensed:5 operation:2 since:1 need:1 tolerant:3 anyway:1 united:3 state:3 america:2 govern:2 part:11 fcc:3 rule:6 subpart:3 b:2 contain:1 even:1 frequency:9 thus:1 designer:1 familiar:1 relevant:2 portion:1 prohibit:2 range:2 hz:2 center:1 availability:1 mhz:22 subject:4 local:4 acceptance:4 region:3 ghz:16 many:1 people:1 commonly:2 encounter:1 home:1 microwave:1 oven:1 operating:1 however:1 recent:1 year:1 also:5 share:2 license:2 free:1 error:1 application:2 wireless:6 lan:5 cordless:4 phone:4 already:1 require:3 emission:1 low:4 power:5 generally:1 able:1 operate:2 without:1 cause:2 problem:1 user:3 accord:1 cfr:2 licensed:1 note:2 outside:4 except:1 specifically:1 allow:1 australia:1 israel:1 especially:1 gsm:1 cellphone:1 widely:1 identification:1 rfid:1 used:1 system:2 compliant:1 iso:1 iec:1 include:1 biometric:1 passport:1 contactless:1 smart:1 card:1 usage:1 waveband:1 follow:1 bluetooth:1 hiperlan:1 ieee:2 approval:1 basis:1 dect:1 allocate:1 spectrum:4 differs:1 europe:1 north:1 ultra:1 wideband:1 lans:1 provide:1 standard:1 design:1 make:1 despite:1 fact:1 additional:2 official:1 type:1 personal:1 sometimes:1 incorrectly:1 refer:1 well:1 several:1 brand:1 control:2 remote:1 toy:1 gas:1 car:1 miniature:1 aircraft:1 worldwide:1 digital:1 telecommunication:1 wdct:1 technology:1 see:1 fix:1 data:1 external:1 link:1 v:1 page:2 definition:1 european:1 radiocommunication:1 office:1 information:1 u:1 title:1 describe:1 contains:1 |@bigram ism_band:15 mhz_mhz:12 ghz_ghz:9 microwave_oven:1 wireless_lan:5 cordless_phone:3 commonly_used:1 iso_iec:1 biometric_passport:1 ultra_wideband:1 external_link:1 |
5,875 | Enron | Enron Creditors Recovery Corporation (formerly Enron Corporation, former NYSE ticker symbol ENE) was an American energy company based in Houston, Texas. Before its bankruptcy in late 2001, Enron employed approximately 22,000 (McLean & Elkind, 2003) and was one of the world's leading electricity, natural gas, pulp and paper, and communications companies, with claimed revenues of nearly $101 billion in 2000. Mergent Online | Enron Company Financials | Annual Income Statement Fortune named Enron "America's Most Innovative Company" for six consecutive years. At the end of 2001 it was revealed that its reported financial condition was sustained substantially by institutionalized, systematic, and creatively planned accounting fraud, known as the "Enron scandal". Enron has since become a popular symbol of willful corporate fraud and corruption. The scandal was also considered a landmark case in the field of business fraud and brought into question the accounting practices of many corporations throughout the United States. Enron filed for bankruptcy protection in the Southern District of New York in late 2001 and selected Weil, Gotshal & Manges as its bankruptcy counsel. It emerged from bankruptcy in November 2004 after one of the biggest and most complex bankruptcy cases in U.S. history. On September 7, 2006, Enron sold Prisma Energy International Inc., its last remaining business, to Ashmore Energy International Ltd. Following the scandal, lawsuits against Enron's directors were notable because the directors settled the suits by paying very significant sums of money personally. The scandal also caused the dissolution of the Arthur Andersen accounting firm, affecting the wider business world. BBC NEWS | Business | Andersen guilty in Enron case In early 2007, Enron changed its name to Enron Creditors Recovery Corporation, to reflect its status as a (largely) asset-less shell corporation. Its current goal is to liquidate all remaining assets of the company. For most of 2007, Enron continued to operate under the name Enron Corp. by filing a Doing Business As, or "dba" certificate in Harris County, Texas. Early history Enron Complex in Downtown Houston Enron traces its roots to the Northern Natural Gas Company, which was formed in 1932 in Omaha, Nebraska. It was reorganized in 1979 as the leading subsidiary of a holding company, InterNorth. In 1985, it bought the smaller Houston Natural Gas. BBC News | Enron: The rise and fall The merged company initially named itself "HNG/InterNorth Inc.", even though InterNorth was the nominal survivor. It built a large headquarters complex in Omaha. However, the departure of ex-InterNorth CEO Samuell Segnar six months after the merger allowed former HNG CEO Kenneth Lay to become CEO of the newly merged company. Lay soon moved Enron's headquarters to Houston and began to thoroughly re-brand the business. Lay originally favored the name "Enteron" (possibly spelled in camelcase as "EnterOn"); but when it was pointed out that the term approximated a Greek word referring to the intestines, it was quickly shortened to "Enron." The final name was decided upon only after business cards, stationery, and other items had been printed reading Enteron, reflecting the confused state of affairs in the company at the time. Enron's "crooked E" logo was designed in the mid-1990s by the late American graphic designer Paul Rand. Enron was originally involved in transmitting and distributing electricity and gas throughout the United States. The company developed, built, and operated power plants and pipelines while dealing with rules of law and other infrastructures worldwide. Enron owned a large network of natural gas pipelines which stretched ocean to ocean and border to border including Northern Natural Gas, Florida Gas Transmission, Transwestern Pipeline company and a partnership in Northern Border Pipeline from Canada. NNG was the cash cow that made all of the other Enron companies, ventures and investments possible. It was the only part of Enron that made significant profits. In 1998, Enron moved into the water sector, creating the Azurix Corporation, which it part-floated on the New York Stock Exchange in June 1999. Azurix failed to break into the water utility market, and one of its major concessions, in Buenos Aires, was a large-scale money-loser. Enron grew wealthy due largely to marketing, promoting power and the fraudulently inflated stock price. Enron was named "America's Most Innovative Company" by Fortune magazine for six consecutive years, from 1996 to 2001. It was on the Fortunes "100 Best Companies to Work for in America" list in 2000, and had offices that were, in hindsight, stunning in their opulence. Enron was hailed by many, including labor and the workforce, as an overall great company, praised for its large long-term pensions, benefits for its workers and extremely effective management until its exposure in corporate fraud. The first analyst to publicly disclose Enron's financial flaws was Daniel Scotto who in August 2001 issued a report entitled "All Stressed up and no place to go" which encouraged investors to sell Enron stocks and bonds at any and all costs. As was later discovered, many of Enron's recorded assets and profits were inflated, or even wholly fraudulent and nonexistent. Debts and losses were put into entities formed "offshore" that were not included in the firm's financial statements, and other sophisticated and arcane financial transactions between Enron and related companies were used to take unprofitable entities off the company's books. Its most valuable asset and the largest source of honest income, the 1930s-era Northern Natural Gas, was eventually purchased back by a group of Omaha investors, who moved its headquarters back to Omaha, and is now a unit of Warren Buffett's Mid-American Energy Holdings Corp. NNG was put up as collateral for a $2.5 billion capital infusion by Dynegy Corporation when Dynegy was planning to buy Enron. When Dynegy looked closely at Enron's books, they backed out of the deal and fired their CEO, Chuck Watson. The new chairman and head CEO, the late Daniel Dienstbier, had been president of NNG and an Enron executive at one time and an acquaintance of Warren Buffett. NNG continues to be profitable today. Products Enron traded in more than 30 different products, including the following: Products traded on EnronOnline Petrochemicals Plastics Power Pulp and paper Steel Weather Risk Management Oil & LNG Transportation Broadband Principal Investments Risk Management for Commodities Shipping / Freight Streaming Media Water & Wastewater It was also an extensive futures trader, including sugar, coffee, grains, hog, and other meat futures. At the time of its bankruptcy filing in December 2001, Enron structured into seven distinct business units. Online marketplace services EnronOnline (commodity trading platform) ClickPaper (transaction platform for pulp, paper, and wood products) EnronCredit (the first global online credit department to provide live credit prices and enable business-to-business customers to hedge credit exposure instantly via the Internet.) ePowerOnline (customer interface for Enron Broadband Services) Enron Direct (sales of fixed-price contracts for gas and electricity; Europe only) EnergyDesk (energy-related derivatives trading; Europe only) NewPowerCompany (online energy trading, joint venture with IBM and AOL) Enron Weather (weather derivatives) DealBench (online business services) Water2Water (water storage, supply, and quality credits trading) HotTap (customer interface for Enron's U.S. gas pipeline businesses) Enromarkt (business to business pricing and information platform; Germany only) Broadband services Enron Intelligent Network (broadband content delivery) Enron Media Services (risk management services for media content companies) Customizable Bandwidth Solutions (bandwidth and fiber products trading) Streaming Media Applications (live or on-demand Internet broadcasting applications) Energy and commodities services Enron Power (electricity wholesaling) Enron Natural Gas (natural gas wholesaling) Enron Pulp and Paper, Packaging, and Lumber (risk management derivatives for forest products industry) Enron Coal and Emissions (coal wholesaling and CO2 offsets trading) Enron Plastics and Petrochemicals (price risk management for polymers, olefins, methanol, aromatics, and natural gas liquids) Enron Weather Risk Management (Weather Derivatives) Enron Steel (financial swap contracts and spot pricing for the steel industry) Enron Crude Oil and Oil Products (petroleum hedging) Enron Wind Power Services (wind turbine manufacturing and wind farm operation) MG Plc. (U.K. metals merchant) Capital and risk management services Commercial and industrial outsourcing services Commodity Management Energy Asset Management Energy Information Management Facility Management Capital Management Azurix Inc. (water utilities and infrastructure) Project development and management services Energy Infrastructure Development (developing, financing, and operation of power plants and related projects) Enron Global Exploration & Production Inc. (oil and natural gas field services) Elektro Electricidade e Servicos SA (Brazilian electric utility) Energy transportation and upstream services Natural Gas Transportation Northern Border Pipeline Houston Pipeline Transwestern Pipeline Florida Gas Transmission Northern Natural Gas Company Natural Gas Storage Compression Services Gas Processing and Treatment Engineering, Procurement, and Construction Services EOTT Energy Inc. (oil transportation) Enron manufactured gas valves, circuit breakers, thermostats, and electrical equipment in Venezuela through INSELA SA, a 50-50 joint venture with General Electric. Enron owned three paper and pulp products companies: Garden State Paper, a newsprint mill; as well as Papiers Stadacona and St. Aurelie Timberlands. Enron held a controlling stake in the Louisiana-based petroleum exploration and production company Mariner Energy. However, recently after the major debacle concerning the company, Padmini made many of their overseas locations dialate. EnronOnline In November 1999, Enron launched EnronOnline. Conceptualized by the company's Global Finance department under Nick Rhinehart, it was the first web-based transaction system that allowed buyers and sellers to buy, sell, and trade commodity products globally. It allowed users to do business only with Enron. Due to the huge cash needs of Enron Online, and the firm wasting money in other areas such as broadband, Azurix, Enron Energy Services, and shutting down the original pipeline service which generated cash flow, Enron virtually drained itself of cash. The Enron Global Finance department had to keep working up more creative financing moves to keep the company running. EnronOnline went live on November 29, 1999. The site allowed energy users to do business in a previously unseen way. Until this point a trader who wanted to buy an energy contract talked with another energy trader who wanted to sell a contract, and from there, terms were agreed. EnronOnline allowed market participants to see prices on their screen just like a stock ticker, and could do business far more simply. The main commodities offered on EnronOnline were natural gas and electricity, although there were 500 other products including credit derivatives, bankruptcy swaps, pulp, gas, plastics, paper, steel, metals, freight, and TV commercial time. EnronOnline was seen as an impressive tool, but because Enron was either buying, selling, or trading in every transaction, the costs increased over time, and the systems were involved in the financial misreporting and other questionable financial behavior that eventually led to Enron's demise. However, EnronOnline spawned several other e-commerce websites including www.DealBench.com. DealBench is an acquisition and divestiture tool still operating today. As of 2007, Enron still operates the DealBench code under the name EnronAssets. Other Enron developed technologies include Commodity Logic, ClickPaper and EnronCredit. EnronOnline closed down for online trading on the morning of November 28, 2001, with Enron filing for bankruptcy four days later. Principal assets At the time of bankruptcy, Enron owned all of or interests in the following major assets: Power plants Enron owned or operated 38 electric power plants worldwide: Teesside (United Kingdom)—at the time of commission in 1992, at 1750 MW, was the largest Natural Gas Co-Gen plant in the world. Its on-time and under-budget completion put Enron Power on the map as an international developer, owner and operator. Bahia Las Minas (Panama)- largest thermal power plant in Central America, 355 MW Puerto Quetzal Power Project (Guatemala)—110 MW PQP LLC (Guatemala)—holding company for 124 MW Power Barge named "Esperanza" Empresa Energetica Corinto (Nicaragua)—holding company for "Margarita II" 70.5 MW power barge, Enron held 35% share EcoElectrica (Puerto Rico, USA)—507 MW natural gas cogeneration plant, with adjacent LNG import terminal- supplied 20% of island's electricity Puerto Plata Power Project (Dominican Republic)—185 MW power barge named "Puerto Plata" Modesto Maranzana Power Plant (Argentina)—70 MW Cuiaba Integrated Project (Brazil)—480 MW combined cycle power plant Nowa Sarzyna Power Plant (Poland)—116 MW, first privately developed post-Communist electricity project in Poland Sarlux Power Project (Italy)—551 MW combined cycle power plant, converted residue from Italy's largest oil refinery into synthetic gas for fuel Trakya Power Project (Turkey)—478 MW Chengdu Cogen Project (China)—284 MW, joint venture with Sichuan Electric Company Northern Marianas Power Project (Guam, USA)—80 MW slow speed diesel oil plant Batangas Power Project (Philippines)—110 MW Subic Bay Power Project (Philippines)—116 MW Dabhol Power Project (India)—2,184 MW combined cycle plant, generally considered one of Enron's most controversial and least successful projects Storm Lake Wind Generation Project (Iowa, USA)—193 MW wind farm Lake Benton II Wind Generation Facility (Minnesota, USA)—104 MW wind farm Lake Benton I Wind Generation Facility (Minnesota, USA)—107 MW wind farm Cabazon Wind Generation Facility (California, USA)—40 MW wind farm Green Power I Wind Generation Facility (California, USA)—16.5 MW wind farm Indian Mesa I Wind Generation Facility (Texas, USA)—25.5 MW wind farm Clear Sky Wind Power Generation Facility (Texas, USA)—135 MW wind farm Mill Run Wind Wind Power Generation Facility (Pennsylvania, USA)—15 MW wind farm Trent Mesa Wind Generation Facility (Texas, USA)—150 MW wind farm Montfort Wind Generation Facility (Wisconsin, USA)—30 MW wind farm 8 hydroelectric plants in Oregon with a combined capacity of 509 MW, owned through Portland General Electric 4 additional thermal plants in Oregon and Montana with a combined capacity of 1,464 MW, owned through Portland General Electric Pipelines Centragas (Colombia)—357 miles, natural gas Promigas (Colombia) Transportadora de Gas del Sur (Argentina)—largest pipeline system in South America, 5,005 km CEG (Brazil)—1,368 miles, natural gas CEGRio (Brazil) Transredes (Bolivia)—3,000 km natural gas pipeline and 2,500 km oil & liquids pipeline Bolivia-to-Brazil Pipeline (Bolivia/Brazil)—3,000 km, natural gas Northern Natural Gas (Upper Midwestern USA)—16,500 miles, included share in Trailblazer Pipeline Transwestern Pipeline (Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado)—2,554 miles Florida Gas Transmission (Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida)—4,800 miles Northern Border Pipeline (Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana )—1,249 miles Electric utilities/distributors Portland General Electric Company (USA)—serving 775,000 customers in Oregon Elektro Electricidade e Servicos S.A. (Brazil)—1.5 million customers Compania Anonima Luz y Fuerza Electricas de Puerto Cabello (Venezuela)—50,000 customers Natural gas-related businesses ProCaribe (Puerto Rico, USA)—LPG storage terminal, only fully refrigerated LPG storage facility in Caribbean San Juan Gas Company (Puerto Rico, USA)—gas distribution, 400 industrial/commercial customers Industrial Gases Ltd. (Jamaica)—8 filling plants, industrial gas manufacturing & LPG distribution, held 100% monopoly on Jamaican industrial gas business and 40% of LPG business Gaspart (Brazil)—consortium of 7 gas distribution companies Vengas (Venezuela)—LPG transportation and distribution SK-Enron Company Ltd. (South Korea)—joint venture with SK Corporation; included 8 city gas utilities, an LPG distributor, and a steam and electricity cogeneration facility Pulp and paper Garden State Paper Company Inc. (New Jersey, USA)—paperboard and newsprint recycling mill Papiers Stadacona Ltee. (Quebec, Canada)—wood pulp & paper mill St. Aurelie Timberlands Company Ltd. (Quebec, and New Brunswick, Canada & Maine, USA)—timber company Other Mariner Energy Inc. (Houston, Texas, USA)—oil & gas exploration, development, and production with operations in the Gulf of Mexico Interruptores Especializados Lara (Venezuela)—manufacturer of valves, thermostats, and electrical breakers for appliances Enron Wind—manufacturer of wind power turbines and related systems, with factories in USA, Spain, Portugal, and Germany Accounting scandal of 2001 After a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures bordering on fraud perpetrated throughout the 1990s involving Enron and its accounting firm Arthur Andersen, Enron stood on the verge of undergoing the largest bankruptcy in history by mid-November 2001 (the largest Chapter 11 bankruptcy until that of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15, 2008). A white knight rescue attempt by a similar, smaller energy company, Dynegy, was not viable. As the scandal unraveled, Enron shares dropped from over US$90.00 to just pennies. Enron had been considered a blue chip stock, so this was an unprecedented and disastrous event in the financial world. Enron's plunge occurred after it was revealed that much of its profits and revenue were the result of deals with special purpose entities (limited partnerships which it controlled). The result was that many of Enron's debts and the losses that it suffered were not reported in its financial statements. Enron filed for bankruptcy on December 2, 2001. In addition, the scandal caused the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the world's top accounting firms. The firm was found guilty of obstruction of justice in 2002 for destroying documents related to the Enron audit and was forced to stop auditing public companies. Although the conviction was thrown out in 2005 by the Supreme Court, the damage to the Andersen name has prevented it from returning as a viable business. Enron also withdrew a naming rights deal with the Houston Astros Major League Baseball club to have its name associated with their new stadium, which was formerly known as Enron Field (it is now Minute Maid Park.) Accounting practices Enron had created offshore entities, units which may be used for planning and avoidance of taxes, raising the profitability of a business. This provided ownership and management with full freedom of currency movement and the anonymity that allowed the company to hide losses. These entities made Enron look more profitable than it actually was, and created a dangerous spiral in which each quarter, corporate officers would have to perform more and more contorted financial deception to create the illusion of billions in profits while the company was actually losing money. This practice drove up their stock price to new levels, at which point the executives began to work on insider information and trade millions of dollars worth of Enron stock. The executives and insiders at Enron knew about the offshore accounts that were hiding of losses for the company; however the investors knew nothing of this. Chief Financial Officer Andrew Fastow led the team which created the off-books companies, and manipulated the deals to provide himself, his family, and his friends with hundreds of millions of dollars in guaranteed revenue, at the expense of the corporation for which he worked and its stockholders. In 1999, Enron launched EnronOnline, an Internet-based trading operation, which was used by virtually every energy company in the United States. Enron president and chief operating officer Jeffrey Skilling began advocating a novel idea: the company didn't really need any "assets." By pushing the company's aggressive investment strategy, he helped make Enron the biggest wholesaler of gas and electricity, trading over $27 billion per quarter. The firm's figures, however, had to be accepted at face value. Under Skilling, Enron adopted mark to market accounting, in which anticipated future profits from any deal were tabulated as if real today. Thus, Enron could record gains from what over time might turn out losses, as the company's fiscal health became secondary to manipulating its stock price on Wall Street during the Tech boom. But when a company's success is measured by agreeable financial statements emerging from a black box, a term Skilling himself admitted, actual balance sheets prove inconvenient. Indeed, Enron's unscrupulous actions were often gambles to keep the deception going and so push up the stock price, which was posted daily in the company elevator. An advancing number meant a continued infusion of investor capital on which debt-ridden Enron in large part subsisted. Its fall would collapse the house of cards. Under pressure to maintain the illusion, Skilling verbally attacked Wall Street Analyst Richard Grubman , who questioned Enron's unusual accounting practice during a recorded conference call. When Grubman complained that Enron was the only company that could not release a balance sheet along with its earnings statements, Skilling replied "Well, thank you very much, we appreciate that . . . asshole." Though the comment was met with dismay and astonishment by press and public, it became an inside joke among many Enron employees, mocking Grubman for his perceived meddling rather than Skilling's lack of tact. When asked during his trial, Skilling wholeheartedly admitted that industrial dominance and abuse was a global problem: "Oh yes, yes sure, it is." Beth MacLean and Peter Elkind, Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron, 2003, ISBN 1591840082 Peak and decline of stock price In August 2000, Enron's stock price hit its highest value of $90. http://business.nmsu.edu/~dboje/papers/ENRON_2.jpg, The Smartest Guys in the Room, Bethany McLean and Peter Elkind, 318 At this point Enron executives, who possessed the inside information on the hidden losses, began to sell their stock. At the same time, the general public and Enron's investors were told to buy the stock. Executives told the investors that the stock would continue to climb until it reached possibly the $130 to $140 range, while secretly unloading their shares. As executives sold their shares, the price began to drop. Investors were told to continue buying stock or hold steady if they already owned Enron because the stock price would rebound in the near future. Kenneth Lay's strategy for responding to Enron's continuing problems was in his demeanor. As he did many times, Lay would issue a statement or make an appearance to calm investors and assure them that Enron was headed in the right direction. By August 15, 2001, Enron's stock price had fallen to $42. Many of the investors still trusted Lay and believed that Enron would rule the market. They continued to buy or hold their stock and lost more money every day. As October closed, the stock had fallen to $15. Many saw this as a great opportunity to buy Enron stock because of what Lay had been telling them in the media. Their trust and optimism proved to be greatly misplaced. Lay has been accused of selling over $70 million worth of stock at this time, which he used to repay cash advances on lines of credit. He sold another $20 million worth of stock in the open market. Also, Lay's wife, Linda, has been accused of selling 500,000 shares of Enron stock totaling $1.2 million on November 28, 2001. The money earned from this sale did not go to the family but rather to charitable organizations, which had already received pledges of contributions from the foundation. Records show that Mrs. Lay placed the sale order sometime between 10:00 and 10:20 AM. News of Enron's problems, including the millions of dollars in losses they had been hiding went public about 10:30 that morning, and the stock price soon fell to below one dollar. Former Enron executive Paula Rieker has been charged with criminal insider trading. Rieker obtained 18,380 Enron shares for $15.51 a share. She sold that stock for $49.77 a share in July 2001, a week before the public was told what she already knew about the $102 million loss. Post-bankruptcy Enron initially planned to retain its three domestic pipeline companies as well as most of its overseas assets. However, before emerging from bankruptcy, Enron spun off its domestic pipeline companies as CrossCountry Energy. Enron sold its last business, Prisma Energy, in 2006, leaving it as an asset-less shell. In early 2007, it changed its name to Enron Creditors Recovery Corporation. Its goal is to pay off the old Enron's remaining creditors and wind up Enron's affairs. Shortly after emerging from bankruptcy in November 2004, Enron's new board of directors sued 11 financial institutions for helping Lay, Fastow, Skilling and others hide Enron's true financial condition. The proceedings were dubbed the "megaclaims litigation." Among the defendants were Royal Bank of Scotland, Deutsche Bank and Citigroup. , Enron has settled with all of the institutions, ending with Citigroup. Enron was able to obtain nearly $20 million dollars to distribute to its creditors as a result of the megaclaims litigation. California's deregulation and subsequent energy crisis In October 2000, Daniel Scotto, the top ranked utility analyst on Wall Street, suspended his ratings on all energy companies conducting business in California because of the possibility that the companies would not receive full and adequate compensation for the deferred energy accounts used as the cornerstone for the California Deregulation Plan enacted in the late 1990s. Five months later, Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) was forced into bankruptcy. Senator Phil Gramm, the second largest recipient of campaign contributions from Enron, succeeded in legislating California's energy commodity trading deregulation. Despite warnings from prominent consumer groups which stated that this law would give energy traders too much influence over energy commodity prices, the legislation was passed in December 2000. As Public Citizen reported, "Because of Enron’s new, unregulated power auction, the company’s 'Wholesale Services' revenues quadrupled—from $12 billion in the first quarter of 2000 to $48.4 billion in the first quarter of 2001." Blind Faith: How Deregulation and Enron’s Influence Over Government Looted Billions from Americans Before passage of the deregulation law, there had been only one Stage 3 rolling blackout declared. Following passage, California had a total of 38 blackouts defined as Stage 3 rolling blackouts, until federal regulators intervened in June 2001. These blackouts occurred mainly as a result of a poorly designed market system that was manipulated by traders and marketers. Enron traders were revealed as intentionally encouraging the removal of power from the market during California's energy crisis by encouraging suppliers to shut down plants to perform unnecessary maintenance, as documented in recordings made at the time. http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/02/03/enron.tapes/ Tapes: Enron plotted to shut down power plant Tapes Show Enron Caused Rolling Blackouts in California These acts contributed to the need for rolling blackouts, which adversely affected many businesses dependent upon a reliable supply of electricity, and inconvenienced a large number of retail consumers. This scattered supply raised the demand exponentially, and Enron traders were thus able to sell power at premium prices, sometimes up to a factor of 20x its normal peak value. See also Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, an award-winning 2004 documentary film which examines the collapse of the Enron Corporation. References Bibliography Robert Bryce, Pipe Dreams: Greed, Ego, and the Death of Enron (PublicAffairs, 2002) ISBN 1-58648-138-X Lynn Brewer, Matthew Scott Hansen, House of Cards, Confessions of An Enron Executive (Virtualbookworm.com Publishing, 2002) ISBN 1-58939-248-5 ISBN 1-58939-248-5 Kurt Eichenwald, Conspiracy of Fools: A True Story (Broadway Books, 2005) ISBN 0-7679-1178-4 Peter C. Fusaro, Ross M. Miller, What Went Wrong at Enron: Everyone's Guide to the Largest Bankruptcy in U.S. History (Wiley, 2002), ISBN 0-471-26574-8 Loren Fox, Enron: The Rise and Fall. (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2003) Judith Haney Enron's Bust: Was it the result of Over-Confidence or a Confidence Game? USNewsLink/ December 13, 2001 Marc Hodak, The Enron Scandal, Organizational Behavior Research Center Papers (SSRN), June 4, 2007 Bethany McLean, Peter Elkind, Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron (Portfolio, 2003) ISBN 1-59184-008-2 Mimi Swartz, Sherron Watkins, Power Failure: The Inside Story of the Collapse of Enron (Doubleday, 2003) ISBN 0-385-50787-9 Daniel Scotto "American Financial Analyst: The First Analyst to recommend the selling of Enron Stock" External links All Enron emails released into the public domain, archived and searchable Enron Corporation homepage CrossCountry Energy L.L.C. Portland General Electric Company Northern Natural Gas Company "Enron—Legal News Archives", Breaking Legal News Enron's Code of Ethics Data Yahoo!: Enron Corp. Company Profile Hoovers: Enron Creditors Recovery Corp. Profile Google Finance: Enron Creditors Recovery Corp. 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5,876 | Lightbulb_joke | A lightbulb joke is a joke that asks how many people of a certain group are needed to change, replace, or screw in a light bulb. Generally, the punch line answer highlights a stereotype of the target group. There are numerous versions of the lightbulb joke satirizing a wide range of cultures, beliefs and occupations. The original formulations of the joke, popular in the late 1960s and the 1970s, were used to insult the intelligence of Poles. Dundes, 261. Kerman, 454–5. For instance: Q. How many Poles does it take to change a light bulb? A. Three—one to hold the light bulb and two to turn the ladder. Although lightbulb jokes tend to be derogatory in tone, the people targeted by them may take pride in the stereotypes expressed and are often themselves the jokes' originators. Kerman, 456–7. Lightbulb jokes applied to subgroups can be used to ease tensions between them. Variations The joke is often used to suggest that some groups follow processes that are Byzantine or unnecessarily elaborate: Q. How many Bourbakists does it take to replace a lightbulb? A. Changing a lightbulb is a special case of a more general theorem concerning the maintenance and repair of an electrical system. To establish upper and lower bounds for the number of personnel required, we must determine whether the sufficient conditions of Lemma 2.1 (Availability of personnel) and those of Corollary 2.3.55 (Motivation of personnel) apply. If and only if these conditions are met, we derive the result by an application of the theorems in Section 3.1123. The resulting upper bound is, of course, a result in an abstract measure space, in the weak-* topology. Many versions are puns on the words "change" or "screw": Q. How many psychiatrists does it take to change a light bulb? A. None—the lightbulb has to want to change. Q. How many Lilliputians does it take to screw in a light bulb? A. Two—just put them in the lightbulb and let them do it. Dundes, 264. Q. What's the difference between a pregnant woman and a lightbulb? A. You can unscrew the lightbulb. Dundes, 264. Lightbulb jokes may be responses to current events. For example, the lightbulb may not be changed at all due to ongoing power outages. The Village Voice held a $200 lightbulb joke contest around the time of the Iran hostage crisis. The winning joke was: Q. How many Iranians does it take to change a light bulb? A. You send us the prize money and we'll tell you the answer. Dundes, 264. If the duration of the lightbulb change is made significant, the answer is usually one: Q. How many doctoral students does it take to change a light bulb? A. Only one, but it takes five years. The joke's ubiquity allows for non sequitur: Q. How many surrealists does it take to change a light bulb? A. Fish. See also Snowclones Notes References | Lightbulb_joke |@lemmatized lightbulb:14 joke:12 ask:1 many:9 people:2 certain:1 group:3 need:1 change:11 replace:2 screw:3 light:8 bulb:8 generally:1 punch:1 line:1 answer:3 highlight:1 stereotype:2 target:2 numerous:1 version:2 satirize:1 wide:1 range:1 culture:1 belief:1 occupation:1 original:1 formulation:1 popular:1 late:1 use:3 insult:1 intelligence:1 pole:2 dundes:4 kerman:2 instance:1 q:8 take:9 three:1 one:3 hold:2 two:2 turn:1 ladder:1 although:1 tend:1 derogatory:1 tone:1 may:3 pride:1 express:1 often:2 originator:1 apply:2 subgroup:1 ease:1 tension:1 variation:1 suggest:1 follow:1 process:1 byzantine:1 unnecessarily:1 elaborate:1 bourbakists:1 special:1 case:1 general:1 theorem:2 concern:1 maintenance:1 repair:1 electrical:1 system:1 establish:1 upper:2 low:1 bound:2 number:1 personnel:3 require:1 must:1 determine:1 whether:1 sufficient:1 condition:2 lemma:1 availability:1 corollary:1 motivation:1 meet:1 derive:1 result:3 application:1 section:1 course:1 abstract:1 measure:1 space:1 weak:1 topology:1 pun:1 word:1 psychiatrist:1 none:1 want:1 lilliputian:1 put:1 let:1 difference:1 pregnant:1 woman:1 unscrew:1 response:1 current:1 event:1 example:1 due:1 ongoing:1 power:1 outage:1 village:1 voice:1 contest:1 around:1 time:1 iran:1 hostage:1 crisis:1 win:1 iranian:1 send:1 u:1 prize:1 money:1 tell:1 duration:1 make:1 significant:1 usually:1 doctoral:1 student:1 five:1 year:1 ubiquity:1 allow:1 non:1 sequitur:1 surrealist:1 fish:1 see:1 also:1 snowclones:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram lightbulb_joke:6 light_bulb:8 hostage_crisis:1 non_sequitur:1 |
5,877 | Geometric_mean | The geometric mean, in mathematics, is a type of mean or average, which indicates the central tendency or typical value of a set of numbers. It is similar to the arithmetic mean, which is what most people think of with the word "average," except that instead of adding the set of numbers and then dividing the sum by the count of numbers in the set, n, the numbers are multiplied and then the nth root of the resulting product is taken. For instance, the geometric mean of two numbers, say 2 and 8, is just the square root (i.e., the second root) of their product, 16, which is 4. As another example, the geometric mean of 1, 1/2, and 1/4 is the cube root (i.e., the third root) of their product (0.125), which is 1/2. The geometric mean can be understood in terms of geometry. The geometric mean of two numbers, a and b, is simply the side length of the square whose area is equal to that of a rectangle with side lengths a and b. That is, what is n such that n2 = a × b? Similarly, the geometric mean of three numbers, a, b, and c, is the side length of a cube whose volume is the same as that of a cuboid with side lengths equal to the three given numbers. The geometric mean only applies to positive numbers. The geometric mean only applies to positive numbers in order to avoid taking the root of a negative product, which would result in imaginary numbers, and also to satisfy certain properties about means, which is explained later in the article. It is also often used for a set of numbers whose values are meant to be multiplied together or are exponential in nature, such as data on the growth of the human population or interest rates of a financial investment. The geometric mean is also one of the three classic Pythagorean means, together with the aforementioned arithmetic mean and the harmonic mean. Calculation The geometric mean of a data set [a1, a2, ..., an] is given by The geometric mean of a data set is less than or equal to the data set's arithmetic mean (the two means are equal if and only if all members of the data set are equal). This allows the definition of the arithmetic-geometric mean, a mixture of the two which always lies in between. The geometric mean is also the arithmetic-harmonic mean in the sense that if two sequences (an) and (hn) are defined: and then an and hn will converge to the geometric mean of x and y. Relationship with arithmetic mean of logarithms By using logarithmic identities to transform the formula, we can express the multiplications as a sum and the power as a multiplication. This is sometimes called the log-average. It is simply computing the arithmetic mean of the logarithm transformed values of (i.e. the arithmetic mean on the log scale) and then using the exponentiation to return the computation to the original scale. I.e., it is the generalised f-mean with f(x) = ln x. Notes and references See also Arithmetic mean Arithmetic-geometric mean Average Generalized mean Geometric standard deviation Harmonic mean Heronian mean Hyperbolic coordinates Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means Log-normal distribution Muirhead's inequality Product Pythagorean means Quadratic mean Rate of return Weighted geometric mean External links Geometric mean calculator Calculation of the geometric mean of two numbers in comparison to the arithmetic solution Arithmetic and geometric means at cut-the-knot When to use the geometric mean Practical solutions for calculating geometric mean with different kinds of data Geometric Mean on MathWorld Geometric Meaning of the Geometric Mean Geometric Mean Calculator for larger data sets | Geometric_mean |@lemmatized geometric:27 mean:45 mathematics:1 type:1 average:4 indicate:1 central:1 tendency:1 typical:1 value:3 set:9 number:13 similar:1 arithmetic:13 people:1 think:1 word:1 except:1 instead:1 add:1 divide:1 sum:2 count:1 n:2 multiply:2 nth:1 root:6 resulting:1 product:5 take:2 instance:1 two:6 say:1 square:2 e:4 second:1 another:1 example:1 cube:2 third:1 understand:1 term:1 geometry:1 b:4 simply:2 side:4 length:4 whose:3 area:1 equal:5 rectangle:1 similarly:1 three:3 c:1 volume:1 cuboid:1 give:2 apply:2 positive:2 order:1 avoid:1 negative:1 would:1 result:1 imaginary:1 also:5 satisfy:1 certain:1 property:1 explain:1 later:1 article:1 often:1 use:4 together:2 exponential:1 nature:1 data:7 growth:1 human:1 population:1 interest:1 rate:2 financial:1 investment:1 one:1 classic:1 pythagorean:2 aforementioned:1 harmonic:3 calculation:2 less:1 member:1 allow:1 definition:1 mixture:1 always:1 lie:1 sense:1 sequence:1 hn:2 define:1 converge:1 x:3 relationship:1 logarithm:2 logarithmic:1 identity:1 transform:2 formula:1 express:1 multiplication:2 power:1 sometimes:1 call:1 log:3 compute:1 scale:2 exponentiation:1 return:2 computation:1 original:1 generalised:1 f:2 ln:1 note:1 reference:1 see:1 generalize:1 standard:1 deviation:1 heronian:1 hyperbolic:1 coordinate:1 inequality:2 normal:1 distribution:1 muirhead:1 quadratic:1 weight:1 external:1 link:1 calculator:2 comparison:1 solution:2 cut:1 knot:1 practical:1 calculate:1 different:1 kind:1 mathworld:1 meaning:1 large:1 |@bigram nth_root:1 arithmetic_geometric:4 external_link:1 cut_knot:1 |
5,878 | Life | Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have self-sustaining biological processes ("alive," "living"), from those which do not The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition, published by Houghton Mifflin Company, via Answers.com: "The property or quality that distinguishes living organisms from dead organisms and inanimate matter, manifested in functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, and response to stimuli or adaptation to the environment originating from within the organism." "The characteristic state or condition of a living organism." —either because such functions have ceased (death), or else because they lack such functions and are classified as "inanimate." In biology, "life" (cf. biota) is a quantitative and qualitative characteristic of all functioning organisms — (excluding viruses, cf. "non-cellular life") —such that exhibit continued self-sustaining (biological) processes. A diverse array of living organisms (life forms) can be found in the biosphere on Earth. Properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria — are a carbon- and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information. They undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce and, through natural selection, adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means. Definitions To define life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge for scientists, Defining Life : Astrobiology Magazine - earth science - evolution distribution Origin of life universe - life beyond Defining Life, Explaining Emergence as the definition must be sufficiently broad that would encompass all life with which we are familiar. It should be sufficiently general that, with it, scientists would not miss life that may be fundamentally different from earthly life. In addition, defining life requires measurable terms, and when derived from analysis of known organisms, life is usually defined at cellular level. Biology The consensus is that life is a characteristic of organisms that exhibit all or most of the following phenomena: Witzany, G. (2007). The Logos of the Bios 2. Bio-Communication. Helsinki, Umweb. Homeostasis: Regulation of the internal environment to maintain a constant state; for example, electrolyte concentration or sweating to reduce temperature. Organization: Being structurally composed of one or more cells, which are the basic units of life. Metabolism: Transformation of energy by converting chemicals and energy into cellular components (anabolism) and decomposing organic matter (catabolism). Living things require energy to maintain internal organization (homeostasis) and to produce the other phenomena associated with life. Growth: Maintenance of a higher rate of anabolism than catabolism. A growing organism increases in size in all of its parts, rather than simply accumulating matter. Adaptation: The ability to change over a period of time in response to the environment. This ability is fundamental to the process of evolution and is determined by the organism's heredity as well as the composition of metabolized substances, and external factors present. Response to stimuli: A response can take many forms, from the contraction of a unicellular organism to external chemicals, to complex reactions involving all the senses of higher animals. A response is often expressed by motion, for example, the leaves of a plant turning toward the sun (phototropism) and by chemotaxis. Reproduction: The ability to produce new individual organisms either asexually, from a single parent organism, or sexually, from at least two parent organisms. Plant life Herds of zebra and impala gathering on the Masai Mara plain An aerial photo of microbial mats around the Grand Prismatic Spring of Yellowstone National Park. Proposed To reflect the minimum phenomena required, some have proposed other biological definitions of life: Living things are systems that tend to respond to changes in their environment, and inside themselves, in such a way as to promote their own continuation. A network of inferior negative feedbacks (regulatory mechanisms) subordinated to a superior positive feedback (potential of expansion, reproduction). Korzeniewski, Bernard (2001). "Cybernetic formulation of the definition of life". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 2001 April 7. 209 (3) pp. 275–86. A systemic definition of life is that living things are self-organizing and autopoietic (self-producing). Variations of this definition include Stuart Kauffman's definition as an autonomous agent or a multi-agent system capable of reproducing itself or themselves, and of completing at least one thermodynamic work cycle. 2004, "Autonomous Agents", in John D. Barrow, P.C.W. Davies, and C.L. Harper Jr., eds., Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology, and Complexity, Cambridge University Press. Viruses Viruses are most often considered replicators rather than forms of life. They have been described as "organisms at the edge of life", Rybicki EP (1990) "The classification of organisms at the edge of life, or problems with virus systematics." S Aft J Sci 86:182–186 since they possess genes, evolve by natural selection, and replicate by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly. However, viruses do not metabolise and require a host cell to make new products. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it may support the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules. Biophysics Biophysicists have also commented on the nature and qualities of life forms—notably that they function on negative entropy. In more detail, according to physicists such as John Bernal, Erwin Schrödinger, Eugene Wigner, and John Avery, life is a member of the class of phenomena which are open or continuous systems able to decrease their internal entropy at the expense of substances or free energy taken in from the environment and subsequently rejected in a degraded form (see: entropy and life). Early theories about life Materialism Some of the earliest theories of life were materialist, holding that all that exists is matter, and that all life is merely a complex form or arrangment of matter. Empedocles (430 B.C.) argued that every thing in the universe is made up of a combination of four eternal 'elements' or 'roots of all': earth, water, air, and fire. All change is explained by the arrangement and rearrangement of these four elements. The various forms of life are caused by an appropriate mixture of elements. For example, growth in plants is explained by the natural downward movement of earth and the natural upward movement of fire. SEP: Democritus (460 B.C.), the disciple of Leucippus, thought that the essential characteristic of life is having a soul (psychê). In common with other ancient writers, he used the term to mean the principle of living things that causes them to function as a living thing. He thought the soul was composed of fire atoms, because of the apparent connection between life and heat, and because fire moves. SEP He also suggested that humans originally lived like animals, gradually developing communities to help one another, originating language, and developing crafts and agriculture. Ibidem In the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century, mechanistic ideas were revived by philosophers like Descartes. Hylomorphism Hylomorphism is the theory (originating with Aristotle) that all things are a combination of matter and form. Aristotle was one of the first ancient writers to approach the subject of life in a scientific way. Biology was one of his main interests, and there is extensive biological material in his extant writings. According to him, all things in the material universe have both matter and form. The form of a living thing is its soul (Greek 'psyche', Latin 'anima'). There are three kinds of souls: the 'vegetative soul' of plants, which causes them to grow and decay and nourish themselves, but does not cause motion and sensation; the 'animal soul' which causes animals to move and feel; and the rational soul which is the source of consciousness and reasoning which (Aristotle believed) is found only in man. Aristotle, De Anima, Book II Each higher soul has all the attributes of the lower one. Aristotle believed that while matter can exist without form, form cannot exist without matter, and therefore the soul cannot exist without the body. Introduction to Ancient Philosophy, Don Marietta, p.104. Consistent with this account is a teleological explanation of life. A teleological explanation accounts for phenomena in terms of their purpose or goal-directedness. Thus, the whiteness of the polar bear's coat is explained by its purpose of camouflage. The direction of causality is the other way round from materialistic science, which explains the consequence in terms of a prior cause. Most modern biologists now reject this functional view in terms of a material and causal one: biological features are to be explained not by looking forward to future optimal results, but by looking backwards to the past evolutionary history of a species, which led to the natural selection of the features in question. Vitalism Vitalism is the belief that the life-principle is essentially immaterial. This originated with Stahl, and held sway until the middle of the nineteenth century. It appealed to philosophers such as Henri Bergson, Nietzsche, Wilhelm Dilthey , anatomists like Bichat, and chemists like Liebig. Vitalism underpinned the idea of a fundamental separation of 'organic' and inorganic material, and the belief that organic material can only be derived from living things. This was disproved in 1828 when Wöhler prepared urea from inorganic materials. This so-called Wöhler synthesis is considered the starting point of modern organic chemistry. It is of great historical significance because for the first time an organic compound was produced from inorganic reactants. Later, Helmholtz, anticipated by Mayer, demonstrated that no energy is lost in muscle movement, suggesting that there were no vital forces necessary to move a muscle. These empirical results led to the abandonment of scientific interest in vitalistic theories, although the belief lingered on in non-scientific theories such as Homeopathy, which interprets diseases and sickness as caused by disturbances in a hypothetical vital force or life force. Origin of life For religious beliefs about the creation of life, see creation myth. Although it has not been pinpointed exactly, evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for about 3.7 billion years. "History of life through time". University of California Museum of Paleontology. All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, and based on these observations, theories on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a primordial single cell organism from which all life originates. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism. Many models fall into the "genes-first" category or the "metabolism-first" category, but a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid models that do not fit into either of these categories. Coveney, Peter V.; Philip W. Fowler. "Modelling biological complexity: a physical scientist's perspective". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 2005. 2 (4) pp. 267–280. There is no scientific consensus as to how life originated and all proposed theories are highly speculative. However, most currently accepted scientific models build in one way or another on the following theories: Plausible pre-biotic conditions result in the creation of the basic small molecules of life. This was demonstrated in the Miller-Urey experiment, and in the work of Sidney Fox. Phospholipids spontaneously form lipid bilayers, the basic structure of a cell membrane. Procedures for producing random RNA molecules can produce ribozymes, which are able to produce more of themselves under very specific conditions. Classification of life Traditionally, people have divided organisms into the classes of plants and animals, based mainly on their ability of movement. The first known attempt to classify organisms was conducted by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC). He classified all living organisms known at that time as either a plant or an animal. Aristotle distinguished animals with blood from animals without blood (or at least without red blood), which can be compared with the concepts of vertebrates and invertebrates respectively. He divided the blooded animals into five groups: viviparous quadrupeds (mammals), birds, oviparous quadrupeds (reptiles and amphibians), fishes and whales. The bloodless animals were also divided into five groups: cephalopods, crustaceans, insects (which also included the spiders, scorpions, and centipedes, in addition to what we now define as insects), shelled animals (such as most molluscs and echinoderms) and "zoophytes". Though Aristotle's work in zoology was not without errors, it was the grandest biological synthesis of the time and remained the ultimate authority for many centuries after his death. The exploration of the American continent revealed large numbers of new plants and animals that needed descriptions and classification. In the latter part of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th, careful study of animals commenced and was gradually extended until it formed a sufficient body of knowledge to serve as an anatomical basis for classification. In the late 1740s, Carolus Linnaeus introduced his method, still used, to formulate the scientific name of every species. Linnaeus took every effort to improve the composition and reduce the length of the many-worded names by abolishing unnecessary rhetoric, introducing new descriptive terms and defining their meaning with an unprecedented precision. By consistently using his system, Linnaeus separated nomenclature from taxonomy. This convention for naming species is referred to as binomial nomenclature. The fungi were originally treated as plants. For a short period Linnaeus had placed them in the taxon Vermes in Animalia. He later placed them back in Plantae. Copeland classified the Fungi in his Protoctista, thus partially avoiding the problem but acknowledged their special status. The problem was eventually solved by Whittaker, when he gave them their own kingdom in his five-kingdom system. As it turned out, the fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. As new discoveries enabled us to study cells and microorganisms, new groups of life were revealed, and the fields of cell biology and microbiology were created. These new organisms were originally described separately in protozoa as animals and protophyta/thallophyta as plants, but were united by Haeckel in his kingdom protista, later the group of prokaryotes were split off in the kingdom Monera, eventually this kingdom would be divided in two separate groups, the Bacteria and the Archaea, leading to the six-kingdom system and eventually to the current three-domain system. The classification of eukaryotes is still controversial, with protist taxonomy especially problematic. As microbiology, molecular biology and virology developed, non-cellular reproducing agents were discovered, such as viruses and viroids. Sometimes these entities are considered to be alive but others argue that viruses are not living organisms since they lack characteristics such as cell membrane, metabolism and do not grow or respond to their environments. Viruses can however be classed into "species" based on their biology and genetics but many aspects of such a classification remain controversial. Since the 1960s a trend called cladistics has emerged, arranging taxa in an evolutionary or phylogenetic tree. It is unclear, should this be implemented, how the different codes will coexist. Extraterrestrial life Earth is the only planet in the universe known to harbour life. The Drake equation, which relates the number of extraterrestrial civilizations in our galaxy with which we might come in contact, has been used to discuss the probability of life elsewhere, but scientists disagree on many of the values of variables in this equation. Depending on those values, the equation may either suggest that life arises frequently or infrequently. Panspermia and exogenesis are theories proposing that life originated elsewhere in the universe and was subsequently transferred to Earth in the form of spores perhaps via meteorites, comets or cosmic dust. However those theories do not help explain the ultimate origin of life. See also Alpha taxonomy Artificial life Biology - the study of life Carbon-based life Cellular life Conway's Game of Life Death Entropy and life Extraterrestrial life Extremophile Gaia hypothesis Genetics Genetic engineering Hypothetical types of biochemistry Kingdom (biology) Life on Mars Meaning of life Nature Non-cellular life Organic life Organism Origin of life Personal life Phylogenetics Prehistoric life Quality of life Synthetic life References Further reading Kauffman, Stuart. The Adjacent Possible: A Talk with Stuart Kauffman Walker, Martin G. LIFE! Why We Exist...And What We Must Do to Survive Dog Ear Publishing, 2006, ISBN 1598582437 External links Wikispecies - a free directory of life "The Adjacent Possible: A Talk with Stuart Kauffman" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Life under extreme conditions An in depth look at how life can form under the most extreme conditions. be-x-old:Жыцьцё | Life |@lemmatized life:77 characteristic:6 distinguish:2 object:1 self:7 sustain:1 biological:7 process:3 alive:2 live:7 american:2 heritage:1 dictionary:1 english:1 language:2 edition:1 publish:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 company:1 via:3 answer:1 com:1 property:2 quality:3 organism:25 dead:1 inanimate:2 matter:9 manifest:1 function:6 metabolism:6 growth:3 reproduction:3 response:5 stimuli:3 adaptation:2 environment:7 originate:7 within:2 state:2 condition:5 living:8 either:5 cease:1 death:3 else:1 lack:2 classify:4 biology:9 cf:2 biota:1 quantitative:1 qualitative:1 exclude:1 virus:9 non:4 cellular:8 exhibit:2 continue:1 sustaining:1 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5,879 | Alkali | In chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي, القالي ) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal element. Alkalis are best known for being bases that dissolve in water. Bases are compounds with a pH greater than 7. The adjective alkaline is commonly used in English as a synonym for base, especially for soluble bases. This broad use of the term is likely to have come about because alkalis were the first bases known to obey the Arrhenius definition of a base and are still among the more common bases. Since Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory, the term alkali in chemistry is normally restricted to those salts containing alkali and alkaline earth metal elements. Common properties Alkalis are all Arrhenius bases, which form hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water. Common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include: Moderately-concentrated solutions (over 10-3 M) have a pH of 10 or greater. This means that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink. Concentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns). Alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty acids on the surface of the skin. Alkalis are normally water soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution. Acids and alkalis are measured on a pH scale Alkalis are commonly found in household cleaners like bleach Confusion between alkali and base The terms "base" and "alkali" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside of a scientific context, but they do not have the same meaning. While all alkaline solutions are basic, not all bases are alkaline. The following are common mistakes: The phrase "measuring the alkalinity of soil" is incorrect since the property measured is actually the pH (base property). Calling bases that are not alkalis, such as ammonia, alkaline (ammonia is a base but not an alkali). Also, not all salts formed by alkali metals are alkaline; this designation applies only to those salts that are basic. And while most electropositive metal oxides are basic, only the soluble alkali metal and alkaline earth metal oxides can be correctly called alkalis. This definition of an alkali as a basic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal is the most common, based on dictionary definitions , however conflicting definitions of the term alkali do exist. These include: Any base that is water-soluble and In chemistry, this is more accurately called an Arrhenius base. The solution of a base in water . This would be an Arrhenius base in solution. Examples Alkaline Batteries, Salts, Baking Soda, Household ammonia and NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide). Salts Most basic salts are alkali salts, of which common examples are: sodium hydroxide (often called "caustic soda") potassium hydroxide (commonly called "caustic potash") lye (generic term, for either of the previous two, or even for a mixture) calcium carbonate (sometimes called "free lime") magnesium hydroxide is an example of an atypical alkali since it has low solubility in water (although the dissolved portion is considered a strong base due to complete dissociation of its ions). Alkaline soil Soil with a pH value higher than 7.3 is normally referred to as alkaline. This soil property can occur naturally, due to the presence of alkali salts. Although some plants do prefer slightly basic soil (including vegetables like cabbage and fodder like buffalograss), most plants prefer a mildly acidic soil (pH between 6.0 and 6.8), and alkaline soils can cause problems. Lakes In alkali lakes (a type of salt lake), evaporation concentrates the naturally-occurring alkali salts, often forming a crust of mildly-basic salt across a large area. Examples of alkali lakes: Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada. Tramping Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada. Mono lake, California, United States Summer Lake, Summer Lake, Oregon Alkali Lake, British Columbia and the adjoining reserves of the Alkali Lake Indian Band are named for a local Alkali Lake, which got its name from a large patch of alkali on the hillside above the lake, which is not itself alkali, BCGNIS listing "Alkali Lake (community)" although there are many in the Cariboo district and adjoining regions of the British Columbia Interior. Etymology The word "alkali" is derived from Arabic al qalīy = the calcined ashes, referring to the original source of alkaline substance. Ashes were used in conjunction with animal fat to produce soap, a process known as saponification. 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5,880 | Geography_of_Israel | The geography of Israel is diverse, with desert conditions in the south, and snow-capped mountains in the north. Israel is located at at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea in the western Asia. It is bounded to the north by Lebanon, the northeast by Syria, the east by Jordan and the West Bank, the southwest by Egypt with this border also being the border between Asia and Africa. To the west of Israel is the Mediterranean Sea which makes up the majority of Israel's coastline and the Gaza strip. A small window onto the Red Sea exists in the south. Israel's area is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (7,992 sq mi), which includes 445 square kilometers (172 sq mi) of inland water. Israel stretches 424 kilometers (263 mi) from north to south, and its width ranges from 114 kilometers (71 mi) to, at its narrowest point, 15 kilometers (9 mi). Israel also partially controls the West Bank, 5,879 square kilometers (2,270 sq mi) and the Golan Heights, 1,150 square kilometers (444 sq mi). Geographical features in these territories will be noted as such. The south of Israel is dominated by the Negev desert covering some , more than half of the country's total land area. The north of the Negev contains the Judean Desert, which, at its border with Jordan, contains the Dead Sea which, at is the lowest point on Earth. The inland area of central Israel is dominated by the Judean Hills of the West Bank, whilst the central and northern coastline consists of the flat and fertile Israeli coastal plain. Inland, the northern region contains the Mount Carmel mountain range, which is followed inland by the fertile Jezreel Valley, and then the hilly Galilee region. The Sea of Galilee is located beyond this, and is bordered to the east by the Golan Heights, which contains the highest point under Israel's control, a peak in the Mount Hermon massif, at . The highest point in Israel's internationally recognized territory is Mount Meron at . Location and extent Israel on the world map Israel lies to the north of the equator around 31°30' north latitude and 34°45' east longitude. It is the 152nd largest country in the world, with a total land area of . Israel measures from north to south and, at its widest point , from east to west. At its narrowest point, however, this is reduced to just . It has a land frontier of and a coastline of . Israel is bounded to the west by the Mediterranean Sea, and to the south, the Red Sea. To the south-west is the Sinai Peninsula whilst the Syrian Desert is beyond Israel's frontier with Jordan to the east. The southernmost settlement in Israel is the city of Eilat whilst the northern-most is the local council of Metula. The territorial waters of Israel extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate baseline. Political geography Districts of Israel Israel is divided into six main administrative districts which are further divided into fifteen sub-districts. Each sub-district is further divided into natural regions, of which there are 50. The districts from north to south, and their sub-districts are: North District Zefat Kinneret Yizre'el Akko Golan Captured in the 1967 Six-Day War and defacto annexed by Israel's Golan Heights Law. Haifa District Haifa Hadera Center District Sharon Petah Tikva Ramla Rehovot Tel Aviv District Jerusalem District South District Ashkelon Be'er Sheva Judea and Samaria Area The Golan sub-district, which contains four natural regions, is included in this amount, although it is not recognized by the UN to be Israeli territory. The West Bank, known in Israel as the Judea and Samaria area, is not included, since Israel has not fully applied its jurisdiction there. Physiographic regions Topographical map of Israel The rocky Northern Coastal Plain View from Mount Carmel across the Coastal Plain Northern rim of Makhtesh Ramon in the Negev Israel is divided into four physiographic regions: the Mediterranean coastal plain, the Central Hills, the Jordan Rift Valley and the Negev Desert. Mediterranean Coastal Plain The Coastal Plain stretches from the Lebanese border in the north to Gaza in the south, interrupted only by Cape Carmel at Haifa Bay. It is about wide at Gaza and narrows toward the north to about at the Lebanese border. The region is fertile and humid (historically malarial) and is known for its citrus orchards and viniculture. The plain is traversed by several short streams, of which only two, Yarkon and Kishon, have permanent water flows. The region is sub-divided into five sub-regions. The Western Galilee stretches from Rosh HaNikra in the far north, down to Israel's third-largest city, Haifa. It is a fertile region containing with a coastline with many small islands off of it. South of Haifa is the Hof HaCarmel region which runs to the town of Zikhron Ya'aqov. The Sharon plain is the next stage down the Coastal Plain, running from Zikhron Ya'aqov to Tel Aviv's Yarkon River. This area is Israel's most densely populated. South of this, running to Nakhal Shikma, is the Central Coastal Plain. The southern region of the Coastal Plain is the Southern Coastal Plain (also known as the Shephelah, Plain of Judea, and Western Negev) and extends south to the Gaza Strip. It is divided into two. The Besor region, a savanna-type area with a relatively large number of communities, in the north, and the Agur-Halutsa region in the south which is very sparsely populated. The Central Hills Inland (east) of the coastal plain lies the central highland region. In the north of this region lie the mountains and hills of Upper Galilee and Lower Galilee which are generally to in height although reach a maximum height of at Mount Meron. South of the Galilee, in the West Bank, are the Samarian Hills with numerous small, fertile valleys rarely reaching the height of . South of Jerusalem, also mainly within the West Bank, are the largely barren Judean Hills, including Mount Hebron. The central highlands average in height and reach their highest elevation at Har Meron, at , in Galilee near Safed. Several valleys cut across the highlands roughly from east to west; the largest is the Jezreel Valley (also known as the Plain of Esdraelon), which stretches from Haifa southeast to the valley of the Jordan River, and is across at its widest point. Jordan Rift Valley East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which is a small part of the -long Syrian-East African Rift. In Israel the Rift Valley is dominated by the Jordan River, the Sea of Galilee (an important freshwater source also known as Lake Tiberias and Lake Kinneret), and the Dead Sea. The Jordan, Israel's largest river (), originates in the Dan, Baniyas, and Hasbani rivers near Mount Hermon in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and flows south through the drained Hula Basin into the freshwater Lake Tiberias. Lake Tiberias is in size and, depending on the season and rainfall, is at about below sea level. With a water capacity estimated at 3 cubic kilometers (106 billion cubic feet), it serves as the principal reservoir of the National Water Carrier (also known as the Kinneret-Negev Conduit). The Jordan River continues its course from the southern end of Lake Tiberias (forming the boundary between the West Bank and Jordan) to its terminus in the highly saline Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is in size and, at below sea level, is the lowest point in the world. South of the Dead Sea, the Rift Valley continues in the Nahal HaArava (Wadi al Arabah), which has no permanent water flow, for to the Gulf of Aqaba. Negev Desert The Negev Desert comprises approximately , more than half of Israel's total land area. Geographically it is an extension of the Sinai Desert, forming a rough triangle with its base in the north near Beersheba, the Dead Sea, and the southern Judean Hills, and it has its apex in the southern tip of the country at Eilat. Topographically, it parallels the other regions of the country, with lowlands in the west, hills in the central portion, and the Nahal HaArava as its eastern border. Unique to the Negev region are the craterlike makhteshim cirques; Makhtesh Ramon, Makhtesh Gadol and Makhtesh Katan. The Negev is also sub-divided into five different ecological regions: northern, western and central Negev, the high plateau and the Arabah Valley. The northern Negev receives of rain annually and has fairly fertile soils. The western Negev receives of rain per year, with light and partially sandy soils. The central Negev has an annual precipitation of and is characterized by impervious soil, allowing minimum penetration of water with greater soil erosion and water runoff. The high plateau area of Ramat HaNegev stands between and above sea level with extreme temperatures in summer and winter. The area gets of rain each year, with inferior and partially salty soils. The Arabah Valley along the Jordanian border stretches from Eilat in the south to the tip of the Dead Sea in the north and is very arid with barely of rain annually. Geology Rosh Hanikra limestone grotto Israel is divided east-west by a mountain range running north to south along the coast. Jerusalem sits on the top of this ridge, east of which lies the Dead Sea graben (an elongated, relatively depressed crustal unit bounded by faults on both sides). The numerous limestone and sandstone layers of the Israeli mountains allow the water to pour from the west flank to the east. Several springs have formed along the Dead Sea, each an oasis, most notably the oases at Ein Gedi and Ein Bokek (Neve Zohar) where settlements have now developed. Israel also has a number of large limestone karsts. The temperature in these caves is or thereabouts, although only one is open to the public. Common across the country are small natural caves and abris. These have been used for thousands of years historically as shelter, housing, storage rooms, barns and as places of public gatherings. The far northern coastline of the country has some chalk landscapes best seen at Rosh HaNikra, a chalk cliff into which a series of grottoes have been eroded. Rivers and lakes Route of the Jordan River showing the Sea of Galilee and Dead Sea Israel's longest and most famous river is the long River Jordan which rises on the southern slopes of Mount Hermon in the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the Golan Heights. It flows south into the north of, and out of the south of, freshwater Sea of Galilee, then forming the border with the Jordan, eventually emptying into the Dead Sea. The river does flow partly through the West Bank. The tributaries to the Jordan are the Dan, Banias, and Hasbani. Only the Dan spring is within undisputed Israel, with the Hasbani flowing from Lebanon and the Banias from the Golan Heights, disputed between Israel and Syria. Israel's largest and only notable freshwater lake is the Sea of Galilee (also known as the Kinneret and Lake Tiberias), a pear-shaped lake located in the north-east of the country. The lake is from north to south, with a maximum width of in the north. The lake reaches depths of and covers . The Sea of Galilee lies below sea level. In a previous geological epoch the lake was part of a large inland sea which extended from the Hula marshes in northern Israel to south of the Dead Sea. The bed of the lake forms part of the Rift Valley. South of the Sea of Galilee lies the saltwater Dead Sea which forms the border between Israel and Jordan and is below sea level, making it the lowest water surface on Earth. The Dead Sea is long with a maximum width of and also makes up part of the Rift Valley. A peninsula juts out into the lake from the eastern shore, south of which the lake is shallow, less than deep. To the north is the lake's greatest depth. There are no navigable artificial waterways in Israel although the National Water Carrier, a conduit for drinking water, may be considered to be an artificial waterway. The idea of a channel connecting the Mediterranean and Dead Seas or the Red and Dead Seas has been discussed and dismissed. Climate Israel has a Mediterranean climate with long, hot, rainless summers and relatively short, cool, rainy winters (Köppen climate classification Csa). The climate is as such due to Israel's location between the subtropical aridity of the Sahara and the Arabian deserts, and the subtropical humidity of the Levant and Eastern Mediterranean. The climate conditions are highly variable within the state and modified locally by altitude, latitude, and the proximity to the Mediterranean. On average, January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from to , and July and August are the hottest months at to on average across the country. Summers are very humid along the Mediterranean coast but dry in the central highlands, the Rift Valley, and the Negev Desert. In Eilat, a desert city, summer daytime-temperatures are often the highest in the state, at times reaching to . More than 70% of the average rainfall in Israel falls between November and March; June through September are usually rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed, significantly lower in the south of the country. In the extreme south, rainfall averages near annually; in the north, average annual rainfall exceeds . Rainfall varies from season to season and from year to year, particularly in the Negev Desert. Precipitation is often concentrated in violent storms, causing erosion and flash floods. In winter, precipitation often takes the form of snow at the higher elevations of the central highlands, including Jerusalem. Mount Hermon has seasonal snow which covers all three of its peaks for most of the year in winter and spring. The areas of the country most cultivated are those receiving more than of rainfall annually, making approximately one-third of the country is cultivable. Thunderstorms and hail are common throughout the rainy season and waterspouts occasionally hit the Mediterranean coast, capable of causing only minor damage. However, supercell thunderstorms and a true F2 tornado hit the Western Galilee in April 2006, causing significant damage and 75 injuries. Environmental concerns Israel has a large number of environmental concerns ranging from natural hazards to man-made issues both resulting from ancient times to modern development. Natural hazards facing the country include sandstorms which sometimes occur during spring in the desert south, droughts which are usually concentrated in summer months, flash floods which create great danger in the deserts due to their lack of notice, and regular earthquakes, most of which are small, although there is a constant risk due to Israel's location along the Jordan Rift Valley. Current environmental concerns include the lack of arable land and natural fresh water resources. Whilst measures have been taken to irrigate and grow in the desert, the amount of water needed here poses issues. Desertification is also a risk possible on the desert fringe, whilst air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions and groundwater pollution from industrial and domestic waste are also issues facing the country. Furthermore, the effects of the use of chemical fertilizers, and pesticides are issues facing the country. Israel has signed many international environmental agreements and is party to: Convention on Biological Diversity UNFCCC - Climate Change United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna Hazardous Wastes Nuclear Test Ban Montreal Protocol - Ozone Layer Protection MARPOL 73/78 - Ship Pollution Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat Furthermore, the country has signed, but not ratified: Kyoto Protocol Marine Life Conservation Human geography Closeup of Israel showing cities and towns As of 2007, the total population of Israel was 7,184,000. For statistical purposes, the country has three metropolises; Gush Dan-Tel Aviv (population 3,150,000), Haifa (population 996,000), and Beersheba (population 531,600). Some argue that Jerusalem, Israel's largest city with a population of 732,100, and Nazareth, should also be classified as metropolitan areas. In total, Israel has 74 cities, 14 of which have populations of over 100,000. Other forms of local government in Israel are local councils of which there are 144 governing small municipalities generally over 2,000 in population, and regional councils of which there are 53, governing a group of small communities over a relatively large geographical area. Israel's population is diverse demographically; 76% Jewish, 20% Arab, and 4% unaffiliated. In terms of religion, 76% are Jewish, 16% Muslim, 2% Christian, 2% Druze, and 4% are unclassified by choice. 8% of Israeli Jews are haredi; 9% are "religious", 12% "religious-traditionalists", 27% are "non-religious traditionalists", and 43% are "secular". Other small, but notable groups in Israel, include Circassians of whom there are approximately 3,000 living mostly in two northern villages, 2,500 Lebanese, and 5,000 Armenians predominantly in Jerusalem. Rural settlements Israel's rural space includes several unique kinds of settlements, notably the moshav and the kibbutz. Originally these were collective and cooperative settlements respectively. Over time, the degree of cooperation in these settlements has decreased and in several of them the cooperative structure has been dismantled altogether. All rural settlements and many small towns (some of which are dubbed "rurban settlements") are incorporated in regional councils. Land use in Israel is 17% arable land, 4% permanent crops, and 79% other uses. As of 2003 were irrigated. There are 242 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the West Bank, 42 in the Golan Heights, and 29 in East Jerusalem. Natural resources Unlike much of the Middle East which is blessed with the lucrative natural resource of oil, Israel has a more limited set of natural resources. These include copper, phosphates, bromide, potash, clay, sand, sulfur, asphalt, and manganese. Small amounts of natural gas and crude oil are present, often too little to merit commercial extraction. References Urban Settlement Geography of Israel See also Mount Arbel Lake Hula Masada Sharon Yatir Forest | Geography_of_Israel |@lemmatized geography:4 israel:56 diverse:2 desert:16 condition:2 south:29 snow:3 capped:1 mountain:7 north:23 locate:3 eastern:4 end:2 mediterranean:11 sea:35 western:6 asia:2 bound:3 lebanon:4 northeast:1 syria:2 east:15 jordan:17 west:17 bank:9 southwest:1 egypt:1 border:10 also:15 africa:1 make:5 majority:1 coastline:5 gaza:4 strip:2 small:11 window:1 onto:1 red:3 exists:1 area:14 approximately:4 square:4 kilometer:8 sq:4 mi:7 include:10 inland:6 water:14 stretch:5 width:3 range:5 narrow:3 point:8 partially:3 control:2 golan:8 height:10 geographical:2 feature:1 territory:3 note:1 dominate:3 negev:16 cover:3 half:2 country:16 total:5 land:8 contain:6 judean:4 dead:16 low:5 earth:2 central:13 hill:8 whilst:5 northern:10 consist:1 flat:1 fertile:6 israeli:5 coastal:11 plain:15 region:19 mount:10 carmel:3 follow:1 jezreel:2 valley:16 hilly:1 galilee:14 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5,881 | Dolphin | Dolphins are marine mammals that are closely related to whales and porpoises. There are almost forty species of dolphin in seventeen genera. They vary in size from and (Maui's Dolphin), up to and (the Orca or Killer Whale). They are found worldwide, mostly in the shallower seas of the continental shelves, and are carnivores, mostly eating fish and squid. The family Delphinidae is the largest in the Cetacea, and relatively recent: dolphins evolved about ten million years ago, during the Miocene. Dolphins are considered to be amongst the most intelligent of animals and their often friendly appearance and seemingly playful attitude have made them popular in human culture. Origin of the name The name is originally from Ancient Greek (delphís; "dolphin"), which was related to the Greek (delphys; "womb"). The animal's name can therefore be interpreted as meaning "a 'fish' with a womb". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, online entry at Dictionary.com, retrieved December 17 2006. The name was transmitted via the Latin delphinus, Middle Latin dolfinus and the Old French daulphin, which reintroduced the ph into the word. The word is used in a few different ways. It can mean: Any member of the family Delphinidae (oceanic dolphins), Any member of the families Delphinidae and Platanistoidea (oceanic and river dolphins), Any member of the suborder Odontoceti (toothed whales; these include the above families and some others), Used casually as a synonym for Bottlenose Dolphin, the most common and familiar species of dolphin. In this article, the second definition is used. Porpoises (suborder Odontoceti, family Phocoenidae) are thus not dolphins in this sense. Orcas and some closely related species belong to the Delphinidae family and therefore qualify as dolphins, even though they are called whales in common language. A group of dolphins can be called a "school" or a "pod". Male dolphins are called "bulls", females "cows" and young dolphins are called "calves". Dictionary.com - Style guide, animal names, page retrieved November 4 2007. Taxonomy Common Dolphin Bottlenose Dolphin Spotted Dolphin Commerson's Dolphin Dusky Dolphin Killer Whales, also known as Orcas The Boto, or Amazon River Dolphin Suborder Odontoceti, toothed whales Family Delphinidae, oceanic dolphins Genus Delphinus Long-Beaked Common Dolphin, Delphinus capensis Short-Beaked Common Dolphin, Delphinus delphis Genus Tursiops Common Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops truncatus Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops aduncus Genus Lissodelphis Northern Rightwhale Dolphin, Lissodelphis borealis Southern Rightwhale Dolphin, Lissiodelphis peronii Genus Sotalia Tucuxi, Sotalia fluviatilis Costero, Sotalia guianensis Genus Sousa Indo-Pacific Hump-backed Dolphin, Sousa chinensis Chinese White Dolphin (the Chinese variant), Sousa chinensis chinensis Atlantic Humpbacked Dolphin, Sousa teuszii Genus Stenella Atlantic Spotted Dolphin, Stenella frontalis Clymene Dolphin, Stenella clymene Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, Stenella attenuata Spinner Dolphin, Stenella longirostris Striped Dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba Genus Steno Rough-Toothed Dolphin, Steno bredanensis Genus Cephalorynchus Chilean Dolphin, Cephalorhynchus eutropia Commerson's Dolphin, Cephalorhynchus commersonii Heaviside's Dolphin, Cephalorhynchus heavisidii Hector's Dolphin, Cephalorhynchus hectori Genus Grampus Risso's Dolphin, Grampus griseus Genus Lagenodelphis Fraser's Dolphin, Lagenodelphis hosei Genus Lagenorhyncus Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus acutus Dusky Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obscurus Hourglass Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus cruciger Pacific White-Sided Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens Peale's Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus australis White-Beaked Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus albirostris Genus Orcaella Australian Snubfin Dolphin, Orcaella heinsohni Irrawaddy Dolphin, Orcaella brevirostris Genus Peponocephala Melon-headed Whale, Peponocephala electra Genus Orcinus Killer Whale (Orca), Orcinus orca Genus Feresa Pygmy Killer Whale, Feresa attenuata Genus Pseudorca False Killer Whale, Pseudorca crassidens Genus Globicephala Long-finned Pilot Whale, Globicephala melas Short-finned Pilot Whale, Globicephala macrorhynchus Genus †Australodelphis †Australodelphis mirusSuperfamily Platanistoidea Family Platanistidae Ganges and Indus River Dolphin, Platanista gangetica with two subspecies Ganges River Dolphin (or Susu), Platanista gangetica gangeticaIndus River Dolphin (or Bhulan), Platanista gangetica minorFamily Iniidae Amazon River Dolphin (or Boto), Inia geoffrensisFamily Lipotidae Chinese River Dolphin (or Baiji), Lipotes vexillifer (possibly extinct, since December 2006) Family Pontoporiidae La Plata Dolphin (or Franciscana), Pontoporia blainvilleiSix species in the family Delphinidae are commonly called "whales" but are strictly speaking dolphins. They are sometimes called blackfish. Melon-headed Whale, Peponocephala electra Killer Whale (Orca), Orcinus orca Pygmy Killer Whale, Feresa attenuata Wolphin Kawili'Kai at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii. False Killer Whale, Psudorca crassidens Long-finned Pilot Whale, Globicephala melas Short-finned Pilot Whale, Globicephala macrorhynchusHybrid dolphins In 1933, three strange dolphins were beached off the Irish coast; these appeared to be hybrids between Risso's Dolphin and the Bottlenose Dolphin. Dolphin Safari (2006) sightings log, page retrieved December 17 2006. This mating has since been repeated in captivity and a hybrid calf was born. In captivity, a Bottlenose Dolphin and a Rough-toothed Dolphin produced hybrid offspring. Texas Tech University (1997), Mammals of Texas - Rough-toothed Dolphin, article retrieved December 8 2006. A Common-Bottlenose hybrid lives at SeaWorld California Robin's Island Dolphins at SeaWorld California, page retrieved December 17 2006. Various other dolphin hybrids live in captivity around the world or have been reported in the wild, such as a Bottlenose-Atlantic Spotted hybrid. Denise L. Herzing, Kelly Moewe and Barbara J. Brunnick (2003), Interspecies interactions between Atlantic spotted dolphins, Stenella frontalis and bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, on Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas, article retrieved on December 17 2006. The best known hybrid however is the Wolphin, a False Killer Whale-Bottlenose Dolphin hybrid. The Wolphin is a fertile hybrid, and two such Wolphins currently live at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii, the first having been born in 1985 from a male False Killer Whale and a female Bottlenose. Wolphins have also been observed in the wild. Louis Herman, interviewed for Associated Press, article by Jeanette J. Lee (2005), Livescience.com - Whale-Dolphin Hybrid Has Baby Wholphin, article retrieved April 26 2007. Evolution and anatomy The Anatomy of a Dolphin showing its skeleton, major organs, tail, and body shape Evolution Dolphins, along with whales and porpoises, are descendants of terrestrial mammals, most likely of the Artiodactyl order. The ancestors of the modern day dolphins entered the water roughly fifty million years ago, in the Eocene epoch. Hind Limb Buds on Dolphins. An embryo of a Spotted Dolphin in the fifth week of development. The hind limbs are present as small bumps (hind limb buds) near the base of the tail. The pin is approximately long. Modern dolphin skeletons have two small, rod-shaped pelvic bones thought to be vestigial hind limbs. In October 2006 an unusual Bottlenose Dolphin was captured in Japan; it had small fins on each side of its genital slit which scientists believe to be a more pronounced development of these vestigial hind limbs. Associated Press / FOX news (2006), Japanese Researchers Find Dolphin With 'Remains of Legs', article retrieved November 6 2006. Anatomy Dolphins have a streamlined fusiform body, adapted for fast swimming. The tail fin, called the fluke, is used for propulsion, while the pectoral fins together with the entire tail section provide directional control. The dorsal fin, in those species that have one, provides stability while swimming. Though it varies per species, basic colouration patterns are shades of grey usually with a lighter underside. It is often combined with lines and patches of different hue and contrast. The head contains the melon, a round organ used for echolocation. In many species, the jaws are elongated, forming a distinct beak; for some species like the Bottlenose, there is a curved mouth which looks like a fixed smile. Teeth can be very numerous (up to two hundred and fifty) in several species. Dolphins breathe through a blowhole located on top of their head, with the trachea being anterior to the brain. The dolphin brain is large and highly complex and is different in structure from that of most land mammals. Unlike most mammals, dolphins do not have hair, but they are born with a few hairs around the tip of their rostrum which they lose shortly after birth, in some cases even before they are born. The Institute for Marine Mammal Studies (IMMS), Dolphin Frequently Asked Questions: Why is a dolphin a mammal and not a fish?, article retrieved February 21 2008. The only exception to this is the Boto river dolphin, which does have some small hairs on the rostrum. VirtualExplorers.org, All About Dolphins - Amazon River Dolphin fact sheet, article retrieved February 21 2008. Their reproductive organs are located on the underside of the body. Males have two slits, one concealing the penis and one further behind for the anus. The female has one genital slit, housing the vagina and the anus. A mammary slit is positioned on either side of the female's genital slit. Senses Most dolphins have acute eyesight, both in and out of the water, and their perception of sound extends ten times or more above the upper limit of adult human hearing. The Dolphin Institute, How Dolphins Perceive Their World, article retrieved March 24, 2009. Though they have a small ear opening on each side of their head, it is believed that hearing underwater is also if not exclusively done with the lower jaw which conducts the sound vibrations to the middle ear via a fat-filled cavity in the lower jaw bone. Hearing is also used for echolocation, which seems to be an ability all dolphins have. It is believed that their teeth are arranged in a way that works as an array or antenna to receive the incoming sound and make it easier for them to pinpoint the exact location of an object. Goodson, A.D. and M. Klinowska. "A Proposed Echolocation Receptor for the Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): Modelling the Receive Directivity from Tooth and Lower Jaw Geometry", in Thomas and Kastelein, eds, NATO ASI Series A: Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans, vi.196:255-267 (Plenum NY, 1990) ISBN 0-30-643695-7 The dolphin's sense of touch is also well-developed, with free nerve endings being densely packed in the skin, especially around the snout, pectoral fins and genital area. However, dolphins lack an olfactory nerve and lobes and thus are believed to have no sense of smell, SeaWorld, Bottlenose Dolphins - Senses, article retrieved December 17 2006. but they can taste and do show preferences for certain kinds of fish. Since dolphins spend most of their time below the surface normally, just tasting the water could act in a manner analogous to a sense of smell. Though most dolphins do not have any hair, they do still have hair follicles and it is believed these might still perform some sensory function, though it is unclear what exactly this may be. Bjorn Mauck, Ulf Eysel and Guide Dehnhardt (2000), Selective heating of vibrissal follicles in seals (Phoca Vitulina) and dolphins (Sotalia Fluviatilis Guianensis), article retrieved March 11, 2007. The small hairs on the rostrum of the Boto river dolphin are believed to function as a tactile sense however, possibly to compensate for the Boto's poor eyesight. Laurie Stepanek (1998), Amazon River Dolphin (Inia geoffrensis), article retrieved March 11, 2007. Behaviour A pod of Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins in the Red Sea Dolphins are often regarded as one of Earth's most intelligent animals, though it is hard to say just how intelligent dolphins are, as comparisons of species' relative intelligence are complicated by differences in sensory apparatus, response modes, and nature of cognition. Furthermore, the difficulty and expense of doing experimental work with large aquatics means that some tests which could yield meaningful results still have not been carried out, or have been carried out with inadequate sample size and methodology. Compared to many other species however, dolphin behaviour has been studied extensively by humans, both in captivity and in the wild. See the cetacean intelligence article for more details. Social behaviour Dolphins surfing at Snapper Rocks, Queensland, Australia Dolphins are social, living in pods (also called "schools") of up to a dozen individuals. In places with a high abundance of food, pods can join temporarily, forming an aggregation called a superpod; such groupings may exceed a thousand dolphins. The individuals communicate using a variety of clicks, whistles and other vocalizations. They also use ultrasonic sounds for echolocation. Membership in pods is not rigid; interchange is common. However, the cetaceans can establish strong bonds between each other. This leads to them staying with injured or ill individuals, even actively helping them to breathe by bringing them to the surface if needed. Davidson College, biology department (2001) Bottlenose Dolphins - Altruism, article retrieved March 12 2008. This altruistic behaviour does not appear to be limited to their own species however. A dolphin in New Zealand that goes by the name of Moko has been observed to seemingly help guide a female Pygmy Sperm Whale together with her calf out of shallow water where they had stranded several times. Ray Lilley for Associated Press (2008), Dolphin Appears to Guide Whales to Sea, article retrieved March 12 2008. They have also been known to seemingly protect swimmers from sharks by swimming circles around the swimmers CBC News (2004), Dolphins save swimmers from shark, article retrieved March 11, 2007. or charging the sharks to make them go away. Dolphins also show cultural behaviour, something long believed to be a quality unique to humans (or to humans and some other primate species). In May 2005, a discovery was made in Australia which shows this cultural aspect of dolphin behaviour: Some dolphins, such as the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) teach their young to use tools. The dolphins break sponges off and cover their snouts with them thus protecting their snouts while foraging. This knowledge of how to use a tool is mostly transferred from mothers to daughters, unlike simian primates, where the knowledge is generally passed on to both sexes. The technology to use sponges as mouth protection is not genetically inherited but a taught behaviour. Rowan Hooper for New Scientist (2005), Dolphins teach their children to use sponges, article retrieved December 17 2006. Another such behaviour was discovered amongst river dolphins in Brazil, where some male dolphins apparently use objects such as weeds and sticks as part of a sexual display. Nic Fleming, Science correspondent for the Telegraph (2008), Dolphins woo females with bunches of weeds, article retrieved February 11 2008. Dolphins are known to engage in acts of aggression towards each other. The older a male dolphin is, the more likely his body is covered with scars ranging in depth from teeth marks made by other dolphins. It is suggested that male dolphins engage in such acts of aggression for the same reasons as humans: disputes between companions or even competition for other females. Acts of aggression can become so intense that targeted dolphins are known to go into exile, leaving their communities as a result of losing a fight with other dolphins. Male Bottlenose Dolphins have been known to engage in infanticide. Dolphins have also been known to kill porpoises for reasons which are not fully understood, as porpoises generally do not share the same fish diet as dolphins and are therefore not competitors for food supplies. Dr. George Johnson (date unknown), Is Flipper A Senseless Killer?, article retrieved December 17 2006. Reproduction and sexuality Dolphin copulation happens belly to belly and though many species engage in lengthy foreplay, the actual act is usually only brief, but may be repeated several times within a short timespan. The gestation period varies per species; for the small Tucuxi dolphin, this period is around 11 to 12 months, while for the Orca the gestation period is around 17 months. They usually become sexually active at a young age, even before reaching sexual maturity. The age at which sexual maturity is reached varies per species and gender. Dolphins are known to have sex for reasons other than reproduction, sometimes also engaging in acts of a homosexual nature. Herzing D.L., Rogers C.A., for the Wild Dolphin Project, Directionality of sexual aggression in mixed-species encounters between Atlantic Spotted dolphins and Bottlenose dolphins in the Bahamas (2005), article retrieved September 18 2007. Various dolphin species have been known to engage in sexual behaviour with other dolphin species, this also having resulted in various hybrid dolphin species as mentioned earlier. Sexual encounters may be violent, with male dolphins sometimes showing aggressive behaviour towards both females and other male dolphins. Scott et al.,Aggression in bottlenose dolphins: evidence for sexual coercion, male-male competition, and female tolerance through analysis of tooth-rake marks and behaviour (2005), article retrieved September 18 2007. Occasionally, dolphins will also show sexual behaviour towards other animals, including humans. Amy Samuels, Lars Bejder, Rochelle Constantine and Sonja Heinrich (2003), Marine Mammals: Fisheries, Tourism and Management Issues, chapter 15, pages 266 to 268, Cetaceans that are typically lonely and seek human company. Retrieved December 17 2006. Feeding Various methods of feeding exist, not just between species but also within a species. Various methods may be employed, some techniques being used by only a single dolphin population. Fish and squid are the main source of food for most dolphin species, but the False Killer Whale and the Killer Whale also feed on other marine mammals. One feeding method employed by many species is herding, where a pod will control a school of fish while individual members take turns plowing through the school, feeding. The tightly packed school of fish is commonly known as a bait ball. Coralling is a method where fish are chased to shallow water where they are more easily captured. In South Carolina, the Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin takes this one step further with what has become known as strand feeding, where the fish are driven onto mud banks and retrieved from there. "Coastal Stock(s) of Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin: Status Review and Management," Proceedings and Recommendations from a Workshop held in Beaufort, North Carolina, 13 September 1993 – 14 September 1993]. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. pp. 56–57. In some places, Orcas will also come up to the beach to capture sea lions. Some species also whack fish with their fluke, stunning them and sometimes sending fish clear out of the water. Reports of cooperative human-dolphin fisheries date back to the ancient Roman author and natural philosopher Pliny the Elder. M.B. Santos, R. Fernández, A. López, J.A. Martínez and G.J. Pierce (2007), Variability in the diet of bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, in Galician waters, north-western Spain, 1990 – 2005 (.pdf), article retrieved April 3 2007. A modern human-dolphin fishery still takes place in Laguna, Santa Catarina, Brazil. Here, dolphins drive fish towards fishermen waiting along the shore and give them a signal when they can cast their nets. The dolphins then feed off the fish that manage to escape the nets. The Telegraph (2006), Brazil's sexiest secret, article retrieved March 11, 2007. Dr. Moti Nissani (2007) Bottlenose Dolphins in Laguna Requesting a Throw Net (video). Supporting material for Dr. Nissani's presentation at the 2007 International Ethological Conference. Video retrieved February 13 2008. Vocalizations Dolphins are capable of making a broad range of sounds using nasal airsacs located just below the blowhole. Roughly three categories of sounds can be identified however; frequency modulated sounds which are usually just called whistles; burst-pulsed sounds and clicks. Whistles are used by dolphins to communicate, though the nature and extent of their ability to communicate in this way is not known. Research has shown however that at least some dolphin species are capable of sending identity information to each other using a signature whistle; a whistle that refers specifically to the identity of a certain dolphin. The burst-pulsed sounds are also used for communication, but again the nature and extent of communication possible this way is not known. Atlantic Spotted Dolphin vocalizations, chapter Delphinid vocalizations., the dolphin communication project, article retrieved August 7 2007. The clicks are directional and used by dolphins for echolocation and are often in a short series called a click train, the rate increasing when approaching an object of interest. Dolphin echolocation clicks are amongst the loudest sounds made by animals in the sea. W. W. L. Au, The Sonar of Dolphins (Springer, NY, 1993). Pacific White-Sided Dolphins breaching Jumping and playing Dolphins occasionally leap above the water surface, sometimes performing acrobatic figures (e.g. the Spinner Dolphin). Scientists are not always quite certain about the purpose of this behaviour and the reason for it may vary; it could be to locate schools of fish by looking at above-water signs like feeding birds, they could be communicating to other dolphins to join a hunt, attempting to dislodge parasites, or simply doing it for fun. Play is a fairly important part of dolphins' lives, and they can be observed playing with seaweed or play-fighting with other dolphins. At times they also harass other local creatures, like seabirds and turtles. Dolphins also seem to enjoy riding waves and frequently 'surf' coastal swells and the bow waves of boats. Occasionally, they're also willing to playfully interact with human swimmers. Sleeping Because dolphins need to come up to the surface to breathe and have to be alert for possible predators, they do not sleep in the same way land mammals do. Generally, dolphins sleep with only one brain hemisphere in slow-wave sleep at a time, thus maintaining some amount of consciousness required to breathe and keeping one eye open to keep a watch out for possible threats. The earlier stages of sleep can be observed in both hemispheres of the brain, however. Dallas Grasby (1994) Excerpts from "Sleep in marine mammals", L.M. Mukhametov, Experimental Brain Research Supplement 8, article retrieved February 11 2008. However, in captivity, dolphins have been observed to seemingly enter a fully asleep state where both eyes are closed and the animal does not respond to mild external stimuli, respiration being automatic with a tail kick reflex keeping the blowhole above the water. If not needed to keep the blowhole above the water, the tail kick reflex may subside. Dolphins kept unconscious using anesthetics initially show a similar tail kick reflex. James G. McCormick (PhD), Department of Anesthesiology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (2007), Behavioral Observations of Sleep and Anesthesia in the Dolphin: Implications for Bispectral Index Monitoring of Unihemispheric Effects in Dolphins, article retrieved February 11 2008. Though a similar state has been observed with wild Sperm Whales, it is not known if this state is ever reached in the wild amongst any dolphin species. BBC (2008), Sperm whales caught 'cat napping', article retrieved April 9 2008. Threats Natural threats Except for humans (discussed below), dolphins have few natural enemies, some species or specific populations having none at all making them apex predators. For most smaller species of dolphins, only a few larger species of shark such as the bull shark, dusky shark, tiger shark and great white shark are a potential risk, especially for calves. Some of the larger dolphin species such as Orcas may also prey on some of the smaller dolphin species, but this seems rare. Dolphins may also suffer from a wide variety of diseases and parasites. Human threats Dead Atlantic White-Sided Dolphins in Hvalba on the Faroe Islands, killed in a drive hunt. Some dolphin species face an uncertain future, especially some of the river dolphin species such as the Amazon River Dolphin, and the Ganges and Yangtze River Dolphin, all of which are critically or seriously endangered. A 2006 survey found no individuals of the Yangtze River Dolphin, leading to the conclusion that the species is now functionally extinct. Douglas Williams for Shanghai Daily (2006), Yangtze dolphin may be extinct. Article retrieved December 9 2006. Contamination of environment - the oceans, seas, and rivers - is an issue of concern, especially pesticides, heavy metals, plastics, and other industrial and agricultural pollutants which do not disintegrate rapidly in the environment are reducing dolphin populations, and resulting in dolphins building up unusually high levels of contaminants. Injuries or deaths due to collisions with boats, especially their propellers, are also common. Various fishing methods, most notably purse Seine fishing for tuna and the use of drift and gill nets, results in a large amounts of dolphins being killed inadvertently. Clover, Charles. 2004. The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. Ebury Press, London. ISBN 0-09-189780-7 Accidental by-catch in gillnets and incidental captures in antipredator nets used in marine fish farms are common and poses a risk for mainly local dolphin populations. Dolphin safe labels have been introduced to reassure consumers that the fish sold has been caught in a dolphin friendly way. In some parts of the world such as Taiji in Japan and the Faroe Islands, dolphins are traditionally considered as food, and killed in harpoon or drive hunts. It is believed that loud underwater noises, for example resulting from naval sonar use, live firing exercises or certain offshore construction projects such as the construction of offshore wind farms may be harmful to dolphins, distressing the animals, damaging their hearing and possibly forcing them to the surface quicker resulting in decompression sickness. CBC news (2003), Navy sonar may be killing whales, dolphins, article retrieved October 27, 2008. Npower renewables, Underwater noise & vibration, section 9.4. Study retrieved October 27, 2008. Human–dolphin relationships Mythology A sketch of the goddess Ganga on her Vahana (mount) Makara Dolphins have long played a role in human culture. Dolphins are common in Greek mythology and there are many coins from the time which feature a man or boy riding on the back of a dolphin. The Ancient Greeks treated them with welcome; a ship spotting dolphins riding in their wake was considered a good omen for a smooth voyage. In Hindu mythology, the Ganges River Dolphin is associated with Ganga, the deity of the Ganges river. Popular culture The famous Orca Keiko from the Free Willy movies being prepared for transport. In more recent times, the 1963 Flipper movie and the subsequent popular Flipper television series, contributed to the popularity of dolphins in Western society. The series, created by Ivan Tors, portrayed a dolphin in a friendly relationship with two boys, Sandy and Bud; a kind of seagoing Lassie. Flipper, a Bottlenose Dolphin, understood English commands unusually well and was a marked hero. A second Flipper movie was made in 1996, which was based on the story of the original movie. A Bottlenose Dolphin also played a prominent role in the 1990s science fiction television series seaQuest DSV in which the animal, named Darwin, could communicate with English speakers using a vocoder, a fictional invention which translated the clicks and whistles to English and back. More well known from this time period is probably the movie Free Willy however, which made famous the Orca playing Willy, Keiko. The 1977 horror movie Orca paints a less friendly picture of the animal. Here, a male Orca takes revenge on fishermen after the killing of his mate. In the 1973 movie The Day of the Dolphin trained dolphins are kidnapped and made to perform a naval military assassination using explosives. Dolphinariums The renewed popularity of dolphins in the 1960s resulted in the appearance of many dolphinariums around the world, which have made dolphins accessible to the public. Though criticism and more strict animal welfare laws have forced many dolphinariums to close their doors, hundreds still exist around the world attracting a large amount of visitors. In the United States, best known are the SeaWorld marine mammal parks, and their common Orca stage name Shamu, which they have trademarked, has become well known. Southwest Airlines, an American airline, has painted three of their Boeing 737 aircraft in Shamu colours as an advertisement for the parks and have been flying with such a livery on various aircraft since 1988. Welfare A number of organizations rescue and rehabilitate sick, wounded, stranded or orphaned dolphins, such as the Mote Marine Laboratory, or work on dolphin conservation and welfare, such as the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. Therapy Dolphins are an increasingly popular choice of animal-assisted therapy for psychological problems and developmental disabilities. For example, a 2005 study with 30 participants found it was an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression. Christian Antonioli and Michael A. Reveley, (2005), Randomised controlled trial of animal facilitated therapy with dolphins in the treatment of depression. However, this study was criticized on several grounds; for example, it is not known whether dolphins are more effective than common pets. Reviews of this and other published dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) studies have found important methodological flaws and have concluded that there is no compelling scientific evidence that DAT is a legitimate therapy or that it affords any more than fleeting improvements in mood. Military A number of militaries have employed dolphins for various purposes from finding mines to rescuing lost or trapped humans. Such military dolphins, however, drew scrutiny during the Vietnam War when rumors circulated that dolphins were being trained by the United States Navy to kill Vietnamese divers. PBS - Frontline, The Story of Navy dolphins., article retrieved June 8, 2008. However, no evidence to support these rumors ever surfaced, and the United States Navy denies that at any point Dolphins were trained to do harm. Dolphins are still being trained by the United States Navy as part of the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program. The Russian military is believed to have closed its marine mammal program in the early 1990s. In 2000 the press reported that dolphins trained to kill by the Soviet Navy had been sold to Iran. BBC News (2000), Iran buys kamikaze dolphins, article retrieved June 7, 2008. Literature Dolphins are also common in contemporary literature, especially science fiction novels. A military role for dolphins is found in William Gibson's short story Johnny Mnemonic, in which cyborg dolphins are used in war-time by the military to find submarines and, after the war, by a group of revolutionaries to decode encrypted information. Dolphins play a role as sentient patrollers of the sea enhanced with a deeper empathy toward humans in Anne McCaffrey's The Dragonriders of Pern series. In the Known Space universe of author Larry Niven, dolphins also play a significant role as fully-recognised "legal entities". More humorous is The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, in which dolphins are the second most intelligent creatures on Earth (after mice, and followed by humans) and tried in vain to warn humans of the impending destruction of the planet. However, their behaviour was misinterpreted as playful acrobatics. Their story is told in So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish. Much more serious is their major role (along with chimpanzees) in David Brin's Uplift series. A talking Dolphin called "Howard" helps Hagbard Celine and his submarine crew fight the evil Illuminati in Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson's Illuminatus Trilogy. Dolphins also appear frequently in non-science fiction literature however. In the book The Music of Dolphins by author Karen Hesse, a girl is raised by dolphins from the age of four until she is discovered by the coast guard. Fantasy author Ken Grimwood wrote dolphins into his 1995 novel Into the Deep about a marine biologist struggling to crack the code of dolphin intelligence, including entire chapters written from the viewpoint of his dolphin characters. In this book, humans and dolphins are capable of communicating via telepathy. Art Dolphins are a popular artistic motif, dating back ancient times. Examples include the Triton Fountain by Bernini and depictions of dolphins in the ruined Minoan palace at Knossos and on Minoan pottery. References Further reading Carwardine, M., Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises, Dorling Kindersley, 2000. ISBN 0-7513-2781-6 Williams, Heathcote, Whale Nation'', New York, Harmony Books, 1988. ISBN 9780517569320 External links Conservation, research and news: The Whale & Dolphin Conservation Society (WDCS) The Dolphin Institute The Dolphin research center Digital Library of Dolphin Development Cetacean origins, Thewissen Lab The Bottlenose Dolphin Research Institute The Oceania Project, Caring for Whales and Dolphins Tursiops.org: Current Cetacean-related news Whale Trackers - An online educational documentary series about whales, dolphins and porpoises. 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5,882 | Gorillaz | Gorillaz is a virtual band created in 1998 by Damon Albarn of alternative rock band Blur, and Jamie Hewlett, co-creator of the comic book Tank Girl. The band is composed of four animated band members: 2D, Murdoc, Noodle and Russel. The band's music is a collaboration between various musicians; Albarn being the only permanent musical contributor. Their style is broadly alternative rock, but with a large number of other influences including: britpop, dub, hip-hop, and pop music. The band's first album, 2001's Gorillaz, sold over seven million copies and earned them an entry in the Guinness Book of World Records as the Most Successful Virtual Band. It was nominated for the Mercury Prize 2001, but the nomination was later withdrawn at the band's request. Their second studio album, Demon Days, was released in 2005 and included the singles "Feel Good Inc.", "Dare", "Dirty Harry" and "Kids with Guns"/"El Mañana". Demon Days went five times platinum in the UK, double platinum in the United States and earned five Grammy Award nominations for 2006 and won one of them in the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals category. Gorillaz have also released two B-sides compilations and a remix album. The combined sales of Gorillaz and Demon Days had, by 2007, exceeded 15 million albums. The group is currently working on their third studio album. History Early years (1998–1999) Gorillaz co-creator Damon Albarn, 2007 Damon Albarn and Jamie Hewlett created the Gorillaz in 1998 when they were both living together in a flat on Westbourne Grove. The idea to create the band came about when the two were watching MTV, "if you watch MTV for too long, it's a bit like hell - there's nothing of substance there. So we got this idea for a cartoon band, something that would be a comment on that", Hewlett said. The band originally identified themselves as "Gorilla", and the first song they recorded was "Ghost Train", later released as a B-side on their single "Rock the House" and the B-side compilation G-Sides. The trio of musicians behind Gorillaz' first incarnation, Albarn, Del tha Funkee Homosapien and Dan the Automator, had previously worked together on the track "Time Keeps on Slipping" for Deltron 3030's eponymous debut album. The song can be seen as the genesis of the musical style that continued into Gorillaz' first album. Phase One: Celebrity Takedown (2000–2003) The band's first release was Tomorrow Comes Today EP, released in 2000. It was very well received in the UK underground music scene and generated a lot of word-of-mouth advertising, as well as a large shroud of mystery over who was behind Gorillaz and what could be expected from the band in the months to come. Promo outlets circulated a booklet with the fictional backstory behind the cartoon band. The band's official website, www.gorillaz.com, is a virtual representation of Kong Studios, the band's studio and home. Inside, visitors can browse through each member's bedroom, their recording environment and even the hallways and bathrooms. Each room also has bonus surprises and games to play: for example, the lobby has a remix machine, the cafeteria contains the message board on the wall and Murdoc's Winnebago contains a voodoo doll of 2D. Each member also has their own computer which contains pictures, samples used in various Gorillaz songs, their favorite websites and their e-mail inboxes. Because of the nature of the site, an official fansite, fans.gorillaz.com, was created to hold the standard band website information, including news, a discography and the band's touring schedules. The band's first single, "Clint Eastwood", was released on 5 March 2001. It became a smash hit and put Gorillaz into the global spotlight. Later that same month, their first full-length album, the self-titled Gorillaz, was released, producing four singles: "Clint Eastwood", "19-2000", "Tomorrow Comes Today", and "Rock the House". Each of the singles' videos contained humorous and often ridiculous storylines and imagery, though "Clint Eastwood" and "19-2000" were the only singles to break through the American music scene. "19-2000 (Soulchild Remix)" became popular after being featured in both an Ice Breakers commercial, as well as in EA Sports' FIFA 2002. Around this time, a half-hour TV mockumentary entitled Charts of Darkness was released. It follows Channel 4 news reporter Krishnan Guru-Murthy attempting to track down Albarn and Hewlett after they were placed in an insane asylum. The special also interviews Rachel Stevens of S Club 7 fame and a few of the band's voice talents, who had been given roles to play. The end of the year brought the song "911", a collaboration between the Gorillaz and rap artists D12 (without Eminem) and Terry Hall about the September 11, 2001 attacks. Meanwhile G-Sides, a compilation of the B-sides from the Tomorrow Comes Today EP and first three singles, was released in Japan on 12 December 2001 and quickly followed with international releases in early 2002. The new year also saw the band perform at the 2002 BRIT Awards, appearing in 3D animation on four large screens along with rap accompaniment by Phi Life Cypher. The band were nominated for six awards at the event, including Best British Group, Best British Album and Best British Newcomer, but left the award show empty-handed. Finally, Laika Come Home, a dub remix album, containing most of the tracks from Gorillaz reworked by Spacemonkeyz, was released in June 2002. The single to follow, "Lil' Dub Chefin'", contained an original track by the Spacemonkeyz titled "Spacemonkeyz Theme". In November 2002, a DVD titled Phase One: Celebrity Take Down was released. The DVD contains the four Phase One promos, the abandoned video for "5/4", the Charts of Darkness documentary, the five Gorilla Bitez (short vignettes), a tour of the website by the MEL 9000 server and more. The DVD's menu was designed much like the band's website and depicts an abandoned Kong Studios. Along with the release of the DVD, the band's website closed down almost completely. Kong Studios was no longer accessible, instead, visitors could only enter a police cabin, where the message board and chats were still accessible. From there, a small robot called G.R.3.G. could be used to explore the abandoned Kong Studios in a 3D Shockwave environment, though doing so would only grant access to a few games. The Abandoned Gorillaz Site Rumors were circulating at this time that the Gorillaz team were busy preparing a film, but an EMI interview later revealed that plans for the film were abandoned. In an interview with Haruka Kuroda (the voice of Noodle), Kuroda stated that Jamie Hewlett rejected many scripts before giving up on the movie. Hewlett later explained why the film was abandoned, "We lost all interest in doing it as soon as we started meeting with studios and talking to these Hollywood executive types, we just weren't on the same page. We said, fuck it, we'll sit on the idea until we can do it ourselves, and maybe even raise the money ourselves." Phase Two: Slowboat to Hades (2004–2008) On 8 December 2004, the band's website reopened with an exclusive video entitled "Rock It". Along with the music video, there was an announcement of a new album on the way, which would be produced by Danger Mouse. A talent contest entitled Search for a Star was also launched on 15 December 2004, allowing fans to send in a minute-long clip of video or audio or an image file. The prize included collaborating with the band to create the music and video for "El Mañana", the fourth single for the new album, as well as getting their own room on the newly rebuilt Kong Studios website. A second promotional booklet was issued, recapping the previously issued booklet, as well as detailing the failed movie production in Hollywood and the breakup and reforming of Gorillaz. A viral marketing project named Reject False Icons was formed criticizing modern pop figures. The first single from the album was "Feel Good Inc.", released as an EP in Japan and as a CD single in Europe and Australia. The single entered the UK Singles Chart at #22, several weeks before the CD single was released due to the single being released as a 7" vinyl in April, and new charts regulations included sales at online music stores, where the song had been available since 22 March. "Feel Good Inc." managed to reach #2 in the UK Singles Chart the week it was released, being the band's highest ever positioned single up to that point in time. The single stayed in the top ten for eight consecutive weeks. In the United States, it peaked at #14. The song also garnered a Record of the Year nomination for the 2006 Grammy Awards later that year. it was later included in the popular Playstation 3 title "Singstar", a game where player attempt to sing along karaoke style. The album, Demon Days, was released on 11 May 2005 in Japan, 23 May in the United Kingdom and Australia, and on 24 May in the United States. The album debuted at #1 on the UK Album Charts, but fell as low as #29 in just seven weeks. However, as the music video for the second single "DARE" started getting played on MTV and other music channels, Demon Days rose up to the top 10 again. "DARE" was released on 29 August 2005 in the UK, where it debuted at #1. A Japanese EP followed on 7 September. "DARE" eventually reached #87 in the United States, also becoming a Top 10 hit on the Modern Rock listings. Shortly afterwards, Gorillaz contributed an exclusive track entitled "Hong Kong" to the charity compilation Help: A Day in the Life released on 10 September 2005. The third single off Demon Days was "Dirty Harry", which had already been released as a promotional single earlier that year. It was released in the United Kingdom on 21 November 2005. On its first week, it charted at #6. The release of the single raised the album once again back up to the top 10. The fourth and final single was the double A-side, "Kids with Guns"/"El Mañana". It was released in the UK on 10 April 2006. Unlike its Top 10 predecessors, "Kids With Guns" / "El Mañana" reached #27 upon its release in the UK. A week later, the single had fallen out of the Top 40 in the UK (see 2006 in British music). By the end of 2005, Demon Days had sold over a million copies in the UK, making it the UK's fifth best selling album of 2005. Demon Days has since gone five times platinum in the UK, double platinum in the United States, triple platinum in Australia and has sold over 6 million copies worldwide. De La Soul performing "Feel Good Inc." with the Gorillaz at the Demon Days Live concert in Manchester. Plans were unveiled for Gorillaz to go on a holographic world tour in 2007 and 2008. The cartoon members would be shown as holograms on stage using Musion Eyeliner technology, giving them a life-like appearance on stage. The holograms were first used at the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards on 3 November 2005 and again at the 2006 Grammy Awards on 8 February 2006 with the addition of a virtual Madonna, where the band played a pre-recorded version of "Feel Good Inc." However, the tour was eventually called off due to budget issues. Jamie Hewlett has stated that "...it was extremely expensive, extremely difficult, a million and one things can go wrong, every second that the thing's playing." In 2005 a set of Gorillaz figures were released by Kidrobot to coincide with the release of Demon Days. Two variations of the set were released, known as the Red and Black editions, and a limited edition Noodle from the music video for "DARE" was also released. Three new sets of Gorillaz vinyl figures were released in 2006. The Basic set was released on 16 October 2006 and the 2-tone and White edition sets were released on 2 November 2006. A Gorillaz mobile phone game called Gorillaz Entertainment System (GES) was published by Gorillaz Partnership under license to RealNetworks in the spring of 2006 in Europe, and summer of 2006 in the United States. The game was developed by Gorillaz Partnership in association with Zombie Flesh Eaters and Mr. Goodliving Ltd. Gorillaz Entertainment System (GES) features four character-based games, each with their own individual gameplay and style. The games combined classic arcade style games and contemporary Gorillaz artwork. On 21 September 2006, the main lobby of Kong Studios was destroyed for unknown reasons and a teaser clip for Slowboat to Hades appeared and could be played on a TV screen. The Phase Two: Slowboat to Hades DVD was released on 30 October in the United Kingdom, and 31 October in the United States. The official Gorillaz illustrated autobiography, titled Rise of the Ogre, was released on 31 October 2006 in the United Kingdom, and 2 November in the United States. D-Sides, a compilation of B-side and remixes, was released on 19 November 2007 in the UK and on 20 November 2007 in the U.S. On 24 October 2007, the official Gorillaz fansite announced that a documentary film about the Gorillaz, titled Bananaz, would be released. The film, directed by Ceri Levy, documents the previous seven years of the band. Hopes for a Gorillaz film were revived in 2006 when Hewlett stated that they would be producing the film on their own. American film producer and Weinstein Company co-chairman, Harvey Weinstein, was also said to be collaborating with Albarn and Hewlett. In a September 2006 interview with Uncut magazine, Albarn was reported saying "[Gorillaz] has been a fantastic journey which isn't over, because we're making a film. We've got Terry Gilliam involved. But as far as being in a big band and putting pop music out there, it's finished. We won't be doing that any more." In an interview with the Gorillaz-Unofficial fansite, Jamie Hewlett and Cass Browne revealed that in the movie the band members will act as other characters presenting a new story, instead of playing themselves. Hewlett also said that the movie's soundtrack will be the next Gorillaz album. "The soundtrack will be the third album. Damon will do the soundtrack, which will be the soundtrack, which will be the third album." As of April 2007, Cass Browne is still finishing the script and Albarn has said that he hopes production of the film will begin in September 2007. No further news was heard about the film until February 2008 when, in an interview with Gorillaz-Unofficial, Hewlett said "Ultimately we didn't think that feel we're in a position to make the kind of movie we want to make with Gorillaz at the moment. [...] But I'd still like to make a full, lavishly-animated Gorillaz movie someday." Future plans Carousel In the November 2007 issue of Q magazine, when asked what his top priority for 2008 was, Damon Albarn replied "Well, I'm doing the next Gorillaz thing, but it won't be called Gorillaz. In the February 2008 Gorillaz-Unofficial interview, Hewlett elaborated on this saying "I think the idea behind it is that it's like how The Who presented their movies – Tommy and Quadrophenia and so on. Those were presented as by 'The Who' even though none of the members of the band were in the movies. I don't think anyone from The Who was in Quadrophenia. But it's the same people working on it, that's the principle." In a July 2008 interview with The Observer he also said, "Gorillaz now to us is not like four animated characters any more - it's more like an organisation of people doing new projects. [...] That's my ideal model - Gorillaz is a group of people who gave you this, and now want to give you new stuff." In the Observer interview, Hewlett said that there is "a new project which Damon and I are working on now, called Carousel, which is even bigger and more difficult than Monkey, and it isn't going to fit anywhere and no one's going to like it, ha ha ha! We've started work - I've done a lot of visuals and Damon's done a lot of music but we haven't figured out how they're going to fit together. I can't say much about it yet but it's sort of like a film, but not with one narrative story. There's many stories, told around a bigger story, set to music, and done in live action, animation, all different styles, well ... originally it was a film but now we think it's a film and it's a stage thing as well and... look, it's basically us doing what the fuck we want without worrying about whether it's for a record company or a film company or whatever. So I'm not sure how it'll pan out, or even if it will happen. But Damon's written around 70 songs for it, and I've got great plans for the visuals, but right now, at this moment, it's still just a really good idea." Third album Damon Albarn and Jamie Hewlett stated in an interview with CBC News on 17 September 2008 that they will be doing another Gorillaz album. Hewlett says that from their work on Monkey, "we just learned more about what we do, musically and artistically. That's a great place to come at when we come to another Gorillaz album. It doesn't have to be animation and music." Hewlett also expressed annoyance at having to draw the band members again, "I'm so fucking bored of drawing those characters. But then we had a moment where we had a new angle on it... I'm gonna adapt them." In a later interview Hewlett said, "they'll be the same characters, but a little bit older and told in a different way." An article by the Toronto Star stated that the duo hope to begin work on the album in January 2009. Albarn also said that he wants "to work with an incredibly eclectic, surprising cast of people." On 14 January 2009, Damon Albarn made an appearance as a guest DJ on BBC Radio 1, premiering demos of three new Gorillaz songs, which are entitled "Electric Shock", "Broken" and "Stylo". According the EMI, the album is expected to be released within their current financial year which ends March 2010. . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, De La Soul stated they had provided vocals for two songs on the upcoming Gorillaz album, "Electric Shock" and "Sloped Tropics", and revealed that the third album's tentative title was "Plastic Beach". Bananaz documentary Babelgum announced that the Ceri Levy directed Gorillaz documentary had been selected to screen on their new, Flash-driven website as the first ever global, on-line premiere on 20 April - prior to the film’s theatrical and subsequent DVD release through EMI. Selected clips of the feature-length version are screening on Babelgum web and mobile too. The film was also shown in full, followed by a Q&A with Ceri Levy, at the Regent Street Apple Store in London, UK on Thursday 2 April, from 6.30pm. The DVD of Bananaz is out 1 June. Band members Fictional members 2D - (born in Crawley, United Kingdom) - vocals, keyboards Murdoc Niccals - (born in Stoke-on-Trent, United Kingdom) - bass guitar Russel Hobbs - (born in New York, United States) - drums, percussion Noodle - (born in Osaka, Japan) - guitar, vocals Additional members Del – vocals: A ghostly depiction of Del tha Funkee Homosapien, and the blue phantom in the "Clint Eastwood" and "Rock the House" music videos and the Gorilla Bite "Jump The Gut" was, one could say, another band member. In 2003, he was finally separated from Russel when the Grim Reaper turned up to claim him; he appeared as a mass of living ectoplasm and said his final goodbye to his old friend before leaving. The shock of losing the friend who had hidden inside his body all that time, coupled with Russel's continuing belief that the Reaper was stalking him, lead to a trauma that took Russel an entire year to recuperate. Paula Cracker – Guitar: 2D's ex-girlfriend and the band's original guitarist. She played guitar in Ghost Train. In the Gorillaz storyline, she was ultimately fired and replaced with Noodle after Paula was caught having sex with Murdoc in the studio toilet. Later, Paula Cracker is one of several people hired by Jimmy Manson to eliminate Gorillaz. Her status post-Jimmy Manson is unknown. It was stated in Rise of the Ogre that Paula was sick in the head, on strong medication, and has a personal grudge against current guitarist Noodle. During her brief time in Gorillaz, she was described as "the weak link" by the rest of the band; Murdoc called her "depressingly ugly" and 2D never disagreed, only saying that it was the principle of Murdoc stealing his girlfriend. Actual members There have been waves of speculation surrounding who is actually behind Gorillaz ever since Tomorrow Comes Today was first released. In the half-hour TV mockumentary Charts of Darkness, it was explicitly stated that Damon Albarn and Jamie Hewlett were behind the project. However, many people work on various aspects of Gorillaz. To quote Albarn, "There could be fifty [people] here, but there's two." In short, the Gorillaz as real, singular human beings do not exist. Rather, they represent the many people working on the project. More or less, the only thing that has remained constant in every song is that Albarn performs the singing voice for 2D. During the "hidden" credits to the DVD Phase One: Celebrity Take Down, it states the names of the creators, the voice talents and those responsible for performing live. This list of the group's integral performers has changed drastically since the first album, with the exception of Albarn himself. For a more or less complete list of people involved in Gorillaz, see this site. In the most recent live performances (Demon Days Live), the roles of 2D (vocals and piano) are assigned to Damon Albarn as 2D, Noodle's (guitar and backing vocals) to Simon Tong and Rosie Wilson respectively, Murdoc's (bass guitar) to Morgan Nicholls, and Russel's (drums) to Cass Browne. However, there are two touring keyboardists (one on a piano and the other on a synthesizer), so one could say that both of these people also perform the role of 2D. Similarly, there is both a drummer and percussionist on the tour, both at a drum kit, so these people are essentially both Russel. The band's artwork are created by Hewlett and his company Zombie Flesh Eaters. The band's music videos are created by Passion Pictures whose animators include Pete Candeland and 2000AD artist Rufus Dayglo. Live performances Phase One live performances For the tours affiliated with the debut album, the physical band played behind a specially designed screen which covered the entire stage area. Videos, animatics and image collages were projected onto the audience side of the screen, while choreographed lights behind the screen lit up silhouettes of the physical band, creating a meld of the physical and animated. For their first tour of the United States, two screens were used; one was simply the animatics, while the second, lower screen displayed the band's silhouettes along with various quotes from interviews to make the fictional band members appear to be present, talking to the audience (particularly, Murdoc and 2D). In the majority of the shows only Noodle and Russel spoke live to the audience. 2D spoke in only a few shows and Murdoc is known to only have spoken during one show, which was the only show where all four band members spoke live to the audience. Phase Two live performances Following the release of their Demon Days album, Gorillaz began an American radio tour. In keeping with the style of the band the 'Demon Detour' featured a set of songs played on select radio stations, along with comments by the four band members. Gorillaz played five sold out shows at the Apollo Theater, New York in April 2006 Between 1 November and 5 November 2005, there was a Gorillaz "festival" billed as Demon Days Live with collaborators from Demon Days (Neneh Cherry, Bootie Brown, De La Soul, Ike Turner, Roots Manuva, Martina Topley-Bird and Shaun Ryder all appeared live; for other collaborators such as Dennis Hopper and Ibrahim Ferrer, recordings were used) and Damon Albarn performing songs from the album live on those five nights at the Manchester Opera House. The visual element of the evenings was provided by Gorillaz co-creator Jamie Hewlett and displayed on screens on the stage, and the artists performed in front of the screens, with Damon Albarn in silhouette form for most of the concert (unlike previous concerts, where the musicians were behind the screens, with only silhouettes visible). The event was filmed by an EMI film crew for a DVD release, Demon Days Live, in late March 2006. It was later announced that an American version of the event would take place from 2 April to 6 April 2006 at the famed Apollo Theater in Harlem. Within an hour of release tickets were sold out. The 6 April show was filmed for a live webcast at MSN Video. Palladia (then known as MHD) also broadcasted an Apollo Theater show in HDTV on 31 December 2006. For the band's live performances at the 2005/2006 award shows, a different visual effects technique was used to project the band onto the stage: similar to the Pepper's ghost trick, the Musion Eyeliner system allowed animations of the band to be projected on transparent film placed in front of the stage, creating the appearance that the band members were actually present on the stage. The first such performance by the band was made on 3 November 2005, the third night of the Demon Days Live performances, when the band simultaneously appeared at the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards in Lisbon, Portugal and performed their song "Feel Good Inc.". At the 2006 Grammy Awards, held on 8 February 2006, Gorillaz opened the show using the same technique, sharing the stage with a virtual Madonna. Their performance was a mash-up of the Gorillaz' "Feel Good Inc." and Madonna's "Hung Up". However, there was a slight problem concerning the projections. The music on all of these occasions was rather low in volume, which Jamie Hewlett revealed to be a flaw with the Musion Eyeliner system: if the music was too loud, the screens reflecting the band on stage would vibrate, making their images blurry. This happened with the mash-up performance with Madonna's "Hung Up". A week later, on 15 February 2006, Gorillaz performed their song "Dirty Harry" at the 2006 BRIT Awards, with Bootie Brown and the Children's Choir San Fernandez. This concert had giant versions of the video clips on large screens, with Bootie Brown and the Children's Choir San Fernandez to either side of the screens. A similar, but not completely identical, version of this performance was shown on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross and the video was projected at the 2006 Designer of the Year Award exhibition, which Jamie Hewlett later won. A world tour was planned using the hologram technology described above. However, due to extreme costs and fine technical difficulties, the tour was cancelled. Discography Gorillaz (2001) Demon Days (2005) Awards and nominations References External links Gorillaz.com (Official website, requires Flash) Fans.Gorillaz.com (Official fansite) | Gorillaz |@lemmatized gorillaz:67 virtual:5 band:53 create:9 damon:14 albarn:20 alternative:2 rock:7 blur:1 jamie:10 hewlett:23 co:4 creator:4 comic:1 book:2 tank:1 girl:1 compose:1 four:8 animated:3 member:16 murdoc:9 noodle:8 russel:8 music:21 collaboration:3 various:4 musician:3 permanent:1 musical:2 contributor:1 style:7 broadly:1 large:4 number:1 influence:1 include:8 britpop:1 dub:3 hip:1 hop:2 pop:4 first:16 album:32 sell:6 seven:3 million:5 copy:3 earn:2 entry:1 guinness:1 world:3 record:5 successful:1 nominate:2 mercury:1 prize:2 nomination:4 later:12 withdraw:1 request:1 second:5 studio:11 demon:18 day:18 release:42 single:24 feel:8 good:8 inc:7 dare:5 dirty:3 harry:3 kid:3 gun:3 el:4 mañana:4 go:7 five:6 time:8 platinum:5 uk:14 double:3 united:16 state:19 grammy:4 award:13 win:4 one:15 best:5 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5,883 | Affix | An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed. They are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes. Affixation is, thus, the linguistic process speakers use to form new words (neologisms) by adding sounds (affixes) at the beginning (prefixation), the middle (infixation) or the end (suffixation) of words. Positional categories of affixes Affixes are divided into several categories, depending on their position with reference to the stem. Prefix and suffix are extremely common terms. Infix and circumfix are less so, as they are not important in European languages. The other terms are uncommon. + Categories of affixes Affix Example Schema Description Prefix un-do prefix-stem Appears at the front of a stem Suffix/Postfix look-ing stem-suffix Appears at the back of a stem Infix saxo‹ma›phone st‹infix›em Appears within a stem — common in Borneo-Philippines languages Circumfix a›scatter‹ed circumfix›stem‹circumfix One portion appears at the front of a stem, and the other at the rear Interfix speed-o-meter stema-interfix-stemb Links two stems together in a compound Duplifix teeny~weeny stem~duplifix Incorporates a reduplicated portion of a stem(may occur in front, at the rear, or within the stem) Transfix Maltese: k‹i›t‹e›b "he wrote"(compare root ktb "write") s‹transfix›te‹transfix›m A discontinuous affix that interleaves within a discontinuous stem Simulfix mouse → mice Changes a segment of a stem Suprafix produce (noun)produce (verb) Changes a suprasegmental phoneme of a stem Disfix Alabama: tipli "break up"(compare root tipasli "break") stm The elision of a portion of a stem Prefix and suffix may be subsumed under the term adfix in contrast to infix. In transcription, for example in the third column in the chart above, simple affixes such as prefixes and suffixes are shown connected to the stem with hyphens. Affixes which disrupt the stem, or which themselves are discontinuous, are often marked off with angle brackets. Reduplication is often shown with a tilde. Lexical affixes Lexical affixes (or semantic affixes) are bound elements that appear as affixes, but function as incorporated nouns within verbs and as elements of compound nouns. In other words, they are similar to word roots/stems in function but similar to affixes in form. Although similar to incorporated nouns, lexical affixes differ in that they never occur as freestanding nouns, i.e. they always appear as affixes. Lexical affixes are relatively rare. The Wakashan, Salishan, and Chimakuan languages all have lexical suffixes — the presence of these is an areal feature of the Pacific Northwest of the North America. The lexical suffixes of these languages often show little to no resemblance to free nouns with similar meanings. Compare the lexical suffixes and free nouns of Northern Straits Saanich written in the Saanich orthography and in Americanist notation: Lexical Suffix Noun -o, -aʔ "person" ,ełtálṉew̱ ʔəɬtelŋəxʷ "person" -nát -net "day" sȼićel skʷičəl "day" -sen -sən "foot, lower leg" sxene, sx̣ənəʔ "foot, lower leg" -áwtw̱ -ew̕txʷ "building, house, campsite" ,á,leṉ ʔeʔləŋ "house" Lexical suffixes when compared with free nouns often have a more generic or general meaning. For instance, one of these languages may have a lexical suffix that means water in a general sense, but it may not have any noun equivalent referring to water in general and instead have several nouns with a more specific meaning (such "saltwater", "whitewater", etc.). In other cases, the lexical suffixes have become grammaticalized to various degrees. Some linguists have claimed that these lexical suffixes provide only adverbial or adjectival notions to verbs. Other linguists disagree arguing that they may additionally be syntactic arguments just as free nouns are and thus equating lexical suffixes with incorporated nouns. Gerdts (2003) gives examples of lexical suffixes in the Halkomelem language (the word order here is Verb Subject Object): {| class="IPA wikitable" |- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%" | | | style="background: #bbbbff" | VERB | style="background: #ffebad" | SUBJ | style="background: #ffbbbb" | OBJ |- | (1) | niʔ | šak’ʷ-ət-əs | łə słeniʔ | łə qeq |- | | colspan="3" | "the woman washed the baby" |- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%" | bgcolor=white colspan=5| |- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%" | | | style="background: #bbbbff" | VERB+LEX.SUFF | style="background: #ffebad" | SUBJ | |- | (2) | niʔ | šk’ʷ-əyəł | łə słeniʔ | |- | | colspan="3" | "the woman baby-washed" |} In sentence (1), the verb "wash" is where is the root and and are inflectional suffixes. The subject "the woman" is and the object "the baby" is . In this sentence, "the baby" is a free noun. (The here is an auxiliary, which can be ignored for explanatory purposes.) In sentence (2), "baby" does not appear as a free noun. Instead it appears as the lexical suffix which is affixed to the verb root (which has changed slightly in pronunciation, but this can also be ignored here). Note how the lexical suffix is neither "the baby" (definite) nor "a baby" (indefinite); such referential changes are routine with incorporated nouns. Orthographic affixes In orthography, the terms for affixes may be used for the smaller elements of conjunct characters. For example, Maya glyphs are generally compounds of a main sign and smaller affixes joined at its margins. These are called prefixes, superfixes, postfixes, and subfixes according to their position to the left, on top, to the right, or at the bottom of the main glyph. A small glyph placed inside another is called an infix. Robert Sharer & Loa Traxler, 2006, The Ancient Maya, Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804748179 Similar terminology is found with the conjunct consonants of the Indic alphabets. For example, the Tibetan alphabet utilizes prefix, suffix, superfix, and subfix consonant letters. "Precomposed Tibetan Part 1 : BrdaRten" BabelStone, September 14, 2006 See also Agglutination Augmentative Binary prefix Clitic Concatenation Derivation Diminutive English prefixes Family name affixes Internet-related prefixes Marker (linguistics) Separable affix SI prefix Stemming - affix removal using computer software Unpaired word Word formation References Bibliography Montler, Timothy. (1986). An outline of the morphology and phonology of Saanich, North Straits Salish. Occasional Papers in Linguistics (No. 4). Missoula, MT: University of Montana Linguistics Laboratory. Montler, Timothy. (1991). Saanich, North Straits Salish classified word list. Canadian Ethnology service paper (No. 119); Mercury series. Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization. ISBN 0660129086 External links Comprehensive and searchable affix dictionary reference | Affix |@lemmatized affix:25 morpheme:2 attach:1 word:10 stem:21 form:3 new:2 may:8 derivational:1 like:2 english:3 ness:1 pre:1 inflectional:2 plural:1 past:1 tense:1 ed:2 bind:1 definition:1 prefix:12 suffix:20 separable:2 affixation:1 thus:2 linguistic:1 process:1 speaker:1 use:3 neologism:1 add:1 sound:1 beginning:1 prefixation:1 middle:1 infixation:1 end:1 suffixation:1 positional:1 category:3 divide:1 several:2 depend:1 position:2 reference:3 extremely:1 common:2 term:4 infix:5 circumfix:4 less:1 important:1 european:1 language:5 uncommon:1 example:5 schema:1 description:1 un:1 appear:8 front:3 postfix:2 look:1 ing:1 back:1 saxo:1 phone:1 st:1 em:1 within:4 borneo:1 philippine:1 languages:1 scatter:1 one:2 portion:3 rear:2 interfix:2 speed:1 meter:1 stema:1 stemb:1 link:2 two:1 together:1 compound:3 duplifix:2 teeny:1 weeny:1 incorporate:1 reduplicated:1 occur:2 transfix:3 maltese:1 k:1 e:2 b:1 write:3 compare:4 root:5 ktb:1 te:1 discontinuous:3 interleave:1 simulfix:1 mouse:2 change:4 segment:1 suprafix:1 produce:2 noun:16 verb:8 suprasegmental:1 phoneme:1 disfix:1 alabama:1 tipli:1 break:2 tipasli:1 stm:1 elision:1 subsume:1 adfix:1 contrast:1 transcription:1 third:1 column:1 chart:1 simple:1 show:3 connect:1 hyphen:1 disrupt:1 often:4 mark:1 angle:1 bracket:1 reduplication:1 tilde:1 lexical:16 affixes:2 semantic:1 bound:1 element:3 function:2 incorporated:4 similar:5 although:1 differ:1 never:1 freestanding:1 always:1 relatively:1 rare:1 wakashan:1 salishan:1 chimakuan:1 presence:1 areal:1 feature:1 pacific:1 northwest:1 north:3 america:1 little:1 resemblance:1 free:6 meaning:3 northern:1 strait:3 saanich:4 orthography:2 americanist:1 notation:1 aʔ:1 person:2 ełtálṉew:1 ʔəɬtelŋəxʷ:1 nát:1 net:1 day:2 sȼićel:1 skʷičəl:1 sen:1 sən:1 foot:2 low:2 leg:2 sxene:1 sx:1 ənəʔ:1 áwtw:1 ew:1 txʷ:1 building:1 house:2 campsite:1 á:1 leṉ:1 ʔeʔləŋ:1 generic:1 general:3 instance:1 mean:1 water:2 sense:1 equivalent:1 refer:1 instead:2 specific:1 saltwater:1 whitewater:1 etc:1 case:1 become:1 grammaticalized:1 various:1 degree:1 linguist:2 claim:1 provide:1 adverbial:1 adjectival:1 notion:1 disagree:1 argue:1 additionally:1 syntactic:1 argument:1 equate:1 gerdts:1 give:1 halkomelem:1 order:1 subject:2 object:2 class:1 ipa:1 wikitable:1 style:8 line:3 height:3 font:3 size:3 background:5 bbbbff:2 ffebad:2 subj:2 ffbbbb:1 obj:1 niʔ:2 šak:1 ʷ:2 ət:1 əs:1 łə:3 słeniʔ:2 qeq:1 colspan:3 woman:3 wash:3 baby:7 bgcolor:1 white:1 lex:1 suff:1 šk:1 əyəł:1 sentence:3 auxiliary:1 ignore:2 explanatory:1 purpose:1 slightly:1 pronunciation:1 also:2 note:1 neither:1 definite:1 indefinite:1 referential:1 routine:1 orthographic:1 small:3 conjunct:2 character:1 maya:2 glyph:3 generally:1 main:2 sign:1 join:1 margin:1 call:2 superfixes:1 subfixes:1 accord:1 left:1 top:1 right:1 bottom:1 place:1 inside:1 another:1 robert:1 sharer:1 loa:1 traxler:1 ancient:1 stanford:1 university:2 press:1 isbn:2 terminology:1 find:1 consonant:2 indic:1 alphabet:2 tibetan:2 utilizes:1 superfix:1 subfix:1 letter:1 precomposed:1 part:1 brdarten:1 babelstone:1 september:1 see:1 agglutination:1 augmentative:1 binary:1 clitic:1 concatenation:1 derivation:1 diminutive:1 family:1 name:1 internet:1 related:1 marker:1 linguistics:3 si:1 removal:1 computer:1 software:1 unpaired:1 formation:1 bibliography:1 montler:2 timothy:2 outline:1 morphology:1 phonology:1 salish:2 occasional:1 paper:2 missoula:1 mt:1 montana:1 laboratory:1 classify:1 list:1 canadian:2 ethnology:1 service:1 mercury:1 series:1 hull:1 quebec:1 museum:1 civilization:1 external:1 comprehensive:1 searchable:1 dictionary:1 |@bigram past_tense:1 prefix_suffix:5 lexical_suffix:12 inflectional_suffix:1 si_prefix:1 external_link:1 |
5,884 | Furlong | A furlong is a measure of distance in imperial units and U.S. customary units. It is equal to one-eighth of a mile, 220 yards, 660 feet, 201.168 meters, or 10 chains. SI conversions in this article are based on the international yard, defined as exactly 0.9144 meter. Since furlongs are not used for precision measurements, there is no need to consider other slightly different conversions.National Bureau of Standards. (30 June 1959). "Refinement of Values for the Yard and the Pound". Washington DC: Federal Register, republished by National Geodetic Survey. Retrieved 6 December 2008. Five furlongs are approximately 1 kilometer (1.00584 km to be exact). Since the original definition of the meter was one-quarter of one ten-millionth of the circumference of the Earth (along the great circle coincident with the meridian of longitude passing through Paris), the circumference of the Earth is about 40,000 km or about 200,000 furlongs. History The name furlong derives from the Old English words (furrow) and (long). Dating back at least to the ninth century, it originally referred to the length of the furrow in one acre of a plowed open field (a medieval communal field which was divided into strips). The system of long furrows arose because turning a team of oxen pulling a heavy plow was difficult. This offset the drainage advantages of short furrows and meant furrows were made as long as possible. An acre is an area that is one furlong long and one chain (22 yards) wide. For this reason, the furlong was once also called an acre's length, though of course in modern usage an area of one acre can be any shape. The furlong was historically viewed as equivalent to the Roman stade (stadium), which in turn derived from the Greek system. For example the King James Bible will use the term "furlong" in place of the Greek "stadion", whereas modern translations will translate into miles in the main text and relate the original numbers in footnotes. In the Roman system, there were 625 feet to the stade, eight stade to the mile, and three miles to the league. A league was considered to be the distance a man could walk in one hour, and the mile (mille, meaning one thousand) consisted of 1000 passus (paces, 5 feet, or double-step). After the fall of Rome, Medieval Europe continued with the Roman system, which proceeded to "diversify" leading to serious complications in trade, taxation, etc. Around the turn of the century of 1300, England by decree standardized a long list of measures. Among the important units of distance and length at the time were foot, yard, rod, furlong and mile. The rod was 5½ yards or 16½ feet (= 3 feet/yard × 5½ yards), and the mile was 8 furlongs, so the definition of the furlong became 40 rods and that of the mile became 5280 feet (= 8 furlongs × 40 rods/furlong × 16½ feet/rod). The official use of furlong was abolished in the United Kingdom under the Weights and Measures Act of 1985, which also abolished from official use many other traditional units of measurement. Use The 5 furlong (1006 m) post on Epsom Downs Today the unit enjoys very limited use. Distances for thoroughbred horse races in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, and the United States are still given in miles and furlongs (example). The furlong is a base unit of the humorous FFF System of units. The city of Chicago's street numbering system allots a measure of 800 address units to each mile, in keeping with the city's system of eight blocks per mile. This means that every block in a typical Chicago neighborhood (in either North/South or East/West direction but rarely both) is approximately one furlong in length. Salt Lake City's blocks are also each a square furlong in the downtown area. However, the blocks are irregular in shape as one moves further out from the center, but the numbering system remains the same (800 units to each mile) everywhere in Salt Lake County. Bus stops in Ann Arbor, Michigan are about a furlong apart. Blocks in central Logan, Utah, and in large sections of Phoenix, Arizona are similarly a square furlong in extent (eight to a mile, which explains the series of freeway exits: 19th Ave, 27th, 35th, 43rd, 51st, 59th...). City blocks in Melbourne's Hoddle Grid are also one furlong in length. 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5,885 | Jackson,_Mississippi | Jackson is the capital and the most populous city of the U.S. state of Mississippi. It is one of two seats in Hinds County; the town of Raymond is the other. The 2000 census recorded Jackson's population at 184,256, but according to July 1, 2006 estimates, the city's population was 176,614 and its five-county metropolitan area had a population of 529,456. The Jackson-Yazoo City combined statistical area, consisting of the Jackson metropolitan area and Yazoo City micropolitan area, has a population of 557,385, making it the 88th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. The current slogan for the city is Jackson, Mississippi: City with Soul. http://www.jacksoncitywithsoul.com/ The city is named after President Andrew Jackson. History Native Americans The entire Choctaw Nation's location compared to the U.S. state of Mississippi. The area which is now Jackson was originally part of the Choctaw Nation. Under pressure from the US government, the Choctaw Native Americans agreed to removal from all lands east of the Mississippi River under the terms of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek in 1830. Although many Choctaws moved to present-day Oklahoma, a significant number chose to stay in their homeland, citing Article XIV of the treaty. Today, most Choctaws, who are part of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, live on several Indian communities located throughout the state. The largest community is located in Choctaw, MS, 100 mi northeast of the city. Founding and antebellum period (to 1860) The area that is now Jackson was initially referred to as Parkerville WorldWeb.com Travel Guide and was settled by Louis LeFleur, a French Canadian trader, along the historic Natchez Trace trade route. The area then became known as LeFleur's Bluff Official City of Jackson, Mississippi Website - Jackson's History . LeFleur's Bluff was founded based on the need for a centrally located capital for the state of Mississippi. In 1821, the Mississippi General Assembly, meeting in the then-capital of Natchez, had sent Thomas Hinds (for whom Hinds County is named), James Patton, and William Lattimore to look for a site. After surveying areas north and east of Jackson, they proceeded southwest along the Pearl River until they reached LeFleur's Bluff in Hinds County. Their report to the General Assembly stated that this location had beautiful and healthful surroundings, good water, abundant timber, navigable waters, and proximity to the trading route Natchez Trace. And so, a legislative Act passed by the Assembly on November 28, 1821, authorized the location to become the permanent seat of the government of the state of Mississippi. Andrew Jackson, 7th President of the United States and the city's namesake Jackson is named after the seventh President of the United States, Andrew Jackson, in recognition for his victory in the Battle of New Orleans. During the late 18th century and early 19th century, the area was traversed by the Natchez Trace, on which a trading post stood before a treaty with the Choctaw, the Treaty of Doak's Stand in 1820, formally opened the area for non-native American settlers. Jackson was originally planned, in April 1822, by Peter Van Dorn in a "checkerboard" pattern advocated by Thomas Jefferson, in which city blocks alternated with parks and other open spaces, giving the appearance of a checkerboard. This plan has not lasted to the present day. The state legislature first met in Jackson on December 23, 1822. In 1839, Jackson was the site of the passage of the first state law that permitted married women to own and administer their own property. Jackson was first linked with other cities by rail in 1840. An 1844 map shows Jackson linked by an east-west rail line running between Vicksburg, Raymond, and Brandon. Unlike Vicksburg, Greenville, and Natchez, Jackson is not located on the Mississippi River, and did not develop like those cities from river commerce. Instead, railroads would later spark growth of the city in the decades after the American Civil War. American Civil War and late nineteenth century (1861-1900) Despite its small population, during the Civil War, Jackson became a strategic center of manufacturing for the Confederate States of America. In 1863, during the campaign which ended in the capture of Vicksburg, Union forces captured Jackson during two battles—once before the fall of Vicksburg and once after the fall of Vicksburg. September 1863 map of the Siege of Jackson. On May 13, 1863, Union forces won the first Battle of Jackson, forcing Confederate forces to flee northward towards Canton. On May 15, Union troops under the command of William Tecumseh Sherman burned and looted key facilities in Jackson, a strategic manufacturing and railroad center for the Confederacy. After driving the Confederate forces out of Jackson, Union forces turned west once again and engaged the Vicksburg defenders at the Battle of Champion Hill in nearby Edwards. The siege of Vicksburg began soon after the Union victory at Champion Hill. Confederate forces began to reassemble in Jackson in preparation for an attempt to break through the Union lines surrounding Vicksburg and end the siege there. The Confederate forces in Jackson built defensive fortifications encircling the city while preparing to march west to Vicksburg. Confederate forces marched out of Jackson to break the siege of Vicksburg in early July 1863. However, unknown to them, Vicksburg had already surrendered on July 4, 1863. General Ulysses S. Grant dispatched General Sherman to meet the Confederate forces heading west from Jackson. Upon learning that Vicksburg had already surrendered, the Confederates retreated back into Jackson, thus beginning the Siege of Jackson, which lasted for approximately one week. Union forces encircled the city and began an artillery bombardment. One of the Union artillery emplacements still remains intact on the grounds of the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson. Another Federal position is still intact on the campus of Millsaps College. One of the Confederate Generals defending Jackson was former United States Vice President John C. Breckenridge. On July 16, 1863, Confederate forces slipped out of Jackson during the night and retreated across the Pearl River. Union forces completely burned the city after its capture this second time, and the city earned the nickname "Chimneyville" because only the chimneys of houses were left standing. The northern line of Confederate defenses in Jackson during the siege was located along a road near downtown Jackson, now known as Fortification Street. Today there are few antebellum structures left standing in Jackson. One surviving structure is the Governor's Mansion, built in 1842, which served as Sherman's headquarters. Another is the Old Capitol building, which served as the home of the Mississippi state legislature from 1839 to 1903. There the Mississippi legislature passed the ordinance of secession from the Union on January 9, 1861, becoming the second state to secede from the United States. In 1875 the Red Shirts were formed, one of a second wave of insurgent paramilitary organizations that essentially operated as "the military arm of the Democratic Party" to take back political power from the Republicans and to drive blacks from the polls. George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984, p. 132 Democrats regained control of the state legislature in 1876. The constitutional convention of 1890, which produced Mississippi's Constitution of 1890, was also held at the capitol. This was the first of new constitutions or amendments ratified in southern states through 1908 that effectively disfranchised African Americans and poor whites, through provisions making voter registration more difficult: such as poll taxes, residency requirements, and literacy tests. These provisions survived a Supreme Court challenge in 1898. Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol.17, 2000, pp.12-13, accessed 10 March 2008 Michael Perman, Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888-1908, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001 As 20th century Supreme Court decisions began to find such provisions unconstitutional, Mississippi and other southern states rapidly devised new methods to continue disfranchisement of most blacks. The so-called New Capitol replaced the older structure upon its completion in 1903, and today the Old Capitol is a historical museum. A third important surviving antebellum structure is the Jackson City Hall, built in 1846 for less than $8,000. It is said that Sherman, a Mason, spared it because it housed a Masonic Lodge, though a more likely reason is that it housed an army hospital. Early twentieth century (1901-1960) April 16, 1921 flood on Town Creek tributary stream at Jackson, Mississippi shown flowed onto Capitol Street. The photo is a view of East Capitol Street looking east from North Farish Street. Eudora Welty (1909-2001), award-winning American author and photographer.Pulitzer Prize-winning author Eudora Welty was born in Jackson in 1909, lived most of her life in the Belhaven section of the city, and died there in 2001. Her memoir of development as a writer, One Writer's Beginnings (1984), presented a charming picture of the city in the early 20th century. The main Jackson Public Library was named in her honor. Highly acclaimed African-American author Richard Wright, a native of Roxie, Mississippi, lived in Jackson as an adolescent and young man in the 1910s and 1920s. He related his experience in his memoir Black Boy (1945). He described the harsh and largely terror-filled life poor African-Americans experienced in the South and northern ghettos under segregation in the early twentieth century. Jackson's economic growth was stimulated in the 1930s by the discovery of natural gas fields nearby. During World War II, Hawkins Field in northwest Jackson became a major airbase. Among other facilities and units, the Royal Netherlands Military Flying School was established there, after Nazi Germany occupied the Netherlands. From 1941, the base trained all Dutch military aircrews. Civil Rights Movement in Jackson Since 1960, Jackson has undergone a series of dramatic changes and growth. As the state capital, it became a site for civil rights activism that was heightened by mass demonstrations during the 1960s. On May 24, 1961, during the African-American Civil Rights Movement, more than 300 Freedom Riders were arrested in Jackson for disturbing the peace after they disembarked from their bus. They were riding the bus to demonstrate against segregation on public transportation. Although the Freedom Riders had intended New Orleans, Louisiana as their final destination, Jackson was the farthest that any of them managed to travel. Efforts to desegregate Jackson facilities began before the Freedom Rides when nine Tougaloo students were arrested for attempting to read books in the "white only" public library. Founded as a historically black college (HBCU) by the American Missionary Movement after the Civil War, Tougaloo College brought both black and white students together to work for civil rights. It also created partnerships with neighboring mostly white Millsaps College to work with student activists. It has been recognized as a site on the Civil Rights Trail by the National Park Service. After the Freedom Rides, students and activists of the Freedom Movement launched a series of merchant boycotts , sit-ins and protest marches , from 1961 to 1963. In Jackson, shortly after midnight on June 12, 1963, Medgar Evers, civil rights activist and leader of the Mississippi chapter of the NAACP, was murdered by Byron De La Beckwith, a white supremacist. Thousands marched in his funeral procession to protest the assassination. Medgar Evers Assassination ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans In 1994, prosecutors Ed Peters and Bobby DeLaughter finally obtained a murder conviction of De La Beckwith. A portion of U.S. Highway 49, all of Delta Drive and Jackson-Evers International Airport was named in honor of Medgar Evers. During 1963 and 1964, organizers did voter education and voter registration. In a pilot project, they rapidly registered 80,000 voters across the state, demonstrating the desire of African Americans to vote. In 1964 they created the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party as an alternative to the all-white state party, and sent an alternate slate of candidates to the national party convention. Mississippi continued segregation and the disfranchisement of most African Americans until after the Civil Rights Movement gained passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Acts of 1965. In June 1966, Jackson was also the terminus of the James Meredith March, organized by James Meredith, the first African-American to enroll at the University of Mississippi. The march, which began in Memphis, Tennessee, was an attempt to garner support for implementation of civil rights legislation. It was accompanied by a new drive to register African-Americans to vote in Mississippi. In this latter aim, it succeeded in registering between 2,500 and 3,000 black Mississippians to vote. The march ended on June 26 after Meredith, who had been wounded by a sniper's bullet earlier on the march, addressed a large rally of some 15,000 people in Jackson. In September 1967 the Ku Klux Klan bombed the synagogue building of the Beth Israel Congregation in Jackson, and in November bombed the house of its rabbi, Dr. Perry Nussbaum. History of Beth Israel, Jackson, Mississippi, Goldring/Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life website, History Department, Digital Archive, Mississippi, Jackson, Beth Israel. Accessed August 17, 2008. Gradually the old barriers came down. Since then, both whites and African Americans in the state have had a high rate of voter registration and turnout. Edward Blum and Abigail Thernstrom, Executive Summary of the Bullock-Gaddie Expert Report on Mississippi, 17 Apr 2006, accessed 21 March 2008 Recent History The first successful cadaveric lung transplant was performed at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson in June 1963 by Dr. James Hardy. Hardy transplanted the cadaveric lung into a patient suffering from lung cancer. The patient survived for eighteen days before dying of kidney failure. Since 1968, Jackson has been the home of Malaco Records, one of the leading record companies for gospel and soul music in the United States. In January 1973, Paul Simon recorded the song "Learn How To Fall", found on the album There Goes Rhymin' Simon, in Jackson at the Malaco Recording Studios. On May 15, 1970 police killed two students and wounded 12 at Jackson State University (then called Jackson State College) after a protest of the Vietnam War included overturning and burning some cars. These killings occurred ten days after the National Guard killed four students in an anti-war protest at Kent State University in Ohio, and were part of national social unrest.<ref>Tim Spofford, Lynch Street: The May 1970 Slayings at Jackson State College, Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1988, pp. 17 and 19</ref> Newsweek cited the Jackson State killings in its issue of 18 May when it suggested that U.S. President Richard Nixon faced a new home front. In 1997, Harvey Johnson, Jr. became the city's first African-American mayor. During his term, he proposed the creation of a convention center, in hopes of attracting business to the city. In 2004, during his second term, 66 percent of the voters passed a referendum for a tax to build the Convention Center. http://www.visitjackson.com/media-article.php?article_id=52 As a result of this vote, many new development projects are underway in Downtown Jackson. Mayor Johnson was replaced by Frank Melton on July 4, 2005. Melton has subsequently generated controversy through his unconventional behavior, which has included acting as a law enforcement officer. A dramatic spike in crime has also ensued, despite Melton's efforts to reduce crime. The lack of jobs has contributed to crime. 2007 saw a historic first for Mississippi as Hinds County sheriff Malcolm McMillin was appointed as the new police chief in Jackson. McMillin is now both the county sheriff and city police chief. Geography, geology, and climate Jackson is located on the Pearl River, and is served by the Ross Barnett Reservoir, which forms a section of the Pearl River and is located northeast of Jackson on the border between Madison and Rankin counties. A tiny portion of the city containing Tougaloo College lies in Madison County, bounded on the west by I-220 and on the east by US 51 and I-55. A second portion of the city is located in Rankin County. In the 2000 census, 183,723 of the city's 184,256 residents (99.7%) lived in Hinds County and 533 (0.3%) in Madison County. Although no Jackson residents lived in the Rankin County portion in 2000, that figure had risen to 72 by 2006. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 106.8 square miles (276.7 km²), of which, 104.9 square miles (271.7 km²) of it is land and 1.9 square miles (5.0 km²) of it is water. The total area is 1.80 percent water. Jackson sits atop the Jackson Volcano and is the only capital city or major population center in the United States to have this feature. The peak of the volcano is located 2900 feet directly below the Mississippi Coliseum. Jackson possesses a humid subtropical climate, with hot, humid summers and mild winters. Rain is evenly spread throughout the year, and snow can fall in wintertime, although heavy snowfall is relatively rare. Much of Jackson's rainfall occurs during thunderstorms. Thunder is heard on roughly 70 days per annum. Jackson lies in a region prone to severe thunderstorms which can produce large hail, damaging winds and tornadoes. Among one of the most notable tornado events was the F5 Candlestick Park Tornado on March 3, 1966 which destroyed the shopping center of the same name and surrounding businesses and residential areas killing 19 in South Jackson. Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Rec High °F (°C) 83 (28.3) 85 (29.4) 89 (31.6) 94 (34.4) 99 (37.2) 105 (40.5) 106 (41.1) 107 (41.6) 104 (40) 95 (35) 88 (31.1) 84 (28.8) Norm High °F (°C) 55.1 (12.8) 60.3 (15.7) 68.1 (20.05) 75 (23.8) 82.1 (27.8) 88.9 (31.6) 91.4 (33) 91.4 (33) 86.4 (30.2) 76.8 (24.8) 66.3 (19.05) 57.9 (14.4) Norm Low °F (°C) 35 (1.6) 38.2 (3.4) 45.4 (7.4) 51.7 (10.9) 61 (16.1) 68.1 (20.05) 71.4 (21.8) 70.3 (21.3) 64.6 (18.1) 52 (11.1) 43.4 (6.3) 37.3 (2.9) Rec Low °F (°C) 2 (-16.6) 10 (-12.2) 15 (-9.4) 27 (-2.7) 38 (3.3) 47 (8.3) 51 (10.5) 54 (12.2) 35 (1.6) 26 (-3.3) 17 (-8.3) 4 (-15.5) Precip in. (mm) 5.67 (144) 4.5 (114.3) 5.74 (145.8) 5.98 (151.9) 4.86 (123.4) 3.82 (97) 4.69 (119.1) 3.66 (93) 3.23 (82) 3.42 (86.9) 5.04 (128) 5.34 (135.6)Source: Weather.com Demographics City of Jackson Population by year Year Population %± U.S. Rank1860 3,191 +69.6% —1870 4,234 +32.7% —1880 5,204 +22.9% —1890 5,920 +13.8% —1900 7,816 +32.0% —1910 21,262 +172.0% —1920 22,817 +7.3% —1930 48,282 +111.6% —1940 62,107 +28.6% —1950 98,271 +58.2% —1960 144,422 +47.0% 85th1970 153,968 +6.6% 91st1980 202,895 +31.8% 71st1990 196,637 -3.1% 78th2000 184,286 -6.3% 108th2006 est. 176,614 -4.2% 126th Jackson remained a small town for much of the 19th century. Before the American Civil War, Jackson's population remained small, particularly in contrast to those towns located along the commerce-laden Mississippi River. Despite the city's status as the state capital, the 1850 census counted only 1,881 residents, and by 1900 the population of Jackson had grown only to approximately 8,000. It was during this period, roughly between 1890 and 1930, that Meridian became Mississippi's largest city. By 1944, Jackson's population had risen to some 70,000 inhabitants. Since that time, it has continuously been the largest city in the state. Large-scale growth, however, did not come until the 1970s, after the turbulence of the Civil Rights Movement. The 1980 census counted over 200,000 residents in the city for the first time. Since then, Jackson has steadily seen a decline in its population, while its suburbs have evidenced a boom. As of the census of 2000, there were 184,256 people, 67,841 households, and 44,488 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,756.4 people per square mile (678.2/km²). There were 75,678 housing units at average density of 278.5/km² (721.4/sq mi). The racial makeup of the city was 70.6% Black or African American, 27.8% White, 0.1% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.2% from other races, and 0.7% from two or more races. 0.8% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 67,841 households out of which 39.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.4% were married couples living together, 25.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.4% were non-families. 28.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.24. The age of the population was spread out with 28.5% under the age of 18, 12.4% from 18 to 24, 29.1% from 25 to 44, 19.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $30,414, and the median income for a family was $36,003. Males had a median income of $29,166 versus $23,328 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,116. About 19.6% of families and 23.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.7% of those under age 18 and 15.7% of those age 65 or over. Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000, United States Census Bureau Jackson ranks number 10 in the nation in concentration of African-American same-sex couples. Facts and Findings from The Gay and Lesbian Atlas In 2006, the Center for Immigrant Studies found Mississippi had the highest rate of growth in immigrant population of all states. The Jackson metro area is one of the South's emerging destinations for immigrants. Crime The 14th annual (2007) "City Crime Rankings: Crime in Metropolitan America" ranks Jackson as the 23rd most dangerous city in America. According to Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reports, from 2005 to 2008, violent crime jumped 238 percent in Jackson - from 1,225 reported incidents in 2005 to 4,140 in 2008. Also, even though the city's population decreased 3 percent from 180,400 in 2005 to about 175,000 in 2008, property crime also increased more than 8 percent, from 12,008 reported incidents in 2005 to 13,042 in 2008. Transportation Air travel Jackson is served by Jackson-Evers International Airport, located at Allen C. Thompson Field, east of the city in Flowood in Rankin County. Its IATA code is JAN. The airport has non-stop service to 12 cities throughout the United States and is served by 6 scheduled carriers (American, Delta, Continental, Southwest, Northwest, and US Airways) On 22 December 2004, Jackson City Council members voted 6-0 to rename Jackson International Airport in honor of slain civil rights leader and field secretary for the Mississippi chapter of the NAACP, Medgar Evers. This decision took effect on 22 January 2005. Formerly Jackson was served by Hawkins Field Airport, located in northwest Jackson, with IATA code HKS, which is now used for private air traffic only. Underway is the Airport Parkway project. The environmental impact study is complete and final plans are drawn and awaiting Mississippi Department of Transportation approval. Right-of-way acquisition is underway at an estimated cost of $19 million. The Airport Parkway will connect High Street in downtown Jackson to Mississippi Highway 475 in Flowood at Jackson-Evers International Airport. The Airport Parkway Commission consists of the Mayor of Pearl, the Mayor of Flowood, and the Mayor of Jackson, as the Airport Parkway will run through and have access from each of these three cities. Ground transportation Interstate highways Interstate 20Runs east-west from near El Paso, Texas to Florence, South Carolina. Jackson is roughly halfway between Dallas, Texas and Atlanta, Georgia. The highway is six lanes from Interstate 220 to MS 468 in Pearl. Interstate 55Runs north-south from Chicago through Jackson towards Brookhaven, McComb, and the Louisiana state line to New Orleans. Jackson is roughly halfway between New Orleans and Memphis, Tennessee. The highway maintains eight to ten lanes in northern part of city, six lanes in the center and four lanes south of I-20. Interstate 220Connects Interstates 55 and 20 on the north and west sides of the city and is four lanes throughout its route. U.S. highways U.S. Highway 49 Runs north-south from the Arkansas state line at Lula via Clarksdale and Yazoo City, towards Hattiesburg and Gulfport. It bypasses the city via I-20 and I-220 U.S. Highway 51Known in Jackson as State Street, roughly parallels Interstate 55 from the I-20/I-55 western split to downtown. It multiplexes with I-55 from Pearl/Pascagoula St northward to County Line Road, where the two highways split. U.S. Highway 80 Roughly parallels Interstate 20. State highways Mississippi Highway 18Runs southwest towards Raymond and Port Gibson; southeast towards Bay Springs and Quitman. Mississippi Highway 25Some parts of this road are known as Lakeland Drive, which runs northeast towards Carthage and Starkville. Other roads In addition, Jackson is served by the Natchez Trace Parkway, which runs from Natchez to Nashville, Tennessee. Bus service JATRAN (Jackson Transit System) operates hourly or half-hourly during daytime hours on weekdays, and mostly hourly on Saturdays. No evening or Sunday service is operated. Railroads Jackson is served by the Canadian National Railway (formerly the Illinois Central Railroad). The Kansas City Southern Railway also serves the city. The Canadian National has a medium-sized yard downtown which Mill Street parallels and the Kansas City Southern has a large classification yard in Richland. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Jackson. The Amtrak station is located at 300 West Capitol Street. Amtrak's southbound City of New Orleans provides service from Jackson to New Orleans and some points between. The northbound City of New Orleans provides service from Jackson to Memphis, Carbondale, Champaign-Urbana, Chicago and some points between. Efforts to establish service with another Amtrak train, the Crescent Star, an extension of the Crescent westward from Meridian, Mississippi to Dallas, Texas, failed in 2003. Industry Jackson is home to several major industries. These include electrical equipment and machinery, processed food, and primary and fabricated metal products. The surrounding area supports agricultural development of livestock, soybeans, cotton, and poultry. Publicly traded companies The following companies are headquartered in Jackson: Cal-Maine Foods, Inc. (NASDAQ:CALM) EastGroup Properties Inc. (NYSE:EGP) Parkway Properties, Inc. (NYSE:PKY) Trustmark Corporation (NASDAQ:TRMK) Religion Jackson is the episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Jackson Jackson is home to the original campus of the Reformed Theological Seminary Jackson is the headquarters of the Church of Christ (Holiness) U.S.A., founded by Charles Price Jones Jackson is home to Beth Israel Congregation, the only Jewish congregation in Jackson and the largest in Mississippi. History of Beth Israel, Jackson, Mississippi, Goldring/Woldenberg Institute of Southern Jewish Life website, History Department, Digital Archive, Mississippi, Jackson, Beth Israel. Accessed November 17, 2008. Cultural organizations and institutions Jackson, Mississippi city hall Ballet Mississippi Celtic Heritage Society of Mississippi International Museum of Muslim Cultures Jackson State University Botanical Garden Jackson Zoo Mississippi Agriculture and Forestry Museum Mississippi Arts Center Mississippi Chorus Mississippi Department of Archives and History, which contains the state archives and records. Mississippi Heritage Trust Mississippi Hispanic Association Mississippi Immigrants Rights Alliance Mississippi Museum of Art Mississippi Opera Mississippi Symphony Orchestra (MSO), formerly the Jackson Symphony Orchestra, founded in 1944 Municipal Art Gallery Mynelle Gardens New Stage Theatre Russell C. Davis Planetarium Smith-Robertson Museum and Cultural Center Political structures In 1985, Jackson voters opted to replace the three-man mayor-commissioner system with a city council. Jackson's city council members represent the city's seven wards, and the body is headed by the mayor. Jackson's current mayor is Leslie B. McLemore, who is serving as interim mayor due to the death of Frank Melton. Melton became mayor after defeating two-time incumbent Harvey Johnson, Jr. in a landslide election. Melton's 4-year term as mayor began on July 4, 2005, and ended on May 7, 2009 when he died at 12:10 AM. The Associated Press: Jackson, Miss., mayor dies after losing primary On May 5, 2009, Melton lost his bid for re-election, coming in third in the primary election to Marshand Crisler and former mayor Harvey Johnson, Jr. Melton was rushed to the hospital election night after suffering full cardiac arrest at his Jackson home. He died shortly after midnight on Thursday, May 7, 2009. Education Jackson is home to the international headquarters of Phi Theta Kappa, an honor society for students enrolled in two-year colleges. Colleges and universities Belhaven College (1883) Hinds Community College's campuses in Jackson are the Nursing/Allied Health Center (1970) and the Academic/Technical Center Jackson State University (1877) Millsaps College (1890) Mississippi College School of Law (1930) Reformed Theological Seminary (1966) Tougaloo College (1869) University of Mississippi Medical Center (1955), health sciences campus of the University of Mississippi Wesley Biblical Seminary (1974) Public high schools Bailey Magnet High School Callaway High School Career Development Center Forest Hill High School Jim Hill High School Lanier High School Murrah High School Provine High School Wingfield High School Private high schools Christ Missionary & Industrial (CM&I) College High School Hillcrest Christian School Jackson Academy The Veritas School Private Schools Magnolia Speech School St. Andrew's Episcopal Lower School - South Campus Media Newspapers Daily The Clarion-Ledger - statewide daily newspaper Weekly Jackson Advocate - weekly newspaper and nation's oldest newspaper serving the state's African-American community Jackson Free Press - free newsweekly tabloid featuring heavy content on arts and entertainment The Mississippi Link - weekly newspaper serving the state's African-American community Mississippi Business Journal - weekly newspaper, with focus on business and economic development The Northside Sun - weekly newspaper, with focus on the northeastern portion of the Jackson Metropolitan area Historic The Mississippian Daily Gazette - also often referred to as The Jackson Mississippian because of its location, circulated during the 19th century, a major newspaper during the Civil War The Standard - circulated during the 19th century, after the Civil War The Eastern Clarion moved to Jackson and merged with The Standard, soon changed name to The Clarion State Ledger - circulated during the 19th century, in 1888 The Clarion merged with the State Ledger and became known as The Clarion-Ledger The Jackson Daily News - originally known as The Jackson Evening Post in 1882, changed the name to The Jackson Daily News in 1907, purchased along with The Clarion-Ledger by Gannett in 1982 Magazines Mississippi Magazine - people, places and events with emphasis on homes, cooking and entertainment B Fit and Healthy Magazine - health and fitness magazine for Mississippians Victories in Metro Jackson - Christian athletics magazine "PORTICO jackson" - monthly lifestyle magazine about people, places, food, fashion, etc. Publishing University Press of Mississippi, the state's only not-for-profit publishing house and collective publisher for Mississippi's eight state universities, producing works on local history, culture and society Television Channel 3, WLBT: NBC Channel 8, WBXK: dark Channel 10, WBMS: independent (simulcast of WXMS) Channel 12, WJTV: CBS Channel 16, WAPT: ABC Channel 23, W23BC: Colours TV, America One (owned by Jackson State University) Channel 27, WXMS: independent Channel 29, WMPN: PBS/Mississippi Public Broadcasting Channel 34, WRBJ: The CW Channel 35, WUFX: My Network TV Channel 40, WDBD: Fox Channel 49, WJXF-LP: dark Channel 53, WJMF-LP: dark Channel 64, WJKO-LP: TBN FM radio 88.5 WJSU: Jazz; National Public Radio 89.1 WMBU: Moody Bible Radio 90.1 WMPR: Blues, Urban contemporary gospel, Talk, Variety 91.3 WMPN: Classical Music; National Public Radio 92.5 WQST: American Family Radio 93.5 WHJT (Star 93.5): Contemporary Christian music 93.9 WRXW (Rock 93-9): Modern Rock 94.7 WWJK (94-7 Jack FM): Adult hits 95.5 WHLH (95.5 Hallelujah FM): Urban contemporary gospel 96.3 WUSJ (US 96.3): Country Music 97.3 WFMN (Supertalk Mississippi): Talk, News 97.7 WRBJ-FM: Hip-Hop 98.7 WJKK: Adult Contemporary 99.7 WJMI: Hip-Hop 100.1 WLEZ-LP: Adult standards 100.5 WRTM: Urban Adult Contemporary 100.9 WJXN (K-LOVE): Contemporary Christian music 101.7 WYOY (Y101): Top 40, Pop 102.9 WMSI: Country Music 103.9 WYAB (103-9 WYAB): Talk Radio 105.1 WQJQ (Q-105): Oldies 105.9 WOAD-FM: Urban contemporary gospel 106.7 WSTZ (Z106): Classic Rock 107.5 WKXI-FM (Kixie 107): R&B, Soul AM radio 620 WJDX: Fox Sports Radio 780 WIIN: Christian country-music 810 WSJC: Family Talk radio 850 WQST: southern gospel 930 WSFZ: Sporting News Radio 970 WJFN: Sporting News Radio 1120 WTWZ: bluegrass gospel 1150 WONG: gospel 1180 WJNT: news-talk 1240 WPBQ: ESPN Radio 1300 WOAD: gospel 1370 WMGO: gospel 1400 WJQS: business 1590 WZRX: CNN Headline News Points of interest Mississippi State Capitol Tourism and Culture Jackson is a city famous for its music - including Gospel, Blues, and R&B. Jackson is also home to the world famous Malaco Records recording studio. Many notable musicians hail from Jackson. Rap rocker Kid Rock made a song about Jackson, aptly titled "Jackson, Mississippi", in 2003. "Jackson" is a song written by Jerry Leiber and Billy Edd Wheeler about a married couple who find that the "fire" has gone out of their relationship. The song relates the desire of the husband and wife to travel to Jackson, Mississippi, where they each look forward to a new life free of the unhappy relationship. Famous covers of the song include the 1968 Grammy Award winner by Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash. The song was performed by Joaquin Phoenix and Reese Witherspoon (playing Johnny Cash and June Carter) in the 2005 film Walk the Line. Jackson is home to the USA International Ballet Competition. Founded in 1978 by Thalia Mara, the first USA International Ballet Competition took place in 1979 and joined the ranks of Varna, Bulgaria (1964); Moscow, Russia (1969); and Tokyo, Japan (1976). The International Ballet Competition (IBC) originated in Varna, Bulgaria in 1964. The competition eventually expanded to rotating annual events in Varna, Moscow and Tokyo. In 1979 the event first came to the United States in Jackson, Mississippi, where it now returns every four years. The rotation is currently among Jackson, Varna, Helsinki, Finland, and Shanghai, China. These first competitions were given sanction by the International Dance Committee of UNESCO’s International Theater Institute. Today, international ballet competitions flourish worldwide, and the USA IBC in Jackson remains one of the oldest and most respected competitions in the world. In 1982, the United States Congress passed a Joint Resolution designating Jackson as the official home of the USA International Ballet Competition. Jackson held subsequent competitions in 1982, 1986, 1990, 1994, 1998, 2002 and 2006. The next competition is in 2010. The competitions are held at Thalia Mara Hall. USA International Ballet Competition Periodic cultural events CelticFest Mississippi (annual, September) Crossroads Film Festival (annual, April) Festival Latino (annual, September) Jubilee!Jam (annual, June) Mal's St. Pattys Day Parade (annual, on the Saturday of or after March 17, the fourth largest in the nation with over 50,000 people) Mississippi State Fair (annual, held in October) OUToberfest (annual gay and lesbian festival, October) USA International Ballet Competition (every four years, June) Downtown Jackson Attractions Alamo Theater (The) Boddie Mansion (The) Bronze Statue of Medgar Evers Chimneyville Crafts Gallery City Hall Dr. A. H. McCoy Federal Building Jackson Zoo Mississippi Arts Center Mississippi Department of Archives and History Mississippi Fairgrounds and Coliseum Mississippi Farmer's Market Mississippi Governor's Mansion Mississippi Museum of Art Mississippi State Capitol Mississippi Supreme Court Municipal Art Gallery The Oaks House Museum/Boyd House Old State Capitol Russell C. Davis Planetarium/Ronald E. McNair Space Theater Smith Park - located downtown adjacent to the Governor's Mansion Smith Robertson Museum and Cultural Center Sonny Guy Municipal Golf Course Thalia Mara Hall War Memorial Building Museums and Historic Sites Eudora Welty House Museum Greenwood Cemetery The International Museum of Muslim Cultures The City of Jackson Fire Museum King Edward Hotel Manship House Museum Medgar Evers Home Museum Mississippi Agriculture and Forestry Museum Mississippi Governor's Mansion Mississippi Museum of Art Mississippi Museum of Natural Science Mississippi Sports Hall of Fame and Museum The Oaks House Museum/Boyd House Old Capitol Museum of Mississippi History Smith Robertson Museum and Cultural Center Standard Life Insurance Building Historic marker Jackson, Mississippi received its first Mississippi Blues Trail designation. The ceremony was held and the historic marker placed on the former site of the Subway Lounge on Pearl Street. The Subway Lounge was in the basement of the old Summers Hotel, one of two hotels available as lodging to blacks before desegregation when it opened in 1943. In the 1960s, the hotel added a lounge in the basement that featured jazz. In the 1980s, when the lounge was revived, it was catered to late night blues performers. In 2002, the Subway Lounge was filmed for a documentary entitled Last of the Mississippi Jukes. Parks Battlefield Park Grove Park LeFleur's Bluff State Park Parham Bridges Park Sheppard Brothers Park Smith Park Sykes Park Downtown Jackson Renaissance Currently, Jackson is experiencing $1.6 billion in downtown development Downtown Jackson Partners . Among the projects include improvements to or construction of the following: Old Capitol Green Pinnacle at Jackson Place Convention Center and Hotels Mississippi Telecom Center Events Center/Sports Arena Union Station Farish Street Entertainment District Standard Life Building Renovations Electric 302 Plaza Building AT&T Building Jackson Place Residential State and Tombigbee Lofts Library Lofts Towncreek Apartments at Farish Ceva Green King Edward Hotel Renovations Mississippi History Museum Festival Park Old Capitol MuseumMill Street Viaduct and Market Cellular South JPD Headquarters New Federal Courthouse Mississippi Museum of Art Tallest buildings Name Height Year Regions Plaza (formerly AmSouth) 97 m 1975 Jackson Marriott Downtown 78 m 1975 Regions Bank Building (formerly AmSouth) 77 m 1929 Standard Life Building 76 m 1929 Trustmark National Bank Building 66 m 1955 Lamar Life Building 58 m 1924 Sports Summer Training Camp New Orleans Saints - Jackson's Millsaps College is the summer home for the NFL's New Orleans Saints. Sports arenas Mississippi Veterans Memorial Stadium -- Concerts, Football (home of Jackson State University) Mississippi Coliseum -- Basketball, Hockey, Track, Rodeo, Concerts Smith Wills Stadium -- Baseball, Softball, Football, Soccer, Concerts Former professional sports teams Baseball Jackson Mets - former Texas League AA affiliate of the New York Mets (1975-1990); Smith-Wills Stadium Jackson Generals - former Texas League AA affiliate of the Houston Astros (1991-1999); Smith-Wills Stadium Jackson Diamond Kats - of the independent Texas-Louisiana League (later changed its name to the Central Baseball League) (2000); Smith-Wills Stadium Jackson Senators - Independent (2001-2004); Smith-Wills Stadium Basketball Jackson Wildcats - United States Basketball League Jackson Rage - World Basketball Association (2004) Mississippi Hardhats - World Basketball Association (2005) Hockey Jackson Bandits - East Coast Hockey League, 1999–2003 Soccer Jackson Calypso - Women's Soccer Jackson Rockers - Men's Soccer Jackson Chargers - Men's Soccer Football Mississippi Pride - Regional Football League Noteworthy natives Jackson has given birth to many notable people. From writers Eudora Welty and Willie Morris and civil rights leaders Medgar Evers and James Meredith to rapper David Banner, jazz legend Cassandra Wilson, blues pianist Otis Spann and sports stars Fred Smoot, Jim Gallagher, Jr. and Monta Ellis. Actors, artists, authors, cooks, inventors, musicians, painters, sports figures and more, Jackson has contributed significantly to America's culture. (see: List of people from Mississippi for a more in-depth list) References External links Official city website MetroJackson Chamber of Commerce The Jackson "City with Soul" Campaign Jackson Convention & Visitors Bureau | Jackson,_Mississippi |@lemmatized jackson:177 capital:6 populous:1 city:63 u:14 state:61 mississippi:94 one:13 two:8 seat:2 hind:6 county:14 town:4 raymond:3 census:7 record:9 population:18 accord:3 july:6 estimate:1 five:1 metropolitan:5 area:17 yazoo:3 combine:1 statistical:1 consist:2 micropolitan:1 make:4 large:10 united:13 current:2 slogan:1 soul:4 http:2 www:2 jacksoncitywithsoul:1 com:4 name:10 president:5 andrew:4 history:12 native:6 americans:1 entire:1 choctaw:8 nation:5 location:4 compare:1 originally:3 part:5 pressure:1 government:2 american:24 agree:1 removal:1 land:2 east:9 river:8 term:4 treaty:4 dance:2 rabbit:1 creek:2 although:4 many:4 move:2 present:4 day:6 oklahoma:1 significant:1 number:2 chose:1 stay:1 homeland:1 cite:2 article:2 xiv:1 today:4 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5,886 | NetHack | NetHack is a single-player roguelike video game originally released in 1987. It is a descendant of an earlier game called Hack (), which is a descendant of Rogue (). The "net" element references that its development has been coordinated through the Internet. The "hack" element refers to a genre of role-playing games known as hack and slash for their focus on combat. The player takes the part of a dungeon-delving character in search of the Amulet of Yendor. __TOC__ History and development NetHack is open source and remains one of the oldest computer games still actively developed, with new features and bug fixes added by a loose but secretive group of volunteers, commonly called the DevTeam. The DevTeam rarely discusses versions under development in public, and releases new versions without notice. However, they do maintain a list of known bugs. Since NetHack is open source, others are free to release patches to the game between official, versioned releases. Gameplay Before playing a game, the player is asked to name his or her character and then select a race, role, gender, and alignment, or allow the game to assign them. There are traditional fantasy roles such as knight, barbarian, wizard, rogue, valkyrie, monk, and samurai, but there are also unusual ones, including archaeologist, tourist, and caveman. The player character's role and alignment dictate which deity the character serves in the game. After the player character is created, the main objective is introduced. To win the game, the player must retrieve the Amulet of Yendor, found at the lowest level of the dungeon, and sacrifice it to his or her deity. Successful completion of this task rewards the player with the gift of immortality, and the player is said to "ascend", attaining the status of demigod. In addition, a number of sub-quests must be completed, including one class-specific quest. The player's character is usually accompanied by a pet animal, typically a kitten or little dog, although knights begin with a saddled pony. Most of the other monsters may also be tamed using magic or tempting food. Dungeon levels NetHack'''s dungeon spans about 50 levels, of which most are randomly generated when the player character first encounters them. A typical level contains a way "up" and a way "down" (these may be stairways, ladders, trapdoors etc.), along with several "rooms" joined by corridors that may contain features such as altars, shops, fountains, traps, and even sinks. Some "special" levels are of fixed design in every game session. There are several dungeon branches, including a Sokoban puzzle and Vlad's Tower. Items and tools A player's inventory, as displayed after application of the "menucolors" patch.NetHack features a variety of items: weapons (either ranged or melee), armor to protect the player; scrolls and spellbooks to cast; potions to quaff; and an assortment of tools such as keys and lamps. One important aspect of NetHacks gameplay is the identification of items. For example, a newly-discovered potion may be referred to as a 'pink potion' with no other clues as to its identity. Players can perform a variety of actions and tricks to deduce, or at least narrow down, the identity of the potion. The most obvious is the somewhat risky tactic of simply drinking it. Unlike some other roguelikes, all items of a certain type will have the same description; e.g., all scrolls of enchant weapon may be labeled 'TEMOV', and once one has been identified, all scrolls of enchant weapon found will be labeled unambiguously as such. Starting a new game will scramble the items' descriptions again, so the 'silver ring' that is a ring of levitation in one game might be a ring of hunger in another. Blessings and curses As in many other roguelike games, all items in NetHack are either "blessed", "uncursed", or "cursed". The majority of items are found uncursed, but the "BUC" (Blessed/Uncursed/Cursed) status of an item is unknown until it is identified or detected through other means. Generally, a blessed item will be more powerful than an uncursed item, and a cursed item will be less powerful. Regarding objects which bestow effects upon the character, a curse will generally make the effect (more) harmful. There are exceptions, however, which are usually very specific (e.g. the cursed potion of gain level will make the character rise through the ceiling to the level above). Character death Like roguelikes in general, NetHack features permadeath: expired characters cannot be revived without having made backup copies of the actual save files. Players sometimes use the acronyms "YAAD" and "YASD" when discussing their characters' deaths, meaning "Yet Another Annoying Death" or "Yet Another Stupid Death". An "annoying" death is typically one that was the fault of misfortune more than the player (such as falling into a spiked, poisoned pit trap early in the game); a "stupid" death is when player's actions were directly responsible for their own death. An ascending player is asked whether she wants her possessions identified. The prompt "Do you want your possessions identified?" (abbreviated as "DYWYPI" and used to suggest character death) is given by default at the end of any game, allowing the player to learn any unknown properties of the items found during the game. The game sporadically saves a level on which a character has died and then integrates that level into a later game. This is done via "bones files", which are saved on the computer hosting the game. A player using a publicly-hosted copy of the game can thus encounter the remains of many other players. Players can also swap bones files via programs like Hearse. Bugs, humorous messages, stories, experiences, and ideas for the next version are discussed on the Usenet newsgroup rec.games.roguelike.nethack. Conducts Although NetHack can be completed by new or intermediate players without any artificial limitations, experienced players often attempt "conducts" for an additional challenge. These are voluntary restrictions on actions taken, such as using no wishes, following a vegetarian or even vegan diet, or even killing no monsters. While in general conducts are tracked by the game and are displayed at death or ascension, unofficial conducts, such as the Zen conduct (in which the player's character wears a blindfold throughout the whole game), also exist within the NetHack community. Spoilers NetHack is largely based on discovering secrets and tricks during gameplay. It can take years for one to become well-versed in them, and even experienced players routinely discover new ones. A number of NetHack fansites and discussion forums offer lists of game secrets known as "spoilers". Many play without recourse to spoilers and regard their usage as cheating. Fans of NetHack consider an ascension without having read spoilers very prestigious; the achievement is so difficult that some question whether it has been or can be accomplished. Interface NetHack was originally created with only a simple ASCII graphical user interface, although the option to use something more elaborate was added later in its development. Interface elements — environment, entities, and objects — are represented by arrangements of ASCII or Extended ASCII glyphs used in plain text, "DEC graphics" or "IBM graphics" mode. In addition to the environment, the interface also displays character and situational information. A detailed example: You see here a silver ring. ------------ ##....._.....| |...........# ------ #...........| |....| --------------- ###------------ |...(| |..%...........|########## ###-@...| |...%...........### # ## |....| +.......<......| ### ### |..!.| --------------- # # ------ ### ### # # ---.----- ### |.......| # |........#### |.......| |.......| --------- Hacker the Conjurer St:11 Dx:13 Co:12 In:11 Wi:18 Ch:11 Lawful Dlvl:3 $:120 HP:39(41) Pw:36(36) AC:6 Exp:5 T:1073 NetHack for Microsoft Windows in "tiles mode". Vulture's Eye offers an isometric perspective. NetHack on OPENSTEP/NeXTSTEP. The player (The '@' sign, a wizard in this case) has entered the level via the stairs (the '<' sign) and killed a few monsters, leaving their corpses (the '%' signs) behind. Exploring, the wizard has uncovered three rooms joined by corridors (the '#' signs): one with an altar (the '_' sign), another empty, and the final one (that the wizard is currently in) containing a potion (the '!' sign), chest (the '(' sign), and has just moved onto a square containing a silver ring. Large parts of the level remain unexplored (probably to the west through the door (the '+' sign)) and the player has yet to find the down-stairs (a '>' sign) to the next level. Apart from the original termcap interface shown above, there are interfaces that replace standard screen representations with two-dimensional images, or tiles, collectively known as "tiles mode". Graphic interfaces of this kind utilize the X Window System, the similar Microsoft Windows GUI, the Qt toolkit, or the GNOME libraries. Enhanced graphical options also exist, such as the isometric perspective of Falcon's Eye and Vulture's Eye, or the three-dimensional rendering that noegnud offers. Vulture's Eye is a fork of the now defunct Falcon's Eye project. Vulture's Eye adds additional graphics, sounds, bugfixes and performance enhancements and is under active development in an open collaborative environment. IRC Nethack has an IRC channel, #nethack, on the Freenode network. Many people discuss the game there and with the resident announcer "Rodney" telling every death and announcing full moons, very little is missed. Ports and variants Unofficial ports exist for the Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable, Tapwave Zodiac, GP2X, Windows Mobile, Nokia Internet Tablets N770, N800 and up, and Apple's iPhone and iPod touch. Slash'EM and SporkHack are actively developed variants. References External links NetHack Official Site A Guide to the Mazes of Menace (Guidebook for NetHack) by Eric S. 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5,887 | London_Post_Office_Railway | Mail rail cars on the London Post Office Railway The Post Office Railway, also known as Mail Rail, was a narrow-gauge driverless private underground railway in London built by the Post Office to move mail between sorting offices. Inspired by the Chicago Tunnel Company, Unofficial MailRail Website it was in operation from 1927 until 2003. Geography Map of the London Post Office Railway It ran east–west from Paddington Head District Sorting Office in the west to the Eastern Head District Sorting Office at Whitechapel in the east, a distance of 6.5 miles (10.5 km). It had eight stations, the largest of which was located underneath Mount Pleasant, but by 2003 only three stations remained in use because the sorting offices above the other stations had been relocated. Recent history A Royal Mail press release in April 2003 revealed that the system would be closed and "mothballed" (i.e. removed from active service) at the end of May that year. Royal Mail had earlier stated that using the Post Office Railway was five times more expensive than using road transport for the same task. The Communication Workers Union claimed the actual figure was closer to three times more expensive but argued that this was the result of a deliberate policy of running the system down and using it at only one-third of its capacity. Despite a report by the Greater London Authority in support of the continued use of Mail Rail, the system was taken out of use in the early hours of 31 May 2003. "Final delivery for Mail", This is Local London, 2003-05-30. Some of the former Mail Rail trains have now taken up residence at the Launceston Steam Railway. Launceston Steam Railway Rolling stock The London Post Office Railway used various types of rolling stock during its history. The first stock was delivered in 1926 with the opening of the system. All stock used has been electrically powered. 1930 Stock Car No. 803 at the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre Electric locomotives 1926 Electric Locomotives — Original locomotives Electric units 1927 Stock — Original stock 1930 & 1936 Stock — Replacement stock for 1927 Stock 1962 Stock — Prototype stock 1980 Stock — Replacement stock In fiction The Post Office Railway features in the novel The Horn of Mortal Danger (1980). In it, there is a connecting tunnel between the Railway and the secret railway of the North London System. The only other known connection is in the disused tunnel between Highgate and the disused Cranley Gardens. The railway appears in the film Hudson Hawk, but rebadged as 'Poste Vaticane' under the Vatican City. Bruce Willis (as Hawk) stows away in one of the mail containers. A mail train system closely based on the Mail Rail is used in Charlie Higson's third Young Bond book, Double or Die. See also Subterranean London List of British heritage and private railways Chicago Tunnel Company References Further reading External links Enthusiast Website Unofficial MailRail Web Page Alternative link London Post Office Railway Detailed information on construction and operation. The British Postal Museum & Archive Guardian article on proposed mothballing. GLA report on the closure in PDF format. | London_Post_Office_Railway |@lemmatized mail:11 rail:5 car:2 london:9 post:8 office:12 railway:15 also:2 know:2 narrow:1 gauge:1 driverless:1 private:2 underground:1 build:1 move:1 sort:3 inspire:1 chicago:2 tunnel:4 company:2 unofficial:2 mailrail:2 website:2 operation:2 geography:1 map:1 run:2 east:2 west:2 paddington:1 head:2 district:2 eastern:1 whitechapel:1 distance:1 mile:1 km:1 eight:1 station:3 large:1 locate:1 underneath:1 mount:1 pleasant:1 three:2 remain:1 use:9 sorting:1 relocate:1 recent:1 history:2 royal:2 press:1 release:1 april:1 reveal:1 system:6 would:1 close:1 mothball:1 e:1 remove:1 active:1 service:1 end:1 may:2 year:1 earlier:1 state:1 five:1 time:2 expensive:2 road:1 transport:1 task:1 communication:1 worker:1 union:1 claim:1 actual:1 figure:1 closer:1 argue:1 result:1 deliberate:1 policy:1 one:2 third:2 capacity:1 despite:1 report:2 great:1 authority:1 support:1 continue:1 take:2 early:1 hour:1 final:1 delivery:1 local:1 former:1 train:2 residence:1 launceston:2 steam:2 roll:2 stock:14 various:1 type:1 first:1 deliver:1 opening:1 electrically:1 power:1 buckinghamshire:1 centre:1 electric:3 locomotive:3 original:2 unit:1 replacement:2 prototype:1 fiction:1 feature:1 novel:1 horn:1 mortal:1 danger:1 connect:1 secret:1 north:1 connection:1 disused:2 highgate:1 cranley:1 garden:1 appear:1 film:1 hudson:1 hawk:2 rebadged:1 poste:1 vaticane:1 vatican:1 city:1 bruce:1 willis:1 stow:1 away:1 container:1 closely:1 base:1 charlie:1 higson:1 young:1 bond:1 book:1 double:1 die:1 see:1 subterranean:1 list:1 british:2 heritage:1 reference:1 read:1 external:1 link:2 enthusiast:1 web:1 page:1 alternative:1 detail:1 information:1 construction:1 postal:1 museum:1 archive:1 guardian:1 article:1 propose:1 mothballing:1 gla:1 closure:1 pdf:1 format:1 |@bigram narrow_gauge:1 mile_km:1 mount_pleasant:1 bruce_willis:1 stow_away:1 charlie_higson:1 external_link:1 |
5,888 | Compiler | A diagram of the operation of a typical multi-language, multi-target compiler. A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code written in a computer language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code). The most common reason for wanting to transform source code is to create an executable program. The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language or machine code). A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a language translator, source to source translator, or language converter. A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language. A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations: lexical analysis, preprocessing, parsing, semantic analysis, code generation, and code optimization. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around and compiler implementors invest a lot of time ensuring the correctness of their software. The term compiler-compiler is sometimes used to refer to a parser generator, a tool often used to help create a compiler. History Software for early computers was primarily written in assembly language for many years. Higher level programming languages were not invented until the benefits of being able to reuse software on different kinds of CPUs started to become significantly greater than the cost of writing a compiler. The very limited memory capacity of early computers also created many technical problems when implementing a compiler. Towards the end of the 1950s, machine-independent programming languages were first proposed. Subsequently, several experimental compilers were developed. The first compiler was written by Grace Hopper, in 1952, for the A-0 programming language. The FORTRAN team led by John Backus at IBM is generally credited as having introduced the first complete compiler, in 1957. COBOL was an early language to be compiled on multiple architectures, in 1960. IP: "The World's First COBOL Compilers" -- 12 June 1997 In many application domains the idea of using a higher level language quickly caught on. Because of the expanding functionality supported by newer programming languages and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers have become more and more complex. Early compilers were written in assembly language. The first self-hosting compiler — capable of compiling its own source code in a high-level language — was created for Lisp by Tim Hart and Mike Levin at MIT in 1962. T. Hart and M. Levin "The New Compiler", AIM-39 CSAIL Digital Archive - Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Series Since the 1970s it has become common practice to implement a compiler in the language it compiles, although both Pascal and C have been popular choices for implementation language. Building a self-hosting compiler is a bootstrapping problem -- the first such compiler for a language must be compiled either by a compiler written in a different language, or (as in Hart and Levin's Lisp compiler) compiled by running the compiler in an interpreter. Compilers in education Compiler construction and compiler optimization are taught at universities and schools as part of the computer science curriculum. Such courses are usually supplemented with the implementation of a compiler for an educational programming language. A well-documented example is Niklaus Wirth's PL/0 compiler, which Wirth used to teach compiler construction in the 1970s. "The PL/0 compiler/interpreter" In spite of its simplicity, the PL/0 compiler introduced several influential concepts to the field: Program development by stepwise refinement (also the title of a 1971 paper by Wirth Book description at the ACM Digital Library ) The use of a recursive descent parser The use of EBNF to specify the syntax of a language A code generator producing portable P-code The use of T-diagrams T diagrams were first introduced for describing bootstrapping and cross-compiling compilers in McKeeman et al. A Compiler Generator (1971). Conway described the broader concept before that with his UNCOL in 1958, to which Bratman added in 1961: H. Bratman, “An alternate form of the ´UNCOL diagram´“, Comm. ACM 4 (March 1961) 3, p. 142. Later on, others, including P.D. Terry, gave an explanation and usage of T-diagrams in their textbooks on the topic of compiler construction. Cf. Terry, 1997, Chapter 3. T-diagrams are also now used to describe client-server interconnectivity on the World Wide Web: cf. Patrick Closhen, et al. 1997: T-Diagrams as Visual Language to Illustrate WWW Technology, Darmstadt University of Technology, Darmstadt, Germany in the formal description of the bootstrapping problem Compiler output One classification of compilers is by the platform on which their generated code executes. This is known as the target platform. A native or hosted compiler is one whose output is intended to directly run on the same type of computer and operating system that the compiler itself runs on. The output of a cross compiler is designed to run on a different platform. Cross compilers are often used when developing software for embedded systems that are not intended to support a software development environment. The output of a compiler that produces code for a virtual machine (VM) may or may not be executed on the same platform as the compiler that produced it. For this reason such compilers are not usually classified as native or cross compilers. Compiled versus interpreted languages Higher-level programming languages are generally divided for convenience into compiled languages and interpreted languages. However, in practice there is rarely anything about a language that requires it to be exclusively compiled, or exclusively interpreted; although it is possible to design languages that may be inherently interpretive. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language — for instance, BASIC is sometimes called an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters. Modern trends toward just-in-time compilation and bytecode interpretation at times blur the traditional categorizations of compilers and interpreters. Some language specifications spell out that implementations must include a compilation facility; for example, Common Lisp. However, there is nothing inherent in the definition of Common Lisp that stops it from being interpreted. Other languages have features that are very easy to implement in an interpreter, but make writing a compiler much harder; for example, APL, SNOBOL4, and many scripting languages allow programs to construct arbitrary source code at runtime with regular string operations, and then execute that code by passing it to a special evaluation function. To implement these features in a compiled language, programs must usually be shipped with a runtime library that includes a version of the compiler itself. Hardware compilation The output of some compilers may target hardware at a very low level, for example a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) or structured Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). Such compilers are said to be hardware compilers or synthesis tools because the programs they compile effectively control the final configuration of the hardware and how it operates; the output of the compilation are not instructions that are executed in sequence - only an interconnection of transistors or lookup tables. For example, XST is the Xilinx Synthesis Tool used for configuring FPGAs. Similar tools are available from Altera, Synplicity, Synopsys and other vendors. Compiler design In the early days, the approach taken to compiler design used to be directly affected by the complexity of the processing, the experience of the person(s) designing it, and the resources available. A compiler for a relatively simple language written by one person might be a single, monolithic piece of software. When the source language is large and complex, and high quality output is required the design may be split into a number of relatively independent phases. Having separate phases means development can be parceled up into small parts and given to different people. It also becomes much easier to replace a single phase by an improved one, or to insert new phases later (eg, additional optimizations). The division of the compilation processes into phases was championed by the Production Quality Compiler-Compiler Project (PQCC) at Carnegie Mellon University. This project introduced the terms front end, middle end, and back end. All but the smallest of compilers have more than two phases. However, these phases are usually regarded as being part of the front end or the back end. The point at where these two ends meet is always open to debate. The front end is generally considered to be where syntactic and semantic processing takes place, along with translation to a lower level of representation (than source code). The middle end is usually designed to perform optimizations on a form other than the source code or machine code. This source code/machine code independence is intended to enable generic optimizations to be shared between versions of the compiler supporting different languages and target processors. The back end takes the output from the middle. It may perform more analysis, transformations and optimizations that are for a particular computer. Then, it generates code for a particular processor and OS. This front-end/middle/back-end approach makes it possible to combine front ends for different languages with back ends for different CPUs. Practical examples of this approach are the GNU Compiler Collection, LLVM, and the Amsterdam Compiler Kit, which have multiple front-ends, shared analysis and multiple back-ends. One-pass versus multi-pass compilers Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware resource limitations of computers. Compiling involves performing lots of work and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that did all of this work. So compilers were split up into smaller programs which each made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the required analysis and translations. The ability to compile in a single pass is often seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one pass compilers generally compile faster than multi-pass compilers. Many languages were designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g., Pascal). In some cases the design of a language feature may require a compiler to perform more than one pass over the source. For instance, consider a declaration appearing on line 20 of the source which affects the translation of a statement appearing on line 10. In this case, the first pass needs to gather information about declarations appearing after statements that they affect, with the actual translation happening during a subsequent pass. The disadvantage of compiling in a single pass is that it is not possible to perform many of the sophisticated optimizations needed to generate high quality code. It can be difficult to count exactly how many passes an optimizing compiler makes. For instance, different phases of optimization may analyse one expression many times but only analyse another expression once. Splitting a compiler up into small programs is a technique used by researchers interested in producing provably correct compilers. Proving the correctness of a set of small programs often requires less effort than proving the correctness of a larger, single, equivalent program. While the typical multi-pass compiler outputs machine code from its final pass, there are several other types: A "source-to-source compiler" is a type of compiler that takes a high level language as its input and outputs a high level language. For example, an automatic parallelizing compiler will frequently take in a high level language program as an input and then transform the code and annotate it with parallel code annotations (e.g. OpenMP) or language constructs (e.g. Fortran's DOALL statements). Stage compiler that compiles to assembly language of a theoretical machine, like some Prolog implementations This Prolog machine is also known as the Warren Abstract Machine (or WAM). Bytecode compilers for Java, Python, and many more are also a subtype of this. Just-in-time compiler, used by Smalltalk and Java systems, and also by Microsoft .Net's Common Intermediate Language (CIL) Applications are delivered in bytecode, which is compiled to native machine code just prior to execution. Front end The front end analyzes the source code to build an internal representation of the program, called the intermediate representation or IR. It also manages the symbol table, a data structure mapping each symbol in the source code to associated information such as location, type and scope. This is done over several phases, which includes some of the following: Line reconstruction. Languages which strop their keywords or allow arbitrary spaces within identifiers require a phase before parsing, which converts the input character sequence to a canonical form ready for the parser. The top-down, recursive-descent, table-driven parsers used in the 1960s typically read the source one character at a time and did not require a separate tokenizing phase. Atlas Autocode, and Imp (and some implementations of Algol and Coral66) are examples of stropped languages whose compilers would have a Line Reconstruction phase. Lexical analysis breaks the source code text into small pieces called tokens. Each token is a single atomic unit of the language, for instance a keyword, identifier or symbol name. The token syntax is typically a regular language, so a finite state automaton constructed from a regular expression can be used to recognize it. This phase is also called lexing or scanning, and the software doing lexical analysis is called a lexical analyzer or scanner. Preprocessing. Some languages, e.g., C, require a preprocessing phase which supports macro substitution and conditional compilation. Typically the preprocessing phase occurs before syntactic or semantic analysis; e.g. in the case of C, the preprocessor manipulates lexical tokens rather than syntactic forms. However, some languages such as Scheme support macro substitutions based on syntactic forms. Syntax analysis involves parsing the token sequence to identify the syntactic structure of the program. This phase typically builds a parse tree, which replaces the linear sequence of tokens with a tree structure built according to the rules of a formal grammar which define the language's syntax. The parse tree is often analyzed, augmented, and transformed by later phases in the compiler. Semantic analysis is the phase in which the compiler adds semantic information to the parse tree and builds the symbol table. This phase performs semantic checks such as type checking (checking for type errors), or object binding (associating variable and function references with their definitions), or definite assignment (requiring all local variables to be initialized before use), rejecting incorrect programs or issuing warnings. Semantic analysis usually requires a complete parse tree, meaning that this phase logically follows the parsing phase, and logically precedes the code generation phase, though it is often possible to fold multiple phases into one pass over the code in a compiler implementation. Back end The term back end is sometimes confused with code generator because of the overlapped functionality of generating assembly code. Some literature uses middle end to distinguish the generic analysis and optimization phases in the back end from the machine-dependent code generators. The main phases of the back end include the following: Analysis: This is the gathering of program information from the intermediate representation derived from the input. Typical analyses are data flow analysis to build use-define chains, dependence analysis, alias analysis, pointer analysis, escape analysis etc. Accurate analysis is the basis for any compiler optimization. The call graph and control flow graph are usually also built during the analysis phase. Optimization: the intermediate language representation is transformed into functionally equivalent but faster (or smaller) forms. Popular optimizations are inline expansion, dead code elimination, constant propagation, loop transformation, register allocation or even automatic parallelization. Code generation: the transformed intermediate language is translated into the output language, usually the native machine language of the system. This involves resource and storage decisions, such as deciding which variables to fit into registers and memory and the selection and scheduling of appropriate machine instructions along with their associated addressing modes (see also Sethi-Ullman algorithm). Compiler analysis is the prerequisite for any compiler optimization, and they tightly work together. For example, dependence analysis is crucial for loop transformation. In addition, the scope of compiler analysis and optimizations vary greatly, from as small as a basic block to the procedure/function level, or even over the whole program (interprocedural optimization). Obviously, a compiler can potentially do a better job using a broader view. But that broad view is not free: large scope analysis and optimizations are very costly in terms of compilation time and memory space; this is especially true for interprocedural analysis and optimizations. Interprocedural analysis and optimizations are common in modern commercial compilers from HP, IBM, SGI, Intel, Microsoft, and Sun Microsystems. The open source GCC was criticized for a long time for lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations, but it is changing in this respect. Another open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is Open64, which is used by many organizations for research and commercial purposes. Due to the extra time and space needed for compiler analysis and optimizations, some compilers skip them by default. Users have to use compilation options to explicitly tell the compiler which optimizations should be enabled. Related techniques Assembly language is not a high-level language and a program that compiles it is more commonly known as an assembler, with the inverse program known as a disassembler. A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a language translator, source to source translator, language converter, or language rewriter. The last term is usually applied to translations that do not involve a change of language. International conferences and organizations Every year, the European Joint Conferences on Theory and Practice of Software (ETAPS) sponsors a conference on Compiler Construction, with papers from both the academic and industrial sectors. ETAPS - European Joint Conferences on Theory and Practice of Software. Cf. "CC" (Compiler Construction) subsection. See also Abstract interpretation Attribute grammar Bottom-up parsing Compiler-compiler Error avalanche History of compiler writing Just-in-time compilation Linker List of compilers List of important publications in computer science#Compilers Metacompilation Semantics encoding Notes References Compiler textbook references A collection of references to mainstream Compiler Construction Textbooks Aho, Alfred V.; Sethi, Ravi; and Ullman, Jeffrey D., Compilers: Principles, Techniques and Tools (ISBN 0-201-10088-6) link to publisher. Also known as “The Dragon Book.” Allen, Frances E., "A History of Language Processor Technology in IBM", IBM Journal of Research and Development, v.25, no.5, September 1981. Allen, Randy; and Kennedy, Ken, Optimizing Compilers for Modern Architectures, Morgan Kaufman Publishers, 2001. ISBN 1-55860-286-0 Appel, Andrew Wilson Modern Compiler Implementation in Java, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-82060-X Modern Compiler Implementation in ML, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0521582741 Bornat, Richard, Understanding and Writing Compilers: A Do It Yourself Guide, Macmillan Publishing, 1979. ISBN 0-333-21732-2 Cooper, Keith D., and Torczon, Linda, Engineering a Compiler, Morgan Kaufmann, 2004, ISBN 1-55860-699-8. Leverett; Cattel; Hobbs; Newcomer; Reiner; Schatz; Wulf, An Overview of the Production Quality Compiler-Compiler Project, in Computer 13(8):38-49 (August 1980) McKeeman, William Marshall; Horning, James J.; Wortman, David B., A Compiler Generator, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall, 1970. ISBN 0131550772 Muchnick, Steven, Compiler Design and Implementation'', Morgan Kaufman Publishers, 1997. ISBN 1-55860-320-4 Scott, Michael Lee, Programming Language Pragmatics, Morgan Kaufmann, 2005, 2nd edition, 912 pages. ISBN 0-12-633951-1 (The author's site on this book). Srikant, Y. N.; Shankar, Priti, The Compiler Design Handbook: Optimizations and Machine Code Generation, CRC Press, 2003. ISBN 084931240X Terry, Patrick D., Compilers and Compiler Generators: An Introduction with C++, International Thomson Computer Press, 1997. ISBN 1850322988, Wirth, Niklaus, Construction'' (ISBN 0-201-40353-6), Addison-Wesley, 1996, 176 pages. Revised November 2005. External links The comp.compilers newsgroup and RSS feed Hardware compilation mailing list Practical introduction to compiler construction using flex and yacc | Compiler |@lemmatized diagram:7 operation:3 typical:3 multi:5 language:74 target:5 compiler:117 computer:14 program:30 set:2 transform:5 source:25 code:36 write:10 another:3 often:7 binary:1 form:8 know:6 object:2 common:6 reason:2 want:1 create:4 executable:1 name:2 primarily:2 use:23 translate:7 high:15 level:19 low:5 e:7 g:6 assembly:6 machine:14 one:14 decompiler:2 usually:13 call:8 translator:4 converter:2 rewriter:2 expression:4 without:1 change:3 likely:1 perform:8 many:11 following:3 lexical:5 analysis:29 preprocessing:4 parsing:3 semantic:7 generation:4 optimization:23 fault:1 cause:1 incorrect:2 behavior:1 difficult:2 track:1 work:4 around:1 implementors:1 invest:1 lot:2 time:10 ensure:1 correctness:3 software:9 term:5 sometimes:3 refer:1 parser:4 generator:7 tool:5 help:1 history:3 early:6 year:2 invent:1 benefit:2 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5,889 | Jürgen_Habermas | Jürgen Habermas (; born June 18, 1929) is a German philosopher and sociologist in the tradition of critical theory and American pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his work on the concept of the public sphere, the topic (and title) of his first book. His work focused on the foundations of social theory and epistemology, the analysis of advanced capitalistic societies and democracy, the rule of law in a critical social-evolutionary context, and contemporary politics—particularly German politics. Habermas's theoretical system is devoted to revealing the possibility of reason, emancipation, and rational-critical communication latent in modern institutions and in the human capacity to deliberate and pursue rational interests. Biography Habermas was born in Düsseldorf, North Rhine-Westphalia. Until his graduation from gymnasium, Habermas lived in Gummersbach, near Cologne. His father, Ernst Habermas, was executive director of the Cologne Chamber of Industry and Commerce, and was described by Habermas as a Nazi sympathizer. He was brought up in a staunchly Protestant milieu, his grandfather being the director of the seminary in Gummersbach. He studied at the universities of Göttingen (1949/50), Zürich (1950/51), and Bonn (1951–54) and earned a doctorate in philosophy http://www.erz.uni-hannover.de/~horster/lit/habermas.pdf from Bonn in 1954 with a dissertation entitled, ("The absolute and history: on the contradiction in Schelling's thought"). His dissertation committee included Erich Rothacker and Oskar Becker. From 1956 on, he studied philosophy and sociology under the critical theorists Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main Institute for Social Research, but because of a rift between the two over his dissertation—Horkheimer had made unacceptable demands for revision—as well as his own belief that the Frankfurt School had become paralyzed with political skepticism and disdain for modern culture—he finished his habilitation in political science at the University of Marburg under the Marxist Wolfgang Abendroth. His habilitation work was entitled, (published in English translation in 1989 as The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: an Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society). In 1961, he became a privatdozent in Marburg, and—in a move that was highly unusual for the German academic scene of that time—he was offered the position of "extraordinary professor" (professor without chair) of philosophy at the University of Heidelberg (at the instigation of Hans-Georg Gadamer and Karl Löwith) in 1962, which he accepted. In 1964, strongly supported by Adorno, Habermas returned to Frankfurt to take over Horkheimer's chair in philosophy and sociology. He accepted the position of Director of the Max Planck Institute in Starnberg (near Munich) in 1971, and worked there until 1983, two years after the publication of his magnum opus, The Theory of Communicative Action. Habermas then returned to his chair at Frankfurt and the directorship of the Institute for Social Research. Since retiring from Frankfurt in 1993, Habermas has continued to publish extensively. In 1986, he received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the , which is the highest honour awarded in German research. He also holds the uncharacteristically postmodern position of "Permanent Visiting" Professor at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, and "Theodor Heuss Professor" at The New School, New York. Habermas was awarded The Prince of Asturias Award in Social Sciences of 2003. Habermas was also the 2004 Kyoto Laureate in the Arts and Philosophy section. He traveled to San Diego and on March 5, 2005, as part of the University of San Diego's Kyoto Symposium, gave a speech entitled The Public Role of Religion in Secular Context, regarding the evolution of separation of Church and State from neutrality to intense secularism. He received the 2005 Holberg International Memorial Prize (about € 520,000). Teacher and mentor Habermas was famous as a teacher and mentor. Among his most prominent students were the pragmatic philosopher Herbert Schnädelbach (theorist of discourse distinction and rationality), the political sociologist Claus Offe (professor at the Hertie School of Governance in Berlin) , the social philosopher Johann Arnason (professor at La Trobe University and chief editor of the journal Thesis Eleven), the sociological theorist Hans Joas (professor at the University of Erfurt and at the University of Chicago), the theorist of societal evolution Klaus Eder, the social philosopher Axel Honneth (the current director of the Institute for Social Research), the American philosopher Thomas McCarthy, the co-creator of mindful inquiry in social research Jeremy J. Shapiro, and the assassinated Serbian prime minister Zoran Đinđić. Theory Habermas constructed a comprehensive framework of social theory and philosophy drawing on a number of intellectual traditions: the German philosophical thought of Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Schelling, G. W. F. Hegel, Wilhelm Dilthey, Edmund Husserl, and Hans-Georg Gadamer the Marxian tradition — both the theory of Karl Marx himself as well as the critical neo-Marxian theory of the Frankfurt School, i.e. Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, and Herbert Marcuse the sociological theories of Max Weber, Émile Durkheim, and George Herbert Mead the linguistic philosophy and speech act theories of Ludwig Wittgenstein, J.L. Austin, P. F. Strawson, Stephen Toulmin and John Searle the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg the American pragmatist tradition of Charles Sanders Peirce and John Dewey the sociological social systems theory of Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann Neo-Kantian thought Jürgen Habermas considered his major achievement to be the development of the concept and theory of communicative reason or communicative rationality, which distinguishes itself from the rationalist tradition by locating rationality in structures of interpersonal linguistic communication rather than in the structure of either the cosmos or the knowing subject. This social theory advances the goals of human emancipation, while maintaining an inclusive universalist moral framework. This framework rests on the argument called universal pragmatics - that all speech acts have an inherent telos (the Greek word for "end") — the goal of mutual understanding, and that human beings possess the communicative competence to bring about such understanding. Habermas built the framework out of the speech-act philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, J. L. Austin, and John Searle, the sociological theory of the interactional constitution of mind and self of George Herbert Mead, the theories of moral development of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg, and the discourse ethics of his Heidelberg colleague Karl-Otto Apel. He carried forward the traditions of Kant and the Enlightenment and of democratic socialism through his emphasis on the potential for transforming the world and arriving at a more humane, just, and egalitarian society through the realization of the human potential for reason, in part through discourse ethics. While Habermas conceded that the Enlightenment is an "unfinished project," he argued it should be corrected and complemented, not discarded. In this he distanced himself from the Frankfurt School, criticizing it, as well as much of postmodernist thought, for excessive pessimism, misdirected radicalism and exaggerations. Within sociology, Habermas's major contribution was the development of a comprehensive theory of societal evolution and modernization focusing on the difference between communicative rationality and rationalization on the one hand and strategic/instrumental rationality and rationalization on the other. This included a critique from a communicative standpoint of the differentiation-based theory of social systems developed by Niklas Luhmann, a student of Talcott Parsons. His defence of modernity and civil society has been a source of inspiration to others, and is considered a major philosophical alternative to the varieties of poststructuralism. He has also offered an influential analysis of late capitalism. Habermas saw the rationalization, humanization, and democratization of society in terms of the institutionalization of the potential for rationality that is inherent in the communicative competence that is unique to the human species. Habermas believed communicative competence has developed through the course of evolution, but in contemporary society it is often suppressed or weakened by the way in which major domains of social life, such as the market, the state, and organizations, have been given over to or taken over by strategic/instrumental rationality, so that the logic of the system supplants that of the lifeworld. Reconstructive science Habermas introduces the concept of “reconstructive science” with a double purpose: to place the “general theory of society” between philosophy and social science and re-establish the rift between the “great theorization” and the “empirical research”. The model of “rational reconstructions” represents the main thread of the surveys about the “structures” of the world of life (“culture”, “society” and “personality”) and their respective “functions” (cultural reproductions, social integrations and socialization). For this purpose, the dialectics between “symbolic representation” of “the structures subordinated to all worlds of life” (“internal relationships”) and the “material reproduction” of the social systems in their complex (“external relationships” between social systems and environment) has to be considered. This model finds an application, above all, in the “theory of the social evolution”, starting from the reconstruction of the necessary conditions for a phylogeny of the socio-cultural life forms (the “hominization”) until an analysis of the development of “social formations”, which Habermas subdivides into primitive, traditional, modern and contemporary formations. This paper is an attempt, primarily, to formalize the model of “reconstruction of the logic of development” of “social formations” summed up by Habermas through the differentiation between vital world and social systems (and, within them, through the “rationalization of the world of life” and the “growth in complexity of the social systems”). Secondly, it tries to offer some methodological clarifications about the “explanation of the dynamics” of “historical processes” and, in particular, about the “theoretical meaning” of the evolutional theory’s propositions. Even if the German sociologist considers that the “ex-post rational reconstructions” and “the models system/environment” cannot have a complete “historiographical application”, these certainly act as a general premise in the argumentative structure of the “historical explanation”. (Abstract of Luca Corchia, Explicative models of complexity. The reconstructions of social evolution for Jürgen Habermas, in S. Balbi - G. Scepi - G. Russolillo - A. Stawinoga (eds.), Book of Short Abstracts, 7th International Conference on Social Science Methodology - RC33 - Logic and Methodology in Sociology, Napoli, Italia, 9.2008, Jovene Editore, 2008. The public sphere In The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere Jürgen Habermas developed the influential concept of the public sphere, which emerged in the eighteenth century in Europe as a space of critical discussion, open to all, where private people came together to form a public whose "public reason" would work as a check on state power. Habermas argued that prior to the 18th century, European culture had been dominated by a "representational" culture, where one party sought to "represent" itself on its audience by overwhelming its subjects. Blanning, T.C.W. The French Revolution Class War or Culture Clash?, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987, 1998 page 26 Thus, Habermas argued that Louis XIV's Palace of Versailles was meant to show the greatness of the French state and its King by overpowering the senses of visitors to the Palace. Blanning, T.C.W. The French Revolution Class War or Culture Clash?, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998 page 26 Habermas identified "representational" culture as corresponding to the feudal stage of development according to Marxist theory, and argued that the coming of the capitalist stage of development marked the appearance of Öffentlichkeit (the public sphere). Blanning, T.C.W. The French Revolution Class War or Culture Clash?, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998 pages 26-27 In the culture characterized by Öffentlichkeit, there occurred a public space outside of the control by the state, where individuals exchanged views and knowledge. Blanning, T.C.W. The French Revolution Class War or Culture Clash?, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987, 1998 page 27 In Habermas's view, the growth in newspapers, journals, reading clubs, Masonic lodges, and coffee-houses in 18th century Europe all in different ways marked the gradual replacement of "representational" culture with Öffentlichkeit culture. Blanning, T.C.W. The French Revolution Class War or Culture Clash?, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998 page 27 Habermas argued that the essential characteristic of the Öffentlichkeit culture was its "critical" nature. Unlike "representational" culture where only one party was active and the other passive, the Öffentlichkeit culture was characterized by a dialogue as individuals either met in conversation, or exchanged views via the print media. Habermas maintained that as Britain was the most liberal country in Europe, the culture of the public sphere emerged there first around 1700, and the growth of Öffentlichkeit culture took place over most of the 18th century in Continental Europe. In his view, the French Revolution was in large part caused by the collapse of "representational" culture, and its replacement by Öffentlichkeit culture. Though Habermas' main concern in The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere was to expose what he regarded as the deceptive nature of free institutions in the West, his book had a major impact on the historiography of the French Revolution. According to Habermas, a variety of factors resulted in the eventual decay of the public sphere, including the growth of a commercial mass media, which turned the critical public into a passive consumer public; and the welfare state, which merged the state with society so thoroughly that the public sphere was squeezed out. It also turned the "public sphere" into a site of self-interested contestation for the resources of the state rather than a space for the development of a public-minded rational consensus. In his magnum opus Theory of Communicative Action (1981) he criticized the one-sided process of modernization led by forces of economic and administrative rationalization. Habermas traced the growing intervention of formal systems in our everyday lives as parallel to development of the welfare state, corporate capitalism and the culture of mass consumption. These reinforcing trends rationalize widening areas of public life, submitting them to a generalizing logic of efficiency and control. As routinized political parties and interest groups substitute for participatory democracy, society is increasingly administered at a level remote from input of citizens. As a result, boundaries between public and private, the individual and society, the system and the lifeworld are deteriorating. Democratic public life only thrives where institutions enable citizens to debate matters of public importance. He describes an ideal type of "ideal speech situation", http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0802087612&id=tKDU3l3cq60C&pg=PA49&lpg=PA49&dq=ideal+speech+situation&sig=EsYFyIjaDQsWsYWUgtjvMK-13gU where actors are equally endowed with the capacities of discourse, recognize each other's basic social equality and speech is undistorted by ideology or misrecognition. In this version of the consensus theory of truth Habermas maintains that truth is what would be agreed upon in an ideal speech situation. Habermas was optimistic about the possibility of the revival of the public sphere. He saw hope for the future in the new era of political community that transcends the nation-state based on ethnic and cultural likeness for one based on the equal rights and obligations of legally vested citizens. This discursive theory of democracy requires a political community which can collectively define its political will and implement it as policy at the level of the legislative system. This political system requires an activist public sphere, where matters of common interest and political issues can be discussed, and the force of public opinion can influence the decision-making process. Several noted academics have provided various criticisms of Habermas's notions regarding the public sphere. John B. Thompson, a Professor of Sociology at the University of Cambridge, has pointed out that Habermas's notion of the public sphere is antiquated due to the proliferation of mass-media communications. Michael Schudson from the University of California, San Diego argues more generally that a public sphere as a place of purely rational independent debate never existed. Key Dialogues Historikerstreit (Historians' Quarrel) Habermas is famous as a public intellectual as well as a scholar; most notably, in the 1980s he used the popular press to attack the German historians Ernst Nolte, Michael Stürmer, and Andreas Hillgruber. Habermas first expressed his views on the above-mentioned historians in the Die Zeit newspaper on July 11, 1986 in a feuilleton (opinion piece) entitled “A Kind of Settlement of Damages”. Habermas criticized the three historians for “apologistic” history writing in regards to the Nazi era, and for seeking to “close Germany’s opening to the West” that in Habermas’s view had existed since 1945. Habermas, Jürgen “A Kind of Settlement of Damages On Apologetic Tendencies In German History Writing” pages 34-44 from Forever In the Shadow of Hitler? edited by Ernst Piper, Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, 1993 page 43 He argued that they had tried to detach Nazi rule and the Holocaust from the mainstream of German history, explain away Nazism as a reaction to Bolshevism, and partially rehabilitate the reputation of the Wehrmacht (German Army) during World War II. The so-called Historikerstreit ("Historians' Quarrel") was not at all one-sided, because Habermas was himself attacked by scholars like Joachim Fest and Klaus Hildebrand Hildebrand, Klaus "The Age of Tyrants: History and Politics" pages 50-55 from Forever In The Shadow of Hitler? edited by Ernst Piper, Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey, 1993 pages 54-55 & Fest, Joachim "Encumbered Remembrance: The Controversy about the Incomparability of National-Socialist Mass Crimes" pages 63-71 from Forever In The Shadow of Hitler? edited by Ernst Piper, Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey, 1993 pages 64-65. Habermas and Derrida Habermas and Jacques Derrida engaged in a series of disputes beginning in the 1980s and culminating in a mutual understanding and friendship in the late 1990s that lasted until Derrida died in 2004 Derrida, J. “Honesty of Thought” in ‘’The Derrida-Habermas Reader’’ ed. Thomassen L. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago Ill. Pp. 300-306. P.302 . They originally came in contact when Habermas invited Derrida to speak at The University of Frankfurt in 1984, the next year Habermas published "Beyond a Temporalized Philosophy of Origins: Derrida" in The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity in which he described Derrida’s method as being unable to provide a foundation for social critique Thomassen, L. “Introduction: Between Deconstruction and Rational Reconstruction” in ‘’The Derrida-Habermas Reader’’ ed. Thomassen L. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago Ill. Pp. 1-7. P.2 Derrida, citing Habermas as an example, remarked that, "those who have accused me of reducing philosophy to literature or logic to rhetoric ... have visibly and carefully avoided reading me" Derrida, J. “Is There a Philosophical Language?” in ‘’The Derrida-Habermas Reader’’ ed. Thomassen L. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago Ill. Pp. 35-45. P.37 . After Derrida’s final rebuttal in 1989 the two philosophers didn’t continue, but groups in the academy “conducted a kind of ‘war’, in which we ourselves never took part, either personally or directly” Derrida, J. “Honesty of Thought” in ‘’The Derrida-Habermas Reader’’ ed. Thomassen L. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago Ill. Pp. 300-306. P.302 . Then at the end of the 1990s Habermas approached Derrida at a party held at a university in the United States where they were both lecturing. They then met at Paris over dinner, and afterwards have participated in many joint projects. In 2000 they held a joint seminar on problems of philosophy, right, ethics, and politics at the University of Frankfurt Derrida, J. “Honesty of Thought” in ‘’The Derrida-Habermas Reader’’ ed. Thomassen L. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago Ill. Pp. 300-306. P.302 . In the aftermath of 9/11, Derrida and Habermas laid out their individual opinions on 9/11 in Giovanna Borradori's Philosophy in a Time of Terror: Dialogues with Jürgen Habermas and Jacques Derrida. Derrida wrote a foreword expressing his unqualified subscription to Habermas's declaration, "February 15, or, What Binds Europeans Together: Plea for a Common Foreign Policy, Beginning in Core Europe,” in Old Europe, New Europe, Core Europe which was a reaction to the Bush administrations demands upon the European community Habermas, J. and Derrida, J. “February 15, Or What Binds Europeans Together: A Plea for a Common Foreign Policy, beginning in the Core of Europe” in ‘’The Derrida-Habermas Reader’’ ed. Thomassen L. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago Ill. Pp. 270-277. P.302 . Habermas has offered further context for this declaration in an interview. Dialogue with Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI) In early 2007, Ignatius Press published a dialogue between Habermas and Roman Catholic Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI), entitled The Dialectics of Secularization. It addresses such important contemporary questions as these: Is a public culture of reason and ordered liberty possible in our post-metaphysical age? Is philosophy permanently cut adrift from its grounding in being and anthropology? Does this decline of rationality signal an opportunity or a deep crisis for religion itself? In this debate a recent shift of Habermas became evident — in particular, his rethinking of the public role of religion. Habermas writes as a “methodological atheist,” which means that when doing philosophy or social science, he presumes nothing about particular religious beliefs. Yet whilst writing from this perspective his evolving position towards the role of religion in society has led him to some challenging questions, and as a result conceding some ground in his dialogue with the Pope, that would seem to have consequences which further complicate the positions he holds about a communicatively rational solution to the problems of modernity. In 2002 he stated that, "For the normative self-understanding of modernity, Christianity has functioned as more than just a precursor or catalyst. Universalistic egalitarianism, from which sprang the ideals of freedom and a collective life in solidarity, the autonomous conduct of life and emancipation, the individual morality of conscience, human rights and democracy, is the direct legacy of the Judaic ethic of justice and the Christian ethic of love. This legacy, substantially unchanged, has been the object of a continual critical reappropriation and reinterpretation. Up to this very day there is no alternative to it. And in light of the current challenges of a post-national constellation, we must draw sustenance now, as in the past, from this substance. Everything else is idle postmodern talk." Habermas, Jurgen, Religion and Rationality: Essays on Reason, God, and Modernity, edited by Eduardo Mendieta, MIT Press, 2002, page. 149 Habermas now talks about the emergence of "post-secular societies" A “post-secular” society – what does that mean? by Jurgen Habermas June 2008 and argues that tolerance is a two-way street: secular people need to tolerate the role of religious people in the public square and vice versa. God is Back p 138 Major works The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (1962) ISBN 0262581086 Theory and Practice (1963) On the Logic of the Social Sciences (1967) Toward a Rational Society (1967) Technology and Science as Ideology (1968) Knowledge and Human Interests (1968) Social Identity". TELOS 19 (Spring 1974). New York: Telos Press Legitimation Crisis (1975) Communication and the Evolution of Society (1976) On the Pragmatics of Social Interaction (1976) The Theory of Communicative Action (1981) Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action (1983) Philosophical-Political Profiles (1983) The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (1985) The New Conservatism (1985) Postmetaphysical Thinking (1988) Justification and Application (1991) Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy (1992) On the Pragmatics of Communication (1992) The Inclusion of the Other (1996) A Berlin Republic (1997, collection of interviews with Habermas) The Postnational Constellation (1998) Rationality and Religion (1998) Truth and Justification (1998) The Future of Human Nature (2003) ISBN 0745629865 Old Europe, New Europe, Core Europe (2005) ISBN 184467018X The Divided West (2006) The Dialectics of Secularization (2007, w/ Joseph Ratzinger) References Notes Sources Jürgen Habermas: a philosophical—political profile / Martin Matuštík. Postnational identity: critical theory and existential philosophy in Habermas, Kierkegaard, and Havel / Matuštík. Thomas McCarthy, The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas, MIT Press, 1978. Raymond Geuss, The Idea of a Critical Theory, Cambridge University Press, 1981. J.G. Finlayson, Habermas: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2004. Jane Braaten, Habermas's Critical Theory of Society, State University of New York Press, 1991. Erik Oddvar Eriksen and Jarle Weigard, Understanding Habermas: Communicative Action and Deliberative Democracy, Continuum International Publishing, 2004 (ISBN 082647179X). Detlef Horster. Habermas: An Introduction." Pennbridge, 1992 (ISBN 1-880055-01-5) Martin Jay, Marxism and Totality: The Adventures of a Concept from Lukacs to Habermas (Chapter 9), University of California Press, 1986. (ISBN 0-520-05742-2) Mike Sandbothe, Habermas, Pragmatism, and the Media, Online publication: sandbothe.net 2008; German original in: Über Habermas. Gespräche mit Zeitgenossen, ed. by Michael Funken, Darmstadt: Primus 2008 Massimo Ampola - Luca Corchia, Dialogo su Jürgen Habermas. Le trasformazioni della modernità, Pisa, Edizioni ETS, 2007, ISBN 978-884671933-6. Luca Corchia, Bibliography of Jürgen Habermas (1952-2007), in «Il Trimestrale del Laboratorio. The Lab's Quarterly», 1, 2008, ss. 65, ISSN 1724-451X. Luca Corchia, La teoria della socializzazione di Jürgen Habermas. Un'applicazione ontogenetica delle scienze ricostruttive, Pisa, Edizioni ETS, 2009, ISBN 9788846722584. Awards In 1985, Habermas was awarded the Geschwister-Scholl-Preis for his work, Die neue Unübersichtlichkeit''. in 1987, Habermas vas awarded The Sonning Prize (Danish: "Sonningprisen") awarded biennially for outstanding contributions to European culture In 2003, Habermas was awarded by The Prince of Asturias Foundation in Social Sciences. In 2004, the Inamori Foundation in Japan awarded Habermas the Kyoto Prize (50 million Yen). In 2005, the Norwegian Ludvig Holberg Memorial Fund awarded Habermas the €520.000 endowed Holberg International Memorial Prize. On August 9, 2008, the €50,000 European Prize of Political Culture (Hans Ringier Foundation) was awarded to Habermas at the Locarno Film Festival. See also Brave New World argument Communicative action Constitutional patriotism Constellations (journal) The Foucault/Habermas debate Performative contradiction The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll External links Interview with Habermas on Youtube Extensive article in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Towards a United States of Europe, by Jürgen Habermas, at signandsight.com, published March 27, 2006 How to save the quality press? Habermas argues for state support for quality newspapers, at signandsight.com, published May 21, 2007 Habermas links collected by Antti Kauppinen (writings; interviews; bibliography; Habermas explained, discussed, reviewed; and other Habermas sites; updated 2004 Habermas Forum Updated news and complete updated bibliography Habermas, the Public Sphere, and Democracy: A Critical Intervention by Douglas Kellner Jurgen Habermas, On Society and Politics Interview with Jurgen Habermas about the European Union (dpa, March 2007) Juergen Habermas gives Memorial Lecture in honor of American Philosopher, Richard Rorty on November 2, 2007 5pm Cubberley Auditorium, at Stanford University. 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5,890 | Hector | Hector brought back to Troy. From a Roman sarcophagus of ca. 180–200 AD. In Greek mythology, Hectōr (, "holding fast" This etymology is given under Hector in the Online Etymological Dictionary, which, if true, would make it an Indo-European name, of root *seĝh-. The Dardanians would not have been Greek, but the language of the city of Troy is still an open question. ), or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the Trojan War. He is the son of Priam and Hecuba, a descendant of Dardanus, who lived under Mount Ida, and of Tros, the founder of Troy. Iliad XX.215ff. He acts as leader of the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy. In the European Middle Ages, Hector figures as one of the Nine Worthies noted by Jacques de Longuyon, known not only for his courage but also for his noble and courtly nature. Indeed Homer places Hector as the very noblest of all the heroes in the Iliad: he is both peace-loving and brave, thoughtful as well as bold, a good son, husband and father, and totally without darker motives. It is no coincidence that Hector says what is considered the best single line in the Iliad: One omen is best: defending the fatherland Trojan War Greatest Warrior of Troy Apulian red-figure vase ca. 370–360 BC depicting Hector, Andromache, Astyanax and Hector's helmet. According to the author of the Iliad, Hector does not approve of war between the Greeks and the Trojans. Observing Paris avoiding combat with Menelaus, he upbraids him with having brought trouble on his whole country and now refusing to fight. Paris therefore proposes a duel between himself and Menelaus, with Helen to go to the victor, and the war to stop. TIliad III. The duel, however, leads to inconclusive results due to divine intervention. Aphrodite leads Paris off the field. Menelaus claims a victory, but Pandarus wounds him from cover with an arrow causing the war to begin again. The Greeks attack and drive the Trojans back. Hector must now go out to lead a counter-attack. His wife, Andromache, carrying in her arms their son Astyanax, intercepts him at the gate, pleading with him not to go out for her sake as well as his son's. Hector knows that Troy and the house of Priam are doomed to fall and that their gloomy fate will be to die or go into slavery in a foreign land. With understanding, compassion, and tenderness he explains that he cannot personally refuse to fight, and comforts her with the idea that no one can take him until it is his time to go. IliadVI. The gleaming bronze helmet frightens Astyanax and makes him cry. This Trojan helmet was made famous by Denys Page in History and the Homeric Iliad, Chapter VI, "Some Mycenaean relics in the Iliad", as the Greeks do not wear bronze helmets in the poem's formulae, but they did in the Homeric Age; therefore, Page concludes (on other evidence as well) that the formulae descend in oral poetry from Mycenaean times. Hector takes it off, embraces his wife and son, and for her sake prays aloud to Zeus that his son might be chief after him and become more glorious in battle than he. Ajax and Hector exchange gifts, woodcut in Andreas Alciatus, Emblematum libellus, 1591. Hector and Paris pass through the gate and rally the Trojans, raising havoc among the Greeks. At the advice of his brother, Helenus (who also is divinely inspired), Hector, being told by Helenus that he is not fated to die yet, manages to get both armies seated and challenges any one of the Greek warriors to single combat. Iliad, VII. After the initial reluctance of the Argives to accept the challenge and after Nestor's chiding, nine Greek heroes step up to the challenge and draw by lot to see who is to face Hector. Ajax wins, and fights Hector to a standstill for the entire day, with neither able to obtain victory. At the end of the duel they express admiration for each other's courage and skill. Hector gives Ajax his sword (which Ajax would later use to commit suicide), while Ajax gives Hector his girdle (which is later used to attach Hector's corpse to the chariot on which Achilles drag him around the walls of Troy). The Greek and the Trojans make a truce to bury the dead. In the early dawn the next day the Greeks take advantage of it to build a wall and ditch around the ships. TIliad VII.433ff) Trojan Counterattack Battle at the ships, on a Greek sarcophagus, 225-250 AD. Zeus weighs the fates of the two armies in the balance and that of the Greeks sinks down. The Trojans press the Greeks into their camp over the ditch and wall and would have laid hands on the ships, but Agamemnon rallies the Greeks in person. The Trojans are driven off, night falls, and Hector resolves to take the camp and burn the ships next day. The Trojans bivouac in the field. "A thousand camp-fires gleamed upon the plain, ...". Iliad VIII.542ff. The next day Agamemnon rallies the Greeks and drives the Trojans "like a herd of cows maddened with fright when a lion has attacked them ..." TIliad, XI.163ff. Hector refrains from battle until Agamemnon leaves the field, wounded in the arm by a spear. Then Hector rallies the Trojans "...like some fierce tempest that swoops down upon the sea...." Diomedes and Odysseus hinder Hector and win the Greeks some time to retreat, but the Trojans sweep down upon the wall and rain blows upon it. The Greeks in the camp contest the gates to secure entrance for their fleeing warriors. The Trojans try to pull down the ramparts while the Greeks rain missiles upon them. Hector smashes open a gate with a large stone, clears the gate and calls on the Trojans to scale the wall, which they do, and "... all was uproar and confusion." Iliad XII. The battle rages on inside the camp. Hector goes down hit by a stone thrown by Ajax, but Apollo arrives from Olympus and infuses strength into "the shepherd of the people", who orders a chariot attack, with Apollo clearing the way. Many combats, deaths, boasts, threats, epithets, figures of speech, stories, lines of poetry and books of the Iliad later, Hector lays hold of Protesilaus' ship and calls for fire. The Trojans cannot bring it to him, as Ajax kills everyone who tries. TIliad, XV end. These events are all according to the will of the gods, who have decreed the fall of Troy, and therefore intend to tempt Achilles back into the war. Patroclus, Achilles' closest companion, disguised in the armor of Achilles, enters the combat leading the Myrmidons and the rest of the Achaeans to force a Trojan withdrawal. After Patroclus has routed the Trojan army, Hector, with the aid of Apollo and Euphorbus, kills Patroclus, vaunting over him: "I am foremost of all the Trojan warriors to stave the day of bondage from off them; as for you, vultures shall devour you here." The dying Patroclus replies: "... death and the day of your doom are close upon you...". Iliad XVI end. Hector's Last Fight Triumphant Achilles dragging Hector's lifeless body in front of the Gates of Troy. (From a panoramic fresco on the upper level of the main hall of the Achilleion) "Alas! the gods have lured me on to my destruction. ... death is now indeed exceedingly near at hand and there is no way out of it- for so Zeus and his son Apollo the far-darter have willed it, though heretofore they have been ever ready to protect me. My doom has come upon me; let me not then die ingloriously and without a struggle, but let me first do some great thing that shall be told among men hereafter. Spoken by Hector facing Achilles, after a missed spear-throw, Iliad Book XXII.299-305. Hector takes Achilles' armor off his victim, Patroclus and gives it to his men to take back to the city. Glaucus accuses Hector of cowardice in not challenging Ajax. Stung, Hector calls for the armor, puts it on and uses it to rally the Trojans. Zeus regards the donning of a hero's armor as an act of insolence by a fool about to die, but makes him strong for now. Iliad XVII. A fierce fight for the body ensues, which the Greeks win. Patroclus' death causes Achilles to renounce the wrath that kept him out of action, and he vows to avenge his fallen comrade by killing Hector. Hephaestus makes new armor for Achilles, including the Shield of Achilles, depicting "the earth, the heavens, and the sea; the moon also at her full and the untiring sun, with all the signs that glorify the face of heaven." Iliad XVIII.483ff. That night the Trojans held a council as to what to do. Hector's comrade-in-arms Polydamas suggested that the Trojans waste no time and return to the walls of the city where they would be safer from Achilles' wrath. Hector however, would not listen, thinking the Trojans were still on the cusp of a total victory. The next day Achilles, killing many, routed the Trojans back to the city. Hector was left alone to face him. Seized by fear, Hector turned to flee, as Achilles gave chase to him three times around the city. Hector then mastered his fear and turned to face Achilles. But Athena, in the disguise of Hector's brother Deiphobus, deluded Hector. He requested from Achilles that his body be returned to Priam for a rightful burial, which Achilles refused. Achilles hurled his spear at Hector, who later dodged it, but Athena brought it back to Achilles' hands without Hector noticing. He later threw a spear at Achilles which hit the shield but to no avail, then, when Hector turned to face his supposed brother to retrieve another spear he saw no one there. At that moment he realized that he was doomed and that the gods were now all in Achilles' favor. But a warrior to the end, Hector decided that he would go down fighting and that men would talk about his bravery in years to come. When Hector sees Achilles coming, he turns and runs three times around the walls of Troy, then makes his stand. Achilles stabs his spear, which is given by Athena, through Hector's throat but misses the vocal chords. Hector begs Achilles for honorable burial. However, Achilles replies that he would rather eat Hector's flesh. Hector dies, prophesying that Achilles' death will follow soon. After he died, Achilles then slit Hector's heels, and took the girdle that Ajax had given him and passed it through the slits of the heels. He then fastened the girdle to his chariot and drove his fallen enemy through the dust to the Danaan camp. For the next twelve days, Achilles mistreated the body, but it remained preserved from all injury by Apollo and Aphrodite. After these twelve days, the gods could no longer stand watching it and sent two messengers down to earth: Iris, another messenger god, and Thetis, mother to Achilles. Achilles' mother told Achilles to allow King Priam to come and take the body for ransom. Once King Priam was notified that Achilles would allow him to claim the body, he went to his safe to withdraw the ransom for Hector's body. The ransom King Priam offered included twelve fine robes, twelve white mantles, several richly embroidered tunics, ten bars of yellow gold, a special gold cup, and several cauldrons. King Priam himself soon came to claim the body, and Hermes granted him safe passage by casting a charm that would make anyone who looked at him fall asleep. Think of thy father, and this helpless face behold!See him in me, as helpless and as old!Though not so wretched: there he yields to me,The first of men in sovereign misery!Thus forced to kneel, thus groveling to embraceThe scourge and ruin of my realm and race;Suppliant my children’s murderer to implore,And kiss those hands yet reeking with their gore! Spoken by Priam to Achilles, Iliad XXIV. Out of respect for Priam, Achilles returned Hector's body without the ransom. Priam returned to Troy with the body of his son, and it was given full funeral honors. Even Helen mourned Hector, for he had always been kind to her and protected her from spite. The last lines of the Iliad are dedicated to Hector's funeral. Homer concludes by referring to the Trojan prince as the "tamer of horses." Apollodorus, Bibliotheke III, xii, 5-6; Apollodorus, Epitome IV, 2. Historical references There is as yet no direct evidence of the existence of Homeric heroes; i.e., no inscriptions, signatures, eye-witness accounts, etc. Theories about them have to rely on a preponderance of other evidence, which alone are not solid enough to warrant much conclusiveness. Once such piece of quasi-evidence is the names of Trojan heroes in the Linear B tablets. Twenty out of fifty-eight men's names also known from Homer, including e-ko-to (Hector), are Trojan warriors and some, including Hector, are in a servile capacity. John Chadwick, in Ventris and Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek, 2nd edition, Cambridge, 1973, p. 104. No such conclusion that they are the offspring of Trojan captive women is warranted. Generally the public has to be content with the knowledge that these names existed in Greek in Mycenaean times, although Page Page History and the Homeric Iliad, Chapter V. hypothesizes that Hector "may very well be ... a familiar Greek form impressed on a similar-sounding foreign name." When Pausanias visited Thebes in Boeotia, in the second century CE, he was shown Hector's tomb and was told that the bones had been transported there according to a Delphic oracle. Moses I. Finley observes Finley, The World of Odysseus, 1954, rev. ed. 1978) p. 44 "this typical bit of fiction must mean that there was an old Theban hero Hector, a Greek, whose myths antedated the Homeric poems. Even after Homer had located Hector in Troy for all time, the Thebans held on to their hero, and the Delphic oracle provided the necessary sanction." Later treatments In Dante's Inferno, Hector and his family are placed in Limbo, the outer circle wherein the virtuous non-Christians dwell. Hector is given his heraldry of a seated lion holding a sword in the Enfances Hector of the early 14th century. Hector is commemorated as the face of the Jack of diamonds in French playing cards. See also List of King Priam's children References | Hector |@lemmatized hector:65 bring:4 back:6 troy:13 roman:1 sarcophagus:2 ca:2 ad:2 greek:22 mythology:1 hectōr:1 hold:5 fast:1 etymology:1 give:9 online:1 etymological:1 dictionary:1 true:1 would:11 make:8 indo:1 european:2 name:5 root:1 seĝh:1 dardanian:1 language:1 city:5 still:2 open:2 question:1 hektōr:1 trojan:31 prince:2 great:3 fighter:1 war:6 son:8 priam:11 hecuba:1 descendant:1 dardanus:1 live:1 mount:1 ida:1 tros:1 founder:1 iliad:17 xx:1 act:2 leader:1 ally:1 defense:1 middle:1 age:2 figure:3 one:5 nine:2 worthy:1 note:1 jacques:1 de:1 longuyon:1 know:3 courage:2 also:5 noble:2 courtly:1 nature:1 indeed:2 homer:4 place:2 hero:7 peace:1 loving:1 brave:1 thoughtful:1 well:4 bold:1 good:1 husband:1 father:2 totally:1 without:4 darker:1 motif:1 coincidence:1 say:1 consider:1 best:2 single:2 line:3 omen:1 defend:1 fatherland:1 warrior:6 apulian:1 red:1 vase:1 bc:1 depict:2 andromache:2 astyanax:3 helmet:4 accord:3 author:1 approve:1 observe:2 paris:4 avoid:1 combat:4 menelaus:3 upbraid:1 trouble:1 whole:1 country:1 refuse:3 fight:6 therefore:3 propose:1 duel:3 helen:2 go:8 victor:1 stop:1 tiliad:4 iii:2 however:3 lead:4 inconclusive:1 result:1 due:1 divine:1 intervention:1 aphrodite:2 field:3 claim:3 victory:3 pandarus:1 wound:2 cover:1 arrow:1 cause:2 begin:1 greeks:1 attack:4 drive:4 must:2 counter:1 wife:2 carry:1 arm:3 intercept:1 gate:6 plead:1 sake:2 house:1 doom:4 fall:5 gloomy:1 fate:2 die:6 slavery:1 foreign:2 land:1 understanding:1 compassion:1 tenderness:1 explain:1 cannot:2 personally:1 comfort:1 idea:1 take:8 time:8 iliadvi:1 gleam:2 bronze:2 frighten:1 cry:1 famous:1 denys:1 page:4 history:2 homeric:5 chapter:2 vi:1 mycenaean:4 relic:1 wear:1 poem:2 formula:1 concludes:2 evidence:4 formulae:1 descend:1 oral:1 poetry:2 embrace:1 prays:1 aloud:1 zeus:4 might:1 chief:1 become:1 glorious:1 battle:4 ajax:9 exchange:1 gift:1 woodcut:1 andreas:1 alciatus:1 emblematum:1 libellus:1 pas:1 rally:5 raise:1 havoc:1 among:2 advice:1 brother:3 helenus:2 divinely:1 inspired:1 tell:4 fat:1 yet:3 manage:1 get:1 army:3 seat:1 challenge:4 vii:2 initial:1 reluctance:1 argive:1 accept:1 nestor:1 chiding:1 step:1 draw:1 lot:1 see:4 face:7 win:3 standstill:1 entire:1 day:9 neither:1 able:1 obtain:1 end:4 express:1 admiration:1 skill:1 sword:2 later:6 use:3 commit:1 suicide:1 girdle:3 attach:1 corpse:1 chariot:3 achilles:33 drag:2 around:4 wall:7 truce:1 bury:1 dead:1 early:2 dawn:1 next:5 advantage:1 build:1 ditch:2 ship:5 counterattack:1 weigh:1 two:2 balance:1 sink:1 press:1 camp:6 lay:2 hand:4 agamemnon:3 person:1 night:2 resolve:1 burn:1 bivouac:1 thousand:1 fire:2 upon:7 plain:1 viii:1 like:2 herd:1 cow:1 madden:1 fright:1 lion:2 xi:1 refrain:1 leave:2 spear:6 fierce:2 tempest:1 swoop:1 sea:2 diomedes:1 odysseus:2 hinder:1 retreat:1 sweep:1 rain:2 blow:1 contest:1 secure:1 entrance:1 fleeing:1 try:2 pull:1 rampart:1 missile:1 smash:1 large:1 stone:2 clear:2 call:3 scale:1 uproar:1 confusion:1 xii:2 rag:1 inside:1 hit:2 throw:3 apollo:5 arrives:1 olympus:1 infuse:1 strength:1 shepherd:1 people:1 order:1 way:2 many:2 death:5 boast:1 threat:1 epithet:1 speech:1 story:1 book:2 protesilaus:1 kill:4 everyone:1 xv:1 event:1 god:5 decree:1 intend:1 tempt:1 patroclus:6 close:2 companion:1 disguise:2 armor:5 enter:1 myrmidon:1 rest:1 achaean:1 force:2 withdrawal:1 rout:2 aid:1 euphorbus:1 vaunt:1 foremost:1 stave:1 bondage:1 vultures:1 shall:2 devour:1 reply:2 xvi:1 last:2 triumphant:1 lifeless:1 body:10 front:1 panoramic:1 fresco:1 upper:1 level:1 main:1 hall:1 achilleion:1 ala:1 lure:1 destruction:1 exceedingly:1 near:1 far:1 darter:1 though:2 heretofore:1 ever:1 ready:1 protect:2 come:5 let:2 ingloriously:1 struggle:1 first:2 thing:1 men:5 hereafter:1 speak:2 facing:1 missed:1 xxii:1 victim:1 glaucus:1 accuse:1 cowardice:1 stung:1 put:1 regard:1 donning:1 insolence:1 fool:1 strong:1 xvii:1 ensues:1 renounce:1 wrath:2 keep:1 action:1 vow:1 avenge:1 comrade:2 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5,891 | Kurt_Waldheim | Kurt Waldheim in Podgorica during second world war. From left Escola Roncagli, Kurt Waldheim, colonel Hans Herbert Macholz, general Arthur Phleps. Kurt Josef Waldheim (21 December 1918 – 14 June 2007) was an Austrian diplomat and politician. Waldheim was Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1972 to 1981, and President of Austria from 1986 to 1992. While running for President in Austria in 1985, his service as an intelligence officer in the Wehrmacht during World War II raised international controversy. Early life Waldheim was born in Sankt Andrä-Wördern, a village near Vienna, on 21 December 1918. Former UN Secretary General Kurt Waldheim dies at 88 - Haaretz - Israel News His father was a Roman Catholic school inspector of Czech origin named Watzlawick Kurt Waldheim, The Daily Telegraph, 15 June 2007. (original Czech spelling Václavík) who changed his name that year as the Habsburg monarchy collapsed. Waldheim served in the Austrian Army (1936-37) and attended the Vienna Consular Academy, where he graduated in 1939. Waldheim's father was active in the Christian Social Party. Waldheim himself was politically unaffiliated during these years at the Academy. Shortly after the German annexation of Austria in 1938, Waldheim applied for membership in the National Socialist German Students' League (NSDStB), a division of the Nazi Party. Report of the International Historical Commission of 8 February 1988, section on "Membership in National Socialist Organizations", as cited for example in http://nationalsozialismus.at/Themen/Umgang/waldheim.htm Shortly thereafter he became a registered member of the mounted corps of the SA. On 19 August 1944, in Vienna, he married Elisabeth Ritschel; their first daughter Lieselotte was born the following year. Son Gerhard and daughter Christa followed. Military service in World War II Overview In early 1941 Waldheim was drafted into the Wehrmacht and sent to the Eastern Front where he served as a squad leader. In December 1941 he was wounded but later returned to service. His further service in the Wehrmacht from 1942 to 1945 (at age 24 to 27) was subject of the international dispute regarding his person in 1985 and 1986. In 1985, in his autobiography, he stated that he was discharged from further service at the front and for the rest of the war years finished his law degree at the University of Vienna and married in 1944. Documents and witnesses which have since come to light reveal that Waldheim’s military service continued until 1945, and confirmed that he graduated with a law degree from the University of Vienna in 1945 and that he married in 1944. Service in Yugoslavia and Greece His functions within the staff of German Army Group E from 1942 until 1945, as determined by the International Commission of Historians see page 39 of The Waldheim Report. Submitted 8 February 1988 to Federal Chancellor Dr. Franz Vranitzky , were: interpreter and liaison officer with the 5th Alpine Division (Italy) in April/May 1942, then, O2 officer (communications) with Kampfgruppe West Bosnia June/August 1942, interpreter with the liaison staff attached to the Italian 9th Army in Tirana in early summer 1942, O1 officer in the German liaison staff with the Italian 11th Army and in the staff of the Army Group South in Greece in July/October 1943 and O3 officer on the staff of Army Group E in Arksali, Kosovska Mitrovica and Sarajevo from October 1943 to January/February 1945. By 1943 he was serving in the capacity of an ordnance officer in Army Group E which was headed by General Alexander Löhr Walther-Peer Fellgiebel (2000), Die Träger des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939-1945. Podzun-Pallas. ISBN 3-7909-0284-5 . In 1986, Waldheim said that he had served only as an interpreter and a clerk and had no knowledge either of reprisals against civilians locally or of massacres in neighboring provinces of Yugoslavia. He said that he had known about some of the things that had happened, and had been horrified, but could not see what else he could have done. Much historical interest has centered on Waldheim's role in Operation Kozara . According to one post-war investigator, prisoners were routinely shot within only a few hundred yards of Waldheim's office , and at the Jasenovac concentration camp. Waldheim later stated "that he did not know about the murder of civilians there." Waldheim's name appears on the Wehrmacht's "honor list" of those responsible for the militarily successful operation. The Independent State of Croatia awarded Waldheim the silver medal of the Order of Zvonimir with an oak leaf cluster. Letter from Europe: Vienna, 20 June: The New Yorker Later, during the lobbying for his election as U.N. Secretary General, Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito awarded Waldheim the Order of the Grand Cross of Yugoslavia. According to Eli Rosenbaum, in 1944, Waldheim reviewed and approved a packet of anti-Semitic propaganda leaflets to be dropped behind Russian lines, one of which ended, "enough of the Jewish war, kill the Jews, come over." Rosenbaum, EM with Hoffer W, Betrayal: The Untold Story of the Kurt Waldheim Investigation and Cover-Up St. Martin's Press, 1993, ISBN 0-312-08219-3, p. 338 Surrender In 1945, Waldheim surrendered to British forces in Carinthia, at which point he said he had fled his command post within Army Group E, where he was serving with General Löhr, who was seeking a special deal with the British. Diplomatic career Waldheim joined the Austrian diplomatic service in 1945, after finishing his studies in law at the University of Vienna. He served as First Secretary of the Legation in Paris from 1948, and in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in Vienna from 1951 to 1956. In 1956 he was made Ambassador to Canada, returning to the Ministry in 1960, after which he became the Permanent Representative of Austria to the United Nations in 1964. For two years beginning in 1968, he was the Federal Minister for Foreign Affairs in Austria serving for the Austrian People's Party, before going back as Permanent Representative to the U.N. in 1970. Shortly afterwards, he ran and was defeated in the 1971 Austrian presidential elections. United Nations Secretary-General After being defeated in his home country's presidential election, he was elected to succeed U Thant as United Nations Secretary-General the same year. As Secretary-General, Waldheim opened and addressed a number of major international conferences convened under United Nations auspices. These included the third session of the U.N. Conference on Trade and Development (Santiago, April 1972), the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, June 1972), the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Seas (Caracas, June 1974), the World Population Conference (Bucharest, August 1974) and the World Food Conference (Rome, November 1974). However, his diplomatic efforts particularly in the Middle East were overshadowed by the diplomacy of then US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger. BBC NEWS | World | Europe | Obituary: Kurt Waldheim In 1972 Waldheim refused to condemn a letter sent to him by Idi Amin which applauded the massacre of the Israeli Olympic athletes in Munich and said Germany was the most appropriate locale for this because it was where Hitler burned more than six million Jews. "It happened because Hitler and all of the German people knew that the Israelis are not a people who work for humanity and because of that they burned them alive and killed them with gas on the soil of Germany." Israeli-Ugandan Relations in the Time of Idi Amin by Arye Oded, Jewish Political Studies Review 18:3-4 (Fall 2006) In November 1975 the United Nations General Assembly, under his guidance adopted Resolution 3379 which asserted Zionism to be a form of racism (the General Assembly rescinded this resolution in December 1991 with Resolution 46/86). In a 1976 security council debate he described the Israeli rescue of hijacked airline passengers at Entebbe, Uganda as "a serious violation of the national sovereignty of a United Nations member state. " National Review, 9 July 2007, Vol. LIX, No. 12 Waldheim was re-elected in 1976 despite some opposition. Waldheim and then-U.S. President Jimmy Carter both prepared written statements for inclusion on the Voyager Golden Records, now in deep space. Voyager - Spacecraft - Golden Record He was the first Secretary-General to visit North Korea, in 1979. "Discipline and Devotion", TIME, 28 May 1979 article. Accessed 1 December 2008. In 1980 Waldheim flew to Iran in an attempt to negotiate the release of the American hostages held in Tehran, but Ayatollah Khomeini refused to see him. While in Tehran, it was announced that an attempt on Waldheim's life had been foiled. Near the end of his tenure as Secretary-General, Waldheim and Paul McCartney also organized a series of concerts for the People of Kampuchea to help Cambodia recover from the damage done by Pol Pot. CBC.ca - Arts - Music - Charity Begins The People's Republic of China vetoed Waldheim's candidature for a third term, and he was succeeded by Javier Pérez de Cuéllar of Peru. Presidency of Austria Election and Waldheim Affair Waldheim had unsuccessfully sought election as President of Austria in 1971, but his second attempt on 8 June 1986 proved successful. During his campaign for the presidency in 1985, the events started that marked the beginning of what became known internationally as the "Waldheim Affair". Before the presidential elections, Alfred Worm revealed in the Austrian weekly news magazine Profil that there had been several omissions about Waldheim's life between 1938 and 1945 in his recently-published autobiography. A short time later, the World Jewish Congress alleged that Waldheim had lied about his service as an officer in the mounted corps of the SA, and his time as an ordnance officer in Saloniki, Greece, from 1942 to 1943. See Section "Military Service" above Waldheim called the allegations "pure lies and malicious acts". Nevertheless he admitted that he had known about German reprisals against partisans: "Yes, I knew. I was horrified. But what could I do? I had either to continue to serve or be executed." He said that he had never fired a shot or even seen a partisan. His former immediate superior at the time stated that Waldheim had "remained confined to a desk". Former Austrian chancellor Bruno Kreisky denounced the actions of the World Jewish Congress as an "extraordinary infamy" adding that Austrians wouldn't "allow the jews abroad to ... tell us who should be our President.". In 1994, former Mossad officer Victor Ostrovsky claimed in his book The Other Side of Deception that Mossad doctored the file of the then UN Secretary General to implicate him in Nazi crimes. These allegedly false documents were subsequently "discovered" by Benjamin Netanyahu in the UN file, and triggered the "Waldheim Affair". Ostrovsky says it was motivated by Waldheim's criticism of Israeli action in Lebanon. Controversy surrounds Ostrovsky and his writings and some of its claims disputed; many of which have not been verified from other sources; critics, such as Benny Morris and author David Wise charged that the book is essentially a novel. The International Committee of historians In view of the ongoing international controversy, the Austrian government decided to appoint an international committee of historians to examine Waldheim's life between 1938 and 1945. Their report found no evidence of any personal involvement in those crimes. Although Waldheim had stated that he was unaware of any crimes taking place, the historians cited evidence that Waldheim must have known about war crimes. Simon Wiesenthal "The Waldheim Case" in Contemporary Jewish Writing in Austria edited by Dagmar Lorenz. pp 81-95, University of Nebraska press In an account of the controversy, Simon Wiesenthal states that Waldheim was stationed 5 miles from Salonika while, over the course of several weeks, the Jewish community which formed one third of the population there, was sent to Auschwitz. Walldhiem denied any knowledge of this. Wiesenthal states: I could only reply what the committee of historians likewise made clear in its report: "I cannot believe you." Simon Wiesenthal "The Waldheim Case" in Contemporary Jewish Writing in Austria edited by Dagmar Lorenz. page 91, University of Nebraska Press Wiesenthal stated there was no evidence found by the committee that Waldheim took part in any war crimes, but was guilty of lying about his military record. Kurt Waldheim | Special reports | Guardian Unlimited The International Committee in February 1988 concluded, with regard to Waldheim's ability to do something about the crimes he knew that were going on in Yugoslavia and Greece: In favour of Waldheim is, that he only had very minor possibilities to act against the injustices happening. Actions against these, depending on which level the resistance occurred, were of very different importance. For a young member of the staff, who did not have any military authority on the army group level, the practical possibilities for resistance were very limited and with a high probability would not have led to any actual results. Resistance would have been limited to a formal protest or on the refusal to serve any longer in the army, which would have seemed to be a courageous act, however would have not led to any practical achievement. James L. Collins Jr. u.a.: Bericht der internationalen Historikerkommission, Schlussbetrachtung, 8. Februar 1988. (translated from German) Term of presidency 1986–1992 Throughout his term as president (1986–1992), Waldheim and his wife Elisabeth were officially deemed personae non gratae by the United States. In 1987, they were put on a watch list of persons banned from entering the United States and remained on the list even after the publication of the International Committee of Historians' report on his military past in the Wehrmacht. He also was not invited to, and therefore did not, visit any other Western countries during his term as Austrian president. Waldheim therefore concentrated his state visits on the Middle East, the Vatican and some communist states. Late life After his term ended in 1992, Waldheim did not seek a second term. In 1992 Waldheim was made an honorary member of K.H.V. Welfia Klosterneuburg, a Roman Catholic student fraternity that is a part of the Austrian Cartellverband (ÖCV). In 1994, Pope John Paul II awarded Waldheim a knighthood in the Order of Pius IX and his wife a papal honor. He died in June 2007 from heart failure. On 23 June his funeral was held at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna and he was laid to rest at the Presidential Vault in the Zentralfriedhof (Central Cemetery). "Former Austrian president whose term was marred by wartime service buried", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), 23 June 2007. In his speech at the Cathedral, Federal President Heinz Fischer called Waldheim "a great Austrian" who had been wrongfully accused of having committed war crimes. Fischer also praised Waldheim for his efforts to solve international crises and for his contributions to world peace. http://www.hofburg.at/show_content2.php?s2id=855 Speech of President Heinz Fischer (official text) At Waldheim's own request, no foreign heads of states or governments were invited to attend his funeral. Hans-Adam II, the Prince of Liechtenstein, a neighbouring country of Austria, was the only one to be present. Also present was Luis Durnwalder, governor of Italian province of Bolzano-Bozen. Syria and Japan were the only two countries that laid a wreath. In a two-page letter, published posthumously by the Austrian Press Agency the day after he died, Waldheim admitted making "mistakes" ("but these were certainly not those of a follower let alone an accomplice of a criminal regime") and asked his critics for forgiveness http://activepaper.tele.net/vntipps/WaldheimVermaechtnis.pdf . Media references Waldheim is the subject of Lou Reed's song "Good Evening, Mr. Waldheim" from the album New York, in which he is criticized as a racist along with Jesse Jackson, Louis Farrakhan, and Pope John Paul II Jewsrock.org : Words : Subterranean Homeland Blues W. G. Sebald's novel The Rings of Saturn (1995; English trans., 1998) refers to Waldheim, though not by name. http://www.buzzwords.ndo.co.uk/mellor/ringsofsaturn.html As a much-heralded invited guest on Dame Edna Everage's talk show The Dame Edna Experience, a dignified "Kurt Waldheim" began a grand entrance, except that halfway down the staircase he abruptly fell through a hidden chute and disappeared: the band's fanfare stopped as Dame Edna explained she had decided at the last minute to "abort" Dr. Waldheim's appearance because it would have been "too political." The episode aired 12 September 1987. A running segment on the Howard Stern radio show is called Guess Who's The Jew and features Fred Norris portraying a Nazi Kurt Waldheim Jr. Howard Stern.com Harry Turtledove's alternate history novel, In the Presence of Mine Enemies, in which Germany won the Second World War, a "Kurt Haldweim" is the third Führer of Germany, and parts of Haldweim's biography closely parallel Waldheim's. In a 1988 ice hockey film entitled Hockey, The Lighter Side, former New York Rangers goaltender John Davidson is explaining his fictional goaltender school and as hockey highlights play he exclaims, "You'll have more shots taken at you than Kurt Waldheim". Further reading Bassett, Richard (1988). Waldheim and Austria, Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0140130195 References External links Official U.N.S.G. Biography Austria and Nazism: Owning Up to the Past (A BBC Report) The Waldheim Report: International Commission of Historians at Google Books Daily Telegraph obituary The Guardian obituary The Times obituary WSWS obituary Video of Kurt Waldheim sworn in as UN-Secretary-General |- |- | Kurt_Waldheim |@lemmatized kurt:13 waldheim:74 podgorica:1 second:4 world:10 war:10 left:1 escola:1 roncagli:1 colonel:1 han:2 herbert:1 macholz:1 general:15 arthur:1 phleps:1 josef:1 december:5 june:10 austrian:13 diplomat:1 politician:1 secretary:12 united:9 nation:7 president:10 austria:12 run:3 service:11 intelligence:1 officer:9 wehrmacht:5 ii:5 raise:1 international:13 controversy:4 early:3 life:5 bear:2 sankt:1 andrä:1 wördern:1 village:1 near:2 vienna:9 former:6 un:5 die:4 haaretz:1 israel:1 news:3 father:2 roman:2 catholic:2 school:2 inspector:1 czech:2 origin:1 name:4 watzlawick:1 daily:2 telegraph:2 original:1 spell:1 václavík:1 change:1 year:6 habsburg:1 monarchy:1 collapse:1 serve:9 army:10 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5,892 | Monaco_Grand_Prix | The Monaco Grand Prix () is a Formula One race held each year on the Circuit de Monaco. Run since 1929, it is widely considered to be one of the most important and prestigious automobile races in the world alongside the Indianapolis 500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans (with which it forms the Triple Crown of Motorsport). The history, spectacle and glamour result in the race being considered "the jewel of the Formula One crown". The race is held on a narrow course laid out in the streets of Monaco, with many elevation changes and tight corners as well as a tunnel, making it one of the most demanding tracks in Formula One. In spite of the relatively low average speeds, it is a dangerous place to race. The first race in 1929, was organised by Anthony Noghès under the auspices of the "Automobile Club de Monaco", and was won by William Grover-Williams driving a Bugatti. The event was part of the pre-Second World War European Championship and was included in the first Formula One World Championship in 1950. Graham Hill was known as "Mr Monaco" due to his five Monaco wins in the 1960s. Brazil's Ayrton Senna has won the race more times than any other driver, with six victories, winning five consecutively between 1989 and 1993. History Origin William Grover-Williams at the 1929 Monaco Grand Prix. Like many European races, the Monaco Grand Prix predates the current World Championship. The principality's first Grand Prix was organised in 1929 by Anthony Noghès, under the auspices of Prince Louis II, through the Automobile Club de Monaco (ACM). Alexandre Noghès, Anthony's father, was founding president of the ACM, originally named Sport Vélocipédique Monégasque. The ACM made their first foray into motorsport by holding the Rallye Automobile Monte Carlo from 1911. In 1928 the club applied to the Association Internationale des Automobiles Clubs Reconnus (AIACR), the international governing body of motorsport, to be upgraded from a regional French club to full national status. Their application was refused due to the lack of a major motorsport event held wholly within Monaco's boundaries. The rally could not be considered as it mostly used the roads of other European countries. In order to attain full national status, Noghès proposed the creation of an automobile Grand Prix in the streets of Monte Carlo. Noghès obtained the official support of Prince Louis II. Noghès also gained support for his plans from Monegasque Louis Chiron, a top-level driver in European Grand Prix racing. Chiron thought that the topography of the location would be well suited to setting up a race track. The first Grand Prix Automobile de Monaco was an invitation only event, but not all of those invited decided to attend. The leading Maserati and Alfa Romeo drivers decided not to compete but Bugatti was well represented. Mercedes sent their leading driver, Rudolf Caracciola, to drive a Mercedes SSK. Caracciola drove a fighting race, bringing his SSK up to second position at the end of the race, despite starting in fifteenth. The race was won by "Williams" (pseudonym of expatriate William Grover-Williams) driving a Bugatti Type 35B painted in what would become the famous British racing green. Another driver who competed using a pseudonym was "Georges Philippe", the Baron Philippe de Rothschild. Chiron was unable to compete, having a prior commitment to compete in the Indianapolis 500 on the same day. Hughes, M. 2007. Street theatre 1929. Motor Sport, LXXXIII/3, p. 62 However, Chiron did compete the following year, finishing second, and took victory in the 1931 race driving a Bugatti. As of 2008, he remains the only native of Monaco to have won the event. Pre-war The race quickly grew in importance. Because of the large number of races which were being termed 'Grands Prix', the AIACR formally recognised the most important race of each of its affiliated national automobile clubs as International Grands Prix, or Grandes Épreuves, and in 1933 Monaco was ranked as such alongside the French, Belgian, Italian, and Spanish Grands Prix. That year's race was the first Grand Prix where grid positions were decided, as they are now, by practice time rather than the established method of balloting. The race saw Achille Varzi and Tazio Nuvolari exchange the lead many times before being settled in Varzi's favour on the final lap when Nuvolari's car caught fire. The race became a round of the new European Championship in 1936 and 1937, and both races were won by Mercedes-Benz before the Second World War ended organised racing in Europe until 1945. Formula One Racing in Europe started again on 9 September 1945 at the Bois de Boulogne park in the city of Paris, four months and one day after the end of the war in Europe. The cradle of motorsport www.forix.com Retrieved 6 March 2007 In 1946 a new premier racing category, Formula One, was defined by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), the successor of the AIACR, based on the pre-war voiturette class. A Monaco Grand Prix was run to this formula in 1948, won by the future world champion Nino Farina in a Maserati 4CLT. Although the 1949 event was canceled due to the death of Prince Louis II, it was included in the new World Drivers' Championship the following year. The race provided future five-time world champion Juan Manuel Fangio with his first win in a World Championship race, as well as third place for the 51 year old Louis Chiron; his best result in the World Championship era. However, there was no race in 1951, and in 1952, a year in which the world drivers' championship was run for less powerful Formula Two cars, the race was run to sports car rules instead and did not form part of the World Championship. Since 1955 - when Chiron again scored points and at 56 became the oldest driver to compete in a Formula One Grand Prix - the Monaco Grand Prix has continuously been part of the Formula One World Championship. It was not until 1957, when Fangio won again, that the Grand Prix saw a double winner. Between 1954 and 1961 Fangio's former Mercedes colleague, Stirling Moss, went one better. The 1961 race saw Moss fend off three works Ferrari 156s in a year-old privateer Rob Walker Racing Team Lotus 18, to take his third Monaco victory. The Complete Encyclopedia of Formula One, p. 262 Lines 8-9 Carlton Books Ltd. ISBN 1-85868-515-X Graham Hill won five of his 14 Grands Prix at Monaco Britain's Graham Hill won the prestigious race five times in the 1960s and became known as "King of Monaco" The Complete Encyclopedia of Formula One, p. 262 Line 10 Carlton Books Ltd. ISBN 1-85868-515-X and "Mr. Monaco". The 1965 race is considered his best. He took pole position and led from the start. On lap 25, he went up an escape road to avoid hitting a slow backmarker. Rejoining in fifth place, Hill set several new lap records on the way to winning. The race was also notable for the debut of Honda in the World Championship, and for Paul Hawkins' Lotus ending up in the harbour. A similar incident was included in the 1966 film Grand Prix. Grand Prix - aboutuk.rottentomatoes.com Retrieved 23 February 2007 By the early 1970s, as Brabham team owner Bernie Ecclestone started to marshal the collective bargaining power of the Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA), Monaco was prestigious enough to become an early bone of contention. Historically the number of cars permitted in a race was decided by the race organiser, in this case the ACM, which had always set a low number, around 16. In 1972 Ecclestone was starting to negotiate deals which relied on FOCA guaranteeing at least 18 entrants for every race. A stand off over this issue left the 1972 race in jeopardy until the ACM gave in and agreed that 26 cars could participate - the same number permitted at most other circuits. Two years later, in 1974, the ACM managed to get the numbers back down to 18. Lovell, Terry (2004) Bernie's Game Because of its tight confines and punishing nature, Monaco has often thrown up unexpected results. In the 1982 race René Arnoux led the first 15 laps, before retiring. Alain Prost then led until four laps from the end, when he spun off on the wet track, hit the barriers and lost a wheel, giving Riccardo Patrese the lead. Patrese himself spun with only a lap and a half to go, letting Didier Pironi through to the front, followed by Andrea de Cesaris. On the last lap, Pironi ran out of fuel in the tunnel, but De Cesaris also ran out of fuel before he could overtake. In the meantime Patrese had bump-started his car and went through to score his first Grand Prix win. Henry, Alan (1985) Brabham, the Grand Prix Cars, p. 237 Osprey ISBN 0-905138-36-8 Henry lists Pironi as having stopped with electrical trouble, but the official results show that the Ferrari driver ran out of fuel. In 1983 the ACM became entangled in the disagreements between Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile (FISA) and FOCA. The ACM, with the agreement of Bernie Ecclestone, negotiated an individual television rights deal with ABC in the United States. This broke an agreement enforced by FISA for a single central negotiation of television rights. Jean-Marie Balestre, president of FISA, announced that the Monaco Grand Prix would not form part of the Formula One world championship in 1985. The ACM fought their case in the French courts. They lost the case and the race was eventually reinstated. Lovell, Terry (2004) Bernie's Game For the decade from 1984 to 1993 the race was won by only two drivers - Frenchman Prost and Brazilian Ayrton Senna. Prost, already a winner of the support race for Formula Three cars in 1979, took his first Monaco win at the 1984 race. The race started 45 minutes late after heavy rain. Prost led briefly before Nigel Mansell overtook him on lap 11. Mansell crashed out five laps later, letting Prost back into the lead. On lap 27, Prost led from Ayrton Senna's Toleman and Stefan Bellof's Tyrrell. Senna was catching Prost and Bellof was catching both of them. However on lap 31, the race was controversially stopped. Later, FISA fined the clerk of the course, Jacky Ickx, $6,000 and suspended his licence for not consulting the stewards before stopping the race. The Chequered Flag p. 320, Lines 55-56 Weidenfeld & Nicolson ISBN 0-297-83550-5 The drivers received only half of the points that would usually be awarded, as the race had been stopped before two thirds of the intended race distance had been completed. Prost lost that year's championship by only half a point - had the race not been stopped early, if Prost had finished second, he would have gained 6 points as opposed to 4.5, and been crowned World Champion.Formation lap for the 1996 Monaco Grand Prix. Senna holds the record for the most victories in Monaco, with six, including five between 1989 and 1993, as well as eight podium finishes in ten starts. His 1987 win was the first time a car with an active suspension had won a Grand Prix. His win was very popular with the people of Monaco, and when he was arrested on the Monday following the race, for riding a motorcycle without wearing a helmet, he was released by the officers after they realised who he was. Grand Prix 1987, p. 60. ISBN 0-908081-27-8 At the 1992 event Nigel Mansell, who had won all five races held to that point in the season, took pole and dominated the race in his Williams FW14B-Renault. However, with seven laps remaining, Mansell suffered a loose wheel nut and was forced into the pits, emerging behind Ayrton Senna's McLaren-Honda. Mansell, on fresh tyres, set a lap record almost two seconds quicker than Senna's and closed from 5.2 to 1.9 seconds in only two laps. The pair duelled around Monaco for the final four laps but Mansell could find no way past, finishing just two tenths of a second behind the Brazilian. Autocourse 1992 pp.150, 153 It was Senna's fifth win at Monaco, equalling Graham Hill's record. After Senna took his sixth win at the 1993 race, breaking Graham Hill's record for most wins at the Monaco Grand Prix, runner-up Damon Hill commented that "If my father was around now, he would be the first to congratulate Ayrton." Allsop, Derek. Designs on Victory: On The Grand Prix Trail With Benetton. Hutchinson, p. 109, Line 34-35 . ISBN 0-09-178311-9 The 1996 race saw Michael Schumacher take pole position before crashing out on the first lap. Damon Hill led the first 40 laps before his engine expired in the tunnel. Jean Alesi took the lead but suffered suspension failure 20 laps later. Olivier Panis, who started in 14th place, moved into the lead and stayed there until the end of the race, being pushed all the way by David Coulthard. It was Panis' only win, and the last for his Ligier team. Only four cars finished the race. Seven-time world champion Schumacher would eventually win the race five times, matching Graham Hill's record. As of 2008, he also holds the current lap record with a 1:14.439, according to the official Formula One website. In his last appearance, at the 2006 event, he attracted criticism while provisionally holding pole position with the qualifying session drawing to a close, by stopping his car at the Rascasse hairpin, blocking the track. A result of this was that yellow flags were waved, so that competitors were obliged to slow down, thus meaning they would not be able to beat Schumacher's lap time. Although Schumacher claimed it was a genuine accident, the FIA disagreed and Schumacher was sent to the back of the grid. Circuit The famous harbour. The Circuit de Monaco consists of the city streets of Monte Carlo and La Condamine, which includes the famous harbour. It is unique in having been held on the same circuit every time it has been run over such a long period — only the Italian Grand Prix, which has been held at Autodromo Nazionale Monza every year except 1980 and 1921, has a similarly lengthy and close relationship with a single circuit. The race circuit has many elevation changes, tight corners, and a narrow course that makes it one of the most demanding tracks in Formula One racing. As of 2008, only two drivers have crashed and ended up in the harbour, the most famous being Alberto Ascari in 1955. Despite the fact that the course has had minor changes several times during its history, it is still considered the ultimate test of driving skills in Formula One, and if it were not already an existing Grand Prix, it would not be permitted to be added to the schedule for safety reasons. In the Driving Seat p. 32, Lines 8-10 Stanley Paul & Co. Ltd. ISBN 0-09-173818-0 Even in 1929, 'La Vie Automobile' magazine offered the opinion that "Any respectable traffic system would have covered the track with <<Danger>> sign posts left, right and centre". Triple Formula One champion Nelson Piquet was fond of saying that racing at Monaco was "like trying to cycle round your living room", but added that "a win here was worth two anywhere else". Jean-Michel Desnoues; Patrick Camus & Jean-Marc Loubat Formula 1 99 p. 121, Line 6-8. Queen Anne Press. ISBN 1-85291-606-0 Notably, the course includes a tunnel. The contrast of daylight and gloom when entering/exiting the tunnel presents "challenges not faced elsewhere", as the drivers have to "adjust their vision as they emerge from the tunnel at the fastest point of the track and brake for the chicane in the daylight." http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/05/23/sports/SRPRIX.1-272657.php Organisation The 1929 Monaco Grand Prix event poster. The Monaco Grand Prix is organised each year by the Automobile Club de Monaco which also runs the Monte Carlo Rally and the Junior Monaco Kart Cup. It differs in several ways from other Grands Prix. The practice session for the race is held on the Thursday preceding the race instead of Friday. This allows the streets to be opened to the public again on the Friday. Until the late 1990s the race started at 3:30 p.m. local time - an hour and a half later than other European Formula One races. In recent years the race has fallen in line with the other Formula One races for the convenience of television viewers. Also, earlier the event was traditionally held on the week of Ascension Day. For many years, the numbers of cars admitted to Grands Prix was at the discretion of the race organisers - Monaco had the smallest grids, ostensibly because of its narrow and short track. Only 18 cars were permitted to enter the 1975 Monaco Grand Prix, compared to 23 to 26 cars at all other rounds that year. The erecting of the circuit takes six weeks, and the removal after the race takes three weeks. Allsop, Derek. Designs on Victory: On The Grand Prix Trail With Benetton. Hutchinson, p. 96, Line 4-6. ISBN 0-09-178311-9 The temporary buildings, grandstands, crash-barriers and other infrastructure that are used to convert the streets of Monaco into a racing circuit are stored to the west of the D6007 approximately half a kilometre from the end of the A8. There is no podium as such at the race. Instead a section of the track is closed after the race to act as parc fermé, a place where the cars are held for official inspection. The first three drivers in the race leave their cars there and walk directly to the royal box where the 'podium' ceremony is held, a location much closer to the crowd than at other races. Fame The Monaco Grand Prix is widely considered to be one of the most important and prestigious automobile races in the world alongside the Indianapolis 500-Mile Race and 24 Hours of Le Mans. These three races are considered to form a Triple Crown of the three most famous motor races in the world. Graham Hill is the only driver to have completed the Triple Crown, by winning all three races. The practice session for Monaco overlaps with that for the Indianapolis 500, and the races themselves sometimes clash. As the two races take place on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean and form part of different championships, it is difficult for one driver to compete effectively in both during his career. Juan Pablo Montoya, who won the Monaco Grand Prix in 2003 and the Indianapolis 500 in 2000, is the only driver still racing in 2007 who has won two of the three races and who is therefore able to complete the Triple Crown. In awarding its first Gold medal for motor sport to Prince Rainier III, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) characterised the Monaco Grand Prix as contributing "an exceptional location of glamour and prestige" to motor sport. It has been run under the patronage of three generations of Monaco's royal family: Louis II, Rainier III and Albert II, all of whom have taken a close interest in the race. A large part of the principality's income comes from tourists attracted by the warm climate and the famous casino, but it is also a tax haven and is home to many millionaires, including several Formula One drivers. Monaco has produced only three native Formula One drivers, Louis Chiron, André Testut and Olivier Beretta, www.f1db.com identifies Testut as Monagasque, although he was born in Lyons, France. but its tax status has made it home to many drivers over the years, including Gilles Villeneuve and Ayrton Senna. Of the 2006 Formula One contenders, several have property in the principality, including Jenson Button and David Coulthard, who is part owner of a hotel there. Scotch beef No.1 formula for Riviera restrauteurs www.scotland.gov.uk Because of the small size of the town and the location of the circuit, drivers whose races end early can usually get back to their apartments in minutes. Ayrton Senna famously retired to his apartment after crashing out of the lead of the 1988 race. Winners Multiple winners (drivers) Embolded drivers are still competing in the Formula One championship # Wins Driver Years Won 6 Ayrton Senna 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 5 Graham Hill 1963, 1964, 1965, 1968, 1969 Michael Schumacher 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001 4 Alain Prost 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988 3 Stirling Moss 1956, 1960, 1961 Jackie Stewart 1966, 1971, 1973 2 Juan Manuel Fangio 1950, 1957 Maurice Trintignant 1955, 1958 Niki Lauda 1975, 1976 Jody Scheckter 1977, 1979 David Coulthard 2000, 2002 Fernando Alonso 2006, 2007 Multiple winners (constructors) A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship. A cream background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship. Embolded teams are still competing in the Formula One championship # Wins ConstructorYears Won 15 McLaren1984, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991,1992, 1993, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007,2008 9 Ferrari 1952 1955, 1975, 1976, 1979,1981, 1997, 1999, 2001 7 Lotus1960, 1961, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1974, 1987 5 British Racing Motors1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1972 4 Bugatti 1929, 1930, 1931, 1933 3 Alfa Romeo1932, 1934 1950 Cooper1958, 1959, 1962 Maserati1948 1956, 1957 Mercedes-Benz19351936, 1937 Tyrrell1971, 1973, 1978 Williams1980, 1983, 2003 2 Benetton1994, 1995 Brabham1967, 1982 Renault2004, 2006 By year A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship. A cream background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship. Year DriverConstructorReport 2009 Jenson Button Brawn-Mercedes Report 2008 Lewis Hamilton McLaren-Mercedes Report 2007 Fernando Alonso McLaren-Mercedes Report 2006 Fernando Alonso Renault Report 2005 Kimi Räikkönen McLaren-Mercedes Report 2004 Jarno Trulli Renault Report 2003 Juan Pablo Montoya Williams-BMW Report 2002 David Coulthard McLaren-Mercedes Report 2001 Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report 2000 David Coulthard McLaren-Mercedes Report 1999 Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report 1998 Mika Häkkinen McLaren-Mercedes Report 1997 Michael Schumacher Ferrari Report 1996 Olivier Panis Ligier-Mugen-Honda Report 1995 Michael Schumacher Benetton-Renault Report 1994 Michael Schumacher Benetton-Ford Report 1993 Ayrton Senna McLaren-Ford Report 1992 Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report 1991 Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report 1990 Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report 1989 Ayrton Senna McLaren-Honda Report 1988 Alain Prost McLaren-Honda Report 1987 Ayrton Senna Lotus-Honda Report 1986 Alain Prost McLaren-TAG Report 1985 Alain Prost McLaren-TAG Report 1984 Alain Prost McLaren-TAG Report 1983 Keke Rosberg Williams-Ford Report 1982 Riccardo Patrese Brabham-Ford Report 1981 Gilles Villeneuve Ferrari Report 1980 Carlos Reutemann Williams-Ford Report 1979 Jody Scheckter Ferrari Report 1978 Patrick Depailler Tyrrell-Ford Report 1977 Jody Scheckter Wolf-Ford Report 1976 Niki Lauda Ferrari Report 1975 Niki Lauda Ferrari Report 1974 Ronnie Peterson Lotus-Ford Report 1973 Jackie Stewart Tyrrell-Ford Report 1972 Jean-Pierre Beltoise BRM Report 1971 Jackie Stewart Tyrrell-Ford Report 1970 Jochen Rindt Lotus-Ford Report 1969 Graham Hill Lotus-Ford Report 1968 Graham Hill Lotus-Ford Report 1967 Denny Hulme Brabham-Repco Report 1966 Jackie Stewart BRM Report 1965 Graham Hill BRM Report 1964 Graham Hill BRM Report 1963 Graham Hill BRM Report 1962 Bruce McLaren Cooper-Climax Report 1961 Stirling Moss Lotus-Climax Report 1960 Stirling Moss Lotus-Climax Report 1959 Jack Brabham Cooper-Climax Report 1958 Maurice Trintignant Cooper-Climax Report 1957 Juan Manuel Fangio Maserati Report 1956 Stirling Moss Maserati Report 1955 Maurice Trintignant Ferrari Report 1954 Not held 1953 Not held 1952 Vittorio Marzotto Ferrari Report 1951 Not held 1950 Juan Manuel Fangio Alfa Romeo Report 1949 Not held 1948 Giuseppe Farina Maserati Report 1947-1938 Not held 1937 Manfred von Brauchitsch Mercedes-Benz Report 1936 Rudolf Caracciola Mercedes-Benz Report 1935 Luigi Fagioli Mercedes-Benz Report 1934 Guy Moll Alfa Romeo Report 1933 Achille Varzi Bugatti Report 1932 Tazio Nuvolari Alfa Romeo Report 1931 Louis Chiron Bugatti Report 1930 René Dreyfus Bugatti Report 1929 William Grover-Williams Bugatti Report References External links Automobile Club de Monaco Grand Prix de Monaco Monaco Grand Prix Statistics Satellite Map of Monaco Grand Prix track Monte Carlo formula 1 statistics Spectator testimonial of visiting the Monaco Grand Prix | Monaco_Grand_Prix |@lemmatized monaco:49 grand:41 prix:41 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5,893 | Jacques_Dupuis_(priest) | Jacques Dupuis was a Belgian Jesuit priest. Career Jacques Dupuis became a Jesuit in 1941. After early religious and academic training in Belgium he left for India in 1948. A 3 year (1948-51) teaching experience at St. Xavier's Collegiate School, Calcutta, made him discover Hinduism through the way it shaped the personalities of the students entrusted to him. This was a discovery - the variety of religions -, and the beginning of a lifelong search: "does God self revelation necessarily pass for all through the person of Jesus Christ?" After being ordained priest in Kurseong, India he completed a doctorate in Theology at the Gregorian University in Rome on the religious anthropology of Origen of Alexandria. He was assigned to teach Dogmatic Theology at the Jesuit Faculty of Theology of Kurseong (later shifted to Delhi, and renamed 'Vidyajyoti College of Theology'). Director of the journal 'Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological Reflection' Father Dupuis was also an adviser to the Catholic Bishops conference of India. Besides numerous articles on theological and inter-religious topics, he published in 1973 (with Josef Neuner) a collection of Church documents, 'The Christian Faith', that went into seven editions over 20 years: an invaluable instrument of Theological learning for generations of students of Catholicism. In 1984, after 36 years in India, Dupuis was called to teach 'Theology and Non-Christian Religions' at the Gregorian University of Rome. A book Jesus-Christ à la rencontre des religions (1989) was well received and promptly translated in Italian, English and Spanish. He was made director of the journal Gregorianum and appointed consultor at the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. Under investigation In 1997, his book Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism led to Dupuis being investigated by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, an agency of the Vatican. Ambiguities were noted between his so-called "Christian theology of religious pluralism" and what the congregation viewed as the teaching of the Second Vatican Council and the conciliar and post-conciliar popes. For the teaching of Vatican Council II on non-Christian religions, see Lumen gentium (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, 21 Nov. 1964) §§ 13, 16; Nostra aetate (Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non-Christian Religions, 28 Oct. 1965) § 2. For conciliar popes, see Paul VI's encyclical Ecclesiam suam §§ 96, 108. Also see CDF's 2000 declaration Dominus Iesus (On the Unicity and Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church). Although often identifed with Joseph Card. Ratzinger, the head of the CDF at that time, the document was approved by Pope John Paul II. Dupuis was told to clarify his position in relation to that document, but he was never disciplined. Moreover, future editions of his book had to include a copy of the Vatican's official "Notification," which outlined those areas in which the CDF felt that his work was unclear. There is general agreement among his friends and colleagues that "the ordeal he went through with the C.D.F. had caused havoc to his mental and physical health." In the notification, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) stated, "It is consistent with Catholic doctrine to hold that the seeds of truth and goodness that exist in other religions are a certain participation in truths contained in the revelation of or in Jesus Christ. However, it is erroneous to hold that such elements of truth and goodness, or some of them, do not derive ultimately from the source-mediation of Jesus Christ." However, in 2001 Pope John Paul II acknowledged Dupuis's 'pioneering' work on the meaning of other religions in "God's plan of salvation of mankind". Jacques Dupuis died a few days after celebrating 50 years of priesthood, in Rome, on the 28 December 2004. Christology Many theologians argue for a Christology that is expressly based on the Trinity and an understanding of the interpersonal relationships between Father and Son and between Son and Holy Spirit. In Jacques Dupuis’ Who Do You Say I Am?, he argues that, within the one person of Jesus Christ, we can distinguish between his two natures, human and divine, and thus between the operations of his uncreated divine nature and his created finite human nature. In order to properly phrase the relationship between Jesus Christ and the Father, Dupuis utilizes different terms to describe aspects of Christ’s divine and human nature. Instead of “absolute” and “definitive”, Dupuis speaks in terms of “constitutive” and “universal”. In this way, Dupuis tries to lead the discussion away from dealing in absolutes. “First, our knowledge of God is not absolute or definitive; it is necessarily limited. Second, the absolute Savior is the Father, who is the ultimate source of the risen Lord and of all reality. Hence, the uniqueness and universality of Christ the Savior are ‘constitutive.’ As the son of God incarnate, Jesus is the center of history and the key to the entire procession of salvation, and his resurrection confers universal significance on his human existence. In this sense, he is ‘constitutive’ of universal salvation.” Dupuis emphasizes that Jesus’ constitutive uniqueness as universal Savior rests on his personal identity as the Son of God. Footnotes Bibliography The Christian Faith (1973). Jesus-Christ at the encounter of World Religions (1991). Who do you say I am ? Introduction to Christology (1994). Towards a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism (1997). KENDALL Daniel, O'COLLINS Gerald (eds), In many and diverse ways: In Honor of Jacques Dupuis (2003). This book contains a complete bibliography of articles and books of Dupuis. External links Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, "Dominus Iesus: On the Unicity and Salvific Universality of the Jesus Christ and the Church" (2000) See Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, "Notification on the book Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism (Orbis Books: Maryknoll, New York 1997) by Father Jacques Dupuis, S.J.": Peter C. Phan, "Inclusive Pluralism" America 188/3 (3 February 2003): Jacques Dupuis, SJ, RELIGIOUS PLURALITY AND THE CHRISTOLOGICAL DEBATE, 1990. Christianity Today article on Jacques Dupuis being censured by Holy See Documentation pertaining to the case of Fr. 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5,894 | Î%92-Lactam | |Penicillin nucleus. Beta lactam is the square at the center. |- |Clavulanic acid |- |Amoxicillin |- |Ampicillin |- |Flucloxacillin |- |Methicillin |- |Dicloxacillin |} A beta-lactam ring (β-lactam) or penam is a lactam with a heteroatomic ring structure, consisting of three carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom Heterocyclic chemistry T.L. Gilchrist ISBN 0-582-01421-2 . A lactam is a cyclic amide. Clinical significance The beta-lactam ring is part of the structure of several antibiotic families, principally the penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems and monobactams, which are therefore also called beta-lactam antibiotics. These antibiotics work by inhibiting the bacterial cell wall synthesis. This has a lethal effect on bacteria, especially on Gram-positive ones. Bacteria can become resistant against beta-lactam antibiotics by expressing beta-lactamase. History The first synthetic β-lactam ever was prepared by Hermann Staudinger in 1907 by reaction of the Schiff base of aniline and benzaldehyde with diphenylketene Hugo (Ugo) Schiff, Schiff Bases, and a Century of b-Lactam Synthesis Thomas T. Tidwell Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 1016–1020 H. Staudinger, Justus Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1907, 356, 51 – 123. in a [2+2]cycloaddition: Image:StaudingerLactam.svg Beta-lactam resistance Because of the popularity of beta-lactam drugs, certain bacteria have been able to develop counter-measures to traditional drug therapies. An enzyme called beta-lactamase is present in many different types of bacteria, which serves to 'break' the beta lactam ring, which effectively nullifies the antibiotic's effectiveness. As a response to bacterial resistance to beta-lactam drugs, there are drugs, such as Augmentin, which are designed to disable the beta-lactamase enzyme. Augmentin is made of amoxicillin, a beta-lactam antibiotic, and clavulanic acid, a beta-lactamase inhibitor. The clavulanic acid is designed to overwhelm all beta-lactamase enzymes, bind irreversibly to them, and effectively serve as an antagonist so that the amoxicillin is not affected by the beta-lactamase enzymes. Secondary beta-lactam drug resistance As a response to decreased efficacy of beta-lactamase, some bacteria have changed the proteins that beta-lactam antibiotics bind, the penicillin binding proteins (PBPs). Since the PBPs no longer recognize the beta-lactams, the antibiotics are essentially useless. This is the mechanism behind the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Mechanism Penicillin, a beta-lactam, binds to and inactivates a bacterium's penicillin binding protein (PBP). PBP's vary in their affinity for binding penicillin or other beta-lactam antibiotics. The amount of PBP's varies between bacterial species. PBP's form transpeptidase bonds in the absence of penicillins or other beta-lactam antimicrobics. See also ATC code J01C Beta-lactam antibacterials, penicillins ATC code J01D Other beta-lactam antibacterials Bacteria External links Synthesis of beta-lactams References | Î%92-Lactam |@lemmatized penicillin:8 nucleus:1 beta:26 lactam:22 square:1 center:1 clavulanic:3 acid:3 amoxicillin:3 ampicillin:1 flucloxacillin:1 methicillin:2 dicloxacillin:1 ring:4 β:2 penam:1 heteroatomic:1 structure:2 consist:1 three:1 carbon:1 atom:2 one:2 nitrogen:1 heterocyclic:1 chemistry:1 l:1 gilchrist:1 isbn:1 cyclic:1 amide:1 clinical:1 significance:1 part:1 several:1 antibiotic:9 family:1 principally:1 cephalosporin:1 carbapenems:1 monobactams:1 therefore:1 also:2 call:2 work:1 inhibit:1 bacterial:3 cell:1 wall:1 synthesis:3 lethal:1 effect:1 bacteria:6 especially:1 gram:1 positive:1 become:1 resistant:2 express:1 lactamase:7 history:1 first:1 synthetic:1 ever:1 prepare:1 hermann:1 staudinger:2 reaction:1 schiff:3 base:2 aniline:1 benzaldehyde:1 diphenylketene:1 hugo:1 ugo:1 century:1 b:1 thomas:1 tidwell:1 angew:1 chem:2 int:1 ed:1 h:1 justus:1 liebigs:1 ann:1 cycloaddition:1 image:1 staudingerlactam:1 svg:1 resistance:3 popularity:1 drug:5 certain:1 able:1 develop:1 counter:1 measure:1 traditional:1 therapy:1 enzyme:4 present:1 many:1 different:1 type:1 serve:2 break:1 effectively:2 nullify:1 effectiveness:1 response:2 augmentin:2 design:2 disable:1 make:1 inhibitor:1 overwhelm:1 bind:5 irreversibly:1 antagonist:1 affect:1 secondary:1 decrease:1 efficacy:1 change:1 protein:3 binding:1 pbps:2 since:1 longer:1 recognize:1 lactams:2 essentially:1 useless:1 mechanism:2 behind:1 staphylococcus:1 aureus:1 mrsa:1 inactivate:1 bacterium:1 pbp:4 vary:1 affinity:1 amount:1 varies:1 specie:1 form:1 transpeptidase:1 bond:1 absence:1 antimicrobic:1 see:1 atc:2 code:2 antibacterial:2 external:1 link:1 reference:1 |@bigram beta_lactam:17 carbon_atom:1 lactam_antibiotic:5 gram_positive:1 beta_lactamase:7 methicillin_resistant:1 resistant_staphylococcus:1 staphylococcus_aureus:1 atc_code:2 external_link:1 |
5,895 | North_Korea | Map of North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) (Hangul: 조선민주주의인민공화국, Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk), is a state in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer area between North Korea and South Korea. The Amnok (or Yalu) River is the border between North Korea and People's Republic of China. The Tumen River in the extreme north-east is the border with Russia. The peninsula was governed by the Korean Empire until it was occupied by Japan following the Russo-Japanese War of 1905. It was divided into Soviet and American occupied zones in 1945, following the end of World War II. North Korea refused to participate in a United Nations-supervised election held in the south in 1948, which led to the creation of separate Korean governments for the two occupation zones. Both North and South Korea claimed sovereignty over the peninsula as a whole, which led to the Korean War of 1950. A 1953 armistice temporarily ended the fighting; however, the two countries are officially still at war with each other, as a peace treaty was never signed. http://uk.news.yahoo.com/18/20090422/img/pwl-south-korea-is-technica-90d3d881b09a.html Both states were accepted into the United Nations in 1991. http://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/29/world/north-korea-reluctantly-seeks-un-seat.html On May 26, 2009, North Korea unilaterally withdrew from the armistice. http://www.dailynk.com/english/read.php?cataId=nk01700&num=4970 North Korea is a single-party state under a united front led by the Korean Workers' Party. The country's government styles itself as following the Juche ideology of self-reliance, developed by Kim Il-sung, the country's former leader. Juche became the official state ideology in 1972, when the country adopted a new constitution, though Kim Il-sung had been using the ideology to form policy since 1963. Though nominally a socialist republic, it is widely considered by the outside world to be a de facto authoritarian/totalitarian Stalinist dictatorship. http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11465278 The current leader is Kim Jong-il, the late president Kim Il-sung's son. Geography The Baekdu Mountain North Korea occupies the northern portion of the Korean Peninsula, covering an area of . North Korea shares land borders with People's Republic of China and Russia to the north, and borders South Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone. To its west are the Yellow Sea and Korea Bay, and to its east lies Japan across the Sea of Japan (East Sea of Korea). The highest point in North Korea is Paektu-san Mountain at . The longest river is the Amnok River which flows for . North Korea's climate is relatively temperate, with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called changma, and winters that can be bitterly cold. On August 7, 2007, the most devastating floods in 40 years caused the North Korean Government to ask for international help. NGOs, such as the Red Cross, asked people to raise funds because they feared a humanitarian catastrophe. "Emergency appeal for DPRK flood survivors", website of the Red Cross The capital and largest city is Pyongyang; other major cities include Kaesong in the south, Sinuiju in the northwest, Wonsan and Hamhung in the east and Chongjin in the northeast. History Government and politics North Korea is a self-described Juche (self-reliant) state with a pronounced cult of personality organized around Kim Il-sung (the founder of North Korea and the country's first and only president) and his son and heir, Kim Jong-il. Following Kim Il-sung's death in 1994, he was not replaced but instead received the designation of "Eternal President", and was entombed in the vast Kumsusan Memorial Palace in central Pyongyang. Although the active position of president has been abolished in deference to the memory of Kim Il-sung, the de facto head of state is Kim Jong-il, who is Chairman of the National Defence Commission of North Korea. The legislature of North Korea is the Supreme People's Assembly, currently led by President Kim Yong-nam. The other senior government figure is Premier Kim Yong-il. The Tower of Juche Idea North Korea is a single-party state. The governing party is the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland, a coalition of the Workers' Party of Korea and two other smaller parties, the Korean Social Democratic Party and the Chondoist Chongu Party. These parties nominate all candidates for office and hold all seats in the Supreme People's Assembly. Human rights Multiple international human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, accuse North Korea of having one of the worst human rights records of any nation. North Koreans have been referred to as "some of the world's most brutalized people", due to the severe restrictions placed on their political and economic freedoms. North Korean defectors have testified to the existence of prison and detention camps with an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 inmates (about 0.85% of the population), and have reported torture, starvation, rape, murder, medical experimentation, forced labour, and forced abortions. There is a national mandated work dress code. The system changed slightly at the end of 1990s, when population growth became very low. In many cases, where capital punishment was de facto, it was replaced by less severe punishments. Bribery became prevalent throughout the country. For example, years ago just listening to South Korean radio could result in capital punishment. However, many North Koreans now illegally wear clothes of South Korean origin, listen to Southern music, watch South Korean videotapes and even receive Southern broadcasts. Foreign relations The Arch of Reunification Since the ceasefire of the Korean War in 1953 the relations between the North Korean government and South Korea, European Union, Canada, the United States, and Japan have remained tense. Fighting was halted in the ceasefire, but both Koreas are still technically at war. Both North and South Korea signed the June 15th North-South Joint Declaration in 2000, in which both sides made promises to seek out a peaceful reunification. Additionally, on October 4, 2007, the leaders of North and South Korea pledged to hold summit talks to officially declare the war over and reaffirmed the principle of mutual non-aggression. In 2002, U.S. President George W. Bush labelled North Korea part of an "axis of evil" and an "outpost of tyranny". The highest-level contact the government has had with the United States was with U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, who made a visit to Pyongyang in 2000, but the two countries do not have formal diplomatic relations. By 2006, approximately 37,000 American soldiers remained in South Korea, with plans to reduce the number to 25,000 by 2008. Kim Jong-il has privately stated his acceptance of U.S. troops on the peninsula, even after a possible reunification. Publicly, North Korea strongly demands the removal of American troops from Korea (see North Korea-United States relations). North Korea has long maintained close relations with the People's Republic of China and Russia. The fall of communism in eastern Europe in 1989, and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, resulted in a devastating drop in aid to North Korea from Russia, although People's Republic of China continues to provide substantial assistance. North Korea continues to have strong ties with its socialist southeast Asian allies in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. North Korea has started installing a concrete and barbed wire fence on its northern border, in response to People's Republic of China's wish to curb refugees fleeing from North Korea. Previously the shared border with People's Republic of China and North Korea had only been lightly patrolled. Report: N. Korea building fence to keep people in As a result of the North Korean nuclear weapons program, the Six-party talks were established to find a peaceful solution to the growing unrest between the two Korean governments, the Russian Federation, the People's Republic of China, Japan, and the United States. On July 17, 2007, United Nations inspectors verified the shutdown of five North Korean nuclear facilities, according to the February 2007 agreement. On October 4, 2007, South Korean President Roh Moo-Hyun and North Korean leader Kim Jong-Il signed an 8-point peace agreement, on issues of permanent peace, high-level talks, economic cooperation, renewal of train, highway and air travel, and a joint Olympic cheering squad. The United States and South Korea previously designated the North as a state sponsor of terrorism. The 1983 bombing that killed members of the South Korean government and the destruction of a South Korean airliner have been attributed to North Korea. North Korea has also admitted responsibility for the kidnap of 13 Japanese citizens in the 1970s and 1980s: five of whom were returned to Japan in 2002. On October 11, 2008, the United States removed North Korea from its list of states that sponsor terrorism. Military A KPAF MiG-29S in 2003. Kim Jong-il is the Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army and Chairman of the National Defence Commission of North Korea. The Korean People's Army (KPA) is the name for the collective armed personnel of the North Korean military. The army has four branches: Ground Force, Naval Force, Air Force, and the State Security Department. According to the U.S. Department of State, North Korea has the fifth-largest army in the world, at an estimated 1.21 million armed personnel, with about 20% of men aged 17–54 in the regular armed forces. North Korea has the highest percentage of military personnel per capita of any nation in the world, with approximately 1 enlisted soldier for every 25 citizens. Military strategy is designed for insertion of agents and sabotage behind enemy lines in wartime, with much of the KPA's forces deployed along the heavily fortified Korean Demilitarized Zone. According to official North Korean media, planned military expenditures for 2009 are 15.8% of GDP. KCNA Past news, April 9, 2009 Nuclear weapons program On October 9, 2006, North Korea conducted its first nuclear test. The blast was smaller than expected and U.S. officials suggested that it may have been an unsuccessful test or a partially successful fizzle. North Korea has previously stated that it has produced nuclear weapons and according to U.S. intelligence and military officials it has produced, or has the capability to produce, up to six or seven such devices. On March 17, 2007, North Korea told delegates at international nuclear talks it would begin shut down preparations for its main nuclear facility. This was later confirmed on July 14, 2007 as International Atomic Energy Agency inspectors observed the initial shut-down phases of the currently operating 5 MW Yongbyon nuclear reactor, despite there being no official time line declared. In return, the reclusive nation has received 50,000 tons of heavy fuel oil shipped from South Korea. Once the old small nuclear reactor is permanently shut down, North Korea will receive the equivalent of 950,000 tons of fuel oil when the six-nation talks reconvene. Following breakthrough talks held in September 2007, aimed at hastening the end of North Korea's nuclear program, North Korea was to "disable some part of its nuclear facilities" by the end of 2007, according to the US Assistant Secretary of State. The details of such an agreement are due to be worked out in a session held in the People's Republic of China which will involve South Korea, China, Russia and Japan. Terms for the agreement have thus far not been disclosed, nor has it been disclosed what offer was made on the United States' part in exchange. North Korea, however, has already been removed from the U.S list of state sponsors of terrorism. On June 27, 2008, North Korea destroyed a water cooling tower at its nuclear facility in Yongbyon. It has been reported that without the cooling tower, North Korea cannot create plutonium, though The New York Times reported that "the tower is a technically insignificant structure, [and is] relatively easy to rebuild." The implosion was hailed as a symbolic way of showing that North Korea is committed to ending its nuclear program. It was reported on January 17, 2009, that North Korea had weaponized around thirty kilograms of plutonium. Also, a U.S. scholar visiting North Korea around that time was informed by Pyongyang that there was enough plutonium to sustain four or five nuclear bombs. On May 25, 2009, North Korea announced that it had conducted a second nuclear test prompting outrage from countries all across the globe. The announcement came just after geological sensors in South Korea detected an artificial tremor. According to the Russian Defense Department, the blast yield of the second bomb was between 10 and 20 kilotons, comparable to the size of the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of WWII. http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/0,1518,626653,00.html Missile program A Paektusan-1 space launch vehicle North Korea has deployed a wide range of ballistic missiles, mostly derived from Soviet models. The Artillery Guidance Bureau represents the strategic missile force and is equipped with some 900 missiles. On April 5, 2009, North Korea launched a rocket (Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2) over Japan that landed in the Pacific Ocean, an act that defied United Nations Security Council Resolution 1718, which dictated that North Korea suspend all ballistic missile activities. http://daccess-ods.un.org/TMP/9435151.html Although North Korea insists that it was a communications satellite launch and is part of its peaceful space program, the United States, South Korea, Japan, and a number of other countries saw the launch as a long-range missile test. As a resuly, a UN Security Council meeting was convened on April 6, 2009, and following Security Council meetings resulted in a Security Council Presidential Statement condemning the launch as a breach of Security Council Resolution 1718. In response to this statement, North Korea on April 14, 2009, declared that the six-party talks "have turned into a platform for infringing upon the sovereignty of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea," and they plan to strengthen their nuclear capabilities. North Korea has announced that sanctions will be considered a declaration of war. Economy An image of the Korean Peninsula at night rendered from DMSP observations. The disparity in illumination levels is cited by some as an indication of the difference in energy and economic development between the North and South. North Korea has an industrialised, autarkic command economy. Of the five remaining communist states in the world, North Korea is one of only two (along with Cuba) with an entirely state-planned, government-owned economy. North Korea's isolation policy means that international trade is highly restricted, hampering a significant potential for economic growth. Nonetheless, due to its strategic location in East Asia connecting four major economies and having a cheap, young, and skilled workforce, it is projected that the North Korean economy could grow to 6-7% annually "with the right incentives and reform measures". http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2008/10/116_33510.html Until 1998, the United Nations published HDI and GDP per capita figures for North Korea, which stood at a medium level of human development at 0.766 (ranked 75th) and a GDP per capita of $4,058. http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1998/ The average salary is about $47 per month. Welcome to North Korea. Rule No. 1: Obey all rules, Steve Knipp, Contributor to The Christian Science Monitor. December 2, 2004. Despite chronic economic problems, quality of life is improving and wages are rising. In reclusive North, signs of economic liberalization, The Hankyoreh In 2008, the CIA World Fact Book estimated North Korea's GDP per capita (based on Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)) to be $1,700 (ranked 192 out of 230 countries), a level similar to that of Chad and Cote d'Ivoire. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html North Korea's economy is completely socialized, which means that food rations, housing, healthcare, and education is offered from the state for free. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/North_Korea.pdf The payment of taxes has been abolished since April 1, 1974. Tax-free country North Korea's GDP growth is slow, but somewhat steady, floating around 1-2% per annum. + GDP Growth by year Basic information on the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Ministry of foreign affairs of Bulgaria. 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 1.3 % 3.7 % 1.2 % 1.8 % 2.2 % 1.0 % 1.6 % Based on estimates in 2002, the dominant sector in the North Korean economy is industry (43.1%), followed by services (33.6%) and agriculture (23.3%). In 2004, it was estimated that agriculture employed 37% of the workforce while industry and services employed the remaining 63%. Major industries include military products, machine building, electric power, chemicals, mining, metallurgy, textiles, food processing and tourism. In 2005, North Korea was ranked by the FAO as an estimated 10th in the production of fresh fruit http://www.fao.org/es/ess/top/commodity.html?lang=en&item=619&year=2005 and as an estimated 19th in the production of apples. http://www.fao.org/es/ess/top/commodity.html?item=515&lang=en&year=2005 It has substantial natural resources and is the world's 18th largest producer of iron and zinc, List of countries by iron production See List of countries by zinc production having the 22nd largest coal reserves in the world. See Coal. It is also the 15th largest fluorite producer See List of countries by fluorite production and 12th largest producer of copper and salt in Asia. See List of countries by copper mine production See List of countries by salt production Other major natural resources in production include lead, tungsten, graphite, magnesite, gold, pyrites, fluorspar and hydropower. Foreign commerce The Kaesong Industrial Region is North Korea's light industry center. China and South Korea remain the largest donors of food aid to North Korea. The U.S. objects to this manner of donating food due to lack of supervision. In 2005, China and South Korea combined to provide 1 million tons of food aid, each contributing half. In addition to food aid, China reportedly provides an estimated 80 to 90 percent of North Korea's oil imports at "friendly prices" that are sharply lower than the world market price. On September 19, 2005, North Korea was promised fuel aid and various other non-food incentives from South Korea, the U.S., Japan, Russia, and China in exchange for abandoning its nuclear weapons program and rejoining the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Providing food in exchange for abandoning weapons programs has historically been avoided by the U.S. so as not to be perceived as "using food as a weapon". Humanitarian aid from North Korea's neighbors has been cut off at times to provoke North Korea to resume boycotted talks, For example, South Korea's had the "postponed consideration" of 500,000 tons of rice for the North in 2006 but the idea of providing food as a clear incentive (as opposed to resuming "general humanitarian aid") has been avoided. There have also been aid disruptions due to widespread theft of railroad cars used by mainland China to deliver food relief. Wonsan is an important port city and naval base in southeastern North Korea. In July 2002, North Korea started experimenting with capitalism in the Kaesong Industrial Region. A small number of other areas have been designated as Special Administrative Regions, including Sinŭiju along the China-North Korea border. China and South Korea are the biggest trade partners of North Korea, with trade with China increasing 15% to US$1.6 billion in 2005, and trade with South Korea increasing 50% to over 1 billion for the first time in 2005. It is reported that the number of mobile phones in Pyongyang rose from only 3,000 in 2002 to approximately 20,000 during 2004. As of June 2004, however, mobile phones became forbidden again. A small number of capitalistic elements are gradually spreading from the trial area, including a number of advertising billboards along certain highways. Recent visitors have reported that the number of open-air farmers' markets has increased in Kaesong and Pyongyang, as well as along the China-North Korea border, bypassing the food rationing system. In a 2003 event dubbed the "Pong Su incident", a North Korean cargo ship allegedly attempting to smuggle heroin into Australia was seized by Australian officials, strengthening Australian and United States' suspicions that Pyongyang engages in international drug smuggling. The North Korean government denied any involvement. Tourism The Kŭmgangsan Tourist Region is popular among South Korean tourists. The Ryugyong Hotel (under construction) is the 24th tallest building in the world. List of tallest buildings in the world Tourism in North Korea is organized by the state owned Tourism Organisation ("Ryohaengsa"). Every group of travelers as well as individual tourist/visitors are permanently accompanied by one or two "guides" who normally speak the mother language of the tourist. While tourism has increased over the last few years, tourists from Western countries remain few. The majority of the tourists who visit come from China, Russia and Japan. Russian citizens from the Asian part of Russia prefer North Korea as a tourist destination due to the relatively low prices, lack of pollution and the warmer climate. For citizens of the US and South Korea it is practically impossible to obtain a visa for North Korea. Exceptions for US citizens are made for the yearly Arirang Festival. In the area of the Kŭmgangsan-mountains, the company Hyundai established and operates a special Tourist area. Traveling to this area is also possible for South Koreans and US citizens, but only in organized groups from South Korea. A special administrative region known as the Kŭmgangsan Tourist Region exists for this purpose. Trips to the region have been temporarily suspended due to the death of a South Korean woman in late 2008. Famine In the 1990s North Korea faced significant economic disruptions, including a series of natural disasters, economic mismanagement and serious resource shortages after the collapse of the Eastern Bloc. These resulted in a shortfall of staple grain output of more than 1 million tons from what the country needs to meet internationally-accepted minimum dietary requirements. The North Korean famine known as "Arduous March" resulted in the deaths of between 300,000 and 800,000 North Koreans per year during the three year famine, peaking in 1997, with 2.0 million total being "the highest possible estimate." The deaths were most likely caused by famine-related illnesses such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and diarrhea rather than starvation. In 2006, Amnesty International reported that a national nutrition "survey" conducted by the North Korean government, the World Food Programme, and UNICEF found that 7 percent of children were severely malnourished; 37 percent were chronically malnourished; 23.4 percent were underweight; and one in three mothers was malnourished and anaemic as the result of the lingering effect of the famine. The inflation caused by some of the 2002 economic reforms, including the Songun or "Military-first" policy, was cited for creating the increased price of basic foods. The history of Japanese assistance to North Korea has been marked with unrest; from a large pro-Pyongyang community of Koreans in Japan to public outrage over the 1998 North Korean missile launch and revelations regarding the abduction of Japanese citizens. Haggard Stephan; Marcus Noland (2007). Ch6 The political economy of aid: Famine in North Korea. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 137. In June 1995 an agreement was reached that the two countries would act jointly. South Korea would provide 150,000 MT of grain in unmarked bags, and Japan would provide 150,000 MT gratis and another 150,000 MT on concessional terms. In October 1995 and January 1996, North Korea again approached Japan for assistance. On these two occasions, both of which came at crucial moments in the evolution of the famine, opposition from both South Korea and domestic political sources quashed the deals. Beginning in 1997, the U.S. began shipping food aid to North Korea through the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) to combat the famine. Shipments peaked in 1999 at nearly 700,000 tons making the U.S. the largest foreign aid donor to the country at the time. Under the Bush Administration, aid was drastically reduced year after year from 350,000 tons in 2001 to 40,000 in 2004. The Bush Administration took criticism for using "food as a weapon" during talks over the North's nuclear weapons program, but insisted the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) criteria were the same for all countries and the situation in North Korea had "improved significantly since its collapse in the mid-1990s." Agricultural production had increased from about 2.7 million metric tons in 1997 to 4.2 million metric tons in 2004. Media The media of North Korea is one of the most strictly controlled in the world. As a result, information is tightly controlled both into and out of North Korea. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press; however, the government prohibits the exercise of these rights in practice. In its 2008 report, Reporters Without Borders classified the media environment in North Korea as 172 out of 173, only above that of Eritrea. Annual Press Freedom Index, accessed November 30, 2008. Only news that favors the regime is permitted, whilst news that covers the economic and political problems in the country, or criticisms of the regime from abroad is not allowed. "Meagre media for North Korea", BBC, October 10, 2006. The media upholds the personality cult of Kim Jong-il, regularly reporting on his daily activities. Transportation There is a mix of local built and imported trolleybuses and trams in urban centers in North Korea. Earlier fleets were obtained in Europe and China, but trade embargo has forced North Korea to build their own vehicles. Railways of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Choson Cul Minzuzui Inmingonghoagug is the only rail operator in North Korea. It has a network of 5,200 km of track with 4,500 km in Standard gauge. A Glimpse of North Korea's Railways There is a small narrow gauge railway in operation in Haeju peninsula. The railway fleet consists of a mix of electric and steam locomotives. Cars are mostly made in North Korea using Soviet designs. There are some locomotives from Imperial Japan, the United States and Europe remaining in use. Second-hand Chinese locomotives (early DF4Bs, BJ Hydraulics, etc.) have also been spotted in active service. Water transport on the major rivers and along the coasts plays a growing role in freight and passenger traffic. Except for the Yalu and Taedong rivers, most of the inland waterways, totaling 2,253 kilometers, are navigable only by small boats. Coastal traffic is heaviest on the eastern seaboard, whose deeper waters can accommodate larger vessels. The major ports are Nampho on the west coast and Rajin, Chongjin, Wonsan, and Hamhung on the east coast. The country's harbor loading capacity in the 1990s was estimated at almost 35 million tons a year. In the early 1990s, North Korea possessed an oceangoing merchant fleet, largely domestically produced, of sixty-eight ships (of at least 1,000 gross-registered tons), totaling 465,801 gross-registered tons (), which includes fifty-eight cargo ships and two tankers. There is a continuing investment in upgrading and expanding port facilities, developing transportation--particularly on the Taedong River--and increasing the share of international cargo by domestic vessels. North Korea's international air connections are limited. There are regularly scheduled flights from the Sunan International Airport--twenty-four kilometers north of Pyongyang--to Moscow, Khabarovsk, Beijing, Macau, Vladivostok, Bangkok, Shenyang, Shenzhen and charter flights from Sunan to Tokyo as well as to East European countries, the Middle East, and Africa. An agreement to initiate a service between Pyongyang and Tokyo was signed in 1990. Internal flights are available between Pyongyang, Hamhung, Wonsan, and Chongjin. All civil aircraft operated by Air Koryo are thirty-four aircraft in 2008, these were purchased from the Soviet Union and Russia. From 1976 to 1978, four Tu-154 jets were added to the small fleet of propeller-driven An-24s afterwards adding four long range Ilyushin Il-62M, three Ilyushin Il-76MD large cargo aircraft and 2 long range Tupolev Tu-204-300's purchased in 2008. Demographics North Korea's population of roughly 23 million is one of the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world, with very small numbers of Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, South Korean, and European expatriate minorities. According to the CIA World Factbook, North Korea's life expectancy was 63.8 years in 2009, a figure roughly equivalent to that of Pakistan and Burma and slightly lower than Russia. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html Infant mortality stood at a high level of 51.34, which is 2.5 times higher than that of China, 5 times that of Russia, 12 times that of South Korea. According to the UNICEF "The State of the world's Children 2003" North Korea appears ranked at the 73rd place, while Brazil and Romania has been ranked at 92nd and 121st place respectively. North Korea's Total fertility rate is relatively low and stood at 1.96 in 2009, comparable to those of the United States and France. Language North Korea shares the Korean language with South Korea. There are dialect differences within both Koreas, but the border between North and South does not represent a major linguistic boundary. While prevalent in the South, the adoption of modern terms from foreign languages has been limited in North Korea. Hanja (Chinese characters) are no longer used in North Korea, although still occasionally used in South Korea. Both Koreas share the phonetic writing system called Chosongul in the north and Hangul south of the DMZ. The official Romanization differs in the two countries, with North Korea using a slightly modified McCune-Reischauer system, and the South using the Revised Romanization of Korean. Religion Both Koreas share a Buddhist and Confucian heritage and a recent history of Christian and Cheondoism ("religion of the Heavenly Way") movements. The North Korean constitution states that freedom of religion is permitted. North Korea is officially Juche and according to the Western standards of religion — the majority of Korean population could be characterized as irreligious. However the majority are definitely religious from a sociological viewpoint Every Culture - Koreans — the cultural influence of such traditional religions as Buddhism and Confucianism still have an effect on North Korean spiritual life. Every Culture — Culture of NORTH KOREA CIA The World Factbook -- North Korea state.gov Nevertheless, Buddhists in North Korea reportedly fared better than other religious groups — particularly Christians, who were said to often face persecution by the authorities, and Buddhists were given limited funding by the government to promote the religion, given that Buddhism played an integral role in traditional Korean culture. According to Human Rights Watch, free religious activities no longer exist in North Korea as the government sponsors religious groups only to create an illusion of religious freedom. According to Religious Intelligence the situation of religion in North Korea is the following: Religious Intelligence UK report Irreligion: 15,460,000 adherents (64.31% of population, the vast majority of which are adherents of the Juche philosophy) Korean shamanism: 3,846,000 adherents (16% of population) Cheondoism: 3,245,000 adherents (13.50% of population) Buddhism: 1,082,000 adherents (4.50% of population) Christianity: 406,000 adherents (1.69% of population) It should be noted that the promoters of Juche describe it as a secular and ethical philosophy, not as a religion. However, from a sociological viewpoint it's overtly and clearly religious. Thomas J. Belke has written a book describing Juche as the newest world religion, with "more adherents than Judaism, Sikhism, Jainism or Zoroastrianism" [JUCHE: A Christian Study of North Korea's State Religion] Pyongyang was the center of Christian activity in Korea before the Korean War. Today, four state-sanctioned churches exist, which freedom of religion advocates say are showcases for foreigners. Official government statistics report that there are 10,000 Protestants and 4,000 Roman Catholics in North Korea. According to a ranking published by Open Doors, an organization that supports persecuted Christians, North Korea is currently the country with the most severe persecution of Christians in the world. Open Doors International : WWL: Focus on the Top Ten Human rights groups such as Amnesty International also have expressed concerns about religious persecution in North Korea. Education Education in North Korea is controlled by the government and is compulsory until the secondary level. Compulsory education lasts eleven years, and encompasses one year of preschool, four years of primary education and six years of secondary education. The North Korean School curricula consists of both academic and political subject matter. Primary schools are known as people's schools and children attend this school from the age of six to nine. They are later enrolled in either a regular secondary school or a special secondary school, depending on their specialities. They enter secondary school at the age of ten and leave when they are sixteen. Higher education is not compulsory in North Korea. It is composed of two systems: academic higher education and higher education for continuing education. The academic higher education system includes three kinds of institutions: universities, professional schools, and technical schools. Graduate schools for master and doctoral level studies are attached to universities, and are for students who want to continue their education. There are several universities in North Korea, of which the most famous one is the Kim Il-sung University. North Korea is one of the most literate countries in the world, with a literacy rate of 99% for adults. Health care Health care and medical treatment is free in North Korea. North Korea spends 3% of its gross domestic product on health care. Its healthcare system has been in a steep decline since the 1990s due to natural disasters, economic problems, and food and energy shortages. Many hospitals and clinics in North Korea lack essential medicines and equipment, running water and electricity. Almost 100% of the population has access to water and sanitation, but it is not completely potable. Infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and hepatitis B are considered to be endemic to the country. According to 2008 estimates, North Korea had the 117th highest life expectancy of any country in the world, with an average life expectancy of 72.2 years at birth. North Korea has a death rate of 7.29 deaths per 1,000 people. Among other health problems, many North Korean citizens suffer from the after effects of malnutrition, caused by famines related to the failure of its food distribution program and military first policy. A 1998 United Nations (UN) World Food Program report revealed that 60% of children suffered from malnutrition, and 16% were acutely malnourished. As a result, those who suffered during the disaster have ongoing health problems. Culture Scene from the Mass Games Kimchaek University e-Library in Pyongyang Culture is actively suppressed by the North Korean government. On the surface, large buildings committed to culture have been built, such as the People's Palace of Culture or the Grand People's Palace of Studies, both in Pyongyang. However, culture in North Korea largely remains under strict government surveillance. Korean culture allegedly came under attack during the Japanese rule from 1910-1945. Japan enforced a cultural assimilation policy. During the Japanese rule, Koreans were encouraged to learn and speak Japanese, adopt the Japanese family name system and Shinto religion, and forbidden to write or speak the Korean language in schools, businesses, or public places. In addition, the Japanese altered or destroyed various Korean monuments including Gyeongbok Palace and documents which portrayed the Japanese in a negative light were revised. In July 2004, the Complex of Goguryeo Tombs became the first site in the country to be included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. In February 2008, The New York Philharmonic Orchestra became the first US musical group ever to perform in North Korea, albeit for a handpicked "invited audience." The concert was broadcast on national television. .Musical diplomacy as New York Phil plays Pyongyang, Reuters, 26 february 2008 A popular event in North Korea is the Mass Games. The most recent and largest Mass Games was called "Arirang". It was performed six nights a week for two months, and involved over 100,000 performers. Attendees to this event in recent years report that the anti-West sentiments have been toned down compared to previous performances. The Mass Games involve performances of dance, gymnastic, and choreographic routines which celebrate the history of North Korea and the Workers' Party Revolution. The Mass Games are held in Pyongyang at various venues (varying according to the scale of the Games in a particular year) including the Rungrado May Day Stadium, which is the largest stadium in the world with a capacity of 150,000 people. Personality cult There is a vast cult of personality around Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il and much of North Korea's literature, popular music, theater, and film glorify the two men. There are hundreds of statues of the former scattered around the country, as well as numerous public places and buildings. The most prominent landmarks bearing Kim Il-sung's name are at Kim Il-sung University, Kim Il-sung Stadium, Kim Il-sung Square, Kim Il-sung Bridge and the Immortal Statue of Kim Il-sung. The Juche calendar is also a prominent element in the former leader's personality cult - its starting year is the birth year of Kim Il-sung, 1912, though it is simply a variation on the Gregorian calendar. The highest official post in the country, the "Eternal president of the Republic", is actually a personality cult element. Kim Jong-il's personality cult, although significant, is not as extensive as his father's. In 2004 some of his official portraits were taken down from public buildings. Removal of Kim Jong Il Portraits in North Korea Causes Speculation, VOA, 18 November 2004 Administrative divisions Principal divisions of North Korea Namea hangul Hanja Directly-governed cities (Chikhalsi)a 1 Pyongyang (National Capital) 평양 직할시 平壤直轄市 Special Administrative Regions (T'ŭkpyŏl Haengjŏnggu)a 2 Kaesŏng Industrial Region 개성 공업 지구 開城工業地區 3 Kumgangsan Tourist Region 금강산 관광 지구 金剛山觀光地區 4 Sinuiju Special Administrative Region 신의주 특별 행정구 新義州特別行政區 Provinces 5 Chagang 자강도 慈江道 6 Pyongbuk 평안 북도平安北道 7 Pyongnam 평안 남도平安南道 8 Hwangnam 황해 남도黃海南道 9 Hwangbuk 황해 북도黃海北道 10 Kangwon 강원도 江原道 11 Hamnam 함경 남도咸鏡南道 12 Hambuk 함경 북도咸鏡北道 13 Ryanggang * 량강도 兩江道* - Sometimes rendered "Yanggang". Major cities See also List of Korea-related topics Korean War References Further reading Ben Anderson, Interview on visit to North Korea, Frontline World, January 2003 Jasper Becker Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea Oxford University Press (2005) , hardcover, 328 pages, ISBN 13: 9780195170443 Gordon Cucullu, Separated At Birth: How North Korea Became The Evil Twin Globe Pequot Press (2004), hardcover, 307 pages, ISBN 1-59228-591-0 Bruce Cumings, Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History, W.W. Norton & Company, 1998, paperback, 527 pages, ISBN 0-393-31681-5 Bruce Cumings, Origins of the Korean War (Vol. 1) : Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes 1945-1947, Princeton University Press, 1981, paperback, ISBN 0-691-10113-2 Bruce Cumings, Origins of the Korean War (Vol. 2): The Roaring of the Cataract 1947-1950, Cornell University Press, 2004, hardcover, ISBN 89-7696-613-9 Bruce Cumings, North Korea: Another Country, New Press, 2004, paperback, ISBN 1-56584-940-X Bruce Cumings, Living Through The Forgotten War: Portrait Of Korea, Mansfield Freeman Center for East Asian Studies, 2004, paperback, ISBN 0-9729704-0-1 Bruce Cumings, Inventing the Axis of Evil: The Truth About North Korea, Iran, and Syria, New Press, 2006, paperback, ISBN 1-59558-038-7 Delisle, Guy, Pyongyang: A Journey in North Korea, Drawn & Quarterly Books, 2005, hardcover, 176 pages, ISBN 1-896597-89-0 Nick Eberstadt, aka Nicholas Eberstadt, The End of North Korea, American Enterprise Institute Press (1999), hardcover, 191 pages, ISBN 0-8447-4087-X John Feffer, North Korea South Korea: U.S. Policy at a Time of Crisis, Seven Stories Press, 2003, paperback, 197 pages, ISBN 1-58322-603-6 Ron Goodden, North Korea commentary (August, 2007) Michael Harrold, Comrades and Strangers: Behind the Closed Doors of North Korea, Wiley Publishing, 2004, paperback, 432 pages, ISBN 0-470-86976-3 Helen-Louise Hunter, Kim Il-song's North Korea. Praeger, 1999. ISBN 0-275-96296-2. Lee Soon Ok. Eyes of the Tailless Animals: Prison Memoirs of a North Korean Woman. Living Sacrifice Book Co, 1999, ISBN 978-0882643359 Hyejin Kim, Jia: A Novel of North Korea, Cleis Press, 2007, ISBN 1573442755 Christian Kracht, Eva Munz, Lukas Nikol, "The Ministry Of Truth: Kim Jong Il's North Korea", Feral House, Oct 2007, 132 pages, 88 color photographs, ISBN 978-1932595277 Mitchell B. Lerner, The Pueblo Incident: A Spy Ship and the Failure of American Foreign Policy, University Press of Kansas, 2002, hardcover, 408 pages, ISBN 0-7006-1171-1 Andrei Lankov, <cite>'North of the DMZ: Essays on Daily Life in North Korea </cite>, McFarland & Company (April 24, 2007), paperback, 358 pages, ISBN 978-0786428397 John Feffer, North Korea South Korea: U.S. Policy at a Time of Crisis, Seven Stories Press, 2003, paperback, 197 pages, ISBN 1-58322-603-6 Don Oberdorfer. The Two Koreas : a contemporary history Addison-Wesley, 1997, 472 pages, ISBN 0-201-40927-5 Kong Dan Oh, and Ralph C. Hassig, North Korea Through the Looking Glass, The Brookings Institution, 2000, paperback, 216 pages, ISBN 0-8157-6435-9 Osmond, Andrew, High, Minnow Press, 2004, paperback, 216 pages, ISBN 978-0953944828 Includes a fictional account of the creation of a new state of New Korea. Quinones, Dr C. Kenneth, and Joseph Tragert, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding North Korea, Alpha Books, 2004, paperback, 448 pages, ISBN 1-59257-169-7 Sigal, Leon V., Disarming Strangers: Nuclear Diplomacy with North Korea, Princeton University Press, 199, 336 pages, ISBN 0-691-05797-4 Chris Springer, Pyongyang: The Hidden History of the North Korean Capital Saranda Books, 2003. ISBN 963-00-8104-0. Vladimir, Cyber North Korea, Byakuya Shobo, 2003, paperback, 223 pages, ISBN 4-89367-881-7 Norbert Vollertsen, Inside North Korea: Diary of a Mad Place, Encounter Books, 2003, hardcover, 280 pages, ISBN 1-893554-87-2 Wahn Kihl, Y. (1983) "North Korea in 1983: Transforming "The Hermit Kingdom"?" Asian Survey, Vol. 24, No. 1: pp100–111 Robert Willoughby, North Korea: The Bradt Travel Guide. Globe Pequot, 2003. ISBN 1-84162-074-2. Hyun Hee Kim, "The Tears of My Soul", William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1993, hardcover, 183 pages, ISBN 0-688-12833-5 Ducruet, Cesar et Jo, Jin-Cheol (2008) Coastal Cities, Port Activities and Logistic Constraints in a Socialist Developing Country: The Case of North Korea, Transport Reviews, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 1–25: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/462288788-26821155/content~content=a782923580~db=all~tab=content~order=page External links Government Korean Friendship Association Website International Trade Office of the DPRK (in Switzerland) Chief of State and Cabinet Members KCNA - Korean Central News Agency, the official news agency of the DPRK General information North Korea from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' North Korea topic coverage at The New York Times Other North Korea Uncovered, (North Korea Google Earth) Comprehensive mapping on Google Earth of the DPRK's political and economic infrastructure, including railways, hotels, factories, military facilities, tourist destinations, cultural facilities, ports, communications, and electricity grid Naenara - ("My country") DPRK's Official Web Portal run by Korea Computer Company Association d'amitié franco-coréenne - ("France Korea Friendship Association") Website in French (automatic translation in English and other languages) be-x-old:Карэйская Народна-Дэмакратычная Рэспубліка | North_Korea |@lemmatized map:2 north:193 korea:202 officially:4 democratic:6 people:24 republic:14 dprk:6 hangul:3 조선민주주의인민공화국:1 chosŏn:1 minjujuŭi:1 inmin:1 konghwaguk:1 state:38 east:10 asia:4 occupy:3 northern:3 half:2 korean:67 peninsula:7 capital:6 large:15 city:7 pyongyang:20 demilitarize:2 zone:5 serf:1 buffer:1 area:7 south:46 amnok:2 yalu:2 river:7 border:10 china:21 tumen:1 extreme:1 russia:11 govern:3 empire:1 japan:16 follow:7 russo:1 japanese:11 war:13 divide:1 soviet:5 american:5 occupied:1 end:8 world:31 ii:1 refuse:1 participate:1 united:19 nation:12 supervise:1 election:1 hold:6 lead:5 creation:2 separate:3 government:20 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5,896 | Grigory_Barenblatt | Grigory Barenblatt Grigory Isaakovich Barenblatt (born July 10, 1927) is a Russian mathematician. He graduated in 1950 from Moscow State University, Department of Mechanics and Mathematics. He received his Ph.D. in 1953 from Moscow State University under the supervision of A. N. Kolmogorov. He also received a D.Sc. from Moscow State University in 1957. He is a Professor in Residence at the Department of Mathematics of the University of California, Berkeley and Mathematician at Department of Mathematics, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. He was G. I. Taylor Professor of Fluid Mechanics at the University of Cambridge from 1992 to 1994 and he has been Emeritus G. I. Taylor Professor of Fluid Mechanics since then. His areas of research are: Fracture mechanics The theory of fluid and gas flows in porous media The mechanics of a non-classical deformable solids Turbulence Self-similarities, nonlinear waves and intermediate asymptotics. His awards and honors include: 1975 – Foreign Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1984 – Foreign Member, Danish Center of Applied Mathematics & Mechanics 1988 – Foreign Member, Polish Society of Theoretical & Applied Mechanics 1989 – Doctor of Technology Honoris Causa at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden 1992 – Foreign Associate, U.S. National Academy of Engineering 1993 – Fellow, Cambridge Philosophical Society 1993 – Member, Academia Europaea 1994 – Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; (since 1999, Honorary Fellow) 1995 – Lagrange Medal, Accademia Nazzionale dei Lincei 1995 – Modesto Panetti Prize and Medal 1997 – Foreign Associate, U.S. National Academy of Sciences 1999 – G. I. Taylor Medal, U.S. Society of Engineering Science 1999 – J. C. Maxwell Medal and Prize, International Congress for Industrial and Applied Mathematics 2000 – Foreign Member, Royal Society of London 2005 – Timoshenko Medal, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, "for seminal contributions to nearly every area of solid and fluid mechanics, including fracture mechanics, turbulence, stratified flows, flames, flow in porous media, and the theory and application of intermediate asymptotics." External links Applied mechanics: an age old science perpetually in rebirth (pdf). The Timoshenko Medal acceptance speech by Grigory Barenblatt (to be published by ASME in summer 2006). | Grigory_Barenblatt |@lemmatized grigory:3 barenblatt:3 isaakovich:1 bear:1 july:1 russian:1 mathematician:2 graduate:1 moscow:3 state:3 university:5 department:3 mechanic:9 mathematics:5 receive:2 ph:1 supervision:1 n:1 kolmogorov:1 also:1 sc:1 professor:3 residence:1 california:1 berkeley:2 lawrence:1 national:3 laboratory:1 g:3 taylor:3 fluid:4 cambridge:3 emeritus:1 since:2 area:2 research:1 fracture:2 mechanics:1 theory:2 gas:1 flow:3 porous:2 medium:2 non:1 classical:1 deformable:1 solid:2 turbulence:2 self:1 similarity:1 nonlinear:1 wave:1 intermediate:2 asymptotics:2 award:1 honor:1 include:2 foreign:6 honorary:2 member:5 american:2 academy:3 art:1 science:4 danish:1 center:1 applied:1 polish:1 society:5 theoretical:1 apply:3 doctor:1 technology:2 honoris:1 causa:1 royal:2 institute:1 stockholm:1 sweden:1 associate:2 u:3 engineering:2 fellow:3 philosophical:1 academia:1 europaea:1 gonville:1 caius:1 college:1 lagrange:1 medal:6 accademia:1 nazzionale:1 dei:1 lincei:1 modesto:1 panetti:1 prize:2 j:1 c:1 maxwell:1 international:1 congress:1 industrial:1 london:1 timoshenko:2 mechanical:1 engineer:1 seminal:1 contribution:1 nearly:1 every:1 stratify:1 flame:1 application:1 external:1 link:1 age:1 old:1 perpetually:1 rebirth:1 pdf:1 acceptance:1 speech:1 publish:1 asme:1 summer:1 |@bigram applied_mathematics:1 honoris_causa:1 stockholm_sweden:1 caius_college:1 dei_lincei:1 external_link:1 |
5,897 | Consciousness | Consciousness is a word often used in everyday speech to describe being awake and aware – responsive to the environment, in contrast to being asleep or in a coma. In philosophical and scientific discussion however, the term is restricted to a more precise meaning related to the specific way in which humans are mentally aware in such a way that they distinguish clearly between themselves (the thing being aware) and all other things and events. This "self-awareness" may involve thoughts, sensations, perceptions, moods, emotions, and dreams. Flanagan, Owen. "Consciousness" in Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, University of Oxford Press, 1995, p. 152. Consciousness is the subject of much research in philosophy of mind, psychology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence. Issues of practical concern include how the presence of consciousness can be assessed in severely ill or comatose people; Late recovery from the minimally conscious state: ethical and policy implications. Fins JJ, Schiff ND, Foley KM. Neurology. 2007 January 23;68(4):304-7. Abstract at Pubmed, retrieved 27 February 2007 whether non-human consciousness exists and if so how it can be measured; at what point in fetal development consciousness begins; and whether computers can achieve conscious states. Samuel Butler first raised the possibility of mechanical consciousness in an article signed with the [[Pen name|nom de plume]] Cellarius and headed "Darwin among the Machines", which appeared in the Christchurch, New Zealand, newspaper The Press on 13 June 1863: retrieved from PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION, Project Gutenberg eBook Erewhon, by Samuel Butler. Release Date: March 20, 2005.</ref> Stuart Shieber (ed): The Turing test : verbal behavior as the hallmark of intelligence, Cambridge, Mass, MIT Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-262-69293-9 Steven Marcus: Neuroethics: mapping the field. Dana Press, New York 2002. ISBN 978-0-9723830-0-4. Etymology The word "conscious" is derived from Latin conscius meaning "1. having joint or common knowledge with another, privy to, cognizant of; 2. conscious to oneself; esp., conscious of guilt". The Classsic Latin Dictionary, Follett Publishing Company, 1957 A related word was conscientia which primarily means moral conscience. In the literal sense, "conscientia" means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridic texts by writers such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else. In Christian theology, conscience stands for the moral conscience in which our actions and intentions are registered and which is only fully known to God. Medieval writers such as Thomas Aquinas describe the conscientia as the act by which we apply practical and moral knowledge to our own actions. See Aquinas, De Veritate 17,1 c.a. René Descartes (1596-1650) has been said to be the first philosopher to use "conscientia" in a way that does not seem to fit this traditional meaning, although this has recently been countered by Boris Hennig. See Catherine G. Davies, Conscience as Consciousness, Oxford 1990, and Hennig, Cartesian Conscientia. In any event, John Locke had much influence on the 18th Century view of consciousness: in Samuel Johnson's celebrated Dictionary (1755), Johnson gives a definition of "conscious" as "endowed with the power of knowing one's own thoughts and actions," and takes Locke's own definition of "consciousness" as "the perception of what passes in a man's own mind." Locke offered a definition of consciousness in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) that remained closely intertwined with moral conscience (I may be held morally responsible only for the act of which I am conscious of having achieved; and my personal identity - my self - goes as far as my consciousness extends itself). Twelve years earlier Ralph Cudworth used the modern meaning of consciousness in his "True Intellectual System of the Universe" (1678) and associated the concept with personal identity, which is assured by the repeated consciousness of oneself. Cudworth's use of the term also remained intertwined with moral agency. The word "conscience" was coined by Pierre Costes, French translator of Locke, but in the English language the modern sense first appeared in Cudworth's works.<ref>See Etienne Balibar, Identité et différence. Le chapitre II, xxvii de lEssay concerning Human Understanding de Locke. L'invention de la conscience. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1998. ISBN 978-2-02-026300-9</ref> Philosophical approaches Representation of consciousness from the 17th century. There are many philosophical stances on consciousness, including: behaviorism, dualism, idealism, functionalism, reflexive monism, phenomenalism, phenomenology and intentionality, physicalism, emergentism, mysticism, personal identity etc. Phenomenal and access consciousness Phenomenal consciousness (P-consciousness) is simply experience; it is moving, coloured forms, sounds, sensations, emotions and feelings with our bodies and responses at the center. These experiences, considered independently of any impact on behavior, are called qualia. The hard problem of consciousness, formulated by David Chalmers in 1996, deals with the issue of "how to explain a state of phenomenal consciousness in terms of its neurological basis" (Block 2004). Access consciousness (A-consciousness) is the phenomenon whereby information in our minds is accessible for verbal report, reasoning, and the control of behavior. So, when we perceive, information about what we perceive is often access conscious; when we introspect, information about our thoughts is access conscious; when we remember, information about the past (e.g., something that we learned) is often access conscious; and so on. Chalmers thinks that access consciousness is less mysterious than phenomenal consciousness, so that it is held to pose one of the easy problems of consciousness. Dennett denies that there is a "hard problem", asserting that the totality of consciousness can be understood in terms of impact on behavior, as studied through heterophenomenology. There have been numerous approaches to the processes that act on conscious experience from instant to instant. Dennett (1988) suggests that what people think of as phenomenal consciousness, such as qualia, are judgments and consequent behaviour. He extends this analysis (Dennett, 1996) by arguing that phenomenal consciousness can be explained in terms of access consciousness, denying the existence of qualia, hence denying the existence of a "hard problem." Chalmers, on the other hand, argues that Dennett's explanatory processes merely address aspects of the easy problem. Eccles and others have pointed out the difficulty of explaining the evolution of qualia, or of 'minds' which experience them, given that all the processes governing evolution are physical and so have no direct access to them. There is no guarantee that all people have minds, nor any way to verify whether one does or does not possess one. Events that occur in the mind or brain that are not within phenomenal or access consciousness are known as subconscious events. The description and location of phenomenal consciousness For centuries, philosophers have investigated phenomenal consciousness. René Descartes, who arrived at the famous dictum 'cogito ergo sum', wrote Meditations on First Philosophy in the seventeenth century. He described, extensively, what it is to be conscious. Conscious experience, according to Descartes, included such ideas as imaginings and perceptions laid out in space and time that are viewed from a point, and appearing as a result of some quality (qualia) such as color, smell, and so on. (Modern readers are often confused by this Descartes' notion of interchangeability between the terms 'idea' and 'imaginings.') Like Aristotle, Descartes defines ideas as extended things, as in this excerpt from his Treatise on Man: Now among these figures, it is not those imprinted on the external sense organs, or on the internal surface of the brain, which should be taken to be ideas - but only those which are traced in the spirits on the surface of gland H [where the seat of the imagination and the 'common sense' is located]. That is to say, it is only the latter figures which should be taken to be the forms or images which the rational soul united to this machine will consider directly when it imagines some object or perceives it by the senses. Thus Descartes does not identify mental ideas or 'qualia' with activity within the sense organs, or even with brain activity, but rather with the "forms or images" that unite the body and the 'rational soul', through the mediating 'gland H'. This organ is now known as the pineal gland. Descartes notes that, anatomically, while the human brain consists of two symmetrical hemispheres the pineal gland, which lies close to the brain's centre, appears to be singular. Thus he extrapolated from this that it was the mediator between body and soul. Philosophical responses, including those of Nicolas Malebranche, Thomas Reid, John Locke, David Hume and Immanuel Kant, were varied. Malebranche, for example, agreed with Descartes that the human being was composed of two elements, body and mind, and that conscious experience resided in the latter. He did, however, disagree with Descartes as to the ease with which we might become aware of our mental constitution, stating 'I am not my own light unto myself'. David Hume and Immanuel Kant also differ from Descartes, in that they avoid mentioning a place from which experience is viewed (see "Further reading" below); certainly, few if any modern philosophers have identified the pineal gland as the seat of dualist interaction. The extension of things in time was considered in more detail by Kant and James. Kant wrote that "only on the presupposition of time can we represent to ourselves a number of things as existing at one and the same time [simultaneously] or at different times [successively]." William James stressed the extension of experience in time and said that time is "the short duration of which we are immediately and incessantly sensible." When we look around a room or have a dream, things are laid out in space and time and viewed as if from a point. However, when philosophers and scientists consider the location of the form and contents of this phenomenal consciousness, there are fierce disagreements. As an example, Descartes proposed that the contents are brain activity seen by a non-physical place without extension (the Res Cogitans), which, in Meditations on First Philosophy, he identified as the soul. This idea is known as Cartesian Dualism. Another example is found in the work of Thomas Reid who thought the contents of consciousness are the world itself, which becomes conscious experience in some way. This concept is a type of Direct realism. The precise physical substrate of conscious experience in the world, such as photons, quantum fields, etc. is usually not specified. Other philosophers, such as George Berkeley, have proposed that the contents of consciousness are an aspect of minds and do not necessarily involve matter at all. This is a type of Idealism. Yet others, such as Leibniz, have considered that each point in the universe is endowed with conscious content. This is a form of Panpsychism. Panpsychism is the belief that all matter, including rocks for example, is sentient or conscious. The concept of the things in conscious experience being impressions in the brain is a type of representationalism, and representationalism is a form of indirect realism. It is sometimes held that consciousness emerges from the complexity of brain processing. The general label 'emergence' applies to new phenomena that emerge from a physical basis without the connection between the two explicitly specified. Some theorists hold that phenomenal consciousness poses an explanatory gap. Colin McGinn takes the New Mysterianism position that it can't be solved, and Chalmers criticizes purely physical accounts of mental experiences based on the idea that philosophical zombies are logically possible and supports property dualism. But others have proposed speculative scientific theories to explain the explanatory gap, such as Quantum mind, space-time theories of consciousness, reflexive monism, and Electromagnetic theories of consciousness to explain the correspondence between brain activity and experience. Parapsychologists sometimes appeal to the unproven concepts of psychokinesis or telepathy to support the belief that consciousness is not confined to the brain. Philosophical criticisms From the eighteenth to twentieth centuries many philosophers concentrated on relations, processes and thought as the most important aspects of consciousness. These aspects would later become known as "access consciousness" and this focus on relations allowed philosophers such as Marx, Nietzsche and Foucault to claim that individual consciousness was dependent on such factors as social relations, political relations and ideology. Locke's "forensic" notion of personal identity founded on an individual conscious subject would be criticized in the 19th century by Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud following different angles. Martin Heidegger's concept of the Dasein ("Being-there") would also be an attempt to think beyond the conscious subject. Marx considered that social relations ontologically preceded individual consciousness, and criticized the conception of a conscious subject as an ideological conception on which liberal political thought was founded. Marx in particular criticized the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, considering that the so-called individual natural rights were ideological fictions camouflaging social inequality in the attribution of those rights. Later, Louis Althusser would criticize the "bourgeois ideology of the subject" through the concept of interpellation ("Hey, you!"). Nietzsche, for his part, once wrote that "they give you free will only to later blame yourself", thus reversing the classical liberal conception of free will in a critical account of the genealogy of consciousness as the effect of guilt and ressentiment, which he described in On the Genealogy of Morals. Hence, Nietzsche was the first one to make the claim that the modern notion of consciousness was indebted to the modern system of penalty, which judged a man according to his "responsibility", that is by the consciousness through which acts can be attributed to an individual subject: "I did this! this is me!". Consciousness is thus related by Nietzsche to the classic philosopheme of recognition which, according to him, defines knowledge. See Friedrich Nietzsche, The Gay Science, §355. According to Pierre Klossowski (1969), Nietzsche considered consciousness to be a hypostatization of the body, composed of multiple forces (the "Will to Power"). According to him, the subject was only a "grammatical fiction": we believed in the existence of an individual subject, and therefore of a specific author of each act, insofar as we speak. Therefore, the conscious subject is dependent on the existence of language, a claim which would be generalized by critical discourse analysis (see for example Judith Butler). Michel Foucault's analysis of the creation of the individual subject through disciplines, in Discipline and Punish (1975), would extend Nietzsche's genealogy of consciousness and personal identity - i.e. individualism - to the change in the juridico-penal system: the emergence of penology and the disciplinization of the individual subject through the creation of a penal system which judged not the acts as it alleged to, but the personal identity of the wrong-doer. In other words, Foucault maintained that, by judging not the acts (the crime), but the person behind those acts (the criminal), the modern penal system was not only following the philosophical definition of consciousness, once again demonstrating the imbrications between ideas and social institutions ("material ideology" as Althusser would call it); it was by itself creating the individual person, categorizing and dividing the masses into a category of poor but honest and law-abiding citizens and another category of "professional criminals" or recidivists. Gilbert Ryle has argued that traditional understandings of consciousness depend on a Cartesian outlook that divides into mind and body, mind and world. He proposed that we speak not of minds, bodies, and the world, but of individuals, or persons, acting in the world. Thus, by saying 'consciousness,' we end up misleading ourselves by thinking that there is any sort of thing as consciousness separated from behavioral and linguistic understandings. The failure to produce a workable definition of consciousness also raises formidable philosophical questions. It has been argued that when Antonio Damasio Damasio. A. 1999. The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt Brace. p. 4. defines consciousness as "an organism's awareness of its own self and its surroundings", the definition has not escaped circularity, because awareness in that context can be considered a synonym for consciousness. The notion of consciousness as passive awareness can be contrasted with the notion of the active construction of mental representations. Maturana and Varela Maturana, H. R. and F. J. Varela. 1980. Autopoesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living. Boston: D. Reidel. showed that the brain is massively involved with creating worlds of experience for us with meager input from the senses. Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins Dawkins, R. 2003. A Devil's Chaplain; Reflections on Hope, Lies, Science, and Love. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 46. sums up the interactive view of experience: "In a way, what sense organs do is assist our brains to construct a useful model and it is this model that we move around in. It is a kind of virtual reality simulation of the world." Consciousness and language Because humans express their conscious states using language, it is tempting to equate language abilities and consciousness. There are, however, speechless humans (infants, feral children, aphasics, severe forms of autism), to whom consciousness is attributed despite language lost or not yet acquired. Moreover, the study of brain states of non-linguistic primates, in particular the macaques, has been used extensively by scientists and philosophers in their quest for the neural correlates of the contents of consciousness. Julian Jaynes argued to the contrary, in The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, that for consciousness to arise in a person, language needs to have reached a fairly high level of complexity. According to Jaynes, human consciousness emerged as recently as 1300 BCE or thereabouts. He defines consciousness in such a way as to show how he conceives of it as a type of thinking which builds upon non human ways of perceiving, for example (p.55)... Subjective conscious mind is an analog of what is called the real world. It is built up like a vocabulary or lexical field whose terms are all metaphors or analogs of behavior in the physical world. Its reality is of the same order as mathematics. It allows us to shortcut behavioral processes and arrive at more adequate decisions. Like mathematics, it is an operator rather than a repository. And it is intimately bound up with volition and decision. ...and page 65... It operates by way of analogy, by way of constructing an analog space with an analog "I" that can observe that space, and move metaphorically in it. ...and perhaps most tellingly, page 66... there is nothing in consciousness that is not an analog of something that was in behavior first. Some philosophers, including W.V. Quine, and some neuroscientists, including Christof Koch, contest this hypothesis, arguing that it suggests that prior to this "discovery" of consciousness, experience simply did not exist. Christof Koch, The Quest for Consciousness: A Neurobiological Approach. Englewood, Colorado: Roberts and Company Publishers. Ned Block argued that Jaynes had confused consciousness with the concept of consciousness, the latter being what was discovered between the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ned Block, "What is Dennett's Theory a Theory of?" Philosophical Topics 22, 1994. Daniel Dennett points out that these approaches misconceive Jaynes's definition of consciousness as more than mere perception or awareness of an object. He notes that consciousness is like money in that having the thing requires having the concept of it, so it is a revolutionary proposal and not a ridiculous error to suppose that consciousness only emerges when its concept does. More recently, Merlin Donald, seeing a similar connection between language and consciousness, and a similar link to cultural, and not purely genetic, evolution, has put a similar proposal to Jaynes' forward - though relying on less specific speculation about the more recent pre-history of consciousness. He writes... To understand consciousness fully, the generation of culture must be explained. Enculturation has been neglected as a possible formative process in its own right, but we have no alternative other than to give it pride of place in any evolutionary theory A Mind So Rare p.202 . He argues that an earlier "symbol using culture" must have preceded both the personal symbol using of individual consciousness, as well as language itself. The idea that language and consciousness are not innate to humans, a characteristic of human nature, but rather the result of cultural evolution, beginning with something similar to the culture of chimpanzees, goes back before Darwin to Rousseau's Second Discourse. Other approaches Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience For a long time in scientific psychology, consciousness as a research topic or explanatory concept had been banned. Research on topics associated with consciousness were conducted under the banner of attention. Modern investigations into consciousness are based on psychological statistical studies and case studies of consciousness states and the deficits caused by lesions, stroke, injury, or surgery that disrupt the normal functioning of human senses and cognition. These discoveries suggest that the mind is a complex structure derived from various localized functions that are bound together with a unitary awareness. Several studies point to common mechanisms in different clinical conditions that lead to loss of consciousness. Persistent vegetative state (PVS) is a condition in which an individual loses the higher cerebral powers of the brain, but maintains sleep-wake cycles with full or partial autonomic functions. Studies comparing PVS with healthy, awake subjects consistently demonstrate an impaired connectivity between the deeper (brainstem and thalamic) and the upper (cortical) areas of the brain. In addition, it is agreed that the general brain activity in the cortex is lower in the PVS state. Some electroneurobiological interpretations of consciousness characterize this loss of consciousness as a loss of the ability to resolve time (similar to playing an old phonographic record at very slow or very rapid speed), along a continuum that starts with inattention, continues on sleep, and arrives to coma and death Mariela Szirko: "Effects of relativistic motions in the brain and their physiological relevance", Chapter 10 (pp. 313-358) in: Helmut Wautischer, editor, Ontology of Consciousness: Percipient Action, A Bradford Book: The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1st edition, 2007. . It is likely that different components of consciousness can be teased apart with anesthetics, sedatives and hypnotics. These drugs appear to differentially act on several brain areas to disrupt, to varying degrees, different components of consciousness. The ability to recall information, for example, may be disrupted by anesthetics acting on the hippocampal cortex. Neurons in this region are particularly sensitive to anesthetics at the time loss of recall occurs. Direct anesthetic actions on hippocampal neurons have been shown to underlie EEG effects that occur in humans and animals during loss of recall (MacIver et al. 1996; see also: http://www.stanford.edu/group/maciverlab/research.html). Loss of consciousness also occurs in other conditions, such as general (tonic-clonic) epileptic seizures, in general anaesthesia, maybe even in deep (slow-wave) sleep. At present, the best-supported hypotheses about such cases of loss of consciousness (or loss of time resolution) focus on the need for 1) a widespread cortical network, including particularly the frontal, parietal and temporal cortices, and 2) cooperation between the deep layers of the brain, especially the thalamus, and the upper layers, the cortex. Such hypotheses go under the common term "globalist theories" of consciousness, due to the claim for a widespread, global network necessary for consciousness to interact with non-mental reality in the first place. Brain chemistry affects human consciousness. Sleeping drugs (such as Midazolam = Dormicum) can bring the brain from the awake condition (conscious) to the sleep (unconscious). Wake-up drugs such as Anexate reverse this process. Many other drugs (such as alcohol, nicotine, Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), heroin, cocaine, LSD, MDMA) have a consciousness-changing effect. There is a neural link between the left and right hemispheres of the brain, known as the corpus callosum. This link is sometimes surgically severed to control severe seizures in epilepsy patients. This procedure was first performed by Roger Sperry in the 1960s. Tests of these patients have shown that, after the link is completely severed, the hemispheres are no longer able to communicate, leading to certain problems that usually arise only in test conditions. For example, while the left side of the brain can verbally describe what is going on in the right visual field, the right hemisphere is essentially mute, instead relying on its spatial abilities to interact with the world on the left visual field. Some say that it is as if two separate minds now share the same skull, but both still represent themselves as a single "I" to the outside world. The bilateral removal of the centromedian nucleus (part of the Intra-laminar nucleus of the Thalamus) appears to abolish consciousness, causing coma, PVS, severe mutism and other features that mimic brain death. The centromedian nucleus is also one of the principal sites of action of general anaesthetics and anti-psychotic drugs. This evidence suggests that a functioning thalamus is necessary, but not sufficient, for human consciousness. Neurophysiological studies in awake, behaving monkeys point to advanced cortical areas in prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes as carriers of neuronal correlates of consciousness. Christof Koch and Francis Crick argue that neuronal mechanisms of consciousness are intricately related to prefrontal cortex — cortical areas involved in higher cognitive function, affect, behavioral control, and planning. Rodolfo Llinas proposes that consciousness results from recurrent thalamo-cortical resonance where the specific thalamocortical systems (content) and the non-specific (centromedial thalamus) thalamocortical systems (context) interact in the gamma band frequency via time coincidence. According to this view the "I" represents a global predictive function required for intentionality. Llinas R.. (2001) "I of the Vortex. From Neurons to Self" MIT Press, Cambridge Llinas R.,Ribary,U. Contreras,D. and Pedroarena, C. (1998) "The neuronal basis for consciousness" Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, B. 353:1841-1849 Experimental work of Steven Wise, Mikhail Lebedev and their colleagues supports this view. They demonstrated that activity of prefrontal cortex neurons reflects illusory perceptions of movements of visual stimuli. Nikos Logothetis and colleagues made similar observations on visually responsive neurons in the temporal lobe. These neurons reflect the visual perception in the situation when conflicting visual images are presented to different eyes (i.e., bistable percepts during binocular rivalry). The studies of blindsight — vision without awareness after lesions to parts of the visual system such as the primary visual cortex — performed by Lawrence Weiskrantz and David P. Carey provided important insights on how conscious perception arises in the brain. In recent years the theory of two visual streams, vision for perception versus vision for action has been refined by Melvyn Goodale, David Milner and others. According to this theory, visual perception arises as the result of processing of visual information by the ventral stream areas (located mostly in the temporal lobe), whereas the dorsal stream areas (located mostly in the parietal lobe) process visual information unconsciously. For example, catching a ball quickly would engage the dorsal stream areas, whereas viewing a painting would engage the ventral stream. Overall, these studies show that conscious versus unconscious behaviors can be linked to specific brain areas and patterns of neuronal activation.. An alternative and more global approach to analyzing neurophysiological correlates of consciousness is referred to by the Fingelkurts as Operational Architectonics. This still-untested theory postulates that thoughts are matched with and generated by underlying neurophysiological activity patterns that can be revealed directly by EEG. Fingelkurts An.A. and Fingelkurts Al.A. Operational architectonics of the human brain biopotential field: Towards solving the mind-brain problem. Brain and Mind, vol. 2, pp. 261-296, 2001. Fingelkurts An.A. and Fingelkurts Al.A. Timing in cognition and EEG brain dynamics: discreteness versus continuity. Cognitive Proces., vol. 7, pp. 135-162, 2006. Evolutionary biology Consciousness can be viewed from the evolutionary biology approach as an adaptation because it is a trait that increases fitness. Freeman and Herron. Evolutionary Analysis. 2007. Pearson Education, NJ. Consciousness also adheres to John Alcock's theory of animal behavioral adaptations because it possesses both proximate and ultimate causes. Alcock, J. Animal Behavior 5th Ed. 1993. Sinauer Assoc. Cunderland, MA The proximate causes for consciousness, i.e. how consciousness evolved in animals, is a subject considered by Sir John C. Eccles in his paper "Evolution of consciousness." He argues that special anatomical and physical properties of the mammalian cerebral cortex gave rise to consciousness. Eccles, John C. "Evolution of consciousness." 1992. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 89 pp. 7320-7324 Budiansky, by contrast, limits consciousness to humans, proposing that human consciousness may have evolved as an adaptation to anticipate and counter social strategems of other humans, predators, and prey. Budiansky, Stephen. If a Lion Could Talk: Animal Intelligence and the Evolution of Consciousness. 1998. The Free Press, NY. Alternatively, it has been argued that the recursive circuitry underwriting consciousness is much more primitive, having evolved initially in premammalian species because it improves the capacity for interaction with both social and natural environments by providing an energy-saving "neutral" gear in an otherwise energy-expensive motor output machine. Peters, Frederic "Consciousness as Recursive, Spatiotemporal Self-Location" http://precedings.nature.com/documents/2444/version/1 Another theory, proposed by Shaun Nichols and Todd Grantham, proposes that it is unnecessary to trace the exact evolutionary or causal role of phenomenal consciousness because the complexity of phenomenal consciousness alone implies that it is an adaptation. Nichols, Shaun, and Grantham, Todd."Adaptive Complexity and Phenomenal Consciousness." 2000. Philosophy of Science Vol. 67 pp. 648-670. Once in place, this recursive circuitry may well have provided a basis for the subsequent development of many of the functions which consciousness facilitates in higher organisms, as outlined by Bernard J. Baars. Baars, Bernard J. A Cognitive Theory of Consciousness. 1993. Cambridge University Press. + Functions of Consciousness Function Purpose Definition and context-settingRelating global input to its contexts, thereby defining input and removing ambiguities Adaptation and learningRepresenting and adapting to novel and significant events Editing, flagging, and debuggingMonitoring conscious content, editing it, and trying to change it if it is consciously "flagged" as an error Recruiting and control functionRecruiting subgoals and motor systems to organize and carry out mental and physical actions Prioritizing and access controlControl over what will become conscious Decision-making or executive functionRecruiting unconscious knowledge sources to make proper decisions, and making goals conscious to allow widespread recruitment of conscious and unconscious "votes" for or against them Analogy-forming functionSearching for a partial match between contents of unconscious systems and a globally displayed (conscious) message Metacognitive or self-forming functionReflection upon and control of our own conscious and unconscious functioning Auto-programming and self-maintenance functionMaintenance of maximum stability in the face of changing inner and outer conditions Physical Even at the dawn of Newtonian science, Leibniz and many others were suggesting physical theories of consciousness. Modern physical theories of consciousness can be divided into three types: theories to explain behaviour and access consciousness, theories to explain phenomenal consciousness and theories to explain the quantum mechanical (QM) Quantum mind. Theories that seek to explain behaviour are an everyday part of psychology/neuroscience, some of these theories of access consciousness, such as Edelman's theory, contentiously identify phenomenal consciousness with reflex events in the brain. Theories that seek to explain phenomenal consciousness directly, such as Space-time theories of consciousness and Electromagnetic theories of consciousness, have been available for almost a century, but have not yet been confirmed by experiment. Theories that attempt to explain the QM measurement problem include Pribram and Bohm's Holonomic brain theory, Hameroff and Penrose's Orch-OR theory and the Many-minds interpretation. Some of these QM theories offer descriptions of phenomenal consciousness, as well as QM interpretations of access consciousness. None of the quantum mechanical theories has been confirmed by experiment, and there are philosophers who argue that QM has no bearing on consciousness. There is also a concerted effort in the field of Artificial Intelligence to create digital computer programs that can simulate consciousness. Vedanta According to Vedanta, the development of self-awareness is considered to be primarily a phenomenon of consciousness and not a product of physical processes. The Vedantic frame of reference separates consciousness into four domains. The first is the waking consciousness (jagaritasthana) or ( ) and refers to the starting point of consciousness and the identification with “I” or “me” in relationship with phenomenal experiences with external objects. The second domain is that of dream consciousness (svapna-sthana) and is considered to be an extension of the waking state. The third domain of consciousness as deep sleep (susupti), which results in ananda (joyousness consciousness) as a result of holding in abeyance all the objects of desire and activities. The final domain is transcendental consciousness (turiya) also referred to as a trans-cognitive state (anubhava) or a state of self-realization or freedom from body-mind identification (moksha). Yegan Pillay, Katherine K. Ziff and Christine Suniti Bhat, Vedānta Personality Development: A Model to Enhance the Cultural Competence of Psychotherapists, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Volume 12, Number 1 / April, 2008, OUP Functions We generally agree that our fellow human beings are conscious, and that much simpler life forms, such as bacteria, are not. Many of us attribute consciousness to higher-order animals such as dolphins and primates; academic research is investigating the extent to which animals are conscious. This suggests the hypothesis that consciousness has co-evolved with life, which would require it to have some sort of added value, especially survival value. People have therefore looked for specific functions and benefits of consciousness. Bernard Baars (1997), for instance, states that "consciousness is a supremely functional adaptation" and suggests a variety of functions in which consciousness plays an important, if not essential, role: prioritization of alternatives, problem solving, decision making, brain processes recruiting, action control, error detection, planning, learning, adaptation, context creation, and access to information. Antonio Damasio (1999) regards consciousness as part of an organism's survival kit, allowing planned rather than instinctual responses. He also points out that awareness of self allows a concern for one's own survival, which increases the drive to survive, although how far consciousness is involved in behaviour is an actively debated issue. Many psychologists, such as radical behaviorists, and many philosophers, such as those that support Ryle's approach, would maintain that behavior can be explained by non-conscious processes akin to artificial intelligence, and might consider consciousness to be epiphenomenal or only weakly related to function. Regarding the primary function of conscious processing, a recurring idea in recent theories is that phenomenal states somehow integrate neural activities and information-processing that would otherwise be independent (see review in Baars, 2002). This has been called the integration consensus. However, it has remained unspecified which kinds of information are integrated in a conscious manner and which kinds can be integrated without consciousness. Obviously not all kinds of information are capable of being disseminated consciously (e.g., neural activity related to vegetative functions, reflexes, unconscious motor programs, low-level perceptual analyses, etc.) and many kinds can be disseminated and combined with other kinds without consciousness, as in intersensory interactions such as the ventriloquism effect (cf., Morsella, 2005). Ervin Laszlo argues that self-awareness, the ability to make observations of oneself, evolved. Emile Durkheim formulated the concept of so called collective consciousness, which is essential for organization of human, social relations. The accelerating drive of human race to explorations, cognition, understanding and technological progress Frank J. Tipler can be explained by some features of collective consciousness (collective self - concepts) and collective intelligence Tests As there is no clear definition of consciousness and no empirical measure exists to test for its presence, it has been argued that due to the nature of the problem of consciousness, empirical tests are intrinsically impossible. However, several tests have been developed which attempt to provide an operational definition of consciousness and try to determine whether computers and other non-human animals can demonstrate through their behavior, by passing these tests, that they are conscious. In medicine, several neurological and brain imaging techniques, like EEG and fMRI, have proven useful for physical measures of brain activity associated with consciousness. This is particularly true for EEG measures during anesthesia research.html that can provide an indication of anesthetic depth, although with still limited accuracies of ~ 70 % and a high degree of patient and drug variability seen. Turing Though often thought of as a test for consciousness, the Turing test (named after computer scientist Alan Turing, who first proposed it) is actually a test to determine whether or not a computer satisfied his operational definition of "intelligent" (which is actually quite different from a test for consciousness and self-awareness). This test is commonly cited in discussion of artificial intelligence. The essence of the test is based on "the Imitation Game", in which a human experimenter attempts to converse, via computer keyboards, with two others. One of the others is a human (who, it is assumed, is conscious) while the other is a computer. Because all of the conversation is via keyboards (teletypes, in Turing's original conception) no cues such as voice, prosody, or appearance will be available to indicate which is the human and which is the computer. If the human is unable to determine which of the conversants is human, and which is a computer, the computer is said to have "passed" the Turing test (satisfied Turing's operational definition of "intelligent"). The Turing test has generated a great deal of research and philosophical debate. For example, Daniel Dennett and Douglas Hofstadter argue that anything capable of passing the Turing test is necessarily conscious, Dennett, D.C. and Hofstadter, D. (1985). The Mind's I: Fantasies and reflections on self and soul (ISBN 978-0-553-34584-1) while David Chalmers, argues that a philosophical zombie could pass the test, yet fail to be conscious. Chalmers, D. (1997) The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511789 Please check ISBN|0195117891 It has been argued that the question itself is excessively anthropomorphic. Edsger Dijkstra commented that "The question of whether a computer can think is no more interesting than the question of whether a submarine can swim", expressing the view that different words are appropriate for the workings of a machine to those of animals even if they produce similar results, just as submarines are not normally said to swim. Philosopher John Searle developed a thought experiment, the Chinese room argument, which is intended to show problems with the Turing Test. Searle, J. (1980) "Minds, Brains and Programs" Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3, 417-424. Searle asks the reader to imagine a non-Chinese speaker in a room in which there are stored a very large number of Chinese symbols and rule books. Questions are passed to the person in the form of written Chinese symbols via a slot, and the person responds by looking up the symbols and the correct replies in the rule books. Based on the purely input-output operations, the "Chinese room" gives the appearance of understanding Chinese. However, the person in the room understands no Chinese at all. This argument has been the subject of intense philosophical debate since it was introduced in 1980, even leading to edited volumes on this topic alone. The application of the Turing test to human consciousness has even led to an annual competition, the Loebner Prize with "Grand Prize of $100,000 and a Gold Medal for the first computer whose responses were indistinguishable from a human's." For a summary of research on the Turing Test, see here. Mirror See also the concept of the Mirror stage by Jacques Lacan With the mirror test, devised by Gordon Gallup in the 1970s, one is interested in whether animals are able to recognize themselves in a mirror. The classic example of the test involves placing a spot of coloring on the skin or fur near the individual's forehead and seeing if they attempt to remove it or at least touch the spot, thus indicating that they recognize that the individual they are seeing in the mirror is themselves. Humans (older than 18 months) and other great apes (except for most gorillas http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiegeltest#Artverhalten ), bottlenose dolphins, pigeons http://ww2.lafayette.edu/~allanr/mirror.html , elephants Elephants see themselves in the mirror - life - 30 October 2006 - New Scientist and magpies "Was Elstern wahrnehmen" german article have all been observed to pass this test. The test is usually carried out with an identical 'spot' being placed elsewhere on the head with a non-visible material as a control, to assure the subject is not responding to the touch stimuli of the spot's presence. Proponents of the hard problem of consciousness claim that the mirror test only demonstrates that some animals possess a particular cognitive capacity for modelling their environment, but not for the presence of phenomenal consciousness per se. Gallup's mirror test has also been criticized as logically invalid because negative results are uninterpretable. Prosopagnosiacs, for example, may fail the test despite having the ability to report self awareness. Delay One problem researchers face is distinguishing nonconscious reflexes and instinctual responses from conscious responses. Neuroscientists Francis Crick and Christof Koch have proposed that by placing a delay between stimulus and execution of action, one may determine the extent of involvement of consciousness in an action of a biological organism. For example, when psychologists Larry Squire and Robert Clark combined a tone of a specific pitch with a puff of air to the eye, test subjects came to blink their eyes in anticipation of the puff of air when the appropriate tone was played. When the puff of air followed a half of a second later, no such conditioning occurred. When subjects were asked about the experiment, only those who were asked to pay attention could consciously distinguish which tone preceded the puff of air. Ability to delay the response to an action implies that the information must be stored in short-term memory, which is conjectured to be a closely associated prerequisite for consciousness. However, this test is only valid for biological organisms. While it is simple to create a computer program that passes, such success does not suggest anything beyond a clever programmer. Merkwelt The merkwelt (German; {{lang-en|way of viewing the world', "peculiar individual consciousness}}) is a concept in robotics, psychology and biology that describes a creature or android's capacity to view things, manipulate information and synthesize to make meaning out of the universe. In biology, a shark's merkwelt for instance is dominated by smell due to its enlarged olfactory lobes whilst a bat's is dominated by its hearing, especially at ultrasonic frequencies. In literature, a character's merkwelt can be defined by their particular consciousness. For the collective, the plural is merkwelten. It is related to the original German meaning of zeitgeist and indeed a merkwelt can be thought of as a more general, individual zeitgeist. White Shark Physiology and Neurology Senses and Merkwelt Psychology Text Site on Semiotics and Merkwelt Explanation of Merkwelt Merkwelt as Perceptual Universe Reference to Merkwelt Scholarly Study into Merkwelt Study into Merkwelt Further Studies Study mentioning Merkwelt Merkwelt and other concepts Biology as Merkwelt Study of Consciousness To have a merkwelt, the individual must be self-aware. This "self-awareness" may involve thoughts, sensations, perceptions, moods, emotions, and dreams. See also Cognitive science Attention Binocular rivalry Blindsight Change blindness Cognitive science Iconic memory Level of consciousness Multistable perception Neural correlates of consciousness Neural Darwinism Primary consciousness Psyche (psychology) Reticular activating system Short term memory Society of Mind Split brain Stream of consciousness (psychology) Unconscious mind Visual short term memory Spirituality Consciousness (Buddhism) Higher Consciousness Mindstream Philosophy 8-Circuit Model of Consciousness Bodymind Donald Davidson's swamp man thought experiment ("Knowing One Own's Mind", 1987) Dream argument False Consciousness (Marxism) Freedom of thought Homunculus Mental body Mind Mind at Large Mind-body problem Multiple Drafts theory (Daniel Dennett) cf. also Marvin Minsky New Mysterianism Personhood Theory Philosophy of mind Philosophy of perception Political consciousness, pertaining to marxist and post-marxist conceptions of consciousness. Qualia Stream of consciousness Supervenience Theory of mind Physical hypotheses about consciousness Orch-OR theory Electromagnetic theories of consciousness Holonomic brain theory Quantum mind Space-time theories of consciousness Simulated Reality Sociology and Socio-linguistics Sociology of human consciousness Groups Association for Consciousness Exploration Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness Mind and Life Institute Mind Science Foundation Portals Portal:Thinking Portal:Philosophy Notes Further reading and external links Baars, B. (1997). In the Theater of Consciousness: The Workspace of the Mind. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2001 reprint: ISBN 978-0-19-514703-2 Baars, Bernard J and Stan Franklin. 2003. How conscious experience and working memory interact. Trends in Cognitive Science 7: 166–172. Blackmore, S. (2003). Consciousness: an Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515343-9 Blackmore, S. (2005) "Conversations on Consciousness". Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280623-9 Block, N. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. Carter, Rita. (2002) Exploring Consciousness. UC Berkeley Press. ISBN 0-520-23737-4 Chalmers, D. (1996). The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511789-9 Chalmers, D.(2002) The puzzle of conscious experience. Scientific American, January 2002. Charlton, Bruce G. and the Cognitive Neuroscience of Awareness, Consciousness and Language" Cleermans, A. (Ed.) (2003). The Unity of Consciousness: Binding, Integration, and Dissociation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850857-1 Crick, F.H.C. (1994) "The Astonishing Hypothesis". London Simon & Schuster Ltd. ISBN 0-671-71295-0 Damasio, A. (1999). The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt Press. ISBN 978-0-15-601075-7 Dennett, D. (1991). Consciousness Explained, Boston: Little & Company. ISBN 978-0-316-18066-5 Eccles, J.C. (1994), How the Self Controls its Brain, (Springer-Verlag). Franklin, S, B J Baars, U Ramamurthy, and Matthew Ventura. 2005. The role of consciousness in memory. Brains, Minds and Media 1: 1–38, pdf. Halliday, Eugene, Reflexive Self-Consciousness, ISBN 0-872240-01-1 Harnad, S. (2005) What is Consciousness? New York Review of Books 52(11). Harnad, S. (2008) What It Feels Like To Hear Voices: Fond Memories of Julian Jaynes James, W. (1902) The Varieties of Religious Experience Immanuel Kant (1781). Critique of Pure Reason. Trans. Norman Kemp Smith with preface by Howard Caygill. Pub: Palgrave Macmillan. Koch, C. (2004). The Quest for Consciousness. Englewood, CO: Roberts & Company. ISBN 978-0-9747077-0-9 John Locke (1689). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Libet, B., Freeman, A. & Sutherland, K. ed. (1999). The Volitional Brain: Towards a neuroscience of free will. Exeter, UK: Short Run Press, Ltd. Llinas R.,Ribary,U. Contreras,D. and Pedroarena, C. (1998) "The neuronal basis for consciousness" Phil. Tranns. R. Soc. London, B. 353:1841-1849 Llinas R. (2001) "I of the Vortex. From Neurons to Self" MIT Press, Cambridge Metzinger, T. (2003). Being No One: the Self-model Theory of Subjectivity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Metzinger, T. (Ed.) (2000). The Neural Correlates of Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13370-8 Morgan, John H. (2007. In the Beginning: The Paleolithic Origins of Religious Consciousness. Cloverdale Books, South Bend. ISBN 978-1-929569-41-0 Morsella, E. (2005). The Function of Phenomenal States: Supramodular Interaction Theory. Psychological Review, 112, 1000-1021. Neumann, Erich. The origins and history of consciousness, with a foreword by C.G. Jung. Translated from the German by R.F.C. Hull. New York : Pantheon Books, 1954. Penrose, R., Hameroff, S. R. (1996), 'Conscious Events as Orchestrated Space-Time Selections', Journal of Consciousness Studies, 3 (1), pp. 36-53. Peters, Frederic (2008), "Consciousness as Recursive, Spatiotemporal Self-Location" http://precedings.nature.com/documents/2444/version/1 Pharoah, M.C. (online). Looking to systems theory for a reductive explanation of phenomenal experience and evolutionary foundations for higher order thought Retrieved December14 2007. Sanz, R., López, I., Rodríguez, M. and Hernández, C. (2007) 'Principles for Consciousness in Integrated Cognitive Control'. Neural Networks, 20, pp. 938–946. Scaruffi, P. (2006). The Nature Of Consciousness. Omniware. Searle, J. (2004). Mind: A Brief Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. Sternberg, E. (2007) Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. Tolle, Eckhart (1999). The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment. New World Library. pp 36-37. ISBN 978-1577311522 Velmans, M. (2000) Understanding Consciousness. London: Routledge/Psychology Press. Velmans, M. and Schneider, S. (Eds.)(2006) The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness. New York: Blackwell. Academic journals & newsletters Anthropology of Consciousness Journal of Consciousness Studies Consciousness and Cognition Psyche Science & Consciousness Review ASSC e-print archive containing articles, book chapters, theses, conference presentations by members of the ASSC. Philosophy resources Publications of the Tufts Center for Cognitive Studies, including Daniel Dennett David Chalmers' directory of online papers on consciousness Intuitions about Consciousness: Experimental Studies an article describing the folk intuitions about what is a conscious agent Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Consciousness (General) Animal Consciousness Higher Order Theories of Consciousness Consciousness and Intentionality Representational Theory of Consciousness Unity of Consciousness Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Consciousness Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness Miscellaneous sites History of Consciousness Graduate Program, ("consciousness as forms of human expression and social action manifested in historical, cultural, and political contexts") at the University of California, Santa Cruz, headed by Dr. Angela Davis* Online lecture videos, from an undergraduate course taught by Christof Koch at Caltech on the neurobiological basis of consciousness in 2004. Piero Scaruffi's annotated bibliography on the mind Anesthesia and Drug effects on consciousness Brain Atlas, Brain Maps, Neuroinformatics Online course in consciousness at University of Virginia A survey course at University of Florida Edinburgh thesis (.ps) on consciousness including up-to-date reviews Consciousness-Related Engineering Anomaly Princeton The Mystery of Consciousness TIME.com Helen Keller Language and Consciousness Video Jill Bolte Taylor - My Stroke of Insight Christof Koch, Noam Chomsky, Pat Churchland, David Glanzman, David Chalmers- The Mystery of Consciousness | Consciousness |@lemmatized consciousness:232 word:7 often:5 use:8 everyday:2 speech:1 describe:7 awake:4 aware:5 responsive:2 environment:3 contrast:3 asleep:1 coma:3 philosophical:12 scientific:5 discussion:2 however:8 term:11 restrict:1 precise:2 meaning:4 relate:6 specific:8 way:11 human:36 mentally:1 distinguish:3 clearly:1 thing:10 event:7 self:22 awareness:14 may:8 involve:6 thought:8 sensation:3 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5,898 | Epistle_of_Jude | The brief Epistle of Jude is the penultimate book in the Christian New Testament canon. Author and date The epistle is titled as written by "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James" (NRSV). If taken literally this means that the author claims to be a brother of Jesus, an attribution which is now increasingly considered as the most probable. Chester, A and Martin, RP (1994), 'The Theology of the Letters of James, Peter and Jude', CUP, p.65 Bauckham,RJ (1986), Word Biblical Commentary, Vol.50, Word (UK) Ltd. p.14 Though it is held as canonical in the majority of Christian churches, some scholars consider the letter a pseudonymous work written between the end of the first century and the first quarter of the 2nd century, arguing from the references to the apostles (verse 17-18), tradition (3); the book's competent Greek style and the opposition to Gnosticism. Nevertheless, conservative scholars date it between 66 to 90. USCCB - NAB - Jude Norman Perrin, (1974) The New Testament: An Introduction, p. 260 Bauckham,RJ (1986), Word Biblical Commentary, Vol.50, Word (UK) Ltd. p.16 "More remarkable is the evidence that by the end of the second century Jude was widely accepted as canonical...' Bauckham,RJ (1986), Word Biblical Commentary, Vol.50, Word (UK) Ltd. p.17 Clement, Tertullian and the Muratorian canon considered the letter canonical. The authorship was called into question when Origen of Alexandria first spoke of the doubts held by some—albeit not him. Eusebius classified it with the "disputed writings, the antilegomena." The letter was eventually accepted as part of the canon by the Church father Athanasius and the Synods of Laodicea (c. 363) and Carthage (397). Doubts regarding Jude's authenticity were revived at the time of the Protestant Reformation. The debate has continued over the author's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither. Some scholars have argued that since the author of that letter has not identified himself as an apostle and actually refers to the apostles as a third party, he cannot be identified with the Jude who is listed as one of the Twelve (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13; cf John 14:22). Others have drawn exactly the opposite conclusion ie as Jude was an apostle, he would not have made such a claim on his own behalf. Bauckham,RJ (1986), Word Biblical Commentary, Vol.50, Word (UK) Ltd. p.14f The person intended is sometimes identified as another Jude, named in the gospels among the relatives of Jesus (Matthew 13:55; Mark 6:3), and the James referred to as his brother James, to whom the Letter of James is attributed. Little is known of this Jude, which would explain the apparent need to identify him by reference to his better-known brother. Style The Epistle of Jude is a brief book of only a single chapter with 25 verses. It was composed as an encyclical letter—that is, one not directed to the members of one church in particular, but intended rather to be circulated and read in all churches. The form, as opposed to the earlier letters of Paul, suggests that the author knew Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians or even that the Pauline epistles had already been collected and were circulating when the text was written. The wording and syntax of this epistle in its original Greek demonstrates that the author was capable and fluent. The epistle is addressed to Christians in general (1:1), and it warns them about the doctrine of certain errant teachers to which they were exposed. Examples of heterodox opinions that were circulating in the early 2nd century include Docetism, Marcionism, and Gnosticism. The epistle's style is combative, impassioned, and rushed. Many examples of evildoers and warnings about their fates are given in rapid succession. The epithets contained in this writing are considered to be some of the strongest found in the New Testament. The epistle concludes with a doxology, which is considered to be one of the highest in quality contained in the Bible. Jude and 2 Peter Part of Jude is very similar to 2 Peter (mainly 2 Peter chapter 2), so much so that most scholars agree that the there is a dependence between the two - either one letter used the other directly, or that they both drew on a common source. Introduction to 2 Peter, Expositor's Bible Commentary, Ed. F.E.Gaebelein, Zondervan 1976-1992 Because this epistle is much shorter than 2 Peter, and due to various stylistic details, the scholarly consensus is that Jude was the source for the similar passages of 2 Peter. T. Callan, "Use of the Letter of Jude by the Second Letter of Peter", Biblica 85 (2004), pp. 42-64. . References to other books The Epistle of Jude references at least two other books, one of which is non-canonical in all churches, the other non-canonical in most churches. Verse 9 refers to a dispute between Michael the Archangel and the devil about the body of Moses. Some interpreters understand this reference to be an allusion to the events described in Zechariah 3:1,2. A passage in a non-canonical book, the Assumption of Moses, also provides an account of such a dispute. According to Origen verse 9 refers to this dispute. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.vi.v.iv.iv.html Verses 14-15 contains a direct quote of a prophecy from the "Enoch, the seventh from Adam", indicating Jude accepts the antediluvian patriarch Enoch as the author of a Book of Enoch which contains the same quotation. The Book of Enoch is not considered canonical by most churches, although it is by the Ethiopian Orthodox church. According to Western scholars the older sections of the Book of Enoch (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) date from about 300 BC and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the end of 1st century BC Fahlbusch E., Bromiley G.W. The Encyclopedia of Christianity: P-Sh pag 411, ISBN 0-8028-2416-1 (2004) . It is generally accepted by scholars by that the author of the Epistle of Jude was familiar with the Book of Enoch and was influenced by it in thought and diction. "Apocalyptic Literature" (column 220), Encyclopedia Biblica Jude 1:14-15 quotes 1Enoch 1:9 which is part of the pseudepigrapha and is also part of the Dead Sea Scrolls [4Q Enoch (4Q204[4QENAR]) COL I 16-18]. Clontz, T.E. and J., "The Comprehensive New Testament with complete textual variant mapping and references for the Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Apocrypha, Plato, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Talmud, Old Testament, Patristic Writings, Dhammapada, Tacitus, Epic of Gilgamesh", Cornerstone Publications, 2008, p. 711, ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5 Verse 17 cites "the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ". (The parallel passage in 2 Peter 3:2 makes a similar claim). Clontz, T.E. and J., "The Comprehensive New Testament with complete textual variant mapping and references for the Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Apocrypha, Plato, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Talmud, Old Testament, Patristic Writings, Dhammapada, Tacitus, Epic of Gilgamesh", Cornerstone Publications, 2008, p. 400, ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5 See also Textual variants in the Epistle of Jude Notes External links Online translations of the Epistle of Jude: Jude in New American Bible Online Bible at GospelHall.org Jude at Bible Gateway (various versions) Early Christian writings: Epistle of Jude: comparable translations and interpretations Additional information: Catholic Encyclopedia Comprehensive study the Epistle of Jude An Exegesis of Jude by Michael Quandt A reaction to the apparent regarding of Enoch and the Assumption of Moses as canonical by Jude | Epistle_of_Jude |@lemmatized brief:2 epistle:16 jude:27 penultimate:1 book:14 christian:4 new:6 testament:7 canon:3 author:8 date:3 title:1 write:3 servant:1 jesus:5 christ:2 brother:5 james:5 nrsv:1 take:1 literally:1 mean:1 claim:3 attribution:1 increasingly:1 consider:6 probable:1 chester:1 martin:1 rp:1 theology:1 letter:11 peter:9 cup:1 p:9 bauckham:4 rj:4 word:8 biblical:4 commentary:5 vol:4 uk:4 ltd:4 though:1 hold:2 canonical:8 majority:1 church:8 scholar:6 pseudonymous:1 work:1 end:3 first:3 century:5 quarter:1 argue:2 reference:7 apostle:6 verse:6 tradition:1 competent:1 greek:2 style:3 opposition:1 gnosticism:2 nevertheless:1 conservative:1 usccb:1 nab:1 norman:1 perrin:1 introduction:2 remarkable:1 evidence:1 second:2 widely:1 accept:4 clement:1 tertullian:1 muratorian:1 authorship:1 call:1 question:1 origen:2 alexandria:1 spoke:1 doubt:2 albeit:1 eusebius:1 classify:1 dispute:4 writing:5 antilegomena:1 eventually:1 part:5 father:1 athanasius:1 synod:1 laodicea:1 c:1 carthage:1 regard:1 authenticity:1 revive:1 time:1 protestant:1 reformation:1 debate:1 continue:1 identity:1 neither:1 since:1 identify:4 actually:1 refers:3 third:1 party:1 cannot:1 list:1 one:6 twelve:1 luke:1 act:1 cf:1 john:1 others:1 draw:2 exactly:1 opposite:1 conclusion:1 ie:1 would:2 make:2 behalf:1 person:1 intend:2 sometimes:1 another:1 name:1 gospel:1 among:1 relative:1 matthew:1 mark:1 refer:1 attribute:1 little:1 know:3 explain:1 apparent:2 need:1 good:1 single:1 chapter:2 compose:2 encyclical:1 direct:2 member:1 particular:1 rather:1 circulate:3 read:1 form:1 oppose:1 early:3 paul:2 suggest:1 ephesian:1 even:1 pauline:1 already:1 collect:1 text:1 wording:1 syntax:1 original:1 demonstrates:1 capable:1 fluent:1 address:1 general:1 warn:1 doctrine:1 certain:1 errant:1 teacher:1 expose:1 example:2 heterodox:1 opinion:1 include:1 docetism:1 marcionism:1 combative:1 impassioned:1 rush:1 many:1 evildoer:1 warning:1 fate:1 give:1 rapid:1 succession:1 epithet:1 contain:4 strong:1 found:1 concludes:1 doxology:1 high:1 quality:1 bible:5 similar:3 mainly:2 much:2 agree:1 dependence:1 two:2 either:1 use:2 directly:1 common:1 source:2 expositor:1 ed:1 f:1 e:4 gaebelein:1 zondervan:1 short:1 due:1 various:2 stylistic:1 detail:1 scholarly:1 consensus:1 passage:3 callan:1 biblica:2 pp:1 least:1 non:3 michael:2 archangel:1 devil:1 body:1 moses:3 interpreter:1 understand:1 allusion:1 event:1 describe:1 zechariah:1 assumption:2 also:3 provide:1 account:1 accord:2 http:1 www:1 ccel:2 org:2 schaff:1 vi:1 v:1 iv:2 html:1 quote:2 prophecy:1 enoch:8 seventh:1 adam:1 indicate:1 antediluvian:1 patriarch:1 quotation:1 although:1 ethiopian:1 orthodox:1 western:1 old:3 section:1 watcher:1 bc:2 late:1 parable:1 probably:1 fahlbusch:1 bromiley:1 g:1 w:1 encyclopedia:3 christianity:1 sh:1 pag:1 isbn:3 generally:1 familiar:1 influence:1 thought:1 diction:1 apocalyptic:1 literature:1 column:1 pseudepigrapha:3 dead:5 sea:3 scroll:3 col:1 clontz:2 j:2 comprehensive:3 complete:2 textual:3 variant:3 mapping:2 philo:2 josephus:2 nag:2 hammadi:2 library:2 apocrypha:2 plato:2 egyptian:2 talmud:2 patristic:2 dhammapada:2 tacitus:2 epic:2 gilgamesh:2 cornerstone:2 publication:2 cite:1 lord:1 parallel:1 see:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 online:2 translation:2 american:1 gospelhall:1 gateway:1 version:1 comparable:1 interpretation:1 additional:1 information:1 catholic:1 study:1 exegesis:1 quandt:1 reaction:1 regarding:1 |@bigram epistle_jude:8 jesus_christ:2 origen_alexandria:1 protestant_reformation:1 epistle_ephesian:1 pauline_epistle:1 scholarly_consensus:1 michael_archangel:1 http_www:1 www_ccel:1 ccel_org:1 org_ccel:1 bromiley_g:1 apocalyptic_literature:1 textual_variant:3 philo_josephus:2 nag_hammadi:2 hammadi_library:2 patristic_writing:2 epic_gilgamesh:2 external_link:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 |
5,899 | Newspeak | Newspeak is a fictional language in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. In the novel, it is described as being "the only language in the world whose vocabulary gets smaller every year". Orwell included an essay about it in the form of an appendix Orwell, George (1949). Nineteen Eighty-Four, "Appendix: The Principles of Newspeak", pp. 309–323. New York: Plume, 2003.Pynchon, Thomas (2003). "Foreword to the Centennial Edition" to Nineteen Eighty-Four, pp. vii–xxvi . New York: Plume, 2003.Fromm, Erich (1961). "Afterword" to Nineteen Eighty-Four, pp. 324–337. New York: Plume, 2003.Orwell's text has a "Selected Bibliography", pp. 338–9; the foreword and the afterword each contain further references.Copyright is explicitly extended to digital and any other means.Plume edition is a reprint of a hardcover by Harcourt. Plume edition is also in a Signet edition. in which the basic principles of the language are explained. Newspeak is closely based on English but has a greatly reduced and simplified vocabulary and grammar. This suits the totalitarian regime of the Party, whose aim is to make any alternative thinking — "thoughtcrime", or "crimethink" in the newest edition of Newspeak — impossible by removing any words or possible constructs which describe the ideas of freedom, rebellion and so on. One character says admiringly of the shrinking volume of the new dictionary: "It's a beautiful thing, the destruction of words." The Newspeak term for the English language is Oldspeak. Oldspeak is intended to have been completely eclipsed by Newspeak before 2050. The genesis of Newspeak can be found in the constructed language Basic English, which Orwell promoted from 1942 to 1944 before emphatically rejecting it in his essay "Politics and the English Language". In this paper he laments the quality of the English of his day, citing examples of dying metaphors, pretentious diction or rhetoric, and meaningless words all of which contribute to fuzzy ideas and a lack of logical thinking. Towards the end of this essay, having argued his case, Orwell muses: Basic principles of Newspeak To remove synonyms and antonyms The basic idea behind Newspeak is to remove all shades of meaning from language, leaving simple dichotomies (pleasure and pain, happiness and sadness, goodthink and crimethink) which reinforce the total dominance of the State. Similarly, Newspeak root words served as both nouns and verbs, which allowed further reduction in the total number of words; for example, "think" served as both noun and verb, so the word thought was not required and could be abolished. A staccato rhythm of short syllables was also a goal, further reducing the need for deep thinking about language. (See duckspeak.) Successful Newspeak meant that there would be fewer and fewer words dictionaries would get thinner and thinner. In addition, words with opposite meanings were removed as redundant, so "bad" became "ungood". Words with comparative and superlative meanings were also simplified, so "better" became "gooder", and "best" likewise became "goodest". Intensifiers could be added, so "great" became "plusgood", and "excellent" and "splendid" likewise became "doubleplusgood". Adjectives were formed by adding the suffix "-ful" to a root word (e.g., "goodthinkful", orthodox in thought), and adverbs by adding "-wise" ("goodthinkwise", in an orthodox manner). In this manner, as many words as possible were removed from the language. The ultimate aim of Newspeak was to reduce even the dichotomies to a single word that was a "yes" of some sort: an obedient word with which everyone answered affirmatively to what was asked of them. Some of the constructions in Newspeak, such as "ungood", are in fact characteristic of agglutinative languages, although foreign to English. It is possible that Orwell modeled aspects of Newspeak on Esperanto; for example "ungood" is constructed similarly to the Esperanto word malbona. Orwell had been exposed to Esperanto in 1927 when living in Paris with his aunt Ellen Kate Limouzin and her husband Eugène Lanti, a prominent Esperantist. Esperanto was the language of the house, and Orwell was disadvantaged by not speaking it, which may account for some antipathy towards the language. To control thought The underlying theory of Newspeak is that if something can't be said, then it can't be thought. (See Sapir–Whorf hypothesis.) There is substantial argument in favor of this notion, in that most humans think by carrying on a dialogue in their heads. They tend to subvocalize their thoughts as they form them and manipulate them; most thought is actually a dialogue with oneself. When new and complex developments come along, new words are invented (or old words adapted) to hold the meme as a gestalt. This is why specialist vocabularies are particularly common – if instead one shrank the vocabulary, one would substantially reduce the memes available to manipulate during this thinking/vocalizing process. Some examples of Newspeak from the novel include crimethink, doubleplusungood, and Ingsoc. They mean, respectively, "thoughtcrime", "extremely bad", and "English socialism" (the official political philosophy of the Party). The word Newspeak itself also comes from the language. All of these words would be obsolete and should be removed in the "final" version of Newspeak, except for doubleplusungood in certain contexts. Generically, Newspeak has come to mean any attempt to restrict disapproved language by a government or other powerful entity. OED: any corrupt form of English; esp. ambiguous or euphemistic language as used in official pronouncements or political propaganda. Grammar The "A" group of words are for simple concepts, such as "eating" and "drinking". 1984- notes: summary and analysis. Barnes & Noble. Groups of words such as the "B" group convey more complicated topics. There are no negative terms; the only way to say "bad" is with ungood. Something awful or extremely terrible is called "doubleplusungood". The "C" group is for very technical vocabulary. Since the party does not want people to be intelligent in multiple fields, there is no word for "science". There are separate words for different fields. See also Code word Dumbing down Fnord Framing Language and thought List of Newspeak words Logocracy LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii Nadsat Neologism Political correctness Sapir–Whorf hypothesis Thought-terminating cliché Two + two = five References Further reading NB: Cf. Electronic Editions Warning. "1984-Appendix". Retrieved on 21 April 2006. The complete Newspeak appendix to Nineteen Eighty-Four (NB: Copyright). "Newspeak Dictionary". Updated 16 April 2006. Retrieved 21 April 2006. ("The Newspeak Dictionary has moved." New URL shown.) Burgess, Anthony. Nineteen Eighty-Five. Boston: Little Brown & Co, 1978. ISBN 0-316-11651-3. Anthony Burgess discusses the plausibility of Newspeak. Green, Jonathon. Newspeak: a dictionary of jargon. London, Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985, 1984. ISBN 0-7102-0673-9. "Find in a library: Newspeak: A dictionary of Jargon", by Jonathon Green. Retrieved 21 April 2006. Klemperer, Victor. LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii: Notizbuch eines Philologen.. Original German language editions. Klemperer, Victor & Watt, Roderick H. LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii: A Philologist's Notebook. Lewiston: E. Mellen Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7734-8681-X. An annotated edition of Victor Klemperer’s LTI, Notizbuch eines Philologen with English notes and commentary by Roderick H. Watt. Klemperer, Victor & Brady, Martin (tr.). The language of the Third Reich: LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii: A Philologist's Notebook. London, UK; New Brunswick, NJ: Athlone Press, 2000. ISBN 0-485-11526-3 (alk. paper). Translated by Martin Brady. Young, John Wesley . Totalitarian Language: Orwell's Newspeak and Its Nazi and Communist Antecedents. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991. ISBN 0-8139-1324-1. John Wesley Young wrote this scholarly work about Newspeak and historical examples of language control. 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