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5,600 | Political_correctness | Political correctness (adjectivally, politically correct; both forms commonly abbreviated to PC) is a term applied to language, ideas, policies, or behavior seen by some as seeking to minimize offense to gender, racial, cultural, disabled, aged or other identity groups. Conversely, the term "politically incorrect" is used to refer to language or ideas that may cause offense or that are unconstrained by orthodoxy. Ruth Perry traces the term back to Mao Zedong's Little Red Book. According to Perry, the term was later adopted by the radical Left in the 1960s, initially seriously and later ironically, as a self-criticism of dogmatic attitudes. In the 1990s, because of the term's association with radical politics and communist censorship, it was used by the political Right in the United States to try to discredit the Old and New Left. The term itself and its usage are controversial. The term "political correctness" is used almost exclusively in a pejorative sense, Ruth Perry, (1992), "A short history of the term 'politically correct' " in Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding by Aufderheide, Patricia 1992 Schultz, Debra L. (1993). To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the “Political Correctness” Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women. while "politically incorrect" is commonly used as an implicitly positive self-description, as in the series of "Politically Incorrect Guides", produced by conservative publisher Regnery and the former talk show Politically Incorrect. Some commentators Ellen Messer-Davidow. 1993. "Manufacturing the Attack on Liberalized Higher Education." Social Text, Fall, pp. 40–80. Ellen Messer-Davidow. 1994. "Who (Ac)Counts and How." MMLA (The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association), vol. 27, no. 1, Spring, pp. 26–41. P. Lauter. 1995. "'Political correctness' and the attack on American colleges." In M. Bérubé & C. Nelson, Higher education under fire: Politics, economics, and the crisis in the humanities. New York, NY: Routledge. Scatamburlo, Valerie L. 1998. Soldiers of Misfortune: The New Right's Culture War and the Politics of Political Correctness. Counterpoints series, Vol. 25. New York: Peter Lang. * Barry Glassner, The Culture of Fear New York: Basic Books, 1999, ISBN 0-465-01489-5 / ISBN 0-465-01490-9 have argued that the term "political correctness" is a straw man used by conservatives in the 1990s in order to challenge leftist social change, especially with respect to issues of race, religion and gender. History In the United States The earliest citation is not politically correct, in the U.S. Supreme Court decision Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), denoting the statement to which it refers is literally incorrect, owing to the U.S.'s political status as then understood. Chisholm v State of GA, 2 US 419 (1793) Findlaw.com - Accessed February 6, 2007. "The states, rather than the People, for whose sakes the States exist, are frequently the objects which attract and arrest our principal attention[...]. Sentiments and expressions of this inaccurate kind prevail in our common, even in our convivial, language. Is a toast asked? 'The United States', instead of the 'People of the United States', is the toast given. This is not politically correct." In Marxism-Leninism In Marxist-Leninist and Trotskyist vocabulary, the term "correct" was commonly used to describe the appropriate "party line", often called the "correct line". A similar term was used in the People's Republic of China, Chang-tu Hu, International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de l'Education, Vol. 10, No. 1. (1964), pp. 12-21. Susan Biele Alitto, Comparative Education Review, Vol. 13, No. 1. (Feb., 1969), pp. 43-59. notably as part of Mao Zedong's declarations on handling "nonantagonistic contradictions." On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People - Britannica Online Encyclopedia In the U.S. New Left Even before the use of the term, the concept of the Left mocking its own use of language is evident in the 1956 pamphlet, "Lifeitselfmanship or How to Become a Precisely-Because Man" by the well-born communist Jessica Mitford. In response to Noblesse Oblige, the book her sister Nancy co-wrote and edited on the class distinctions in British English, popularising the phrases "U and non-U English" (upper class and non-upper class), Jessica described L and non-L (Left and non-Left) English, mocking the clichés used by her comrades in the all-out class struggle. (The title alludes to Stephen Potter's series of books that included Lifemanship.) Some U.S. New Left proponents adopted the usage of the phrase "political correctness". One 1970 example is in Toni Cade Bambara's essay The Black Woman: "a man cannot be politically correct and a chauvinist too", illustrating its usage in gender and identity politics, rather than solely about general political orthodoxy. Yet, soon afterwards, the New Left re-appropriated the term political correctness as satirical self-criticism; per Debra Shultz: "Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the New Left, feminists, and progressives ... used their term politically correct ironically, as a guard against their own orthodoxy in social change efforts". Schultz citing Perry, 1992, P. 16 Hence the phrase's popular usage in English and Bobby London's usage in the underground comic book Merton of the Movement, while the alternative term, ideologically sound, followed a like lexical path, appearing in Bart Dickon's satirical comic strips. In typical left-wing usage, Ellen Willis says: "in the early '80s, when feminists used the term political correctness it was used to refer sarcastically to the anti-pornography movement's efforts to define a 'feminist sexuality' ". Ellen Willis, "Toward a Feminist Revolution", in No More Nice Girls: Countercultural Essays, Wesleyan University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8195-5250-X, p. 19. In conservative rhetoric In the 1990s, after the Cold War, this obscure term became part of conservative social and political challenges to curriculum expansion and "progressive" teaching methods in American universities and high schools (D'Souza 1991; Berman 1992; Schultz 1993; Messer Davidow 1993, 1994; Scatamburlo 1998). In 1991, in a commencement address at the University of Michigan, U.S. President George H. W. Bush spoke against a "movement" that would "declare certain topics off-limits, certain expressions off-limits, even certain gestures off-limits". Remarks at the University of Michigan Commencement Ceremony in Ann Arbor, May 4, 1991. George Bush Presidential Library. Worldwide The phrase "politically correct" is popular in other countries, including Scandinavian countries (politiskt korrekt=pk), Portugal, Spain, and Latin America (políticamente correcto/correto), New Zealand , France (politiquement correct), Germany (politisch korrekt), Poland (poprawność polityczna, poprawny politycznie), The Netherlands and Flanders (politiek correct=poco), Italy (politicamente corretto) and Russia (политкорректность, политкорректный). Although the dominant usage is pejorative, a few writers use political correctness to describe inclusive language or civility, and thus praise language that they see as politically correct ; a notable example of this was when Perez Hilton used the term in a positive sense over the Miss USA gay marriage question controversy. Explanations As a linguistic concept According to Andrews, Cultural Sensitivity and Political Correctness: The Linguistic Problem of Naming, Edna Andrews, American Speech, Vol. 71, No. 4 (Winter, 1996), pp. 389-404. using "inclusive" and "neutral" language is based upon the idea that "language represents thought, and may even control thought"; per the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, a language's grammatical categories shape the speaker's ideas and actions, Development and Validation of an Instrument to Measure Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, March, 2000 by Janet B. Parks, Mary Ann Roberton although Andrews says that moderate conceptions of the relation between language and thought are sufficient to support the "reasonable deduction" of "cultural change via linguistic change". Other cognitive psychology and cognitive linguistics works indicate that word-choices have significant "framing effects" on the perceptions, memories, and attitudes of speakers and listeners. Loftus, E. and Palmer, J. 1974. Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 13, pp.585-9 Kahneman, D. and Amos Tversky. 1981. The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice. Science, 211, pp.453-458 The relevant empirical question is whether or not sexist language promotes sexism, i.e. sexist thought and action. In some cases, what critics call political correctness, its advocates defend as the usage of inoffensive language whose goal is multi-fold: The rights, opportunities, and freedoms of certain people are restricted because they are reduced to a stereotype. Stereotyping largely is implicit, unconscious, and facilitated by the availability of pejorative labels and terms. Rendering the labels and terms socially unacceptable, people then must consciously think about how they describe someone unlike themselves. When labelling is a conscious activity, the described person's individual merits become apparent, rather than his or her stereotype. A further complication is that terms chosen by an identity group, as acceptable descriptors of themselves, then pass into common usage, including usage by the very people whose racism and sexism, et cetera, the new terms mean to supersede. The new terms are thus devalued, and another set of words must be coined, giving rise to lengthy progressions such as Negro, Coloured, Black, African-American and so on. (See Euphemism treadmill.) As engineered term Some commentators, primarily on the Left, claim that the term "political correctness" was re-engineered by American conservatives after 1980 as a way to reframe political arguments in the United States. According to Hutton: "Political correctness is one of the brilliant tools that the American Right developed in the mid-1980s as part of its demolition of American liberalism....What the sharpest thinkers on the American Right saw quickly was that by declaring war on the cultural manifestations of liberalism - by levelling the charge of political correctness against its exponents - they could discredit the whole political project." Hutton W, "Words really are important, Mr Blunkett" The Observer, Sunday December 16, 2001 - Accessed February 6, 2007. Such commentators say that there never was a "Political Correctness movement" in the United States, and that many who use the term are attempting to distract attention from substantive debates over discrimination and unequal treatment based on race, class, and gender (Messer-Davidow 1993, 1994; Schultz 1993; Lauter 1995; Scatamburlo 1998; Glassner 1999). Similarly, Polly Toynbee has argued that "the phrase is an empty rightwing smear designed only to elevate its user". Toynbee P, "Religion must be removed from all functions of state", The Guardian, Sunday December 12, 2001 - Accessed February 6, 2007. As "Cultural Marxism" Some critics, primarily on the Right, claim that political correctness is a Marxist-inspired effort aimed at undermining Western values. http://www.freecongress.org/PC_Essays/B_Intro_and_chapter_one.pdf Peter Hitchens wrote in his book The Abolition of Britain, "What Americans describe with the casual phrase ... political correctness is the most intolerant system of thought to dominate the British Isles since the Reformation." Lind and Buchanan have characterized PC as a technique originated by the Frankfurt School. According to Lind and Buchanan, the work of the Frankfurt School aimed at undermining Western values by influencing popular culture through Cultural Marxism. William S. Lind states Political Correctness is a form of cultural marxism Buchanan interview on Fox News Buchanan says in his book The Death of the West: "Political Correctness is Cultural Marxism, a regime to punish dissent and to stigmatize social heresy as the Inquisition punished religious heresy. Its trademark is intolerance."(p. 89). Criticism General Critics argue that political correctness is censorship and endangers free speech by limiting what is considered acceptable public discourse, especially in university and the political forums. University of Pennsylvania professor Alan Charles Kors and lawyer Harvey A. Silverglate, connect political correctness to Marxist philosopher Herbert Marcuse, particularly his claim that liberal ideas of free speech were, in fact, repressive, viewing this "Marcusean logic" as the base of speech codes formulated in American universities. Kors AC and Silvergate H, "Codes of silence - who's silencing free speech on campus -- and why" Reason Magazine (online), November 1998 - Accessed February 6, 2007. Kors and Silverglate went on to create the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, which campaigns against such speech codes. Other critics say that politically correct terms are awkward euphemisms for truer, original, stark language, comparing them to George Orwell's Newspeak. Schmidt M. "The Orwellian Language of Big Government" NTUF Policy Paper 152 Accessed February 3, 2007. Some critics of PC use the terms "PC brigade" or the "diversity dictators". Another term used in both a serious criticism and jokingly manner is the "PC Police". Camille Paglia, a self-described "libertarian Democrat," argues that political correctness gives more power to the Left's enemies and alienates the masses against feminism. Camille Paglia says it best-- Accessed February 2, 2007. "My message to the media is: Wake up! The silencing of authentic debate among feminists just helps the rise of the far right. When the media get locked in their Northeastern ghetto and become slaves of the feminist establishment and fanatical special interests, the American audience ends up looking to conservative voices for common sense. As a libertarian Democrat, I protest against this self-defeating tyranny of political correctness." Some critics of political correctness claim that it marginalizes certain words, phrases, actions or attitudes through the instrumentation of public disesteem. "Beyond political correctness." HPR online (the online site of the Harvard political review), Posted March 6, 2006 - Accessed February 6, 2007. Young C. "Under the radar - political correctness never died." Reason Online July 2004 - Accessed February 6, 2007. "On campuses across America, the censorship of speech and ideas in the name of sensitivity continues unabated." Some critics of political correctness argue that it is a form of coercion rooted in the assumption that in a political context, power refers to the dominion of some men over others, or the human control of human life; by this argument, ultimately, it means force or compulsion. Bailyn B. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. p. 55-56. Cambridge: The Harvard University Press, 1967,1992. ISBN 0-674-44302-0. "The essence of what they meant by power was perhaps best revealed inadvertently by John Adams as he groped for words in drafting his Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law. Twice choosing and then rejecting the word "power," he finally selected as the specification of the thought he had in mind "dominion," and in this association of words the whole generation concurred. "Power" to them meant the dominion of some men over others, the human control of human life: ultimately force, compulsion." This argument holds that correctness in this context is subjective, and corresponds to the sponsored view of the government, minority, or special interest group that these conservative critics oppose. They claim that by silencing contradiction, their opponents entrench their views as orthodox, and eventually cause it to be accepted as true, as freedom of thought requires the ability to choose between more than one viewpoint. Strauss L. Persecution and the Art of Writing. p. 23. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1952. ISBN 0-226-77711-1. "They have not been convinced by compulsion, for compulsion does not produce conviction. It merely paves the way for conviction by silencing contradiction. What is called freedom of thought in a large number of cases amounts to — and even for all practical purposes consists of — the ability to choose between two or more different views presented by the small minority of people who are public speakers or writers. If this choice is prevented, the only kind of intellectual independence of which many people are capable is destroyed, and that is the only freedom of thought which is of political importance." Mansfield HC "The cost of free speech." The Weekly Standard. October 3, 2005 - Accessed February 6, 2007. "For lively exchange you need balance, as it is easy for a dominant majority to be unruffled by dissent when it is only from a token few." Some conservatives refer to political correctness as "The Scourge of Our Times." Political Correctness: The Scourge of Our Times - Agustin Blazquez with the collaboration of Jaums Sutton In a different example, NRK, the largest broadcasting company in Norway, decided to alter the children's story of Pippi Longstocking to be "less excluding" Fjerner støtende ord NRK Kulturnytt . In the original stories, the main character's father is nigh permanently absent, this is explained as being due to his being a negerkonge - negro king - on a tropical island. The NRK version has him being a sydhavskonge, roughly translated "southern sea king", instead Pippis pappa ikke negerkonge lenger - Dagbladet, 12-2006 . A second NRK-production was also altered to remove the word neger -Et overgrep mot litteraturen NRK Kulturnytt , which is one of several hotly debated -Greit å si neger NRK Nyheter Raser etter fjerning av negerkonge TV2 Nettavisen episodes in Norway Negeren og nordmannen Aftenposten nett Ikke gjør som mora di sier VG Nett where the use of certain words has been deemed inappropriate or racist, and subsequently reduced, criticized, or even outlawed Forbudt å si neger Adresseavisa . Critics of political correctness have been accused of showing the same sensitivity to choice of words they claim to be opposing, and of perceiving a political agenda where none exists. For example, a number of news outlets claimed that a school altered the nursery rhyme "Baa Baa Black Sheep" to read "Baa Baa Rainbow Sheep." In fact, the nursery, run by Parents and Children Together (PACT), simply had the kids "turn the song into an action rhyme. ... They sing happy, sad, bouncing, hopping, pink, blue, black and white sheep etc." The spurious claim about the nursery rhyme was widely circulated and later amplified into a suggestion that similar bans applied to the terms "black coffee" and "blackboard." According to Private Eye magazine, similar stories, all without factual basis, have run in the British press since first appearing in The Sun in 1986. Political correctness and science Opponents of mainstream scientific views on evolution, global warming, passive smoking, AIDS, race, and other issues have argued that political correctness is responsible for the failure of their views to get a fair hearing. Thus Ted Steele, an associate university professor of biology, says, in his book, Lamarck's Signature: "We now stand on the threshold of what could be an exciting new era of genetic research. [...] However, the 'politically correct' thought agendas of the neo-Darwinists of the 1990s are ideologically opposed to the idea of 'Lamarckian feedback' just as the church was opposed to the idea of evolution based on natural selection in the 1850s!" Tom Bethell's The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science is a comprehensive presentation of the viewpoint that mainstream science is dominated by politically correct thinking. Bethell rejects mainstream views on evolution and global warming and supports AIDS denialism. Right wing political correctness Allegations of political correctness, in the sense of an enforced orthodoxy, have been directed against the political right. During the run-up to the invasion of Iraq, several weeks after their Grammy success, the country band the Dixie Chicks performed in London at the Shepherd's Bush Empire theatre. During this March 10, 2003 concert, the band introduced their song "Travelin' Soldier", during which Natalie Maines, a Texas native, was quoted by The Guardian as saying, "Just so you know, [...] we're ashamed that the President of the United States [George W. Bush] is from Texas." Though this is the official circulation of the comment, the full text of the statement Maines made was as follows: “Just so you know, we’re on the good side with y’all. We do not want this war, this violence, and we’re ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas.” http://www.democracynow.org/2007/2/15/shut_up_and_sing_dixie_chicks The resulting backlash against the band was described by columnist Don Williams as an example of exacting a price for expressing views the right considered politically incorrect. Williams wrote "the ugliest form of political correctness occurs whenever there's a war on. Then you'd better watch what you say." Williams noted that Ann Coulter and Bill O'Reilly called it treason. In 2004, then Australian Labor leader Mark Latham described conservative calls for "civility" as "The New Political Correctness". http://www.australianpolitics.com/news/2002/08/02-08-26.shtml Other examples include attempts to rename French fries as Freedom fries, and the name Liberty cabbage used for sauerkraut during World War I. Satirical use Political correctness has frequently been a target of satire. Two early and famous examples are 1992's Politically Correct Manifesto by Saul Jerushalmy and Rens Zbignieuw X http://www.fiction.net/tidbits/politics/pc.html and 1994's Politically Correct Bedtime Stories by James Finn Garner, in which traditional fairy tales are rewritten from an exaggerated PC viewpoint. Other examples include Bill Maher's former television program, which was entitled Politically Incorrect and George Carlin's "Euphemisms" routine. The Politically Correct Scrapbook http://www.capc.co.uk/PC%20_Scrapbook_Main.htm also further satirizes political correctness. Comedy Central's controversial animated show South Park regularly satirizes political correctness. In response to the "Freedom Fries" incident, it was suggested that the Fama-French model used in corporate finance might be renamed the "Fama-Freedom" model. See also Anti-racist mathematics Christmas controversy 2006 Duke University lacrosse case Hate speech Identity Politics Kotobagari (a similar concept in the Japanese language) Non-sexist language; see Satiric misspelling (Alternative political spelling) for a Spanish-language example. Pensée unique People-first language Political consciousness Race-baiting Red-baiting Speech code Spin University of Pennsylvania controversies Xenocentrism References Further reading Aufderheide, Patricia. (ed.). 1992. Beyond P.C.: Toward a Politics of Understanding. Saint Paul, Minnesota: Graywolf Press. Berman, Paul. (ed.). 1992. Debating P.C.: The Controversy Over Political Correctness on College Campuses. New York, New York: Dell Publishing. Gottfried, Paul E., After Liberalism: Mass Democracy in the Managerial State, 1999. ISBN 0-691-05983-7 Jay, Martin., The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923-1950, University of California Press, New Ed edition (March 5, 1996). ISBN 0-520-20423-9 Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003. Against Buchanan, Patrick J.2002. The Death of the West, St Martin's Press. Dinesh D'Souza, Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus New York: Macmillan, Inc./The Free Press, 1991, ISBN 0-684-86384-7 Henry Beard and Christopher Cerf, The Official Politically Correct Dictionary and Handbook, Villard Books, 1992, paperback 176 pages, ISBN 0-586-21726-6 David E. Bernstein, "You Can't Say That! The Growing Threat to Civil Liberties from Antidiscrimination Laws," Cato Institute 2003, 180 pages ISBN 1-930865-53-8 Daniel Brandt, "An Incorrect Political Memoir.", Lobster Issue 24: December 1992. William S. Lind, "The Origins of Political Correctness", Accuracy in Academia, 2000. Nat Hentoff, Free Speech for Me - But Not for Thee, HarperCollins, 1992, ISBN 0-06-019006-X Diane Ravitch, The Language Police: How Pressure Groups Restrict What Students Learn, Knopf, 2003, hardcover, 255 page. Nigel Rees, The Politically Correct Phrasebook: what they say you can and cannot say in the 1990s, Bloomsbury, 1993, 192 pages, ISBN 0-7475-1426-7 Arthur Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society, W.W. Norton, 1998 revised edition, ISBN 0-393-31854-0 Howard S. Schwartz, Revolt of the Primitive: An Inquiry into the Roots of Political Correctness, Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003 Revised Paperback Edition ISBN 0-765-80537-5 Psychodynamics of Political Correctness - Published in Journal of Applied Behavioural Science The Campaign Against Political Correctness Skeptical Debra L. Schultz. 1993. To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the "Political Correctness" Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women. Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. External links Politically correct and proud of it Observer Special Report by Will Hutton Possible origins of the term at www.linguist.org Global Language Monitor list of the Top Ten Politically (In)Correct Terms from 2007 back to 2005 "Shortcuts" by Thomas Jones, discusses the term "political correctness" in British discourse, London Review of Books'', December 1, 2005 A list of examples cited by the Daily Mail of political correctness in the UK | Political_correctness |@lemmatized political:64 correctness:50 adjectivally:1 politically:25 correct:23 form:4 commonly:3 abbreviate:1 pc:9 term:33 apply:2 language:23 idea:8 policy:3 behavior:2 see:5 seek:1 minimize:1 offense:2 gender:4 racial:1 cultural:8 disabled:2 age:1 identity:4 group:4 conversely:1 incorrect:9 use:23 refer:4 may:3 cause:2 unconstrained:1 orthodoxy:4 ruth:2 perry:4 trace:1 back:2 mao:2 zedong:2 little:1 red:2 book:10 accord:5 later:3 adopt:2 radical:2 left:9 initially:1 seriously:1 ironically:2 self:5 criticism:4 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5,601 | Newlyn_School | The Newlyn School is a term used to describe a colony of artists based in or near to Newlyn, a fishing village adjacent to Penzance, Cornwall, from the 1880s until the early 20th century. The establishment of the Newlyn School was reminiscent of the Barbizon School in France, where artists fled Paris to paint in a more pure setting emphasizing natural light. These schools along with a related California movement were also known as En plein air. Newlyn had a number of things guaranteed to attract artists: fantastic light, cheap living, and the availability of inexpensive models. The artists were fascinated by the fishermen's working life at sea and the everyday life in the harbour and nearby villages. Some paintings showed the hazards and tragedy of the community's life, for example, women anxiously looking out to sea as the boats go out, or a young woman crying as news of a disaster is heard. Lamorna Birch was the prime mover behind the colony and the work done there. The later 'School of Painting', founded by Stanhope Forbes and his wife Elizabeth in 1899, promoted the study of figure painting. Newlyn School painters include: Albert Chevallier Tayler Lamorna Birch Henry Scott Tuke Thomas Cooper Gotch Norman Garstin Stanhope Forbes Walter Langley Elizabeth Adela Stanhope Forbes Annie Walke Harold Knight Laura Knight Harold Harvey Ayerst Ingram Frank Bramley Dod Proctor Frederick Hall For a full list see: George Bednar. Every Corner was a Picture: A checklist compiled for the West Cornwall Art Archive of 50 artists from the early Newlyn School painters through to the present. ISBN 1872229360 | Newlyn_School |@lemmatized newlyn:6 school:7 term:1 use:1 describe:1 colony:2 artist:5 base:1 near:1 fishing:1 village:2 adjacent:1 penzance:1 cornwall:2 early:2 century:1 establishment:1 reminiscent:1 barbizon:1 france:1 flee:1 paris:1 paint:2 pure:1 set:1 emphasize:1 natural:1 light:2 along:1 related:1 california:1 movement:1 also:1 know:1 en:1 plein:1 air:1 number:1 thing:1 guarantee:1 attract:1 fantastic:1 cheap:1 living:1 availability:1 inexpensive:1 model:1 fascinate:1 fisherman:1 work:2 life:3 sea:2 everyday:1 harbour:1 nearby:1 painting:2 show:1 hazard:1 tragedy:1 community:1 example:1 woman:2 anxiously:1 look:1 boat:1 go:1 young:1 cry:1 news:1 disaster:1 hear:1 lamorna:2 birch:2 prime:1 mover:1 behind:1 later:1 found:1 stanhope:3 forbes:3 wife:1 elizabeth:2 promote:1 study:1 figure:1 painter:2 include:1 albert:1 chevallier:1 tayler:1 henry:1 scott:1 tuke:1 thomas:1 cooper:1 gotch:1 norman:1 garstin:1 walter:1 langley:1 adela:1 annie:1 walke:1 harold:2 knight:2 laura:1 harvey:1 ayerst:1 ingram:1 frank:1 bramley:1 dod:1 proctor:1 frederick:1 hall:1 full:1 list:1 see:1 george:1 bednar:1 every:1 corner:1 picture:1 checklist:1 compile:1 west:1 art:1 archive:1 present:1 isbn:1 |@bigram newlyn_school:4 penzance_cornwall:1 barbizon_school:1 en_plein:1 plein_air:1 lamorna_birch:2 prime_mover:1 stanhope_forbes:3 |
5,602 | Longitude | Longitude ( or ), Oxford English Dictionary symbolized by the Greek character lambda (λ), is the geographic coordinate most commonly used in cartography and global navigation for east-west measurement. A line of longitude is a north-south meridian and half of a great circle. History Mariners and explorers for most of history struggled to determine precise longitude. Latitude was calculated by observing with quadrant or astrolabe the inclination of the sun or of charted stars, but longitude presented no such manifest means of study. Amerigo Vespucci was perhaps the first to proffer a solution, after devoting a great deal of time and energy studying the problem during his sojourns in the New World. "As to longitude, I declare that I found so much difficulty in determining it that I was put to great pains to ascertain the east-west distance I had covered. The final result of my labors was that I found nothing better to do than to watch for and take observations at night of the conjunction of one planet with another, and especially of the conjunction of the moon with the other planets, because the moon is swifter in her course than any other planet. I compared my observations with an almanac. After I had made experiments many nights, one night, the twenty-third of August, 1499, there was a conjunction of the moon with Mars, which according to the almanac was to occur at midnight or a half hour before. I found that...at midnight Mars's position was three and a half degrees to the east." Vespucci, Amerigo. "Letter from Seville to Lorenzo di Pier Francesco de' Medici, 1500." Pohl, Frederick J. Amerigo Vespucci: Pilot Major. New York: Columbia University Press, 1945. 76-90. Page 80. By comparing the relative positions of the moon and Mars with their anticipated positions, Vespucci was able to crudely deduce his longitude. But this method had several limitations: First, it required the occurrence of a specific astronomical event (in this case, Mars passing through the same right ascension as the moon), and the observer needed to anticipate this event via an astronomical almanac. One needed also to know the precise time, which was difficult to ascertain in foreign lands. Finally, it required a stable viewing platform, rendering the technique useless on the rolling deck of a ship at sea. Unlike latitude, which has the equator as a natural starting position, there is no natural starting position for longitude. Therefore, a reference meridian had to be chosen. It was a popular practice to use a nation's capital as the starting point, but other significant locations were also used. While British cartographers had long used the Greenwich meridian in London, other references were used elsewhere, including: El Hierro, Rome, Copenhagen, Jerusalem, Saint Petersburg, Pisa, Paris, Philadelphia, and Washington. In 1884, the International Meridian Conference adopted the Greenwich meridian as the universal prime meridian or zero point of longitude. Noting and calculating longitude Longitude is given as an angular measurement ranging from 0° at the prime meridian to +180° eastward and −180° westward. The Greek letter λ (lambda), Coordinate Conversion "λ = Longitude east of Greenwich (for longitude west of Greenwich, use a minus sign)."John P. Snyder, Map Projections, A Working Manual, USGS Professional Paper 1395, page ix is used to denote the location of a place on Earth east or west of the prime meridian. Each degree of longitude is sub-divided into 60 minutes, each of which divided into 60 seconds. A longitude is thus specified in sexagesimal notation as 23° 27′ 30" E. For higher precision, the seconds are specified with a decimal fraction. An alternative representation uses degrees and minutes, where parts of a minute are expressed in decimal notation with a fraction, thus: 23° 27.500′ E. Degrees may also be expressed as a decimal fraction: 23.45833° E. For calculations, the angular measure may be converted to radians, so longitude may also be expressed in this manner as a signed fraction of π (), or an unsigned fraction of 2π. For calculations, the West/East suffix is replaced by a negative sign in the western hemisphere. Confusingly, the convention of negative for East is also sometimes seen. The preferred convention—that East be positive—is consistent with a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system with the North Pole up. A specific longitude may then be combined with a specific latitude (usually positive in the northern hemisphere) to give a precise position on the Earth's surface. Longitude at a point may be determined by calculating the time difference between that at its location and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Since there are 24 hours in a day and 360 degrees in a circle, the sun moves across the sky at a rate of 15 degrees per hour (360°/24 hours = 15° per hour). So if the time zone a person is in is three hours ahead of UTC then that person is near 45° longitude (3 hours × 15° per hour = 45°). The word near was used because the point might not be at the center of the time zone; also the time zones are defined politically, so their centers and boundaries often do not lie on meridians at multiples of 15°. In order to perform this calculation, however, a person needs to have a chronometer (watch) set to UTC and needs to determine local time by solar observation or astronomical observation. The details are more complex than described here: see the articles on Universal Time and on the Equation of time for more details. Plate movement and longitude The surface layer of the Earth, the lithosphere, is broken up into several tectonic plates. Each plate moves in a different direction, at speeds of about 50 to 100 mm per year. As a result, for example, the longitudinal difference between a point on the equator in Uganda (on the African Plate) and a point on the equator in Ecuador (on the South American Plate) is increasing by about 0.0014 of a second per year. If a global reference frame such as WGS84 is used, the longitude of a place on the surface will change from year to year. To minimize this change, when dealing exclusively with points on a single plate, a different reference frame can be used, whose coordinates are fixed to a particular plate, such as NAD83 for North America or ETRS89 for Europe. Elliptic parameters Because most planets (including Earth) are closer to ellipsoids of revolution, or spheroids, rather than to spheres, both the radius and the length of arc varies with latitude. This variation requires the introduction of elliptic parameters based on an ellipse's angular eccentricity, (which equals , where and are the equatorial and polar radii; is the first eccentricity squared, ; and or is the flattening, ). Utilized in creating the integrands for curvature is the inverse of the principal elliptic integrand, : Degree length The length of an arcdegree of north-south latitude difference, , is about 60 nautical miles, 111 kilometres or 69 statute miles at any latitude. The length of an arcdegree of east-west longitude difference, , is about the same at the equator as the north-south, reducing to zero at the poles. In the case of a spheroid, a meridian and its anti-meridian form an ellipse, from which an exact expression for the length of an arcdegree of latitude is: This radius of arc (or "arcradius") is in the plane of a meridian, and is known as the meridional radius of curvature, . Similarly, an exact expression for the length of an arcdegree of longitude is: The arcradius contained here is in the plane of the prime vertical, the east-west plane perpendicular (or "normal") to both the plane of the meridian and the plane tangent to the surface of the ellipsoid, and is known as the normal radius of curvature, . The Math Forum John P. Snyder, Map Projections—A Working Manual (1987) 24-25 Along the equator (east-west), equals the equatorial radius. The radius of curvature at a right angle to the equator (north-south), , is 43 km shorter, hence the length of an arcdegree of latitude at the equator is about 1 km less than the length of an arcdegree of longitude at the equator. The radii of curvature are equal at the poles where they are about 64 km greater than the north-south equatorial radius of curvature because the polar radius is 21 km less than the equatorial radius. The shorter polar radii indicate that the northern and southern hemispheres are flatter, making their radii of curvature longer. This flattening also 'pinches' the north-south equatorial radius of curvature, making it 43 km less than the equatorial radius. Both radii of curvature are perpendicular to the plane tangent to the surface of the ellipsoid at all latitudes, directed toward a point on the polar axis in the opposite hemisphere (except at the equator where both point toward Earth's center). The east-west radius of curvature reaches the axis, whereas the north-south radius of curvature is shorter at all latitudes except the poles. The WGS84 ellipsoid, used by all GPS devices, uses an equatorial radius of 6378137.0 m and an inverse flattening, (1/f), of 298.257223563, hence its polar radius is 6356752.3142 m and its first eccentricity squared is 0.00669437999014. NIMA TR8350.2 page 3-1. The more recent but little used IERS 2003 ellipsoid provides equatorial and polar radii of 6378136.6 and 6356751.9 m, respectively, and an inverse flattening of 298.25642. IERS Conventions (2003) (Chp. 1, page 12) Lengths of degrees on the WGS84 and IERS 2003 ellipsoids are the same when rounded to six significant digits. An appropriate calculator for any latitude is provided by the U.S. government's National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). Length of degree calculator - National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency LatitudeN-S radiusof curvature Surface distance per 1° change in latitude E-W radius of curvatureSurface distance per 1° change in longitude 0° 6335.44 km 110.574 km 6378.14 km 111.320 km 15° 6339.70 km 110.649 km 6379.57 km 107.551 km 30° 6351.38 km 110.852 km 6383.48 km 96.486 km 45° 6367.38 km 111.132 km 6388.84 km 78.847 km 60° 6383.45 km 111.412 km 6394.21 km 55.800 km 75° 6395.26 km 111.618 km 6398.15 km 28.902 km 90° 6399.59 km 111.694 km 6399.59 km 0.000 km Ecliptic latitude and longitude Ecliptic latitude and longitude are defined for the planets, stars, and other celestial bodies in a similar way to that in which the terrestrial counterparts are defined. The pole is the normal to the ecliptic nearest to the celestial north pole. Ecliptic latitude is measured from 0° to 90° north (+) or south (−) of the ecliptic. Ecliptic longitude is measured from 0° to 360° eastward (the direction that the Sun appears to move relative to the stars) along the ecliptic from the vernal equinox. The equinox at a specific date and time is a fixed equinox, such as that in the J2000 reference frame. However, the equinox moves because it is the intersection of two planes, both of which move. The ecliptic is relatively stationary, wobbling within a 4° diameter circle relative to the fixed stars over millions of years under the gravitational influence of the other planets. The greatest movement is a relatively rapid gyration of Earth's equatorial plane whose pole traces a 47° diameter circle caused by the Moon. This causes the equinox to precess westward along the ecliptic about 50" per year. This moving equinox is called the equinox of date. Ecliptic longitude relative to a moving equinox is used whenever the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, or stars at dates other than that of a fixed equinox is important, as in calendars, astrology, or celestial mechanics. The 'error' of the Julian or Gregorian calendar is always relative to a moving equinox. The years, months, and days of the Chinese calendar all depend on the ecliptic longitudes of date of the Sun and Moon. The 30° zodiacal segments used in astrology are also relative to a moving equinox. Celestial mechanics (here restricted to the motion of solar system bodies) uses both a fixed and moving equinox. Sometimes in the study of Milankovitch cycles, the invariable plane of the solar system is substituted for the moving ecliptic. Longitude may be denominated from 0 to radians in either case. Longitude on bodies other than Earth Planetary co-ordinate systems are defined relative to their mean axis of rotation and various definitions of longitude depending on the body. The longitude systems of most of those bodies with observable rigid surfaces have been defined by references to a surface feature such as a crater. The north pole is that pole of rotation that lies on the north side of the invariable plane of the solar system (near the ecliptic). The location of the prime meridian as well as the position of body's north pole on the celestial sphere may vary with time due to precession of the axis of rotation of the planet (or satellite). If the position angle of the body's prime meridian increases with time, the body has a direct (or prograde) rotation; otherwise the rotation is said to be retrograde. In the absence of other information, the axis of rotation is assumed to be normal to the mean orbital plane; Mercury and most of the satellites are in this category. For many of the satellites, it is assumed that the rotation rate is equal to the mean orbital period. In the case of the giant planets, since their surface features are constantly changing and moving at various rates, the rotation of their magnetic fields is used as a reference instead. In the case of the Sun, even this criterion fails (because its magnetosphere is very complex and does not really rotate in a steady fashion), and an agreed-upon value for the rotation of its equator is used instead. For planetographic longitude, west longitudes (i.e., longitudes measured positively to the west) are used when the rotation is prograde, and east longitudes (i.e., longitudes measured positively to the east) when the rotation is retrograde. In simpler terms, imagine a distant, non-orbiting observer viewing a planet as it rotates. Also suppose that this observer is within the plane of the planet's equator. A point on the equator that passes directly in front of this observer later in time has a higher planetographic longitude than a point that did so earlier in time. However, planetocentric longitude is always measured positively to the east, regardless of which way the planet rotates. East is defined as the counter-clockwise direction around the planet, as seen from above its north pole, and the north pole is whichever pole more closely aligns with the Earth's north pole. Longitudes traditionally have been written using "E" or "W" instead of "+" or "−" to indicate this polarity. For example, the following all mean the same thing: −91° 91°W +269° 269°E. The reference surfaces for some planets (such as Earth and Mars) are ellipsoids of revolution for which the equatorial radius is larger than the polar radius; in other words, they are oblate spheroids. Smaller bodies (Io, Mimas, etc.) tend to be better approximated by triaxial ellipsoids; however, triaxial ellipsoids would render many computations more complicated, especially those related to map projections. Many projections would lose their elegant and popular properties. For this reason spherical reference surfaces are frequently used in mapping programs. The modern standard for maps of Mars (since about 2002) is to use planetocentric coordinates. The meridian of Mars is located at Airy-0 crater. Where is zero degrees longitude on Mars? Tidally-locked bodies have a natural reference longitude passing through the point nearest to their parent body. First map of extraterrestial planet. However, libration due to non-circular orbits or axial tilts causes this point to move around any fixed point on the celestial body like an analemma. See also American Practical Navigator Cardinal direction Geodetic system Geographic coordinate system Geotagging Great-circle distance History of longitude Latitude Lunar distance (navigation) Prime Meridian Sextant World Geodetic System Notes External links Resources for determining your latitude and longitude Worldwide Index - Tageo.com – contains 2,700,000 coordinates of places including US towns for each city it gives the satellite map location, country, province, coordinates (dd,dms), variant names and nearby places. IAU/IAG Working Group On Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites Average Latitude & Longitude of Countries "Longitude forged": an essay exposing a hoax solution to the problem of calculating longitude, undetected in Dava Sobel's Longitude, from TLS, November 12, 2008. How to find and convert Latitude & Longitude be-x-old:Даўгата | Longitude |@lemmatized longitude:50 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:1 symbolize:1 greek:2 character:1 lambda:2 λ:3 geographic:2 coordinate:10 commonly:1 use:22 cartography:1 global:2 navigation:2 east:16 west:11 measurement:2 line:1 north:17 south:9 meridian:17 half:3 great:6 circle:5 history:3 mariner:1 explorer:1 struggle:1 determine:5 precise:3 latitude:19 calculate:4 observe:1 quadrant:1 astrolabe:1 inclination:1 sun:6 charted:1 star:5 present:1 manifest:1 mean:5 study:3 amerigo:3 vespucci:4 perhaps:1 first:5 proffer:1 solution:2 devote:1 deal:2 time:15 energy:1 problem:2 sojourn:1 new:2 world:2 declare:1 find:4 much:1 difficulty:1 put:1 pain:1 ascertain:2 distance:5 cover:1 final:1 result:2 labor:1 nothing:1 well:3 watch:2 take:1 observation:4 night:3 conjunction:3 one:3 planet:16 another:1 especially:2 moon:8 swifter:1 course:1 compare:2 almanac:3 make:3 experiment:1 many:4 twenty:1 third:1 august:1 mar:8 accord:1 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average:1 forge:1 essay:1 expose:1 hoax:1 undetected:1 dava:1 sobel:1 tl:1 november:1 x:1 old:1 даўгата:1 |@bigram geographic_coordinate:2 longitude_latitude:2 amerigo_vespucci:2 lorenzo_di:1 astronomical_almanac:1 greenwich_meridian:2 el_hierro:1 saint_petersburg:1 decimal_fraction:2 cartesian_coordinate:1 northern_hemisphere:1 tectonic_plate:1 angular_eccentricity:1 polar_radius:6 length_arcdegree:6 nautical_mile:1 radius_curvature:10 plane_perpendicular:1 equatorial_radius:7 southern_hemisphere:1 perpendicular_plane:1 geospatial_intelligence:2 agency_nga:1 latitude_longitude:5 ecliptic_longitude:4 vernal_equinox:1 celestial_mechanic:2 julian_gregorian:1 gregorian_calendar:1 milankovitch_cycle:1 co_ordinate:1 axis_rotation:3 celestial_sphere:1 magnetic_field:1 counter_clockwise:1 oblate_spheroid:1 tidally_lock:1 axial_tilt:1 external_link:1 |
5,603 | Diatonic_scale | The modern keyboard is based on the intervallic patterns of the diatonic scale. In music theory, a diatonic scale (from the Greek διατονικός, meaning "[progressing] through tones", also known as the heptatonia prima and set form 7-35) is a seven note musical scale comprising five whole steps and two half steps, in which the half steps are maximally separated. Thus between each of the two half steps lie either two or three whole steps, with the pattern repeating at the octave. The term diatonic originally referred to the diatonic genus, one of the three genera of the ancient Greeks. These scales are the foundation of the European musical tradition. The modern major and minor scales are diatonic, as were all of the 'church modes'. What are now called major and minor were, during the medieval and Renaissance periods, only two of seven modes formed by a diatonic scale beginning on each of the seven notes of the octave; thus, the half-steps were positioned at different distances from the starting tone in each of these seven scales. By the start of the Baroque period, the notion of musical key was established—based on a central triad rather than a central tone. Major and minor scales came to dominate until at least the start of the 20th century, partly because their intervallic patterns are suited to the reinforcement of a central triad. Some church modes survived into the early 18th century, as well as appearing occasionally in classical and 20th century music, and later in modal jazz. Using the 12 notes of the chromatic scale, 12 major and 12 minor scales can be formed. The modern musical keyboard, with its black notes grouped in twos and threes, is essentially diatonic; this arrangement not only helps musicians to find their bearings on the keyboard, but simplifies the system of key signatures compared with what would be necessary for a continuous alternation of black and white notes. The black (or "short") keys were an innovation that allows the adjacent positioning of most of the diatonic whole-steps (all in the case of C major), with significant physical and conceptual advantages. Theory of diatonic scales Technically speaking, diatonic scales are obtained from a chain of six successive fifths in some version of meantone temperament, and resulting in two tetrachords separated by intervals of a whole tone. If our version of meantone is the twelve tone equal temperament the pattern of intervals in semitones will be 2–2–1–2–2–2–1; these numbers stand for whole tones (2 semitones) and half tones (one semitone). This scale pattern is often also described in terms of steps or tones as 'whole-whole-half-whole-whole-whole-half', whole and half referring to whole tones (or whole steps) and half tones (or half steps) respectively. The major scale starts on the first note and proceeds by steps to the first octave. In solfege, the syllables for each scale degree are "Do–Re–Mi–Fa–Sol–La–Ti–Do". The natural minor scale can be thought of in two ways, the first is as the relative minor of the major scale, beginning on the sixth degree of the scale and proceeding step by step through the same tetrachords to the first octave of the sixth degree. In solfege "La–Ti–Do–Re–Mi–Fa–Sol–La." Alternately, the natural minor can be seen as a composite of two different tetrachords of the pattern 2–1–2–2–1–2–2. In solfege "Do–Re–Mi–Fa–Sol–La–Ti–Do." Western harmony from the Renaissance until the late 19th century is based on the diatonic scale and the unique hierarchical relationships, or diatonic functionality, created by this system of organizing seven notes. Most longer pieces of common practice music change key, which leads to a hierarchical relationship of diatonic scales in one key with those in another. The diatonic scale has specific properties that mark it out among seven-note scales. David Rothenberg conceived of a property of scales he called propriety, and around the same time Gerald Balzano independently came up with the same definition in the more limited context of equal temperaments, calling it coherence. Rothenberg distinguished proper from a slightly stronger characteristic he called strictly proper. In this vocabulary, there are five proper seven-note scales in 12 equal temperament. None of these is strictly proper, i.e., coherent in the sense of Balzano; but in any system of meantone tuning with the fifth flatter than 700 cents, they are strictly proper. The scales are the diatonic, ascending minor, harmonic minor, harmonic major, and locrian major scales; of these, all but the last are well-known and constitute the backbone of diatonic practice when taken together. Among these four well-known variants of the diatonic scale, the diatonic scale itself has additional properties of what has been called simplicity, because it is produced by iterations of a single generator, the meantone fifth. The scale, in the vocabulary of Erv Wilson, who may have been the first to consider the notion, is sometimes called a MOS scale. The diatonic collection contains each interval class a unique number of times (Browne 1981 cited in Stein 2005, p.49, 49n12). Diatonic set theory describes the following properties, aside from propriety: maximal evenness, Myhill's property, well formedness, the deep scale property, cardinality equals variety, and structure implies multiplicity. C D E F G A B C 1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/3 15/8 2 The earliest diatonic scales The earliest claimed occurrence of diatonic tuning is in the 45,000 year-old so-called "Neanderthal flute" found at Divje Babe. Although there is no consensus that this is a musical instrument, there has been one claim that it played a diatonic scale. Fink, Bob. Random Samples, Science April 1997, vol 276 no 5310 pp 203-205 (available online). There is other evidence that the Sumerians and Babylonians used some version of the diatonic scale. This derives from surviving inscriptions which contain a tuning system and musical composition. Despite the conjectural nature of reconstructions of the piece known as the Hurrian hymn from the surviving score, the evidence that it used the diatonic scale is much more soundly based. This is because instructions for tuning the scale involve tuning a chain of six fifths so that the corresponding circle of seven major and minor thirds are all consonant-sounding, and this is a recipe for tuning a diatonic scale. See Music of Mesopotamia. 9,000 year old flutes found in Jiahu, China indicate the evolution, over a period of 1,200 years, of flutes having 4, 5 and 6 holes to having 7 and 8 holes, the latter exhibiting striking similarity to diatonic hole spacings and sounds . See also Pitch Piano key frequencies History of music Prehistoric music Musical Acoustics Jiahu Site of oldest still-playable flute -- Neolithic Diatonic and chromatic External links Diatonic Scale on Eric Weisstein's Treasure trove of Music The diatonic scale on the guitar References Browne, Richmond (1981). "Tonal Implications of the Diatonic Set", In Theory Only 5, nos. 1 and 2: 3-21 Stein, Deborah (2005). Engaging Music: Essays in Music Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517010-5. Ellen Hickmann, Anne D. Kilmer and Ricardo Eichmann, (ed.) Studies in Music Archaeology III, 2001, VML Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH., Germany ISBN 3-89646-640-2 Kilmer, Crocket, Brown: Sounds From Silence 1976, Bit Enki Publications, Berkeley, Calif. LC# 76-16729. Further reading Balzano, Gerald J. (1980). "The Group Theoretic Description of 12-fold and Microtonal Pitch Systems", Computer Music Journal 4 66-84. Balzano, Gerald J. (1982). "The Pitch Set as a Level of Description for Studying Musical Pitch Perception", Music, Mind, and Brain, Manfred Clynes, ed., Plenum press. Clough, John (1979). "Aspects of Diatonic Sets", Journal of Music Theory 23: 45-61. Franklin, John C. (2002). "Diatonic Music in Greece: a Reassessment of its Antiquity", Mnemosyne 56.1, 669-702 Gould, Mark (2000). "Balzano and Zweifel: Another Look at Generalised Diatonic Scales", "Perspectives Of New Music" 38/2, 88-105 Johnson, Timothy (2003). Foundations Of Diatonic Theory: A Mathematically Based Approach to Music Fundamentals. Key College Publishing. ISBN 1-930190-80-8. Kilmer, A.D. (1971) "The Discovery of an Ancient Mesopotamian Theory of Music'". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 115, 131-149. David Rothenberg (1978). "A Model for Pattern Perception with Musical Applications Part I: Pitch Structures as order-preserving maps", Mathematical Systems Theory 11 199-234 | Diatonic_scale |@lemmatized modern:3 keyboard:3 base:5 intervallic:2 pattern:7 diatonic:35 scale:40 music:17 theory:8 greek:2 διατονικός:1 mean:1 progressing:1 tone:10 also:3 know:4 heptatonia:1 prima:1 set:5 form:3 seven:8 note:9 musical:9 comprise:1 five:2 whole:13 step:13 two:8 half:10 maximally:1 separate:2 thus:2 lie:1 either:1 three:3 repeat:1 octave:4 term:2 originally:1 refer:2 genus:2 one:4 ancient:2 foundation:2 european:1 tradition:1 major:10 minor:10 church:2 mode:3 call:7 medieval:1 renaissance:2 period:3 begin:2 position:1 different:2 distance:1 start:4 baroque:1 notion:2 key:7 establish:1 central:3 triad:2 rather:1 come:2 dominate:1 least:1 century:4 partly:1 suit:1 reinforcement:1 survive:3 early:3 well:4 appear:1 occasionally:1 classical:1 later:1 modal:1 jazz:1 use:3 chromatic:2 black:3 group:2 essentially:1 arrangement:1 help:1 musician:1 find:3 bearing:1 simplify:1 system:6 signature:1 compare:1 would:1 necessary:1 continuous:1 alternation:1 white:1 short:1 innovation:1 allow:1 adjacent:1 positioning:1 case:1 c:4 significant:1 physical:1 conceptual:1 advantage:1 technically:1 speak:1 obtain:1 chain:2 six:2 successive:1 fifth:4 version:3 meantone:4 temperament:4 result:1 tetrachords:3 interval:3 twelve:1 equal:4 semitone:3 number:2 stand:1 often:1 describe:2 respectively:1 first:5 proceeds:1 solfege:3 syllable:1 degree:3 mi:3 fa:3 sol:3 la:4 ti:3 natural:2 think:1 way:1 relative:1 sixth:2 proceed:1 alternately:1 see:3 composite:1 western:1 harmony:1 late:1 unique:2 hierarchical:2 relationship:2 functionality:1 create:1 organize:1 long:1 piece:2 common:1 practice:2 change:1 lead:1 another:2 specific:1 property:6 mark:2 among:2 david:2 rothenberg:3 conceive:1 propriety:2 around:1 time:2 gerald:3 balzano:5 independently:1 definition:1 limited:1 context:1 coherence:1 distinguished:1 proper:5 slightly:1 strong:1 characteristic:1 strictly:3 vocabulary:2 none:1 e:2 coherent:1 sense:1 tune:4 flatter:1 cent:1 ascend:1 harmonic:2 locrian:1 last:1 constitute:1 backbone:1 take:1 together:1 four:1 variant:1 additional:1 simplicity:1 produce:1 iteration:1 single:1 generator:1 erv:1 wilson:1 may:1 consider:1 sometimes:1 mo:1 collection:1 contain:2 class:1 browne:2 cite:1 stein:2 p:1 following:1 aside:1 maximal:1 evenness:1 myhill:1 formedness:1 deep:1 cardinality:1 variety:1 structure:2 implies:1 multiplicity:1 f:1 g:1 b:1 claimed:1 occurrence:1 tuning:2 year:3 old:3 neanderthal:1 flute:4 divje:1 babe:1 although:1 consensus:1 instrument:1 claim:1 play:1 fink:1 bob:1 random:1 sample:1 science:1 april:1 vol:1 pp:1 available:1 online:1 evidence:2 sumerian:1 babylonian:1 derive:1 inscription:1 composition:1 despite:1 conjectural:1 nature:1 reconstruction:1 hurrian:1 hymn:1 score:1 much:1 soundly:1 instruction:1 involve:1 corresponding:1 circle:1 third:1 consonant:1 sounding:1 recipe:1 mesopotamia:1 jiahu:2 china:1 indicate:1 evolution:1 hole:3 latter:1 exhibit:1 strike:1 similarity:1 spacing:1 sound:2 pitch:5 piano:1 frequency:1 history:1 prehistoric:1 acoustic:1 site:1 still:1 playable:1 neolithic:1 external:1 link:1 eric:1 weisstein:1 treasure:1 trove:1 guitar:1 reference:1 richmond:1 tonal:1 implication:1 nos:1 deborah:1 engage:1 essay:1 analysis:1 new:2 york:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:2 isbn:3 ellen:1 hickmann:1 anne:1 kilmer:3 ricardo:1 eichmann:1 ed:2 study:2 archaeology:1 iii:1 vml:1 verlag:1 marie:1 leidorf:1 gmbh:1 germany:1 crocket:1 brown:1 silence:1 bit:1 enki:1 publication:1 berkeley:1 calif:1 lc:1 reading:1 j:2 theoretic:1 description:2 fold:1 microtonal:1 computer:1 journal:2 level:1 perception:2 mind:1 brain:1 manfred:1 clynes:1 plenum:1 clough:1 john:2 aspect:1 franklin:1 greece:1 reassessment:1 antiquity:1 mnemosyne:1 gould:1 zweifel:1 look:1 generalised:1 perspective:1 johnson:1 timothy:1 mathematically:1 approach:1 fundamental:1 college:1 publishing:1 discovery:1 mesopotamian:1 proceeding:1 american:1 philosophical:1 society:1 model:1 application:1 part:1 order:1 preserving:1 map:1 mathematical:1 |@bigram diatonic_scale:18 modal_jazz:1 chromatic_scale:1 meantone_temperament:1 equal_temperament:3 fa_sol:3 sumerian_babylonian:1 external_link:1 eric_weisstein:1 treasure_trove:1 |
5,604 | Bavaria | Bavaria (German: ; IPA: , Bavarian: Freistoot Boarn), with an area of and almost 12.5 million inhabitants, is located in the southeast of Germany and is the largest federal state (Bundesland) of Germany by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany. Its capital is Munich in Upper Bavaria. About 6.4 million of its population are Bavarian, 4.1 million Franconian and 1.8 million Swabian. History The Bavarians emerged in a region north of the Alps, originally inhabited by the Celts, which had been part of the Roman provinces of Raethia and Noricum. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, did not migrate from elsewhere. Rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century AD. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, Heruli. The name "Bavarian" ("Baiuvarii") means "Men of Baia" which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520. Saint Boniface completed the people's conversion to Christianity in the early-8th century. Bavaria was, for the most part, unaffected by the Protestant Reformation, and even today, most of it is strongly Roman Catholic. From about 550 to 788 the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria, ending with Tassilo III who was deposed by Charlemagne. Three early dukes are named in Frankish sources: Garibald I may have been appointed to the office by the Merovingian kings and married the Lombard princess Walderada when the church forbade her to King Chlothar I in 555. Their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibald's successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the eastern frontier against the expansion of Slavs and Avars around 600. Tassilo's son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616. After Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and strengthen Christianity in his duchy (it is unclear what Bavarian religious life consisted of before this time). His son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodo's death the duchy was divided among his sons, but reunited under his grandson Hucbert. At Hucbert's death (735 AD) the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia (modern southwest Germany and northern Switzerland). Odilo issued a law code for Bavaria, completed the process of church organisation in partnership with St. Boniface (739), and tried to intervene in Frankish succession disputes by fighting for the claims of the Carolingian Grifo. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748. Middle Ages Tassilo III (b. 741 - d. after 794) succeeded his father at the age of eight after an unsuccessful attempt by Grifo to rule Bavaria. He initially ruled under Frankish oversight but began to function independently from 763 onwards. He was particularly noted for founding new monasteries and for expanding eastwards, fighting Slavs in the eastern Alps and along the River Danube and colonising these lands. After 781, however, his cousin Charlemagne began to pressure Tassilo to submit and finally deposed him in 788. The deposition was not entirely legitimate; Dissenters attempted a coup against Charlemagne at Tassilo's old capital of Regensburg in 792, led by his own son Pippin the Hunchback, and the king had to drag Tassilo out of imprisonment to formally renounce his rights and titles at the Assembly of Frankfurt in 794. This is the last appearance of Tassilo in the sources and he probably died a monk. As all of his family were also forced into monasteries, this was the end of the Agilolfing dynasty. For the next 400 years numerous families held the duchy, rarely for more than three generations. With the revolt of duke Henry the Quarrelsome in 976, Bavaria lost large territories in the south and south east. The last, and one of the most important, of these dukes was Henry the Lion of the house of Welf, founder of Munich. When Henry the Lion was deposed as Duke of Saxony and Bavaria by his cousin, Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1180, Bavaria was awarded as fief to the Wittelsbach family, which ruled from 1180 to 1918. The Electoral Palatinate was also acquired by the House of Wittelsbach in 1214. The first of several divisions of the duchy of Bavaria occurred in 1255. With the extinction of the Hohenstaufen in 1268 also Swabian territories were acquired by the Wittelsbach dukes. Emperor Louis the Bavarian acquired Brandenburg, Tirol, Holland and Hainaut for his House but released the Upper Palatinate for the Palatinate branch of the Wittelsbach in 1329. In 1506 with the Landshut War of Succession the other parts of Bavaria were reunited and Munich became the sole capital. Modern Era In 1623 the Bavarian duke replaced his relative, the Count Palatine of the Rhine in the early days of the Thirty Years' War and acquired the powerful prince-electoral dignity in the Holy Roman Empire, determining its Emperor thence forward, as well as special legal status under the empire's laws. Also the Upper Palatinate was reunited with Bavaria. The ambitions of the Bavarian prince electors led to several wars with Austria during the early-18th century. From 1777 onwards Bavaria and the Electoral Palatinate were governed in personal union again. Kingdom of Bavaria When Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire, Bavaria became a kingdom in 1806, and its area doubled. Tirol and Salzburg were temporarily reunited with Bavaria but finally ceded to Austria. In return the Rhenish Palatinate and Franconia were annexed to Bavaria in 1815. Between 1799 and 1817 the leading minister count Montgelas followed a strict policy of modernisation and laid the foundations of administrative structures that survived even the monarchy and are (in their core) valid until today. In 1818 a modern constitution (by the standards of the time) was passed, that established a bicameral Parliament with a House of Lords (Kammer der Reichsräte) and a House of Commons (Kammer der Abgeordneten). The constitution was valid until the collapse of the monarchy at the end of World War I. Germanic Bavaria After the rise of Prussia to prominence Bavaria managed to preserve its independence by playing off the rivalries of Prussia and Austria, but defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War compelled Bavaria to accept incorporation into the Prussian-dominated German Empire in 1871. In the early-20th century Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Henrik Ibsen, and other notable artists were drawn to Bavaria, notably to the Schwabing district of Munich, later devastated by World War II. Wieskirche 20th Century On November 12 1918 Ludwig III signed a document, the Anif declaration, releasing both civil and military officers from their oaths; the newly-formed republican government of Socialist premier Kurt Eisner interpreted this as an abdication. Eisner was assassinated in 1919 leading to a violently suppressed Communist revolt. Extremist activity by the National Socialists also increased, notably the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, and Munich and Nuremberg became Nazi strongholds under the Third Reich. As a manufacturing center, Munich was heavily bombed during World War II and occupied by U.S. troops. The Rhenish Palatinate was detached from Bavaria in 1946 and made part of the new state Rhineland-Palatinate. Since World War II, Bavaria has been rehabilitated into a prosperous industrial hub. A massive reconstruction effort restored much of Munich's historic core, and the city hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics. More recently, former state minister-president Edmund Stoiber was the CDU/CSU candidate for chancellor in the 2002 federal election which he lost, and native son Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger was elected Pope Benedict XVI in 2005. Geography The Bavarian Alps Bavaria shares international borders with Austria and the Czech Republic as well as with Switzerland (across Lake Constance). Neighbouring states within Germany are Baden-Württemberg, Hesse, Thuringia and Saxony. Two major rivers flow through the state, the Danube (Donau) and the Main, and the upper Rhine forms part of the southwest border of the state. The Bavarian Alps define the border with Austria, and within the range is the highest peak in Germany, the Zugspitze. The major cities in Bavaria are Munich (München), Nuremberg (Nürnberg), Augsburg, Würzburg, Regensburg, Ingolstadt, Fürth and Erlangen. Population and area Administrative region Population (2008) Area (km²) No. municipalities Lower Bavaria 1,193,444 9.5% 10,330 14.6% 258 12.5% Lower Franconia 1,331,500 10.6% 8,531 12.1% 308 15.0% Upper Franconia 1,085,770 8.7% 7,231 10.2% 214 10.4% Middle Franconia 1,714,453 13.7% 7,245 10.3% 210 10.2% Upper Palatinate 1,085,216 8.7% 9,691 13.7% 226 11.0% Swabia 1,787,995 14.3% 9,992 14.2% 340 16.5% Upper Bavaria 4,320,934 34.5% 17,530 24.8% 500 24.3% Total 12,519,312 100.0% 70,549 100.0% 2,056 100.0% Major cities City Inhabitants 31 December 2000 Inhabitants 31 December 2005 Inhabitants 31 March 2007Munich1,210,2231,259,6771,298,354Nuremberg488,400499,237500,591Augsburg254,982262,676262,371Würzburg127,966133,906134,225Regensburg125,676129,859131,489Ingolstadt115,722121,314122,213Fürth110,477113,422113,848Erlangen100,778103,197103,859Bayreuth74,15373,99773,252Bamberg69,03670,08169,558Aschaffenburg67,59268,64268,672Landshut58,74661,36862,074Kempten (Allgäu)61,38961,36061,454Rosenheim58,90860,22660,438Schweinfurt54,32554,27353,917Neu-Ulm50,18851,41051,755Passau50,53650,65150,464Hof50,74148,72348,040Freising44,16745,82746,110Straubing44,01444,63344,762 Administrative divisions Regierungsbezirke (administrative districts) Administrative Districts of Bavaria Bavaria is divided into 7 administrative districts called Regierungsbezirke (singular Regierungsbezirk). Upper Franconia () Middle Franconia () Lower Franconia () Swabia () Upper Palatinate () Upper Bavaria () Lower Bavaria () These administrative regions consist of 71 administrative districts (called Landkreise, singular Landkreis) and 25 independent cities (kreisfreie Städte, singular kreisfreie Stadt). Bezirke Bezirke (districts) are the third communal layer in Bavaria; the others are the Landkreise and the Gemeinden or Städte. In the larger Länder of Germany (including Bavaria) there are Regierungsbezirke which are only administrative divisions and not self-governing entities as the Bezirke in Bavaria. The Bezirke in Bavaria are territorially identical with the Regierungsbezirke (e.g. Regierung von Oberbayern), but are a different form of administration (having their own parliaments etc.). Landkreise/kreisfreie Cities Administrative districts of Bavaria Landkreise: Aichach-Friedberg Altötting Amberg-Sulzbach Ansbach Aschaffenburg Augsburg Bad Kissingen Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen Bamberg Bayreuth Berchtesgadener Land Cham Coburg Dachau Deggendorf Dillingen Dingolfing-Landau Donau-Ries Ebersberg Eichstätt Erding Erlangen-Höchstadt Forchheim Freising<li> Freyung-Grafenau <li> Fürstenfeldbruck <li> Fürth <li> Garmisch-Partenkirchen <li> Günzburg <li> Haßberge <li> Hof <li> Kelheim <li> Kitzingen <li> Kronach <li> Kulmbach <li> Landsberg <li> Landshut <li> Lichtenfels <li> Lindau <li> Main-Spessart <li> Miesbach <li> Miltenberg <li> Mühldorf <li> Munich (Landkreis München) <li> Neuburg-Schrobenhausen <li> Neumarkt <li> Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim <li> Neustadt (Waldnaab)<li> Neu-Ulm <li> <span lang="de">Nürnberger Land <li> Oberallgäu <li> Ostallgäu <li> Passau <li> Pfaffenhofen <li> Regen <li> Regensburg <li> Rhön-Grabfeld <li> Rosenheim <li> Roth <li> Rottal-Inn <li> Schwandorf <li> Schweinfurt <li> Starnberg <li> Straubing-Bogen <li> Tirschenreuth <li> Traunstein <li> Unterallgäu <li> Weilheim-Schongau <li> Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen <li> Wunsiedel <li> Würzburg Kreis-free Cities: Amberg Ansbach Aschaffenburg Augsburg Bamberg Bayreuth Coburg Erlangen Fürth<li> Hof <li> Ingolstadt <li> Kaufbeuren <li> Kempten <li> Landshut <li> Memmingen <li> Munich (München) <li> Nuremberg (Nürnberg) <li> Passau<li> Regensburg <li> Rosenheim <li> Schwabach <li> Schweinfurt <li> Straubing <li> Weiden <li> Würzburg Gemeinden (municipalities) The 71 administrative districts are on the lowest level divided into 2031 municipalities (called Gemeinden, singular Gemeinde). Together with the 25 independent cities (which are in effect municipalities independent of Landkreis administrations), there are a total of 2056 municipalities in Bavaria. In 44 of the 71 administrative districts, there are a total of 215 unincorporated areas (as of January 1, 2005, called gemeindefreie Gebiete, singular gemeindefreies Gebiet), not belonging to any municipality, all uninhabited, mostly forested areas, but also four lakes (Chiemsee-without islands, Starnberger See-without island Roseninsel, Ammersee, which are the three largest lakes of Bavaria, and Waginger See). Politics Bavaria has a multi-party system where the biggest parties are the conservative Christian Social Union of Bavaria (CSU), which has dominated politics since 1957 and won every election since then, and the center-left Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). The German green party, Alliance '90/The Greens is represented in the parliament as well. Since 2008 Germany's liberal party, the Free Democratic Party and the Free Voters are represented in Bavaria's parliament as well. CSU and FDP have agreed in October 2008 to build a coalition whereas SPD, Free Voters and the Greens form the opposition. Bavaria has a unicameral Landtag, or state parliament, elected by universal suffrage. Until December 1999, there was also a Senat, or Senate, whose members were chosen by social and economic groups in Bavaria, but following a referendum in 1998, this institution was abolished. The head of government is the Minister-President. In 1995 Bavaria introduced direct democracy on the local level in a referendum. This was initiated bottom-up by an association called Mehr Demokratie (More Democracy). This is a grass-roots organization which campaigns for the right to citizen-initiated referendums. In 1997 the Bavarian Supreme Court aggravated the regulations considerably (e.g. by introducing a turn-out quorum). Nevertheless, Bavaria has the most advanced regulations on local direct democracy in Germany. This has led to a spirited citizens’ participation in communal and municipal affairs – 835 referenda took place from 1995 through 2005. In the 2003 elections the CSU won more than two thirds of the seats in Landtag - something no party had ever achieved in post-war German history. In the 2008 elections the CSU lost its absolute majority in the Landtag for the first time in 46 years. n-tv:Fiasko für die CSU Economy Bavaria has long had one of the largest and healthiest economies of any region in Germany, or Europe for that matter. Its GDP is 143% of the EU average (as of 2005) against a German average of 121.5%, see Eurostat Its GDP in 2007 exceeded 434 billion Euros (about 600 bn US$) Gemeinsames Datenangebot der Statistischen Ämter des Bundes und der Länder This makes Bavaria itself one of the largest economies in Europe and the 18th largest in the world. See the list of countries by GDP (nominal). Some large companies headquarted in Bavaria include BMW, Siemens, Audi, Munich Re, Allianz, Infineon, MAN, Wacker Chemie, Puma AG and Adidas AG. Culture Bavarian church with Alps in the background Though only a relatively small part belongs to the Alps, the perception of Bavaria as an alpine region endures. Some features of the Bavarian culture and mentality are remarkably distinct from the rest of Germany. Noteworthy differences (especially in rural areas, less significant in the major cities) can be found with respect to: Religion The predominant faith is Roman Catholicism, particularly in the southern parts of Bavaria and Lower Franconia. As per the most recent available Kirchliche Statistik Eckdaten from the Deutsche Bischofskonferenz, Bavaria is one of two Bundesländer with a population that is in majority Catholic (though in several additional Bundesländer, a plurality of the population is Catholic). This source indicates that in 2007, 56.4% of the Bavarian population was Catholic. In addition, Lutheranism has a significant presence in large parts of Franconia. Religion remains important to many in the region, as expressed by the typical Bavarian, Austrian and Swabian greeting: "Grüß Gott!" (Greet God!). The current pope, Benedict XVI (Joseph Alois Ratzinger), was born in Marktl am Inn in Upper Bavaria and was Archbishop of Munich and Freising. Attitude toward traditions Bavarians commonly emphasize pride in their traditions. Traditional costumes collectively known as Tracht are worn on special occasions and include in Altbayern Lederhosen for males and Dirndl for females. Century-old folk music is practiced. The Maibaum, or Maypole (which in the Middle Ages served as the community's yellow pages, as figurettes on the pole represent the trades of the village), and the bagpipes in the Upper Palatinate region bear witness to the ancient Celtic and Germanic remnants of cultural heritage of the region. Food and drink Bavarians tend to place a great value on food and drink. Bavarians also consume many items of food and drink which are unusual elsewhere in Germany; for example (“white sausage”). At folk festivals, beer is traditionally served by the litre (the so-called ). Bavarians are particularly proud of the traditional , or purity law, initially established by the Duke of Bavaria in 1516. According to this law, only three ingredients were allowed in beer: water, barley, and hops. In 1906 the made its way to German law, and remained a law in Germany until the EU struck it down recently as incompatible with the European common market. Bavarians are also known as some of the world's most beer-loving people with an average annual consumption of 170 liters per person. Bavaria is also home to the Franconia wine region, which is situated along the Main River in Franconia. The region has produced wine for over 1,000 years and is famous for its use of the Bocksbeutel wine bottle. The production of wine forms an integral part of the regional culture, and many of its villages and cities hold their own wine festivals (Weinfests) throughout the year. A village chapel in Franconia Language and dialects High German languages Three German dialects and languages are spoken in Bavaria: Austro-Bavarian in Old Bavaria (South East and East), Swabian German (an Alemannic German dialect) in the Bavarian part of Swabia (South West) and East Franconian German in Franconia (North). Bavarians are very proud of their marked dialects, and most of them speak with their Bavarian, Franconian or Swabian accent. As with traditions in general, cultivation of dialect and regional accent is considered a strengthening of regional identity. Ethnography Bavarians consider themselves to be egalitarian and informal. Their sociability can be experienced at the annual Oktoberfest, the world's largest beer festival, which welcomes around six million visitors every year, or in the famous beer gardens. In traditional Bavarian beer gardens, patrons bring their own food and only buy beer from the brewery that runs the beer garden. In the United States, particularly among German Americans, Bavarian culture is viewed somewhat nostalgically, and many "Bavarian villages", most notably Frankenmuth, Michigan and Leavenworth, Washington, have been founded. Since 1962, the latter has been styled with a Bavarian theme; it is also home to "one of the world's largest collections of nutcrackers" and an Oktoberfest celebration it claims is among the most attended in the world outside of Munich. Leavenworth, Washington The Bavarian Village Historical buildings Famous people There are many famous people who were born or lived in present-day Bavaria: Popes Pope Benedict XVI -- he is the current Pope of the Roman Catholic Church (his baptismal name is Joseph Ratzinger); Pope Damasus II and Pope Victor II. Painters such as Hans Holbein the Elder, Albrecht Dürer, Albrecht Altdorfer, Lucas Cranach, Carl Spitzweg, Franz von Lenbach, Franz von Stuck, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, Erwin Eisch, Gabriele Munter. Musicians such as Orlando di Lasso, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Richard Wagner (originally from Saxony), Richard Strauss, Carl Orff, Johann Pachelbel and Theobald Boehm, the inventor of the modern flute, and countertenor Klaus Nomi. Modern musicians like Klaus Doldinger and Barbara Dennerlein. Opera singers like Diana Damrau. Writers, poets and playwrights like Hans Sachs, Jean Paul, Frank Wedekind, Christian Morgenstern, Oskar Maria Graf, Bertolt Brecht, Lion Feuchtwanger, Thomas Mann and his sons Klaus and Golo Mann, Karl Marx lived in Munich for a few years. Scientists such as Max Planck, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, and Werner Heisenberg, as well as Adam Ries, Joseph von Fraunhofer, Georg Ohm, Johannes Stark, Carl von Linde, Rudolf Moessbauer, Helmut Hirt and Robert Huber. Well-known inventors such as Martin Behaim, Levi Strauss and Rudolf Diesel. Physicians like Max Joseph von Pettenkofer, Sebastian Kneipp and the neurologist Alois Alzheimer, who first described Alzheimer's Disease. Soccer players like Max Morlock, Karl Mai, Franz Beckenbauer, Sepp Maier, Gerd Müller, Paul Breitner, Bernd Schuster, Klaus Augenthaler, Lothar Matthäus, Dietmar Hamann and Stefan Reuter Actors like Werner Stocker. Film directors Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Joseph Vilsmaier and Werner Herzog. Mysterious people: Kaspar Hauser (the famous foundling), The Smith of Kochel (legend). Sportsman like Bernhard Langer (golf) Legendary outlaws such as Mathias Kneißl, the legendary robber or Matthias Klostermayr, better known as Bavarian Hiasl Dictator: Adolf Hitler lived in Munich for a while in the 1920s before his uprise in the 1930s. Company names The motorcycle and automobile makers BMW (Bayerische Motoren-Werke, or Bavarian Motor Works) and Audi, Allianz, Grundig (consumer electronics), Siemens (electricity, telephones, informatics, medical instruments), Continental (Automotive Tire and Electronics), Adidas, Puma, HypoVereinsbank (UniCredit Group), Infineon and Krauss-Maffei Wegmann have (or had) a Bavarian industrial base. The iconic, opening scenes of the 1965 Rodgers and Hammerstein film musical The Sound of Music were shot in the Bavarian Alps. Bavaria has also given its name to a major Dutch brewery, Bavaria Brewery. The meaning of the coat of arms Bavarian herald Joerg Rugenn wearing a tabard of the arms around 1510 Modern coat of arms was designed by Eduard Ege in 1946, following heraldic traditions. The Golden Lion: At the dexter chief, sable, a lion rampant Or, armed and langued gules. This represents the administrative region of Upper Palatinate. The "Franconian Rake": At the sinister chief, per fess dancetty, gules and argent. This represents the administrative regions of Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia. The Blue Panther: At the dexter base, argent, a panther rampant azure, armed Or and langued gules. This represents the regions of Lower and Upper Bavaria. The Three Lions: At the sinister base, Or, three lions passant guardant sable, armed and langued gules. This represents Swabia. The White-And-Blue Heart-Shaped Shield: The heart-shaped shield of white and blue fusils askance was originally the coat of arms of the Counts of Bogen, adopted in 1247 by the Wittelsbachs House. The white-and-blue fusils are indisputably the emblem of Bavaria and the heart-shaped shield today symbolizes Bavaria as a whole. Along with the People's Crown, it is officially used as the Minor Coat of Arms. The People's Crown: The four coat fields with the heart-shaped shield in the centre are crowned with a golden band with precious stones decorated with five ornamental leaves. This crown appeared for the first time in the coat of arms in 1923 to symbolize sovereignty of the people after the dropping out of the royal crown. Bavarian citizenship The fact that unlike all other German Länder, Bavaria's constitution provides for Bavarian citizenship is often mentioned as an indicator for Bavarian distinctiveness. Some Bavarians are keen to emphasize that - in accordance with the generous indication of the constitution — they regard everyone born in Bavaria, born to a Bavarian parent, adopted by a Bavarian as a child, married to a Bavarian, or naturalized in Bavaria, as a fellow-Bavarian; some of those falling under this untechnical definition express pride in being Bavarian. However, state legislation regulating citizenship procedures has never been enacted, the constitution itself provides that all Germans enjoy the same rights as Bavarian citizens, and no office issues certificates concerning a "Bavarian" citizenship. Thus, the notion of citizenship rather bears a folkloristic, but not really political meaning. However, many of those born in Bavaria clearly divide between born Bavarians and people that only moved to Bavaria. The nickname for all those who came to Bavaria is Zuagroaste (Zugereiste = those who have moved here). Some people in the northern part of Bavaria see themselves as Franconians and do therefore not like to be called Bavarians. They have a separate dialect and don't wear traditional Bavarian clothing. German-Bavarian relations It is a common joke in Germany that Bavaria is not part of Germany. In fact a minority seriously agrees with this notion; the Bayernpartei (Bavaria Party) advocates Bavarian independence from Germany. It is important to note that Bavaria was the only state to reject the West German constitution in 1949. However this has had no consequences on its implementation. Furthermore, many NGOs (non-governmental organizations) have a German and a dedicated Bavarian branch. The main disintegrated factor might seem to be the fact that Bavaria has its very own political party (CSU) representing the free state in the Bundestag. However, the CSU always cooperates with CDU (Christian Democratic Union) Grüß Gott auf den Internetseiten der CSU , forming factions and building up the government with it. Thus, the existence of a dedicated party is not necessarily a disintegrating factor and is rather seen as a sign for political diversity in Germany. Bavaria fielded a border police force, much like the Federal German Grenzschutz, during the Cold War. Bavarian culture overseas The Bavarians take great pride in their culture. Traditions are taught to the children and descendants of Bavarian citizens through literature, music and cultural events. Whether actually in Bavaria, overseas or full citizens of other nations they continue to cultivate their traditions. They hold festivals and dances to keep their traditions alive. In New York the German American Cultural Society is a larger umbrella group for others such as the Bavarian organizations, which represent a specific part of Germany. They proudly put forth a German Parade called Steuben Parade each year. Various affiliated events take place amongst its groups, one of which is the Bavarian Dancers. See also List of rulers of Bavaria List of Premiers of Bavaria Former countries in Europe after 1815 Extensive pictures of Bavaria in addition to those shown below are linked from in :Category:Bavaria, where they are organized (predominantly) by locale. References External links Churches Official Tourism Board Official government website Platform with additional information about many cities in Bavaria Tradition and Culture Foreign Trade be-x-old:Баварыя | Bavaria |@lemmatized bavaria:80 german:21 ipa:1 bavarian:60 freistoot:1 boarn:1 area:9 almost:2 million:5 inhabitant:3 locate:1 southeast:1 germany:19 large:12 federal:3 state:11 bundesland:1 form:7 total:4 land:4 capital:3 munich:15 upper:15 population:6 franconian:4 swabian:5 history:2 emerge:1 region:13 north:2 alp:7 originally:3 inhabit:1 celt:1 part:13 roman:9 province:1 raethia:1 noricum:1 speak:3 old:5 high:3 unlike:2 germanic:3 group:6 migrate:1 elsewhere:2 rather:3 seem:3 coalesce:1 leave:2 behind:1 withdrawal:1 late:1 century:6 ad:2 people:11 may:4 include:4 celtic:3 boii:2 remain:3 marcomanni:2 allemanni:1 thuringians:1 goth:1 scirians:1 rugians:1 heruli:1 name:6 baiuvarii:1 mean:1 men:1 baia:1 indicate:2 bohemia:1 homeland:1 later:2 first:5 appear:2 write:1 source:4 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5,605 | Eureka,_Missouri | Eureka is a city located in St. Louis County, Missouri, United States, between St. Louis and Pacific along Interstate 44. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 7,676. It is two miles (3 km) west of the former site of Times Beach, the site of dioxin contamination discovered in the 1980s; the area was cleaned up and became Route 66 State Park. Since 1961, Eureka is best known in the region as the home of the amusement park formerly known as Six Flags Over Mid-America and now called Six Flags St. Louis. It is located on steep bluffs above the Meramec River. Local news coverage for the town and some of its neighbors is provided by the Tri County Journal and the Washington Missourian. History The village of Eureka was platted in 1858 along the route of the Pacific Railroad. By 1890, the village consisted of about 100 homes. According to the Eureka Chamber of Commerce, railroad workers while clearing way for the track and the next railroad camp saw Eureka, level land with little to clear, and declared, "Eureka!" Greek meaning "I have found it." Thus, Eureka was founded. In 1898, Eureka became home to the St. Louis Children's Industrial Farm, established to give children from St. Louis tenement neighborhoods a chance to experience life in a rural setting. It later became known as Camp Wyman, now a part of Wyman Center, and is one of the oldest camps in the United States. Eureka was incorporated as a fourth-class city on April 7, 1954. Allenton The railroad town of Allenton is a former community on U.S. Highway 66 located (now) at the junction of Interstate 44 and Business Loop 44 in western St. Louis County. In 1985 it was annexed by the city of Eureka. The town is currently rural, with adjacent farm land and forested Ozark ridges. Allenton was declared blighted by St. Louis County, Missouri in 1973. Allenton and other parts of Eureka have become part of a $500 million redevelopment plan proposed by a partnership including The Jones Company and American Heritage Homes. The redevelopment proposal would include land and homes purchased by Eureka as part of a previously proposed redevelopment plan. Local Economy Eureka is known for its antique shopping. Once a year the candlelight walk is held in old town Eureka. Visitors use this night to tour the numerous antique shops within walking distance of one another. Eureka is the home to the last Six Flags to be built under the "Six Flags Over" name. Geography Eureka is located at 38°30'10" North, 90°38'42" West (38.502736, -90.645075). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 10.1 square miles (26.2 km²), of which, 10.1 square miles (26.0 km²) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.2 km²) of it is water. The total area is 0.59% water. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there are 7,676 people in the city, organized into 2,487 households and 2,064 families. Its population density is 763.7 people per square mile (294.9/km²). There are 2,622 housing units at an average density of 260.9/sq mi (100.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city is 97.38% White, 0.82% Asian, 0.57% Black or African American, 0.20% Native American, no Pacific Islanders, 0.26% from other races, and 0.77% from two or more races. 1.22% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 2,487 households out of which half have children under the age of 18 living with them, 71.6% are married couples living together, 8.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 17.0% are non-families. 13.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 4.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.98 and the average family size is 3.30. In the city the population is spread out with 31.9% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 34.4% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 8.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 94.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.6 males. The median income for a household in the city is $74,301, and the median income for a family is $80,625. Males have a median income of $51,799 versus $33,269 for females. The per-capita income for the city is $27,553. 2.2% of the population and 1.3% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 3.1% of those under the age of 18 and 5.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. The average home price in Eureka for 2008 was $315,000. See also Six Flags St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri References External links City of Eureka's website Eureka Fire Protection District Website Eureka website for its Chamber of Commerce Six Flags St. Louis Camp Wyman -Eurka, Missouri | Eureka,_Missouri |@lemmatized eureka:20 city:11 locate:4 st:10 louis:10 county:4 missouri:4 united:3 state:4 pacific:3 along:2 interstate:2 census:3 total:4 population:6 two:2 mile:5 km:1 west:2 former:2 site:2 time:1 beach:1 dioxin:1 contamination:1 discover:1 area:3 clean:1 become:4 route:2 park:2 since:1 best:1 know:4 region:1 home:7 amusement:1 formerly:1 six:6 flag:6 mid:1 america:1 call:1 steep:1 bluff:1 meramec:1 river:1 local:2 news:1 coverage:1 town:4 neighbor:1 provide:1 tri:1 journal:1 washington:1 missourian:1 history:1 village:2 plat:1 railroad:4 consist:1 accord:2 chamber:2 commerce:2 worker:1 clear:2 way:1 track:1 next:1 camp:4 saw:1 level:1 land:4 little:1 declare:2 greek:1 meaning:1 find:1 thus:1 found:1 child:3 industrial:1 farm:2 establish:1 give:1 tenement:1 neighborhood:1 chance:1 experience:1 life:1 rural:2 setting:1 later:1 wyman:3 part:4 center:1 one:2 old:5 incorporate:1 fourth:1 class:1 april:1 allenton:4 community:1 u:1 highway:1 junction:1 business:1 loop:1 western:1 annex:1 currently:1 adjacent:1 forest:1 ozark:1 ridge:1 blight:1 million:1 redevelopment:3 plan:2 propose:2 partnership:1 include:2 jones:1 company:1 american:3 heritage:1 proposal:1 would:1 purchase:1 previously:1 economy:1 antique:2 shopping:1 year:4 candlelight:1 walk:2 hold:1 visitor:1 use:1 night:1 tour:1 numerous:1 shop:1 within:1 distance:1 another:1 last:1 build:1 name:1 geography:1 north:1 bureau:1 square:4 water:2 demographic:1 people:2 organize:1 household:5 family:5 density:2 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:4 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 asian:1 black:1 african:1 native:1 islander:1 race:3 hispanic:1 latino:1 half:1 age:7 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:3 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 present:1 non:1 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:2 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:2 line:2 price:1 see:1 also:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:3 fire:1 protection:1 district:1 eurka:1 |@bigram mile_km:1 amusement_park:1 chamber_commerce:2 census_bureau:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 pacific_islander:1 islander_race:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 external_link:1 |
5,606 | Historiography | Historiography is the aspect of history, and of semiotics, that is the study of how knowledge of the past, recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. Broadly speaking, historiography examines the writing of history and the use of historical methods, drawing upon such elements as authorship, sourcing, interpretation, style, bias, and audience. The word historiography can also refer to a body of historical work. As the tools of historical investigation have changed over time and space, the term itself bears multiple meanings and is not readily associated with a single all-encompassing definition. Scholars often discuss historiography topically, such as "Historiography of Catholicism" or "Historiography of China". There are many approaches or genres of history, such as oral history and social history. Beginning in the 19th century, with the rise of academic historians, a corpus of literature related to historiography came into existence, including classic works such as E. H. Carr's What is History? (1961) and Hayden White's Metahistory (1974). Defining historiography There are two basic issues involved in historiography (Breisach, 1994). First, the study of the development of history as an academic discipline over time, as well as its development in different cultures and epochs. Second, the study of the academic tools, methods and approaches that have been and are being used, including the historical method. The term "historiography" can also be used to refer to a specific body of historical writing that was written during a specific time concerning a specific issue. For instance, a statement about "medieval historiography" would refer to some issue in the academic discipline of Medieval History, and not to the actual history of the Middle Ages or to historical works written in that time (e.g., "during the last century, medieval historiography changed its focus from the study of political events to social and mental structures", or "medieval historiography has largely benefited from the recognition of the importance of parish records": that is, the discipline underwent some change). Conal Furay and Michael J. Salevouris define historiography as "the study of the way history has been and is written — the history of historical writing... When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians." (The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide, 1988, p. 223, ISBN 0-88295-982-4) One should be cautious, however, that in the sense given in the previous paragraph when a historian does historiography they are actually studying "the events of the past directly". Questions studied Some of the common questions of historiography are: Reliability of the sources used, in terms of authorship, credibility of the author, and the authenticity or corruption of the text. (See also source criticism). Historiographical tradition or framework. Every historian uses one (or more) historiographical traditions, some of which are Marxist, or Annales School, ("total history"), political history, etc. Moral issues, guilt assignment, and praise assignment Revisionism versus orthodox interpretations Historical Metanarratives Issues engaged by critical historiography includes topics such as: What constitutes a historical "event"? In what modes does a historian write and produce statements of "truth" and "fact"? How does the medium (novel, textbook, film, theatre, comic) through which historical information is conveyed influence its meaning? What inherent epistemological problems does archive-based history possess? How do historians establish their own objectivity or come to terms with their own subjectivity? What is the relationship between historical theory and historical practice? What is the "goal" of history? What does history teach us? The history of written history Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need and the telling of history has emerged independently in civilisations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see philosophy of history). For the purposes of this survey it is written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. Hellenic world Reproduction of part of a Tenth-century copy of Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean. Greek historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC–ca.425 BC), who became later known as the 'father of history' (Cicero). Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events. The generation following Herodotus witnessed a spate of local histories of the individual poleis, written by the first of the local historians who employed the written archives of city and sanctuary. Such local histories, the forerunners of Thucydides as Dionysius of Halicarnassus characterized them Dionysius, On Thucydides, 5. , continued to be written into Late Antiquity, as long as the polis survived. Two figures from the earliest stages stand out, Hippias of Elis, who produced the lists of winners in the Olympic games that provided the basic chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted, and Hellanicus of Lesbos, who compiled more than two dozen histories from civic records, all of them now lost. Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which became defining of subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon (ca. 431–355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis. The proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384-322 BC) on Philip II of Macedon marked the height of ancient political agitation. The now lost history of Alexander's campaigns by the diadoch Ptolemy I (367-283 BC) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler. Polybius (ca. 203–120 BC) wrote on the rise of Rome to world prominence, trying to harmonize the Greek and Roman point of views. The Chaldean priest Berossus (fl. 3rd century) composed a Greek-language History of Babylonia for the Seleucid king Antiochus I, combining Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to form a unique composite. Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that composed by the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon; but his very existence is considered semi-fabled and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius, who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war. China First page of the Shiji In China, the Classic of History, one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts is one of the earliest narratives of China. The Spring and Autumn Annals, the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 BCE to 481 BC, is among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged on annalistic principles. It is traditionally attributed to Confucius. The Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BC, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and covers the period from 722 BCE to 468 BCE. Zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical work and compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States Period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC. In China, Sima Qian (around 100 BC) was the first to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. His written work was the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BC, including many treatises on specific subjects, along with individual biographies for prominent people, as well as exploring the lives and deeds of commoners found in his own time or in previous eras. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era. Traditionalist Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder. Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty. Roman world The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, becoming the first European people to write history in a non-Greek language. While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Latin Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BC) in a conscious effort to counteract the Greek cultural influence, marked the beginning of Latin historical writings. Hailed for its lucid style, Julius Caesar's (100 BC–44 BC) Bellum Gallicum may represent the earliest autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator Cicero (106–43 BC) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings. Strabo (63 BC–ca. AD 24) was a main exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BC–AD 17) records the rise of Rome from city-state to world dominion. His inquiry into the question of what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history. Livy's History of Rome: Book 9 Biography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch (c. 46 - 127) and Suetonius (c. 69-after 130) who described the deeds and characters of ancient personalities, stressing their human side. Tacitus (c. 56–c. 117) denounces Roman immorality by praising German virtues, elaborating on the topos of the Noble savage. Christendom The growth of Christianity and its increased status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both Christian theology and the nature of the Bible, encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference Christian historians had for written sources compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of Religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the Ecclesiastical History written by Eusebius of Caesarea circa 324 and in the subjects it deals with. Historiography, Concordia University Wisconsin , retrieved on 02 November 2007 Christian theology led a view of time as linear, progressing according to God's divine plan. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the start of the period the work was dealing with. Warren, John (1998). The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-67934-4, p. 67-68. A page of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, the Church and of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes. Warren, John (1998). The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-67934-4, p. 78-79. An example of this type of writing are Anglo-Saxon Chronicles which were the work of several different writers and start during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century and one copy of which was still being updated in 1154. Some writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history including Gregory of Tours and more successfully Bede who wrote both secular and ecclesiastical history and is known for writing Ecclesiastical History of the English People. History was written about states or nations during the Renaissance. The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Voltaire described the history of certain ages that were important according to him, instead of describing events in a chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (historia). Islamic world The first detailed studies on the subject of historiography itself and the first critiques on historical methods appeared in the works of the Arab Muslim historian and historiographer Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), who wrote historiographical writings in the Muqaddimah (Latinized as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-I'bar (Book of Advice). S. Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569. Among many other things, his Muqaddimah laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history, H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1. and he discussed the rise and fall of civilizations. He also developed a scientific method for the study of history, and is thus considered to be the founder of historiography. Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569. In the preface to the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of history, which was considered something "new to his age", and he often referred to it as his "new science", now associated with historiography, Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p. x, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691017549. and he is thus considered to be the "father of historiography" Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569. or the "father of the philosophy of history". Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3). Muslim historical writings first began developing earlier from the 7th century with the reconstruction of Muhammad's life in the centuries following his death. Due to numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the "science of biography", "science of hadith" and "Isnad" (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Egyptology began in Arab Egypt from the 9th century, with the first known attempts at deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs made by Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya. Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923) is known for writing a detailed and comprehensive chronicle of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern history in his History of the Prophets and Kings in 915. Until the 10th century, history most often meant political and military history, but this was not so with Persian historian Biruni (973-1048). In his Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind (Researches on India), he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on India's cultural, scientific, social and religious history. He also discussed more on his idea of history in another work The Chronology of the Ancient Nations. M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", Oriens 25, p. 86-115. Biruni is considered the father of Indology for his detailed studies on Indian history. Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette. Other famous Muslim historians included Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al-Waqidi (745-822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), and Ibn Hajar (1372-1449), among others. Franz Rosenthal wrote in the History of Muslim Historiography: Modern era Modern historiography began with Ranke in the 19th century, who was very critical on the sources used in history. He was opposed to analyses and rationalizations. His adagium was writing history the way it was. He wanted eyewitness accounts and wanted an emphasis on the point of view of the eyewitness. Hegel and Marx introduced the change of society in history. Former historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late nineteenth century that analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale. The French Annales School radically changed history during the 20th century. Fernand Braudel wanted history to become more scientific by demanding more mathematical evidence in history, in order to make the history discipline less subjective. Furthermore, he added a social-economic and geographic framework to answer historical questions. Other French historians, like Philippe Ariès and Michel Foucault described history of daily life topics such as death and sexuality. They wanted history to be written about all topics and that all questions should be asked. Foundation of important historical journals The idea of the historical journal, a forum where academic historians could exchange ideas or publish newly discovered facts, came into being in the nineteenth century. The early journals were similar to those used in the physical sciences, and were seen as a means by which history could be professionalised. Journals also helped historians to establish various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was Annales. Économies. Sociétés. Civilisations. a publication instrumental in establishing the Annales School. 1840 Historisk tidsskrift (Denmark) 1859 Historische Zeitschrift (Germany) 1866 Archivum historicum, later Historiallinen arkisto (Finland, published in Finnish) 1867 Századok (Hungary) 1871 Historisk tidsskrift (Norway) 1876 Revue Historique (France) 1881 Historisk tidskrift (Sweden) 1886 English Historical Review (UK) 1895 American Historical Review (USA) 1914 Mississippi Valley Historical Review (renamed 1964 the Journal of American History) (USA) 1916 The Journal of Negro History 1916 Historisk Tidskrift för Finland (Finland, published in Swedish) 1918 Hispanic American historical review 1928 Scandia (Sweden) 1929 Annales. Économies. Sociétés. Civilisations 1952 Past & present: a journal of historical studies (Great Britain) 1953 Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (Germany) 1956 Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (Nigeria) 1960 Journal of African History (Cambridge) 1960 Technology and culture: the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology (USA) 1975 Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift für historische Sozialwissenschaft (Germany) 1976 Journal of Family History 1982 Storia della Storiografia — History of Historiography — Histoire de l'Historiographie — Geschichte der Geschichtsschreibung 1982 Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press) 1986 Zeitschrift für Sozialgeschichte des 20.und 21. Jahrhunderts, new title since 2003: Sozial.Geschichte. Zeitschrift für historische Analyse des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts (Germany) 1990 Gender and history 1990 L'Homme. Zeitschrift für feministische Geschichtswissenschaft (Austria) 1990 Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften (ÖZG) Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften (ÖZG) 1992 Women's History Review 1993 Historische Anthropologie Approaches to history The question of how a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important questions within historiography. It is commonly recognised by historians that, in themselves, individual historical facts are not particularly meaningful. Such facts will only become useful when assembled with other historical evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood as a particular historiographical approach. Some of the more common historiographical approaches are: Annales School Big history Cliometrics Comparative history Counterfactual history Critical historiography Cultural history Deconstruction Diplomatic history Economic history Family history Gender history Great man history Historical materialism History from below History of ideas Marxist historiography Metahistory Microhistory Military history Numismatics Oral history Paleography Political history Poststructural Prosopography Quantitative history Revisionism Social history Universal history Whig history Women's history World history See also Philosophy of history Historiography of science Historiography and nationalism Soviet historiography Historiography of the Cold War List of historians List of historians by area of study Medieval Chronicle Society Historical method Primary source — documents, correspondence, diaries Secondary source — interpretations, written history Tertiary source — compilations of other source material Military historiography Magistra vitae Mythologization of history Historiography at Wikiversity, where it is part of the School of History References Bibliography Theory and philosophy Frank Ankersmit (ed), A New Philosophy of History, 1995, ISBN 0-226-02100-9 Michael Bentley, Modern Historiography: An Introduction, 1999 ISBN 0-415-20267-1 Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft [1940?] Peter Burke, History and Social Theory, Polity Press, Oxford, 1992 David Cannadine (editor), What is History Now, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 E. H. Carr, What is History? 1961, ISBN 0-394-70391-X R.G. Collingwood, The Idea of History, 1936, ISBN 0-19-285306-6 Geoffrey Elton, The Practice of History, 1969, ISBN 0-631-22980-9 Richard J. Evans In Defence of History, 1997, ISBN 1862071047 David Hackett Fischer, Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought, Harper & Row, 1970. Keith Jenkins, Rethinking History, 1991, ISBN 0-415-30443-1 Keith Jenkins, ed. The Postmodern History Reader (2006) Arthur Marwick, The Nature of History, 1970, ISBN 0-333-10941-4 Alun Munslow. The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies (2000) Roger Spalding & Christopher Parker, Historiography: An Introduction, 2008, ISBN 0719072859 John Tosh, The Pursuit of History, 2002, ISBN 0-582-77254-0 W.H. Walsh, An Introduction to Philosophy of History, 1951. Hayden White, The Content of Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation, 1987, ISBN 0-8018-4115-1 Histories of historical writing Geoffrey Barraclough, History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences, (1978) Michael Bentley (ed.), Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0-415-28557-7 990pp; 39 chapters by experts Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 3rd edition, 2007, ISBN 0-226-07278-9 H. Floris Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry, Chicago, 1994, ISBN 0-226-11280-2 Mark T. Gilderhus, History an Historiographical Introduction, 2002, ISBN 0-13-044824-9 Georg G. Iggers, Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (2005) Susan Kinnell, Historiography: An Annotated Bibliography of Journal Article, Books and Dissertations, 1987, ISBN 0-87436-168-0 Lloyd Kramer and Sarah Maza, eds. A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006. 520pp; ISBN 978-1-4051-4961-7. Arnaldo Momigliano, The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography, 1990, ISBN 9780226072838 Philippe Poirrier, Aborder l'histoire, Paris, Seuil, 2000. Philippe Poirrier,Les enjeux de l'histoire culturelle, Paris, Seuil, 2004. Philippe Poirrier, Introduction à l'historiographie, Paris, Belin, 2009. Daniel Woolf, Historiography, in New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. M.C. Horowitz, New York, Scribner, 2005, vol. I. Feminist historiography Mary Ritter Beard, Woman as force in history: A study in traditions and realities Gerda Lerner, The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History, New York: Oxford University Press 1979 Bonnie G. Smith, The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice, Harvard UP 2000 Mary Spongberg, Writing women's history since the Renaissance, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 Julie Des Jardins, "Women and the Historical Enterprise in America" University of North Carolina Press, 2002 Judith M. Bennett, History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006 Thematic and regional Cappel,Constance. "The Smallpox Genocide of the Odawa Tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: The History of a Native American People". The Edwin Mellen Press,(2007) John Ernest. Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 1794-1861. University of North Carolina Press, 2004 Frank Farrell. Themes in Australian History: Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography (1990) Marc Ferro, Cinema and History, Wayne State University Press, 1988 R. Darcy and Richard C. Rohrs, A Guide to Quantitative History (1995) Hudson, Pat. History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches (2002) James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, Touchstone Books 1996 Tessa Morris-Suzuki, The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History, 2005, ISBN 1-85984-513-4 Gary Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross Dunn. History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past, (2000) Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (1988), ISBN 0-521-34328-3 Uri Ram, The Future of the Past in Israel - A Sociology of Knowledge Approach, in Benny Morris, Making Israel, the University of Michigan Press, 2007. Thomas Söderqvist. The Historiography of Contemporary Science and Technology (1997) Sommer, Barbara W. The Oral History Manual (2003) Jan Vansina, "Oral Tradition as History," University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1985 Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim. Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory (1982) Keita, Maghan. "Race and the Writing of History" Oxford UP (2000) Journals Cromohs — cyber review of modern historiography History and Theory History of Historiography External links Series of accessible, interactive online lectures BBC Historiography Guide Summary of key historiographical schools Philosophy of History introduced at The Galilean Library Scientific Historiography, explained in an interview with Aviezer Tucker at the Galilean Library International Commission for the History and Theory of Historiography | Historiography |@lemmatized historiography:57 aspect:1 history:154 semiotics:1 study:21 knowledge:3 past:13 recent:1 distant:1 obtain:1 transmit:1 broadly:1 speak:1 examine:1 writing:13 use:7 historical:51 method:9 draw:1 upon:1 element:4 authorship:2 source:14 interpretation:6 style:3 bias:2 audience:1 word:1 also:10 refer:4 body:2 work:16 tool:2 investigation:1 change:6 time:7 space:1 term:5 bear:1 multiple:1 meaning:2 readily:1 associate:2 single:1 encompass:3 definition:1 scholar:1 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5,607 | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FX_-_Z | See also : Free On-line Dictionary of Computing symbols - B -- C - D -- E - H -- I - K -- L - N -- O - Q -- R - S -- T - W -- X - Z -- FOLDOC Status Page X DONE X-1 NO IMPORT - insignificant X11R4 NO IMPORT - insignificant X11R5 NO IMPORT - insignificant X11R6 NO IMPORT - insignificant X.12 NO IMPORT - insignificant X2 NO IMPORT - insignificant, out-dated. X.208 DONE X.209 DONE X.21 X.214 NO IMPORT - duplicate info. X.215 NO IMPORT - duplicate info. X.216 NO IMPORT - duplicate info. X.217 X.219 X.224 X.225 X.226 X.227 X.229 X.25 DONE X.28 X.29 X.3 X3J16 X3T10 X.400 X.409 X.500 DONE X.680 DONE X.75 x86 DONE x86 processor socket NO IMPORT - duplicate info. XA Xaw Xbase xbeeb xbm XC X client X Consortium Xcoral xdbx X-Designer X.desktop XDL XDR XDS 940 xDSL DONE Xemacs XENIX Xeon XEROX Corporation DONE Xerox Data Systems Model 940 XEROX Network Services DONE XEROX PARC DONE XFree86 Project, Inc. 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5,608 | Kumquat | Potted kumquat trees at a kumquat liqueur distillery in Corfu. Nagami kumquat fruit The kumquats or cumquats are a group of small fruit-bearing trees in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, in the genus Fortunella which may be included in Citrus as it is often done. The edible fruit closely resembles that of the orange (Citrus sinensis) but is smaller and is often oval. They are slow-growing, evergreen shrubs or short trees, from tall, with dense branches, sometimes bearing small thorns. The leaves are dark glossy green, and the flowers pure white, similar to other citrus flowers, borne singly or clustered in the leaf-axils. The kumquat tree produces 80 to 100 fruit each year. The tree can be hydrophytic, and fruit is often found floating near the shore during the kumquat season. Kumquats originated in China (they are noted in literature dating to the 12th century), and have long been cultivated there and in Japan. They were introduced to Europe in 1846 by Robert Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural Society, and shortly thereafter into North America. Originally placed in the genus Citrus, they were transferred to the genus Fortunella in 1915, though subsequent work (Burkill 1931, Mabberley 1998) favours their return to inclusion in Citrus. Cultivation and uses Kumquats are cultivated in China, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Japan, the Middle East, Europe (notably Corfu, Greece), and the southern United States (notably Florida and California). They are much hardier than other citrus plants such as oranges. The 'Nagami' kumquat requires a hot summer, ranging from 25 to 38°C (77 to 100°F), but can withstand frost down to about without injury. It grows in the tea balls of China where the climate is too cold for other citrus fruits, even the Mikan (also known as the Satsuma) orange. The trees differ also from other Citrus species in that they enter into a period of winter dormancy so profound that they will remain through several weeks of subsequent warm weather without putting out new shoots or blossoms. Despite their ability to survive low temperatures, as in the vicinity of San Francisco, California, the kumquat trees grow better and produce larger and sweeter fruits in warmer regions. Kumquat fruit cross-section Uses Kumquats are often eaten raw. As the rind is sweet and the juicy centre is sour and salty, the raw fruit is usually consumed either whole, to savour the contrast, or only the rind is eaten. The fruit is considered ripe when it reaches a yellowish-orange stage, and has just shed the last tint of green. The Hong Kong Kumquat has a rather sweet rind compared to the rinds of other citrus fruits. Culinary uses include: candying and kumquat preserves, marmalade, and jelly. Kumquats appear more commonly in the modern market as a martini garnish, replacing the classic olive. They can also be sliced and added to salads. A liqueur can also be made by macerating kumquats in vodka or other clear spirit. The Cantonese often preserve kumquats in salt or sugar. A batch of the fruit is buried in dry salt inside a glass jar. Over time, all the juice from the fruit is diffused into the salt. The fruit in the jar becomes shrunken, wrinkled, and dark brown in colour, and the salt combines with the juice to become a dark brown brine. A few salted kumquats with a few teaspoons of the brine/juice may be mixed with hot water to make a remedy for sore throats. A jar of such preserved kumquats can last several years and still keep taste. In the Philippines, kumquats are a popular addition to both hot and iced tea. In Vietnam, kumquat bonsai trees are used as a decoration for the Tết (Lunar New Year) holiday. Kumquat fruits are also boiled or dried to make a candied snack called mứt quất. Variants of the kumquat are grown specially in India. Composition The essential oil of kumquat peel contains much of the aroma of the fruit, and is composed principally of limonene, which makes up around 93% of the total. . Besides limonene and alpha-Pinene (0.34%), both monoterpenes, the oil is unusually rich (0.38% total) in sesquiterpenes such as α-bergamotene (0.021%), caryophyllene (0.18%), α-humulene (0.07%) and α-muurolene (0.06%), and these contribute to the spicy and woody flavour of the fruit. Carbonyl compounds make up much of the remainder, and these are responsible for much of the distinctive flavour; these include esters such as isopropyl propanoate (1.8%) and terpinyl acetate (1.26%), the ketone carvone (0.175%), and a range of aldehydes such as citronellal (0.6%) and 2-methylundecanal. Other oxygenated compounds include nerol (0.22%) and trans-linalool oxide (0.15%). Etymology The English name "kumquat" derives from the Cantonese pronunciation gam1 gwat1 (given in Jyutping romanization; ). The alternate name 柑橘, also pronounced gam1 gwat1 in Cantonese (gān jú in Mandarin, literally "large tangerine orange") is now more commonly written by Cantonese speakers. Names in other Asian languages include: Japanese: kinkan (金柑) Korean: geumgyul (금귤, 金橘) Hokkien: gīm-gam () Mandarin: jīnjú (金橘) Nepali: muntala Thai: somchíd (ส้มจี๊ด) Vietnamese: cam quất (derived from the Cantonese) or, less commonly, (quả) kim quất (if transliterated from the characters 金橘 into Sino-Vietnamese; "quả" (果) is the Sino-Vietnamese prefix for "fruit") Notes General references and external links Kumquat culture on CultureSheet.org Burkill, I. H. (1931). An enumeration of the species of Paramignya, Atalantia and Citrus, found in Malaya. Gard. Bull. Straits Settlem. 5: 212–220. Mabberley, D. J. (1998). Australian Citreae with notes on other Aurantioideae (Rutaceae). Telopea 7 (4): 333-344. Available online (pdf). Fruits of warm climates Fortunella crassifolia Swingle - Fruits and Seeds Flavon's Wild herb and Alpine plants Fortunella at Wikispecies See also Limequat [A cross between a Lime and a Kumquat] Orangequat [A cross between an Orange and a Kumquat] Calamondin [A cross between a Tangerine and a Kumquat] Loquat [Although Loquats are not related botanically to Kumquats, the two names come from the same Chinese word for "orange."] | Kumquat |@lemmatized pot:1 kumquat:29 tree:8 liqueur:2 distillery:1 corfu:2 nagami:2 fruit:20 cumquat:1 group:1 small:3 bearing:1 flowering:1 plant:3 family:1 rutaceae:2 genus:3 fortunella:4 may:2 include:5 citrus:10 often:5 edible:1 closely:1 resemble:1 orange:7 sinensis:1 oval:1 slow:1 growing:1 evergreen:1 shrub:1 short:1 tall:1 dense:1 branch:1 sometimes:1 bear:1 thorn:1 leaf:2 dark:3 glossy:1 green:2 flower:2 pure:1 white:1 similar:1 borne:1 singly:1 cluster:1 axil:1 produce:2 year:3 hydrophytic:1 find:2 float:1 near:1 shore:1 season:1 originate:1 china:3 note:3 literature:1 date:1 century:1 long:1 cultivate:2 japan:2 introduce:1 europe:2 robert:1 fortune:1 collector:1 london:1 horticultural:1 society:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 north:1 america:1 originally:1 place:1 transfer:1 though:1 subsequent:2 work:1 burkill:2 mabberley:2 favour:1 return:1 inclusion:1 cultivation:1 use:3 taiwan:1 southeast:1 asia:1 middle:1 east:1 notably:2 greece:1 southern:1 united:1 state:1 florida:1 california:2 much:4 hardy:1 require:1 hot:3 summer:1 range:2 c:1 f:1 withstand:1 frost:1 without:2 injury:1 grow:3 tea:2 ball:1 climate:2 cold:1 even:1 mikan:1 also:7 know:1 satsuma:1 differ:1 specie:2 enter:1 period:1 winter:1 dormancy:1 profound:1 remain:1 several:2 week:1 warm:3 weather:1 put:1 new:2 shoot:1 blossom:1 despite:1 ability:1 survive:1 low:1 temperature:1 vicinity:1 san:1 francisco:1 good:1 large:2 sweeter:1 region:1 cross:4 section:1 eaten:1 raw:2 rind:4 sweet:2 juicy:1 centre:1 sour:1 salty:1 usually:1 consume:1 either:1 whole:1 savour:1 contrast:1 eat:1 consider:1 ripe:1 reach:1 yellowish:1 stage:1 shed:1 last:2 tint:1 hong:1 kong:1 rather:1 compare:1 culinary:1 us:1 candying:1 preserve:2 marmalade:1 jelly:1 appear:1 commonly:3 modern:1 market:1 martini:1 garnish:1 replace:1 classic:1 olive:1 slice:1 add:1 salad:1 make:5 macerate:1 vodka:1 clear:1 spirit:1 cantonese:5 salt:4 sugar:1 batch:1 bury:1 dry:2 inside:1 glass:1 jar:3 time:1 juice:3 diffuse:1 become:2 shrunken:1 wrinkle:1 brown:2 colour:1 combine:1 brine:2 salted:1 teaspoon:1 mixed:1 water:1 remedy:1 sore:1 throat:1 preserved:1 still:1 keep:1 taste:1 philippine:1 popular:1 addition:1 iced:1 vietnam:1 bonsai:1 decoration:1 tết:1 lunar:1 holiday:1 boil:1 candied:1 snack:1 call:1 mứt:1 quất:3 variant:1 specially:1 india:1 composition:1 essential:1 oil:2 peel:1 contain:1 aroma:1 compose:1 principally:1 limonene:2 around:1 total:2 besides:1 alpha:1 pinene:1 monoterpenes:1 unusually:1 rich:1 sesquiterpenes:1 α:3 bergamotene:1 caryophyllene:1 humulene:1 muurolene:1 contribute:1 spicy:1 woody:1 flavour:2 carbonyl:1 compound:2 remainder:1 responsible:1 distinctive:1 ester:1 isopropyl:1 propanoate:1 terpinyl:1 acetate:1 ketone:1 carvone:1 aldehyde:1 citronellal:1 methylundecanal:1 oxygenated:1 nerol:1 trans:1 linalool:1 oxide:1 etymology:1 english:1 name:4 derive:2 pronunciation:1 give:1 jyutping:1 romanization:1 alternate:1 柑橘:1 pronounce:1 gān:1 jú:1 mandarin:2 literally:1 tangerine:2 write:1 speaker:1 asian:1 language:1 japanese:1 kinkan:1 金柑:1 korean:1 geumgyul:1 금귤:1 金橘:3 hokkien:1 gīm:1 gam:1 jīnjú:1 nepali:1 muntala:1 thai:1 somchíd:1 ส:1 มจ:1 ด:1 vietnamese:3 cam:1 less:1 quả:2 kim:1 transliterate:1 character:1 sino:2 果:1 prefix:1 general:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 culture:1 culturesheet:1 org:1 h:1 enumeration:1 paramignya:1 atalantia:1 malaya:1 gard:1 bull:1 strait:1 settlem:1 j:1 australian:1 citreae:1 aurantioideae:1 telopea:1 available:1 online:1 pdf:1 crassifolia:1 swingle:1 seed:1 flavon:1 wild:1 herb:1 alpine:1 wikispecies:1 see:1 limequat:1 lime:1 orangequat:1 calamondin:1 loquat:2 although:1 relate:1 botanically:1 kumquats:1 two:1 come:1 chinese:1 word:1 |@bigram flowering_plant:1 edible_fruit:1 closely_resemble:1 shortly_thereafter:1 southeast_asia:1 citrus_fruit:2 san_francisco:1 hong_kong:1 sore_throat:1 carbonyl_compound:1 sino_vietnamese:2 external_link:1 |
5,609 | Abner_Doubleday | Abner Doubleday (June 26, 1819 – January 26, 1893) was a career United States Army officer and Union general in the American Civil War. He fired the first shot in defense of Fort Sumter, the opening battle of the war, and had a pivotal role in the early fighting at the Battle of Gettysburg. Gettysburg was his finest hour, but his relief by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade caused lasting enmity between the two men. In San Francisco, after the war, he obtained a patent on the cable car railway that still runs there. In his final years in New Jersey, he was a prominent member and later president of the Theosophical Society. In addition, he is known for a popular myth that he invented baseball, which has been debunked by almost all sports historians. Moreover, Doubleday himself never made such a claim. Early years Doubleday was born in Ballston Spa, New York. His grandfather had fought in the American Revolutionary War and his father, Ulysses F. Doubleday, represented Auburn, New York, New York Times, Obituary, January 28, 1893. for four years in the United States Congress. Beckenbaugh, pp. 611-12. Abner practiced as a surveyor and civil engineer for two years before entering the United States Military Academy Tagg, pp. 25-27. in 1838, from which he graduated in 1842, 24th in a class of 56 cadets, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 3rd U.S. Artillery. Eicher, p. 213. Military career Early commands and Fort Sumter Doubleday initially served in coastal garrisons and then in the Mexican-American War from 1846 to 1848 and the Seminole Wars from 1856 to 1858. In 1852 he married Mary Hewitt of Baltimore. Texas Handbook In 1858 he was transferred to Fort Moultrie in Charleston harbor, but by the start of the Civil War, he was a captain and second in command in the garrison at Fort Sumter, under Maj. Robert Anderson. He aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the Confederate bombardment on April 12, 1861, starting the war. He subsequently referred to himself as the "hero of Sumter" for this role. Brigade and division command in Virginia Birthplace in Ballston Spa Doubleday was promoted to major on May 14, 1861, and commanded the Artillery Department in the Shenandoah Valley from June to August, and then the artillery for Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Banks's division of the Army of the Potomac. He was appointed brigadier general of volunteers on February 3, 1862, and was assigned to duty in northern Virginia while the Army of the Potomac conducted the Peninsula Campaign. His first combat assignment was to lead the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, III Corps of the Army of Virginia during the Northern Virginia Campaign. In the actions at Brawner's farm, just before the Second Battle of Bull Run, he took the initiative to send two of his regiments to reinforce Brig. Gen. John Gibbon's brigade against a larger Confederate force, fighting it to a standstill. (Personal initiative was required since his division commander, Brig. Gen. Rufus King, was incapacitated by an epileptic seizure at the time. He was replaced by Brig. Gen. John P. Hatch.) Langellier, pp. 43, 45, 49. His men were routed when they encountered Maj. Gen. James Longstreet's corps, but by the following day, August 30, he took command of the division when Hatch was wounded, and he led his men to cover the retreat of the Union Army. Doubleday and his wife, Mary. Doubleday again led the division, now assigned to the I Corps of the Army of the Potomac, after South Mountain, where Hatch was wounded again. At Antietam, he led his men into the deadly fighting in the Cornfield and the West Woods, and one colonel described him as a "gallant officer ... remarkably cool and at the very front of battle." he was wounded when an artillery shell exploded near his horse, throwing him to the ground in a violent fall. He received a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the regular army for his actions at Antietam and was promoted in March 1863 to major general of volunteers, to rank from November 29, 1862. Eicher, p. 703. At Fredericksburg in December 1862, his division mostly sat idle. During the winter, the I Corps was reorganized and Doubleday assumed command of the 3rd Division. At Chancellorsville in May 1863, the division was kept in reserve. Gettysburg At the start of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 1863, Doubleday's division was the second infantry division on the field to reinforce the cavalry division of Brig. Gen. John Buford. When his corps commander, Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds, was killed very early in the fighting, Doubleday found himself in command of the corps. His men fought well in the morning, putting up a stout resistance, but as overwhelming Confederate forces massed against them, their line eventually broke and they retreated back through the town of Gettysburg to the relative safety of Cemetery Hill south of town. It was Doubleday's finest performance during the war, five hours leading 9,500 men against ten Confederate brigades that numbered more than 16,000. Seven of those brigades incurred casualties that ranged from 35 to 50 percent, indicating the ferocity of the Union defense. But on Cemetery Hill, the I Corps could muster only a third of its men as effective for duty and the corps was essentially destroyed as a combat force for the rest of the battle; it would be decommissioned in March 1864, its surviving units combined into other corps. On July 2, Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade replaced Doubleday with Maj. Gen. John Newton, a more junior officer from another corps. The ostensible reason was a report by XI Corps commander Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard that Doubleday's corps broke first, causing the entire Union line to collapse, but Meade also had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness, dating back to South Mountain. Doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against Meade, but he returned to division command and fought well for the remainder of the battle. He was wounded in the neck on the second day of Gettysburg and received a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army for his service. He formally requested reinstatement as I Corps commander, but Meade refused, and Doubleday left Gettysburg on July 7 for Washington. Coddington, pp. 690-91. Doubleday's indecision as a commander in the war resulted in his uncomplimentary nickname "Forty-Eight Hours." Washington Doubleday assumed mostly administrative duties in the defenses of Washington, D.C., where his only return to combat was directing a portion of the defenses against the attack by Confederate Lt. Gen. Jubal A. Early in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Also while in Washington, Doubleday testified against George Meade at the United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, criticizing him harshly over his conduct of the Battle of Gettysburg. Postbellum career After the Civil War, Doubleday mustered out of the volunteer service on August 24, 1865, reverted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and became the colonel of the 35th U.S. Infantry in September 1867. He was stationed in San Francisco from 1869 through 1871 and he took out a patent for the cable car railway that still runs there, receiving a charter for its operation, but signing away his rights when he was reassigned. In 1871 he commanded the 24th U.S. Infantry, an all African-American regiment, in Texas. He retired in 1873 and, by 1878, he was living in Mendham, New Jersey, from where, that year, he became a prominent member of the Theosophical Society. When two of the founders of that society, Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, moved to India at the end of that year, he was constituted as the President of the American body. Gomes, Theosophy article Doubleday published two important works on the Civil War: Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie (1876), and Chancellorsville and Gettysburg (1882), the latter being a volume of the series Campaigns of the Civil War. Doubleday's tombstone at Arlington National Cemetery Doubleday died of heart disease in Mendham, and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. Baseball Although Doubleday was a competent, if colorless, combat general with experience in many important Civil War battles, the lore of baseball credits Doubleday with inventing the game, supposedly in Elihu Phinney's cow pasture in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839. The Mills Commission, chaired by Abraham G. Mills, the fourth president of the National League, was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball. The committee's final report, on December 30, 1907, stated, in part, that "the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839." It concluded by saying, "in the years to come, in the view of the hundreds of thousands of people who are devoted to baseball, and the millions who will be, Abner Doubleday's fame will rest evenly, if not quite as much, upon the fact that he was its inventor ... as upon his brilliant and distinguished career as an officer in the Federal Army." Kirsch, pp. xiii. However, there is considerable evidence to dispute this claim. Baseball historian George B. Kirsch has described the results of the Mills commission as a "myth." He wrote, "Robert Henderson, Harold Seymour, and other scholars have since debunked the Doubleday-Cooperstown myth, which nonetheless remains powerful in the American imagination because of the efforts of Major League Baseball and the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown." At his death, Doubleday left many letters and papers, none of which describe baseball, or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game. Chairman Mills himself, who had been a Civil War colleague of Doubleday and a member of the honor guard for Doubleday's body as it lay in state in New York City, never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor. Doubleday was a cadet at West Point in the year of the alleged invention and his family had moved away from Cooperstown the prior year. Furthermore, the primary testimony to the commission that connected baseball to Doubleday was that of Abner Graves, whose credibility is questionable; a few years later, he shot his wife to death, apparently because of mental illness, and he was committed to an institution for the criminally insane for the rest of his life. Kirsch, pp. xiii-xiv. Namesakes and honors Doubleday Field is a minor league baseball stadium named for Abner Doubleday, located in Cooperstown, New York, near the Baseball Hall of Fame. It hosts the annual Hall of Fame Game, originally between "old-timers" teams, but currently an exhibition game between two major league teams. The Auburn Doubledays are a minor league baseball team based in Doubleday's hometown of Auburn, New York. Doubleday Field at West Point, New York, where the Army Black Knights play at Johnson Stadium, is named in Doubleday's honor. See also List of American Civil War generals References Beckenbaugh, Terry L., "Abner Doubleday", Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, Heidler, David S., and Heidler, Jeanne T., eds., W. W. Norton & Company, 2000, ISBN 0-393-04758-X. Coddington, Edwin B., The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command, Scribner's, 1968, ISBN 0-684-84569-5. Doubleday, Abner, My Life in the Old Army: The Reminiscences of Abner Doubleday : from the Collections of the New York Historical Society, Texas Christian University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-87565-185-2. Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3. Gomes, Michael, "Abner Doubleday and Theosophy in America: 1879-1884", Sunrise magazine, April/May 1991. Kirsch, George B., Baseball in Blue and Gray : The National Pastime during the Civil War, Princeton University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-691-05733-8. Langellier, John, Second Manassas 1862: Robert E. Lee's Greatest Victory, Osprey Publishing, 2002, ISBN 1-84176-230-X. Tagg, Larry, The Generals of Gettysburg, Savas Publishing, 1998, ISBN 1-882810-30-9. Biography at Handbook of Texas History Online Notes Further reading Doubleday, Abner, Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1882. 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5,610 | Oakland_Raiders | The Oakland Raiders are a professional American football team based in the city of Oakland, California. They currently play in the Western Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Raiders began play in 1960 as the eighth charter member of the American Football League (AFL), where they won one championship and three division titles. The team joined the NFL in 1970 as part of the AFL–NFL merger. Since joining the NFL, the Raiders have won twelve division titles and three Super Bowls (XI, XV, XVIII), and have appeared in two other Super Bowls. Thirteen former players have been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. During their first three seasons, the Raiders struggled both on and off the field. In 1963, Al Davis was brought to the team as head coach and general manager, and from 1963 until 2002 the team had only seven losing seasons. He also initiated the use of team slogans such as "Pride and Poise," "Commitment to Excellence," and "Just Win, Baby"—all of which are registered trademarks. Except for a brief term as AFL Commissioner in 1966, Davis has been with the team continuously. Upon his return to Oakland in 1966, he became a managing partner of the franchise. After a few years of legal battles, Davis moved the team from Oakland to Los Angeles, California in 1982. While in Los Angeles, the Raiders won their third Super Bowl, but made just two playoff appearances through the rest of the 1980s. In 1995, Davis moved the team back to Oakland. In 2000, head coach Jon Gruden led Oakland to a 12–4 season and their first division title since 1990 which was the first of a 3 year winning streak for the Raiders in the AFC west division the following two seasons. In 2002, under head coach Bill Callahan, Oakland faced Gruden's Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Super Bowl XXXVII, where the team lost a lopsided affair, 48–21. Following the loss, the Raiders won a league-worst 24 games during the six full seasons from 2003-2008 (two fewer wins than the 26 posted by the next worst team, the Detroit Lions). Oakland Raiders History The early years (1960–1962) A few months after the first AFL draft in 1959, the owners of the yet-unnamed Minneapolis expansion team accepted an offer to join the established National Football League as an expansion team (now called the Minnesota Vikings) in 1961, sending the AFL scrambling for a replacement. Dickey, Just Win, Baby, p. 7. At the time, Oakland seemed an unlikely venue for a professional football team. The city had not asked for a team, there was no ownership group and there was no stadium in Oakland suitable for pro football (the closest stadiums were in Berkeley and San Francisco) and there was already a successful NFL franchise in the Bay Area: the San Francisco 49ers. However, the AFL owners selected Oakland after Los Angeles Chargers owner Barron Hilton threatened to forfeit his franchise unless a second team was placed on the West Coast. Dickey, Just Win, Baby, pp. 7–8. Accordingly, the city of Oakland was awarded the eighth AFL franchise on January 30, 1960, and the team inherited the Minneapolis club's draft picks. Upon receiving the franchise, Oakland civic leaders found a number of businesspeople willing to invest in the new team. A limited partnership was formed to own the team headed by managing general partner Y. Charles (Chet) Soda, a local real estate developer, and included general partners Ed McGah, Robert Osborne, F. Wayne Valley, restaurateur Harvey Binns, Don Blessing, and contractor Charles Harney Harney was the builder of San Francisco's Candlestick Park, built on a bleak parcel of land he owned; to date, the road leading to the stadium is known as Harney Way. With a push from Harney, the Raiders were allowed to play their final three 1960 home games at Candlestick. as well as numerous limited partners. A "name the team" contest was held by a local newspaper, and the winner was the Oakland Señors. After a few weeks of being the butt of local jokes the fledgling team (and its owners) changed the team's name to the Oakland Raiders, which had finished third in the naming contest. Dickey, Just Win, Baby, p. 8. The original team colors were black, gold and white. The now-familiar team emblem of a pirate (or "raider") wearing a football helmet was created, reportedly a rendition of actor Randolph Scott. Otto, The Pain of Glory, p. 69. When the University of California, Berkeley refused to let the Raiders play home games at Memorial Stadium in Berkeley, they chose Kezar Stadium in San Francisco as their home field. The team's first regular season home game was played on September 11, 1960, a 37-22 loss to the Houston Oilers. Raiders management took out ads in the Oakland Tribune, in hopes of attracting fans to the game. The paid attendance for the inaugural game at Kezar was announced as 12,703 Raiders games were broadcast locally on KNBC (680 AM; the station later became KNBR), with Bud Foster handling play-by-play and Mel Venter providing color analysis. Oakland Tribune, numerous editions, September-December 1960, including When the Raider games were on KDIA (1310 AM) Bob Blum, did the play-by-play and Dan Galvin, did the color. In 1966, Bill King was hired for the play-by-play and Oakland Tribune sports writer, Scotty Sterling as color man. The Raiders were allowed to move to Candlestick Park for the final three home games of the 1960 season after gaining the approval of San Francisco's Recreation and Park Commission, marking the first time that professional football would be played at the new stadium. Oakland Tribune, , November 24, 1960 (No. 147), p. 57. The Tribune article covering the result of the first Raiders game at Candlestick appeared in the , continued on The San Francisco 49ers would not move into Candlestick Park until the 1971 season. The change of venue failed to attract larger crowds for the Raiders, with announced attendance of 12,061 (vs. the Chargers in a 41-17 loss on December 4), 9,037 (vs. the Oilers in a 31-28 loss on December 11) and 7,000 (estimated, vs. the Broncos in a 48-10 victory to close out the season on December 17) at Candlestick. The Raiders finished their first campaign with a 6-8 record, and lost $500,000. Desperately in need of money to continue running the team, Valley received a $400,000 loan from Buffalo Bills founder Ralph C. Wilson Jr. After the conclusion of the first season Soda dropped out of the partnership, and on January 17, 1961, Valley, McGah and Osborne bought out the remaining four general partners. Soon after, Valley and McGah purchased Osborne's interest, with Valley named as the managing general partner. After splitting the previous home season between Kezar and Candlestick, the Raiders moved exclusively to Candlestick Park in 1961, where total attendance for the season was about 50,000, and finished 2-12. Valley threatened to move the Raiders out of the area unless a stadium was built in Oakland, but in 1962 the Raiders moved into 18,000-seat Frank Youell Field (later expanded to 22,000 seats), their first home in Oakland. Dickey, Just Win, Baby, p. 10. It was a temporary home for the team while the Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum was under construction. Under Marty Feldman and Red Conkright—the team's second and third head coaches since entering the AFL—the Raiders finished 1-13 in 1962, losing their first 13 games before winning the season finale, and attendance remained low. Al Davis comes to Oakland (1963–1981) After the 1962 season, Valley hired Al Davis, a former assistant coach for the San Diego Chargers, as head coach and general manager. At 33, he was the youngest person in professional football history to hold the positions. Davis immediately changed the team colors to silver and black (he was reportedly inspired by the Army football black and gray uniforms), and began to implement what he termed the "vertical game," an aggressive offensive strategy based on the West Coast offense developed by Chargers head coach Sid Gillman. Under Davis the Raiders improved to 10-4, and he was named the AFL's Coach of the Year in 1963. Though the team slipped to 5–7–2 in 1964, it rebounded to an 8–5–1 record in 1965. McGah, Valley and Davis, 1968 In April 1966, Davis left the Raiders after being named AFL Commissioner. Two months later, the league announced its merger with the NFL. With the merger, the position of commissioner was no longer needed, and Davis entered into discussions with Valley about returning to the Raiders. On July 25, 1966, Davis returned as part owner of the team. He purchased a 10 percent interest in the team for US $18,000, and became the team's third general partner and head of football operations. Dickey, Just Win, Baby, p. 41. On the field, the team Davis had assembled and coached steadily improved. With John Rauch (Davis's hand-picked successor) as head coach, the Raiders won the 1967 AFL Championship, defeating the Houston Oilers 40–7. The win earned the team a trip to Super Bowl II, where they were beaten 33–14 by Vince Lombardi's Green Bay Packers. The following two years, the Raiders again won Western Division titles, only to lose the AFL Championship to the eventual Super Bowl winners—the New York Jets (1968) and Kansas City Chiefs (1969). In 1970, the AFL–NFL merger took place and the Raiders joined the Western Division of the American Football Conference in the newly merged NFL. In 1969, John Madden became the team's sixth head coach, and under him the Raiders became one of the most successful franchises in the NFL, winning six division titles during the 1970s. The achievement was marred somewhat by three consecutive losses in AFC Championships from 1973 to 1975, two against the Pittsburgh Steelers. Then, after finishing 13-1 in 1976, the Raiders defeated the Steelers 24–7 in the AFC Championship game. Oakland then defeated the Minnesota Vikings, 32–14, in Super Bowl XI for the franchise's first NFL championship. In 1972, with Wayne Valley out of the country for several weeks attending the Olympic Games in Munich, Davis's attorneys drafted a revised partnership agreement that gave him total control over all of the Raiders' operations. McGah, a supporter of Davis, signed the agreement. Under partnership law, by a 2–1 vote of the general partners, the new agreement was thus ratified. Valley was furious when he discovered this, and immediately filed suit to have the new agreement overturned, but the court sided with Davis and McGah. In January 1976, Valley sold his interest in the team, and Davis — who now owned only 25 percent of the Raiders — was firmly in charge. Dickey, Just Win, Baby, pp. 98–101. After ten consecutive winning seasons and one Super Bowl championship, Madden left the Raiders (and coaching) in 1979 to pursue a career as a television football commentator. His replacement was former Raiders quarterback Tom Flores, the first Hispanic head coach in NFL history. In the fifth week of the 1980 season, starting quarterback Dan Pastorini broke his leg and was replaced by former number-one draft pick Jim Plunkett. Plunkett led Oakland to an 11-5 record and a wild card berth. After playoff victories against the Houston Oilers, Cleveland Browns, and San Diego Chargers, the Raiders clinched their second NFL championship in five years with a 27–10 win over the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl XV. With the victory, the Raiders became the first ever wild card team to win a Super Bowl." Two Super Bowl records of note occurred in this game: 1) Kenny King's 80-yard, first-quarter, catch-and-run reception from Jim Plunkett remained the longest touchdown Super Bowl pass play for the next 23 years; and 2) Rod Martin's three interceptions of Eagles' quarterback Ron Jaworski still stands today as a Super Bowl record. Looking back at the Silver-and-Black glory years in the post-game awards ceremony, Al Davis stated "...this was our finest hour, this was the finest hour in the history of the Oakland Raiders. To Tom Flores, the coaches, and the athletes: you were magnificent out there, you really were." Football's Blackest Hole: A Fan's Perspective; Craig Parker; Frog, Ltd.; Berkeley, CA; 2003; pg. 69. Move to Los Angeles (1982–1994) Prior to the 1980 season, Al Davis attempted unsuccessfully to have improvements made to Oakland Coliseum, specifically the addition of luxury boxes. That year, he signed a Memorandum of Agreement to move the Raiders from Oakland to Los Angeles. The move, which required three-fourths approval by league owners, was defeated 22–0 (with five owners abstaining). When Davis tried to move the team anyway, he was blocked by an injunction. In response, the Raiders not only became an active partner in an antitrust lawsuit filed by the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (who had recently lost the Los Angeles Rams), but filed an antitrust lawsuit of their own. Dickey, Just Win, Baby. p. 168. After the first case was declared a mistrial, in May 1982 a second jury found in favor of Davis and the Los Angeles Coliseum, clearing the way for the move. Dickey, Just Win, Baby. p. 172. With the ruling, the Raiders finally relocated to Los Angeles for the 1982 season to play their home games at the Los Angeles Coliseum. The team finished 8–1 in the strike-shortened 1982 season, first in the AFC, but lost in the second round of the playoffs to the New York Jets. The following season, the team finished 12–4 and won convincingly against the Steelers and Seattle Seahawks in the AFC playoffs. Against the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVIII, Los Angeles built a 21–3 halftime lead en route to a 38–9 victory and their third NFL championship. The next two seasons, the Raiders qualified for the playoffs but lost in the wild card round and the divisional round, respectively. From 1986 through 1989, Los Angeles finished no better than 8–8 and posted consecutive losing seasons for the first time since 1961–62. After finishing 5–10 in 1987, Tom Flores moved to the front office and was replaced by Denver Broncos offensive assistant coach Mike Shanahan. After starting the 1989 season with a 1-3 record, Davis fired Shanahan, which began a long-standing feud between the two. He was replaced by former Raider offensive lineman Art Shell, who had been voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame earlier in the year. With the hiring, Shell became the first African American head coach in the modern NFL era. In 1990, Shell led Los Angeles to a 12-4 record and an appearance in the AFC Championship Game, where they lost a lopsided affair to the Buffalo Bills, 51-3. The team's fortunes faded after the loss. They made two other playoff appearances during the 1990s, and finished higher than third place only three times. This period was marked by the career-ending injury of two-sport athlete Bo Jackson in 1990, the failure of troubled quarterback Todd Marinovich, the acrimonious departure of Marcus Allen in 1993, and the retirement of Hall of Fame defensive end Howie Long after the 1993 season. Shell was fired after posting a 9–7 record in the 1994 season. Shell's five-plus-year tenure as head coach in Los Angeles was marked particularly by a bitter dispute between star running back Marcus Allen and Al Davis. The exact source of the friction is unknown, but a contract dispute led Davis to refer to Allen as "a cancer on the team." By the late 1980s, injuries began to reduce Allen's role in the offense. This role was reduced further in 1987, when the Raiders drafted Bo Jackson—even though he originally decided to not play professional football in 1986 (when drafted by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the first round). By 1990, Allen had dropped to fourth on the team's depth chart, leading to resentment on the part of his teammates. In late 1992 Allen lashed out publicly at Davis, and accused him of trying to ruin his career. In 1993, Allen left to play for the rival Kansas City Chiefs. As early as 1987, Davis began to seek a new, more modern stadium away from the Coliseum and the dangerous neighborhood that surrounded it at the time (which caused the NFL to schedule the Raiders' Monday Night Football appearances as away games). In addition to sharing the venue with the USC football team, the Coliseum was aging and still lacked the luxury suites and other amenities that Davis was promised when he moved the Raiders to Los Angeles. Dickey, Just Win, Baby. p. 230. Numerous venues in California were considered, including one near Hollywood Park in Inglewood and another in Carson. In August 1987, it was announced that the city of Irwindale paid Davis USD $10 million as a good-faith deposit for a prospective stadium site. Dickey, Just Win, Baby. p. 232. When the bid failed, Davis kept the non-refundable deposit. In the summer of 1988, rumors of a Raiders return to Oakland intensified when a preseason game against the Houston Oilers was scheduled at Oakland Coliseum. Dickey, Just Win, Baby. p. 234. Negotiations between Davis and Oakland commenced in January 1989, and on March 11, 1991, Davis announced his intention to bring the Raiders back to Oakland. Dickey, Just Win, Baby. pp. 234–239. By September 1991, however, numerous delays had prevented the completion of the deal between Davis and Oakland. On September 11, Davis announced a new deal to stay in Los Angeles, leading many fans in Oakland to burn Raiders paraphernalia in disgust. Dickey, Just Win, Baby. pp. 240–244. Return to Oakland (1995–present) On June 23, 1995, Davis signed a letter of intent to move the Raiders back to Oakland. The move was approved by the Alameda County Board of Supervisors the following month, as well as by the NFL. The move was greeted with much fanfare, and under new head coach Mike White the 1995 season started off well for the team. Oakland started 8-2, but injuries to starting quarterback Jeff Hostetler contributed to a six-game losing streak to end the season, and the Raiders failed to qualify for the playoffs for a second consecutive season. After three unsuccessful seasons under White and his successor, Joe Bugel, Davis selected a new head coach from outside the Raiders organization for only the second time when he hired Philadelphia Eagles offensive coordinator Jon Gruden, who previously worked for the 49ers and Packers under head coach Mike Holmgren. Under Gruden, the Raiders posted consecutive 8-8 seasons in 1998 and 1999, and climbed out of last place in the AFC West. Oakland finished 12–4 in the 2000 season, the team's most successful in a decade. Led by veteran quarterback Rich Gannon, Oakland won their first division title since 1990, and advanced to the AFC Championship, where they lost 16–3 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens. The Raiders acquired all-time leading receiver Jerry Rice prior to the 2001 season. They finished 10-6 and won a second straight AFC West title but lost their divisional-round playoff game to the eventual Super Bowl champion New England Patriots, in a controversial game that became known as the "Tuck Rule Game." The game was played in a heavy snowstorm, and late in the fourth quarter an apparent fumble by Patriots quarterback Tom Brady was recovered by Raiders linebacker Greg Biekert. However, the play was reviewed and determined to be an incomplete pass (it was ruled that Brady had pump faked and had not yet "tucked" the ball into his body which, by rule, cannot result in a fumble - though this explanation was not given on the field, but after the NFL season had ended). The Patriots retained possession of the ball, and drove for a game-tying field goal. The game went into overtime and the Patriots won, 16–13. Shortly after the season, the Raiders made an unusual move that involved releasing Gruden from his contract and allowing the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to sign him. In return, the Raiders received cash and future draft picks from the Buccaneers. The sudden move came after months of speculation in the media that Davis and Gruden had fallen out both personally and professionally. Bill Callahan, who served as the team's offensive coordinator and offensive line coach during Gruden's tenure, was named head coach. Under Callahan, the Raiders finished the 2002 season 11–5, won their third straight division title, and clinched the top seed in the playoffs. Rich Gannon was named MVP of the NFL after passing for a league-high 4,689 yards. After beating the New York Jets and Tennessee Titans by large margins in the playoffs, the Raiders made their fifth Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XXXVII. Their opponent was the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, coached by Gruden. The Raiders, who had not made significant changes to Gruden's offensive schemes, were intercepted five times by the Buccaneers en route to a 48–21 blowout. Some Tampa Bay players claimed that Gruden had given them so much information on Oakland's offense, they knew exactly what plays were being called. Callahan's second season as head coach was considerably less successful. Oakland finished 4–12, their worst showing since 1997. After a late-season loss to the Denver Broncos, a visibly frustrated Callahan exclaimed, "We've got to be the dumbest team in America in terms of playing the game." At the end of the 2003 regular season Callahan was fired and replaced by former Washington Redskins head coach Norv Turner. The team's fortunes did not improve in Turner's first year. Oakland finished the 2004 season 5–11, with only one divisional win (a one-point victory over the Broncos in Denver). During a Week 3 victory against the Buccaneers, Rich Gannon suffered a neck injury that ended his season. He never returned to the team and retired before the 2005 season. Kerry Collins, who led the New York Giants to an appearance in Super Bowl XXXV and signed with Oakland after the 2003 season, became the team's starting quarterback. In an effort to bolster their offense, in early 2005 the Raiders acquired Pro Bowl wide receiver Randy Moss via trade with the Minnesota Vikings, and signed free agent running back LaMont Jordan of the New York Jets. After a 4–12 season and a second consecutive last place finish, Turner was fired as head coach. On February 11, 2006 the team announced the return of Art Shell as head coach. In announcing the move, Al Davis said that firing Shell in 1995 had been a mistake. Under Shell, the Raiders lost their first five games in 2006 en route to a 2-14 finish, the team's worst record since 1962. Oakland's offense struggled greatly, scoring just 168 points (fewest in franchise history) and allowing a league-high 72 sacks. Wide receiver Jerry Porter was benched by Shell for most of the season in what many viewed as a personal, rather than football-related, decision. The Raiders also earned the right to the first overall pick in the 2007 NFL Draft for the first time since 1962 (as members of the AFL) and the first time as being members of the NFL, by virtue of having the league's worst record. One season into his second run as head coach, Shell was fired on January 4, 2007. On January 22, the team announced the hiring of 31-year-old USC offensive coordinator Lane Kiffin, the youngest coach in franchise history and the youngest coach in the NFL. In the 2007 NFL Draft, the Raiders selected LSU quarterback JaMarcus Russell with the #1 overall pick. Kiffin coached the Raiders to a 4-12 record in the 2007 season. After months of speculation and rumors, Al Davis fired Kiffin on September 30, 2008 http://www.nfl.com/news/story?id=09000d5d80b41921&template=with-video&confirm=true . Tom Cable was named as his interim replacement, and officially signed as the 17th head coach of the Oakland Raiders on Tuesday, Feb 3rd, 2009. Their finish to the 2008 season would turn out to match their best since they lost the Super Bowl in the 2002 season. However, they still finished 5-11 and ended up 3rd in the AFC West, the first time they did not finish last since 2002. In 2008, the Raiders became the first team in NFL history to lose at least 11 games in six straight seasons. Ownership structure Legally, the club is a limited partnership with nine partners — Davis and the heirs of the original eight team partners. Since 1972, however Davis has exercised near-complete control as president of the team's general partner, A.D. Football, Inc. Although exact ownership stakes are not known, it has been reported that Davis currently owns 67 percent of the team's shares. Ed McGah, the last of the original eight general partners of the Raiders, died in September 1983. Upon his death, his interest was devised to a family trust, of which his son, E.J. McGah, was the trustee. The younger McGah was himself a part owner of the team, as a limited partner, and died in 2002. Several members of the McGah family filed suit against Davis in October 2003, alleging mismanagement of the team by Davis. The lawsuit sought monetary damages and to remove Davis and A. D. Football, Inc. as the team's managing general partner. Among their specific complaints, the McGahs alleged that Davis failed to provide them with detailed financial information previously provided to Ed and E.J. McGah. The Raiders countered that—under the terms of the partnership agreement as amended in 1972—upon the death of the elder McGah in 1983, his general partner interest converted to that of a limited partner. The team continued to provide the financial information to the younger McGah as a courtesy, though it was under no obligation to do so. The majority of the lawsuit was dismissed in April 2004, when an Alameda County Superior Court judge ruled that the case lacked merit since none of the other partners took part in the lawsuit. In October 2005, the lawsuit was settled out of court. The terms of the settlement are confidential, but it was reported that under its terms Davis purchased the McGah family's interest in the Raiders (approximately 31 percent), and for the first time owns a majority interest, speculated to be approximately 67 percent of the team. As a result of the settlement, confidential details concerning Al Davis and the ownership of the Raiders were not released to the public. Recently, Davis has been attempting to sell the 31 percent ownership stake in the team he obtained from the McGah family. He has been unsuccessful in this effort, reportedly because the sale would not give the purchaser any control of the Raiders, even in the event of Davis's death. Full control of the team will be assumed by Davis's wife, Carol, upon his death. Financial operations Hawaiian Airlines is the official carrier for the Raiders. This Hawaiian Boeing 767 wears the Raiders logo on its fuselage. According to a 2006 report released by Forbes Magazine, the Raiders' overall team value of US $736 million ranks 28th out of 32 NFL teams. The team ranked in the bottom three in league attendance from 2003–2005, and failed to sell out a majority of their home games. One of the reasons cited for the poor attendance figures was the decision to issue costly Personal Seat Licenses (PSLs) upon the Raiders' return to Oakland in 1995. The PSLs, which ranged in cost from $250 to $4,000, were meant to help repay the $200 million it cost the city of Oakland and Alameda County to expand Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum. They were only valid for 10 years, however, while other teams issue them permanently. As a result, fewer than 31,000 PSLs were sold for a stadium that holds twice that amount. Since 1995, television blackouts of Raiders home games have been common. In November 2005, the team announced that it was taking over ticket sales from the privately run Oakland Football Marketing Association (OFMA), and abolishing PSLs. In February 2006, the team also announced that it would lower ticket prices for most areas of McAfee Coliseum. Just prior to the start of the 2006 NFL season, the Raiders revealed that they had sold 37,000 season tickets, up from 29,000 the previous year. Despite the team's 2-14 record, they sold out six of their eight home games in 2006. Legal battles The Raiders and Al Davis have been involved in several lawsuits throughout their history, including ones against the NFL. When the NFL declined to approve the Raiders' move from Oakland to Los Angeles in 1980, the team joined the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission in a lawsuit against the league alleging a violation of antitrust laws. The Coliseum Commission received a settlement from the NFL of $19.6 million in 1987. In 1986, Davis testified on behalf of the USFL in their unsuccessful antitrust lawsuit against the NFL. He was the only NFL owner to do so. After relocating back to Oakland, the team sued the NFL for interfering with their negotiations to build a new stadium at Hollywood Park prior to the move. The Raiders' lawsuit further contended that they had the rights to the Los Angeles market, and thus were entitled to compensation from the league for giving up those rights by moving to Oakland. A jury found in favor of the NFL in 2001, but the verdict was overturned a year later due to alleged juror misconduct. In February 2005, a California Court of Appeal unanimously upheld the original verdict. When the Raiders moved back from Los Angeles in 1995, the city of Oakland and the Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum Authority agreed to sell Personal Seat Licenses (PSLs) to help pay for the renovations to their stadium. But after games rarely sold out, the Raiders filed suit, claiming that they were misled by the city and the Coliseum Authority with the false promise that there would be sellouts. On November 2, 2005, a settlement was announced, part of which was the abolishment of PSLs as of the 2006 season. In 1996, the team sued the NFL in Santa Clara County, California, in a lawsuit that ultimately included 22 separate causes of action. Included in the team's claims were claims that the Tampa Bay Buccaneers' pirate logo diluted the team's California trademark in its own pirate logo and for trade dress dilution on the ground that the League had improperly permitted other teams (including the Buccaneers and Carolina Panthers) to adopt colors for their uniforms similar to those of the Raiders. Among other things, the lawsuit sought an injunction to prevent the Buccaneers and Panthers from wearing their uniforms while playing in California. In 2003, these claims were dismissed on summary judgment because the relief sought would violate the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. Logos and uniforms Original team logo, used from 1960–1962 but not represented on the helmet. Alternative team logo used in 1963. The original Raiders uniforms were black and gold, while the helmets were black with a white stripe and no logo. The team wore this design from 1960–1962. When Al Davis became head coach and general manager in 1963, he changed the team's color scheme to silver and black, and added a logo to the helmet. This logo is a shield that consists of the word "Raiders" at the top, crossed swords, and the head of a Raider wearing a football helmet. Over the years, it has undergone minor color modifications (such as changing the background from white to black in 1964), but it has essentially remained the same. The Raiders' current silver and black uniform design has essentially remained the same since it debuted in 1963. It consists of silver helmets, silver pants, and either black or white jerseys. The black jerseys have silver numbers, while the white jerseys have black numbers. Originally, the white jerseys had gold numbers with a black outline, but they were changed to black with a silver outline for the 1964 season. In 1970, the team used silver numerals for the season. However, in 1971 the team again displayed black numerals and have stayed that way ever since (with the exception of the 1994–95 season where they donned the 1963 helmets with the 1970 silver away numbers). Due to intense heat in the Bay Area, the Raiders wore their white jerseys at home for the first time in their history on September 28, 2008 against the San Diego Chargers. Rivals The Oakland Raiders have four primary rivals: their divisional rivals (Denver Broncos, Kansas City Chiefs, and San Diego Chargers) and their geographic rival, the San Francisco 49ers. They also have rivalries with other teams that arose from playoff battles in the past, most notably with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the New England Patriots. The Seattle Seahawks is an old rivalry with Oakland as well, but the rivalry became less relevant with the Seahawks moving from the American Football Conference Western Division to the National Football Conference Western Division. Divisional rivals The Chiefs-Raiders game in 2006 at Arrowhead Stadium. The Denver Broncos and the Raiders have been divisional rivals since the two teams began play in the AFL in 1960. While the Raiders still hold the advantage in the all-time series (54-40-2), the Broncos have won 21 of the last 27 games (through four weeks of the 2008 season), dating back to the 1995 season, when Mike Shanahan became the Broncos coach. Shanahan coached the Raiders before being fired just four games into the 1989 season, which has only served to intensify this rivalry. The Kansas City Chiefs and the Raiders have had several memorable matches and have a bitter divisional rivalry. Oakland lost the 1969 AFL Championship against Kansas City, who appeared in the first Super Bowl. The Chiefs lost the last matchup 23-8 at Arrowhead on September 14, 2008 in a lopsided affair against the Raiders, however Kansas City leads the overall series 50–44–2. The San Diego Chargers' rivalry with Oakland dates to the 1963 season, when the Raiders defeated the heavily-favored Chargers twice, both come-from-behind fourth quarter victories. One of the most memorable games between these teams was the "Holy Roller" game in 1978, in which the Raiders fumbled for a touchdown in a very controversial (and now illegal) play. The Chargers currently have an eleven game win streak against the Raiders, although the Raiders hold the overall series advantage at 54–42–2. Geographic rival The San Francisco 49ers, located on the other side of San Francisco Bay, are the Raiders' geographic rivals. As a result, games between the two are referred to as a "Battle of the Bay." Since the two teams play in different conferences, regular-season matchups are infrequent. Fans and players of the winning team can claim "bragging rights" as the better team in the area. Oakland currently holds a 6-5 edge in the all-time regular season series, although the 49ers won the last time the two teams played each other on October 8, 2006 at Monster Park in San Francisco. The Raiders won the latest match between the teams in a pre-season game on August 8, 2008. The next time this two teams will face will be on a pre-season game in the 2009 season. Historic rivals The rivalry between the Raiders and the New England Patriots dates to their time in the AFL, but was intensified during a 1978 preseason game, when Patriots wide receiver Darryl Stingley was permanently paralyzed after a vicious hit delivered by Raiders defensive back Jack Tatum. The two teams met in a divisional-round playoff game in 2002, which became known as "The Tuck Rule Game." Late in the game, a fumble by Patriots quarterback Tom Brady was overturned, and New England went on to win in overtime and eventually won the Super Bowl against the heavily favored St. Louis Rams. Since that game, the Patriots have won two of the last three regular season contests between the two teams. The first contest being the following year during the 2002 season in Oakland, with the Raiders winning 28–21; they met on the 2005 season opener in New England with the Patriots ruinning Randy Moss's debut as an Oakland Raider 30-20;the most recent meeting saw the Patriots victorious, 49–26 during the 2008 season. The New York Jets began a strong rivalry with the Raiders in the AFL during the 1960s that continued through much of the 1970s, fueled in part by Raider Ike Lassiter breaking star quarterback Joe Namath's jaw during a 1967 game (though Ben Davidson wrongly got the blame), the famous Heidi Game during the 1968 season, and the Raiders' bitter loss to the Jets in the AFL Championship later that season. The rivalry waned in later years, but saw a minor resurgence due to some late-season and playoff meetings from 2000-2002. The Raiders won the most recent matchup 16-13 on October 19, 2008. The Pittsburgh Steelers' rivalry with the Raiders was extremely intense during the 1970s. The Steelers denied the Raiders a trip to the Super Bowl in three of four consecutive seasons in the early 1970s (the first loss was the "Immaculate Reception" game) until the Raiders finally beat the Steelers in the 1976 AFC Championship (and went on to win Super Bowl XI). During the 1975 AFC Championship game, Raiders strong safety George Atkinson delivered a hit on Pittsburgh wide receiver Lynn Swann that gave him a concussion. When the two teams met in the 1976 season opener, Atkinson hit Swann again and gave him another concussion. After the second incident, Steelers head coach Chuck Noll referred to Atkinson as part of the "criminal element" in the NFL. Atkinson subsequently filed a $2 million defamation lawsuit against Noll and the Steelers, which he lost. Most recently, Oakland recorded a 20-13 win over Pittsburgh on October 29, 2006. Raider Nation Members of Raider Nation are known for attending games in elaborate costumes. The nickname Raider Nation refers to the die hard fans of the team spread throughout the United States and the world. Members of the Raider Nation who attend home games are known for arriving to the stadium early, tailgating, dressing up in face masks, and black outfits. The Raider Nation is also known for the "Black Hole", a specific area of the Coliseum (sections 104, 105, 106, and 107) frequented by the team's rowdiest and most fervent fans. Notable Raider fans include: golfer Tiger Woods; actor James Garner; Dickey, Just Win, Baby. p. 190. rapper and actor Ice Cube; and writer Hunter S. Thompson. Raiders Radio Network Raider games are broadcast in English on 20 radio stations in California, including flagship station KSFO (560 AM) in San Francisco. Additionally, games are broadcast on ten radio stations in Hawaii, Oregon, Nevada, New Mexico, and British Columbia. Greg Papa is the play-by-play announcer, with former Raider coach and quarterback Tom Flores doing commentary.George Atkinson and Jim Plunkett offer pre- and post-game commentary. Raider games are also broadcast in Spanish on six radio stations, including station KZSF (1370 AM) in San Jose and five other stations in California's Central Valley. Erwin Higueros handles play-by-play in Spanish, with Ambrosio Rico doing commentary. Raiders in popular culture In 1974, Steve Sabol of NFL Films composed a poem entitled "The Autumn Wind" (). The poem, with its vivid personification of the autumn season as a pirate, is synonymous with the Raiders. It was recorded as a orchestral piece by NFL Films (with narration by John Facenda), and is played at Raiders home games. Two additional songs about the Raiders have been released by NFL Films—"The Raiders" and "Raider Might," the former of which is played at home games after Oakland scores. Watched in 46.4 percent of all American households, the Raiders' victory over the Redskins in Super Bowl XVIII ranks as the 13th-most watched network telecast ever in the United States, according to the Nielsen Ratings system. The team's two other Super Bowl wins are tied for 29th place, each attracting 44.4 percent. Oakland's appearance in Super Bowl XXXVII was viewed by 88.6 million people. In a 1992 episode of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons ("Lisa the Greek"), Lisa Simpson picks the Raiders to win a game because "they always cheat." The Raiders end up winning after "an extremely suspicious play." The 1996 feature film That Thing You Do! features a character named Villapiano. The character and his pizza restaurant (Villapiano's) are named after former Raiders linebacker Phil Villapiano. Tom Hanks, who wrote and directed the film, is a Raiders fan. An episode of the FOX television series Sliders ("The Prince of Wails") featured an alternate universe where the British won the American Revolutionary War, and although San Francisco was still a large city, Oakland was still an undeveloped, forested area (with the same geographical name). A militia of American freedom fighters based in the region took the name "The Oakland Raiders." Oakland rap duo, Luniz, released an album in 2002 called Silver & Black, where a track on the album is called "Oakland Raiders". The cover of the album has them wearing raider outfits. Turbo B, former frontman of Snap!, wears a Raiders cap in the music video of The Power, one of the group's most known songs. In an episode of the American series The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Will (Will Smith) and Lisa (Nia Long) receive each one a Raiders coat as a gift from Fred (John Amos), Lisa's father, who had gone to a game with Will. By the time the episode aired (December 12, 1994), the team was still based in Los Angeles, the main location of the series. Season-by-season records Players Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers The Pro Football Hall of Fame has inducted eleven players who made their primary contribution to professional football while with the Raiders, in addition to owner Al Davis and head coach John Madden. The Raiders' total of thirteen Hall of Famers is tied for seventh-highest with the St. Louis Rams. Oakland/Los Angeles Raiders Hall of FamersNo.PlayerInductedPositionsYears with Raiders 32 Marcus Allen2003 HB1982–1992 25 Fred Biletnikoff1988 WR1965–1978 16 George Blanda1981 QB, K1967–1975 76 Bob Brown2004 OT1971-1973 24 Willie Brown1984 CB1967–1978 87 Dave Casper2002 TE1974–1980, 1984 — Al Davis1992 Team, League administrator1963–1965, 1966–present 29 Eric Dickerson1999 HB1992 22 Mike Haynes1997 CB1983–1989 83 Ted Hendricks1990 LB1975–1983 80 James Lofton2003 WR1987-1988 75 Howie Long2000 DE1981–1993 42 Ronnie Lott2000 S1991-1992 — John Madden2006 Head coach1969–1978 74 Ron Mix1979 OT1971 00 Jim Otto1980 C1960–1974 78 Art Shell1989 OT1968–1982 63 Gene Upshaw1987 G1967–1981 26 Rod Woodson2009 S2002-2003 Retired numbers The Raider organization does not retire the jersey numbers of former players on an official or unofficial basis. The number 00, worn by Jim Otto for his entire career, is no longer allowed by the NFL. It was originally permitted for him only by the AFL as a marketing gimmick since his jersey number 00 is a homonym pun of his name (aught-O). Staff Current staff Head coaches Notes and References See also Heidi Game Holy Roller Immaculate Reception Ghost to the Post Sea of Hands Super Bowl XI Red Right 88 Super Bowl XV Black Sunday Tuck Rule Game Mount Davis External links Oakland Raiders official website | Oakland_Raiders |@lemmatized oakland:70 raider:146 professional:6 american:11 football:30 team:101 base:4 city:14 california:10 currently:4 play:32 western:5 division:12 conference:5 afc:13 national:3 league:14 nfl:39 begin:7 eighth:2 charter:1 member:6 afl:20 win:50 one:13 championship:15 three:13 title:8 join:5 part:8 merger:4 since:19 twelve:1 super:29 bowl:30 xi:4 xv:3 xviii:3 appear:3 two:23 thirteen:2 former:11 player:6 enshrine:1 pro:6 hall:7 fame:4 first:33 season:76 struggle:2 field:6 al:13 davis:56 bring:2 head:29 coach:39 general:13 manager:3 seven:1 lose:18 also:7 initiate:1 use:4 slogan:1 pride:1 poise:1 commitment:1 excellence:1 baby:15 register:1 trademark:2 except:1 brief:1 term:6 commissioner:3 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5,611 | Garry_Kasparov | Garry Kasparov (; ; ) (born as Garry Kimovich Weinstein on April 13, 1963, in Baku Biography on Kasparov.ru site , Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union; now Azerbaijan) is a Soviet / Russian former World Chess Champion, regarded by many as the greatest chess player of all time. See Methods for comparing top chess players throughout history article He is also a writer and political activist. Kasparov became the youngest ever undisputed World Chess Champion in 1985. Ruslan Ponomariov won the disputed FIDE title, at the age of 19, when the world title was split He held the official FIDE world title until 1993, when a dispute with FIDE led him to set up a rival organization, the Professional Chess Association. He continued to hold the "Classical" World Chess Championship until his defeat by Vladimir Kramnik in 2000. He is also widely known for being the first world chess champion to lose a match to a computer, when he lost to Deep Blue in 1997. Kasparov's ratings achievements include being rated world #1 according to Elo rating almost continuously from 1986 until his retirement in 2005 and holding the all-time highest rating of 2851. He also holds records for consecutive tournament victories and Chess Oscars. Since 1984 Kasparov was member of Central Committee of Komsomol and CPSU member. Kasparov announced his retirement from professional chess on March 10, 2005, to devote his time to politics and writing. He formed the United Civil Front movement, and joined as a member of The Other Russia, a coalition opposing the administration of Vladimir Putin. He was a candidate for the 2008 Russian presidential race, but later withdrew. Widely regarded in the West as a symbol of opposition to Putin, Kasparov's support in Russia is low. Conor Sweeney, Chris Baldwin, Putin "heir" on course to win Russia election: poll - "Widely regarded in the West as a symbol of opposition to Putin, Kasparov's support at home is slim and pollsters say he had no chance of winning." Michael Stott, Reuters Russia votes for parliament, Putin triumph expected Calgary Herald - "But polls show few Russians support Kasparov or the marginal pro-Western parties under his banner." Early career Weinstein at age 11, Vilnius, 1974. Garry Kasparov was born Garry Weinstein (Russian: Гарри Вайнштейн) in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR, to an Armenian mother and Jewish father. White King and Red Queen by Daniel Johnson, ISBN 1-84-3546094 He first began the serious study of chess after he came across a chess problem set up by his parents and proposed a solution. Unlimited Challenge, an autobiography by Garry Kasparov with Donald Trelford, ISBN 0-00-637358-5 His father died of leukemia when he was seven years old. Kasparov: The World's Chess Champion, by Anne Kressler, From Azerbaijan International (3.3) Autumn 1995. (Accessed March 31, 2008) At the age of twelve, he adopted his mother's Armenian surname, Kasparyan, modifying it to a more Russified version, Kasparov. From age 7, Kasparov attended the Young Pioneer Palace and, at 10 began training at Mikhail Botvinnik's chess school under noted coach Vladimir Makogonov. Makogonov helped develop Kasparov's positional skills and taught him to play the Caro-Kann Defence and the Tartakower System of the Queen's Gambit Declined. Kasparov won the Soviet Junior Championship in Tbilisi in 1976, scoring 7 points of 9, at age 13. He repeated the feat the following year, winning with a score of 8½ of 9. He was being trained by Alexander Shakarov during this time. In 1978, Kasparov participated in the Sokolsky Memorial tournament in Minsk. He had been invited as an exception but took first place and became a chess master. Kasparov has repeatedly said that this event was a turning point in his life, and that it convinced him to choose chess as his career. "I will remember the Sokolsky Memorial as long as I live," he wrote. He has also said that after the victory, he thought he had a very good shot at the World Championship. He first qualified for the Soviet Chess Championship at age 15 in 1978, the youngest ever player at that level. He won the 64-player Swiss system tournament at Daugavpils over tiebreak from Igor V. Ivanov, to capture the sole qualifying place. Kasparov rose quickly through the FIDE (World Chess Federation) rankings. Starting with an oversight by the Russian Chess Federation, he participated in a Grandmaster tournament in Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina (then part of Yugoslavia), in 1979 while still unrated (the federation thought it was a junior tournament). He won this high-class tournament, emerging with a provisional rating of 2595, enough to catapult him to the top group of chess players (at the time, number 3 in the World, ex-champion Boris Spassky had 2630, while World Champion Anatoly Karpov was at 2690–2700). The next year, 1980, he won the World Junior Chess Championship in Dortmund, West Germany. Later that year, he made his debut as second reserve for the Soviet Union at the Chess Olympiad at La Valletta, Malta, and became a Grandmaster. Toward the top As a teenager, Kasparov twice tied for first place in the USSR Chess Championship, in 1980–81 and 1981–82. His first win in a superclass-level international tournament was scored at Bugojno, Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1982. He earned a place in the 1982 Moscow Interzonal tournament, which he won, to qualify for the Candidates Tournament. http://www.chessmetrics.com, the Garry Kasparov player file At age 19, he was the youngest Candidate since Bobby Fischer, who was 15 when he qualified in 1958. At this stage, he was already the #2-rated player in the world, trailing only World Chess Champion Anatoly Karpov on the January 1983 list. Kasparov's first (quarter-final) Candidates match was against Alexander Beliavsky, whom Kasparov defeated 6–3 (four wins, one loss). Politics threatened Kasparov's semi-final against Viktor Korchnoi, which was scheduled to be played in Pasadena, California. Korchnoi had defected from the Soviet Union in 1976, and was at that time the strongest active non-Soviet player. Various political maneuvers prevented Kasparov from playing Korchnoi, and Kasparov forfeited the match. This was resolved by Korchnoi allowing the match to be replayed in London, along with the previously scheduled match between Vasily Smyslov and Zoltan Ribli. The Kasparov-Korchnoi match was put together on short notice by Raymond Keene. Kasparov lost the first game but won the match 7–4 (four wins, one loss). In 1984, he won the Candidates' final 8½–4½ (four wins, no losses) against the resurgent former world champion Vasily Smyslov, at Vilnius, thus qualifying to play Anatoly Karpov for the World Championship. That year he joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), as a member of which he was elected to the Central Committee of Komsomol in 1987. 1984 World Championship The World Chess Championship 1984 match between Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov had many ups and downs, and a very controversial finish. Karpov started in very good form, and after nine games Kasparov was down 4–0 in a "first to six wins" match. Fellow players predicted he would be whitewashed 6–0 within 18 games. , Mark Weeks' Chess Pages But Kasparov dug in and battled Karpov to 17 successive draws. He lost game 27, then fought back with another series of draws until game 32, his first-ever win against the World Champion. Another 15 successive draws followed, through game 46; the previous record length for a world title match had been 34 games, the match of Jose Capablanca vs. Alexander Alekhine in 1927. At this point Karpov, 12 years older than Kasparov, was close to exhaustion, and did not look like the player who started the match. Kasparov won games 47 and 48 to bring the scores to 5–3 in Karpov's favour. Then the match was ended without result by Florencio Campomanes, the President of Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE), and a new match was announced to start a few months later. The termination was controversial, as both players stated that they preferred the match to continue. Announcing his decision at a press conference, Campomanes cited the health of the players, which had been strained by the length of the match, with Karpov having lost 10 kg (22 lb) during the match. 1984 Karpov - Kasparov Title Match Highlights Mark Weeks' Chess Pages But Kasparov was in excellent health and extremely resentful of Campomanes' decision, asking him why he was abandoning the match if both players wanted to continue. Kasparov had won the last two games before the suspension, and some observers believed that he would go on to win despite his 5–3 deficit. He appeared to be physically stronger than his opponent, and in the later games seemed to have been playing the better chess. The match became the first, and so far only, world championship match to be abandoned without result. Kasparov's relations with Campomanes and FIDE were greatly strained, and the feud between them eventually came to a head in 1993 with Kasparov's complete break-away from FIDE. World Champion Kasparov after winning the FIDE World Championship title in 1985. The second Karpov-Kasparov match in 1985 was organized in Moscow as the best of 24 games where the first player to win 12.5 points would claim the title. The scores from the terminated match would not carry over. But in the event of a 12–12 draw, the title would remain with Karpov. Kasparov secured the title at age 22 by a score of 13–11, winning the 24th game with Black, a Sicilian defence, on 9 November 1985. This broke the existing record of youngest World Champion, held for over 20 years by Mikhail Tal, who was 23 when he defeated Mikhail Botvinnik in 1960. Kasparov's win as Black in the 16th game has been recognized as one of the all-time masterpieces in chess history. As part of the arrangements following the aborted 1984 match, Karpov had been granted (in the event of his defeat) a right to rematch. Another match took place in 1986, hosted jointly in London and Leningrad, with each city hosting 12 games. At one point in the match, Kasparov opened a three-point lead and looked well on his way to a decisive match victory. But Karpov fought back by winning three consecutive games to level the score late in the match. At this point, Kasparov dismissed one of his seconds, Grandmaster Evgeny Vladimirov, accusing him of selling his opening preparation to the Karpov team (as described in Kasparov's autobiography Unlimited Challenge, chapter Stab in the Back). Kasparov scored one more win and kept his title by a final score of 12.5–11.5. A fourth match for the world title took place in 1987 in Seville, as Karpov had qualified through the Candidates' Matches to again become the official challenger. This match was very close, with neither player holding more than a one-point lead at any point. Kasparov was down one point in the final game, needing a win to hold his title. A long tense game ensued in which Karpov blundered away a pawn just before the first time-control, and Kasparov eventually won a long ending. Kasparov retained his title as the match was drawn by a score of 12–12. (All this meant that Kasparov had played Karpov four times in the period 1984–1987, a statistic unprecedented in chess. Matches organised by FIDE had taken place every three years since 1948, and only Botvinnik had a right to a rematch before Karpov.) A fifth match between Kasparov and Karpov was held in New York and Lyon in 1990, with each city hosting 12 games. Again, the result was a close one with Kasparov winning by a margin of 12.5–11.5. In their five world championship matches, Kasparov had 21 wins, 19 losses, and 104 draws in 144 games. Break with and ejection from FIDE Kasparov and Viswanathan Anand in a publicity photo on top of the World Trade Center in New York, on September 11, 1995. With the World Champion title in hand, Kasparov began fighting against FIDE — as Bobby Fischer had done 20 years earlier but this time from within FIDE. Beginning in 1986, he created the Grandmasters Association (GMA), an organization to represent professional chess players and give them more say in FIDE's activities. Kasparov assumed a leadership role. GMA's major achievement was in organizing a series of six World Cup tournaments for the world's top players. A somewhat uneasy relationship developed with FIDE, and a sort of truce was brokered by Bessel Kok, a Dutch businessman. This stand-off lasted until 1993, by which time a new challenger had qualified through the Candidates cycle for Kasparov's next World Championship defense: Nigel Short, a British Grandmaster who had defeated Karpov in a qualifying match, and then Jan Timman in the finals held in early 1993. After a confusing and compressed bidding process produced lower financial estimates than expected,<ref>Nigel Short: Quest for the Crown, by Cathy Forbes</ref> the world champion and his challenger decided to play outside FIDE's jurisdiction, under another organization created by Kasparov called the Professional Chess Association (PCA). This is where a great fracture in the lineage of World Champions began. In an interview in 2007, Kasparov would call the break with FIDE the worst mistake of his career, as it hurt the game in the long run. 'My decision to break away from fide was a mistake', DNA, 10 September 2007. Accessed 11 September 2007. Kasparov and Short were ejected from FIDE, and played their well-sponsored match in London. Kasparov won convincingly by a score of 12.5–7.5. The match considerably raised the profile of chess in the UK, with an unprecedented level of coverage on Channel 4. Meanwhile, FIDE organized a World Championship match between Jan Timman (the defeated Candidates finalist) and former World Champion Karpov (a defeated Candidates semifinalist), which Karpov won. There were now two World Champions: PCA champion Kasparov, and FIDE champion Karpov. The title would remain split for 13 years. Kasparov defended his title in a 1995 match against Viswanathan Anand at the World Trade Center in New York City. Kasparov won the match by four wins to one, with thirteen draws. It was the last World Championship to be held under the auspices of the PCA, which collapsed when Intel, one of its major backers, withdrew its sponsorship. Kasparov tried to organize another World Championship match, under another organization, the World Chess Association (WCA) with Linares organizer Luis Rentero. Alexei Shirov and Vladimir Kramnik played a candidates match to decide the challenger, which Shirov won in a surprising upset. But when Rentero admitted that the funds required and promised had never materialized, the WCA collapsed. This left Kasparov stranded, and yet another organization stepped in — BrainGames.com, headed by Raymond Keene. No match against Shirov was arranged, and talks with Anand collapsed, so a match was instead arranged against Kramnik. Losing the title and aftermath Kasparov playing against Vladimir Kramnik in the Botvinnik Memorial match in Moscow, 2001. The Kasparov-Kramnik match took place in London during the latter half of 2000. Kramnik had been a student of Kasparov's at the legendary Botvinnik/Kasparov chess school in Russia, and had served on Kasparov's team for the 1995 match against Viswanathan Anand. The better-prepared Kramnik won Game 2 against Kasparov's Grünfeld Defence and achieved winning positions in Games 4 and 6. Kasparov made a critical error in Game 10 with the Nimzo-Indian Defence, which Kramnik exploited to win in 25 moves. As white, Kasparov could not crack the passive but solid Berlin Defence in the Ruy Lopez, and Kramnik successfully drew all his games as black. Kramnik won the match 8.5–6.5, and for the first time in 15 years Kasparov had no world championship title. He became the first player to lose a world championship match without winning a game since Emanuel Lasker lost to Capablanca in 1921. After losing the title, Kasparov strung together a number of major tournament victories, and remained the top rated player in the world, ahead of both Kramnik and the FIDE World Champions. In 2001 he refused an invitation to the 2002 Dortmund Candidates Tournament for the Classical title, claiming his results had earned him a rematch with Kramnik. Kasparov and Karpov played a four game match with rapid time controls over two days in December 2002 in New York City. Karpov surprised the experts and emerged victoriously, winning two games and drawing one. Anatoly Karpov wins X3D Rapid Match, ChessBase News, 21 December 2002 Due to Kasparov's continuing strong results, and status as world #1 in much of the public eye, he was included in the so-called "Prague Agreement", masterminded by Yasser Seirawan and intended to reunite the two World Championships. Kasparov was to play a match against the FIDE World Champion Ruslan Ponomariov in September 2003. But this match was called off after Ponomariov refused to sign his contract for it without reservation. In its place, there were plans for a match against Rustam Kasimdzhanov, winner of the FIDE World Chess Championship 2004, to be held in January 2005 in the United Arab Emirates. These also fell through due to lack of funding. Plans to hold the match in Turkey instead came too late. Kasparov announced in January 2005 that he was tired of waiting for FIDE to organize a match and so had decided to stop all efforts to regain the World Championship title. Retirement from chess After winning the prestigious Linares tournament for the ninth time, Kasparov announced on March 10, 2005, that he would retire from serious competitive chess. He cited as the reason a lack of personal goals in the chess world (he commented when winning the Russian championship in 2004 that it had been the last major title he had never won outright) and expressed frustration at the failure to reunify the world championship. Kasparov said he may play in some rapid chess events for fun, but intends to spend more time on his books, including both the My Great Predecessors series (see below) and a work on the links between decision-making in chess and in other areas of life, and will continue to involve himself in Russian politics, which he views as "headed down the wrong path." Kasparov has been married three times: to Masha, with whom he had a daughter before divorcing; to Yulia, with whom he had a son before their 2005 divorce; and to Daria, with whom he also has a child. Emma Cowing, "Kasparov makes his first political move on Putin", The Scotsman, July 13, 2006. David Remnick, "The Tsar’s Opponent", The New Yorker, October 1, 2007. Post-retirement chess On August 22, 2006, in his first public chess games since his retirement, Kasparov played in the Lichthof Chess Champions Tournament, a blitz event played at the time control of 5 minutes per side and 3 second increments per move. Kasparov tied for first with Anatoly Karpov, scoring 4.5/6. Politics Kasparov joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1984, and in 1987 was elected to the Central Committee of Komsomol. But in 1990 he left the party, and in May took part in the creation of the Democratic Party of Russia. In 1991, Kasparov received the Keeper of the Flame award from the Center for Security Policy (a US think tank) for his contributions "to the defence of the United States and American values around the world". Kasparov was in June 1993 involved with the creation of the "Choice of Russia" bloc of parties, and in 1996 took part in the election campaign of Boris Yeltsin. In 2001 he voiced his support for the Russian television channel NTV. After his retirement from chess in 2005, Kasparov turned to politics and created the United Civil Front, a social movement whose main goal is to "work to preserve electoral democracy in Russia." He has vowed to "restore democracy" to Russia by toppling the Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, of whom he is an outspoken critic. Kasparov was instrumental in setting up The Other Russia, a coalition which opposes Putin's government. The Other Russia has been boycotted by the leaders of Russia's mainstream opposition parties, Yabloko and Union of Right Forces as they are concerned about its inclusion of radical nationalist and left-wing groups such as the National Bolshevik Party and former members of the Rodina party including Viktor Gerashchenko, a potential presidential candidate. But regional branches of Yabloko and the Union of Right Forces have opted to take part in the coalition. Kasparov says that leaders of these parties are controlled by the Kremlin, despite the fact they are both strongly opposed to the president's policies. On April 10, 2005, Kasparov was in Moscow at a promotional event when he was struck over the head with a chessboard he had just signed. The assailant was reported to have said "I admired you as a chess player, but you gave that up for politics" immediately before the attack. Kasparov has been the subject of a number of other episodes since. Kasparov at the third Dissenters March in Saint Petersburg on 9 June 2007. Kasparov helped organize the Saint Petersburg Dissenters' March on March 3, 2007 and The March of the Dissenters on March 24, 2007, both involving several thousand people rallying against Putin and Saint Petersburg Governor Valentina Matviyenko's policies. On April 14, he was briefly arrested by the Moscow police while heading for a demonstration, following warnings by the prosecution office on the eve of the march, stating that anyone participating risked being detained. He was held for some 10 hours, and then fined and released. He was summoned by FSB for questioning, allegedly for violations of Russian anti-extremism laws. This law was previously applied for the conviction of Boris Stomakhin Speaking about Kasparov, former KGB general Oleg Kalugin has remarked: "I do not talk in details—people who knew them are all dead now because they were vocal, they were open. I am quiet. There is only one man who is vocal, and he may be in trouble: [former] world chess champion [Garry] Kasparov. He has been very outspoken in his attacks on Putin, and I believe that he is probably next on the list." On September 30, 2007, Kasparov entered the Russian Presidential race, receiving 379 of 498 votes at a congress held in Moscow by The Other Russia. In October 2007, Kasparov announced his intention of standing for the Russian presidency as the candidate of the "Other Russia" coalition, and vowed to fight for a "democratic and just Russia". Later that month he traveled to the United States, where he appeared on several popular television programs, which were hosted by Stephen Colbert, Wolf Blitzer, Bill Maher, and Chris Matthews. On November 24, 2007, Kasparov and other protesters were detained by police at an Other Russia rally in Moscow. This followed an attempt by about 100 protesters to break through police lines and march on the electoral commission, which had barred Other Russia candidates from parliamentary elections. He was subsequently charged with resisting arrest and organising an unauthorized protest, and given a jail sentence of five days. He was released from jail on November 29. On December 12, 2007, Kasparov announced that he had to withdraw his presidential candidacy due to inability to rent a meeting hall where at least 500 of his supporters could assemble to endorse his candidacy, as is legally required. With the deadline expiring on that date, he claimed it was impossible for him to run. Kasparov's spokeswoman accused the government of using pressure to deter anyone from renting a hall for the gathering and said that the electoral commission had rejected a proposal that separate smaller gatherings be held at the same time instead of one large gathering at a meeting hall. Andrew E. Kramer, "Kasparov Says He Was Forced to End Bid for Presidency", The New York Times, December 13, 2007. Chess ratings achievements Kasparov holds the record for the longest time as the #1 rated player. Kasparov had the highest Elo rating in the world continuously from 1986 to 2005. However, Vladimir Kramnik did equal him in the January 1996 FIDE ratings list. He was also briefly ejected from the list following his split from FIDE in 1993, but during that time he headed the rating list of the rival PCA. At the time of his retirement, he was still ranked #1 in the world, with a rating of 2812. His rating has fallen inactive since the January 2006 rating list. In January 1990 Kasparov achieved the (then) highest FIDE rating ever, passing 2800 and breaking Bobby Fischer's old record of 2785. He has held the record for the highest rating ever achieved, ever since (as of 2008). On the July 1999 and January 2000 FIDE rating lists Kasparov reached a 2851 Elo rating, the highest rating ever achieved. The Week in Chess 270, The Week in Chess, January 10, 2000. According to the unofficial Chessmetrics calculations, Kasparov was the highest rated player in the world continuously from February 1985 until October 2004. He also holds the highest all-time average rating over a 2 (2877) to 20 (2856) year period and is second to only Bobby Fischer's (2881 vs 2879) over a one-year period. Olympiads and other major team events Kasparov played in a total of eight Chess Olympiads. He represented the Soviet Union four times, and Russia four times, following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. In his 1980 Olympiad debut, he became, at age 17, the youngest player to represent the Soviet Union or Russia at that level, a record which was broken by Vladimir Kramnik in 1992. In 82 games, he has scored (+50 =29 -3), for 78.7%, and won a total of 19 medals, including team gold medals all eight times he competed. For the 1994 Moscow Olympiad, he had a significant organizational role, in helping to put together the event on short notice, after Thessaloniki canceled its offer to host, a few weeks before the scheduled dates. Kasparov's detailed Olympiad record, from, follows. Valletta 1980, USSR 2nd reserve, 9.5/12 (+8 =3 -1), team gold, board bronze; Lucerne 1982, USSR 2nd board, 8.5/11 (+6 =5 -0), team gold, board bronze; Dubai 1986, USSR 1st board, 8.5/11 (+7 =3 -1), team gold, board gold, performance gold; Thessaloniki 1988, USSR 1st board, 8.5/10 (+7 =3 -0), team gold, board gold, performance gold; Manila 1992, Russia board 1, 8.5/10 (+7 =3 -0), team gold, board gold, performance silver; Moscow 1994, Russia board 1, 6.5/10 (+4 =5 -1), team gold; Yerevan 1996, Russia board 1, 7/9 (+5 =4 -0), team gold, board gold, performance silver; Bled 2002, Russia board 1, 7.5/9 (+6 =3 -0), team gold, board gold. Kasparov made his international teams debut for the USSR at age 16 in the 1980 European Team Championship, and played for Russia in the 1992 edition of that championship. He won a total of five medals. His detailed Euroteams record, from, follows. Skara 1980, USSR 2nd reserve, 5.5/6 (+5 =1 -0), team gold, board gold; Debrecen 1992, Russia board 1, 6/8 (+4 =4 -0), team gold, board gold, performance silver. Kasparov also represented the USSR once in Youth Olympiad competition, but the detailed data is incomplete at http://www.olimpbase.org/1981k/1981in.html; the site http://www.chessmetrics.com, the Garry Kasparov player file, has his individual score from that event. Graz 1981, USSR board 1, 9/10 (+8 =2 -0), team gold. Other records Kasparov holds the record for most consecutive professional tournament victories, placing first or equal first in 15 individual tournaments from 1981 to 1990. The streak was broken by Vasily Ivanchuk at Linares 1991, where Kasparov placed 2nd, half a point behind him. The details of this record winning streak follow (from http://www.chessmetrics.com, the Garry Kasparov player file). Frunze 1981, USSR Championship, 12.5/17, 1st=; Bugojno 1982, 9.5/13, 1st; Moscow 1982, Interzonal, 10/13, 1st; Niksic 1983, 11/14, 1st; Brussels OHRA 1986, 7.5/10, 1st; Brussels 1987, 8.5/11, 1st=; Amsterdam Optiebeurs 1988, 9/12, 1st; Belfort (World Cup) 1988, 11.5/15, 1st; Moscow 1988, USSR Championship, 11.5/17, 1st=; Reykjavik (World Cup) 1988, 11/17, 1st; Barcelona (World Cup) 1989, 11/16, 1st=; Skelleftea (World Cup) 1989, 9.5/15, 1st=; Tilburg 1989, 12/14, 1st; Belgrade (Investbank) 1989, 9.5/11, 1st; Linares 1990, 8/11, 1st. Kasparov won the Chess Oscar a record eleven times. Books and other writings Early writings Kasparov has written a number of books on chess. He published a somewhat controversial autobiography when still in his early 20s, originally titled Child of Change, which was later retitled Unlimited Challenge. This book was subsequently updated several times after he became World Champion. Its content is mainly literary, with a small chess component of key unannotated games. He published an annotated games collection in the 1980s: Fighting Chess: My Games and Career, and this book has also been updated several times in further editions. He wrote a book annotating the games from his World Chess Championship 1985 victory. He has annotated his own games extensively for the Yugoslav Chess Informant series and for other chess publications. In 1982, he co-authored Batsford Chess Openings with British Grandmaster Raymond Keene, and this book was an enormous seller. It was updated into a second edition in 1989. He also co-authored two opening books with his trainer Alexander Nikitin in the 1980s for British publisher Batsford — on the Classical Variation of the Caro-Kann Defence and on the Scheveningen Variation of the Sicilian Defence. Kasparov has also contributed extensively to the five-volume openings series Encyclopedia of Chess Openings. My Great Predecessors series My Great Predecessors, part I In 2003, the first volume of his five-volume work Garry Kasparov on My Great Predecessors was published. This volume, which deals with the world chess champions Wilhelm Steinitz, Emanuel Lasker, José Raúl Capablanca and Alexander Alekhine, and some of their strong contemporaries, has received lavish praise from some reviewers (including Nigel Short), while attracting criticism from others for historical inaccuracies and analysis of games directly copied from unattributed sources. Through suggestions on the book's website, most of these shortcomings were corrected in following editions and translations. Despite this, the first volume won the British Chess Federation's Book of the Year award in 2003. Volume two, covering Max Euwe, Mikhail Botvinnik, Vassily Smyslov and Mikhail Tal appeared later in 2003. Volume three, covering Tigran Petrosian and Boris Spassky appeared in early 2004. In December 2004, Kasparov released volume four, which covers Samuel Reshevsky, Miguel Najdorf, and Bent Larsen (none of these three were World Champions), but focuses primarily on Bobby Fischer. The fifth volume, devoted to the chess careers of World Champion Anatoly Karpov and challenger Viktor Korchnoi, was published in March 2006. Modern Chess series Modern Chess, part I His book Revolution in the 70s (published in March 2007) covers "the openings revolution of the 1970s–1980s" and is the first book in a new series called "Modern Chess Series", which intends to cover his matches with Karpov and selected games. Other post-retirement writing In 2007 he wrote How Life Imitates Chess, an examination of the parallels between decision-making in chess and in the business world. In 2008 Kasparov published a sympathetic obituary for Bobby Fischer, writing "I am often asked if I ever met or played Bobby Fischer. The answer is no, I never had that opportunity. But even though he saw me as a member of the evil chess establishment that he felt had robbed and cheated him, I am sorry I never had a chance to thank him personally for what he did for our sport." The Chessman, TIME, 26 January 2008 He is the chief advisor for the book publisher Everyman Chess. Kasparov works closely with Mig Greengard, and his comments can often be found on Greengard's blog. Chess against computers Deep Thought, 1989 Kasparov easily defeated the chess computer Deep Thought in both games of a two-game match in 1989 . Deep Blue, 1996 In February 1996, IBM's chess computer Deep Blue defeated Kasparov in one game using normal time controls, in Deep Blue - Kasparov, 1996, Game 1. But Kasparov recovered well, gaining three wins and two draws and easily winning the match. Deep Blue, 1997 In May 1997, an updated version of Deep Blue defeated Kasparov 3½–2½ in a highly publicised six-game match. The match was even after five games but Kasparov was crushed in Game 6. This was the first time a computer had ever defeated a world champion in match play. A documentary film was made about this famous match-up entitled Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine. Kasparov claimed that several factors weighed against him in this match. In particular, he was denied access to Deep Blue's recent games, in contrast to the computer's team that could study hundreds of Kasparov's. After the loss Kasparov said that he sometimes saw deep intelligence and creativity in the machine's moves, suggesting that during the second game, human chess players, in contravention of the rules, intervened. IBM denied that it cheated, saying the only human intervention occurred between games. The rules provided for the developers to modify the program between games, an opportunity they said they used to shore up weaknesses in the computer's play revealed during the course of the match. Kasparov requested printouts of the machine's log files but IBM refused, although the company later published the logs on the Internet. Kasparov versus Deep Blue - Replay the Games, IBM Research Website Kasparov demanded a rematch, but IBM declined and retired Deep Blue, which has been viewed by Kasparov as covering up evidence of tampering during the game. Deep Junior, 2003 Kasparov played with 3D glasses in his match against the program X3D Fritz. In January 2003, he engaged in a six game classical time control match with a $1 million prize fund which was billed as the FIDE "Man vs. Machine" World Championship, against Deep Junior. The engine evaluated three million positions per second. After one win each and three draws, it was all up to the final game. After reaching a decent position Kasparov offered a draw, which was soon accepted by the Deep Junior team. Asked why he offered the draw, Kasparov said he feared making a blunder. Originally planned as an annual event, the match was not repeated. X3D Fritz, 2003 In November 2003, he engaged in a four-game match against the computer program X3D Fritz, using a virtual board, 3D glasses and a speech recognition system. After two draws and one win apiece, the X3D Man-Machine match ended in a draw. Kasparov received $175,000 for the result and took home the golden trophy. Kasparov continued to criticize the blunder in the second game that cost him a crucial point. He felt that he had outplayed the machine overall and played well. "I only made one mistake but unfortunately that one mistake lost the game." Other Kasparov has been credited with the invention of Advanced Chess in 1998, a new form of chess in which a human and a computer play together. Kasparov has two European patent applications: EP1112765A4: METHOD FOR PLAYING A LOTTERY GAME AND SYSTEM FOR REALISING THE SAME from 1998, and EP0871132A1: METHOD OF PLAYING A LOTTERY GAME AND SUITABLE SYSTEM from 1995. Kasparov is reported to be a supporter of Anatoly Fomenko's New Chronology. Kasparov gets co-credit for game design of Kasparov Chessmate, a computer chess program. Kasparov is a member of the International Council of the New York-based Human Rights Foundation. Kasparov won Marca Leyenda trophy in 1997. Books Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part 2: Kasparov vs Karpov 1975-1985, (2008, Everyman Chess) Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part 1: Revolution in the 70s, (2007, Everyman Chess) How Life Imitates Chess, (2007, William Heinemann Ltd) My Great Predecessors Part V (2006, Everyman Chess) My Great Predecessors Part IV (2004, Everyman Chess) My Great Predecessors Part III (2004, Everyman Chess) Checkmate!: My First Chess Book (2004, Everyman Mindsports) My Great Predecessors Part II (2003, Everyman Chess) My Great Predecessors Part I (2003, Everyman Chess) Lessons in Chess (1997, Everyman Chess) Garry Kasparov's Chess Challenge (1996, Everyman Chess) Kasparov on the King's Indian (1993, B.T. Batsford Ltd) Kasparov Versus Karpov, 1990 (1991, Everyman Chess) The Queen's Indian Defence: Kasparov System (1991, B.T. Batsford Ltd) The Sicilian Scheveningen (1991, B.T. Batsford Ltd) Unlimited Challenge (1990, Grove Pr) London-Leningrad Championship Games (1987, Everyman Chess) Child of Change: An Autobiography (1987, Hutchinson) World Chess Championship Match: Moscow, 1985 (1986, Everyman Chess) The Test of Time (Russian Chess), (1986, Pergamon Pr) See also Kasparov versus the World List of people who have beaten Garry Kasparov in chess List of chess games between Kasparov and Kramnik Committee 2008 Notes References Further reading External links The Other Russia, Civic Coalition for Democracy - Official site Другая Россия - Official site Сайт «Марш несогласных» - March of the Discontented Итоговое заявление участников конференции «Другая Россия» Concluding statement by the participants, www.kasparov.ru United Civil Front, a civic political movement to ensure Democracy in the Russian Federation, initiated by Garry Kasparov Garry Kasparov, "Man of the Year?", OpinionJournal'', December 23, 2007 Edward Winter, List of Books About Fischer and Kasparov | 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5,612 | Murder | Paul Cézanne's The Murder Murder, as defined in common law countries, is the unlawful killing of another human being with intent (or malice aforethought), and generally this state of mind distinguishes murder from other forms of unlawful homicide. All jurisdictions, ancient and modern, consider it a most serious crime and therefore impose severe penalty on its commission. The word murder is related, in old English, to the French word mordre (bite) in reference to the heavy compensation one must pay for causing an unjust death. "Mordre wol out; that se we day by day." - Geoffrey Chaucer (1340–1400), The Canterbury Tales, The Nun’s Priest’s Tale, l. 4242 (1387-1400), repr. In The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, ed. Alfred W. Pollard, et al. (1898). A person who commits murder is called a murderer; Definition of murderer in Merriam Webster's Online Dictionary (2009). Retrieved on 2009-05-17. the term murderess, meaning a woman who murders, has largely fallen into disuse. Usage note for -ess in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition (2000). Retrieved on 2009-05-17. Legal analysis of murder William Blackstone (citing Edward Coke), in his Commentaries on the Laws of England set out the common law definition of murder as The first few elements are relatively straightforward; however, the concept of "malice aforethought" is a complex one that does not necessarily mean premeditation. The following states of mind are recognized as constituting the various forms of "malice aforethought": Intent to kill, Intent to inflict grievous bodily harm short of death, Reckless indifference to an unjustifiably high risk to human life (sometimes described as an "abandoned and malignant heart"), or Intent to commit a dangerous felony (the "felony-murder" doctrine). Under state of mind (i), intent to kill, the deadly weapon rule applies. Thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. An example of a deadly weapon or instrument is a gun, a knife, or even a car when intentionally used to strike the victim. Under state of mind (iii), an "abandoned and malignant heart", the killing must result from defendant's conduct involving a reckless indifference to human life and a conscious disregard of an unreasonable risk of death or serious bodily injury. An example of this is a 2007 law in California where an individual could be convicted of third-degree murder if he or she kills another person while operating a motor vehicle while being under the influence of alcohol, drugs, or controlled substances. Under state of mind (iv), the felony-murder doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape, robbery or kidnapping. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included offense such as assault, otherwise all criminal homicides would be murder as all are felonies. Origins Murder in religion One of the oldest known prohibitions against murder appears in the Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu written sometime between 2100 and 2050 BC. The code states, "If a man commits a murder, that man must be killed." In Abrahamic religions, the prohibition against murder is one of the Ten Commandments given by God to Moses in (Exodus: 20v13) and (Deuteronomy 5v17) (See Murder in the Bible). The Vulgate and subsequent early English translations of the Bible used the term secretly killeth his neighbor or smiteth his neighbour secretly rather than murder for the Latin clam percusserit proximum. Vulgate Deuteronomy Ch27 V24 Parallel Hebrew Old Testament Deuteronomy Ch27 V24 Later editions such as Young's Literal Translation and the World English Bible have translated the Latin occides simply as murder rather than the alternatives of kill, assassinate, fall upon or slay. Parallel Hebrew Old Testament Exodus ch20v13 Christian churches have some doctrinal differences about what forms of homicide are prohibited biblically, though all agree murder is. Killing in the Bible. AllExperts.com. The term "assassin" derives from Hashshashin, American Speech - McCarthy, Kevin M.. Volume 48, pp. 77-83 a militant Ismaili Muslim sect, active from the eighth to the fourteenth centuries. This mystic secret society killed members of the Abbasid, Fatimid, Seljuq and Crusader élite for political and religious reasons. Secret Societies Handbook, Michael Bradley,Altair Cassell Illustrated, 2005. ISBN 978-1844034161 The Thuggee cult that plagued India was devoted to Kali, the goddess of death and destruction. Thug: the true story of India's murderous cult by Mike Dash, The Independent Thuggee (Thagi) (13th C. to ca. 1838) According to the Guinness Book of Records the Thuggee cult was responsible for approximately 2 million deaths. According to Ross Hassig, author of Aztec Warfare, "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed in the 1487 re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan. Hassig, Ross (2003). "El sacrificio y las guerras floridas". Arqueología mexicana, p. 46-51. The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice Science and Anthropology Codification The crime of murder was often formally codified after democratic reform in various jurisdictions, legislatures began passing statutes. Legal definition As with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation. At Common law According to Blackstone, English common law identified murder as a Public Wrong. Blackstone, Book 4, Chapter 14 At Common Law, murder is consider to be Malum in se, that is an act which is evil within itself. An act such as murder is wrong/evil by its very nature. And it is the very nature of the act which does not require any specific detailing or definition in the law to consider murder a crime. A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage By Bryan A. Garner, pg. 545. Some jurisdictions still take a common law view of murder. In such jurisdictions, precedent Case law or previous decisions of the Courts of Law defines what is considered murder. However, it tends to be rare and the majority of jurisdictions have some statutory prohibition against murder. Basic elements In common law jurisdictions, murder has two elements or parts: the act (actus reus) of killing a person the state of mind (mens rea) of intentional, purposeful, malicious, premeditated, and/or wanton. While murder is often expressed as the unlawful killing of another human being with "malice aforethought", this element of malice may not be required in every jurisdiction (for example, see the French definition of murder below). The element of malice aforethought can be satisfied by an intentional killing, which is considered express malice. Malice can also be implied: deaths that occur by any recklessness or during certain serious crimes are considered to be implied malice murders. Exclusions Unlawful killings without malice or intent are considered manslaughter. Justified or accidental killings are considered homicides. Depending on the circumstances, these may or may not be considered criminal offenses. Suicide is not considered murder in most societies. Assisting a suicide, however, may be considered murder in some circumstances. Capital punishment ordered by a legitimate court of law as the result of a conviction in a criminal trial with due process for a serious crime. Killing of enemy combatants by lawful combatants in accordance with lawful orders in , although illicit killings within a war may constitute murder or homicidal war crimes. (see the Laws of war article) The administration of lethal drugs by a doctor to a terminally ill patient, if the intention is solely to alleviate pain, is seen in many jurisdictions as a special case (see the doctrine of double effect and the case of Dr John Bodkin Adams). Margaret Otlowski, Voluntary Euthanasia and the Common Law, Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 175-177 Victim All jurisdictions require that the victim be a natural person; that is a human being who was still alive at the time of being murdered. Most jurisdictions legally distinguish killing a fetus or unborn child as a different crime, such as illegal abortion of a fetus or the unlawful killing of an unborn child. The distinction between a fetus and an unborn child in these jurisdictions is that a child could survive if it had been born, while a fetus could not. Mitigating circumstances Some countries allow conditions that "affect the balance of the mind" to be regarded as mitigating circumstances. This means that a person may be found guilty of "manslaughter" on the basis of "diminished responsibility" rather than murder, if it can be proved that the killer was suffering from a condition that affected their judgment at the time. Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and medication side-effects are examples of conditions that may be taken into account when assessing responsibility. Insanity Mental disorder may apply to a wide range of disorders including psychosis caused by schizophrenia and dementia, and excuse the person from the need to undergo the stress of a trial as to liability. In some jurisdictions, following the pre-trial hearing to determine the extent of the disorder, the defense of "not guilty by reason of insanity" may be used to get a not guilty verdict. R. v. M'Naughten, get full cite. This defense has two elements: That the defendant had a serious mental illness, disease, or defect. That the defendant's mental condition, at the time of the killing, rendered the perpetrator unable to determine right from wrong, or that what he or she was doing was wrong. Under New York law, for example: Under the French Penal Code: Those who successfully argue a defense based on a mental disorder are usually referred to mandatory clinical treatment until they are certified safe to be released back into the community, rather than prison. , note: this text refer to the procedure of Involuntary commitment by the demand of the public authority, but the prefect systematically use that procedure whenever a man is discharged due to his dementia. Post-partum depression Some countries, such as Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Australia, allow post-partum depression (also known as post-natal depression) as a defense against murder of a child by a mother, provided that a child is less than two years old (this may be the specific offense of infanticide rather than murder and include the effects of lactation and other aspects of post-natal care). Self-defense Acting in self-defense or in defense of another person is generally accepted as legal justifications for killing a person in situations that would otherwise have been murder. However, a self-defense killing might be considered manslaughter if the killer established control of the situation before the killing took place. In the case of self-defense it is called a justifiable homicide. Unintentional For a killing to be considered murder, there normally needs to be an element of intent. For this argument to be successful the killer generally needs to demonstrate that they took precautions not to kill and that the death could not have been anticipated or was unavoidable, whatever action they took. As a general rule, manslaughter constitutes reckless killing, while criminally negligent homicide is a grossly negligent killing. Diminished capacity In those jurisdictions using the Uniform Penal Code, such as California, diminished capacity may be a defense. For example, Dan White used this defense (the so-called "Twinkie defense"). to obtain a manslaughter conviction, instead of murder, in the assassination of Mayor George Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk. Year-and-a-day rule In some common law jurisdictions, a defendant accused of murder is not guilty if the victim survives for longer than one year and one day after the attack. This reflects the likelihood that if the victim dies, other factors will have contributed to the cause of death, breaking the chain of causation. Subject to any statute of limitations, the accused could still be charged with an offence representing the seriousness of the initial assault. With advances in modern medicine, most countries have abandoned a fixed time period and test causation on the facts of the case. In the UK, due to medical advancements, the "year-and-a-day-rule" is no longer in use. However, if death occurs three years or more after the original attack then prosecution can take place only with the Attorney-General's approval. In the United States, many jurisdictions have abolished the rule as well. Abolition of the rule has been accomplished by enactment of statutory criminal codes, which had the effect of displacing the common-law definitions of crimes and corresponding defenses. In 2001, the Supreme Court of the United States held that retroactive application of a state supreme court decision abolishing the year-and-a-day rule did not violate the Ex Post Facto Clause of Article I of the United States Constitution. Rogers v. Tennessee, . Demographics An estimated 520,000 people were murdered in 2000 around the globe. Two-fifths of them were young people between the ages of 10 and 29 who were killed by other young people. WHO: 1.6 million die in violence annually Murder rates vary greatly among countries and societies around the world. In the Western world, murder rates in most countries have declined significantly during the 20th century and are now between 1-4 cases per 100,000 people per year. Murder rates in Japan, Ireland and Iceland are among the lowest in the world, around 0.5; the rate of the United States is among the highest of developed countries, around 5.5 in 2004, FBI web site with rates in larger cities sometimes over 40 per 100,000. Infoplease.com. Within the Western world, nearly 90% of all murders are committed by males, with males also being the victims of 74.6% of murders (according the US Department of Justice). There is a sharp peak in the age distribution of murderers between the ages of 17 and 30. People become decreasingly likely to commit a murder as they age. Incidents of children and adolescents committing murders are also extremely rare, notwithstanding the strong media coverage such cases receive. The following absolute murder counts per-country are not comparable because they are not adjusted by each country's total population. Nonetheless, they are included here for reference. There are an estimated 55,000 murders in Brazil every year, Brazil murder rate similar to war zone, data shows about 30,000 murders committed annually in Russia, approximately 25,000 murders in Colombia (in 2005, murders went down to 15,000 Colombia's Uribe wins second term ), approximately 20,000 murders each year in South Africa, approximately 17,000 murders in the United States (666,160 murders from 1960 to 1996), Twentieth Century Atlas - Homicide approximately 15,000 murders in Mexico, approximately 11,000 murders in Venezuela, approximately 6,000 murders in El Salvador, approximately 1,600 murders in Jamaica, Jamaica "murder capital of the world" approximately 1000 murders in France, approximately 580 murders per year in Canada, Canada's National Statistical Agency:Homicides and approximately 200 murders in Chile. Crime Statistics The murder rate in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea is 23 times that of London. 32,719 murder cases were registered across India in 2007. Pakistan reported 9,631 murders. Record 32,719 killings in India last year. Irish Times. June 4, 2008. UNICEF has reported that in India, more than 5,000 brides are killed annually because their dowries are considered insufficient. Murder is the leading cause of death for African American males aged 15 – 34. In the year 2005 the Black homicide victimization rate was 6 times higher than the rate for Whites (7,999 Black victims), Department Of Justice with 94% of Black homicide victims being killed by a Black offender. In London in 2006, 75% of the victims of gun crime and 79% of the suspects were "from the African/Caribbean community". More than 500,000 people have been killed by firearms in Brazil between 1979 and 2003. BBC NEWS Americas | UN highlights Brazil gun crisis Murder demographics are affected by the improvement of trauma care, leading to reduced lethality of violent assaults - thus the murder rate may not necessarily indicate the overall level of social violence. Development of murder rates over time in different countries is often used by both supporters and opponents of capital punishment and gun control. Using properly filtered data, it is possible to make the case for or against either of these issues. For example, one could look at murder rates in the United States from 1950 to 2000, Disaster Center web site and notice that those rates went up sharply shortly after a moratorium on death sentences was effectively imposed in the late 1960s. This fact has been used to argue that capital punishment serves as a deterrent and, as such, it is morally justified. Capital punishment opponents frequently counter that the United States has much higher murder rates than Canada and most European Union countries, although all those countries have abolished the death penalty. Gun control advocates further point out that, unlike the United States, many European countries disallow gun ownership by private citizens but Switzerland has the least restrictive firearm laws and corresponding higher gun murder deaths. Canada introduced a comprehensive Firearms Certificate program in 1977, which was followed by a sharp decline in its homicide rate (and its firearm homicide rate) however firearm homicide rates have crept back up to pre-1977 levels by 2005 even though the overall rate remains less. Overall, the global pattern is too complex and, on average, the influence of both these factors may not be significant and could be more social, economic and cultural. Out of a national sample of 1,499 Iraqi adults, 22% had one or more members of their household killed due to the Iraq War (poll accuracy +/-2.4%). "More than 1,000,000 Iraqis murdered". September 2007. Opinion Research Business. PDF report: ORB reported that 48% died from a gunshot wound, 20% from car bombs, 9% from aerial bombardment, 6% as a result of an accident and 6% from another blast/ordnance. "Greenspan Admits Iraq was About Oil, As Deaths Put at 1.2 Million". By Peter Beaumont and Joanna Walters. Sept. 16, 2007. The Observer (UK). Country-specific murder law Australia Murder is defined in the New South Wales (NSW) Crimes Act 1900 as follows: CRIMES ACT 1900 - SECT 18 Murder and manslaughter defined Under NSW law, the maximum penalty for murder is life imprisonment with a standard non-parole period of 20 years. Attempted murder carries a maximum penalty of 25 years imprisonment. Crimes Act 1900 §§ 27-30 Note that in order to be guilty of murder under the NSW Crimes Act, intent to cause grievous bodily harm is enough to secure a conviction for murder, as is felony murder (constructive murder in Australia). There is a statutory defence of provocation in NSW law, if provocation is proven and the person would have otherwise been convicted of murder, directs the jury to find the defendant not guilty of murder but guilty of manslaughter. Crimes Act 1900 § 23 However, this is not the case in Victoria - the Crimes Act 1958 (VIC), in Section 3B, states: The rule of law that provocation reduces the crime of murder to manslaughter is abolished. Crimes Act 1958 - SECT 3B Provocation no longer a partial defence to murder In any jurisdiction within Australia, the maximum penalty for murder is life imprisonment. NSW law follows the life means life construction; http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s19.html therefore the maximum sentence is life without possibility of parole. Canada As defined in the Criminal Code of Canada, murder is considered one type of culpable homicide, distinguished from the offences of manslaughter or infanticide. Criminal Code of Canada, R.S., c. C-34, s. 205 First and second degree In Canada, murder is classified as either first or second degree. Criminal Code of Canada, R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 231; R.S., 1985, c. 27 (1st Supp.), ss. 7, 35, 40, 185(F), c. 1 (4th Supp.), s. 18(F); 1997, c. 16, s. 3, c. 23, s. 8; 2001, c. 32, s. 9, c. 41, s. 9. First degree murder is a murder which is (1) planned and deliberate, (2) contracted, (3) committed against an identified peace officer, (4) while committing or attempting to commit one of the following offences (hijacking an aircraft, sexual assault, sexual assault with a weapon, aggravated sexual assault, kidnapping and forcible confinement or hostage taking), (5) while committing criminal harassment, (6) committed during terrorist activity, (7) while using explosives in association with a criminal organization, or (8) while committing intimidation. Criminal Code Second degree murder is all murder which is not first degree murder. It could be "spur of the moment". Manslaughter and infanticide Manslaughter is any culpable homicide which is not murder or infanticide. Criminal Code of Canada, R.S., c. C-34, s. 217. Infanticide is the killing of a newly-born child by its mother where the mother's mind was disturbed as a result of giving birth or of consequent lactation. It is a type of homicide but is excluded from murder. Criminal Code of Canada, R.S., c. C-34, s. 216. Penalties The mandatory penalties for murder are Parole eligibilty, sec 745 : First degree murder - mandatory life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for 25 years (but someone guilty of a single murder could be have his non-parole period reduced to no less than 15 years (see Faint hope clause). Second degree murder - mandatory life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for 11–25 years (parole eligibility determined by the judge at sentencing, but if the person has a prior conviction for murder, parole eligibility is 25 years) There is a clause under which a person convicted of any "personal injury offence" meeting the statutory criteria may be declared a "dangerous offender". A dangerous offender is sentenced for an indeterminate period of imprisonment and is eligible for parole after serving at least 7 years. An offender convicted of 1st or 2nd degree murder is ineligible to be declared a dangerous offender. However, an offender convicted of manslaughter can be declared a dangerous offender. Denmark In Denmark manddrab (manslaughter) is the term used by the Danish penalty law to describe the act of intentionally killing another person. No distinction between manslaughter and murder exists. The penalty goes from a minimum of five years (six years in the case of regicide) to imprisonment for life. Besides the general offence described above there are more specific homicide offences in Danish law that are not considered as grave as manslaughter. Infanticide is defined as a mother who kills her child during or immediately after childbirth due to distress, fear of infamy or under the influence of a debilitation, bewilderment or perplexity caused by giving birth and is punished with imprisonment for up to four years. Euthanasia is defined as killing somebody on their definite request and is punished with imprisonment for up to three years. While attempting suicide is not considered criminal in Danish law, assisting somebody in committing suicide is punishable by imprisonment for up to three years. Besides deliberate killing two offences regarding the unintentional killing of someone exist in Danish law. Negligent homicide is defined as negligently causing the death of another person. The penalty is a fine or imprisonment for up to four years, under aggravating circumstances imprisonment for up to eight years. Death caused by aggravated battery describes the situation where the perpetrator has the intention to commit an aggravated battery but where the battery leads to the unintentional death of the victim. The punishment is imprisonment for up to ten years. England and Wales In English law, the definition of murder is: The unlawful killing of a human being, under the Queen's Peace, with "malice aforethought". Contrast this with the original definition by Sir Edward Coke CJ in 1597 of: Note that it is no longer necessary for the victim to die within a year and a day of the offence, Law Reform (Year and a Day Rule) Act 1996, s1 nor for the victim to be a reasonable creature. Specific statutory instances of situations where death is caused are: Infanticide - Under s1 Infanticide Act 1938, the intentional killing of an infant under 1-year-old by a mother suffering from post-natal depression or other post-natal disturbance represents an early form of diminished responsibility defence and Causing death by dangerous driving (of a motor vehicle) was introduced because jurors, many of whom were drivers, thought the charge of manslaughter to carry too great a level of stigma for the degree of fault actually shown by some drivers and refused to convict when the charge was manslaughter. Now motor manslaughter is considered an acceptable charge for the more seriously dangerous examples of driving resulting in death, with aggravated TWOC for the least seriously dangerous driving resulting in death. The aggravated form of criminal damage, including arson, under s1(2) Criminal Damage Act 1971 could be the anticipatory offence rather than a charge of attempted murder. Any other killing would be considered either manslaughter in English law or an accident. Voluntary manslaughter is murder mitigated to manslaughter by virtue of the statutory defences under the Homicide Act 1957, namely provocation, diminished responsibility or suicide pact. Involuntary manslaughter is the killing of another person whether by act or omission either while committing an unlawful act (known as constructive manslaughter) or by gross negligence. English Law also allows for transferred malice. For example, where a man fires a gun with the intent to kill person A but the shot misses and kills an otherwise unconnected person B, the intent to kill transfers from person A to person B and a charge of murder would stand. The accused could also be charged with the attempted murder of A. As to mens rea, the model direction to be given to juries for Intention in English law following R v. Woollin, House of Lords - Regina v. Woollin is a modified version of that proposed by Lord Lane, C.J. in R v Nedrick [1986] 1 WLR 1025, namely: Where the charge is murder and in the rare cases where the simple direction is not enough, the jury should be directed that they are not entitled to infer the necessary intention, unless they feel sure that death or serious bodily harm was a virtual certainty (barring some unforeseen intervention) as a result of the defendant's actions and that the defendant appreciated that such was the case, the decision being for the jury to decide on a consideration of all the evidence. The defences of duress and necessity in English law are excluded from murder cases. An exception is Re A [2000], a case involving a pair of conjoined twins. However, the judge noted the legal adage that "hard cases make bad law" and recommended that the precedent should not be followed. Another defence is that of double effect. As established in the 1957 trial of Dr John Bodkin Adams, causing death through the administration of lethal drugs to a patient, if the intention is solely to alleviate pain, is not considered murder. Comparatively recent adaptations to the English law of murder include the abolition of the "year and a day rule", and the proposed introduction of a less restrictive regime for corporate manslaughter. The Law Commission Consultation Paper No. 177 also advocates a redefinition of murder and a limitation of the scope of manslaughter. http://www.lawcom.gov.uk/docs/cp177_web.pdf Finland In Finland, murder is defined as homicide with at least one of four aggravating factors: Deliberate intent Exceptional brutality or cruelty Significantly endangering public safety Committed against a public official engaged in enforcing the law. Further, the offense considered as a whole must be aggravated. A murder doesn't expire. The only possible punishment for murder is life imprisonment. Typically, the prisoner will be pardoned by the Helsinki Court of Appeals after serving 12 to 14 years of his sentence, but this is not automatic. The President can also give pardon, and previously this used to be the only possibility. In jurisprudence, the comparison of an actual crime against "especially brutal or cruel way"-standard has been understood to mean comparison to "usual" homicide cases. In recent cases, the Finnish Supreme Court has not considered a single axe stroke on the head, or strangulation to be "especially brutal or cruel". On the other hand, causing death by jumping on a person's chest and head and firing over 10 times upon a person's torso have been considered to fulfill the standard. The only sentence for murder is life in prison. Until 2006, this meant an actual life sentence which could be pardoned only by the president. However, since the 1960s presidents have regularly given pardons to practically all offenders after a period of 12–15 years. In 2006, the legislation was changed so that all life sentences are reviewed by an appellate court after they have been executed for 12 years. If the convict is still deemed a danger to society, his case will be reviewed every two years after this. Involuntary confinement to a psychiatric institution may also result, sometimes after the sentence is served. The involuntary treatment ends when the psychiatrist decides so, or when a court decrees it no longer necessary in a periodical review. If the prerequisites are not fulfilled, but the homicide has been deliberate and premeditated, the convict is sentenced for second degree murder (tappo) to a minimum of eight years in prison. There is also the crime of voluntary manslaughter (surma), which is a homicide under mitigating/extenuating circumstances, with the punishment of four to ten years. Involuntary manslaughter (kuolemantuottamus) has a maximum punishment of two years of imprisonment or fine (see day fine). Infanticide carries a punishment of at least four months and at most four years in prison. France In the French Penal Code murder is defined by the intentional killing of another person. Murder is punishable by a maximum of 30 years of criminal imprisonment (no more than 20 years if the defendant is not sentenced to 30 years). Assassination (murder with premeditation) and murder in some special case (if the victim is a child under 15, parents, people with disabilities, police officer etc.) are punished by a jail time up to life imprisonment (no more than 30 years if the defendant is not sentenced to life). In France except for recidivist the minimum sentence in criminal prosecution is one or two year of imprisonment, imprisonment which may be suspended if the term of the sentence is under 5 years. Manslaughter is punishable by 15 years imprisonment, or 20 years with aggravating circumstances (the same that make a murderer eligible for life in jail). Germany In Germany the term Mord (murder) is officially used for the intentional killing of another person, but only if the case is especially severe. The requirements can be read in § 211 of the German Criminal Code, Strafgesetzbuch (StGB). Those qualifying circumstances are categorized into three groups: detestable motive detestable way of committing the crime detestable purpose/aim of the criminal. Intentional killing that isn't murder usually fulfills § 212 (Totschlag literally means "deathblow": similar to second-degree murder, however actually any case of killing that is not fulfilling the qualifications of murder as seen above - actually the same as Tötung (killing) in Swiss law). The current form of § 211 StGB was created in the year 1941. Before that the differentiation between Mord (murder) and Totschlag (killing) was, that Mord was killing "with premeditation" ("mit Überlegung" - directly translated: with consideration, however that is just another legal word for the same concept) and Totschlag without (1871-1941). However this differentiation was considered too vague. The reform was orientated on discussions for the reform of the Swiss StGB, which also had the same differentiation. It took over the idea and mainly also the wording of the reform commission for the Swiss StGB headed by Stoss in 1896. With this version, the differentiation between Mord and Totschlag contains problems. This led to ongoing discussions in the legal community about the wording, the interpretation and also about a reform of the law. If the victim of a killing earnestly wanted to be killed (for example, when suffering an incurable disease) the crime would be Tötung auf Verlangen (killing on demand, § 216 StGB) which would result in 6 months to 5 years in prison (usually suspended) – basically, mercy killing. In 2002, there was a cannibal case in which the offender, Armin Meiwes, claimed that the victim wanted to be killed. The court convicted him of "Totschlag", since they didn't see the qualifications of a murder. Both prosecution and defense appealed, the prosecution in order to reach a guilty of murder verdict, the defense in order to reduce the charge to killing on demand. The German "Bundesgerichtshof", the highest German court of appeal, eventually convicted him of murder. For more details, see Armin Meiwes. If the killing was due to negligence it is punished according to § 222 StGB as fahrlässige Tötung (negligent homicide or manslaughter). Many cases in this field are car accidents due to negligence that result in the death of a person. If the death is a negligent consequence of an intended act of violence, it is classified as Körperverletzung mit Todesfolge (injury resulting in death). Penalties The penalty for Mord is lifelong imprisonment, which is usually suspended after 17–18 years (15 years minimum) on a probation of 5 years or if the court decided on a special gravity (Feststellung der besonderen Schwere der Schuld), the sentence can only be suspended much later, earliest after 18 years but usually after 22–23 years (the law states that a suspension after 15 years is not possible for "special gravity" crimes, but provides no explicit minimum served time). The penalty for Totschlag is five to fifteen years in prison and in especially grave cases life time imprisonment (minimum sentence 15 years). Especially grave cases are very rare, because usually such case already fall under Mord (§ 211). In lesser cases (minderschwerer Fall, § 213) the prison sentence is one to ten years. The law itself gives one example for a minor case: the killing due to the provocation of the killed person, e.g. if the killed person has beaten him or one of his relatives or has severely insulted them and the killer acted under the influence of great anger. The lesser case of Totschlag is similar. Felony murder German criminal law also knows the institute of the felony murder which also carries a life-long sentence, however only if a person is intentionally or negligently killed in the course of a robbery, a kidnapping or a sexual assault. Actually only if the killing was intended by the criminal it is called murder. Intention also includes cases where the criminal knows that the victim could die and simply takes that into account for other causas Robbery with deadly outcome If the killing was due to gross negligence the criminal can be punished for robbery with deadly outcome (Raub mit Todesfolge) according to § 251. The punishment is a lifetime prison sentence or a prison sentence not below 10 years. The same applies for rape with deadly outcome (§ 178: Vergewaltigung mit Todesfolge) and other crimes. Attempted suicide Attempted suicide and aiding (Beihilfe zur Selbsttötung) and abetting a person intent on killing himself are not punishable by German criminal law. Capital Punishment Before 1949 the usual punishment for Mord (§ 211) in Germany was capital punishment, except in less severe cases. In 1949, the death penalty was abolished by the Grundgesetz in West Germany. In East Germany the death penalty was abolished in 1987. After the 1950s it was very rarely used. Hong Kong There is one ordinance that governs all the crimes against persons, termed as Offences Against the Person Ordinance, HK Laws. Chap 212. http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_ind.nsf/CurAllEngDoc?OpenView&Start=205&Count=30&Expand=212.1#212.1 Attempted Murder Attempted murder using poison, wounding another (§ 10), by destroying or damaging building (§ 11), setting fire to or casting away ship (§ 12) and attempting to shoot or drown (§ 13), all have a penalty of life imprisonment. Attempted murder by other means not specified above (§ 14) shall be liable to imprisonment for life. Manslaughter Act against infant Child is not born Child is born If a woman does or does not do something for her baby's death, Suicide Suicide used to be a crime, as with the UK. Israel Israel had 173 murders in 2004, compared to 147 murders in 2000. Israeli government web sitePdf Two particular characteristics of homicide in Israel are the terrorist attacks and (so called) honor killings. There are five types of homicide in Israel: Murder - The premeditated killing of a person, or the intentional killing of a person whilst committing, preparing for, or escaping from any crime, is murder. The mandatory punishment for this crime is life imprisonment. Life is usually commuted (clemency from the President) to 30 years from which a third can be deducted by the parole board for good behaviour. Arab terrorists are not usually granted pardons or parole other than as part of deals struck with Arab terrorist organisations or foreign governments and in exchange for captured Israelis or their corpses. Reduced sentence murder - If the murderer did not fully understand his actions because of mental defect (but not legal insanity or imbecility), or in circumstances close to self-defence, necessity or duress or where the murderer suffered from serious mental distress because of long-term abuse, the court can give a sentence of less than life. This is a new addition to the Israeli penal code and has been rarely used. Manslaughter - The deliberate killing of a person without premeditation (or the other circumstances of murder) is manslaughter for which the maximum sentence is 20 years. The sentence depends on the particular circumstances of the crime and its perpetrator. Negligent killing or vehicular killing - Maximum sentence is 3 years (minimum of 11 months for the driver). The perpetrator in this situation can expect to receive some jail time of about 6 – 12 months. Infanticide - The killing of a baby less than 12 months old by its mother where she can show that she was suffering from the effects of the birth or breast-feeding. Maximum sentence is 5 years. Italy By Italian law, murder (omicidio) is regulated by articles 575-582, 584-585, and 589 of the Penal Code (Codice Penale). In general, according to Art.575, "whoever causes the death of a human being is punishable by no less than 21 years in prison"; nevertheless, the law indicates a series of circumstances under which murder has to be punished with life in prison. It must also be noted that, according to Italian law, any sentence of more than 5 years perpetually deprives (Interdizione perpetua dai Pubblici Uffici) the condemned person of: the voting rights; the ability to exercise any public office; the ability to be employed in any governmental or para-statal position (articles 19, 28, 29). The convict for life is also deprived of his/her quality of parent: the children are either given in custody to the other parent or hosted in a public structure (art.32). In detail, according to articles 576 and 577 is punishable with life imprisonment murder committed: In order to commit another crime, or in order to escape, of favor, or take advantage from another crime (art.61, sect.2); Against a next of kin (parent or child) and either through insidious means, with premeditation, cruelly, of for futile motives; By a fugitive in order to escape capture, or in order to acquire means of subsistence; While raping or sexually assaulting a person (articles 519, 520, 521). In a cruel way and/or through the use of torture (art.61, sect.1); For abject and/or futile motives (art.61, sect.4); Against a next of kin (parent or child); Through insidious means; With premeditation. Cases 1 through 4 (art.576) used to be considered capital murder, and therefore punishable by death by firing squad. Since 1946, though, death penalty was discontinued in Italy, and death was substituted with life imprisonment. Sentences for murder under cases 5 through 9 (art.577). instead, are subject to parole or probation.A person that is serving a life sentence can reach libertà condizionata Besides the criminal murder detailed above, in Italian law the following cases also exist: Infanticide - (Infanticidio in condizioni di abbandono materiale e morale), murder of the infant immediately following the birth committed by the mother who is in conditions of material or moral disorder, is punishable with a sentence between 4 and 12 years (art. 578). Killing on demand - (Omicidio del consenziente), the action to kill someone with his/her consent, is punishable with a sentence between 6 and 15 years. This, however, is considered murder if the victim, when giving his/her consent, was under the age of 18, intoxicated, mentally disable, or if the consent was obtained through violence, menace, or deception (art.579). Assistance or instigation of suicide - (Istigazione o aiuto al suicidio), the action to help someone to commit suicide, or to convince someone to commit suicide, is punishable with a sentence between 5 and 12 years if the suicide succeeds, or between 1 and 5 years if it does not succeed but a body injury has been made. This, however, is considered murder if the suicide is under the age of 14 (art.580). Injury resulting in death - (Omicidio preterintenzionale) occurs when, as a result of a deliberated act of violence not meant to kill (articles 581,582), the death of a person occurs. This crime is punishable with a sentence between 10 and 18 years (art.584). This sentence can be increased from one third to one half (up to 27 years) if a circumstance stated by articles 576 and 577 occurs, or if a weapon is used (art.585). Manslaughter - (Omicidio colposo), the action of causing the death of a person without intention, is punished with a sentence between 6 months and 5 years. If the victims are more than one as a consequence of the same act, multiple counts can be added up to 12 years in prison (art.589). The Netherlands By Dutch law, murder (moord) is punishable by a maximum sentence of life imprisonment, which is the longest prison sentence the law allows. A common misconception is that the maximum sentence is 30 years (20 until 2006): this is the longest sentence that can be imposed other than life imprisonment. A life sentence is given 4 to 5 times a year on average and currently over 30 people are serving a life sentence in the Netherlands. They will all die in prison unless given parole by either Queen Beatrix or her successor. The average sentence is 12 to 15 years. In addition to a prison sentence, the judge may sentence the suspect to TBS, or 'terbeschikkingstelling', meaning detention in a psychiatric institution, sometimes including forced treatment. TBS is imposed for a number of years (most often in relation to the severity of the crime) and thereafter prolonged if deemed necessary by a committee of psychiatrists. This can be done indefinitely, and has therefore been criticized as being a life sentence in disguise. Voluntary manslaughter (doodslag) is punishable by a prison sentence of up to 15 years, or life imprisonment when committed during the commission of a crime or as an act of terrorism. Involuntary manslaughter (dood door schuld) is punishable by a prison sentence of up to two years. If involuntary manslaughter is caused by recklessness, the maximum sentence that can be imposed is four years. Norway In Norway any act of murder (mord or drap) is generally split into three categories; planned murder, intentional murder or murder as a result of neglect. Categories of murder Planned murder or First Degree Murder - (overlagt drap) is a murder committed with the intention of taking the life of another, by a person fully sane and aware of what he or she is doing, and having planned the act of murder ahead. Planned murder is punished with up to 21 years of imprisonment. Under special circumstances, like a murder of severe cruelty, or if there is reason to believe the offender may commit murder again, additional years of imprisonment can be given. LOV-1902-05-22-10 Almindelig borgerlig Straffelov (Straffeloven) This usually takes place at a court hearing near the end of the sentence. Intentional murder or Second Degree Murder - (forsettlig drap) is a murder committed with the intention of taking the life of another, by a person fully sane and aware of what he or she is doing, without the act of murder having been planned ahead. Murder of passion usually falls into this category. Intentional murder is punished by 6 to 12 years of imprisonment. LOV-1902-05-22-10 Almindelig borgerlig Straffelov (Straffeloven) Murder as a result of neglect or manslaughter - (uaktsomt drap) is defined as a case where someone has been killed as a result of the offenders neglect. For example, a car driver may be convicted for murder if someone is killed as a result of his or her careless driving. Murder as a result of neglect is punishable by 3 to 6 years, depending on the circumstances. LOV-1902-05-22-10 Almindelig borgerlig Straffelov (Straffeloven) Other forms of murder Assisted suicide is generally illegal in Norway, and will in most cases be treated as planned murder, although the punishment may be milder depending on the circumstances. Euthanasia (aktiv dødshjelp) has been much debated in Norway. Some groups have expressed that it should be legal in cases where the victim is sane and fully aware of what he or she is asking for. Acts of euthanasia, however, are illegal, and are treated as any other form of assisted suicide. Portugal Overview The Portuguese Penal Code was adopted in 1982 and has been revised on several occasions, most recently in 2007. It devotes a whole chapter on "crimes against human life". In fact, the very first crime addressed on that code is murder. The Portuguese Constitution (adopted in 1976) expressly forbids the death penalty (art. 24, § 2) and life imprisonment (art. 30, § 1). Additionally, since 1997, the Constitution does not allow the extradition of anyone who would be subject to any of those two forms of punishment at the requesting country. Unless binding assurances are given that the suspect will not be sentenced to either death penalty or life imprisonment, the extradition must be rejected. Additionally, the Penal Code states that no person may be sentenced to a prison term longer than 25 years, whichever crimes he or she has been found guilty of committing. Therefore, a multiple murderer - no matter how many actual homicides - will not serve more than 25 years in prison. Likewise, in the case murder is committed in addition to other felonies, the defendant will be sentenced to a single prison term, for a period no longer than 25 years, encompassing the applicable terms for each crime committed. It should also be mentioned that, according the Portuguese Penal Code, only very rarely will a sentence of less than 5-years imprisonment be enforced. In fact, article 75, § 1, states that if an offence is punishable by a prison term or another non-detentive form of punishment, the court should opt for the non-detentive punishment "if this punishment will satisfy adequately the objectives of the criminal law." Therefore, someone convicted to up to 5 years in prison will be put on probation or (if the sentence if for less than 3 years) will simply have the prison sentence suspended. If the convicted felon commits another intentional crime during the period of suspension or probation, he or she will serve fully the prison term. Probation or term-suspension usually will only be denied in the case of criminals with very long criminal records. Homicide Intentional murder, or homicide, is split into two categories, much like the American classification of murder in the first degree and murder in the second degree discussed above. Homicide, or wilful and intentional murder (art. 131 of the Penal Code), is punishable with a prison sentence of no less than 8 years and no longer than 16 years. Aggravated homicide(art. 132 of the Penal Code) is considered any wilful and intentional act in which death is provoked under particularly censurable or malicious circumstances, and is punishable with a prison term of no less than 12 and no longer than 25 years. The following circumstances are adequate to constitute a case of aggravated homicide: a) When the murderer is a descendant or an ascendant, either by blood or adoption, of the victim. b) When the victim is the spouse, former spouse, or person of the same or different with sex with whom the felon had a marital relationship, even if not a member of the same household, or the other parent of the son or daughter of the felon. c) When the victim is especially defenceless, due to his/her age, handicap, illness or pregnancy. d) When the murder employs torture or other act of cruelty to enhance the victim's sufferance. e) When the murder is determined by greed, by the pleasure of causing death or suffering, for personal enjoyment or sexual gratification or any other futile motive. f) When the murder is determined by racial, religious or political hatred or motivated by the colour, ethnical or national origin, sex or the sexual orientation of the victim. g) When the murder takes place in order to prepare, facilitate, execute or dissimulate another crime, or to facilitate the escape from the authorities. h) When the act is carried out in conjunction with, at least, another two people or when an especially dangerous mean is used to cause death. i) When poison or any other insidious mean is used to cause death. j) When the intent to commit murder has persisted for longer than 24 hours. l) When the victim is the holder of public office, a docent, a minister of any religious cult, a judge or referee of any federated sport, and the act is related and caused by the exercise of said functions. m) When the murderer is a public servant (e.g. a police officer) and the act takes place with serious abuse of authority. Other than homicide and aggravated homicide, the Penal Code also has provisions for other forms of intentionally and unlawfully causing someone's death: Privileged homicide (art. 133) - when the murder takes place under an understandable violent emotion, compassion, despair or other socially or morally relevant motive, such as to significantly diminish the murderer's degree of guilt. Punishment in this case is prison for 1 to 5 years. Homicide by request (art. 134) - when the murder is carried out at the serious, constant and explicit request of the victim. Punishment is prison for 6 months to 3 years. Inciting or assisting suicide (art. 135) - if someone incites or assists another person to commit suicide, he or she is sentenced to prison for 6 months to 3 years. The punishment is increased to a prison term of 1 to 5 year, in the case the victim is under 16 years old or has, in any way, his or her capacity impaired. Infanticide (art. 136) - when the mother, under the disturbing influence of delivering the baby, commits murder while delivering it, or immediately afterwards. Punishment is 1 to 5 years imprisonment. Abortion (art. 140) - abortion carried out without the consent of the pregnant woman is punishable with imprisonment for 2 to 8 years. Abortion with the consent of the pregnant woman carries a prison term of 6 months to 3 years; the same penalty applying to the woman consenting to the abortion. However, abortion is not punishable if carried out at a registered clinic or hospital, at the request of the pregnant woman, until the tenth week of pregnancy (or later, in some circumstances). Manslaughter Manslaughter, which art. 136 of the Penal Code refers to as homicide caused by negligence, is punishable with a prison term of no less than 6 months and no longer than 3 years, or a fine. If the death is caused by gross negligence the penalty the prison term is of 6 months to 5 years. Additionally, unintentionally causing someone's death while committing a crime other than homicide is an aggravating factor in the determination of the punishment applicable to that specific crime. For example, if the crime of abandonment (exposing a defenceless person to a situation in which he or she will not to be able to cope with, therefore causing harm to the victim) results in the victim's death, the punishment is 3 to 10 years imprisonment, whereas the normal penalty would be 1 to 5 years. In another example, aggravated assault resulting in the death of the victim is punishable with 3 to 13 years imprisonment, whereas the usual penalty would be 2 to 10 years. Conditional liberty Inmates are usually not required to serve fully their prison terms. The Penal Code allows for the possibility of releasing them on conditional liberty ("liberdade condicional"), or parole. Parole is granted once one-half of the term has been served if both the following requirements are met: One would reasonably expect the inmate, given the circumstances of his or her life, previous conduct, personality and evolution during incarceration, to behave in a socially responsible way without committing crimes, if released. The release of the convict will not endanger the public order nor aggravate the community. If the second requirement is not met (which would be the case when the particular crime has cause huge uproar in the community), the inmate will be released once two-thirds of the prison term have been served, as long as the inmate is reasonably expected to behave in a socially responsible way without committing crimes, if released. Even if the inmate is not expected to behave in a socially responsible way, he or she is released once five sixths of the prison terms have been served, unless the inmate refuses to be released. Parole last for the remaining period of the unserved prison term, but no longer than 5 years. Once the period of parole is fully served in a satisfactory manner, the remaining unserved prison sentence is declared void. Status of convicts and felons Convicts and felons may not suffer any effect from their criminal conviction other than deprivation of liberty for the period of incarceration, unless the sentence specifically establishes other effects in a direct and reasonable relationship with the offence committed. Convicts do not lose any right or entitlement due to their conviction, namely political rights. In fact, on election day polling stations are set up at the major prison establishments so that inmates may exercise their right to vote, if they so wish. Any criminal conviction registered on the felon’s criminal record is stricken after a certain period of time, depending on the gravity of the offence. In the case of murder, this fact would be stricken from the murderer's criminal record once 15 years have elapsed from fully serving his or hers sentence without committing any other offence. Romania According to the Romanian Penal Code, a person can face a penalty ranging from 10 to 25 years or life imprisonment for murder. (There are also mandatory restrictions of some constitutional rights for all types of murder.) Degrees of murder Murder - (10 to 20 years) Killing a person when no aggravating circumstances apply. Qualified murder (15 to 25 years). Aggravating circumstances: a) with premeditation b) concerning a material interest c) against spouse or close relative d) taking advantage of victim's impossibility of self-defence e) when putting in danger the lives of multiple persons f) concerning job attributions of the victim g) for facilitating or hiding another crime h) in public Extremely grave murder (15 to 25 years or life imprisonment). Aggravating circumstances: a) committed in a cruel way b) against two or more persons c) by a person who had already committed a murder d) in order to hide a robbery e) against a pregnant woman f) against a policeman, gendarme, magistrate or soldier (in connection with their public duties) Negligent or accidental murder (1 to 5 years in simple form). Aggravating circumstances: a) Caused by a professional in connection with his job for not respecting the legal dispositions (2 to 7 years) b) By a vehicle driver with blood alcohol concentration (BAC) above legal limits or in a drunk state (5 to 15 years) c) By a professional in a drunk state - in connection with his job duties (5 to 15 years) d) When causing the death of two or more persons (5 to 15 years) Infanticide (2 to 7 years). Switzerland In Switzerland murder (Mord, Assassinat or Assassinio respectively in German, French or Italian) is also used for the premeditated killing of another person, but only if the motives are cruel, disgusting or show an overall disrespect of human life. Penalty ranges from ten years to life in prison. Furthermore, homicide is considered murder if it is cruel (e.g. inflicts great pain on the victim) and/or unusual, done so using explosives or arson, or if it is done to satisfy perverse lusts. Any homicide not meeting these standards is considered to be a killing (Tötung, Meurtre or Omicidio), and the penalty is not as heavy. Most homicides in Switzerland are considered killings, with the penalty ranging from 5 to 20 years. The Swiss equivalent for manslaughter is Totschlag, Meurtre passionel or Omicidio passionale. Killers are sentenced for Totschlag when they committed the crime in a very, and especially excusable, state of excitement (a "Crime of passion"). For example, a wife who's been mistreated by her husband for years, and kills him in a fit of rage, would be sentenced for Totschlag. The penalty is one to ten years in prison. There are many other privileged variants of killing, similar to manslaughter, such as killing on demand of the "victim"; or assisted suicide, in which case the punishment is considerably lower; this latter is only punishable if there are selfish motives. The "assisted suicide" in general is not punishable. The relevant articles of the Swiss Penal Code (Strafgesetzbuch) are 111 to 117 (and in a certain measure, 118 to 120), which can be read in the Swiss Penal Code, second book, in French, French language version of Swiss Penal Code Italian, Italian language version of Swiss Penal Code or German. German language version of Swiss Penal Code Sweden In Sweden, the following degrees of murder apply: Murder (Mord) is defined as "taking the life of another", and punishable with imprisonment for 10 years or for life. (3-1 § of the Penal Code) Manslaughter (Dråp) is murder that is considered less serious, either due to the circumstances or the crime itself, punishable with a fixed prison term between 6 and 10 years. (3-2 §) Infanticide (Barnadråp) is murder committed by a mother on her child "when, owing to her confinement, she is in a disturbed mental state or in grave distress", punishable with any prison term up to 6 years. (3-3 §) Negligent homicide (Vållande till annans död, literally causing another's death) is murder committed due to carelessness. For negligent homicide, there are three types of punishments: 1) A fine (day-fines) if the crime is petty, 2) Any prison term up to 2 years, or 3) Any prison term between 6 months and 6 years if the crime is gross. Gross negligence is distinguished by "the taking of a considerable risk leading to the death, or driving a motor vehicle under influence leading to the death". (3-7 §) The Swedish Minister of Justice, Beatrice Ask, has recently criticized the current system of punishment for murder, as "persons eligible for sentences higher than 10 years instead are sentenced to that term rather than life imprisonment". Instead, a term of 18 years imprisonment are considered to be inserted. Currently, the murder and infanticide laws originate from 1962, while the law of negligent homicide was altered in 1993. 1998 version of the Penal Code (English) United States In the United States, the principle of dual sovereignty applies to homicide, as to other crimes. If murder is committed within the borders of a state, that state has jurisdiction. If the victim is a federal official, an ambassador, consul or other foreign official under the protection of the United States, or if the crime took place on federal property or involved crossing state borders, or in a manner that substantially affects interstate commerce or national security, then the Federal Government also has jurisdiction. If a crime is not committed within any state, then Federal jurisdiction is exclusive: examples include the District of Columbia, naval or U.S.-flagged merchant vessels in international waters, or a U.S. military base. In cases where a murder involves both state and federal jurisdiction, the offender can be tried and punished separately for each crime without raising issues of double jeopardy, unless the court believes that the new prosecution is merely a "sham" forwarded by the prior prosecutor. Koon v. United States, 518 U.S. 81 (1996) Modern codifications tend to create a genus of offenses, known collectively as homicide, of which murder is the most serious species, followed by manslaughter which is less serious, and ending finally in justifiable homicide, which is not a crime at all. Because there are 51 jurisdictions, each with its own criminal code, this section treats only the crime of murder, and does not deal with state-by-state specifics. At base, murder consists of an intentional unlawful act with a design to kill and fatal consequences. Generally, an intention to cause great bodily harm is considered indistinguishable from an intention to kill, as is an act so inherently dangerous that any reasonable person would realize the likelihood of fatality. Thus, if the defendant hurled the victim from a bridge, it is no defense to argue that harm was not contemplated, or that the defendant hoped only to break bones. Murder is the unlawful killing of human being with malice aforethought. Malice can be expressed (intent to kill) or implied. Implied malice is proven by acts that involve reckless indifference to human life or in a death that occurs during the commission of certain felonies (the felony murder rule). The exact terms of the felony murder vary tremendously from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Sentencing for murder in the United States has a mean of 349 months and a median of 480 months. US Dept. of Justice: Felony Defendants in Large Urban Counties, 2002 Degrees of murder in the United States Before the famous case of Furman v. Georgia in 1972, most states distinguished two degrees of murder. While the rules differed by state, a reasonably common scheme was that of Pennsylvania, passed in 1794: "Murder which shall be perpetrated by means of poison, or by lying in wait, or by any other kind of willful, deliberate, and premeditated killing, or which shall be committed in the perpetration or attempt to perpetrate, any arson, rape, robbery, or burglary, shall be deemed murder of the first degree (or capital murder in some states that carry the death penalty); and all other kinds of murder shall be deemed murder of the second degree." Electronic Law Library definition "Murder one", as the term was popularized by novels and television, carried a penalty of death, or life in prison, while the penalty for "murder two" was generally around 80 years in prison. After the Supreme Court placed new requirements on the imposition of the death penalty, most states adopted one of two schemes. In both, third degree murder became the catch-all, while first degree murder was split. The difference was whether some or all first degree murders should be eligible for the most serious penalty (generally death, but sometimes life in prison without the possibility of parole). The first scheme, used by Pennsylvania http://weblinks.westlaw.com/result/Default.aspx?cite=NDC9536B034-2D11DA8A989-F4EECDB8638&db=1000262&findtype=VQ&fn=_top&ifm=NotSet&rlt=CLID_FQRLT5077219819192&rp=%2FSearch%2Fdefault.wl&rs=WEBL9.01&service=Find&spa=pac-1000&sr=TC&vr=2.0 among other states: First Degree Murder: An intentional killing by means of poison, or by lying in wait, or by any other kind of willful, deliberate and premeditated action. Second Degree Murder: Homicide committed by an individual engaged as a principal or an accomplice in the perpetration of a felony. Third Degree Murder: Any other murder (e.g. when the intent was not to kill, but to harm the victim). The second scheme, used by New York among other states, as well as the Model Penal Code: First Degree Murder: Murder involving special circumstances, such as murder of a police officer, judge, fireman or witness to a crime; multiple murders; and torture or especially heinous murders. Note that a "regular" premeditated murder, absent such special circumstances, is not a first-degree murder; murders by poison or "lying in wait" are not per se first-degree murders. First degree murder is pre-meditated. See, e.g., N.Y.State Penal Law section 125.27, found at N.Y. State Legislative web site (search for Penal Law § 125.27). However, the New York Court of Appeals struck down the death penalty as unconstitutional in the case of People v. LaValle, because of the statute's direction on how the jury was to be instructed in case of deadlock in the penalty phase. Second Degree Murder: Any premeditated murder or felony murder that does not involve special circumstances. See, e.g., N.Y. State Penal Law section 125.25, found at N.Y. State Legislative web site (search for Penal Law § 125.25). Some states, such as California, simply preserved the old distinction between two degrees and have no offense called third degree murder. They simply have "first-degree murder" (leading to life in prison with a possibility of parole) and "first-degree murder with special circumstances" (leading to death or life without the possibility of parole), while second-degree murder continues to be the default category (punished by life in prison with a shorter term until parole eligibility). Other states use the term "capital murder" for those offenses that merit death, and the term is often used even in states whose statutes do not include the term. As of 2006, 38 states and the federal government have laws allowing capital punishment for certain murders and related crimes (such as treason, terrorism, and espionage). The penalty is rarely asked for and more rarely imposed, but it has generated tremendous public debate. See also capital punishment and capital punishment in the United States. Fetal homicide in the United States Fetal homicide laws in the United States Under the common law, an assault on a pregnant woman resulting in a stillbirth was not considered murder; the child had to have breathed at least once to be a human being''. Remedies were limited to criminal penalties for the assault on the mother and tort action for loss of the anticipated economic services of the lost child and/or for emotional pain and suffering. With the widespread adoption of laws against abortion, the assailant could be charged with that offense, but the penalty was often only a fine and a few days in jail. When the Supreme Court greatly reduced laws prohibiting abortions in Roe v. Wade (1973) those sanctions became harder to use. This meant that an assault which ensured that the baby never breathed would result in a lesser charge. Various states passed "fetal homicide" laws, making killing of an unborn child murder; the laws differ about the stage of development at which the child is protected. After several well-publicized cases, Congress passed the Unborn Victims of Violence Act, which specifically criminalizes harming a fetus, with the same penalties as for a similar attack upon a person, when the attack would be a federal offense. Most such attacks fall under state laws; for instance, Scott Peterson was convicted of killing his unborn son as well as his wife under California's pre-existing fetal homicide law. Vikings (8th to 11th centuries) The Viking culture had a very different concept of murder. If a person killed someone, then it was up to the murderer to pay the family fair compensation (weregild) for the labor lost by the member's death. If the perpetrator refused to pay weregild, it was up to the family of the slain to extract it from the perpetrator, or take his life. May Damages Be Recovered by a Non-Resident Alien for the Death of a Son? University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register, Vol. 57, No. 3, Volume 48 New Series (December 1908), pages 171-173 doi:10.2307/3313315 In Nordic countries, the payment of weregild was used in homicide cases until the 16th century. The only other type of killing with consequences in Viking culture was "unjust killing", i.e. killing someone while they were sleeping or had their back to the killer. While the financial implications of unjust killing were no more severe, the killer in question suffered from a tremendous loss of trust and could be declared an outlaw. See also -cide 187, a slang term from California Cult homicides Deicide Double murder Execution-style murder Felony murder Femicide Homicide Internet homicide Killology List of countries by murder rate List of events named massacres List of unsolved murders and deaths Thrill killing Capital punishment Life imprisonment Crime of passion Misdemeanor murder Depraved heart murder Murder conviction without a body References Bibliography Lord Mustill on the Common Law concerning murder Sir Edward Coke Co. Inst., Pt. III, ch.7, p. 50 External links - Murder in the UK - detailed site 1986 Seville Statement on Violence (from UNESCO) Introduction and Updated Information on the Seville Statement on Violence U.S. Centers for Disease Control "Atlas of United States Mortality" Cezanne's depiction of "The Murder" | Murder |@lemmatized paul:1 cézanne:1 murder:272 define:11 common:14 law:71 country:17 unlawful:9 killing:37 another:27 human:12 intent:16 malice:15 aforethought:7 generally:8 state:58 mind:8 distinguishes:1 form:13 homicide:56 jurisdiction:24 ancient:1 modern:4 consider:35 serious:13 crime:59 therefore:7 impose:6 severe:5 penalty:38 commission:5 word:3 relate:2 old:9 english:12 french:7 mordre:2 bite:1 reference:3 heavy:2 compensation:2 one:24 must:7 pay:3 cause:29 unjust:3 death:63 wol:1 se:3 day:13 geoffrey:2 chaucer:2 canterbury:1 tale:2 nun:1 priest:1 l:2 repr:1 work:1 ed:1 alfred:1 w:1 pollard:1 et:1 al:2 person:55 commit:48 call:6 murderer:12 definition:10 merriam:1 webster:1 online:1 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5,613 | Jon_Voight | Jonathan Vincent "Jon" Voight (born December 29, 1938) is an American film and television actor. He has had a long and distinguished career as both a leading man and, in recent years, a character actor, with an extensive and compelling range. He came to prominence at the end of the sixties, with a performance as a would-be hustler in 1969's Best Picture winner, Midnight Cowboy, for which he earned his first Academy Award nomination. Throughout the following decades, Voight built his reputation with an array of challenging roles and has appeared in such landmark films as 1972's Deliverance, and 1978's Coming Home, for which he received an Academy Award for Best Actor. Voight's impersonation of sportscaster/journalist Howard Cosell, in 2001's biopic Ali, earned Voight critical raves and his fourth Oscar nomination. He has starred in the seventh season of 24 as the villain Jonas Hodges. He is the father of actors Angelina Jolie and James Haven as well as brother of singer-songwriter Chip Taylor and geologist Barry Voight. He has six grandchildren by Jolie and her partner Brad Pitt. Biography Early life Voight was born in Egg Harbor Twp, New Jersey, the son of Barbara (née Kamp; New York, January 7, 1910 – Palm Beach County, Florida, December 3, 1995) and Elmer Voight (October 29, 1909–June, 1973), a professional golfer. His maternal grandparents were German; his paternal grandfather was an immigrant from the city of Košice in Slovakia. Voight attended Archbishop Stepinac High School in White Plains, New York, where he first took an interest in acting, playing the comic role of Count Pepi Le Loup in the school's annual musical, The Song of Norway. After graduating from high school in 1956, he went to college at The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., where he majored in art and graduated with a B.A. in 1960. At CUA, he demonstrated his artistic skill by designing the cardinal that adorned the center of the floor of the basketball court. This section of floor now resides on display in the school's Pryzbyla University Center. Early career After graduation, Voight moved to New York City, where he pursued an acting career. In 1962 he married actress Lauri Peters, whose credits include 1962's Mr. Hobbs Takes a Vacation and 1963's Summer Holiday. In the early sixties, Voight found work in television, appearing in several episodes of Gunsmoke, between 1962 and 1966, as well as guest spots on Naked City, and The Defenders, both in 1963, and Twelve O'Clock High, in 1966. Voight's film debut did not come until 1967, when he took a part in Phillip Kaufman's crimefighter spoof, Fearless Frank. Voight also took a small role in 1967's western, Hour of the Gun, directed by veteran helmer John Sturges. That year he and Lauri Peters were divorced, after five years of marriage. In 1968 Voight took a role in director Paul Williams' Out of It. While Voight pursued acting, his brother Wes found success as a songwriter under the nom de plume Chip Taylor. Taylor penned The Troggs' 1966 hit, Wild Thing, as well as Angel of the Morning. Another of Jon's brothers, Barry Voight, studied geology at Columbia University and became a world-renowned volcanologist at Pennsylvania State University. Barry Voight bio from Penn State Becoming a star in the 1970s In 1969, Voight was cast in the groundbreaking Midnight Cowboy, a film that would make his career. Voight played Joe Buck, a naïve male hustler from Texas, adrift in New York City. He comes under the tutelage of Dustin Hoffman's Ratso Rizzo, a tubercular petty thief and con artist. The film explored late sixties New York and the development of an unlikely, but poignant friendship between the two main characters. Directed by John Schlesinger and based on a novel by James Leo Herlihy, the film struck a chord with critics. Because of its controversial themes, the film was released with an X rating and would make history by being the only X-rated feature to win Best Picture at the Academy Awards. Both Voight and co-star Hoffman were nominated for Best Actor but lost out to John Wayne, star of that year's True Grit. In 1970 Voight appeared in Mike Nichols' adaptation of Catch-22, and re-teamed with director Paul Williams to star in The Revolutionary, as a left wing college student struggling with his conscience. Voight appeared in 1972's Deliverance, directed by John Boorman, from a script that poet James Dickey had helped to adapt from his novel of the same name. The story of a canoe trip gone awry in a feral, backwoods America. The film and the performances of Voight and co-star Burt Reynolds received great critical acclaim and were popular with audiences. On 12 December 1971 Voight married model and actress Marcheline Bertrand. Their son James Haven was born in 1973, followed by daughter Angelina Jolie in 1975. Both children would go on to enter the film business, James as an actor and writer, and Angelina as a movie star in her own right. Voight played a directionless young boxer in 1973's The All American Boy, then appeared in the 1974 film, Conrack, directed by Martin Ritt. Based on Pat Conroy's autobiographical novel The Water Is Wide, Voight portrayed the title character, an idealistic young schoolteacher sent to teach underprivileged black children on a remote South Carolina island. The same year he appeared in The Odessa File, based on Frederick Forsyth's thriller, playing a young German journalist who discovers a conspiracy to protect former Nazis still operating within Germany. This film first teamed him with the actor-director Maximilian Schell, for whom Voight would appear in 1976's End of the Game, a psychological thriller based on a story by Swiss novelist and playwright, Friedrich Dürrenmatt. In 1978, Voight portrayed the paraplegic Vietnam veteran Luke Martin in Hal Ashby's film Coming Home. Voight, who was awarded Best Actor at the Cannes Film Festival, for his portrait of an embittered paraplegic, reportedly based on real-life Vietnam veteran-turned-anti-war activist Ron Kovic, with whom Fonda falls in love. The film included a much-talked-about love scene between the two. Jane Fonda won her second Best Actress award for her role, and Voight won for Best Actor in a Leading Role. Voight's marriage to Marcheline Bertrand failed in 1978. The following year, Voight once again put on boxing gloves, starring in 1979's remake of the 1931 Wallace Beery and Jackie Cooper vehicle, The Champ, with Voight playing the part of an alcoholic ex-heavyweight and a young Rick Schroder playing the role of his adoring son. The film was an international success, but less popular with American audiences. Career in the 1980s Jon Voight in 1988. He next re-teamed with director Ashby in 1982's Lookin' to Get Out, in which he played Alex Kovac, a con man who has run into debt with New York mobsters and hopes to win enough in Las Vegas to pay them off. Voight both co-wrote the script and also co-produced. He also produced and acted in 1983's Table for Five, in which he played a widower bringing up his children by himself. In 1985, Voight hooked up with Russian writer and director Andrei Konchalovsky to play the role of escaped con Manny Manheim in Runaway Train. The script was based on a story by Akira Kurosawa, and paired Voight with Eric Roberts as a fellow escapee. Voight received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor and won the Golden Globe's award for Best Actor. Roberts was also honored for his performance, receiving an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Voight followed up this and other performances with a role in the 1986 film, Desert Bloom, and reportedly experienced a "spiritual awakening" toward the end of the decade. In 1989 Voight starred in and helped write Eternity, which dealt with a television reporter's efforts to uncover corruption. Work in the 1990s He made his first foray into television movies, acting in 1991's Chernobyl: The Final Warning, followed by The Last of his Tribe, in 1992. He followed with 1992's The Rainbow Warrior for ABC, the story of the ill-fated Greenpeace ship sunk by French operatives in the Auckland harbour. For the remainder of the decade, Voight would alternate between feature films and television movies, including a starring role in the 1993 miniseries Return to Lonesome Dove, a continuation of Larry McMurtry's western saga, 1989's Lonesome Dove. Voight played Captain Woodrow F. Call, the part played by Tommy Lee Jones in the original miniseries. Voight made a cameo appearance as himself on the Seinfeld episode "The Mom & Pop Store" airing November 17, 1994, in which George Costanza buys a car that appears to be owned by Jon Voight. In 1995 Voight played a role in the film, Heat, directed by Michael Mann, and appeared in the television films Convict Cowboy, and The Tin Soldier, also directing the latter film. Voight next appeared in 1996's blockbuster Mission: Impossible, directed by Brian DePalma and starring Tom Cruise. Voight played the role of spymaster James Phelps, a role originated by Peter Graves in the television series. The year 1997 was a busy time for Voight in which he appeared in six films, beginning with Rosewood, based on the 1923 destruction of the primarily black town of Rosewood, Florida, by the white residents of nearby Sumner. Voight played John Wright, a white Rosewood storeowner who follows his conscience and protects his black customers from the white rage. Voight next appeared in Anaconda. Set in the Amazon, Voight played Paul Sarone, a snake hunter obsessed with a fabled giant anaconda, who hijacks an unwitting National Geographic film crew looking for a remote Indian tribe. Voight next appeared in a cameo role in Oliver Stone's U Turn, portraying a blind man. Voight took a supporting role in The Rainmaker, adopted from the John Grisham novel and directed by Francis Ford Coppola. He played an unscrupulous lawyer representing an insurance company, facing off with a neophyte lawyer played by Matt Damon. His last film of 1997 was Boys Will Be Boys, a family comedy directed by Dom DeLuise. The following year, Voight had the lead role in the television movie The Fixer, in which he played Jack Killoran, a lawyer who crosses ethical lines in order to "fix" things for his wealthy clients. A near-fatal accident awakens his dormant conscience and Killoran soon runs afoul of his former clients. He also took a substantial role in Tony Scott's 1997 political thriller, Enemy of the State, in which Voight played Will Smith's stalwart antagonist from the NSA . Voight was reunited with director Boorman in 1998's The General. Set in Dublin, Ireland, the film tells the true-life story of the charismatic leader of a gang of thieves, Martin Cahill, at odds with both the police and the IRA. Voight portrays Inspector Ned Kenny, determined to bring Cahill to justice. Voight next appeared in 1999's Varsity Blues. Voight played a blunt, autocratic football coach, pitted in a test of wills against his star player, portrayed by James Van Der Beek. Produced by fledgling MTV Pictures, the film became a surprise hit and helped connect Voight with a younger audience. Voight played Noah in the 1999 television production Noah's Ark, and appeared in Second String, also for TV. He also appeared with Cheryl Ladd in the feature A Dog of Flanders, a remake of a popular film set in Belgium. The following year Voight would watch from the audience as his daughter received the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her role in 1999's Girl, Interrupted. Recent career Voight next portrayed Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 2001's action/war film, Pearl Harbor, reportedly beating out Gene Hackman for the role (his performance was received favorably by critics). Also that year, he appeared as Lord Croft, father of the title character of Lara Croft: Tomb Raider. Based on the popular video game, the digital adventuress was played on the big screen by Voight's own real-life daughter, Angelina Jolie. That year, he also appeared in Zoolander, directed by Ben Stiller who starred as the title character, a vapid supermodel with humble roots. Voight appeared as Zoolander's coal-miner father. The film extracted both pathos and cruel humor from the scenes of Zoolander's return home, when he entered the mines alongside his father and brothers and Voight's character expressed his unspoken disgust at his son's chosen profession. Also in 2001, Voight joined Leelee Sobieski, Hank Azaria and David Schwimmer in the made-for-television movie Uprising, which was based on the uprising in the Warsaw ghetto. Voight played Major-General Juergen Stroop, the officer responsible for the destruction of the Jewish resistance, and received an Emmy nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Director Michael Mann tagged Voight for a small but crucial role in the 2001 biopic Ali, which starred Will Smith as the controversial former heavyweight champ, Muhammad Ali. Voight was almost unrecognizable under his make-up and toupee, as he impersonated the sports broadcaster Howard Cosell. Voight received his fourth Academy Award nomination, this time for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, for his performance, extending his reign as one of Hollywoods most talented actors. In the critically-acclaimed CBS miniseries Pope John Paul II, released in December 2005, Voight, who was raised a Catholic, portrayed the pontiff from the time of his election until his death, garnering an Emmy nomination for the role. In 2003, he played the role of Mr. Sir in Holes. In 2004, Voight joined Nicolas Cage, in National Treasure as Patrick Gates, the father of Cage's character. In 2006, he was Kentucky Wildcats head coach Adolph Rupp in the Disney hit Glory Road. In 2007, he played United States Secretary of Defense John Keller in the summer blockbuster Transformers, reuniting him with Holes star Shia LaBeouf. Also in 2007, Voight reprised his role as Patrick Gates in National Treasure: Book of Secrets. In 2008, Voight played Jonas Hodges, the villain, in the seventh season of the hit FOX drama "24", a role that many argue is based on real life figures Alfried Krupp, Johann Rall and Erik Prince. Voight plays the CEO of a fictitious Arms industry called Starkwood, which has loose resemblances to Blackwater USA and ThyssenKrupp. Voight made his first appearance in the two-hour prequel episode "24: Redemption" on November 27. Politics As a young man Voight's political views were liberal and he supported both John F. Kennedy and George McGovern. During the Nixon administration Voight actively protested against the Vietnam War. However, in a July 28, 2008, op-ed in The Washington Times he wrote that he regrets his youthful anti-war activism, calling it the result of "Marxist propaganda." Voight appeared on Fox & Friends to endorse former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani for the 2008 Republican Party nomination. He attended a Giuliani campaign event and said New York City was transformed into a much safer, cleaner and more livable city. He said "God sent an angel, his name was Rudy Giuliani." http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080128/ap_on_el_pr/giuliani_florida Yahoo News. Retrieved on 2008-01-28. In another interview in Miami with AventuraUSA.com, Voight said he first met Giuliani "years ago" at a movie premiere in New York City and the main reason for his support was Giuliani's public poise in the wake of the September 11 attacks. http://www.aventurausa.com/miami/magazine/black/jonvoight.shtml Jon Voight interview with AventuraUSA.com In the interview, Voight revealed he and then-Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton "are friends." In March 2008, Voight appeared at a rally aboard the USS Midway in San Diego, California for the kick-off of Vets for Freedom's National Heroes Tour. In an April 11, 2008, interview on the Glenn Beck show Voight stated that he had thrown his support to Republican Senator John McCain for President. http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/bestoftv/2008/04/10/beck.jon.voight.cnn The Glenn Beck Show. Retrieved on 2008-04-21. In May 2008, Voight paid a solidarity visit to Israel in honor of its 60th birthday. "I’m coming to salute, encourage and strengthen the people of Israel on this joyous 60th birthday," said Voight. “This week is about highlighting Israel as a moral beacon. At a time when its enemies threaten nuclear destruction, Israel heals." Jon Voight to pay Sderot a solidarity visit - Israel Culture, Ynetnews Voight visited Israeli victims of Palestinian rocket attacks in Sderot. On July 28, 2008, he wrote an editorial in The Washington Times critical of then-Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/jul/28/voight/ The Washington Times "My Concerns for America" Retrieved 2008-07-30 In September 2008 Voight appeared in a video available on YouTube from the Republican National Convention admonishing viewers to support the American troops. He also provided the narration for a video biography of Alaska governor Sarah Palin, the Republican Vice-Presidential nominee, that appeared on John McCain's campaign website. Voight was a guest at the 2008 Republican National Convention. Voight also starred with fellow Republican actors Kelsey Grammer, Dennis Hopper, and James Woods in the conservative-leaning "comedy" film An American Carol, which opened on October 3, 2008. Filmography Year Film Role Notes 1969 Midnight Cowboy Joe Buck BAFTA Award for Best NewcomerGolden Globe Award for Most Promising NewcomerNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best ActorNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorNominated — Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama 1970 Catch-22 1st Lt. Milo Minderbinder 1972 Deliverance Ed Gentry Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama 1974 The ODESSA File Peter Miller Conrack Pat Conroy 1975 End of the Game Walter Tschanz 1978 Coming Home Luke Martin Academy Award for Best ActorBest Actor Award (Cannes Film Festival)Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture DramaLos Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNational Board of Review Award for Best ActorNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor 1979 The Champ BillyNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama 1982 Lookin' to Get Out Alex Kovac Co-writer 1983 Table For Five J.P. Tannen 1985 Runaway Train Oscar "Manny" Manheim Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture DramaNominated — Academy Award for Best Actor 1986 Desert Bloom Jack Chismore 1989 Eternity Edward/James Co-writer 1991 Chernobyl: The Final Warning Dr. Robert Peter Gale (TV) 1992 The Last of His Tribe Professor Alfred KroeberCableACE Award for Actor in a Movie or MiniseriesNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film The Rainbow Warrior Peter Willcox 1995 Heat Nate Tin Soldier Yarik Director 1996 Mission: Impossible James Phelps 1997 The Rainmaker Leo F. Drummond Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture Rosewood John Wright Anaconda Paul Sarone U Turn Blind Man Most Wanted Gen. Adam Woodward, alias Lt. Col. Grant Casey 1998 Enemy of the State Thomas Brian Reynolds The General Ned Kenny 1999 Varsity Blues Coach Bud Kilmer A Dog of Flanders Michel La Grande 2000 Noah's Ark Noah 2001 Zoolander Larry Zoolander Lara Croft: Tomb Raider Lord Richard Croft Pearl Harbor Franklin D. Roosevelt Ali Howard Cosell Nominated — Academy Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated — Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated — Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture Uprising Maj. Gen. Jürgen Stroop Nominated — Emmy Award for Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie 2003 Holes Mr. Sir 2004 The Five People You Meet in Heaven Eddie Nominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie National Treasure Patrick Gates SuperBabies: Baby Geniuses 2 Bill Biscane/Kane The Manchurian CandidateSenator Thomas Jordan The Karate Dog Hamilton Cage Executive Producer 2005 Pope John Paul II John Paul II Nominated — Emmy Award for Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie 2006 The Legend of Simon Conjurer Dr. Crazx Glory Road Adolph Rupp 2007 Transformers Defense Secretary John Keller September Dawn Jacob Samuelson Bratz Principal Dimly National Treasure: Book of Secrets Patrick Gates 2008 Pride and Glory Francis Tierney Sr. An American Carol George Washington Tropic Thunder HimselfCameo appearance 24: Redemption Jonas Hodges (TV) Four Christmases Creighton 2009 24 Jonas Hodges (TV) References Further reading External 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5,614 | Monoid_ring | In abstract algebra, a monoid ring is a new ring constructed from some other ring and a monoid. Definition Let R be a ring and G be a monoid. Consider all the functions φ : G → R such that the set {g: φ(g) ≠ 0} is finite. Let all such functions be element-wise addable. We can define multiplication by (φ * ψ)(g) = Σkl=gφ(k)ψ(l). The set of all such functions φ, together with these two operations, forms a ring, the monoid ring of R over G denoted R[G]. If G is a group, then R[G] denotes the group ring of R over G. Less rigorously but more simply, an element of R[G] is a polynomial in G over R, hence the notation. We multiply elements as polynomials, taking the product in G of the "indeterminates" and gathering terms: where risj is the R-product and gihj is the G-product. The ring R can be embedded in the ring R[G] via the ring homomorphism T : R → R[G] defined by T(r)(1G) = r, T(r)(g) = 0 for g ≠ 1G. where 1G is the identity element of G. There also exists a canonical homomorphism going the other way, called the augmentation. It is the map ηR:R[G] → R ,defined by The kernel of this homomorphism, the augmentation ideal, is denoted by JR(G). It is a free R-module generated by the elements 1 - g, for g in G. Examples Given a ring R and the (additive) monoid of the natural numbers N (or {xn} viewed multiplicatively), we obtain the ring R[{xn}] =: R[x] of polynomials over R. The Monoid Nn (with the addition) gives the polynomial ring with n variables: R[Nn] =: R[X1, ..., Xn]. References | Monoid_ring |@lemmatized abstract:1 algebra:1 monoid:6 ring:13 new:1 construct:1 definition:1 let:2 r:25 g:24 consider:1 function:3 φ:4 set:2 finite:1 element:5 wise:1 addable:1 define:3 multiplication:1 ψ:2 σkl:1 gφ:1 k:1 l:1 together:1 two:1 operation:1 form:1 denote:3 group:2 le:1 rigorously:1 simply:1 polynomial:4 hence:1 notation:1 multiply:1 take:1 product:3 indeterminates:1 gathering:1 term:1 risj:1 gihj:1 embed:1 via:1 homomorphism:3 identity:1 also:1 exist:1 canonical:1 go:1 way:1 call:1 augmentation:2 map:1 ηr:1 kernel:1 ideal:1 jr:1 free:1 module:1 generate:1 example:1 give:2 additive:1 natural:1 number:1 n:2 xn:3 view:1 multiplicatively:1 obtain:1 x:1 nn:2 addition:1 variable:1 reference:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 φ_ψ:1 kernel_homomorphism:1 |
5,615 | History_of_science_and_technology | The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history which examines how humanity's understanding of the natural world (science) and ability to manipulate it (technology) have changed over the millennia. This academic discipline also studies the cultural, economic, and political impacts of scientific innovation. Histories of science were originally written by practicing and retired scientists, starting primarily with William Whewell, as a way to communicate the virtues of science to the public. In the early 1930s, after a famous paper given by the Soviet historian Boris Hessen,was focused into looking at the ways in which scientific practices were allied with the needs and motivations of their context. After World War II, extensive resources were put into teaching and researching the discipline, with the hopes that it would help the public better understand both science and technology as they came to play an exceedingly prominent role in the world. In the 1960s, especially in the wake of the work done by Thomas Kuhn, the discipline began to serve a very different function, and began to be used as a way to critically examine the scientific enterprise. At the present time it is often closely aligned with the field of Science studies. Modern mathematical science and physical engineering as it is understood today took form during the scientific revolution, though much of the mathematics and science was built on the work of the Greeks, Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Chinese, Indians and Muslims. See the main articles History of science and History of technology for these respective topics. Universities with HST programs Brown University has a program in the History of Mathematics. (This program is in the process of being phased out. There are no longer any full-time faculty, and no new students are being admitted to the program.) Buenos Aires Institute of Technology has been offering courses on History of the Technology and the Science. California Institute of Technology offers courses in the History and Philosophy of Science to fulfill its core humanities requirements. Carleton University Ottawa offer courses in Ancient Science and Technology in its Technology, Society and Environment program Case Western Reserve University has an undergraduate interdisciplinary program in the History and Philosophy of Science and a graduate program in the History of Science, Technology, Environment, and Medicine (STEM). Cornell University offers a variety of courses within the Science and Technology course. One notable course is called Science and Technology History Taught currently by Professor Peter Dear which centers upon the development of Science and Technology History from the Newtonian era up to the Einsteinian revolution. This class is one of the longest running classes at Cornell University and is offered by the College of Arts and Sciences and caters to students who want to learn more about the development of modern science. Georgia Institute of Technology has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Technology and Society. Harvard has a large undergraduate and graduate program in History of Science, and is one of the largest departments currently in the world. Indiana University offers undergraduate courses and a masters and PhD program in the History and Philosophy of Science. Johns Hopkins University has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Science, Medicine, and Technology. University of Kings College has a degree program in History of Science and Technology Lehigh University offers an undergraduate level STS concentration (founded in 1972) and a graduate program with emphasis on the history of industrial America. Linköpings universitet, Sweden, has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes HST. London Centre for the History of Science, Medicine, and Technology - this Centre was formed in 1987 and runs a taught MSc programme, jointly taught by Imperial College London, University College London, and the Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine at UCL. Massachusetts Institute of Technology has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes HST. New Jersey Institute of Technology has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes the History of Science and Technology Oregon State University offers a Masters and Ph.D. in History of Science through its Department of History. Princeton University has a program in the History of Science. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute has a Science and Technology Studies department Stanford has a History and Philosophy of Science and Technology program. Stevens Institute of Technology has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Science. National Technological University has a complete history program on its offered careers. Technische Universität Berlin has a program in the History of science and technology. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona offers a master degree and PhD programme in HST together with the Universitat de Barcelona. University of California, Berkeley offers a graduate degree in HST through its History program, and maintains a separate sub-department for the field. University of California, Los Angeles has a relatively large group History of Science and Medicine faculty and graduate students within its History department, and also offers an undergraduate minor in the History of Science. University College London has an undergraduate programme in History and Philosophy of Science in the Department of Science and Technology Studies, offering three BSc degrees. A taught MSc programme is offered through the London Centre for History of Science, Medicine and Technology. An MPhil/PhD research degree is offered, too. UCL also contains The Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine which runs a postgraduate programme. University of Bern, Switzerland, has an undergraduate and a graduate program in the History and Philosophy of Science. University of Bristol has a masters and PhD program in the Philosophy and History of Science. University of Cambridge has an undergraduate course and a large masters and PhD program in the History and Philosophy of Science (including the History of Medicine). University of Durham, UK, has several undergraduate History of Science modules in the Philosophy department, as well as Masters and PhD programs in the discipline. University of Florida has a Graduate Program in 'History of Science, Technology, and Medicine' at the University of Florida provides undergraduate and graduate degrees. University of King's College in Halifax, Nova Scotia has a History of Science and Technology Program. University of Leeds has both undergraduate and graduate programmes in History and Philosophy of Science in the Department of Philosophy. University of Manchester offers undergraduate modules and postgraduate study in History of Science, Technology and Medicine and is sponsored by the Wellcome Trust. University of Minnesota has a Ph.D. program in History of Science, Technology, and Medicine as well as undergraduate courses in these fields. University of Oklahoma has an undergraduate minor and a graduate degree program in History of Science. University of Oxford has a one-year graduate course in 'History of Science: Instruments, Museums, Science, Technology' associated with the Museum of the History of Science. University of Pennsylvania has a program in history and sociology of Science. University of Puget Sound has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes the history of science and technology. University of Toronto has a program in history and philosophy of Science and Technology. University of Wisconsin-Madison has one of the largest programs in History of Science, Medicine and Technology, with particular strength in medical history, history of biology, history of science and religion, and environmental history. This program was the first to exist as an independent academic department, the Department of the History of Science. It offers M.A. and Ph.D. degrees as well as an undergraduate major. Utrecht University has two co-operating programs: one in History and Philosophy of Science at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and one in Historical and Comparative Studies of the Sciences and the Humanities at the Faculty of Humanities. Wesleyan University has a Science in Society program. Yale University has a program in the History of Science and Medicine. Prominent historians of the field Garland Allen Wiebe Bijker Peter J. Bowler Janet Browne James Burke Edwin Arthur Burtt Johann Beckmann Jim Bennett Herbert Butterfield(1900-1979) Martin Campbell-Kelly Georges Canguilhem Allan Chapman I. Bernard Cohen (1914-2003) A. C. Crombie {1915-1996) Peter Dear E. J. Dijksterhuis Pierre Duhem A. Hunter Dupree George Dyson Jacques Ellul Eugene S. Ferguson Peter Galison Sigfried Giedion Charles Coulston Gillispie Robert Gunther (1869-1940) Paul Forman Donna Haraway Ahmad Y Hassan John L. Heilbron Reijer Hooykaas Thomas P. Hughes Evelyn Fox Keller Daniel Kevles Robert Kohler Alexandre Koyré Melvin Kranzberg Thomas Kuhn Bruno Latour Simon Lavington David C. Lindberg G. E. R. Lloyd Anneliese Maier Leo Marx Lewis Mumford Otto Neugebauer (1899-1990) Ronald Numbers David Nye Abraham Pais (1918-2000) Trevor Pinch Theodore Porter Raul Rojas Michael Ruse A. I. Sabra Jan Sapp George Sarton Simon Schaffer Howard Segel Steven Shapin Wolfgang Schivelbusch Charles Singer Merritt Roe Smith Stephen Snobelen John Staudenmaier M. Norton Wise Frances A. Yates Journals and periodicals British Journal for the History of Science Centaurus Dynamis History and Technology History of Technology (magazine) Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences (HSPS) Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences (HSNS) ICON IEEE Annals of the History of Computing Isis Journal of the History of Biology Journal of the History of Medicine and the Allied Sciences Osiris Science & Technology Studies Science in Context Science, Technology, & Human Values Social Studies of Science Technology and Culture Transactions of the Newcomen Society Historia Mathematica Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society See also Science and technology in the United States Technological and industrial history of the United States The Latin American docta Science and technology in Canada Earthquake engineering Professional societies The British Society for the History of Science (BSHS) History of Science Society (HSS) Newcomen Society Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) Society for the Social Studies of Science (4S) Scientific Instrument Society References Bibliography Historiography of science H. Floris Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry, University of Chicago Press 1994 - Discussion on the origins of modern science has been going on for more than two hundred years. Cohen provides an excellent overview. Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, Belknap Press 1985 Michel Serres,(ed.), A History of Scientific Thought, Blackwell Publishers 1995 Companion to Science in the Twentieth Century, John Krige (Editor), Dominique Pestre (Editor), Taylor & Francis 2003, 941pp The Cambridge History of Science, Cambridge University Press Volume 4, Eighteenth-Century Science, 2003 Volume 5, The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences, 2002 History of science as a discipline J. A. Bennett, 'Museums and the Establishment of the History of Science at Oxford and Cambridge', British Journal for the History of Science 30, 1997, 29–46 Dietrich von Engelhardt, Historisches Bewußtsein in der Naturwissenschaft : von der Aufklärung bis zum Positivismus, Freiburg [u.a.] : Alber, 1979 A.-K. Meyer, 'Setting up a Discipline: Conflicting Agendas of the Cambridge History of Science Committee, 1936–1950.' Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 31, 2000 External links Science and Education in Argentina The History of Science Society's "Guide to the Profession" A page of Science, Technology, and Society links. What's wrong with "technology as applied science?" History of Science and Technology - Resources for Science Learning, The Franklin Institute | History_of_science_and_technology |@lemmatized history:78 science:94 technology:50 hst:6 field:5 examine:2 humanity:4 understanding:1 natural:3 world:4 ability:1 manipulate:1 change:1 millennium:1 academic:2 discipline:6 also:4 study:12 cultural:1 economic:1 political:1 impact:1 scientific:8 innovation:1 originally:1 write:1 practice:2 retired:1 scientist:1 start:1 primarily:1 william:1 whewell:1 way:3 communicate:1 virtue:1 public:2 early:1 famous:1 paper:1 give:1 soviet:1 historian:2 boris:1 hessen:1 focus:1 look:1 ally:1 need:1 motivation:1 context:2 war:1 ii:1 extensive:1 resource:2 put:1 teaching:1 research:2 hope:1 would:1 help:1 good:1 understand:1 come:1 play:1 exceedingly:1 prominent:2 role:1 especially:1 wake:1 work:2 thomas:3 kuhn:2 begin:2 serve:1 different:1 function:1 use:1 critically:1 enterprise:1 present:1 time:2 often:1 closely:1 align:1 modern:4 mathematical:2 physical:3 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5,616 | History_of_medicine | All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, death, and disease. Throughout history, illness has been attributed to witchcraft, demons, adverse astral influence, or the will of the gods. These ideas still retain some power, with faith healing and shrines still used in some places, although the rise of scientific medicine over the past millennium has altered or replaced many of the old beliefs. General overview of the history of medicine Prehistoric medicine Although there is no record to establish when plants were first used for medicinal purposes (herbalism), the use of plants as healing agents was depicted in the cave paintings discovered in the Lascaux caves in France, which have been radiocarbon dated to between 13,000 and 25,000 BC. Over time and with trial and error, over the generations a small knowledge base developed, as tribal culture developed into specialized areas. Shamans performed the 'specialized jobs' of healing. Egyptian medicine During three thousand years of history, Ancient Egypt developed a large, varied and fruitful medical tradition. Herodotus described the Egyptians as "the healthiest of all men, next to the Libyans", due to the dry climate and the notable public health system that they possessed. According to him, "[t]he practice of medicine is so specialized among them that each physician is a healer of one disease and no more." In the Odyssey, Homer describes Egypt as a land where "the earth, the giver of grain, bears greatest store of drugs" and where "every man is a physician." Odyssey 17.327 Although Egyptian medicine, to a good extent, dealt with the supernatural, it eventually developed a practical use in the fields of anatomy, public health, and clinical diagnostics. Medical information in the Edwin Smith Papyrus J. H. Breasted, The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, University of Chicago Press, 1930 may date to a time as early as 3000 BC. Medicine in Ancient Egypt 1 The earliest known surgery in Egypt was performed in Egypt around 2750 BC (see surgery). Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is sometimes credited with being the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and with being the original author of the Edwin Smith papyrus, detailing cures, ailments and anatomical observations. The Edwin Smith papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written circa 1600 BC. It is an ancient textbook on surgery almost completely devoid of magical thinking and describes in exquisite detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments. Edwin Smith papyrus - Britannica Online Encyclopedia Conversely, the Ebers papyrus P. W. Bryan, The Papyrus Ebers, Geoffrey Bles: London, 1930 (c. 1550 BC) is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons, and other superstition. The Ebers papyrus also provides our earliest possible documentation of ancient awareness of tumors, but ancient medical terminology being badly understood, cases Ebers 546 and 547 for instance may refer to simple swellings. The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus Griffith, F. Ll. The Petrie Papyri: Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob treats women's complaints, including problems with conception. Thirty four cases detailing diagnosis and treatment survive, some of them fragmentarily. The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus Dating to 1800 BC, it is the oldest surviving medical text of any kind. Medical institutions, referred to as Houses of Life are known to have been established in ancient Egypt as early as the 1st Dynasty. Medicine in Ancient Egypt by Sameh M. Arab, MD By the time of the 19th Dynasty some workers enjoyed such benefits as medical insurance, pensions and sick leave. The earliest known physician is also credited to ancient Egypt: Hesyre, “Chief of Dentists and Physicians” for King Djoser in the 27th century BC. Also, the earliest known woman physician, Peseshet, practiced in Ancient Egypt at the time of the 4th dynasty. Her title was “Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians.” In addition to her supervisory role, Peseshet graduated midwives at an ancient Egyptian medical school in Sais. Babylonian medicine Further information: Babylonia - Medicine The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the physician Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa, during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC). Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 55, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9072371631. Along with contemporary ancient Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and etiology and the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis. H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 97-98, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004136665. The Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery. The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004136665. Greek and Roman medicine Hippocratic Corpus, is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece strongly associated with the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates and his teachings. Medicine in Ancient Greece was influenced by Babylonian and Egyptian medicinal traditions. As was the case elsewhere, the ancient Greeks developed a humoral medicine system where treatment sought to restore the balance of humours within the body. A towering figure in ancient Greek medicine was the physician Hippocrates of Kos, considered the "father of modern medicine." Hippocrates: The "Greek Miracle" in Medicine The Father of Modern Medicine: Hippocrates The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece strongly associated with Hippocrates and his students. Most famously, Hippocrates invented the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still relevant and in use today. Hippocrates, regarded as the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates: The "Greek Miracle" in Medicine The Father of Modern Medicine: Hippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. He is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic suppurative lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers". Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe Hippocratic face in Prognosis. Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii. of Henry V. Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence." Another of Hippocrates's major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i.e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of pulmonary medicine and surgery. Hippocrates was the first documented chest surgeon and his findings are still valid. The Greek Galen was one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgeries— that were not tried again for almost two millennia. Later, in medieval Europe, Galen's writings on anatomy became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum along; but they suffered greatly from stasis and intellectual stagnation. In the 1530s, however, Belgian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius's most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form. Dear, Peter. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500-1700. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (2001), 37-39. The works of Galen and Avicenna, especially The Canon of Medicine which incorporated the teachings of both, were translated into Latin, and the Canon remained the most authoritative text on anatomy in European medical education until the 16th century. The Romans invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women, Surgical Instruments from Ancient Rome as well as the surgical uses of forceps, scalpel, cautery, cross-bladed scissors, surgical needle, sound, and specula. Roman period surgery set on show, BBC William Alexander Greenhill, Chirurgia Romans were also pioneers in cataract surgery. The Romans carried out cataract ops, BBC Medieval medicine was an evolving mixture of the scientific and the spiritual. In the early Middle Ages, following the fall of the Roman Empire, standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere. Ideas about the origin and cure of disease were not, however, purely secular, but were also based on a spiritual world view, in which factors such as destiny, sin, and astral influences played as great a part as any physical cause. Oribasius was the greatest Byzantine compiler of medical knowledge. Several of his works, along with many other Byzantine physicians, were translated into Latin, and eventually, during the Enlightenment and Age of Reason, into English and French. The last great Byzantine Physician was Actuarius, who lived in the early 14th Century in Constantinople. Medicine was notably not one of the seven classical Artes liberales, and was consequently looked upon more as a handicraft than as a science. Medicine did, nevertheless, establish itself as a faculty, along with law and theology in the first European Universities from the 12th century. Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals up to the modern time. The development of modern neurology began in the 16th century with Vesalius, who described the anatomy of the brain and much else; he had little notion of function, thinking that it lay mainly in the ventricles. A Neurologist Looks at Mind and Brain: "The Enchanted Loom" Indian medicine In Mehrgarh, Pakistan, archeologists made the discovery that the people of Indus Valley Civilization from the early Harappan periods (c. 3300 BC) had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist who carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men. Later research in the same area found evidence of teeth having been drilled, dating back 9,000 years. BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Stone age man used dentist drill The Atharvaveda, a sacred text of Hinduism dating from the 10th to the 12th centuries B.C.E., is the first Indic text dealing with medicine. It identifies the causes of disease as living causative agents such as the , the , the or and the . The seek to kill them with a variety of incantations or plant based drugs in order to counter the disease See Atharvaveda XIX.34.9 . This approach to disease is quite different compared to the trihumoral theory of Ayurveda. Remnants of the original thought did persist, as can be seen in Sushruta's medical treatise and in the Garuda Purana — , chapter 164. Here following the theory, the text suggests the germs as a cause for leprosy. In the same chapter also expands on the role of helminths in disease. These two can be directly traced back to the Atharvaveda . The hymn AV I.23-24 describes the disease leprosy and recommends the for its treatment. From the description of the as a black branching entity with dusky patches, it is very likely to have been a lichen with antibiotic properties. Thus the Atharva Veda may be one of the earliest texts to record uses of the antibiotic agents. Ayurveda (the science of living) is the literate, scholarly system of medicine that originated over 2000 years ago in South Asia. Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of Charaka, born c. 300 B.C.E., and Suśruta, the 6th century B.C.E. physician of Varanasi. While these writings display some limited continuities with very ancient medical ideas known from the religious literature called the Vedas, historians have been able to demonstrate direct historical connections between early āyurveda and the early literature of the Buddhists and Jains. The earliest foundations of āyurveda were built on a synthesis of selected ancient herbal practices dating back to the early second millennium BC, together with a massive addition of theoretical conceptualizations, new nosologies and new therapies dating from about 400 B.C.E. onwards, and coming out of the communities of thinkers who included the Buddha and others. Kenneth G. Zysk, Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery, Oxford University Press, rev. ed. (1998) ISBN 0195059565 . According to the compendium of Charaka, the Charakasamhitā, health and disease are not predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort. The compendium of Suśruta, the Suśrutasamhitā defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, protect the healthy, and to prolong life. Both these ancient compendia include details of the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments. The Suśrutasamhitā is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures. The āyurvedic classics spoke of eight branches of medicine: kāyācikitsā (internal medicine), śalyacikitsā (surgery including anatomy), śālākyacikitsā (eye, ear, nose, and throat diseases), kaumārabhṛtya (pediatrics), bhūtavidyā (spirit medicine), and agada tantra (toxicology), rasāyana (science of rejuvenation), and vājīkaraṇa (aphrodesiacs, mainly for men). Apart from learning these, the student of Āyurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis. The teaching of various subjects was done during the instruction of relevant clinical subjects. For example, teaching of anatomy was a part of the teaching of surgery, embryology was a part of training in pediatrics and obstetrics, and the knowledge of physiology and pathology was interwoven in the teaching of all the clinical disciplines. At the closing of the initiation, the guru gave a solemn address to the students where the guru directed the students to a life of chastity, honesty, and vegetarianism. The student was to strive with all his being for the health of the sick. He was not to betray patients for his own advantage. He was to dress modestly and avoid strong drink. He was to be collected and self-controlled, measured in speech at all times. He was to constantly improve his knowledge and technical skill. In the home of the patient he was to be courteous and modest, directing all attention to the patient's welfare. He was not to divulge any knowledge about the patient and his family. If the patient was incurable, he was to keep this to himself if it was likely to harm the patient or others. The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years. Before graduation, the student was to pass a test. But the physician was to continue to learn through texts, direct observation (pratyaksha), and through inference (anumāna). In addition, the doctors (vaidyas) attended meetings where knowledge was exchanged. The physicians were also enjoined to gain knowledge of unusual remedies from hillsmen, herdsmen, and forest-dwellers. Dominik Wujastyk, ed., The Roots of Ayurveda, Penguin (2003) ISBN 0140448241 Persian medicine The practice and study of medicine in Persia has a long and prolific history. Persia's position at the crossroads of the East and the West frequently placed it in the midst of developments in both ancient Greek and Indian medicine. Many contributions were added to this body of knowledge in both pre- and post-Islamic Iran as well. The first generation of Persian physicians was trained at the Academy of Jundishapur, where the teaching hospital has sometimes been claimed to have been invented. Rhazes, for example, became the first physician to systematically use alcohol in his practice as a physician. The Comprehensive Book of Medicine (Large Comprehensive, Hawi, "al-Hawi" or "The Continence") was written by the Iranian chemist Rhazes (known also as Razi), the "Large Comprehensive" was the most sought after of all his compositions. In it, Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. The "Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah" by Rhazes, with its introduction on measles and smallpox was also very influential in Europe. The Mutazilite philosopher and physician Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna in the western world) was another influential figure. His The Canon of Medicine, sometimes considered the most famous book in the history of medicine, remained a standard text in Europe up until its Age of Enlightenment. Chinese medicine China also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Much of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from empirical observations of disease and illness by Taoist physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. These causative principles, whether material, essential, or mystical, correlate as the expression of the natural order of the universe. The foundational text of Chinese medicine is the Huangdi neijing, or Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon, which is composed of two books: the Suwen 素問 ("Basic Questions") and the Lingshu 靈樞 ("Divine Pivot"). Although the Neijing has long been attributed to the mythical Yellow Emperor (twenty-seventh century BC), Chinese scholars started doubting this attribution as early as the eleventh century and now usually date the Neijing to the late Warring States period (5th century-221 BC). Unschuld (2003), 1. Because the medical "silk manuscripts" dating from around 200 BC that were excavated in the 1970s from the tomb of a Han-dynasty noble in Mawangdui are undoubtedly ancestors of the received Neijing, scholars like Nathan Sivin now argue that the Neijing was first compiled in the 1st century BC. Sivin (1993). In 56 BC, Zhang Liang invented an instrument named "Meng" which is considered to be precursor of modern stethoscope. During the Han dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, who was mayor of Changsha near the end of the second century A.D., wrote a Treatise on Cold Damage, which contains the earliest known reference to the Neijing Suwen. The Jin Dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, Huangfu Mi (215-282 A.D), also quotes the Yellow Emperor in his Jiayi jing, ca. 265 A.D. During the Tang Dynasty, Wang Bing claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the Suwen, which he expanded and edited substantially. This work was revisited by an imperial commission during the eleventh century A.D., and the result is our best extant representation of the foundational roots of traditional Chinese medicine. Hebrew medicine Most of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the 1st millennium BCE comes from the Torah, i.e. the Five Books of Moses, which contain various health related laws and rituals, such as isolating infected people (Leviticus 13:45-46), washing after handling a dead body (Numbers 19:11-19) and burying excrement away from camp (Deuteronomy 23:12-13). While the observance of these statutes would have and do lead to several health benefits, Jewish belief commands that these rituals and prohibitions be kept purely to fulfill the will of God with no ulterior motive. Max Neuberger, writing in his "History of Medicine" says "The commands concern prophylaxis and suppression of epidemics, suppression of venereal disease and prostitution, care of the skin, baths , food, housing and clothing, regulation of labor , sexual life , discipline of the people , etc. Many of these commands, such as Sabbath rest, circumcision, laws concerning food (interdiction of blood and pork), measures concerning menstruating and lying-in women and those suffering from gonorrhea, isolation of lepers, and hygiene of the camp, are, in view of the conditions of the climate, surprisingly rational."(Neuburger: History of Medicine, Oxford University Press, 1910, Vol. I, p. 38). Islamic medicine An Arabic manuscript, dated 1200 CE, titled Anatomy of the Eye, authored by al-Mutadibih. The Islamic civilization rose to primacy in medical science as Muslim physicians contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, surgery, and the pharmaceutical sciences. The Arabs further developed Greek and Roman medical practices. Galen and Hippocrates were pre-eminent authorities. Islamic Golden Age - Medicine The translation c.830-870 of 129 works of ancient Greek physician Galen into Arabic by Hunayn ibn Ishaq and his assistants, and in particular Galen's insistence on a rational systematic approach to medicine, set the template for Islamic medicine, which rapidly spread throughout the Arab Empire. Muslim physicians set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals, which later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East. George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science.(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan. Al-Kindi wrote De Gradibus, in which he demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness. Felix Klein-Frank (2001), Al-Kindi, in Oliver Leaman and Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 172. Routledge, London. Razi (Rhazes) (865-925) recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. His Comprehensive Book of Medicine, which introduced measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe. In his Doubts about Galen, Razi was also the first to prove the theory of humorism false using an experimental method. G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", The Rational Argumentator, Issue VI. Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern surgery, A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892. wrote the Kitab al-Tasrif (1000), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia which was taught at Muslim and European medical schools until the 17th century. He used numerous surgical instruments, including the instruments unique to women, Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2 (4), p. 475-479 [476]. Oxford University Press. as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L. 4 (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.) bone saw, Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006. and plaster. Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette. Avicenna, considered the father of modern medicine Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23. and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history, wrote The Canon of Medicine (1020) and The Book of Healing (11th century), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European universities until the 17th century. Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology, Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 by Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), p. 169-170. the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of experimental medicine and clinical trials, David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2). the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms, The Canon of Medicine, The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003. the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments, as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences. In 1021, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics (1021). In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis was the first to describe pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 1, p. 22–28. which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered the father of the theory of circulation. Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80]. He also described the earliest concept of metabolism, Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). and developed new systems of physiology and psychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the four humours, pulsation, Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", p. 3 & 6, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc. Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267) rejected the theory of four humours, discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, rejected Galen's idea that women can produce sperm, and discovered that the movement of arteries are not dependent upon the movement of the heart, that the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body (rather than the brain as claimed by Hippocrates), and that the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors. L. Leclerc (1876), Histoire de la medecine Arabe, vol. 2, p. 161, Paris. (cf. Salah Zaimeche, The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation) Maimonides, although a Jew himself, made various contributions to Islamic medicine in the 13th century. The Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) of Mansur ibn Ilyas (c. 1390) contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems. H. R. Turner (1997), p. 136—138. During the Black Death bubonic plague in 14th century al-Andalus, Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infecious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body. Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association 2, p. 2-9. Other medical innovations first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the immune system, the introduction of microbiology, the use of animal testing, and the combination of medicine with other sciences (including agriculture, botany, chemistry, and pharmacology), as well as the invention of the injection syringe by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili in 9th century Iraq, the first drugstores in Baghdad (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy by the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal and chemical substances. S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", Med Arh. 51 (1-2), p. 47-50. Medieval and early modern European medicine "Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp" by Rembrandt van Rijn, 1632. see also: Medieval medicine In western Europe, with the collapse of Roman imperial authority, medicine became localised; folk-medicine supplemented what remained of the medical knowledge of antiquity. Medical knowledge was preserved and practised in many monastic institutions, which often had a hospital attached. Organised professional medicine re-emerged, with the foundation of the medical college of Salerno in Italy in the 11th century, which in co-operation with the monastery of Monte Cassino, translated many Byzantine and Arabic works. In the twelfth century universities were founded in Italy and elsewhere, which soon developed schools of medicine. Gradually the reliance on the masters of the ancient world was augmented by the results of individual observation and experience. Surgical practice improved greatly during the medieval period. Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, which became the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals up to the modern time. With the Renaissance came an increase in experimental investigation, principally in dissection and examining bodies. The work of individuals like Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey challenged accepted folklore with scientific evidence. The development of modern neurology began in the 16th century with Vesalius, who described the anatomy of the brain and much else; he had little notion of function, thinking that it lay mainly in the ventricles. Understanding and diagnosis improved but with little direct benefit to health. Few effective drugs existed, beyond opium and quinine. Folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds were popular treatments. Important figures: Oribasius, the greatest Byzantine compiler of medical knowledge. Theodoric Borgognoni, (1205-1296), one of the most significant surgeons of the medieval period, responsible for introducing and promoting important surgical advances including basic antiseptic practice and the use of anaesthetics. Guy de Chauliac, considered to be one of the earliest fathers of modern surgery, after the great Islamic surgeon, El Zahrawi. Realdo Colombo, anatomist and surgeon who contributed to understanding of lesser circulation. Michael Servetus, considered to be the first European to discover the pulmonary circulation of the blood. Ambroise Paré suggested using ligatures instead of cauterisation and tested the bezoar stone. William Harvey describes blood circulation. John Hunter, surgeon. Amato Lusitano described venous valves and guessed their function. Garcia de Orta first to describe Cholera and other tropical diseases and herbal treatments Percivall Pott, surgeon. Sir Thomas Browne physician and medical neologist. Thomas Sydenham physician and so-called "English Hippocrates." Andreas Vesalius Belgian physician, anatomist, "The father of modern medicine" Actuarius, the last great Byzantine Physician, who lived in the early 14th century Constantinople. Modern medicine Medicine was revolutionized in the 19th century and beyond by advances in chemistry and laboratory techniques and equipment, old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were replaced with bacteriology and virology. Bacteria and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field microbiology. Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865) in 1847 dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers from childbed fever by the simple expedient of requiring physicians to clean their hands before attending to women in childbirth. His discovery pre-dated the germ theory of disease. However, his discoveries were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into general use only with discoveries of British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis in the treatment of wounds; However, medical conservatism on new breakthroughs in pre-existing science prevented them from being generally well received during the 19th century. After Charles Darwin's 1859 publication of The Origin of Species, Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) published in 1865 his books on pea plants, which would be later known as Mendel's laws. Re-discovered at the turn of the century, they would form the basis of classical genetics. The 1953 discovery of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick would open the door to molecular biology and modern genetics. During the late 19th century and the first part of the 20th century, several physicians, such as Nobel prize winner Alexis Carrel, supported eugenics, a theory first formulated in 1865 by Francis Galton. Eugenics was discredited as a science after the Nazis' experiments in World War II became known; however, compulsory sterilization programs continued to be used in modern countries (including the US, Sweden and Peru) until much later. Semmelweis's work was supported by the discoveries made by Louis Pasteur. Linking microorganisms with disease, Pasteur brought about a revolution in medicine. He also invented with Claude Bernard (1813-1878) the process of pasteurization still in use today. His experiments confirmed the germ theory. Claude Bernard aimed at establishing scientific method in medicine; he published An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine in 1865. Beside this, Pasteur, along with Robert Koch (who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1905), founded bacteriology. Koch was also famous for the discovery of the tubercle bacillus (1882) and the cholera bacillus (1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates. The participation of women in medical care (beyond serving as midwives, sitters and cleaning women) was brought about by the likes of Florence Nightingale. These women showed a previously male dominated profession the elemental role of nursing in order to lessen the aggravation of patient mortality which resulted from lack of hygiene and nutrition. Nightingale set up the St Thomas hospital, post-Crimea, in 1852. Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) became the first woman to formally study, and subsequently practice, medicine in the United States. It was in this era that actual cures were developed for certain endemic infectious diseases. However the decline in many of the most lethal diseases was more due to improvements in public health and nutrition than to medicine. It was not until the 20th century that the application of the scientific method to medical research began to produce multiple important developments in medicine, with great advances in pharmacology and surgery. During the 1910s, medicine was closely related to church in most of Europe including the United Kingdom. Most doctors took permission of the church before prescribing any medicine to patients. Before surguries, permission of the church was mandatory. During the First World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with an irrigation, Dakin's solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene. The great war spurred the usage of Roentgen's X-ray, and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of internal bodily functions. This was followed in the inter-war period by the development of the first anti-bacterial agents such as the sulpha antibiotics. The Second World War saw the introduction of widespread and effective antimicrobial therapy with the development and mass production of penicillin antibiotics, made possible by the pressures of the war and the collaboration of British scientists with the American pharmaceutical industry. Lunatic asylums began to appear in the Industrial Era. Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) introduced new medical categories of mental illness, which eventually came into psychiatric usage despite their basis in behavior rather than pathology or etiology. In the 1920s surrealist opposition to psychiatry was expressed in a number of surrealist publications. In the 1930s several controversial medical practices were introduced including inducing seizures (by electroshock, insulin or other drugs) or cutting parts of the brain apart (leucotomy or lobotomy). Both came into widespread use by psychiatry, but there were grave concerns and much opposition on grounds of basic morality, harmful effects, or misuse. In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine, were designed in laboratories and slowly came into preferred use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control. There was also increasing opposition to the use of psychiatric hospitals, and attempts to move people back into the community on a collaborative user-led group approach ("therapeutic communities") not controlled by psychiatry. Campaigns against masturbation were done in the Victorian era and elsewhere. Lobotomy was used until the 1970s to treat schizophrenia. This was denounced by the anti-psychiatric movement in the 1960s and later. The 20th century witnessed a shift from a master-apprentice paradigm of teaching of clinical medicine to a more "democratic" system of medical schools. With the advent of the evidence-based medicine and great advances of information technology the process of change is likely to evolve further, with greater development of international projects such as the Human genome project. Medical inventions 7000 BC—1000 AD c. 7000 drill and bow drill, in Mehrgarh c. 7000 BC, dental drill, in Mehrgarh c. 7000 BC, surgery and dental surgery, in Mehrgarh Stone age man used dentist drill. BBC News. c. 2600 BC, surgical suture, by Imhotep c. 2600 BC, pharmaceutical cream, by Imhotep c. 500 BC, cosmetic surgery, by Sushruta c. 500 BC, plastic surgery, by Sushruta c. 400 BC, Hippocratic bench, by Hippocrates c. 750 AD, inoculation and variolation, by Madhav Hopkins, page 140 c. 1000, cataract extraction and hypodermic needle, by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili c. 1000, injection and syringe, by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili c. 1000, adhesive bandage and plaster, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold (sic) Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette. c. 1000, cotton dressing and bandage, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi c. 1000, catgut, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi c. 1000, curette, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L. 4 (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.) c. 1000, forceps, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007). "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", Canadian Medical Association Journal 176 (10). c. 1000, ligature, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi c. 1000, retractor, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi c. 1000, scalpel, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi c. 1000, sound, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi c. 1000, surgical hook, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi c. 1000, surgical needle, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", AlShindagah 68, January–February 2006. c. 1000, surgical rod, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi c. 1000, surgical spoon, by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi 1000—present c. 1025, thermometer, by Avicenna (Ibn Sina) Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 191. c. 1025, steam distillation, by Avicenna c. 1025, essential oil, by Avicenna c. 1150, inhalational anaesthetic, by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) Sigrid Hunke (1969), Allah Sonne Uber Abendland, Unser Arabische Erbe, Second Edition, p. 279-280 (cf. Prof. Dr. M. Taha Jasser, Anaesthesia in Islamic medicine and its influence on Western civilization, Conference on Islamic Medicine) c. 1280, spectacles, in Italy 1540, artificial limb, by Ambroise Paré 1714, mercury thermometer, by Gabriel Fahrenheit 1792, ambulance, by Jean Dominique Larrey 1796, vaccination, by Edward Jenner 1816, stethoscope, by René Laennec 1817, dental plate, by Anthony Plantson 1827, endoscope, by Pierre Segalas 1846, general anaesthetic, by James Simpson 1851, ophthalmoscope, by Hermann von Helmholtz 1853, hypodermic syringe, by Alexander Wood 1865, antiseptic, by Joseph Lister 1885, rabies vaccination, chicken cholera vaccination by Louis Pasteur 1887, contact lens, by Adolf Fick 1895, X-ray, by Wilhelm Roentgen 1903, electrocardiograph, by Willem Einthoven 1905, sphygmomanometer by Nikolai Korotkov 1928, penicillin, by Alexander Fleming 1931, electron microscope by Ernst Ruska 1938, penicillin as an antibiotic, by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain 1957, artificial pacemaker, by Clarence Lillehei and Earl Bakken 1967, heart transplant, by Christian Barnard 1970, MRI and fMRI, by Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield (among others?) 1973, CAT scan, by Godfrey Hounsfield and Allan Cormack 1979, ultrasound scan, by Ian Donald 1982, artificial heart, by Robert Jarvik Source Running Press Cyclopedia, second edition Special history of medicine History of abortion History of alternative medicine History of anatomy History of brain imaging History of cancer chemotherapy History of cardiology History of condoms History of invasive and interventional cardiology History of endocrinology History of immunology History of intersex surgery History of internal medicine History of legal medicine History of microbiology History of mental illness History of neurology History of ophthalmology History of oto-rhino-laryngology History of pharmacology History of physiology History of psychiatry History of surgery History of traditional Chinese medicine History of veterinary medicine History of Islamic medieval ophthalmology Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine Timeline in Psychiatry Museums and collections of health and medicine The London Museums of Health & Medicine Osler Library of the History of Medicine National Library of Medicine New York Academy of Medicine Thackray Museum Leeds, in a former workhouse belonging to St James Hospital Thackray Museum Wellcome Library History of Medicine The Center for the History of Medicine, Countway Library, Harvard Medical School (includes the Warren Anatomical Museum) in Boston, Massachusetts The Leprosy Museum in Bergen, Norway The Pavia Museum of History of Medicine See also History of science History of technology Infectious disease in the 20th century Medicine Alternative medicine Timeline of medicine and medical technology Women in medicine Introduction to virus Notes Bibliography Rousseau, George S. (2003). Framing and Imagining Disease in Cultural History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan). [with Miranda Gill, David Haycock and Malte Herwig]. ISBN 1 – 4039 -1292 - 0 Sivin, Nathan (1993). "Huang-ti nei-ching 黃帝內經." In Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, ed. by Michael Loewe: 196-215. Institute for East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. Unschuld, Paul U. (2003). Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. from WorldCat Review excerpts: External links Science Museum's History of Medicine Website History of Medicine ; Anatomy @ 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia History of Medicine, United States National Library of Medicine The history of medicine and surgery as portrayed by various artists Medicine @ JewishEncyclopedia.com Exhibition of the Vatican Library's Medical Holdings @ The Library of Congress Info Britain - History of medicine in the UK Wellcome Library History of Medicine Digital Clendening Library at the University of Kansas Medical Center Collection of Medieval Medical Illustrations" The Center for the History of Medicine, Countway Library, Harvard Medical School (includes the Warren Anatomical Museum) | History_of_medicine |@lemmatized human:7 society:2 medical:52 belief:4 provide:4 explanation:1 birth:1 death:4 disease:34 throughout:2 history:52 illness:6 attribute:2 witchcraft:1 demon:2 adverse:2 astral:2 influence:6 god:2 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5,617 | Alex_Lifeson | Alex Lifeson, OC (born Aleksandar Živojinović; August 27, 1953) is a Canadian musician, best known for his work as the guitarist of the Canadian rock band Rush. Lifeson founded Rush in the summer of 1968, and has been an integral member of the three-piece band ever since. For Rush, Lifeson plays electric and acoustic guitars as well as other stringed instruments such as mandola, mandolin and bouzouki. He also performs backing vocals in live performances, and occasionally plays keyboards and bass pedal synthesizers. During live performances, Lifeson, like the other members of Rush, performs real-time triggering of sampled instruments, concurrently with his guitar playing. "Rush Rolls Again", September 2002, OnStage Magazine The bulk of Lifeson's work in music has been with Rush, although Lifeson has contributed to a body of work outside of the band as well. Aside from music, Lifeson is part owner of the Toronto restaurant The Orbit Room, and is a licensed aircraft pilot, motorcycle rider, and gourmet cook. Alex Lifeson Biography 2112.net Accessed September 20, 2007 Along with his bandmates Geddy Lee and Neil Peart, Lifeson was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on May 9, 1996. The trio was the first rock band to be so honored, as a group. "Rush highlights", MapleMusic (accessed May 23, 2007). On May 1, 2007, Rush released Snakes & Arrows, their eighteenth full-length studio album. Lifeson and the band followed up the album with the Snakes & Arrows Tour. Biography Early life Lifeson was born Aleksandar Živojinović in Fernie, British Columbia to Serbian immigrants, Nenad and Milka Zivojinovich (from Serbian: Живојиновић, Živojinović), and raised in Toronto, Ontario. His assumed stage name of "Lifeson" is a semi-literal translation of the name "Zivojinovich", which means "son of life" in Serbian. Horizon to Horizon Rob Pagano's Rush Music Tribute Accessed October 7, 2007 His first exposure to formal music training came in the form of the viola which he renounced for the guitar at the age of 12. His first guitar was a Christmas gift from his father, a six-string Kent classical acoustic which was later upgraded to an electric Japanese model. During adolescence, Lifeson was primarily influenced by Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Jimi Hendrix, Jimmy Page, and Pete Townshend. In 1963 Lifeson met future Rush drummer John Rutsey in school. Both interested in music, they decided to form a band. Lifeson was primarily a self-taught guitarist with the only formal instruction coming from a high school friend in 1971 who taught classical guitar lessons. This training lasted for roughly a year and a half. Lifeson recalls what inspired him to play guitar in a 2008 interview: Lifeson's first girlfriend, Charlene, gave birth to their eldest son, Justin, in October 1970, and they married in 1975. As of September 2008, they are still married, and have a 2nd son, Adrian, who is also involved in music and performed on two tracks from Lifeson's 1996 solo project, Victor. Body of work While the bulk of Lifeson's work in music has been with Rush (See Rush Discography), he has also contributed to a body of work outside of his involvement with the band in the form of movie/tv appearances, as well as instrumental contributions for other musical outfits. Lifeson's first major outside work was his solo project, Victor released in 1996. Victor (the album) was attributed as a self-titled work (i.e. Victor is attributed as the artist as well as the album title). This was done deliberately as an alternative to issuing the album explicitly under Lifeson's name. Lifeson made a guest appearance on the Platinum Blonde album Alien Shores (1985) performing guitar solos on the songs "Crying Over You" and "Holy Water". Later, in 1990, he appeared on Lawrence Gowan's album, Lost Brotherhood to play guitar. In 2006, Lifeson founded The Big Dirty Band, which he created for the purpose of providing original soundtrack material for Trailer Park Boys: The Movie. Lifeson jammed regularly with The Dexters (The Orbit Room house band from 1994-2004). Recently, Lifeson made a guest appearance on the 2007 album Fear of a Blank Planet by UK progressive rock band, Porcupine Tree, as well as the 2008 album Fly Paper by Detroit progressive rockers, Tiles. He plays on the track "Sacred and Mundane". Outside of band related endeavors, Lifeson composed the theme for the first season of the science-fiction TV series Andromeda. He also produced 3 songs from the album Away from the Sun by 3 Doors Down. Guitar equipment In Rush's early career, Lifeson used a Gibson ES-335 for the first single and the first four Rush studio albums. For the 2112 tour, he used a 1974 Gibson Les Paul and Marshall amplification. For the A Farewell to Kings sessions, Lifeson began using a Gibson EDS-1275 for songs like Xanadu and his main guitar became a cream-colored Gibson ES-355. During this period Lifeson used Hiwatt amplifiers. For effects Lifeson used various phaser and flanger pedals, a Cry Baby Wah Wah, along with Marshall 100 watt Super Lead amplifiers and 4x12 cabinets. Beginning in the late 1970s, he increasingly incorporated twelve-string guitar (acoustic and electric) and used a Boss CE-1 Chorus Ensemble and later, the Boss Dimension C. By 1982 Lifeson's primary guitar was a modified Fender Stratocaster with a Bill Lawrence high-output humbucker L-500 in the bridge position and a Floyd Rose vibrato bridge. Lifeson increasingly relied on a selection of four identically modified Stratocasters from 1980 to 1986, all of them equipped with the Floyd Rose bridge. For the Moving Pictures and Signals albums, and on concurrent tours, Lifeson used up to four rare Marshall 4140 Club & Country 100W combo amps. In the mid 1980s Lifeson switched from passive to active pickups in his guitars, and from vacuum tube to solid-state amplification, all with an increasingly thick layer of digital signal processing. He became an endorser of Gallien-Krueger and Dean Markley solid-state guitar amplifier lines and Dean Markley Blue Steel strings respectively, gauges .009-.046. In the late 1980s he switched to Carvin amplifiers in the studio and his short-lived Signature brand guitars onstage and in the studio. Alex also was using custom Lado guitars built in Toronto Canada. Lifeson primarily used PRS guitars during the recording of Roll The Bones in 1990/1991. When recording 1993's Counterparts, Lifeson continued to use PRS Guitars and Marshall amplifiers to record the album, and for the subsequent tour. Lifeson continued to use PRS along with Fender and Gibson guitars, Hughes & Kettner Triamp MK II and zenTera amplifiers and cabinets. In 2005, Hughes & Kettner introduced an Alex Lifeson signature series amplifier with $50 from each amplifier sold will be donated to UNICEF. Alex Lifeson playing his Garrison GD25-12 guitar For the 2007 Snakes & Arrows Tour, Lifeson replaced his PRS Guitars with Gibson Les Pauls. In a 2007 interview for Guitarist magazine, Lifeson states "I hear PRS on everything these days and I wanted a little bit of a change ... I love them [PRS] but they have a smaller sound than the bigger heavier Gibsons ... I just wanted to be more traditional." He has Fishman Aura piezoelectric pickup systems installed into his Les Pauls to model acoustic guitar sounds without changing guitars. As of July 2008, Lifeson uses Floyd Rose tremolos on his main Les Pauls. He has also replaced his Hughes & Kettner zenTera amp heads with Switchblade heads (which, like the zenTeras, include built-in programmable digital effects, such as chorus and delay, but are valve-powered instead of transistor-powered), while retaining his signature series H&K Triamp heads. His effects for the 2007 tour include a TC Electronics G-Force rack multi-FX, a TC Electronics 1210 spatial expander and a Loft 440 Delay Line/Flanger, as well as the effects built into his Switchblade heads. Other instruments played In addition to traditional stringed instruments such as acoustic and electric guitars, Lifeson has also played mandola, mandolin and bouzouki on recent Rush studio albums, including Test For Echo, Vapor Trails and Snakes & Arrows. During live Rush performances, Lifeson uses a MIDI controller that enables him to use his feet to trigger sounds from digital samplers, without taking his hands off his guitar. (Prior to this, Lifeson used Moog Taurus Bass Pedals before they were obsolesced and replaced by Korg MIDI pedals in the 1980s.) Lifeson and his bandmates share a desire to accurately depict songs from their albums when playing live performances. Toward this goal, beginning in the late 1980s the band equipped their live performances with a capacious rack of samplers. The band members use these samplers in real-time to recreate the sounds of non-traditional instruments, accompaniments, vocal harmonies, and other sound "events" that are familiarly heard on the studio versions of the songs. In live performances, the band members share duties throughout most songs, with each member triggering certain sounds with his available limbs, while playing his primary instrument(s). "Rush Rolls Again", September 2002, OnStage Magazine It is with this technology that Lifeson and his bandmates are able to present their arrangements in a live setting with the level of complexity and fidelity that fans have come to expect, and without the need to resort to the use of backing tracks or employing an additional band member. Peart, Neil Rush Backstage Club Newsletter, March 1990, via "Power Windows" Rush Fan Site Television and film appearances In a 2003 episode of the Canadian mockumentary Trailer Park Boys, titled "Closer to the Heart", Lifeson plays a partly-fictional version of himself. In the story, he is kidnapped by Ricky and held as punishment for his inability (or refusal) to provide the main characters with free tickets to a Rush concert. In the end of the episode, Alex reconciles with the characters, and performs a duet of Closer to the Heart with Bubbles at the trailer park. In 2008, Lifeson and the rest of Rush was invited to play the full version of their song "Tom Sawyer" at the end of the TV show The Colbert Report. According to Stephen Colbert, the host of the TV show, this was their first appearance on American television, as a band, in 33 years. Colbert Nation: Rush - Wednesday July 16, 2008 Lifeson appears in Trailer Park Boys: The Movie, as a traffic cop in the opening scene. He made his film debut as himself under his birth name in the 1972 Canadian documentary film Come on Children. Come on Children (1973) In 2009, he and the rest of the band appeared as themselves in the comedy I Love You, Man. Manohla Dargis, Best Man Wanted. Must Be Rush Fan, The New York Times, March 20, 2009 (accessed March 31, 2009). Favourite guitar solos When MusicRadar asked Lifeson which were his favourite guitar solos that he ever wrote with Rush, he responded with: "Limelight"(1981) "Kid Gloves" (1984) "Freewill" (1980) Awards "Best Rock Talent" by Guitar for the Practicing Musician in 1983 "Best Rock Guitarist" by Guitar Player Magazine in 1984 and May 2008 Runner-up for "Best Rock Guitarist" in Guitar Player in 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986 Inducted into the Guitar for the Practicing Musician Hall of Fame, 1991 1996 - Officer of the Order of Canada, along with fellow bandmates Geddy Lee and Neil Peart "Best Article" for "Different Strings" in Guitar Player (September issue). Most Ferociously Brilliant Guitar Album (Snakes & Arrows) - Guitar Player Magazine, May 2008 References External links Audio-Technica interview with Alex Read 2002 CNN interview with Alex Alex Lifeson gear, by songs | Alex_Lifeson |@lemmatized alex:9 lifeson:52 oc:1 bear:2 aleksandar:2 živojinović:3 august:1 canadian:4 musician:3 best:6 know:1 work:8 guitarist:5 rock:6 band:17 rush:24 found:2 summer:1 integral:1 member:6 three:1 piece:1 ever:2 since:1 play:12 electric:4 acoustic:5 guitar:34 well:6 string:5 instrument:6 mandola:2 mandolin:2 bouzouki:2 also:7 perform:4 back:2 vocal:2 live:7 performance:6 occasionally:1 keyboard:1 bass:2 pedal:4 synthesizer:1 like:3 performs:1 real:2 time:3 trigger:3 sampled:1 concurrently:1 playing:1 roll:3 september:5 onstage:3 magazine:5 bulk:2 music:7 although:1 contribute:2 body:3 outside:4 aside:1 part:1 owner:1 toronto:3 restaurant:1 orbit:2 room:2 licensed:1 aircraft:1 pilot:1 motorcycle:1 rider:1 gourmet:1 cook:1 biography:2 net:1 access:3 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5,618 | Omega-3_fatty_acid | n−3 fatty acids (popularly referred to as ω−3 fatty acids or omega-3 fatty acids) are a family of unsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon–carbon double bond in the n−3 position; that is, the third bond from the methyl end of the fatty acid. Important nutritionally-essential n−3 fatty acids are: α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), all of which are polyunsaturated. The human body cannot synthesize n−3 fatty acids de novo, but it can form 20- and 22-carbon unsaturated n−3 fatty acids from the eighteen-carbon n−3 fatty acid, α-linolenic acid. These conversions occur competitively with n−6 fatty acids, which are essential closely related chemical analogues that are derived from linoleic acid. Both the n−3 α-linolenic acid and n−6 linoleic acid are essential nutrients which must be obtained from food. Synthesis of the longer n−3 fatty acids from linolenic acid within the body is competitively slowed by the n−6 analogues. Thus accumulation of long-chain n−3 fatty acids in tissues is more effective when they are obtained directly from food or when competing amounts of n−6 analogs do not greatly exceed the amounts of n−3. History Although omega-3 fatty acids have been known as essential to normal growth and health since the 1930's, awareness of their health benefits has dramatically increased in the past few years. The heart health benefits of the long chain omega-3 fatty acids: DHA and EPA omega-3 are the best known. These benefits were discovered in the 1970's by researchers studying the Greenland Eskimos. The Greenland Eskimos consumed large amounts of fat from seafood, but displayed virtually no cardiovascular disease. The high level of omega-3 fatty acids consumed by the Eskimos reduced triglycerides, heart rate, blood pressure and atherosclerosis. On September 8, 2004, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration gave "qualified health claim" status to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) n−3 fatty acids, stating that "supportive but not conclusive research shows that consumption of EPA and DHA [n−3] fatty acids may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease." This updated and modified their health risk advice letter of 2001 (see below). Currently regulatory agencies do not accept that there is sufficient evidence for any of the other suggested benefits of DHA and EPA other than for cardiovascular health, and further claims should be treated with caution. The Canadian Government has recognized the important of DHA omega-3 and permits the following biological role claim for DHA: "DHA, an omega-3 fatty acid, supports the normal development of the brain, eyes and nerves." Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Summary Table of Biological Role Claims Table 8-2. http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/guide/ch8e.shtml As the importance of omega-3 fatty acids to health has received increasing awareness, the number of food products enriched in omega-3 fatty acids has increased. Many companies add fish oil or flax oil into their final product to enrich it in omega-3 fatty acids. Some animal products, such as milk and eggs, can be naturally enriched for omega-3 fatty acids by feeding the animals a diet that is rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Chemistry Chemical structure of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an essential n−3 fatty acid, (18:3Δ9c,12c,15c, which means a chain of 18 carbons with 3 double bonds on carbons numbered 9, 12 and 15). Although chemists count from the carbonyl carbon (Blue Numbering), physiologists count from the n (ω) carbon (red numbering). Note that from the n end (diagram right), the first double bond appears as the third carbon-carbon bond (line segment), hence the name "n−3". This is explained by the fact that the n end is almost never changed during physiologic transformations in the human body, as it is more stable energetically, and other carbohydrates compounds can be synthesized from the other carbonyl end, for example in glycerides, or from double bonds in the middle of the chain. Chemical structure of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Chemical structure of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The term n−3 (also called ω−3 or omega-3) signifies that the first double bond exists as the third carbon-carbon bond from the terminal methyl end (n) of the carbon chain. n−3 fatty acids which are important in human nutrition are: α-linolenic acid (18:3, n−3; ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5, n−3; EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6, n−3; DHA). These three polyunsaturates have either 3, 5 or 6 double bonds in a carbon chain of 18, 20 or 22 carbon atoms, respectively. All double bonds are in the cis-configuration, i.e. the two hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond. Most naturally-produced fatty acids (created or transformed in animalia or plant cells with an even number of carbon in chains) are in cis-configuration where they are more easily transformable. The trans-configuration results in much more stable chains that are very difficult to further break or transform, forming longer chains that aggregate in tissues and lacking the necessary hydrophilic properties. This trans-configuration can be the result of the transformation in alkaline solutions, or of the action of some bacterias that are shortening the carbonic chains. Natural transforms in vegetal or animal cells more rarely affect the last n−3 group itself. However, n−3 compounds are still more fragile than n−6 because the last double bond is geometrically and electrically more exposed, notably in the natural cis configuration. List of n−3 fatty acids This table lists several different names for the most common n−3 fatty acids found in nature. Common name Lipid name Chemical name 16:3 (n−3) all-cis-7,10,13-hexadecatrienoic acid α-Linolenic acid (ALA) 18:3 (n−3)all-cis-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid Stearidonic acid (STD) 18:4 (n−3)all-cis-6,9,12,15-octadecatetraenoic acid Eicosatrienoic acid (ETE) 20:3 (n−3)all-cis-11,14,17-eicosatrienoic acid Eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA) 20:4 (n−3)all-cis-8,11,14,17-eicosatetraenoic acid Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 20:5 (n−3) all-cis-5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA),Clupanodonic acid 22:5 (n−3) all-cis-7,10,13,16,19-docosapentaenoic acid Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 22:6 (n−3)all-cis-4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid Tetracosapentaenoic acid 24:5 (n−3)all-cis-9,12,15,18,21-docosahexaenoic acid Tetracosahexaenoic acid (Nisinic acid) 24:6 (n−3) all-cis-6,9,12,15,18,21-tetracosenoic acid Biological significances The biological effects of the n−3 are largely mediated by their interactions with the n−6 fatty acids; see Essential fatty acid interactions for detail. A 1992 article by biochemist William E.M. Lands provides an overview of the research into n−3 fatty acids, and is the basis of this section. The 'essential' fatty acids were given their name when researchers found that they were essential to normal growth in young children and animals. (Note that the modern definition of 'essential' is more strict.) A small amount of n−3 in the diet (~1% of total calories) enabled normal growth, and increasing the amount had little to no additional effect on growth. Likewise, researchers found that n−6 fatty acids (such as γ-linolenic acid and arachidonic acid) play a similar role in normal growth. However, they also found that n−6 was "better" at supporting dermal integrity, renal function, and parturition. These preliminary findings led researchers to concentrate their studies on n−6, and it was only in recent decades that n−3 has become of interest. In 1963 it was discovered that the n−6 arachidonic acid was converted by the body into pro-inflammatory agents called prostaglandins. By 1979 more of what are now known as eicosanoids were discovered: thromboxanes, prostacyclins and the leukotrienes. The eicosanoids, which have important biological functions, typically have a short active lifetime in the body, starting with synthesis from fatty acids and ending with metabolism by enzymes. However, if the rate of synthesis exceeds the rate of metabolism, the excess eicosanoids may have deleterious effects. Researchers found that n−3 is also converted into eicosanoids, but at a much slower rate. Eicosanoids made from n−3 fats often have opposing functions to those made from n−6 fats (ie, anti-inflammatory rather than inflammatory). If both n−3 and n−6 are present, they will "compete" to be transformed, so the ratio of n−3:n−6 directly affects the type of eicosanoids that are produced. This competition was recognized as important when it was found that thromboxane is a factor in the clumping of platelets, which leads to thrombosis. The leukotrienes were similarly found to be important in immune/inflammatory-system response, and therefore relevant to arthritis, lupus, and asthma. These discoveries led to greater interest in finding ways to control the synthesis of n−6 eicosanoids. The simplest way would be by consuming more n−3 and fewer n−6 fatty acids. Health benefits The 18 carbon α-linolenic acid has not been shown to have the same cardiovascular benefits as DHA or EPA. Currently there are many products on the market which claim to contain health promoting 'omega 3', but contain only α-linolenic acid (ALA), not EPA or DHA. These products contain mainly higher plant oils and must be converted by the body to create DHA and therefore considered less efficient. DHA and EPA are made by microalgae that live in seawater. These are then consumed by fish and accumulate to high levels in their internal organs. If a person is concerned about mercury and oceanborne contaminants in fish, DHA can be produced directly from microalgae as a vegetarian source. People with certain circulatory problems, such as varicose veins, benefit from fish oil because it contains the EPA and DHA derived from microalgae. Fish oil stimulates blood circulation, increases the breakdown of fibrin, a compound involved in clot and scar formation, and additionally has been shown to reduce blood pressure. There is strong scientific evidence that n−3 fatty acids reduce blood triglyceride levels and regular intake reduces the risk of secondary and primary heart attack. Some benefits have been reported in conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and cardiac arrhythmias. There is preliminary evidence that n-3 fatty acids supplementation might be helpful in cases of depression and anxiety. Studies report highly significant improvement from n-3 fatty acids supplementation alone and in conjunction with medication. Some research suggests that fish oil intake may reduce the risk of ischemic and thrombotic stroke. However, very large amounts may actually increase the risk of hemorrhagic stroke (see below). Lower amounts are not related to this risk, 3 grams of total EPA/DHA daily are considered safe with no increased risk of bleeding involved The U.S. Food and Drug Administration classification - GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) and many studies used substantially higher doses without major side effects (for example: 4.4 grams EPA/2.2 grams DHA in 2003 study). Cancer Several studies report possible anti-cancer effects of n−3 fatty acids (particularly breast, colon and prostate cancer). Omega-3 fatty acids reduced prostate tumor growth, slowed histopathological progression, and increased survival . Among n-3 fatty acids [omega-3], neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were consistently associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of docosahexaenoic acid, however, the most abundant n-3 PUFA [omega-3] in erythrocyte membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer. . A 2009 trial found that a supplement of eicosapentaenoic acid helped cancer patients retain muscle mass. A 2006 report in the Journal of the American Medical Association concluded that their review of literature covering cohorts from many countries with a wide variety of demographic concluded that there was no link between n−3 fatty acids and cancer. This is similar to the findings of a review by the British Medical Journal of studies up to February 2002 that failed to find clear effects of long and shorter chain n−3 fats on total mortality, combined cardiovascular events and cancer. Cardiovascular disease In 1999, the GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators reported in the Lancet, the results of major clinical study in 11,324 patients with a recent myocardial infarction. Treatment 1 gram per day of n−3 fatty acids reduced the occurrence of death, cardiovascular death and sudden cardiac death by 20%, 30% and 45% respectively. These beneficial effects were seen already from three months onwards. In April 2006, a team led by Lee Hooper at the University of East Anglia in Norwich, UK, published a review of almost 100 separate studies into n−3 fatty acids, found in abundance in oily fish. It concluded that they do not have a significant protective effect against cardiovascular disease. This meta-analysis was controversial and stands in stark contrast with two different reviews also performed in 2006 by the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition and a second JAMA review that both indicated decreases in total mortality and cardiovascular incidents (i.e. myocardial infarctions) associated with the regular consumption of fish and fish oil supplements. In addition n−3 has been shown to reduce symptoms of other mental disorders such as aggression and ADHD. Several studies published in 2007 have been more positive. In the March 2007 edition of the journal Atherosclerosis, 81 Japanese men with unhealthy blood sugar levels were randomly assigned to receive 1800 mg daily of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA — an n−3 essential fatty acid from fish oil) with the other half being a control group. The thickness of the carotid arteries and certain measures of blood flow were measured before and after supplementation. This went on for approximately two years. A total of 60 patients (30 in the EPA group and 30 in the control group) completed the study. Those given the EPA had a statistically significant decrease in the thickness of the carotid arteries along with improvement in blood flow. The authors indicated that this was the first demonstration that administration of purified EPA improves the thickness of carotid arteries along with improving blood flow in patients with unhealthy blood sugar levels. In another study published in the American Journal of Health System Pharmacy March 2007, patients with high triglycerides and poor coronary artery health were given 4 grams a day of a combination of EPA and DHA along with some monounsaturated fatty acids. Those patients with very unhealthy triglyceride levels (above 500 mg/dl) reduced their triglycerides on average 45% and their VLDL cholesterol by more than 50%. VLDL is a bad type of cholesterol and elevated triglycerides can also be deleterious for cardiovascular health. Another study on the benefits of EPA was published in The Lancet in March 2007. This study involved over 18,000 patients with unhealthy cholesterol levels. The patients were randomly assigned to receive either 1,800 mg a day of EPA with a statin drug or a statin drug alone. The trial went on for a total of five years. It was found at the end of the study those patients in the EPA group had superior cardiovascular function. Non-fatal coronary events were also significantly reduced in the EPA group. The authors concluded that EPA is a promising treatment for prevention of major coronary events, especially non-fatal coronary events. Similar to those who follow a Mediterranean diet, Arctic-dwelling Inuit - who consume high amounts of n−3 fatty acids from fatty fish - also tend to have higher proportions of n−3, increased HDL cholesterol and decreased triglycerides (fatty material that circulates in the blood) and less heart disease. Eating walnuts (the ratio of n−3 to n−6 is circa 1:4 respectively ) was reported to lower total cholesterol by 4% relative to controls when people also ate 27% less cholesterol. A study carried out involving 465 women showed serum levels of eicosapentaenoic acid is inversely related to the levels of anti-oxidized-LDL antibodies. Oxidative modification of LDL is thought to play an important role in the development of atherosclerosis. Immune function Another study regarding fish oil was published in the Journal of Nutrition in April 2007. Sixty four healthy Danish infants from nine to twelve months of age received either cow's milk or infant formula alone or with fish oil. It was found that those infants supplemented with fish oil had improvement in immune function maturation with no apparent reduction in immune activation. Brain health There was yet another study on n−3 fatty acids published in the April 2007 Journal of Neuroscience. A group of mice were genetically modified to develop accumulation of amyloid and tau proteins in the brain similar to that seen in people with poor memory. The mice were divided into four groups with one group receiving a typical American diet (with high ratio of n−6 to n−3 fatty acids being 10 to 1). The other three groups were given food with a balanced 1 to 1 n−6 to n−3 ratio and two additional groups supplemented with DHA plus long chain n−6 fatty acids. After three months of feeding, all the DHA supplemented groups were noted to have a lower accumulation of beta amyloid and tau protein. Some research suggests that these abnormal proteins may contribute to the development of memory loss in later years. There is also a study published regarding n−3 supplementation in children with learning and behavioral problems. This study was published in the April 2007 edition of the Journal of the Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (5), where 132 children, between the ages of seven to twelve years old, with poor learning, participated in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded interventional trial. A total of 104 children completed the trial. For the first fifteen weeks of this study, the children were given polyunsaturated fatty acids (n−3 and n−6, 3000 mg a day), polyunsaturated fatty acids plus multi-vitamins and minerals or placebo. After fifteen weeks, all groups crossed over to the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) plus vitamins and mineral supplement. Parents were asked to rate their children's condition after fifteen and thirty weeks. After thirty weeks, parental ratings of behavior improved significantly in nine out of fourteen scales. The lead author of the study, Dr. Sinn, indicated the present study is the largest PUFA trial to date with children falling in the poor learning and focus range. The results support those of other studies that have found improvement in poor developmental health with essential fatty acid supplementation. Rheumatoid arthritis Research in 2005 and 2006 has suggested that the in-vitro anti-inflammatory activity of n−3 acids translates into clinical benefits. Cohorts of neck pain patients and of rheumatoid arthritis sufferers have demonstrated benefits comparable to those receiving standard NSAIDs. Those who follow a Mediterranean-style diet tend to have less heart disease, higher HDL ("good") cholesterol levels and higher proportions of n−3 in tissue highly unsaturated fatty acids. A study examining whether omega-3 exerts neuroprotective action in Parkinson's disease found that it did, using an experimental model, exhibit a protective effect (much like it did for Alzheimer's disease as well). The scientists exposed mice to either a control or a high omega-3 diet from two to twelve months of age and then treated them with a neurotoxin commonly used as an experimental model for Parkinson's. The scientists found that high doses of omega-3 given to the experimental group completely prevented the neurotoxin-induced decrease of dopamine that ordinarily occurs. Since Parkinson's is a disease caused by disruption of the dopamine system, this protective effect exhibited could show promise for future research in the prevention of Parkinson's disease. Health risks In a letter published October 31, 2000, the United States Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Nutritional Products, Labeling, and Dietary Supplements noted that known or suspected risks of EPA and DHA n−3 fatty acids may include the possibility of: Increased bleeding if overused (normally over 3 grams per day) by a patient who is also taking aspirin or warfarin. However, this is disputed. Hemorrhagic stroke (only in case of very large doses). Reduced glycemic control among diabetics. An increase in concentration of LDL cholesterol in some individuals. Subsequent advices from the FDA and national counterparts have permitted health claims associated with heart health. Cardiac risk Persons with congestive heart failure, chronic recurrent angina or evidence that their heart is receiving insufficient blood flow are advised to talk to their doctor before taking n−3 fatty acids. There have been concerns if such persons take n−3 fatty acids or eating foods that contain them in substantial amounts. In a recent large study, n−3 fatty acids on top of standard heart failure therapy produced a small but statistically significant benefit in terms of mortality and hospitalization. In congestive heart failure, cells that are only barely receiving enough blood flow become electrically hyperexcitable. This, in turn, can lead to increased risk of irregular heartbeats, which, in turn, can cause sudden cardiac death. n−3 fatty acids seem to stabilize the rhythm of the heart by effectively preventing these hyperexcitable cells from functioning, thereby reducing the likelihood of irregular heartbeats and sudden cardiac death. For most people, this is obviously beneficial and would account for most of the large reduction in the likelihood of sudden cardiac death. Nevertheless, for people with congestive heart failure, the heart is barely pumping blood well enough to keep them alive. In these patients, n−3 fatty acids may eliminate enough of these few pumping cells that the heart would no longer be able to pump sufficient blood to live, causing an increased risk of cardiac death. Research frontiers Developmental differences Although not supported by current scientific evidence as a primary treatment for ADHD, autism, and other developmental differences, omega-3 fatty acids have gained popularity for children with these conditions. A 2004 Internet survey found that 29% of surveyed parents used essential fatty acid supplements to treat children with autism spectrum disorders. Omega-3 fatty acids offer a promising complementary approach to standard treatments for ADHD and developmental coordination disorder. Fish oils appear to reduce ADHD-related symptoms in some children. Double blind studies have showed "medium to strong treatment effects of omega 3 fatty acids on symptoms of ADHD" after administering amounts around 1 gram for three to six months. There is very little scientific evidence supporting the effectiveness of omega-3 fatty acids for autism spectrum disorders. One randomized controlled trial found that omega-3 fatty acids did not significantly affect aberrant behavior in autistic children, and although the investigators noted reduced hyperactivity, their later reanalysis reported that the reduction was not statistically significant. Author reply: Low birth weight In a study of nearly 9,000 pregnant women, researchers found women who ate fish once a week during their first trimester had 3.6 times less risk of low birth weight and premature birth than those who ate no fish. Low consumption of fish was a strong risk factor for preterm delivery and low birth weight. However, attempts by other groups to reverse this increased risk by encouraging increased pre-natal consumption of fish were unsuccessful. Psychiatric disorders n−3 fatty acids are known to have membrane-enhancing capabilities in brain cells. One medical explanation is that n−3 fatty acids play a role in the fortification of the myelin sheaths. Not coincidentally, n−3 fatty acids comprise approximately eight percent of the average human brain according to Dr. David Horrobin, a pioneer in fatty acid research. Ralph Holman of the University of Minnesota, another major researcher in studying essential fatty acids, who gave Omega-3 its name, surmised how n−3 components are analogous to the human brain by stating that "DHA is structure, EPA is function." A benefit of n−3 fatty acids is helping the brain to repair damage by promoting neuronal growth. In a six-month study involving people with schizophrenia and Huntington's disease who were treated with EPA or a placebo, the placebo group had clearly lost cerebral tissue, while the patients given the supplements had a significant increase of grey and white matter. In the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of the brain, low brain n−3 fatty acids are thought to lower the dopaminergic neurotransmission in this brain area, possibly contributing to the negative and neurocognitive symptoms in schizophrenia. This reduction in dopamine system function in the PFC may lead to an overactivity in dopaminergic function in the limbic system of the brain which is suppressively controlled by the PFC dopamine system, causing the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. This is called the n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acid/dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia (Ohara, 2007). This mechanism may explain why n−3 supplementation shows effects against both positive, negative and neurocognitive symptoms in schizophrenia. Consequently, the past decade of n−3 fatty acid research has procured some Western interest in n−3 fatty acids as being a legitimate 'brain food.' Still, recent claims that one's intelligence quotient, psychological tests measuring certain cognitive skills, including numerical and verbal reasoning skills, are increased on account of n−3 fatty acids consumed by pregnant mothers remain unreliable and controversial. An even more significant focus of research, however, lies in the role of n−3 fatty acids as a non-prescription treatment for certain psychiatric and mental diagnoses and has become a topic of much research and speculation. In 1998, Andrew L. Stoll, MD and his colleagues at Harvard University conducted a small double-blind placebo-controlled study in thirty patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Most subjects in this study were already undergoing psychopharmacological treatment (e.g. 12 out of the 30 were taking lithium). Over the course of four months, he gave 15 subjects capsules containing olive oil, and another 15 subjects capsules containing nine grams of pharmaceutical-quality EPA and DHA. The study showed that subjects in the n−3 group were less likely to experience a relapse of symptoms in the four months of the study. Moreover, the n−3 group experienced significantly more recovery than the placebo group. However, a commentary on the Stoll study notes that the improvement in the n−3 group was too small to be clinically significant. Though Stoll believes that the 1999 experiment was not as optimal as it could have been and has accordingly pursued further research, the foundation has been laid for more researchers to explore the theoretical association between absorbed n−3 fatty acids and signal transduction inhibition in the brain. "Several epidemiological studies suggest covariation between seafood consumption and rates of mood disorders. Biological marker studies indicate deficits in omega−3 fatty acids in people with depressive disorders, while several treatment studies indicate therapeutic benefits from omega-3 supplementation. A similar contribution of omega-3 fatty acids to coronary artery disease may explain the well-described links between coronary artery disease and depression. Deficits in omega-3 fatty acids have been identified as a contributing factor to mood disorders and offer a potential rational treatment approach." In 2004, a study found that 100 suicide attempt patients on average had significantly lower levels of EPA in their blood as compared to controls. In 2006, a review of published trials in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found that "the evidence available provides little support" for the use of fish or the n–3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids contained in them to improve depressed mood. The study used results of twelve randomized controlled trials in its meta-analysis. The review recommended that "larger trials with adequate power to detect clinically important benefits" be performed. A further 2007 study published in the British Journal of Nutrition, which was placebo-controlled and used 218 participants, found that increasing EPA and DHA in the diet "was found not to have beneficial or harmful effects on mood in mild to moderate depression," confirming previous meta-analysis "that there is an overall negligible benefit of n-3 UFA supplementation for depressed mood". Dietary sources Daily values As macronutrients, fats are not assigned recommended daily allowances. Macronutrients have AI (Acceptable Intake) and AMDR (Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range) instead of RDAs. The AI for n−3 is 1.6 grams/day for men and 1.1 grams/day for women while the AMDR is 0.6% to 1.2% of total energy. "A growing body of literature suggests that higher intakes of α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) may afford some degree of protection against coronary heart disease. Because the physiological potency of EPA and DHA is much greater than that for α-linolenic acid, it is not possible to estimate one AMDR for all n−3 fatty acids. Approximately 10 percent of the AMDR can be consumed as EPA and/or DHA." There was insufficient evidence as of 2005 to set a UL (upper tolerable limit) for n−3 fatty acids. A perceived risk of fish oil n−3 supplementation has been heavy metal poisoning by the body's accumulation of traces of heavy metals, in particular mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic and cadmium as well as other contaminants (PCBs, furans, dioxins), which potentially might be found especially in less-refined fish oil supplements. However, in reality, heavy metal toxicity from consuming fish oil supplements is highly unlikely. This is because heavy metals selectively bind with protein in the fish flesh rather than accumulate in the oil. An independent test in 2006 of 44 fish oils on the US market found that all of the products passed safety standards for potential contaminants. The FDA recommends that total dietary intake of n−3 fatty acids from fish not exceed 3 grams per day, of which no more than 2 grams per day are from nutritional supplements. Historically, the Council for Responsible Nutrition (CRN) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have published acceptable standards regarding contaminants in fish oil. The most stringent current standard is the International Fish Oils Standard (IFOS). Fish oils that typically make this highest grade are those that are molecularly distilled under vacuum, and have virtually no measurable level of contaminants (measured parts per billion and parts per trillion). n−3 supplementation in food has been a significant recent trend in food fortification, with global food companies launching n−3 fortified bread, mayonnaise, pizza, yogurt, orange juice, children's pasta, milk, eggs, confections and infant formula. Fish The most widely available source of EPA and DHA is cold water oily fish such as salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies and sardines. Oils from these fish have a profile of around seven times as much n−3 as n−6. Other oily fish such as tuna also contain n−3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Consumers of oily fish should be aware of the potential presence of heavy metals and fat-soluble pollutants like PCBs and dioxins which may accumulate up the food chain. Even some forms of fish oil may not be optimally digestible. Of four studies that compare bioavailability of the triglyceride form of fish oil vs. the ester form, two have concluded that the natural triglyceride form is better, and the other two studies did not find a significant difference. No studies have shown the ester form to be superior although it is cheaper to manufacture. Although fish is a dietary source of n−3 fatty acids, fish do not synthesize them; they obtain them from the algae in their diet. Flax Flax seeds produce linseed oil, which has a very high n−3 content Six times richer than most fish oils in n−3, Flax (aka linseed) (Linum usitatissimum) and its oil are perhaps the most widely available botanical source of n−3. Flaxseed oil consists of approximately 55% ALA (alpha-linolenic acid). Flax, like chia, contains approximately three times as much n−3 as n−6. 15 grams of flaxseed oil provides ca. 8 grams of ALA, which is converted in the body to EPA and then DHA at an efficiency of 2–15% and 2–5%, respectively. Botanical sources of n−3 fatty acids Table 1. n−3 content as the percentage of ALA in the seed oil. Common nameAlternative nameLinnaean name% n−3Chia chia sageSalvia hispanica64KiwifruitChinese gooseberryActinidia chinensis62PerillashisoPerilla frutescens58FlaxlinseedLinum usitatissimum55LingonberryCowberryVaccinium vitis-idaea49CamelinaGold-of-pleasureCamelina sativa36PurslanePortulacaPortulaca oleracea35Black Raspberry Rubus occidentalis33 Table 2. n−3 content as the percentage of ALA in the whole food. Common nameLinnaean name% n−3Flaxseed Linum usitatissimum18.1Butternuts Juglans cinerea 8.7Hempseed Cannabis sativa8.7Walnuts Juglans regia 6.3Pecan nuts Carya illinoinensis 0.6Hazel nuts Corylus avellana 0.1 Eggs Eggs produced by chickens fed a diet of greens and insects produce higher levels of n−3 fatty acids (mostly ALA) than chickens fed corn or soybeans. In addition to feeding chickens insects and greens, fish oils may be added to their diet to increase the amount of fatty acid concentrations in eggs. The addition of flax and canola seeds to the diet of chickens, both good sources of alpha-linolenic acid, increases the omega-3 content of the eggs. Cherian, G. Effect of feeding full fat flax and canola seeds to laying hens on the fatty acids composition of eggs, embryos, and newly hatched chicks. http://www.fao.org/agris/search/display.do?f=./1991/v1717/US9138554.xml;US9138554 Meat The n−6 to n−3 ratio of grass-fed beef is about 2:1, making it a more useful source of n−3 than grain-fed beef, which usually has a ratio of 4:1. In most countries, commercially available lamb is typically grass-fed, and thus higher in n−3 than other grain-fed or grain-finished meat sources. In the United States, lamb is often finished (i.e. fattened before slaughter) with grain, resulting in lower n−3. The omega-3 content of chicken meat may be enhanced by increasing the animals' dietary intake of grains that are high in n−3, such as flax, chia, and canola. Azcona, J.O., Schang, M.J., Garcia, P.T., Gallinger, C., R. Ayerza (h), and Coates, W. 2008. Omega-3 enriched broiler meat: The influence of dietary alpha-linolenic omega-3 fatty acid sources on growth, performance and meat fatty acid composition. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 88:257-269. Other sources Milk and cheese from grass-fed cows may also be good sources of n−3. One UK study showed that half a pint of milk provides 10% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) of ALA, while a piece of organic cheese the size of a matchbox may provide up to 88%". The microalgae Crypthecodinium cohnii and Schizochytrium are rich sources of DHA (22:6 n−3) and can be produced commercially in bioreactors. This is the only source of DHA acceptable to vegans. Oil from brown algae (kelp) is a source of EPA. Walnuts are one of few nuts that contain appreciable n−3 fat, with approximately a 1:4 ratio of n−3 to n−6. Acai palm fruit also contains n−3 fatty acids. Omega-3 is also found in softgels in pharmacies and nowadays it is also found in combination with omega-6, omega-9 and shark liver oil Some vegetables, too, contain a noteworthy amount of n-3, including strawberries and broccoli. The n−6 to n−3 ratio Clinical studies indicate that the ingested ratio of n−6 to n−3 (especially Linoleic vs Alpha Linolenic) fatty acids is important to maintaining cardiovascular health. However, two studies ,NIH MIH published in 2005 and 2007, found no such correlations in humans. Both n−3 and n−6 fatty acids are essential, i.e. humans must consume them in the diet. n−3 and n−6 compete for the same metabolic enzymes, thus the n−6:n−3 ratio will significantly influence the ratio of the ensuing eicosanoids (hormones), (e.g. prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes etc.), and will alter the body's metabolic function. Generally, grass-fed animals accumulate more n−3 than do grain-fed animals which accumulate relatively more n−6. Metabolites of n−6 are significantly more inflammatory (esp. arachidonic acid) than those of n−3. This necessitates that n−3 and n−6 be consumed in a balanced proportion; healthy ratios of n−6:n−3 range from 1:1 to 4:1. Tribole, 2007 Lands, 2005 Studies suggest that the evolutionary human diet, rich in game animals, seafood and other sources of n−3, may have provided such a ratio. Typical Western diets provide ratios of between 10:1 and 30:1 - i.e., dramatically skewed toward n−6. Hibbeln et al., 2006 Here are the ratios of n−6 to n−3 fatty acids in some common oils: canola 2:1, soybean 7:1, olive 3–13:1, sunflower (no n−3), flax 1:3, Erasmus, Udo, Fats and Oils. 1986. Alive books, Vancouver, ISBN 0-920470-16-5 p. 263 (round-number ratio within ranges given.) cottonseed (almost no n−3), peanut (no n−3), grapeseed oil (almost no n−3) and corn oil 46 to 1 ratio of n−6 to n−3. Conversion efficiency of ALA to EPA and DHA It has been reported that conversion of ALA to EPA and further to DHA in humans is limited, but varies with individuals. Women have higher ALA conversion efficiency than men, probably due to the lower rate of utilization of dietary ALA for beta-oxidation. This suggests that biological engineering of ALA conversion efficiency is possible. Goyens et al. argue that it is the absolute amount of ALA, rather than the ratio of n−3 and n−6 fatty acids, which affects the conversion. See also List of n−3 fatty acids n−6 fatty acid n−9 fatty acid Essential fatty acid Essential fatty acid interactions Grape seed oil Herbalism Naturopathic medicine Camelina sativa Hempseed oil Cod liver oil Fish oil Flax Phytonutrients Nutrition Linseed oil Chia Purslane Resolvins Wakame Notes and references Additional sources Robson, A. 2006. "Shellfish view of omega-3 and sustainable fisheries." Nature 444, 1002. Robson, A. 2007. "Preventing the diseases of civilisation: shellfish, the omega-3:6 balance and human health." Shellfish News 23, 25–27 Cunnane SC (2006) "Survival of the fattest: the key to human brain evolution." M S-MEDECINE SCIENCES 22 (6–7): 659–663. Bell, J.G., et al. 2004. "Essential fatty acids and phospholipase A2 in autistic spectrum disorders." Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 71(4):201–204. Bartram, Thomas, 1998, Bartram's Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine, p.271. Ohara, K. "The n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acid/dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia." Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Mar 30;31(2):469–474. Richardson, A.J., and M.A. Ross. 2000. "Fatty acid metabolism in neurodevelopmental disorder: a new perspective on associations between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, dyspraxia and the autistic spectrum." Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 63(1–2):1–9. Young, G., and J. Conquer. 2005. "Omega-3 fatty acids and neuropsychiatric disorders." Reprod.Nutr.Dev 45(1):1–28. Hibbeln JR, Nieminen LR, Blasbalg TL, Riggs JA, Lands WE. Healthy intakes of n−3 and n−6 fatty acids: estimations considering worldwide diversity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006 Jun;83(6 Suppl):1483S–1493S. Scher, J., and Pillinger, M. "15d-PGJ2: The anti-inflammatory prostaglandin?" Clinical Immunology. 2005 Feb; 114(2):100–109 Further reading Allport, Susan. [http://worldcat.org/search?q=The+Queen+of+Fats%3A+Why+Omega-3s+Were+Removed+from+the+Western+Diet+and+What+We+Can+Do+to+Replace+Them&qt=mozilla-searchThe Queen of Fats: Why Omega-3s Were Removed from the Western Diet and What We Can Do to Replace Them]. University of California Press, September 2006. ISBN 978-0-520-24282-1. Chow, Ching Kuang. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications. Routledge Publishing. New York, New York. 2001. Clover, Charles. The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. Ebury Press, London 2004. ISBN 0-09-189780-7 Stoll, Andrew L. [http://worldcat.org/search?q=The+Omega-3+Connection&fq=ap%3AAndrew+L+Stoll&qt=facet_ap%3AThe Omega-3 Connection]. Simon & Schuster 2001. ISBN 0-684-87138-6, ISBN 0-684-87139-4 (paperback). Erasmus, Udo. Fats That Heal, Fats That Kill. 3rd ed. Burnaby (BC): Alive Books; 1993. Boyd, Hillary & Basant, Puri K. [http://worldcat.org/oclc/59305855The Natural Way to Beat Depression: the groundbreaking discovery of EPA to change your life.] London. Hodder and Stoughton. 2004. ISBN 0-340-82497-2 Tribole, Evelyn. Ultimate Omega-3 Diet" New York. McGraw-Hill. 2007 ISBN 13:978-0-07-146986-9 Lands, William E.M. "Fish, Omega-3 and Human Health" Champaign. AOCS Press. 2005 ISBN 1-893997-81-2 Smithers, Lois. The Food Industry's Greed. How Misleading Labeling of Omega-3 Foods Undermines American Health. External links American Heart Assoc "Fish & Omega-3 Fatty Acids" Omega-3 Prevents Macular Degeneration Further topics and latest scientific research: DHA/EPA Omega-3 Institute BBC News report: Oily fish helps cut inflammation, March 12, 2005. University of Maryland Medical Center, omega-3 Fatty Acids Durham Research: Using Fatty Acids for Enhancing Classroom Achievement Website for the Durham Schools Trial, trial on the effects of fatty acids with children who were under performing in class. Funded by the Durham City Council and Oxford University. Their initial results (also available on durhamtrial.org) were published in May 2005. Big Pharma And Pill Peddlers Read criticism of the above mentioned Durham 'trial' by a columnist for the Guardian at badscience.net September 2006 Essential (Omega-3 and Omega-6) Fatty Acids: The Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center Simopoulos, AP The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Letter Responding to a Request to Reconsider the Qualified Claim for a Dietary Supplement Health Claim for Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Coronary Heart Disease MedlinePlus Herbs and Supplements: Omega-3 fatty acids, fish oil, alpha-linolenic acid Another reason why men like curves (Daily Telegraph) Omega-3 credited with shaping a woman's figure to be more attractive to men. 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5,619 | Anxiolytic | An anxiolytic (or antianxiety agent ) is a drug prescribed for the treatment of symptoms of anxiety. Some anxiolytics have been shown to be useful in the treatment of anxiety disorders as have antidepressants such as the class of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Though not anxiolytics, beta-receptor blockers such as propranolol and oxprenolol can be used to combat the somatic symptoms of anxiety. Anxiolytics are also known as "minor tranquilizers", though this usage is less common in modern texts. Types of anxiolytics Anxiolytics are generally divided into two groups of medication, benzodiazepines and non-benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines Main article: Benzodiazepine Benzodiazepines are prescribed for short-term relief of severe and disabling anxiety. Benzodiazepines may also be indicated to cover the latent periods associated with the medications prescribed to treat an underlying anxiety disorder. They are used to treat a wide variety of conditions and symptoms and are usually a first choice when short-term CNS sedation is needed. Longer term uses include treatment for severe anxiety. There is a risk of a benzodiazepine withdrawal and rebound syndrome after continuous usage past two weeks. There is also the added problem of the accumulation of drug metabolites and adverse effects. These include: Alprazolam (Xanax) Chlordiazepoxide (Librium) Clonazepam (Klonopin) Clorazepate (Tranxene) Diazepam (Valium) Lorazepam (Ativan) Benzodiazepines exert their anxiolytic properties at moderate dosage. At higher dosage hypnotic properties occur. Serotonin 1A agonists Buspirone (BuSpar) is a serotonin 1A agonist. It lacks the sedation and the dependence associated with benzodiazepines and causes much less cognitive impairment. It may be less effective than benzodiazepines in patients who have been previously treated with benzodiazepines as the medication does not provide the sedation that these patients may expect or equate with anxiety relief. Barbiturates Barbiturates and meprobamate (Miltown) exert an anxiolytic effect linked to the sedation they cause. The risk of abuse and addiction is high. Many experts consider these drugs as obsolete for treating anxiety, although they may be valuable for the short term treatment of severe insomnia, only after benzodiazepines or non-benzodiazepines have failed. They are rarely prescribed anymore. Hydroxyzine Hydroxyzine (Atarax) is an old antihistamine originally approved for clinical use by the FDA in 1956. It possesses anxiolytic properties in addition to its antihistamine properties and is also licensed for the treatment of anxiety and tension. It is also used for its sedative properties as a premed before anesthesia or to induce sedation after anesthesia. It has been shown to be as effective as benzodiazepines in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder while producing less side effects. Herbal treatments Certain herbs, such as St. John's wort, valerian, kava (Kava Kava), chamomile, Kratom, Blue Lotus extracts, Sceletium tortuosum (kanna), Common Skullcap and bacopa monniera are reputed to have anxiolytic properties. With the exception of kava kava, only limited evidence exists for their efficacy. Herbal remedies for anxiety - a systematic review ...[Phytomedicine. 2006] - PubMed Result Valerian for sleep: a systematic review and meta-a...[Am J Med. 2006] - PubMed Result A team from Brazil found cannabidiol (a constituent of marijuana; also called CBD) to be an effective anti-psychotic and anxiolytic . "CBD induced a clear anxiolytic effect and a pattern of cerebral activity compatible with anxiolytic activity. Therefore, similar to the data obtained in animal models, results from studies on healthy volunteers have strongly suggested an anxiolytic-like effect of CBD." Pineapple sage, or salvia elegans, is used as a treatment for anxiety in traditional Mexican medicine, and a preliminary study on mice has yielded some support for both anxiolytic and antidepressant properties. Maribel Herrera-Ruiza, Yolanda García-Beltrána, Sergio Morab, Gabriela Díaz-Vélizb, Glauce S.B. Vianac, Jaime Tortorielloa, Guillermo Ramíreza, "Antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of hydroalcoholic extract from Salvia elegans", Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. 53-58 (Aug. 2006) Over-the-counter Chlorpheniramine and Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) are reported to have mild anxiolytic properties (off-label use). These drugs are approved by the FDA for allergies, rhinitis, and urticaria. Alternatives to medication Psychotherapy (e.g. cognitive or behavior therapy) is often useful as an adjunct to medication or as an alternative to medication. Research has demonstrated better long-term results for anxiety when treated with psychotherapy as opposed to pharmacotherapy alone. Meditation is also known for its tendency to reduce anxiety. References See also ATC code N05#N05B Anxiolytics | Anxiolytic |@lemmatized anxiolytic:18 antianxiety:1 agent:1 drug:4 prescribe:4 treatment:8 symptom:3 anxiety:14 show:2 useful:2 disorder:3 antidepressant:3 class:1 selective:1 serotonin:3 reuptake:1 inhibitor:1 ssris:1 though:2 beta:1 receptor:1 blocker:1 propranolol:1 oxprenolol:1 use:7 combat:1 somatic:1 also:8 know:2 minor:1 tranquilizer:1 usage:2 less:4 common:2 modern:1 text:1 type:1 generally:1 divide:1 two:2 group:1 medication:6 benzodiazepine:14 non:2 main:1 article:1 short:3 term:5 relief:2 severe:3 disabling:1 may:4 indicate:1 cover:1 latent:1 period:1 associate:2 treat:5 underlying:1 wide:1 variety:1 condition:1 usually:1 first:1 choice:1 cns:1 sedation:5 need:1 long:2 include:2 risk:2 withdrawal:1 rebound:1 syndrome:1 continuous:1 past:1 week:1 added:1 problem:1 accumulation:1 metabolite:1 adverse:1 effect:6 alprazolam:1 xanax:1 chlordiazepoxide:1 librium:1 clonazepam:1 klonopin:1 clorazepate:1 tranxene:1 diazepam:1 valium:1 lorazepam:1 ativan:1 exert:2 property:8 moderate:1 dosage:2 high:2 hypnotic:1 occur:1 agonist:2 buspirone:1 buspar:1 lack:1 dependence:1 cause:2 much:1 cognitive:2 impairment:1 effective:3 patient:2 previously:1 provide:1 expect:1 equate:1 barbiturates:1 barbiturate:1 meprobamate:1 miltown:1 link:1 abuse:1 addiction:1 many:1 expert:1 consider:1 obsolete:1 although:1 valuable:1 insomnia:1 fail:1 rarely:1 anymore:1 hydroxyzine:2 atarax:1 old:1 antihistamine:2 originally:1 approve:2 clinical:1 fda:2 possess:1 addition:1 license:1 tension:1 sedative:1 premed:1 anesthesia:2 induce:2 generalized:1 produce:1 side:1 herbal:2 certain:1 herb:1 st:1 john:1 wort:1 valerian:2 kava:5 chamomile:1 kratom:1 blue:1 lotus:1 extract:2 sceletium:1 tortuosum:1 kanna:1 skullcap:1 bacopa:1 monniera:1 repute:1 exception:1 limit:1 evidence:1 exists:1 efficacy:1 remedy:1 systematic:2 review:2 phytomedicine:1 pubmed:2 result:4 sleep:1 meta:1 j:1 med:1 team:1 brazil:1 find:1 cannabidiol:1 constituent:1 marijuana:1 call:1 cbd:3 anti:1 psychotic:1 clear:1 pattern:1 cerebral:1 activity:2 compatible:1 therefore:1 similar:1 data:1 obtain:1 animal:1 model:1 study:2 healthy:1 volunteer:1 strongly:1 suggest:1 like:1 pineapple:1 sage:1 salvia:2 elegans:2 traditional:1 mexican:1 medicine:1 preliminary:1 mouse:1 yield:1 support:1 maribel:1 herrera:1 ruiza:1 yolanda:1 garcía:1 beltrána:1 sergio:1 morab:1 gabriela:1 díaz:1 vélizb:1 glauce:1 b:1 vianac:1 jaime:1 tortorielloa:1 guillermo:1 ramíreza:1 hydroalcoholic:1 journal:1 ethnopharmacology:1 vol:1 pp:1 aug:1 counter:1 chlorpheniramine:1 diphenhydramine:1 benadryl:1 report:1 mild:1 label:1 allergy:1 rhinitis:1 urticaria:1 alternative:2 psychotherapy:2 e:1 g:1 behavior:1 therapy:1 often:1 adjunct:1 research:1 demonstrate:1 well:1 oppose:1 pharmacotherapy:1 alone:1 meditation:1 tendency:1 reduce:1 reference:1 see:1 atc:1 code:1 |@bigram anxiety_disorder:3 selective_serotonin:1 serotonin_reuptake:1 reuptake_inhibitor:1 inhibitor_ssris:1 receptor_blocker:1 benzodiazepine_benzodiazepine:2 medication_prescribe:1 benzodiazepine_withdrawal:1 adverse_effect:1 chlordiazepoxide_librium:1 diazepam_valium:1 anxiolytic_property:4 cognitive_impairment:1 herbal_remedy:1 approve_fda:1 atc_code:1 |
5,620 | Mach_number | An F/A-18 Hornet at transonic speed and displaying the Prandtl–Glauert singularity just before reaching the speed of sound Mach number ( or ) (generally , sometimes or ) is the speed of an object moving through air, or any fluid substance, divided by the speed of sound as it is in that substance. It is commonly used to represent an object's (such as an aircraft or missile) speed, when it is travelling at (or at multiples of) the speed of sound. where is the Mach number is the speed of the source (the object relative to the medium) and is the speed of sound in the medium The Mach number is named after Czech/Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach. Because the Mach number is often viewed as a dimensionless quantity rather than a unit of measure, with Mach, the number comes after the unit; the second Mach number is "Mach 2" instead of "2 Mach" (or Machs). This is somewhat reminiscent of the early modern ocean sounding unit "mark" (a synonym for fathom), which was also unit-first, and may have influenced the use of the term Mach. In the decade preceding man's flying faster than sound, aeronautical engineers referred to the speed of sound as Mach's number, never "Mach 1". Bodie, Warren M., The Lockheed P-38 Lightning, Widewing Publications ISBN 0-9629359-0-5 Overview The Mach number is commonly used both with objects travelling at high speed in a fluid, and with high-speed fluid flows inside channels such as nozzles, diffusers or wind tunnels. As it is defined as a ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number. At a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius and at sea level, the speed of sound is 340.3 m/s Clancy, L.J. (1975), Aerodynamics, Table 1, Pitman Publishing London, ISBN 0 273 01120 0 (1225 km/h, or 761.2 mph, or 1116 ft/s) in the Earth's atmosphere. The speed represented by Mach 1 is not a constant; for example, it is dependent on temperature and atmospheric composition. In the stratosphere it remains constant irrespective of altitude even though the air pressure varies with altitude. Since the speed of sound increases as the temperature increases, the actual speed of an object traveling at Mach 1 will depend on the fluid temperature around it. Mach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar way at the same Mach number. So, an aircraft traveling at Mach 1 at sea level (340.3 m/s, 761.2 mph, 1,225 km/h) will experience shock waves in much the same manner as when it is traveling at Mach 1 at 11,000 m (36,000 ft), even though it is traveling at 295 m/s (654.6 mph, 1,062 km/h, 86% of its speed at sea level). High-speed flow around objects Flight can be roughly classified in five categories: Subsonic: M < 1 Sonic: M=1 Transonic: 0.8 < M < 1.2 Supersonic: 1.2 < M < 5 Hypersonic: M > 5 For comparison: the required speed for low Earth orbit is approximately 7.5 km/s = M 25.4 in air at high altitudes. The speed of light in vacuum corresponds to a Mach number of approximately 880,000 (relative to air at sea level). At transonic speeds, the flow field around the object includes both sub- and supersonic parts. The transonic period begins when first zones of M>1 flow appear around the object. In case of an airfoil (such as an aircraft's wing), this typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate back to subsonic only in a normal shock; this typically happens before the trailing edge. (Fig.1a) As the speed increases, the zone of M>1 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges. As M=1 is reached and passed, the normal shock reaches the trailing edge and becomes a weak oblique shock: the flow decelerates over the shock, but remains supersonic. A normal shock is created ahead of the object, and the only subsonic zone in the flow field is a small area around the object's leading edge. (Fig.1b) Image:Transsonic flow over airfoil 1.gif Image:Transsonic flow over airfoil 2.gif (a) (b) Fig. 1. Mach number in transonic airflow around an airfoil; M<1 (a) and M>1 (b). When an aircraft exceeds Mach 1 (i.e. the sound barrier) a large pressure difference is created just in front of the aircraft. This abrupt pressure difference, called a shock wave, spreads backward and outward from the aircraft in a cone shape (a so-called Mach cone). It is this shock wave that causes the sonic boom heard as a fast moving aircraft travels overhead. A person inside the aircraft will not hear this. The higher the speed, the more narrow the cone; at just over M=1 it is hardly a cone at all, but closer to a slightly concave plane. At fully supersonic speed, the shock wave starts to take its cone shape and flow is either completely supersonic, or (in case of a blunt object), only a very small subsonic flow area remains between the object's nose and the shock wave it creates ahead of itself. (In the case of a sharp object, there is no air between the nose and the shock wave: the shock wave starts from the nose.) As the Mach number increases, so does the strength of the shock wave and the Mach cone becomes increasingly narrow. As the fluid flow crosses the shock wave, its speed is reduced and temperature, pressure, and density increase. The stronger the shock, the greater the changes. At high enough Mach numbers the temperature increases so much over the shock that ionization and dissociation of gas molecules behind the shock wave begin. Such flows are called hypersonic. It is clear that any object traveling at hypersonic speeds will likewise be exposed to the same extreme temperatures as the gas behind the nose shock wave, and hence choice of heat-resistant materials becomes important. High-speed flow in a channel As a flow in a channel crosses M=1 becomes supersonic, one significant change takes place. Common sense would lead one to expect that contracting the flow channel would increase the flow speed (i.e. making the channel narrower results in faster air flow) and at subsonic speeds this holds true. However, once the flow becomes supersonic, the relationship of flow area and speed is reversed: expanding the channel actually increases the speed. The obvious result is that in order to accelerate a flow to supersonic, one needs a convergent-divergent nozzle, where the converging section accelerates the flow to M=1, sonic speeds, and the diverging section continues the acceleration. Such nozzles are called de Laval nozzles and in extreme cases they are able to reach incredible, hypersonic speeds (Mach 13 at sea level). An aircraft Machmeter or electronic flight information system (EFIS) can display Mach number derived from stagnation pressure (pitot tube) and static pressure. Calculating Mach Number Assuming air to be an ideal gas, the formula to compute Mach number in a subsonic compressible flow is derived from Bernoulli's equation for M<1: Olson, Wayne M. (2002). "AFFTC-TIH-99-02, Aircraft Performance Flight Testing." (PDF). Air Force Flight Test Center, Edwards AFB, CA, United States Air Force. where: is Mach number is impact pressure and is static pressure is the ratio of specific heats The formula to compute Mach number in a supersonic compressible flow is derived from the Rayleigh Supersonic Pitot equation: where: is now impact pressure measured behind a normal shock See also Machmeter Speed of sound True airspeed References External links Gas Dynamics Toolbox Calculate Mach number and normal shock wave parameters for mixtures of perfect and imperfect gases. NASA's page on Mach Number Calculate Mach number. NewByte standard atmosphere calculator and speed converter | Mach_number |@lemmatized f:1 hornet:1 transonic:5 speed:35 display:2 prandtl:1 glauert:1 singularity:1 reach:4 sound:11 mach:35 number:23 generally:1 sometimes:1 object:14 move:1 air:9 fluid:6 substance:2 divide:1 commonly:2 use:3 represent:2 aircraft:10 missile:1 travel:6 multiple:1 source:1 relative:2 medium:2 name:1 czech:1 austrian:1 physicist:1 philosopher:1 ernst:1 often:1 view:1 dimensionless:2 quantity:1 rather:1 unit:4 measure:2 come:1 second:1 instead:1 machs:1 somewhat:1 reminiscent:1 early:1 modern:1 ocean:1 mark:1 synonym:1 fathom:1 also:2 first:2 may:1 influence:1 term:1 decade:1 precede:1 man:1 fly:1 faster:1 aeronautical:1 engineer:1 refer:1 never:1 bodie:1 warren:1 lockheed:1 p:1 lightning:1 widewing:1 publication:1 isbn:2 overview:1 high:7 flow:25 inside:2 channel:6 nozzle:4 diffuser:1 wind:1 tunnel:1 define:1 ratio:2 two:1 temperature:7 degree:1 celsius:1 sea:5 level:5 clancy:1 l:1 j:1 aerodynamics:1 table:1 pitman:1 publishing:1 london:1 km:4 h:3 mph:3 ft:2 earth:2 atmosphere:2 constant:2 example:1 dependent:1 atmospheric:1 composition:1 stratosphere:1 remain:3 irrespective:1 altitude:3 even:2 though:2 pressure:9 vary:1 since:1 increase:9 actual:1 traveling:2 depend:1 around:6 useful:1 behave:1 similar:1 way:1 experience:1 shock:20 wave:12 much:2 manner:1 flight:4 roughly:1 classify:1 five:1 category:1 subsonic:6 sonic:3 supersonic:11 hypersonic:4 comparison:1 required:1 low:1 orbit:1 approximately:2 light:1 vacuum:1 corresponds:1 field:2 include:1 sub:1 part:1 period:1 begin:2 zone:3 appear:1 case:4 airfoil:4 wing:2 typically:2 happen:2 decelerate:2 back:1 normal:5 trailing:2 edge:4 fig:3 towards:1 lead:3 trail:1 pass:1 become:4 weak:1 oblique:1 create:3 ahead:2 small:2 area:3 image:2 transsonic:2 gif:2 b:2 airflow:1 exceed:1 e:2 barrier:1 large:1 difference:2 front:1 abrupt:1 call:4 spread:1 backward:1 outward:1 cone:6 shape:2 cause:1 boom:1 heard:1 fast:2 moving:1 overhead:1 person:1 hear:1 narrow:2 hardly:1 close:1 slightly:1 concave:1 plane:1 fully:1 start:2 take:2 either:1 completely:1 blunt:1 nose:4 sharp:1 strength:1 increasingly:1 cross:2 reduce:1 density:1 strong:1 great:1 change:2 enough:1 ionization:1 dissociation:1 gas:5 molecule:1 behind:3 clear:1 likewise:1 expose:1 extreme:2 hence:1 choice:1 heat:2 resistant:1 material:1 important:1 becomes:1 one:3 significant:1 place:1 common:1 sense:1 would:2 expect:1 contract:1 make:1 narrower:1 result:2 hold:1 true:2 however:1 relationship:1 reverse:1 expand:1 actually:1 obvious:1 order:1 accelerate:2 need:1 convergent:1 divergent:1 converging:1 section:2 diverging:1 continue:1 acceleration:1 de:1 laval:1 able:1 incredible:1 machmeter:2 electronic:1 information:1 system:1 efis:1 derive:3 stagnation:1 pitot:2 tube:1 static:2 calculate:3 assume:1 ideal:1 formula:2 compute:2 compressible:2 bernoulli:1 equation:2 olson:1 wayne:1 afftc:1 tih:1 performance:1 test:2 pdf:1 force:2 center:1 edward:1 afb:1 ca:1 united:1 state:1 impact:2 specific:1 rayleigh:1 see:1 airspeed:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 dynamic:1 toolbox:1 parameter:1 mixture:1 perfect:1 imperfect:1 nasa:1 page:1 newbyte:1 standard:1 calculator:1 converter:1 |@bigram f_hornet:1 ernst_mach:1 mach_mach:1 dimensionless_quantity:1 aeronautical_engineer:1 degree_celsius:1 h_mph:1 mph_km:2 shock_wave:12 trailing_edge:2 sonic_boom:1 fast_moving:1 subsonic_speed:1 convergent_divergent:1 external_link:1 |
5,621 | Greenpeace | Greenpeace protest against Esso / Exxon Mobil. Greenpeace is an international non-governmental organization for the protection and conservation of the environment. Greenpeace uses direct action, lobbying and research to achieve its goals. Greenpeace has a worldwide presence with national and regional offices in 46 countries, which are affiliated to the Amsterdam-based Greenpeace International. The global organization receives its income through the individual contributions of an estimated 3 million financial supporters. Greenpeace, originally known as the Greenpeace Foundation, was founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, in 1971. On September 15, 1971, the Don't Make a Wave Committee sent an eighty foot halibut seiner “Phyllis Cormack”, from Vancouver, to oppose the United States testing nuclear devices in Amchitka, Alaska. Greenpeace to Amchitka, An Environmental Odyssey by Robert Hunter. While the boat never reached its destination and was turned back by the US military, this campaign was deemed the first using the name Greenpeace. Greenpeace, an insiders account by Rex Weyler Greenpeace to Amchitka by Robert Hunter In 1972, the Greenpeace Foundation evolved in its own right to a less conservative and structured collective of environmentalists who were more reflective of the counterculture and hippie youth movements of the 1960s and 1970s. The social and cultural background from which Greenpeace emerged heralded a period of de-conditioning away from old world antecedents and sought to develop new codes of social, environmental and political behavior. | Greenpeace founder Bob Hunter Greenpeace, an insiders account by Rex Weyler Greenpeace to Amchitka by Robert Hunter The focus of the organization later turned from anti-nuclear protest to other environmental issues: whaling, bottom trawling, global warming, old growth, nuclear power, and even genetically modified organisms. On its official website, Greenpeace defines its mission as the following: {{Cquote|Greenpeace is an independent global campaigning organisation that acts to change attitudes and behaviour, to protect and conserve the environment and to promote peace by:Catalysing an energy revolution to address the number one threat facing our planet: climate change. Defending our oceans by challenging wasteful and destructive fishing, and creating a global network of marine reserves. Protecting the world’s remaining ancient forests which are depended on by many animals, plants and people . Working for disarmament and peace by reducing dependence on finite resources and calling for the elimination of all nuclear weapons. Creating a toxic free future with safer alternatives to hazardous chemicals in today's products and manufacturing. Campaigning for sustainable agriculture by encouraging socially and ecologically responsible farming practices.|||Greenpeace International|Who we are}} Structure Greenpeace's national offices. Greenpeace is a global environmental organization has 28 offices in different regions in the United States, and 42 regions worldwide, thus having a presence all over the world. These national and regional offices are largely autonomous in carrying out jointly agreed global campaign strategies within the local context they operate in and in seeking the necessary financial support from donors to fund this work. National and regional offices support a network of volunteer-run local groups. Local groups participate in many campaigns in their area and mobilize for larger protests and activities elsewhere. Millions of supporters who are not organized into local groups support Greenpeace by making financial donations and participating in campaigns as citizens and consumers. National and regional offices Greenpeace is present in the following countries and regions as of March 2007: Oceania Australia-Pacific region: Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands Greenpeace Aotearoa New Zealand: New Zealand Europe Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Portugal Greenpeace Nordic: Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden Greenpeace Central and Eastern Europe: Russia, Austria, Hungary, Slovak Republic, Poland, Czech Republic, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia (no permanent campaign presence in the latter five states Greenpeace Mediterranean: Cyprus, Lebanon, Israel, Malta, Tunisia, Turkey, Americas Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Mexico, United States Asia China, India, Japan, South Korea South-East Asia: Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand Priorities and campaigns Greenpeace runs campaigns and projects which fit into the "Issues" (as campaign areas are called within Greenpeace) categories below. Besides exposing problems such as over-fishing or threats linked to nuclear power, such as harmful radiation and proliferation, Greenpeace campaigns for alternative solutions such as marine reserves and renewable energy. The organization currently addresses many and varied environmental issues with a primary focus on efforts to stop global warming and the preservation of the world's oceans and ancient forests. In addition to conventional environmental organization methods, such as lobbying businesses and politicians and participating in international conferences, Greenpeace uses direct action to attract attention to particular environmental problems. For example, activists place themselves between the whaler's harpoons and their prey or invade nuclear facilities dressed as barrels of radioactive waste. Currently Greenpeace is in the midst of a campaign called Project Hot Seat, which is geared toward placing pressure on the United States Congress to stop global warming. Other initiatives include the development of a fuel-efficient car, the SmILE. Current priorities Below is a list of Greenpeace's current priorities: Tackling human-induced climate change (global warming) Preserving the oceans (including stopping whaling and bottom trawling) Saving ancient forests (see deforestation, Intact forest landscapes) Peace and nuclear disarmament Promoting sustainable agriculture (and opposing genetic engineering) Eliminating toxic chemicals (including from E-waste), many of which are carcinogens Solar Electricity The EPIA/Greenpeace Advanced Scenario shows that by the year 2030, Photovoltaic systems could be generating approximately 2,600 TWh of electricity around the world. This means that, assuming a serious commitment is made to energy efficiency, enough solar power would be produced globally in twenty-five years’ time to satisfy the electricity needs of almost 14% of the world’s population. http://www.epia.org/fileadmin/EPIA_docs/documents/EPIA_SG_V_ENGLISH_FULL_Sept2008.pdf Fossil fuels phase-out In the Greenpeace and EREC´s Energy (R)evolution scenario, the world could eliminate fossil fuel use by 2090. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/climate-change/energyrevolution?utm_source=gpi-cyberactivist-list&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=er http://www.erec.org/fileadmin/erec_docs/Documents/Press_Releases/Press_release_Greenpeace_EREC__October_2008.pdf http://environment.newscientist.com/channel/earth/dn15043-world-can-halt-fossil-fuel-use-by-2090.html?feedId=online-news_rss20 Think tanks Think tanks, under the Greenpeace umbrella, propose blueprints for world's transition to renewable energy. The focus is to reduce carbon emissions without compromising on economic growth. The Solar Generation project, Solar Generation conceived in 2000 by Greenpeace and the European Photo- voltaic Industry Association (EPIA), addresses major energy challenges facing the global society and charts out the solar energy remedies until 2050. Greenpeace think tanks also focus on individual nation's energy scenarios. For example, Greenpeace has published scenarios where renewable resources like solar can become the backbone of the economies of developing countries like India, by 2050. Greenpeace announces comprehensive energy strategy for India to tackle Climate Change without compromising economic development Energy (R)evolution: A sustainable Energy Outlook for India History Origins The origins of Greenpeace lie in the peace movement and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament generally, and particularly in the Don't Make A Wave Committee co-founded by Jim Bohlen, Patrick Moore, Paul Coté, and Irving Stowe, followed by an assortment of Canadian and expatriate American peace activists in Vancouver in 1970. Taking its name from a slogan used during protests against United States nuclear weapons testing in late 1969, the Committee had come together with the objective of stopping a U.S. nuclear bomb test codenamed Cannikin beneath the Aleutian island of Amchitka, Alaska. The first ship expedition, inspired by the voyages of the Golden Rule, Phoenix and Everyman in 1958, was on the chartered West Coast fishing vessel, the "Phyllis Cormack," owned and sailed by John Cormack of Vancouver, and called the Greenpeace I; The History of Greenpeace the second expedition was nicknamed Greenpeace Too!. Discover Vancouver. The Greenpeace Story The test was not prevented, but the voyage laid the groundwork for Greenpeace's later activities. Early influential people Bill Darnell has received the credit for combining the words "green" and "peace", there by giving the organization its future name. Irving Stowe, Paul Coté and Jim Bohlen are co-founders of Greenpeace. Coté and Bohlen traveled to Anchorage to speak to legislators (many of whom were also against the testing) about the activities of Greenpeace. The two men said that they were highly amused at the surveillance placed on them by the American government. The Alaska Fish and Game Department protested loudly about the destruction of the sea lion population and many other species of sea life. The Phyllis Cormack stationed herself outside the testing zone to observe the results of the tests. After the initial underwater tests, the United States Congress voted against further underwater testing. Robert Hunter was a media guru and spiritual and organisational leader. Ben Metcalfe became the first Chairman of the Greenpeace Foundation and with his wife Dorothy managed the media for the first few years. Dr. Patrick Moore was the ecologist of note and served for nine years as President of Greenpeace Canada as well as seven years as a Director of Greenpeace International. Rod Marining's campaign saved the entrance to Vancouver's Stanley Park. He was on the first voyage to Amchitka and was a board member during the 1970s. Paul Watson was involved in the early days of Greenpeace and led Harp Seal Campaigns. and Josh Norris Lyle Thurston was the medical doctor on the first voyage and served on the board during the 1970s. Campaigns Greenpeace member protesting nuclear power in Lille On 4 May 1972, following Dorothy Stowe's departure from the chairmanship of the Don't Make a Wave Committee, the fledgling environmental group officially changed its name to "The Greenpeace Foundation". In 1972 the yacht Vega, a ketch owned by David McTaggart (an eventual spokesman for Greenpeace International), was renamed Greenpeace III and sailed in an anti-nuclear protest into the exclusion zone at Mururoa in French Polynesia to attempt to disrupt French atmospheric nuclear weapons testing. This voyage was sponsored and organised by the New Zealand branch of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Making Waves the Greenpeace New Zealand Story by Michael Szabo ISBN CNDNZ and the New Zealand Peace Media had been lobbying the New Zealand Government and the New Zealand public to place pressure on and France to agree to enforce a nuclear test ban in the South Pacific since the mid 1950s. In 1973 the yacht Fri spearheaded an international protest of a flotilla of yachts in a voyage against atmospheric nuclear tests at Moruroa in French Polynesia. Elsa Caron, (ed.) 1974, Fri Alert (Caveman Press, Dunedin). The Yacht Fri's own story of her protest voyage into the French Bomb Test Zone Fri was an important part of a series of anti-nuclear protest campaigns out of New Zealand and Australia which lasted thirty years, from which New Zealand declared itself a Nuclear free zone which became enshrined in legislation in what became the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987. New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987 Nuclear Free Zone This voyage was organised by CNDNZ and the New Zealand Peace Media. In 1974, coordinated by Greenpeace New Zealand, the Fri embarked on a 3 year 40,233 kilometers “Pacific Peace Odyssey” voyage, carrying the peace message to all nuclear states around the world. Michael Szabo, Making Waves: The Greenpeace New Zealand Story, ISBN 0 7900 0230 2 Nuclear Free: The New Zealand Way, The Right Honourable David Lange,t Penguin Books, New Zealand,1990. In 1974 the La Flor, from Melbourne, Australia, skippered by Rolf Heimann, a children's author, set out for Mururoa via New Zealand as Greenpeace IV but arrived after the final nuclear test for the year. The French military conducted more than 200 nuclear tests (40 of them atmospheric) at Mururoa and Fangataufa atolls over a thirty-year period ending in 1996. In 1975 the Vancouver based Greenpeace Foundation mounted an anti-whaling campaign which encountered Soviet whalers over the seamounts off Mendocino, California. This campaign had been influenced by the work of Paul Spong and Farley Mowat as well as Robert Hunter's encounter with the Orca Skana. In 1976 a campaign was launched against the killing and skinning of baby seals in Newfoundland for the high-fashion fur trade, targeting Norwegian ships engaged in the trade after receiving a hostile welcome from the Newfoundland fishermen involved in the hunt. Greenpeace used helicopters to move people and supplies to a base camp at Belle Isle. Brigitte Bardot later got involved in this campaign, to great effect. In the same year another anti-whaling expedition, using the James Bay as Greenpeace VII, disrupted the Soviet fleet again, but this time with the assistance of a "deep throat" source and extra funding from Ed Daly of World Airways. At about the same time visits to Japan were arranged to persuade the Japanese people that whaling should end. By the late 1970s, spurred by the global reach of what Robert Hunter called "mind bombs", in which images of confrontation on the high seas converted diffuse and complex issues into considerably more media-friendly David versus Goliath-style narratives, more than 20 groups across North America, Europe, New Zealand and Australia had adopted the name "Greenpeace". Greenpeace also engaged with its opponents through the courts both in Canada (defending a loitering charge for failing to leave a fisheries office) and in France (David McTaggart's Law of the Sea case to recover repair costs after his yacht Vega was damaged by the French navy). Similarly, Greenpeace became involved with lobbying elected officials and various bodies such as the United Nations through events such as the Conference on the Human Environment and with the International Whaling Commission. On August 21, 2007, Yvo de Boer, head of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), angered environmental groups with his suggestion that "rich nations should be absolved from the need to cut emissions if they pay developing countries to do it on their behalf". Doug Parr of Greenpeace opposed Mr. de Boer's suggestion: "The current trading system is not delivering emissions reductions as it is ... Expanding it like this to give rich countries a completely free hand will simply not work." BBC NEWS, Rich "can pay poor to cut carbon" On August 22, 2007, the Philippine Department of Energy's plan to develop nuclear energy as an alternative source of power was opposed by Von Hernandez, campaign director of Greenpeace Southeast Asia, who warned that exploring nuclear options to bolster energy demand is "dangerous and misleading." He said the risks of accidents like Chernobyl or the most recent Kashiwazaki nuclear plant leak in Japan after an earthquake are real. ABS-CBN Interactive, Greenpeace opposes nuke power option Four Greenpeace activists breached security at Heathrow Airport on February 25, 2008 to climb on top of a British Airways plane and protest plans to build a third runway Activists climb onto BA jet at Heathrow On May 23, 2008, Greenpeace blocked coal shipments of Team Energy Philippines and intentions was to prevent expansion of coal power plants in the country. They sprayed a banner saying "Quit Coal" on the ship, but after negotiations they withdrew. In August 2008, a Greenpeace ship started dropping 150 2-3 ton boulders into the North Sea in order to stop trawling, which it says harms marine life, demanding that Germany and the EU implement a ban on heavy net bottom trawling in the protected area. German fishermen said that the rocks can damage boats and threaten fishermen lives. Madeline Chambers. Reuters UK. Activists drop rocks on German seabed to stop fishing. August 12, 2008. The Federation of Fishermen Associations refused to talk with Greenpeace after the action and its president Ben Daalder made the statement "We don't negotiate with a criminal organisation." Floris Dogterom. Ratio Netherlands Worldwide. Dutch environmental groups under fire Subsidies may be cut. August 24, 2008. In September 2008, 6 Greenpeace activists who damaged a chimney at a power plant in the UK were declared "not guilty" of property destruction by a jury because they argued, through James Hansen who supported them in person, Greenpeace Kingsnorth trial collapse is embarrassing for Gordon Brown that they actually prevented greater property destruction due to climate change. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/sep/11/activists.kingsnorthclimatecamp Kingsnorth Six found not guilty Formation of formal global organization In 1979, the original Vancouver-based Greenpeace Foundation encountered financial difficulties. Disputes between offices over fund-raising and organizational direction split the global movement. Waves of Compassion. The founding of Greenpeace. by Rex Weyler p.4. Retrieved on May 8, 2007 David McTaggart lobbied the Canadian Greenpeace Foundation to accept a new structure which would bring the scattered Greenpeace offices under the auspices of a single global organization. On October 14, 1979, Greenpeace International came into existence. Under the new structure, the local offices would contribute a percentage of their income to the international organization, which would take responsibility for setting the overall direction of the movement. Greenpeace's transformation from a loose international network to a global organization enabled it to apply the full force of its resources to a small number of environmental issues deemed of global significance, owing much to McTaggart's personal vision. McTaggart summed up his approach in a 1994 memo: "No campaign should be begun without clear goals; no campaign should be begun unless there is a possibility that it can be won; no campaign should be begun unless you intend to finish it off". McTaggart's own assessment of what could and could not be won, as well as how, frequently caused controversy. In re-shaping Greenpeace as a centrally coordinated, hierarchical organization, McTaggart went against the anti-authoritarian ethos that prevailed in other environmental organizations that came of age in the 1970s. While this pragmatic structure granted Greenpeace the persistence and narrow focus necessary to match forces with government and industry, it would lead to the recurrent criticism that Greenpeace had adopted the same methods of governance as its chief foes, the multinational corporations. Its current Executive Director is Gerd Leipold. Executive Director: Gerd Leipold | Greenpeace International For smaller actions and for continuous local promotion and activism, Greenpeace has networks of active supporters that coordinate their efforts through national offices. The United Kingdom has some 6,000 Greenpeace activists. Ships Since Greenpeace was founded, seagoing ships have played a vital role in its campaigns. In 1978, Greenpeace launched the original Rainbow Warrior, a , former fishing trawler named for the Cree legend that inspired early activist Robert Hunter on the first voyage to Amchitka. Greenpeace purchased the Rainbow Warrior (originally launched as the Sir William Hardy in 1955) at a cost of £40,000. Volunteers restored and refitted it over a period of four months. First deployed to disrupt the hunt of the Icelandic whaling fleet, the Rainbow Warrior would quickly become a mainstay of Greenpeace campaigns. Between 1978 and 1985, crew members also engaged in non-violent direct action against the ocean-dumping of toxic and radioactive waste, the Grey Seal hunt in Orkney and nuclear testing in the Pacific. Japan's Fisheries Agency has labeled Greenpeace ships as "anti-whaling vessels" and "environmental terrorists". Greenpeace Rejects Terrorism Label, 14 December 2001 In 1985 the Rainbow Warrior entered into the waters surrounding Moruroa atoll, site of French nuclear testing. The sinking of the Rainbow Warrior occurred when the French government secretly bombed the ship in Auckland harbour on orders from François Mitterrand himself. This killed Dutch freelance photographer Fernando Pereira, who thought it was safe to enter the boat to get his photographic material after a first small explosion, but drowned as a result of a second, larger explosion. The attack was a public relations disaster for France after it was quickly exposed by the New Zealand police. The French Government in 1987 agreed to pay New Zealand compensation of NZ$13 million and formally apologised for the bombing. The French Government also paid ₣2.3 million compensation to the family of the photographer. In 1989 Greenpeace commissioned a replacement vessel, also named the Rainbow Warrior, which remains in service today as the flagship of the Greenpeace fleet. In 1996 the Greenpeace vessel MV Sirius was detained by Dutch police while protesting the import of genetically modified soybeans due to the violation of a temporary sailing prohibition, which was implemented because the Sirius prevented their unloading. The ship, but not the captain, was released half an hour later. In 2005 the Rainbow Warrior II ran aground on and damaged the Tubbataha Reef in the Philippines while she was, ironically, on a mission to protect the very same reef. BBC News. Greenpeace fined for reef damage. 1 November 2005. Greenpeace was fined $7,000 USD for damaging the reef and agreed to pay the fine, although it said that the Philippines government had given it outdated charts. Along with the Rainbow Warrior, the Greenpeace organisation has two other ships: MY Arctic Sunrise MY Esperanza Criticism Greenpeace has been variously criticized for being too radical, too alarmist, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/01/AR2006060101884.html or too mainstream, for using methods bordering on eco-terrorism, for having itself caused environmental damage in its activities, for taking positions which are not environmentally or economically sound, and for valuing non-human causes over human causes. These criticisms have been made by governments, industrial and political lobbyists and other environmental groups. Early Greenpeace member, Canadian Ecologist Patrick Moore left the organization in 1986 when it decided to support a universal ban on chlorine in drinking water, chlorine which Moore has called "the biggest advance in the history of public health" and "essential for our health." Moore has argued that Greenpeace today is motivated by politics rather than science and that none of his "fellow directors had any formal science education". Greenpeace Works In March, 2007 a division dedicated to working more closely with the entertainment community, founded by Mark Warford and former Eurythmic Dave Stewart was established in Hollywood. Inaugural projects included the music release of 'Go Green', a celebrity-laden pop song that included Dave Stewart, Annie Lennox, Sarah McLachlan and newcomer Nadirah X and a cultural exchange with Greenpeace China and the Hollywood community. The affiliation with Greenpeace was closed in October, 2007 due gross misalignment. Founders Mark Warford and Dave Stewart continue under the banner of Weapons of Mass Entertainment. See also EREC Sea Shepherd Civil Disobedience Greenpeace China Greenpeace Southeast Asia References Further reading David McTaggart with Robert Hunter, Greenpeace III: Journey into the Bomb (London: William Collins Sons & Co., 1978). ISBN 0 211885 8 Robert Hunter, Warriors of the Rainbow: A Chronicle of the Greenpeace Movement (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979). ISBN 0-03-043736-9 Michael King, Death of the Rainbow Warrior (Penguin Books, 1986). ISBN 0-14-009738-4 John McCormick, The Global Environmental Movement (John Wiley, 1995) David Robie, Eyes of Fire: The Last Voyage of the Rainbow Warrior (Philadelphia: New Society Press, 1987). ISBN 0-86571-114-3 Michael Brown and John May, The Greenpeace Story (1989; London and New York: Dorling Kindersley, Inc., 1991). ISBN 1-879431-02-5 Rex Weyler (2004), Greenpeace: How a Group of Ecologists, Journalists and Visionaries Changed the World, Rodale Kieran Mulvaney and Mark Warford (1996): Witness: Twenty-Five Years on the Environmental Front Line,'' Andre Deutsch. 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5,622 | Object-oriented_programming | Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that uses "objects" and their interactions to design applications and computer programs. Programming techniques may include features such as information hiding, data abstraction, encapsulation, modularity, polymorphism, and inheritance. It was not commonly used in mainstream software application development until the early 1990s. Many modern programming languages now support OOP. Overview Object-oriented programming has roots that can be traced to the 1960s. As hardware and software became increasingly complex, quality was often compromised. Researchers studied ways to maintain software quality and developed object-oriented programming in part to address common problems by strongly emphasizing discrete, reusable units of programming logic. The methodology focuses on data rather than processes, with programs composed of self-sufficient modules (objects) each containing all the information needed to manipulate its own data structure. This is in contrast to the existing modular programming which had been dominant for many years that focused on the function of a module, rather than specifically the data, but equally provided for code reuse, and self-sufficient reusable units of programming logic, enabling collaboration through the use of linked modules (subroutines). This more conventional approach, which still persists, tends to consider data and behavior separately. An object-oriented program may thus be viewed as a collection of cooperating objects, as opposed to the conventional model, in which a program is seen as a list of tasks (subroutines) to perform. In OOP, each object is capable of receiving messages, processing data, and sending messages to other objects and can be viewed as an independent 'machine' with a distinct role or responsibility. The actions (or "operators") on these objects are closely associated with the object. For example, the data structures tend to carry their own operators around with them (or at least "inherit" them from a similar object or class). The Simula programming language was the first to introduce the concepts underlying object-oriented programming (objects, classes, subclasses, virtual methods, coroutines, garbage collection, and discrete event simulation) as a superset of Algol. Simula was used for physical modeling, such as models to study and improve the movement of ships and their content through cargo ports. Smalltalk was the first programming language to be called "object-oriented". History The concept of objects and instances in computing had its first major breakthrough with the PDP-1 system at MIT which was probably the earliest example of capability based architecture. Another early example was Sketchpad made by Ivan Sutherland in 1963; however, this was an application and not a programming paradigm. Objects as programming entities were introduced in the 1960s in Simula 67, a programming language designed for making simulations, created by Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard of the Norwegian Computing Center in Oslo. (They were working on ship simulations, and were confounded by the combinatorial explosion of how the different attributes from different ships could affect one another. The idea occurred to group the different types of ships into different classes of objects, each class of objects being responsible for defining its own data and behavior.) Such an approach was a simple extrapolation of concepts earlier used in analog programming. On analog computers, mapping from real-world phenomena/objects to analog phenomena/objects (and conversely), was (and is) called 'simulation'. Simula not only introduced the notion of classes, but also of instances of classes, which is probably the first explicit use of those notions. The ideas of Simula 67 influenced many later languages, especially Smalltalk and derivatives of Lisp and Pascal. The Smalltalk language, which was developed at Xerox PARC (by Alan Kay and others) in the 1970s , introduced the term object-oriented programming to represent the pervasive use of objects and messages as the basis for computation. Smalltalk creators were influenced by the ideas introduced in Simula 67, but Smalltalk was designed to be a fully dynamic system in which classes could be created and modified dynamically rather than statically as in Simula 67 . Smalltalk and with it OOP were introduced to a wider audience by the August 1981 issue of Byte magazine. In the 1970s, Kay's Smalltalk work had influenced the Lisp community to incorporate object-based techniques which were introduced to developers via the Lisp machine. In the 1980s, there were a few attempts to design processor architectures which included hardware support for objects in memory but these were not successful. Examples include the Intel iAPX 432 and the Linn Smart Rekursiv. Object-oriented programming developed as the dominant programming methodology during the mid-1990s, largely due to the influence of C++. Its dominance was further enhanced by the rising popularity of graphical user interfaces, for which object-oriented programming seems to be well-suited. An example of a closely related dynamic GUI library and OOP language can be found in the Cocoa frameworks on Mac OS X, written in Objective C, an object-oriented, dynamic messaging extension to C based on Smalltalk. OOP toolkits also enhanced the popularity of event-driven programming (although this concept is not limited to OOP). Some feel that association with GUIs (real or perceived) was what propelled OOP into the programming mainstream. At ETH Zürich, Niklaus Wirth and his colleagues had also been investigating such topics as data abstraction and modular programming. Modula-2 included both, and their succeeding design, Oberon, included a distinctive approach to object orientation, classes, and such. The approach is unlike Smalltalk, and very unlike C++. Object-oriented features have been added to many existing languages during that time, including Ada, BASIC, Fortran, Pascal, and others. Adding these features to languages that were not initially designed for them often led to problems with compatibility and maintainability of code. More recently, a number of languages have emerged that are primarily object-oriented yet compatible with procedural methodology, such as Python and Ruby. Probably the most commercially important recent object-oriented languages are Visual Basic .NET (VB.NET) and C#, both designed for Microsoft's .NET platform, and Java, developed by Sun Microsystems. VB.NET and C# both support cross-language inheritance, allowing classes defined in one language to subclass classes defined in the other language. Recently many universities have begun to teach Object-oriented design in introductory computer science classes. Just as procedural programming led to refinements of techniques such as structured programming, modern object-oriented software design methods include refinements such as the use of design patterns, design by contract, and modeling languages (such as UML). Fundamental concepts A survey by Deborah J. Armstrong Armstrong, The Quarks of Object-Oriented Development. In descending order of popularity, the "quarks" are: Inheritance, Object, Class, Encapsulation, Method, Message Passing, Polymorphism, Abstraction of nearly 40 years of computing literature identified a number of "quarks", or fundamental concepts, found in the strong majority of definitions of OOP. They are the following: Class Defines the abstract characteristics of a thing (object), including the thing's characteristics (its attributes, fields or properties) and the thing's behaviors (the things it can do, or methods, operations or features). One might say that a class is a blueprint or factory that describes the nature of something. For example, the class Dog would consist of traits shared by all dogs, such as breed and fur color (characteristics), and the ability to bark and sit (behaviors). Classes provide modularity and structure in an object-oriented computer program. A class should typically be recognizable to a non-programmer familiar with the problem domain, meaning that the characteristics of the class should make sense in context. Also, the code for a class should be relatively self-contained (generally using encapsulation). Collectively, the properties and methods defined by a class are called members. Object A pattern (exemplar) of a class. The class of Dog defines all possible dogs by listing the characteristics and behaviors they can have; the object Lassie is one particular dog, with particular versions of the characteristics. A Dog has fur; Lassie has brown-and-white fur. Instance One can have an instance of a class or a particular object. The instance is the actual object created at runtime. In programmer jargon, the Lassie object is an instance of the Dog class. The set of values of the attributes of a particular object is called its state. The object consists of state and the behaviour that's defined in the object's class. Method An object's abilities. In language, methods (sometimes referred to as "functions") are verbs. Lassie, being a Dog, has the ability to bark. So bark() is one of Lassie's methods. She may have other methods as well, for example sit() or eat() or walk() or save_timmy(). Within the program, using a method usually affects only one particular object; all Dogs can bark, but you need only one particular dog to do the barking. Message passing "The process by which an object sends data to another object or asks the other object to invoke a method." Also known to some programming languages as interfacing. For example, the object called Breeder may tell the Lassie object to sit by passing a "sit" message which invokes Lassie's "sit" method. The syntax varies between languages, for example: [Lassie sit] in Objective-C. In Java, code-level message passing corresponds to "method calling". Some dynamic languages use double-dispatch or multi-dispatch to find and pass messages. Inheritance "Subclasses" are more specialized versions of a class, which inherit attributes and behaviors from their parent classes, and can introduce their own. For example, the class Dog might have sub-classes called Collie, Chihuahua, and GoldenRetriever. In this case, Lassie would be an instance of the Collie subclass. Suppose the Dog class defines a method called bark() and a property called furColor. Each of its sub-classes (Collie, Chihuahua, and GoldenRetriever) will inherit these members, meaning that the programmer only needs to write the code for them once. Each subclass can alter its inherited traits. For example, the Collie class might specify that the default furColor for a collie is brown-and-white. The Chihuahua subclass might specify that the bark() method produces a high pitch by default. Subclasses can also add new members. The Chihuahua subclass could add a method called tremble(). So an individual chihuahua instance would use a high-pitched bark() from the Chihuahua subclass, which in turn inherited the usual bark() from Dog. The chihuahua object would also have the tremble() method, but Lassie would not, because she is a Collie, not a Chihuahua. In fact, inheritance is an "a... is a" relationship between classes, while instantiation is an "is a" relationship between an object and a class: a Collie is a Dog ("a... is a"), but Lassie is a Collie ("is a"). Thus, the object named Lassie has the methods from both classes Collie and Dog. Multiple inheritance is inheritance from more than one ancestor class, neither of these ancestors being an ancestor of the other. For example, independent classes could define Dogs and Cats, and a Chimera object could be created from these two which inherits all the (multiple) behavior of cats and dogs. This is not always supported, as it can be hard both to implement and to use well. Abstraction Abstraction is simplifying complex reality by modelling classes appropriate to the problem, and working at the most appropriate level of inheritance for a given aspect of the problem. For example, Lassie the Dog may be treated as a Dog much of the time, a Collie when necessary to access Collie-specific attributes or behaviors, and as an Animal (perhaps the parent class of Dog) when counting Timmy's pets. Abstraction is also achieved through Composition. For example, a class Car would be made up of an Engine, Gearbox, Steering objects, and many more components. To build the Car class, one does not need to know how the different components work internally, but only how to interface with them, i.e., send messages to them, receive messages from them, and perhaps make the different objects composing the class interact with each other. Encapsulation Encapsulation conceals the functional details of a class from objects that send messages to it. For example, the Dog class has a bark() method. The code for the bark() method defines exactly how a bark happens (e.g., by inhale() and then exhale(), at a particular pitch and volume). Timmy, Lassie's friend, however, does not need to know exactly how she barks. Encapsulation is achieved by specifying which classes may use the members of an object. The result is that each object exposes to any class a certain interface — those members accessible to that class. The reason for encapsulation is to prevent clients of an interface from depending on those parts of the implementation that are likely to change in future, thereby allowing those changes to be made more easily, that is, without changes to clients. For example, an interface can ensure that puppies can only be added to an object of the class Dog by code in that class. Members are often specified as public, protected or private, determining whether they are available to all classes, sub-classes or only the defining class. Some languages go further: Java uses the default access modifier to restrict access also to classes in the same package, C# and VB.NET reserve some members to classes in the same assembly using keywords internal (C#) or Friend (VB.NET), and Eiffel and C++ allow one to specify which classes may access any member. Polymorphism Polymorphism allows the programmer to treat derived class members just like their parent class' members. More precisely, Polymorphism in object-oriented programming is the ability of objects belonging to different data types to respond to method calls of methods of the same name, each one according to an appropriate type-specific behavior. One method, or an operator such as +, -, or *, can be abstractly applied in many different situations. If a Dog is commanded to speak(), this may elicit a bark(). However, if a <code>Pig<code> is commanded to speak(), this may elicit an oink(). They both inherit speak() from Animal, but their derived class methods override the methods of the parent class; this is Overriding Polymorphism. Overloading Polymorphism is the use of one method signature, or one operator such as "+", to perform several different functions depending on the implementation. The "+" operator, for example, may be used to perform integer addition, float addition, list concatenation, or string concatenation. Any two subclasses of Number, such as Integer and Double, are expected to add together properly in an OOP language. The language must therefore overload the addition operator, "+", to work this way. This helps improve code readability. How this is implemented varies from language to language, but most OOP languages support at least some level of overloading polymorphism. Many OOP languages also support Parametric Polymorphism, where code is written without mention of any specific type and thus can be used transparently with any number of new types. Pointers are an example of a simple polymorphic routine that can be used with many different types of objects. B. Stroustrup, The C++ Programming Language, 3rd-ed., p. 158 Decoupling Decoupling allows for the separation of object interactions from classes and inheritance into distinct layers of abstraction. A common use of decoupling is to polymorphically decouple the encapsulation, which is the practice of using reusable code to prevent discrete code modules from interacting with each other. However, in practice decoupling often involves trade-offs with regard to which patterns of change to favor. The science of measuring these trade-offs in respect to actual change in an objective way is still in its infancy. Not all of the above concepts are to be found in all object-oriented programming languages, and so object-oriented programming that uses classes is called sometimes class-based programming. In particular, prototype-based programming does not typically use classes. As a result, a significantly different yet analogous terminology is used to define the concepts of object and instance. OOP in scripting In recent years, object-oriented programming has become especially popular in scripting programming languages. Python and Ruby are scripting languages built on OOP principles, while Perl and PHP have been adding object oriented features since Perl 5 and PHP 4, and ColdFusion since version 6. The Document Object Model of HTML, XHTML, and XML documents on the Internet have bindings to the popular JavaScript/ECMAScript language. JavaScript is perhaps the best known prototype-based programming language which employs cloning from prototypes rather than inheriting from a class. Another popular scripting language that exploits this approach is Lua. Earlier versions of ActionScript (a partial superset of the ECMA-262 R3, otherwise known as ECMAScript) also used a prototype based object model. Later versions of ActionScript incorporate a combination of classification and prototype based object models based largely on the currently incomplete ECMA-262 R4 specification, which has its roots in an early JavaScript 2 Proposal. Microsoft's JScript.NET also includes a mash-up of object models based on the same proposal, and is also a superset of the ECMA-262 R3 specification. Problems and patterns There are a number of programming challenges which a developer encounters regularly in object-oriented design. There are also widely accepted solutions to these problems. The best known are the design patterns codified by Gamma et al., but in a broader sense the term "design patterns" can be used to refer to any general, repeatable solution to a commonly occurring problem in software design. Some of these commonly occurring problems have implications and solutions particular to object-oriented development. Gang of Four design patterns Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software is an influential book published in 1995 by Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides, sometimes casually called the "Gang of Four". Along with exploring the capabilities and pitfalls of object-oriented programming, it describes 23 common programming problems and patterns for solving them. As of April 2007, the book was in its 36th printing. Typical design patterns are as follows: Creational patterns (5): Factory Pattern, Abstract Factory Pattern, Singleton Pattern, Builder Pattern, Prototype Pattern Structural patterns (7): Adapter Pattern, Bridge Pattern, Composite Pattern, Decorator Pattern, Facade Pattern, Flyweight Pattern, Proxy Pattern Behavioral patterns (11): Chain of Responsibility Pattern, Command Pattern, Interpreter Pattern, Iterator Pattern, Mediator Pattern, Memento Pattern, Observer Pattern, State pattern, Strategy Pattern, Template Pattern, Visitor Pattern Object-orientation and databases Both object-oriented programming and relational database management systems (RDBMSs) are extremely common in software . Since relational databases don't store objects directly (though some RDBMSs have object-oriented features to approximate this), there is a general need to bridge the two worlds. There are a number of widely used solutions to this problem. One of the most common is object-relational mapping, as found in libraries like Java Data Objects and Ruby on Rails' ActiveRecord. There are also object databases which can be used to replace RDBMSs, but these have not been as commercially successful as RDBMSs. Matching real world OOP can be used to translate from real-world phenomena to program elements (and vice versa). OOP was even invented for the purpose of physical modeling in the Simula-67 programming language. However, not everyone agrees that direct real-world mapping is facilitated by OOP, or is even a worthy goal; Bertrand Meyer argues in Object-Oriented Software Construction Meyer, Second Edition, p. 230 that a program is not a model of the world but a model of some part of the world; "Reality is a cousin twice removed". At the same time, some principal limitations of OOP had been noted. M.Trofimov, OOOP - The Third "O" Solution: Open OOP. First Class, OMG, 1993, Vol. 3, issue 3, p.14. However, Niklaus Wirth said of OOP in his paper "Good Ideas through the Looking Glass", "This paradigm closely reflects the structure of systems 'in the real world', and it is therefore well suited to model complex systems with complex behaviours." Formal definition There have been several attempts at formalizing the concepts used in object-oriented programming. The following concepts and constructs have been used as interpretations of OOP concepts: coalgebraic datatypes existential quantification and modules recursion records and record extensions F-bounded polymorphism Attempts to find a consensus definition or theory behind objects have not proven very successful (however, see "Abadi & Cardelli: A Theory of Objects" A Theory of Objects, Martin Abadi and Luca Cardelli for formal definitions of many OOP concepts and constructs), and often diverge widely. For example, some definitions focus on mental activities, and some on mere program structuring. One of the simpler definitions is that OOP is the act of using "map" data structures or arrays that can contain functions and pointers to other maps, all with some syntactic and scoping sugar on top. Inheritance can be performed by cloning the maps (sometimes called "prototyping"). OOPS The term OOPS, which refers to an object-oriented programming system, is widely used and was common in early development of object-oriented programming. Criticism In the academic realm of MIT there is a long tradition of criticizing object-oriented programming as a false annunciation. Usually this claim is founded upon the observation that there are no formal innovations in object-oriented programming—that the paradigm never brought out a technique or characteristic of programming languages not known to academics by another name. Classes and inheritance are syntactic sugar, whereas polymorphism has long been known to Lisp developers as "dispatching on type." Overall, object-oriented programming, generic programming, and whatever else the designers of static programming languages add to augment the expressivity of these languages have been formally known to programmers of Lisp for many years. What has been wanting in Lisp is efficiency, and the addition of these techniques to static languages brings their efficiency to the fore. Luca Cardelli wrote a paper titled 'Bad Engineering Properties of Object-Oriented Languages'. Richard Stallman wrote in 1995, "Adding OOP to Emacs is not clearly an improvement; I used OOP when working on the Lisp Machine window systems, and I disagree with the usual view that it is a superior way to program." A study by Potok et al. http://www.csm.ornl.gov/~v8q/Homepage/Papers%20Old/spetep-%20printable.pdf has shown no significant difference in productivity between OOP and procedural approaches. Christopher J. Date stated that critical comparison of OOP to other technologies, relational in particular, is difficult because of lack of an agreed-upon and rigorous definition of OOP. C. J. Date, Introduction to Database Systems, 6th-ed., Page 650 . In C. J. Date, Hugh Darwen, Foundation for Future Database Systems: The Third Manifesto (2nd Edition) , a theoretical foundation on OOP is proposed. Alexander Stepanov suggested that OOP provides a mathematically-limited viewpoint and called it, "almost as much of a hoax as Artificial Intelligence" (possibly referring to the Artificial Intelligence projects and marketing of the 1980s that are sometimes viewed as overzealous in retrospect). The AI Effect STLport: An Interview with A. Stepanov Paul Graham, a successful web entrepreneur and programming author, has suggested that the purpose of OOP is to act as a herding mechanism which keeps mediocre programmers in mediocre organizations from "doing too much damage". This is at the expense of slowing down productive programmers who know how to use more powerful and more compact techniques. See also Abstract data type Aspect-oriented programming Circle-ellipse problem Constructor overloading CORBA Design by contract DCOM Dot notation GRASP IDEF4 Interface description language Lepus3 an Object-Oriented design description language List of object-oriented programming terms Object association Object database Object-oriented analysis and design Object-oriented programming language Object-relational impedance mismatch (and The Third Manifesto) Object-relational mapping Procedural programming Refactoring Software componentry References Further reading External links Programming Styles: Procedural, OOP, and AOP What is OOP? 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5,623 | Keflavík | Keflavík (pronounced ) (Icelandic, "Driftwood Bay") is a city in the Reykjanes region in southwest Iceland. It has now merged with Njarðvík and Hafnir to form a municipality called Reykjanesbær with a population of 14,000 (June 2008). History The harbour at Keflavík Founded in the 16th century, Keflavík developed due to its fishing and fish processing industry, founded by Scottish entrepreneurs and engineers. Later its growth continued from flight operations at the Keflavík International Airport which was built by the US during the 1940s. The airport used to hold a significant NATO military base and was a vital pre-jet refueling stop for trans-Atlantic commercial air traffic. During WWII the military airfield served as a refueling and transit depot. In the Cold War, Naval Air Station Keflavik played an important role in monitoring marine and submarine traffic from the Norwegian and Greenland Seas, into the Atlantic Ocean. During the Cold War, forces from the United States Air Force were added to provide radar monitoring, fighter intercept, in-flight refueling, and aerial/marine rescue. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, however, the base's role was cast into doubt. The base officially closed on 30 September 2006, as the United States withdrew the remaining 30 military personnel. The Airport remains, serving as Iceland's main international hub. In Iceland, the town was renowned as a rich source of musicians during the 1960s and 70s, and is therefore also known as bítlabærinn or "The Beatle Town". In November 2008, in an official lunch with foreign diplomats, Icelandic President Olafur Ragnar Grimsson shocked neighboring Nordic countries with inviting Russia to take use of the strategically important air-base. Foreign diplomats hardly believed what they heard when the Icelandic president said that his country needs “new friends” and that Russia should be invited to take use of the old U.S. airbase of Keflavik. This is a rumored to be a retaliation for anti-terrorism laws being used to seize the assets of Icelandic businesses in the UK in revenge for the Icelandic banks "losing" UK Government money. Geography Route 41 between Keflavík and Njardvík. The local geography is dominated by fields of basalt rubble, interspersed with a few hardy plants and mosses. On a clear day, one can see Snæfellsjökull across the bay, some 115 km away. Fictional connections The former NATO military base Naval Air Station Keflavik is used as a setting for an important story line in Tom Clancy's novel Red Storm Rising. Clancy's descriptions of the base, the geography, local flora, and the station equipment were rather accurate. See also Keflavík International Airport Cold War Iceland Defense Force, headquartered in Keflavík until 2006 External links Reykjanesbær - picture gallery from islandsmyndir.is Satellite picture by Google Maps Russia invited to Iceland’s air-base Iceland, Mired in Debt, Blames Britain for Woes by SARAH LYALL, NYTimes Nov.1.08 | Keflavík |@lemmatized keflavík:7 pronounce:1 icelandic:5 driftwood:1 bay:2 city:1 reykjanes:1 region:1 southwest:1 iceland:6 merge:1 njarðvík:1 hafnir:1 form:1 municipality:1 call:1 reykjanesbær:2 population:1 june:1 history:1 harbour:1 found:2 century:1 develop:1 due:1 fishing:1 fish:1 processing:1 industry:1 scottish:1 entrepreneur:1 engineer:1 later:1 growth:1 continue:1 flight:2 operation:1 international:3 airport:4 build:1 u:2 use:5 hold:1 significant:1 nato:2 military:4 base:7 vital:1 pre:1 jet:1 refuel:1 stop:1 trans:1 atlantic:2 commercial:1 air:6 traffic:2 wwii:1 airfield:1 serve:2 refueling:2 transit:1 depot:1 cold:3 war:3 naval:2 station:3 keflavik:3 play:1 important:3 role:2 monitor:1 marine:2 submarine:1 norwegian:1 greenland:1 sea:1 ocean:1 force:3 united:2 state:2 add:1 provide:1 radar:1 monitoring:1 fighter:1 intercept:1 aerial:1 rescue:1 collapse:1 soviet:1 union:1 however:1 cast:1 doubt:1 officially:1 close:1 september:1 withdraw:1 remain:2 personnel:1 main:1 hub:1 town:2 renowned:1 rich:1 source:1 musician:1 therefore:1 also:2 know:1 bítlabærinn:1 beatle:1 november:1 official:1 lunch:1 foreign:2 diplomat:2 president:2 olafur:1 ragnar:1 grimsson:1 shock:1 neighboring:1 nordic:1 country:2 invite:3 russia:3 take:2 strategically:1 hardly:1 believe:1 hear:1 say:1 need:1 new:1 friend:1 old:1 airbase:1 rumor:1 retaliation:1 anti:1 terrorism:1 law:1 seize:1 asset:1 business:1 uk:2 revenge:1 bank:1 lose:1 government:1 money:1 geography:3 route:1 njardvík:1 local:2 dominate:1 field:1 basalt:1 rubble:1 intersperse:1 hardy:1 plant:1 moss:1 clear:1 day:1 one:1 see:2 snæfellsjökull:1 across:1 km:1 away:1 fictional:1 connection:1 former:1 setting:1 story:1 line:1 tom:1 clancy:2 novel:1 red:1 storm:1 rise:1 description:1 flora:1 equipment:1 rather:1 accurate:1 defense:1 headquarter:1 external:1 link:1 picture:2 gallery:1 islandsmyndir:1 satellite:1 google:1 map:1 mire:1 debt:1 blame:1 britain:1 woe:1 sarah:1 lyall:1 nytimes:1 nov:1 |@bigram atlantic_ocean:1 soviet_union:1 strategically_important:1 tom_clancy:1 external_link:1 |
5,624 | Definable_real_number | A real number a is first-order definable in the language of set theory, without parameters, if there is a formula φ in the language of set theory, with one free variable, such that a is the unique real number such that φ(a) holds (in the von Neumann universe V). For the purposes of this article, such reals will be called simply definable numbers. This should not be understood to be standard terminology. Note that this definition cannot be expressed in the language of set theory itself. General facts Assuming they form a set, the definable numbers form a field containing all the familiar real numbers such as 0, 1, π, e, et cetera. In particular, this field contains all the numbers named in the mathematical constants article, and all algebraic numbers (and therefore all rational numbers). However, most real numbers are not definable: the set of all definable numbers is countably infinite (because the set of all logical formulas is) while the set of real numbers is uncountably infinite (see Cantor's diagonal argument). As a result, most real numbers have no description (in the same sense of "most" as 'most real numbers are not rational'). The field of definable numbers is not complete; there exist convergent sequences of definable numbers whose limit is not definable (since every real number is the limit of a sequence of rational numbers). However, if the sequence itself is definable in the sense that we can specify a single formula for all its terms, then its limit will necessarily be a definable number. While every computable number is definable, the converse is not true: the numeric representations of the Halting problem, Chaitin's constant, the truth set of first order arithmetic, and 0# are examples of numbers that are definable but not computable. Many other such numbers are known. One may also wish to talk about definable complex numbers: complex numbers which are uniquely defined by a logical formula. However, whether this is possible depends on how the field of complex numbers is derived in the first place: it may not be possible to distinguish a complex number from its conjugate (say, 3+i from 3-i), since it is impossible to find a property of one that is not also a property of the other, without falling back on the underlying set-theoretic definition. Assuming we can define at least one nonreal complex number, however, a complex number is definable if and only if both its real part and its imaginary part are definable. The definable complex numbers also form a field if they form a set. The related concept of "standard" numbers, which can only be defined within a finite time and space, is used to motivate axiomatic internal set theory, and provide a workable formulation for illimited and infinitesimal number. Definitions of the hyper-real line within non-standard analysis (the subject area dealing with such numbers) overwhelmingly include the usual, uncountable set of real numbers as a subset. Notion does not exhaust "unambiguously described" numbers Not every number that we would informally say has been unambiguously described, is definable in the above sense. For example, if we can enumerate all such definable numbers by the Gödel numbers of their defining formulas then we can use Cantor's diagonal argument to find a particular real that is not first-order definable in the same language. The argument can be made as follows: Suppose that in a mathematical language L, it is possible to enumerate all of the defined numbers in L. Let this enumeration be defined by the function G: W --> R, where G(n) is the real number described by the nth description in the sequence. Using the diagonal argument, it is possible to define a real number x, which is not equal to G(n) for any n. This means that there is a language L' that defines x, which is undefinable in L. Other notions of definability The notion of definability treated in this article has been chosen primarily for definiteness, not on the grounds that it's more useful or interesting than other notions. Here we treat a few others: Definability in other languages or structures Language of arithmetic The language of arithmetic has symbols for 0, 1, the successor operation, addition, and multiplication, intended to be interpreted in the usual way over the natural numbers. Since no variables of this language range over the reals, we cannot simply copy the earlier definition of definability. Rather, we say that a real a is definable in the language of arithmetic (or arithmetical) if its Dedekind cut can be defined as a predicate in that language; that is, if there is a first-order formula φ in the language of arithmetic, with two free variables, such that 2nd-order language of arithmetic The second-order language of arithmetic is the same as the first-order language, except that variables and quantifiers are allowed to range over sets of naturals. A real that is second-order definable in the language of arithmetic is called analytical. Definability with ordinal parameters Sometimes it is of interest to consider definability with parameters; that is, to give a definition relative to another object that remains undefined. For example, a real a (or for that matter, any set a) is called ordinal definable if there is a first-order formula φ in the language of set theory, with two free variables, and an ordinal γ, such that a is the unique object such that φ(a,γ) holds (in V). The other sorts of definability thus far considered have only countably many defining formulas, and therefore allow only countably many definable reals. This is not true for ordinal definability, because an ordinal definable real is defined not only by the formula φ, but also by the ordinal γ. In fact it is consistent with ZFC that all reals are ordinal-definable, and therefore that there are uncountably many ordinal-definable reals. However it is also consistent with ZFC that there are only countably many ordinal-definable reals. See also Berry paradox Computable number Constructible number Constructible universe Entscheidungsproblem References Alan Turing, "On Computable Numbers, With An Application to the Entscheidungsproblem", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 1936 (Turing's original paper distinguishing computable and definable numbers) | Definable_real_number |@lemmatized real:24 number:44 first:7 order:9 definable:28 language:18 set:15 theory:5 without:2 parameter:3 formula:9 φ:6 one:4 free:3 variable:5 unique:2 hold:2 von:1 neumann:1 universe:2 v:2 purpose:1 article:3 call:3 simply:2 understand:1 standard:3 terminology:1 note:1 definition:5 cannot:2 express:1 general:1 fact:2 assume:2 form:4 field:5 contain:2 familiar:1 π:1 e:1 et:1 cetera:1 particular:2 name:1 mathematical:3 constant:2 algebraic:1 therefore:3 rational:3 however:5 countably:4 infinite:2 logical:2 uncountably:2 see:2 cantor:2 diagonal:3 argument:4 result:1 description:2 sense:3 complete:1 exist:1 convergent:1 sequence:4 whose:1 limit:3 since:3 every:3 specify:1 single:1 term:1 necessarily:1 computable:5 converse:1 true:2 numeric:1 representation:1 halting:1 problem:1 chaitin:1 truth:1 arithmetic:8 example:3 many:5 know:1 may:2 also:6 wish:1 talk:1 complex:7 uniquely:1 define:9 whether:1 possible:4 depends:1 derive:1 place:1 distinguish:2 conjugate:1 say:3 impossible:1 find:2 property:2 fall:1 back:1 underlie:1 theoretic:1 least:1 nonreal:1 part:2 imaginary:1 related:1 concept:1 within:2 finite:1 time:1 space:1 use:3 motivate:1 axiomatic:1 internal:1 provide:1 workable:1 formulation:1 illimited:1 infinitesimal:1 hyper:1 line:1 non:1 analysis:1 subject:1 area:1 deal:1 overwhelmingly:1 include:1 usual:2 uncountable:1 subset:1 notion:4 exhaust:1 unambiguously:2 describe:3 would:1 informally:1 enumerate:2 gödel:1 defining:1 make:1 follow:1 suppose:1 l:4 defined:1 let:1 enumeration:1 function:1 g:3 w:1 r:1 n:3 nth:1 x:2 equal:1 mean:1 undefinable:1 definability:8 treat:2 choose:1 primarily:1 definiteness:1 ground:1 useful:1 interesting:1 others:1 structure:1 symbols:1 successor:1 operation:1 addition:1 multiplication:1 intend:1 interpret:1 way:1 natural:2 range:2 copy:1 early:1 rather:1 arithmetical:1 dedekind:1 cut:1 predicate:1 two:2 second:2 except:1 quantifier:1 allow:2 analytical:1 ordinal:9 sometimes:1 interest:1 consider:2 give:1 relative:1 another:1 object:2 remain:1 undefined:1 matter:1 γ:3 sort:1 thus:1 far:1 consistent:2 zfc:2 berry:1 paradox:1 constructible:2 entscheidungsproblem:2 reference:1 alan:1 turing:2 application:1 proceeding:1 london:1 society:1 original:1 paper:1 |@bigram von_neumann:1 et_cetera:1 countably_infinite:1 cantor_diagonal:2 halting_problem:1 chaitin_constant:1 ordinal_definable:5 consistent_zfc:2 constructible_universe:1 alan_turing:1 turing_computable:1 application_entscheidungsproblem:1 |
5,625 | John_Updike | John Hoyer Updike (March 18, 1932 – January 27, 2009) was an American novelist, poet, short story writer, art critic, and literary critic. Updike's most famous work is his Rabbit series (Rabbit, Run; Rabbit Redux; Rabbit Is Rich; Rabbit At Rest; and Rabbit Remembered). Both Rabbit is Rich and Rabbit at Rest received the Pulitzer Prize. Describing his subject as "the American small town, Protestant middle class", Updike was widely recognized for his careful craftsmanship, his unique prose style, and his prolific output, having published more than twenty novels and more than a dozen short story collections, as well as poetry, art criticism, literary criticism and children's books. Hundreds of his stories, reviews, and poems appeared in The New Yorker, starting in 1954. He also wrote regularly for The New York Review of Books. Updike populated his fiction with characters who "frequently experience personal turmoil and must respond to crises relating to religion, family obligations, and marital infidelity." MSN Encarta, "John Updike", 2008, Link His work has attracted a significant amount of critical attention and praise, and he is widely considered to be one of the great American writers of his time as well as a notable prose stylist. Updike, who had a history of smoking tobacco, died of lung cancer in 2009. Early life, education, and early writing Updike was born to Wesley Russell Updike and Linda Grace Hoyer in Reading, Pennsylvania. He later recalled how his mother's writing inspired him as a child. "One of my earliest memories is of seeing her at her desk.... I admired the writer's equipment, the typewriter eraser, the boxes of clean paper. And I remember the brown envelopes that stories would go off in – and come back in." These early years in Berks County, Pennsylvania, would shape the environment of the Rabbit tetralogy, as well as many of his early novels and short stories. He graduated from Shillington High School as co-valedictorian and class president in 1950. Updike later attended Harvard after receiving a full scholarship. At Harvard, he "immediately established himself as a major talent of indefatigable energy, submitting a steady stream of articles and drawings for the Harvard Lampoon," Boswell, Marshall. "John Updike", The Literary Encyclopedia, 18 March 2004 which he served as president, before graduating summa cum laude in 1954 with a degree in English. After graduation, he decided to pursue a career in graphic arts and attended The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art at the University of Oxford. His early ambition was to be a cartoonist. Jeet Heer, "John Updike's animated ambitions", The Guardian, 20 March 2004 Link After returning to the U.S., Updike and his family moved to New York, where he became a regular contributor to The New Yorker. He stayed only two years, writing "Talk of the Town" columns and submitting poetry and short stories. In New York, Updike "[composed] the remarkable poems and stories that filled such early books as The Carpentered Hen and Other Tame Creatures (1958) and The Same Door: Short Stories (1959). Stylistically, his early stories were directly influenced by the New Yorker itself." This early work reflected the influence of JD Salinger ("A&P"), John Cheever ("Snowing in Greenwich Village"), and the Modernists Marcel Proust, Henry Green, James Joyce, and Vladimir Nabokov. At this time, Updike also underwent a spiritual crisis. Suffering from a loss of religious faith, he "turned to the work of the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard and the German Christian theologian Karl Barth, both of whom decisively shaped both his spiritual beliefs and his artistic vision, which, in Updike's case, are intricately linked." Updike then remained a believing Christian for the rest of his life. "Religion and Ethics NewsWeekly: John Updike" 19 November 2004, PBS.org, Episode 812. Later, Updike and his family moved to Ipswich, Massachusetts. Many commentators, including a columnist in the local Ipswich Chronicle, asserted that the fictional town of Tarbox in Couples was based on Ipswich. Updike denied the suggestion in a letter to the paper. The Ipswich Chronicle. 25 April 1968 Letter: "Updike 'flatly denies' that Tarbox is Ipswich." Impressions of Updike's day-to-day life in Ipswich in the 1960s and 1970s are contained in a letter to the same paper published shortly following Updike's death and written by a friend and contemporary. In Ipswich, Updike wrote Rabbit, Run (1960), on a Guggenheim Fellowship, and The Centaur (1963), two of his most acclaimed and famous works; the latter won the National Book Award. Rabbit, Run featured Rabbit Angstrom, a former high school basketball star and middle-class paragon who would become Updike's most enduring and critically examined character. Updike wrote three additional novels about him. Rabbit, Run was featured in Times All-TIME 100 Greatest Novels. All-Time 100 Novels Marriage and family Updike married Mary E. Pennington, an art student from Radcliffe College, in 1953. She accompanied him to Oxford, where their first child, Elizabeth, was born in 1955. The couple had three more children together: writer David Updike (born 1957), Michael (born 1959) and Miranda (born 1960); Updike and Pennington divorced in 1974. In 1977 Updike married Martha Ruggles Bernhard, with whom he spent the rest of his life. Career, novels, and stories Updike wrote a sequel to Rabbit, Run in 1971 called Rabbit Redux, his response to the 1960s; Rabbit reflected much of Updike's confusion and ambivalence towards the social and political upheaval that beset the United States at that time. Charlie Rose interview, 24 October 1995, Link In 1980 he published another novel featuring that character, Rabbit is Rich, which won the National Book Award, the National Book Critics Circle Award, and the Pulitzer Prize, the three major American literary prizes. The novel found "Rabbit the fat and happy owner of a Toyota dealership". Updike found it difficult to close the book, because he was "having so much fun" in the imaginary county Rabbit and his family inhabited. In 1990, Updike published the last Rabbit novel, Rabbit at Rest, in which his lead character died. The novel won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the National Book Critics Circle Award. Over 500 pages long, the novel is among Updike's most celebrated. In 2000, Updike included the novella Rabbit Remembered in his collection Licks of Love, drawing a final close to the Rabbit saga. In 1995, Everyman's Library collected and canonized the four novels as the omnibus Rabbit Angstrom, for which Updike wrote an introduction in which he described Rabbit as "a ticket to the America all around me. What I saw through Rabbit's eyes was more worth telling than what I saw through my own, though the difference was often slight." John Updike, "Introduction", Rabbit Angstrom (1995), Everyman's Library. Updike later called Rabbit "a brother to me, and a good friend. He opened me up as a writer." Charlie Rose interview, 1996, Link Updike's early Olinger Stories period was set in the Pennsylvania of his youth; it ended around 1965 with the highly lyrical Of the Farm. Updike then became most famous as a "chronicler of suburban adultery." "Farewell, King John of Suburbia", New Statesman, 29 January 2009, Link He once wrote that it was "a subject which, if I have not exhausted, has exhausted me." The most prominent of Updike's novel of this vein is Couples (1968), a novel about adultery in a small Massachusetts town. It garnered Updike a featured cover of Time magazine with the headline "The Adulterous Society." The Maple short stories, collected in Too Far To Go (1979), reflected the ebb and flow of Updike's first marriage; "Separating" (1974) and "Here Come the Maples" (1976) related to Updike's divorce. Those stories were the basis for the television movie Too Far To Go which was broadcast on NBC. Two other novels from this period, A Month of Sundays (1975), the first in Updike's so-called Scarlet Letter trilogy, and Marry Me: A Romance (1976), are also meditations on suburban adultery. In The Coup (1978), a lauded novel about an African dictatorship inspired by a trip, Updike worked in new territory. After writing Rabbit is Rich, Updike published The Witches of Eastwick (1984), a playful novel about witches living in Rhode Island. He described it as an attempt to "make things right with my, what shall we call them, feminist detractors." Michiko Kakutani, "Books of the Times: 'The Widows of Eastwick'", New York Times, 19 October 2008, Link One of Updike's most popular novels, it was adapted as a film and was included in The Western Canon (1994) of Harold Bloom. Harold Bloom, The Western Canon: The Books and Schools of the Ages (1994), Riverhead Trade, "The Chaotic Age: The United States." In 2008 Updike published The Widows of Eastwick, a return to the witches in their old age. It was his last published novel. In 1986 he published the unconventional novel Roger's Version, the second volume of the Scarlet Letter trilogy, about an attempt to prove God's existence using a computer program. Author and critic Martin Amis called it a "near-masterpiece." Martin Amis, "When Amis met Updike...", The Guardian, 1 February 2009, Link The novel S. (1989), uncharacteristically featuring a female protagonist, concluded Updike's reworking of Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter. Updike enjoyed working in series; in addition to the Rabbit Angstrom novels and the Maples stories, a recurrent Updike alter-ego is the moderately well-known, unprolific Jewish novelist and eventual Nobel laureate Henry Bech, chronicled in three comic short-story cycles: Bech, a Book (1970), Bech Is Back (1981) and Bech At Bay: A Quasi-Novel (1998). These stories were compiled into The Complete Henry Bech (2001) by Everyman's Library. Bech was portrayed as a comical and self-conscious antithesis of Updike's own literary persona: Jewish, a World War II veteran, reclusive, and unprolific to a fault. Jack De Bellis (ed.), The John Updike Encyclopedia (2000), "Bech, Henry", pp. 52-53. After the publication of the Pulitzer-winning Rabbit at Rest, Updike spent the rest of the 1990s and early 2000s publishing novels more experimental in "style and approach." These styles included the historical fiction of Memories of the Ford Administration (1992), the magical realism of Brazil (1994), the science fiction of Toward the End of Time (1997), the postmodernism of Gertrude and Claudius (2000), and the art-tinged experimentalism of Seek My Face (2002). In the midst of these, he wrote a more conventional novel, called In the Beauty of the Lilies (1996), an historical saga spanning many generations and exploring themes of religion and cinema in America. It is seen as the most successful novel of Updike's late career. Some critics have predicted that the novel "may well emerge as the sort of late masterpiece overlooked or praised by rote in its day, only to be rediscovered by another generation." Adam Gopnik, "Postscript: John Updike", The New Yorker, 9 February 2009, Link In Villages (2004), Updike returned to the familiar territory of infidelities in New England. His twenty-second novel, Terrorist (2006), the story of a fervent, eighteen-year-old extremist Muslim in New Jersey, garnered media attention. In 2003, Updike published The Early Stories, a large collection of his short fiction spanning the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s. At over 800 pages long with over one hundred stories, it has been called "perhaps Updike's most important achievement", functioning "as a richly episodic and lyrical Bildungsroman – that is, a novel of education and development – in which Updike traces the trajectory from adolescence, college, married life, fatherhood, separation and divorce." It won the prestigious PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction in 2004. Powell's Books - Award Winners - The PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction This lengthy volume nevertheless excluded several others of his short-story collections. Updike worked in a wide array of genres, including fiction, poetry (most but not all of which is compiled in Collected Poems: 1953-1993, 1993), essays (collected in about nine separate collections), a play (Buchanan Dying, 1974), and memoir (Self Consciousness, 1989). Updike won an array of awards, including two Pulitzer Prizes for Fiction, two National Book Awards, three National Book Critics Circle awards, the 1989 National Medal of Arts and 2003 National Humanities Medal, and the Rea Award for the Short Story for outstanding achievement; the National Endowment for the Humanities selected Updike to present the 2008 Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. government's highest humanities honor; Updike's lecture was entitled "The Clarity of Things: What is American about American Art." He lived with his wife Martha in Beverly Farms, Massachusetts. He died at a hospice in Danvers, Massachusetts, on January 27, 2009, at the age of 76. Poetry Updike published eight volumes of poetry over his career, including his first book The Carpentered Hen (1958), and one of his last, the posthumous Endpoint (2009). The New Yorker published excerpts of Endpoint in their March 16, 2009 issue. Many of Updike's poems up until the mid-1990s were compiled in Knopf's Collected Poems (1993). He wrote that "I began as a writer of light verse, and have tried to carry over into my serious or lyric verse something of the strictness and liveliness of the lesser form." John Updike: The Poetry Foundation, archive The poet Thomas M. Disch wrote that because Updike "enjoys such pre-eminence as a novelist...his poetry could be mistaken as a hobby or a foible"; instead it "is a poetry of civility—in its epigrammatical lucidity...and in its tone of vulgar bonhomie and good appetite." Poets.org: John Updike His poetry "encompasses a variety of forms and topics. He has been praised for his wit and precision, and for his ability to focus on common subjects and on places near and distant." The British poet Gavin Ewart praised Updike for his "ability to make the ordinary seem strange, as all metaphysical poets have always done" and calls Updike one of the few modern novelists capable of writing good poetry. Gavin Ewart, "Making it strange", New York Times, 28 April 1985 Link Reading Endpoint aloud, the critic Charles McGrath claimed that he found "another, deeper music" in Updike's poetry. He finds that Updike's wordplay "smoothes and elides itself", and is full of subtle "sound effects." Charles McGrath, "Reading Updike's Last Words, Aloud", New York Times, 3 April 2009, Link The critic John Keenan, who praised the "beautiful and poignant" Endpoint, writes: "I find it odd that Updike's reputation as a poet is slight at best. The fact that he wrote about the everyday world in a technically accomplished manner seems to count against him. His poetry is dismissed as light verse, as if obscurity is an achievement and transparency a vice. It is the same snobbery which dismisses Larkin and Betjeman and fails to see their fundamental importance – what Clive James called, in another context, 'playful seriousness.' " John Keenan, "The clarity of Updike's poetry should not obscure its class", The Guardian, 12 March 2009, Link Literary criticism and art criticism In addition to his novels, poetry, and short stories, Updike was also a prominent critic of literature and art, frequently cited as one of the best American critics of his generation. James Atlas, "Towards the Transhuman", London Review of Books, 2 February 1984, Link He once laid out his personal rules for literary criticism, in the introduction to Picked-Up Pieces, his 1975 collection of prose: Updike delivering the 2008 Jefferson Lecture. 1. Try to understand what the author wished to do, and do not blame him for not achieving what he did not attempt. 2. Give enough direct quotation—at least one extended passage—of the book's prose so the review's reader can form his own impression, can get his own taste. 3. Confirm your description of the book with quotation from the book, if only phrase-long, rather than proceeding by fuzzy précis. 4. Go easy on plot summary, and do not give away the ending.… 5. If the book is judged deficient, cite a successful example along the same lines, from the author's oeuvre or elsewhere. Try to understand the failure. Sure it's his and not yours? To these concrete five might be added a vaguer sixth, having to do with maintaining a chemical purity in the reaction between product and appraiser. Do not accept for review a book you are predisposed to dislike, or committed by friendship to like. Do not imagine yourself a caretaker of any tradition, an enforcer of any party standards, a warrior in any ideological battle, a corrections officer of any kind. Never, never...try to put the author "in his place," making of him a pawn in a contest with other reviewers. Review the book, not the reputation. Submit to whatever spell, weak or strong, is being cast. Better to praise and share than blame and ban. The communion between reviewer and his public is based upon the presumption of certain possible joys of reading, and all our discriminations should curve toward that end. "Remembering Updike: The Gospel According to John", New Yorker online, Link He reviewed "nearly every major writer of the 20th century and some 19th century authors", typically in The New Yorker, always with an eye to make his reviews "animated." He was also a champion for young writers, often making generous comparisons to his own literary heroes including Vladimir Nabokov and Marcel Proust. ZZ Packer, "Remembering Updike", New Yorker online, Link Good reviews from Updike often "meant something" in terms of literary reputation and even sales; some of his positive reviews gave "huge boosts to the careers, for example, of Erica Jong, Thomas Mallon and Jonathan Safran Foer." Charles McGrath, "John Updike's Mighty Pen", New York Times, 31 January 2009, Link Bad reviews by Updike sometimes caused controversy too, Alex Carnevale, "Literary Feuds: Toni Morrison is John Updike's Latest Lit-Fit Victim", October 2008, Gawker.com, Link as when in late 2008 he gave a "damning" review to Toni Morrison's novel A Mercy. "Updike takes a swipe at Toni Morrison", The First Post, 29 October 2008, Link John Updike, "Dreamy Wilderness", New Yorker, 3 November 2008, Link His literary criticism has been praised for its conventional simplicity and profundity: Updike is what those in academe would, with no small disdain, call an old-fashioned appreciative critic, an aestheticist, a subjectivist. Shorn of the withering tone, this is a very fair assessment of Updike the critic, one that is pejorative only if we disallow that this kind of criticism holds an interest for the intelligent reader. Updike's best work is informed less by fiat and declaration than by demonstration. Rather than worrying out loud over the state of literary criticism, he shows a commitment to it through practice. Wyatt Mason, "Among the reviewers: John Updike and the book-review bugaboo", Harper's, December 2007, Link Updike's art criticism often appeared in The New York Review of Books, where he frequently wrote about American art, including a piece on celebrity caricatures. John Updike Archive, New York Review of Books, Link Updike was himself drawn several times by caricaturist David Levine, whose first work for The New York Review of Books appeared in 1963. "David Levine Gallery", New York Review of Books. Updike wrote about Levine in the 1970s: Besides offering us the delight of recognition, his drawings comfort us, in an exacerbated and potentially desperate age, with the sense of a watching presence, an eye informed by an intelligence that has not panicked, a comic art ready to encapsulate the latest apparitions of publicity as well as those historical devils who haunt our unease. Levine is one of America's assets. In a confusing time, he bears witness. In a shoddy time, he does good work. Updike's 2008 Jefferson Lecture, "The Clarity of Things: What's American About American Art?", dealt with the uniqueness of American art from the 18th century to the 20th century. John Updike, "The Clarity of Things", National Endowment for the Humanities, Link In the lecture he argued that American art, until the expressionist movement of the 20th century in which America declared its artistic "independence", is characterized by insecurity as compared with the artistic tradition of Europe." In Updike's own words: Two centuries after Jonathan Edwards sought a link with the divine in the beautiful clarity of things, William Carlos Williams wrote in introducing his long poem Paterson that "for the poet there are no ideas but in things." No ideas but in things. The American artist, first born into a continent without museums and art schools, took Nature as his only instructor, and things as his principal study. A bias toward the empirical, toward the evidential object in the numinous fullness of its being, leads to a certain lininess, as the artist intently maps the visible in a New World that feels surrounded by chaos and emptiness. Critical reputation and style Updike is considered one of the greatest American fiction writers of his generation. "What Is the Best Work of American Fiction of the Last 25 Years?" New York Times, 21 May 2006, Link A survey of "a couple of hundred prominent writers, critics, editors and other literary sages" listed the Rabbit series as one of the few greatest works of modern American fiction. Along with Toni Morrison, he was the most written about living American novelist of his time. He was widely praised as America's "last true man of letters", with an immense and far-reaching influence on many writers. The excellence of his prose style is near-universally acknowledged, even by those critics who are skeptical of Updike's significance as a novelist and of his larger artistic vision. Contemporary Literary Criticism, "John Updike Criticism (Vol. 139)" (2001) Thomas Karshan, "Batsy", London Review of Books, 31 March 2005, Link Critics emphasize "his inimitable prose style" and "rich description and language, drawing comparisons to the prose of Marcel Proust and Vladimir Nabokov." Some critics consider him "fluent to a fault", others "question the depth and seriousness of his concerns" due to the supposed floweriness of his language, and some "[object] to Updike's portrayal of women, viewed by some as specious and misogynistic." Others more positively "suggest that Updike's employment of a dense vocabulary and syntax functions as a distancing technique to mediate the intellectual and emotional involvement of the reader." Ultimately John Updike "remains highly esteemed as a foremost man of letters whose prodigious intelligence, verbal prowess, and shrewd insight into the sorrows, frustrations, and banality of American life separate him from the ranks of his contemporaries." His character Rabbit Angstrom, widely considered his magnum opus, has been said to have "entered the pantheon of signal American literary figures, joining Huck Finn, Jay Gatsby, Holden Caulfield and the like." Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, "John Updike, a Lyrical Writer of the Middle Class, Dies at 76", New York Times, 28 January 2009, Link A 2002 list by Book magazine of the 100 Best Fictional Characters Since 1900 listed Rabbit in the top five. Book magazine, March/April 2002, "100 Best Fictional Characters since 1900", via NPR, Link The Rabbit novels, the Henry Bech stories, and the Maple stories have been canonized by Everyman's Library. Everyman's Library: Authors Eulogizing Updike in January 2009, the British novelist Ian McEwan wrote that Updike's "literary schemes and pretty conceits touched at points on the Shakespearean", and that Updike's death marked the "the end of the golden age of the American novel in the 20th century's second half." McEwan concluded that the Rabbit series is Updike's "masterpiece and will surely be his monument", and describing it, concluded: Updike is a master of effortless motion - between third and first person, from the metaphorical density of literary prose to the demotic, from specific detail to wide generalisation, from the actual to the numinous, from the scary to the comic. For his own particular purposes, Updike devised for himself a style of narration, an intense, present tense, free indirect style, that can leap up, whenever it wants, to a God's-eye view of Harry, or the view of his put-upon wife, Janice, or victimised son, Nelson. This carefully crafted artifice permits here assumptions about evolutionary theory, which are more Updike than Harry, and comically sweeping notions of Jewry, which are more Harry than Updike. This is at the heart of the tetralogy's achievement. Updike once said of the Rabbit books that they were an exercise in point of view. This was typically self-deprecating, but contains an important grain of truth. Harry's education extends no further than high school, and his view is further limited by a range of prejudices and a stubborn, combative spirit, yet he is the vehicle for a half-million-word meditation on postwar American anxiety, failure and prosperity. A mode had to be devised to make this possible, and that involved pushing beyond the bounds of realism. In a novel like this, Updike insisted, you have to be generous and allow your characters eloquence, "and not chop them down to what you think is the right size". Ian McEwan, "Beyond the Bounds of Realism", The Guardian, 31 January 2009, Link Jonathan Raban, highlighting many of the virtues that have been ascribed to Updike's prose, called Rabbit at Rest (1990) "one of the very few modern novels in English (Bellow's Herzog is another) that one can set beside the work of Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot, Joyce, and not feel the draft...It is a book that works by a steady accumulation of a mass of brilliant details, of shades and nuances, of the byplay between one sentence and the next, and no short review can properly honor its intricacy and richness." Jonathan Raban, The Oxford Book of the Sea (1993), Oxford University Press, pp. 509-517. In a widely-read essay Google search for "Champion Literary Phallocrat", Google Scholar search , David Foster Wallace called Updike "both chronicler and voice of probably the single most self-absorbed generation since Louis XIV." Wallace claimed "to admire the sheer gorgeousness of [Updike's] descriptive prose" and called The Poorhouse Fair (1959), The Centaur (1963) and Of the Farm (1965) "all great books, maybe classics." But he criticized Updike's "protagonists who are basically all the same guy" and the "Great Male Narcissism" of his writing. Wallace ultimately concluded that Updike's fiction falls prey to a "radical self-absorption", as evidenced by the Updikean protagonists: The very world around them, as beautifully as they see and describe it, seems to exist for them only insofar as it evokes impressions and associations and emotions inside the self. David Foster Wallace, "John Updike, Champion Literary Phallocrat, Drops One; Is This Finally the End for Magnificent Narcissists?", New York Observer, 12 October 1997 Link The novelist Philip Roth, considered one of Updike's chief literary rivals, "John Updike: 2008 Jefferson Lecture", National Endowment for the Humanities, Link wrote that "John Updike is our time's greatest man of letters, as brilliant a literary critic and essayist as he was a novelist and short story writer. He is and always will be no less a national treasure than his 19th-century precursor, Nathaniel Hawthorne." The noted critic James Wood called Updike "a prose writer of great beauty, but that prose confronts one with the question of whether beauty is enough, and whether beauty always conveys all that a novelist must convey." James Wood, The Broken Estate: Essays on Literature and Belief (2000), "John Updike's Complacent God", Modern Library, pg 192. In a review of Updike's Licks of Love (2001), Wood concluded that Updike's "prose trusses things in very pretty ribbons", but there often exists in his work a "hard, coarse, primitive, misogynistic worldview." Wood both praises and criticizes Updike's language for having "an essayistic saunter; the language lifts itself up on pretty hydraulics, and hovers slightly above its subjects, generally a little too accomplished and a little too abstract." He writes that Updike is capable of writing "the perfect sentence" and notes that Updike's unique style is characterized by a "delicate deferral" of the sentence's subject. The beauty of Updike's language and his faith in the power of that language floats above reality, according to Wood: For some time now Updike's language has seemed to encode an almost theological optimism about its capacity to refer. Updike is notably unmodern in his impermeability to silence and the interruptions of the abyss. For all his fabled Protestantism, both American Puritan and Lutheran-Barthian, with its cold glitter, its insistence on the aching gap between God and His creatures, Updike seems less like Hawthorne than Balzac, in his unstopping and limitless energy, and his cheerfully professional belief that stories can be continued; the very form of the Rabbit books – here extended a further instance – suggests continuance. Updike does not appear to believe that words ever fail us – ‘life's gallant, battered ongoingness’, indeed – and part of the difficulty he has run into, late in his career, is that he shows no willingness, verbally, to acknowledge silence, failure, interruption, loss of faith, despair and so on. Supremely, better than almost any other contemporary writer, he can always describe these feelings and states; but they are not inscribed in the language itself. Updike's language, for all that it gestures towards the usual range of human disappointment and collapse, testifies instead to its own uncanny success: to a belief that the world can always be brought out of its cloudiness and made clear in a fair season. James Wood, "Gossip in Gilt", London Review of Books, 19 April 2001, Link In direct contrast to Wood's evaluation, the Oxford critic Thomas Karshan asserted that Updike is "intensely intellectual", with a style that constitutes his "manner of thought" not merely "a set of dainty curlicues." Karshan calls Updike an inheritor of the "traditional role of the epic writer." According to Karshan, "Updike's writing picks up one voice, joins its cadence, and moves on to another, like Rabbit himself, driving south through radio zones on his flight away from his wife and child." Disagreeing with Wood's critique of Updike's alleged over-stylization, Karshan evaluates Updike's language as convincingly naturalistic: Updike's sentences at their frequent best are not a complacent expression of faith. Rather, like Proust's sentences in Updike's description, they "seek out an essence so fine the search itself is an act of faith." Updike aspires to "this sense of self-qualification, the kind of timid reverence towards what exists that Cézanne shows when he grapples for the shape and shade of a fruit through a mist of delicate stabs." Their hesitancy and self-qualification arise as they meet obstacles, readjust and pass on. If life is bountiful in New England, it is also evasive and easily missed. In the stories Updike tells, marriages and homes are made only to be broken. His descriptiveness embodies a promiscuous love for everything in the world. But love is precarious, Updike is always saying, since it thrives on obstructions and makes them if it cannot find them. Harold Bloom, the famous critic, once called Updike "a minor novelist with a major style. A quite beautiful and very considerable stylist.... He specializes in the easier pleasures." Richard Eder, "The Paris Interviews", New York Times, 25 December 2007. Bloom also edited an important collection of critical essays on Updike in 1987. Harold Bloom, ed., Modern Critical Views of John Updike, Chelsea House, New York, 1987. On The Dick Cavett Show in 1981, the novelist and short story writer John Cheever was asked why he did not write book reviews and what he would say if he were given the chance to review Updike's Rabbit is Rich (1981). He replied: The reason I didn't review the book is that it perhaps would have taken me three weeks. My appreciation of it is that diverse and that complicated...John is perhaps the only contemporary writer who I know now who gives me the sense of the fact that life is -- the life that we perform is in an environment that enjoys a grandeur that escapes us. Rabbit is very much possessed of a paradise lost, of a paradise known fleetingly perhaps through erotic love and a paradise that he pursues through his children. It's the vastness of John's scope that I would have described if I could through a review. Dick Cavett, "Writers Bloc: When Updike and Cheever Came to Visit", New York Times, 13 February 2009. Video 14 October 1981 Link The Fiction Circus, an online and multimedia literary magazine, called Updike one of the "four Great American Novelists" of his time along with Philip Roth, Cormac McCarthy, and Don DeLillo, each one jokingly representing signs of the Zodiac. Furthermore, Updike was seen as the "best prose writer in the world", like Nabokov before him. But, in contrast to many literati and establishment obituaries, there is a caveat to Updike's place in the "literary pantheon": But...I don't know anyone personally who thought of Updike as a vital writer. I don't mean that to say that Updike is somehow stiff, stultifying; he's the opposite to an unwholesome degree. What I mean is that I know several people who swear by Blood Meridian, Gravity's Rainbow, Goodbye, Columbus, even my personal pet peeve White Noise. These books cracked open lives, made people into readers. With the exception of our own Goodman Carter, who spent his pubescent years reading the Rabbit books obsessively, I don't know of anyone who says the same thing about Updike, or who even recommends his books beyond the Rabbit stuff. S. Future, "Updike", The Fiction Circus, 27 January 2009, Link Adam Gopnik of The New Yorker evaluated Updike as "the first American writer since Henry James to get himself fully expressed, the man who broke the curse of incompleteness that had haunted American writing." He praises Updike's style, his significance as an American writer, and the integrity of his vision: A virtuoso, he was never content with virtuosity. He sang like Henry James, but he saw like Sinclair Lewis. The two sides of American fiction—the precise, realist, encyclopedic appetite to get it all in, and the exquisitist urge to make writing out of sensation rendered exactly—were both alive in him. He was at once conjurer and chronicler, and it is this that makes the great Updike novels masterpieces properly so called: they get it all in and they get it all right. Updike's great subject was the American attempt to fill the gap left by faith with the materials produced by mass culture. He documented how the death of a credible religious belief has been offset by sex and adultery and movies and sports and Toyotas and family love and family obligation. For Updike, this effort was blessed, and very nearly successful. Unlike his European contemporaries, who saw the same space and the attempted filling as mere aridity and deprivation, Updike was close enough to, and fond enough of, the source of postwar material abundance to love it fully, and for itself. (And he knew enough of the decade of deprivation that preceded the big blossoming never to be jaded about plenty.) He viewed the material culture of American life with a benign, appreciative ironic eye. But he had no illusions, either, about its ability to cover the failure or wish away mortality. Gore Vidal professed to have "never taken Updike seriously as a writer." He criticizes his political and aesthetic worldview for its "blandness and acceptance of authority in any form." He concludes that Updike "describes to no purpose." Vidal mockingly refers to Updike as "our good child", in reference to his wide establishment acclaim, and excoriates his alleged political conservatism. Vidal's ultimate conclusion is that Updike's work is more and more representative of that polarizing within a state where Authority grows ever more brutal and malign while its hired hands in the media grow ever more excited as the holy war of the few against the many heats up. In this most delicate of times, Updike has "builded" his own small, crude altar in order to propitiate or to invoke "the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword." Gore Vidal, "Rabbit's own burrow", Times Literary Supplement, 26 April 1996, the longest essay ever to appear in the TLS, Link Robert B. Silvers, editor of The New York Review of Books, called Updike "one of the most elegant and coolly observant writers of his generation". Brand, Madeleine. Robert B. Silvers interview for NPR Remembrances: "John Updike: The Shy Man And Great Writer", NPR, Day to Day, January 27, 2009 Lorrie Moore, who once described Updike as "American literature's greatest short story writer... and arguably our greatest writer", Mary Rourke, "John Updike dies at 76; Pulitzer-winning author", Los Angeles Times, 28 January 2009, Link reviewed Updike's body of short stories in The New York Review of Books, praising their intricate detail and rich imagery: The elegant and penetrating descriptions, however, composed from the chasm's edge—both the wisdom and the wise unknowingness—are among the main reasons one reads Updike. "Her gesture as she tips the dregs of white wine into a potted geranium seems infinite, like one of Vermeer's moments frozen in an eternal light from the left." His eye and his prose never falter, even when the world fails to send its more socially complicated revelations directly his story's way. Lorrie Moore, "Home Truths", New York Review of Books, 20 November 2003, Link In November 2008 the editors of the UK's Literary Review magazine awarded Updike their Bad Sex in Fiction Lifetime Achievement Award, which celebrates "crude, tasteless or ridiculous sexual passages in modern literature." Themes The principal themes seen in Updike's work are religion, sex, and America The Economist, "An American subversive", 29 January 2009, Link as well as death. Jack De Bellis (ed.), "Mortality and Immortality", The John Updike Encyclopedia (2000), pg. 286. See here for many subsequent quotes and citations on death. Often he would weave them together. For example, the decline of religion in America is chronicled in In the Beauty of the Lilies (1996) alongside the history of cinema, and Rabbit Angstrom contemplates the merits of sex with the wife of his friend Reverend Jack Eccles while the latter is giving his sermon in Rabbit, Run (1960). Critics have often noted that Updike imbued language itself with a kind of faith in its efficacy, and that his tendency to construct narratives spanning many years and books -- the Rabbit series, the Henry Bech series, Eastwick, the Maples stories -- demonstrates a similar faith in the transcendent power of fiction and language. Updike's novels often act as dialectical theological debates between the book itself and the reader, the novel endowed with theological beliefs meant to challenge the reader as the plot runs its course. Rabbit Angstrom himself is a kind of "Kierkegaardian 'Knight of Faith.'" Sex in Updike's work is noted for its ubiquity and the reverence with which he described it: His contemporaries invade the ground with wild Dionysian yelps, mocking both the taboos that would make it forbidden and the lust that drives men to it. Updike can be honest about it, and his descriptions of the sight, taste and texture of women's bodies can be perfect little madrigals. Time, "View from the Catacombs", 26 April 1968, pg. 6, Link Another sexual theme commonly addressed in Updike is adultery, especially in a suburban, middle class setting, most famously in Couples (1968). The Updikean narrator is often "a man guilty of infidelity and abandonment of his family." Antonya Nelson, "Remembering Updike", New Yorker online, Link Similarly, Updike wrote about America with a certain nostalgia, reverence, and recognition and celebration of America's broad diversity as ZZ Packer elucidates: There seemed to me not many American novelists who were working so steadfastly in such riveting contradictions; both the patrician and the suburban, both sexual dynamism and sexual dysfunction, the commercial and the divine. There seemed a strange ability to harken both America the Beautiful as well as America the Plain Jane, and the lovely Protestant backbone in his fiction and essays, when he decided to show it off, was as progressive and enlightened as it was unapologetic. ZZ Packer, "Remembering Updike", New Yorker online, Link The Rabbit novels in particular can be viewed as, according to Julian Barnes, "a distraction from, and a glittering confirmation of, the vast bustling ordinariness of American life." Julian Barnes, "Remembering Updike", New Yorker online, Link But as Updike saw a certain gorgeousness in everyday America, he also saw its decline: at times, he was "so clearly disturbed by the downward spin of America." Jack De Bellis (ed.), "More Matter", The John Updike Encyclopedia (2000), pg. 281. The critic James Wolcott, in a review of Updike's last novel The Widows of Eastwick (2008), notes that Updike's penchant for observing America's decline is coupled with an affirmation of America's ultimate merits: Heavy on mortality, light on morbidity, Updike elegises entropy American-style with a resigned, paternal, disappointed affection that distinguishes his fiction from that of grimmer declinists: Don DeLillo, Gore Vidal, Philip Roth. America may have lost its looks and stature, but it was a beauty once, and worth every golden dab of sperm. James Wolcott, "Caretaker/Pallbearer", London Review of Books, 1 January 2009, Link A caricature of John Updike from The New York Review of Books by David Levine, who has drawn Updike several times. Updike also commonly wrote about death, his characters providing a "mosaic of reactions" to mortality, ranging from terror to attempts at insulation. In The Poorhouse Fair (1959), the elderly John Hook intones, "There is no goodness without belief...And if you have not believed, at the end of your life you shall know you have buried your talent in the ground of this world and have nothing saved, to take into the next", demonstrating a religious, metaphysical faith present in much of Updike's work. For Rabbit Angstrom, with his constant musings on mortality, his near-witnessing of his daughter's death, and his often shaky faith, death is more frightening and less obvious in its ramifications. At the end of Rabbit at Rest (1990), though, Rabbit demonstrates a kind of certainty, telling his son Nelson on his deathbed, "...But enough. Maybe. Enough." In The Centaur (1963), George Caldwell is afraid of his cancer and has no faith. Death can also be a sort of unseen terror; it "occurs offstage but reverberates for survivors as an absent presence." Updike himself also experienced a "crisis over the afterlife", and indeed "many of his heroes shared the same sort of existential fears the author acknowledged he had suffered as a young man: Henry Bech's concern that he was 'a fleck of dust condemned to know it is a fleck of dust,' or Colonel Ellelloû's lament that 'we will be forgotten, all of us forgotten.' Their fear of death threatens to make everything they do feel meaningless, and it also sends them running after God — looking for some reassurance that there is something beyond the familiar, everyday world with 'its signals and buildings and cars and bricks.'" Michiko Kakutani, "An Appraisal", New York Times, 27 January 2009, Link Updike demonstrated his own fear in some of his more personal writings, including the poem "Perfection Wasted" (1990): And another regrettable thing about death is the ceasing of your own brand of magic, which took a whole life to develop and market - the quips, the witticisms, the slant adjusted to a few, those loved ones nearest the lip of the stage, their soft faces blanched in the footlight glow, their laughter close to tears, their warm pooled breath in and out with your heartbeat, their response and your performance twinned. The jokes over the phone. The memories packed in the rapid-access file. The whole act. Who will do it again? That's it; no one; imitators and descendants aren't the same. John Updike, "Perfection Wasted", Collected Poems: 1953-1993 (1995), Knopf. Some have suggested that the "best statement of Updike's aesthetic comes in his early memoir 'The Dogwood Tree'" (1962): I reasoned thus: just as the paper is the basis for the marks upon it, might not events be contingent upon a never expressed (because featureless) ground? Is the true marvel of Sunday skaters the pattern of their pirouettes or the fact that they are silently upheld? Blankness is not emptiness; we may skate upon an intense radiance we do not see because we see nothing else. And in fact there is a colour, a quiet but tireless goodness that things at rest, like a brick wall or a small stone, seem to affirm. John Updike, "The Dogwood Tree", Assorted Prose (1965), Knopf. In the introduction to his Early Stories: 1953-1975 (2004), Updike described his purpose in writing prose: Not only were the boxes useful for storing little things like foreign coins and cufflinks, but the caustic aura of cigars discouraged visitors. I felt that I was packaging something as delicately pervasive as smoke, one box after another, in that room, where my only duty was to describe reality as it had become to me -- to give the mundane its beautiful due. John Updike, The Early Stories: 1953-1975 (2004), Ballantine Books. Cultural references Updike was the subject of a "closed book examination" by Nicholson Baker, entitled U and I (1991). Baker discusses his wish to meet Updike and become his golf partner. Nicholson Baker, U and I: A True Story, Random House, 1991, Google Books, Link In a season 12 episode of the animated series The Simpsons, "Insane Clown Poppy" (2000), John Updike is the ghost writer of a book that Krusty the Clown is promoting. The book's title is Your Shoe's Too Big To Kickbox God, a 20-page book written entirely by John Updike as a money-making scam. , Updike was featured on the cover of Time twice, on 26 April 1968 and again on 18 October 1982 26 April 1968 Time cover, 18 October 1982 Time cover . The main character in the Eminem film 8 Mile (2002) is nicknamed "Rabbit" and has some similarities to Rabbit Angstrom. ECHO Journal IV/2, Kajikawa, "Review: 8 Mile, "Rap, Rabbit, Rap," Link The film's soundtrack has a song titled "Rabbit Run." In an episode of the television series Gilmore Girls, "In the Clamor and the Clangor", the main characters are attending a funeral and jocularly try to guess which members of the town will be the next to die, but they quickly realize the morbidity of their conversation and regret it, especially when ominous things begin to happen to the people they speculated dying, prompting Lorelai to say, "We are The Witches of Eastwick." TV.com, Gilmore Girls, "In the Clamor and the Clangor," Season 4 Episode 11, Quotes, Link BibliographyRabbit novels (1960) Rabbit, Run (1971) Rabbit Redux (1981) Rabbit Is Rich (1990) Rabbit At Rest (1995) Rabbit Angstrom: The Four Novels (2001) Rabbit Remembered (a novella within the collection Licks of Love)Bech books (1970) Bech, a Book (1982) Bech Is Back (1998) Bech at Bay (2001) The Complete Henry BechBuchanan books (1974) Buchanan Dying (a play) (1992) Memories of the Ford Administration (a novel)Eastwick books (1984) The Witches of Eastwick (2008) The Widows of EastwickOther novels (1959) The Poorhouse Fair (1963) The Centaur (1965) Of the Farm (1968) Couples (1977) Marry Me (1978) The Coup (1994) Brazil (1996) In the Beauty of the Lilies (1997) Toward the End of Time (2000) Gertrude and Claudius (2002) Seek My Face (2004) Villages (2006) TerroristThe Scarlet Letter Trilogy (1975) A Month of Sundays (1986) Roger's Version (1988) S.Short Story Collections (1959) The Same Door (1962) Pigeon Feathers (1964) Olinger Stories (a selection) (1966) The Music School (1972) Museums And Women (1979) Problems (1979) Too Far To Go (the Maples stories) (1987) Trust Me (1994) The Afterlife (2000) The Best American Short Stories of the Century (editor) (2001) Licks of Love (2003) The Early Stories: 1953–1975 (2009) My Father's Tears and Other StoriesPoetry (1958) The Carpentered Hen (1963) Telephone Poles (1969) Midpoint (1969) Dance of the Solids (1974) Cunts: Upon Receiving The Swingers Life Club Membership Solicitation (limited edition) (1977) Tossing and Turning (1985) Facing Nature (1993) Collected Poems 1953–1993 (2001) Americana: and Other Poems (2009) Endpoint and Other PoemsNon-fiction, essays and criticism (1965) Assorted Prose (1975) Picked-Up Pieces (1983) Hugging The Shore (1989) Self-Consciousness: Memoirs (1989) Just Looking (1991) Odd Jobs (1996) Golf Dreams: Writings on Golf (1999) More Matter (2005) Still Looking: Essays on American Art (2007) Due Considerations: Essays and CriticismSee also''' the External links section below for links to archives of his essays and reviews in The New Yorker and The New York Review of Books. AwardsSource All awards listed at The Centaurian Updike homepage, "Awards, Prizes, and Honors", 17 March 2009 1959 Guggenheim Fellow 1959 National Institute of Arts and Letters Rosenthal Award 1964 National Book Award for Fiction 1965 Prix du Meilleur Livre Étranger 1966 O. Henry Prize 1981 National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction 1982 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction 1982 National Book Award for Fiction 1982 Union League Club Abraham Lincoln Award 1983 National Book Critics Circle Award for Criticism 1984 National Arts Club Medal of Honor 1987 St. Louis Literary Award 1987 Ambassador Book Award 1988 PEN/Malamud Award 1989 National Medal of Arts 1990 National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction 1991 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction 1991 O. Henry Prize 1992 Honorary Doctor of Letters from Harvard University 1995 William Dean Howells Medal of the American Academy of Arts and Letters 1995 Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres 1997 Ambassador Book Award 1998 National Book Award Medal of Distinguished Contribution to American Letters 2003 National Humanities Medal 2004 PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction 2006 Rea Award for the Short Story 2007 American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal for Fiction 2008 Jefferson Lecture References Further reading and literary criticism Bailey, Peter J., Rabbit (Un)Redeemed: The Drama of Belief in John Updike's Fiction, Farleigh Dickinson University Press, Madison, New Jersey, 2006. Baker, Nicholas, U & I: A True Story, Random House, New York, 1991. Bloom, Harold, ed., Modern Critical Views of John Updike, Chelsea House, New York, 1987. Boswell, Marshall, John Updike's Rabbit Tetralogy: Mastered Irony in Motion, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, Missouri, 2001. Broer, Lawrence, Rabbit Tales: Poetry and Politics in John Updike's Rabbit Novels, University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 2000. Burchard, Rachel C., John Updike: Yea Sayings, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, Illinois, 1971. Campbell, Jeff H., Updike's Novels: Thorns Spell A Word, Midwestern State University Press, Wichita Falls, Texas, 1988. Clarke Taylor, C., John Updike: A Bibliography, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, 1968. De Bellis, Jack, John Updike: A Bibliography, 1968-1993, Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, Connecticut, 1994. De Bellis, Jack, John Updike: The Critical Responses to the Rabbit Saga, Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, Connecticut, 2005. De Bellis, Jack, ed., The John Updike Encyclopedia, Greenwood Press, Santa Barbara, California, 2001. Detwiler, Robert, John Updike, Twayne, Boston, 1984. Greiner, Donald, " Don DeLillo, John Updike, and the Sustaining Power of Myth", UnderWords: Perspectives on Don DeLillo's Underworld, University of Delaware Press, Newark, Delaware, 2002. Greiner, Donald, John Updike's Novels, Ohio University Press, Athens, Ohio, 1984. Greiner, Donald, The Other John Updike: Poems, Short Stories, Prose, Play, Ohio University Press, Athens, Ohio, 1981. Gullette, Margaret Morganroth, "John Updike: Rabbit Angstrom Grows Up", Safe at Last in the Middle Years : The Invention of the Midlife Progress Novel, Backinprint.com, New York, 2001. Hamilton, Alice and Kenneth, The Elements of John Updike, William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1970. Hunt, George W., John Updike and the Three Great Secret Things: Sex, Religion, and Art, William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1985. Karshan, Thomas, " Batsy", London Review of Books, 31 March 2005. Luscher, Robert M., John Updike: A Study of the Short Fiction, Twayne, New York, 1993. McNaughton, William R., ed., Critical Essays on John Updike, GK Hall, Boston, 1982. Markle, Joyce B., Fighters and Lovers: Themes in the Novels of John Updike, New York University Press, 1973. Miller, D. Quentin, John Updike and the Cold War: Drawing the Iron Curtain, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, Missouri, 2001. Morley, Catherine, "The Bard of Everyday Domesticity: John Updike's Song for America", The Quest for Epic in Contemporary American Literature, Routledge, New York, 2008. Newman, Judie, John Updike, Macmillan, London, 1988. O'Connell, Mary, Updike and the Patriarchal Dilemma: Masculinity in the Rabbit Novels, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, Illinois, 1996. Olster, Stanley, The Cambridge Companion to John Updike, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006. Plath, James, ed., Conversations with John Updike, University Press of Mississippi Press, Jackson, Mississippi, 1994. Porter, M. Gilbert, " John Updike's 'A&P': The Establishment and an Emersonian Cashier", English Journal 61 (8), pp. 1155-1158, November 1972. Pritchard, William, Updike: America's Man of Letters, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, Massachusetts, 2005. Ristoff, Dilvo I., John Updike's Rabbit at Rest: Appropriating History, Peter Lang, New York, 1998.' Roiphe, Anne, For Rabbit, with Love and Squalor, Free Press, Washington, D.C., 2000. Searles, George J., The Fiction of Philip Roth and John Updike, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, Illinois, 1984. Schiff, James A., Updike's Version: Rewriting The Scarlet Letter, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, Missouri, 1992. Schiff, James A., United States Author Series: John Updike Revisited, Twayne Publishers, Woodbridge, Connecticut, 1998. Tallent, Elizabeth, Married Men and Magic Tricks: John Updike's Erotic Heroes, Creative Arts Book Company, Berkeley, California, 1982. Tanner, Tony, "A Compromised Environment", City of Words: American Fiction, 1950-1970, Jonathan Cape, London, 1971. Thorburn, David and Eiland, Howard, eds., John Updike: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1979. Trachtenberg, Stanley, ed., New Essays on Rabbit, Run, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993. Uphaus, Suzanne H., John Updike, Ungar, New York, 1980. Vidal, Gore, " Rabbit's own burrow", Times Literary Supplement, 26 April 1996. Wallace, David Foster, " John Updike, Champion Literary Phallocrat, Drops One", New York Observer, 12 October 1997. Wood, James, " Gossip in Gilt", London Review of Books, 19 April 2001. Wood, James, "John Updike's Complacent God", The Broken Estate: Essays on Literature and Belief, Modern Library, New York, 2000. Yerkes, James, John Updike and Religion: The Sense of the Sacred and the Motions of Grace, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Missouri, 1999. External links Literary Encyclopedia biography Books and Writers biography LION author page for John Updike, includes full bibliography, biography, references, and access to more than 1000 pieces of Updike criticism. New York Times: John Updike Life & Times Updike archive from The New York Review of Books Charlie Rose archive The Centaurian: Updike Home Page Times Literary Supplement Archive Contemporary Literary Criticism: John Updike Criticism In Depth with John Updike, CSPAN, December 2005 New Yorker archive JCO on John Updike Updike essays by Joyce Carol Oates BBC radio tribute 28 January 2009 Obituaries Remembering Updike, New Yorker He took the novel onto another plane of intimacy, Martin Amis, The Guardian, 28 January 2009 . A Relentless Updike Mapped America's Mysteries, Michiko Kakutani, New York Times, January 27, 2009 John Updike, a Lyrical Writer of the Middle-Class Man, Dies at 76, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, New York Times, January 28, 2009 Postcript, Adam Gopnik, New Yorker, 9 February 2009 The Realist: John Updike's Lyricism Exalted the Everyday and the Unglamorous, Henry Allen, Washington Post, 28 January 2009 John Updike 1932-2009, Eric Homberger, The Guardian, Tuesday 27 January 2009. On John Updike, Ian McEwan, New York Review of Books, 12 March 2009 John Updike: A Self Forever, Jonathan Gharraie, The Oxonian Review, February 9, 2009 John Updike dies at 76, Mary Rourke, Los Angeles Time, 28 January 2009 Pictures John Updike, RIP : photographs by Magnum Photos A Life in Pictures (15 pictures), The Guardian'', January 2009. 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5,626 | Ozone | Ozone or trioxygen (O3) is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic O2. Ground-level ozone is an air pollutant with harmful effects on the respiratory systems of animals. The ozone layer in the upper atmosphere filters potentially damaging ultraviolet light from reaching the Earth's surface. It is present in low concentrations throughout the Earth's atmosphere. It has many industrial and consumer applications. Ozone, the first allotrope of a chemical element to be recognized by science, was proposed as a distinct chemical compound by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1840, who named it after the Greek verb ozein (ὄζειν, "to smell"), from the peculiar odor in lightning storms. The formula for ozone, O3, was not determined until 1865 by Jacques-Louis Soret and confirmed by Schönbein in 1867. Physical properties Most people can detect about 0.01 ppm in air. Exposure of 0.1 to 1 ppm produces headaches, burning eyes, and irritation to the respiratory passages. At -112 °C, it forms a dark blue liquid. At temperatures below -193 °C, it forms a violet-black solid. Ozone is diamagnetic, meaning that it will resist formation of a magnetic field and will decrease the energy stored in the field once the field is established. Structure The structure of ozone, according to experimental evidence from microwave spectroscopy, is bent, with C2v symmetry (similar to the water molecule), O – O distance of 127.2 pm and O – O – O angle of 116.78°. Takehiko Tanaka; Yonezo Morino. Coriolis interaction and anharmonic potential function of ozone from the microwave spectra in the excited vibrational states Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy 1970, 33, 538–551. The central atom forms an sp² hybridization with one lone pair. Ozone is a polar molecule with a dipole moment of 0.5337 D. Kenneth M. Mack; J. S. Muenter. Stark and Zeeman properties of ozone from molecular beam spectroscopy. Journal of Chemical Physics 1977, 66, 5278–5283. The bonding can be expressed as a resonance hybrid with a single bond on one side and double bond on the other producing an overall bond order of 1.5 for each side. Chemistry Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent, far better than dioxygen. It is also unstable at high concentrations, decaying to ordinary diatomic oxygen (in about half an hour in atmospheric conditions Earth Science FAQ: Where can I find information about the ozone hole and ozone depletion? Goddard Space Flight Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, March 2008. ): 2 O3 → 3 O2 This reaction proceeds more rapidly with increasing temperature and decreasing pressure. Deflagration of ozone can be triggered by a spark, and can occur in ozone concentrations of 10 wt% or higher. http://www.iitk.ac.in/che/jpg/papersb/full%20papers/K-106.pdf Metals Ozone will oxidize metals (except gold, platinum, and iridium) to oxides of the metals in their highest oxidation state: 2 Cu+ (aq) + 2 H3O+ (aq) + O3 (g) → 2 Cu2+ (aq) + 3 H2O (l) + O2 (g) Non-metals Ozone also increases the oxidation number of oxides, such as the oxidation of nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide: NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 This reaction is accompanied by chemiluminescence. The NO2 can be further oxidized: NO2 + O3 → NO3 + O2 The NO3 formed can react with NO2 to form N2O5: NO2 + NO3 → N2O5 Ozone reacts with carbon to form carbon dioxide, even at room temperature: C + 2 O3 → CO2 + 2 O2 Ozone does not react with ammonium salts but it reacts with ammonia to form ammonium nitrate: 2 NH3 + 4 O3 → NH4NO3 + 4 O2 + H2O Ozone reacts with sulfides to make sulfates. For example, lead(II) sulfide is oxidised to lead(II) sulfate: PbS + 4 O3 → PbSO4 + 4 O2 Sulfuric acid can be produced from ozone, starting either from elemental sulfur or from sulfur dioxide: S + H2O + O3 → H2SO4 3 SO2 + 3 H2O + O3 → 3 H2SO4 All three atoms of ozone may also react, as in the reaction of tin(II) chloride with hydrochloric acid and NaCl: 3 SnCl2 + 6 HCl + O3 → 3 SnCl4 + 3 H2O In the gas phase, ozone reacts with hydrogen sulfide to form sulfur dioxide: H2S + O3 → SO2 + H2O In an aqueous solution, however, two competing simultaneous reactions occur, one to produce elemental sulfur, and one to produce sulfuric acid: H2S + O3 → S + O2 + H2O 3 H2S + 4 O3 → 3 H2SO4 Iodine perchlorate can be made by treating iodine dissolved in cold anhydrous perchloric acid with ozone: I2 + 6 HClO4 + O3 → 2 I(ClO4)3 + 3 H2O Solid nitryl perchlorate can be made from NO2, ClO2, and O3 gases: 2 NO2 + 2 ClO2 + 2 O3 → 2 NO2ClO4 + O2 Combustion Ozone can be used for combustion reactions and combusting gases; ozone provides higher temperatures than combusting in dioxygen (O2). The following is a reaction for the combustion of carbon subnitride which can also cause lower temperatures: 3 C4N2 + 4 O3 → 12 CO + 3 N2 Ozone can react at cryogenic temperatures. At 77 K (-196 °C), atomic hydrogen reacts with liquid ozone to form a hydrogen superoxide radical, which dimerizes: Horvath M., Bilitzky L., & Huttner J., 1985. "Ozone." pg 44–49 H + O3 → HO2 + O 2 HO2 → H2O4 Ozonides Ozonides can be formed, which contain the ozonide anion, O3−. These compounds are explosive and must be stored at cryogenic temperatures. Ozonides for all the alkali metals are known. KO3, RbO3, and CsO3 can be prepared from their respective superoxides: KO2 + O3 → KO3 + O2 Although KO3 can be formed as above, it can also be formed from potassium hydroxide and ozone: Housecroft & Sharpe, 2005. "Inorganic Chemistry." pg 439 2 KOH + 5 O3 → 2 KO3 + 5 O2 + H2O NaO3 and LiO3 must be prepared by action of CsO3 in liquid NH3 on an ion exchange resin containing Na+ or Li+ ions: Housecroft & Sharpe, 2005. "Inorganic Chemistry." pg 265 CsO3 + Na+ → Cs+ + NaO3 Treatment with ozone of calcium dissolved in ammonia leads to ammonium ozonide and not calcium ozonide: Horvath M., Bilitzky L., & Huttner J., 1985. "Ozone." pg 44–49 3 Ca + 10 NH3 + 6 O3 → Ca•6NH3 + Ca(OH)2 + Ca(NO3)2 + 2 NH4O3 + 2 O2 + H2 Applications Ozone can be used to remove manganese from water, forming a precipitate which can be filtered: 2 Mn2+ + 2 O3 + 4 H2O → 2 MnO(OH)2 (s) + 2 O2 + 4 H+ Ozone will also turn cyanides to the one thousand times less toxic cyanates: CN- + O3 → CNO- + O2 Finally, ozone will also completely decompose urea: Horvath M., Bilitzky L., & Huttner J., 1985. "Ozone." pg 259, 269–270 (NH2)2CO + O3 → N2 + CO2 + 2 H2O Ozone in Earth's atmosphere The distribution of atmospheric ozone in partial pressure as a function of altitude.Concentration of ozone as measured by the Nimbus-7 satellite. Total ozone concentration in June 2000 as measured by EP-TOMS satellite instrument. The standard way to express total ozone levels (the amount of ozone in a vertical column) in the atmosphere is by using Dobson units. Concentrations at a point are measured in parts per billion (ppb) or in μg/m³. Ozone layer The highest levels of ozone in the atmosphere are in the stratosphere, in a region also known as the ozone layer between about 10 km and 50 km above the surface (or between about 6 and 31 miles). Here it filters out photons with shorter wavelengths (less than 320 nm) of ultraviolet light, also called UV rays, (270 to 400 nm) from the Sun that would be harmful to most forms of life in large doses. These same wavelengths are also among those responsible for the production of vitamin D, a vitamin also produced by the human body. Ozone in the stratosphere is mostly produced from ultraviolet rays reacting with oxygen: O2 + photon(radiation< 240 nm) → 2 O O + O2 → O3 It is destroyed by the reaction with atomic oxygen: O3 + O → 2 O2 The latter reaction is catalysed by the presence of certain free radicals, of which the most important are hydroxyl (OH), nitric oxide (NO) and atomic chlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br). In recent decades the amount of ozone in the stratosphere has been declining mostly because of emissions of CFCs and similar chlorinated and brominated organic molecules, which have increased the concentration of ozone-depleting catalysts above the natural background. Ozone only makes up 0.00006% of the atmosphere. Low level ozone Low level ozone (or tropospheric ozone) is regarded as a pollutant by the World Health Organization WHO-Europe reports: Health Aspects of Air Pollution (2003) (PDF) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It is not emitted directly by car engines or by industrial operations, but formed by the reaction of sunlight on air containing hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides that react to form ozone directly at the source of the pollution or many kilometers down wind. Ozone reacts directly with some hydrocarbons such as aldehydes and thus begins their removal from the air, but the products are themselves key components of smog. Ozone photolysis by UV light leads to production of the hydroxyl radical OH and this plays a part in the removal of hydrocarbons from the air, but is also the first step in the creation of components of smog such as peroxyacyl nitrates which can be powerful eye irritants. The atmospheric lifetime of tropospheric ozone is about 22 days; its main removal mechanisms are being deposited to the ground, the above mentioned reaction giving OH, and by reactions with OH and the peroxy radical HO2· (Stevenson et al., 2006). There is evidence of significant reduction in agricultural yields because of increased ground-level ozone and pollution which interferes with photosynthesis and stunts overall growth of some plant species. Certain examples of cities with elevated ozone readings are Houston, Texas, and Mexico City, Mexico. Houston has a reading of around 41 ppb, while Mexico City is far more hazardous, with a reading of about 125 ppb. Ozone cracking Ozone cracking in Natural rubber tubing Ozone gas attacks any polymer possessing olefinic or double bonds within its chain structure, such materials including natural rubber, nitrile rubber, and Styrene-butadiene rubber. Products made using these polymers are especially susceptible to attack, which causes cracks to grow longer and deeper with time, the rate of crack growth depending on the load carried by the product and the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere. Such materials can be protected by adding antiozonants, such as waxes, which bond to the surface to create a protective film or blend with the material and provide long term protection. Ozone cracking used to be a serious problem in car tires for example, but the problem is now seen only in very old tires. On the other hand, many critical products like gaskets and O-rings may be attacked by ozone produced within compressed air systems. Fuel lines are often made from reinforced rubber tubing and may also be susceptible to attack, especially within engine compartments where low levels of ozone are produced from electrical equipment. Storing rubber products in close proximity to DC electric motors can accelerate the rate at which ozone cracking occurs. The commutator of the motor creates sparks which in turn produce ozone. Ozone as a greenhouse gas Although ozone was present at ground level before the Industrial Revolution, peak concentrations are now far higher than the pre-industrial levels, and even background concentrations well away from sources of pollution are substantially higher. This increase in ozone is of further concern because ozone present in the upper troposphere acts as a greenhouse gas, absorbing some of the infrared energy emitted by the earth. Quantifying the greenhouse gas potency of ozone is difficult because it is not present in uniform concentrations across the globe. However, the scientific review on the climate change (the IPCC Third Assessment Report ) suggests that the radiative forcing of tropospheric ozone is about 25% that of carbon dioxide. Health effects Air pollution Red Alder leaf, showing the typical discolouration caused by ozone pollution. There is a great deal of evidence to show that high concentrations of ozone, created by high concentrations of pollution and daylight UV rays at the Earth's surface, can harm lung function and irritate the respiratory system. Answer to follow-up questions from CAFE (2004) (PDF) A connection has also been known to exist between increased ozone caused by thunderstorms and hospital admissions of asthma sufferers. Air quality guidelines such as those from the World Health Organization are based on detailed studies of what levels can cause measurable health effects. Exposure to ozone and the pollutants that produce it has been linked to premature death, asthma, bronchitis, heart attack, and other cardiovascular problems. According to scientists with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), susceptible people can be adversely effected by ozone levels as low as 40 ppb. The Clean Air Act directs the EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards for several pollutants, including ground-level ozone, and counties out of compliance with these standard are required to take steps to reduce their levels. In May 2008, the EPA lowered its ozone standard from 80 ppb to 75 ppb. This proved controversial, since the Agency's own scientists and advisory board had recommended lowering the standard to 60 ppb, and the World Health Organization recommends 51 ppb. Many public health and environmental groups also supported the 60 ppb standard. On the other hand, the EPA had already designated over 300 mostly urban counties as out of compliance, and lowering the standard to 75 ppb put hundreds more in non-compliance. Lowering it further to 60 ppb would likely have left most of the US in non-compliance. Manufacturers, employers, and others argued that the cost of compliance with the lower standard would be prohibitive. The EPA has also developed an Air Quality Index to help explain air pollution levels to the general public. Eight-hour average ozone concentrations of 85 to 104 ppb are described as "Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups", 105 ppb to 124 ppb as "unhealthy" and 125 ppb to 404 ppb as "very unhealthy". Ozone can also be present in indoor air pollution. A common British folk myth dating back to the Victorian era holds that the smell of the sea is caused by ozone, and that this smell has "bracing" health benefits. Ashfield District Council: Monitored Air Pollutants, downloaded February 2, 2007 Neither of these is true. The characteristic "smell of the sea" is not caused by ozone but by the presence of dimethyl sulfide generated by phytoplankton, and dimethyl sulfide, like ozone, is toxic in high concentrations. University of East Anglia press release, Cloning the smell of the seaside, February 2, 2007 Long-term exposure to ozone has been shown to increase risk of death from respiratory illness. A study of 450,000 people living in United States cities showed a significant correlation between ozone levels and respiratory illness over the 18-year follow-up period. The study revealed that people living in cities with high ozone levels such as Houston or Los Angeles had an over 30% increased risk of dying from lung disease. Physiology Ozone, along with reactive forms of oxygen such as superoxide, singlet oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and hypochlorite ions, is naturally produced by white blood cells and other biological systems (such as the roots of marigolds) as a means of destroying foreign bodies. Ozone reacts directly with organic double bonds. Also, when ozone breaks down to dioxygen it gives rise to oxygen free radicals, which are highly reactive and capable of damaging many organic molecules. Ozone has been found to convert cholesterol in the blood stream to plaque (which causes hardening and narrowing of arteries). Moreover, it is believed that the powerful oxidizing properties of ozone may be a contributing factor of inflammation. The cause-and-effect relationship of how the ozone is created in the body and what it does is still under consideration and still subject to various interpretations, since other body chemical processes can trigger some of the same reactions. A team headed by Dr. Paul Wentworth Jr. of the Department of Chemistry at the Scripps Research Institute has shown evidence linking the antibody-catalyzed water-oxidation pathway of the human immune response to the production of ozone. In this system, ozone is produced by antibody-catalyzed production of trioxidane from water and neutrophil-produced singlet oxygen. When inhaled, ozone reacts with compounds lining the lungs to form specific, cholesterol-derived metabolites that are thought to facilitate the build-up and pathogenesis of atherosclerotic plaques (a form of heart disease). These metabolites have been confirmed as naturally occurring in human atherosclerotic arteries and are categorized into a class of secosterols termed “Atheronals”, generated by ozonolysis of cholesterol's double bond to form a 5,6 secosterol as well as a secondary condensation product via aldolization. Ozone has been implicated to have an adverse effect on plant growth, "...Ozone reduced total chlorophylls, carotenoid and carbohydrate concentration, and increased 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) content and ethylene production. In treated plants, the ascorbate leaf pool was decreased, while lipid peroxidation and solute leakage were significantly higher than in ozone-free controls. The data indicated that ozone triggered protective mechanisms against oxidative stress in citrus." Safety regulations Due to the strongly oxidizing properties of ozone, ozone is a primary irritant, affecting especially the eyes and respiratory systems and can be hazardous at even low concentrations. The Canadian Center for Occupation Safety and Health reports that: "Even very low concentrations of ozone can be harmful to the upper respiratory tract and the lungs. The severity of injury depends on both by the concentration of ozone and the duration of exposure. Severe and permanent lung injury or death could result from even a very short-term exposure to relatively low concentrations." To protect workers potentially exposed to ozone, OSHA has established a permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 0.1 ppm (29 CFR 1910.1000 table Z-1), calculated as an 8 hour time weighted average. Higher concentrations are especially hazardous and NIOSH has established an Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health Limit (IDLH) of 5 ppm. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/intridl4.html Work environments where ozone is used or where it is likely to be produced should have adequate ventilation and it is prudent to have a monitor for ozone that will alarm if the concentration exceeds the OSHA PEL. Continuous monitors for ozone are available from several suppliers. Production Ozone often forms in nature under conditions where O2 will not react. Ozone used in industry is measured in g/Nm³ or weight percent. The regime of applied concentrations ranges from 1 to 5 weight percent in air and from 6 to 14 weight percent in oxygen. Corona discharge method This is the most popular type of ozone generator for most industrial and personal uses. While variations of the "hot spark" coronal discharge method of ozone production exist, including medical grade and industrial grade ozone generators, these units usually work by means of a corona discharge tube. Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 3, p.673 (1955); Vol. 26, p.63 (1946). (Article) They are typically very cost-effective and do not require an oxygen source other than the ambient air. However, they also produce nitrogen oxides as a by-product. Use of an air dryer can reduce or eliminate nitric acid formation by removing water vapor and increase ozone production. Use of an oxygen concentrator can further increase the ozone production and further reduce the risk of nitric acid formation by removing not only the water vapor, but also the bulk of the nitrogen.. Ultraviolet light UV ozone generators employ a light source that generates a narrow-band ultraviolet light, a subset of that produced by the Sun. The Sun's UV sustains the ozone layer in the stratosphere of Earth. While standard UV ozone generators tend to be less expensive, they usually produce ozone with a concentration of about 0.5% or lower. Another disadvantage of this method is that it requires the air (oxygen) to be exposed to the UV source for a longer amount of time, and any gas that is not exposed to the UV source will not be treated. This makes UV generators impractical for use in situations that deal with rapidly moving air or water streams (in-duct air sterilization, for example). Production of ozone is one of the potential dangers of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation.VUV Ozone generators are used in swimming pool and spa applications ranging to millions of gallons of water. VUV Ozone generators, unlike Corona Discharge generators) do not produce harmful nitrogen by-products and also unlike Corona Discharge systems, VUV Ozone generators work extremely well in humid air environments. There is also not normally a need for expensive off-gas mechanisms, and no need for air driers or oxygen concentrators which require extra costs and maintenance. Cold plasma In the cold plasma method, pure oxygen gas is exposed to a plasma created by dielectric barrier discharge. The diatomic oxygen is split into single atoms, which then recombine in triplets to form ozone. Cold plasma machines utilize pure oxygen as the input source and produce a maximum concentration of about 5% ozone. They produce far greater quantities of ozone in a given space of time compared to ultraviolet production. However, because cold plasma ozone generators are very expensive, they are found less frequently than the previous two types. The discharges manifest as filamentary transfer of electrons (micro discharges) in a gap between two electrodes. In order to evenly distribute the micro discharges, a dielectric insulator must be used to separate the metallic electrodes and to prevent arcing. Some cold plasma units also have the capability of producing short-lived allotropes of oxygen which include O4, O5, O6, O7, etc. These anions are even more reactive than ordinary O3. Special considerations Ozone cannot be stored and transported like other industrial gases (because it quickly decays into diatomic oxygen) and must therefore be produced on site. Available ozone generators vary in the arrangement and design of the high-voltage electrodes. At production capacities higher than 20 kg per hour, a gas/water tube heat-exchanger may be utilized as ground electrode and assembled with tubular high-voltage electrodes on the gas-side. The regime of typical gas pressures is around 2 bar absolute in oxygen and 3 bar absolute in air. Several megawatts of electrical power may be installed in large facilities, applied as one phase AC current at 50 to 8000 Hz and peak voltages between 3,000 and 20,000 volts. Applied voltage is usually inversely related to the applied frequency. The dominating parameter influencing ozone generation efficiency is the gas temperature, which is controlled by cooling water temperature and/or gas velocity. The cooler the water, the better the ozone synthesis. The lower the gas velocity, the higher the concentration (but the lower the net ozone produced). At typical industrial conditions, almost 90% of the effective power is dissipated as heat and needs to be removed by a sufficient cooling water flow. Because of the high reactivity of ozone, only few materials may be used like stainless steel (quality 316L), titanium, aluminium (as long as no moisture is present), glass, polytetrafluorethylene, or polyvinylidene fluoride. Viton may be used with the restriction of constant mechanical forces and absence of humidity (humidity limitations apply depending on the formulation). Hypalon may be used with the restriction that no water come in contact with it, except for normal atmospheric levels. Embrittlement or shrinkage is the common mode of failure of elastomers with exposure to ozone. Ozone cracking is the common mode of failure of elastomer seals like O-rings. Silicone rubbers are usually adequate for use as gaskets in ozone concentrations below 1 wt%, such as in equipment for accelerated ageing of rubber samples. Incidental production Ozone may be formed from O2 by electrical discharges and by action of high energy electromagnetic radiation. Certain electrical equipment generate significant levels of ozone. This is especially true of devices using high voltages, such as ionic air purifiers, laser printers, photocopiers, tasers and arc welders. Electric motors using brushes can generate ozone from repeated sparking inside the unit. Large motors that use brushes, such as those used by elevators or hydraulic pumps, will generate more ozone than smaller motors. Ozone is similarly formed in the Catatumbo lightning storms phenomenon on the Catatumbo River in Venezuela, which helps to replenish ozone in the upper troposhere. It is the world's largest single natural generator of ozone, lending calls for it to be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Laboratory production In the laboratory, ozone can be produced by electrolysis using a 9 volt battery, a pencil graphite rod cathode, a platinum wire anode and a 3 molar sulfuric acid electrolyte. The half cell reactions taking place are: 3 H2O → O3 + 6 H+ + 6 e− (ΔEo = −1.53 V) 6 H+ + 6 e− → 3 H2 (ΔEo = 0 V) 2 H2O → O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e− (ΔEo = −1.23 V) In the net reaction, three equivalents of water are converted into one equivalent of ozone and three equivalents of hydrogen. Oxygen formation is a competing reaction. It can also be prepared by passing 10,000-20,000 volts DC through dry O2. This can be done with an apparatus consisting of two concentric glass tubes sealed together at the top, with in and out spigots at the top and bottom of the outer tube. The inner core should have a length of metal foil inserted into it connected to one side of the power source. The other side of the power source should be connected to another piece of foil wrapped around the outer tube. Dry O2 should be run through the tube in one spigot. As the O2 is run through one spigot into the apparatus and 10,000-20,000 volts DC are applied to the foil leads, electricity will discharge between the dry dioxygen in the middle and form O3 and O2 out the other spigot. The reaction can be summarized as follows: 3 O2 — electricity → 2 O3 Ionic air purifiers Some air filters and purifiers create ozone. Applications Industry The largest use of ozone is in the preparation of pharmaceuticals, synthetic lubricants, as well as many other commercially useful organic compounds, where it is used to sever carbon-carbon bonds. It can also be used for bleaching substances and for killing microorganisms in air and water sources. Many municipal drinking water systems kill bacteria with ozone instead of the more common chlorine. Ozone has a very high oxidation potential. Ozone does not form organochlorine compounds, nor does it remain in the water after treatment. The Safe Drinking Water Act mandate that these systems introduce an amount of chlorine to maintain a minimum of 0.2 ppm residual Free Chlorine in the pipes, based on results of regular testing. Where electrical power is abundant, ozone is a cost-effective method of treating water, since it is produced on demand and does not require transportation and storage of hazardous chemicals. Once it has decayed, it leaves no taste or odor in drinking water. Although low levels of ozone have been advertised to be of some disinfectant use in residential homes, the concentration of ozone in dry air required to have a rapid, substantial effect on airborne pathogens exceeds safe levels recommended by the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration and Environmental Protection Agency. Humidity control can vastly improve both the killing power of the ozone and the rate at which it decays back to oxygen (more humidity allows more effectiveness). Spore forms of most pathogens are very tolerant of atmospheric ozone in concentrations where asthma patients start to have issues. Industrially, ozone is used to: Disinfect laundry in hospitals, food factories, care homes etc; Disinfect water in place of chlorine Deodorize air and objects, such as after a fire. This process is extensively used in Fabric Restoration Kill bacteria on food or on contact surfaces; Sanitize swimming pools and spas Kill insects in stored grain http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/030130.Mason.ozone.html Scrub yeast and mold spores from the air in food processing plants; Wash fresh fruits and vegetables to kill yeast, mold and bacteria; Chemically attack contaminants in water (iron, arsenic, hydrogen sulfide, nitrites, and complex organics lumped together as "colour"); Provide an aid to flocculation (agglomeration of molecules, which aids in filtration, where the iron and arsenic are removed); Manufacture chemical compounds via chemical synthesis Clean and bleach fabrics (the former use is utilized in Fabric Restoration; the latter use is patented); Assist in processing plastics to allow adhesion of inks; Age rubber samples to determine the useful life of a batch of rubber; Eradicate water borne parasites such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium in surface water treatment plants. Ozone is a reagent in many organic reactions in the laboratory and in industry. Ozonolysis is the cleavage of an alkene to carbonyl compounds. Many hospitals in the U.S. and around the world use large ozone generators to decontaminate operating rooms between surgeries. The rooms are cleaned and then sealed airtight before being filled with ozone which effectively kills or neutralizes all remaining bacteria. Ozone is used as an alternative to chlorine or chlorine dioxide in the bleaching of wood pulp . It is often used in conjunction with oxygen and hydrogen peroxide to eliminate the need for chlorine-containing compounds in the manufacture of high-quality, white paper Ozone can be used to detoxify cyanide wastes (for example from gold and silver mining) by oxidizing cyanide to cyanate and eventually to carbon dioxide. Consumers Devices generating high levels of ozone, some of which use ionization, are used to sanitize and deodorize uninhabited buildings, rooms, ductwork, woodsheds, and boats and other vehicles. In the U.S., air purifiers emitting lower levels of ozone have been sold. This kind of air purifier is sometimes claimed to imitate nature's way of purifying the air without filters and to sanitize both it and household surfaces. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has declared that there is "evidence to show that at concentrations that do not exceed public health standards, ozone is not effective at removing many odor-causing chemicals" or "viruses, bacteria, mold, or other biological pollutants." Furthermore, its report states that "results of some controlled studies show that concentrations of ozone considerably higher than these [human safety] standards are possible even when a user follows the manufacturer’s operating instructions." EPA report on consumer ozone air purifiers The government successfully sued one company in 1995, ordering it to stop repeating health claims without supporting scientific studies. Ozonated water is used to launder clothes and to sanitize food, drinking water, and surfaces in the home. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), it is "amending the food additive regulations to provide for the safe use of ozone in gaseous and aqueous phases as an antimicrobial agent on food, including meat and poultry." Studies at California Polytechnic University demonstrated that 0.3 ppm levels of ozone dissolved in filtered tapwater can produce a reduction of more than 99.99% in such food-borne microorganisms as salmonella, E. coli 0157:H7, and Campylobacter. This quantity exceeds 20,000 times the WHO recommended limits stated above. (report also shows tapwater removes 99.95% of pathogens from lettuce; samples were first inoculated with pathogens before treatment) Ozone can be used to remove pesticide residues from fruits and vegetables. Ozone is used in homes and hot tubs to kill bacteria in the water and to reduce the amount of chlorine or bromine required by reactivating them to their free state. Since ozone does not remain in the water long enough, ozone by itself is ineffective at preventing cross-contamination among bathers and must be used in conjunction with these halogens. Gaseous ozone created by ultraviolet light or by corona discharge is injected into the water. Ozone is also widely used in treatment of water in aquariums and fish ponds. Its use can minimize bacterial growth, control parasites, eliminate transmission of some diseases, and reduce or eliminate "yellowing" of the water. Ozone must not come in contact with fish's gill structures. Natural salt water (with life forms) provides enough "instantaneous demand" that controlled amounts of ozone activate bromide ion to hypobromous acid, and the ozone entirely decays in a few seconds to minutes. If oxygen fed ozone is used, the water will be higher in dissolved oxygen, fish's gill structures will atrophy and they will become dependent on higher dissolved oxygen levels. See also Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (GOMOS) International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer (September 16) Ozone Action Day Ozone depletion, including the phenomenon known as the ozone hole. Ozone therapy Ozoneweb Polymer degradation Notes and references Series in Plasma Physics: Non-Equilibrium Air Plasmas at Atmospheric Pressure. Edited by K.H. Becker, U. Kogelschatz, K.H. Schoenbach, R.J. Barker; Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing Ltd; ISBN 0-7503-0962-8; 2005 </div> External links International Ozone Association European Environment Agency's near real-time ozone map (ozoneweb) NASA's Ozone Resource Page Paul Crutzen Interview Freeview video of Paul Crutzen Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the Vega Science Trust. NASA's Earth Observatory article on Ozone International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer International Chemical Safety Card 0068 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Ozone Information Ground-level Ozone Air Pollution NASA Study Links "Smog" to Arctic Warming — NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) study shows the warming effect of ozone in the Arctic during winter and spring. EPA Assessment of Effectiveness and Health Consequences of Ozone Generators that are Sold as Air Cleaners Pesticides Database; Ozone Ground-level ozone information from the American Lung Association of New England | Ozone |@lemmatized ozone:198 trioxygen:1 triatomic:1 molecule:6 consist:2 three:4 oxygen:26 atom:4 allotrope:3 much:1 less:5 stable:1 diatomic:4 ground:8 level:26 air:38 pollutant:6 harmful:4 effect:8 respiratory:7 system:9 animal:1 layer:6 upper:4 atmosphere:7 filter:5 potentially:2 damaging:1 ultraviolet:8 light:7 reach:1 earth:8 surface:8 present:6 low:15 concentration:31 throughout:1 many:10 industrial:8 consumer:3 application:4 first:3 chemical:10 element:1 recognize:1 science:4 propose:1 distinct:1 compound:8 christian:1 friedrich:1 schönbein:2 name:1 greek:1 verb:1 ozein:1 ὄζειν:1 smell:5 peculiar:1 odor:3 lightning:2 storm:2 formula:1 determine:2 jacques:1 louis:1 soret:1 confirm:2 physical:1 property:4 people:4 detect:1 ppm:6 exposure:7 produce:27 headache:1 burn:1 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5,627 | Binary_function | In mathematics, a binary function, or function of two variables, is a function which takes two inputs. Precisely stated, a function is binary if there exists sets such that where is the Cartesian product of and For example, if Z is the set of integers, N+ is the set of natural numbers (except for zero), and Q is the set of rational numbers, then division is a binary function from Z and N+ to Q. Set-theoretically, one may represent a binary function as a subset of the Cartesian product X × Y × Z, where (x,y,z) belongs to the subset if and only if f(x,y) = z. Conversely, a subset R defines a binary function if and only if, for any x in X and y in Y, there exists a unique z in Z such that (x,y,z) belongs to R. We then define f(x,y) to be this z. Alternatively, a binary function may be interpreted as simply a function from X × Y to Z. Even when thought of this way, however, one generally writes f(x,y) instead of f((x,y)). (That is, the same pair of parentheses is used to indicate both function application and the formation of an ordered pair.) In turn, one can also derive ordinary functions of one variable from a binary function. Given any element x of X, there is a function fx, or f(x,·), from Y to Z, given by fx(y) := f(x,y). Similarly, given any element y of Y, there is a function fy, or f(·,y), from X to Z, given by fy(x) := f(x,y). (In computer science, this identification between a function from X × Y to Z and a function from X to ZY is called Currying.) The various concepts relating to functions can also be generalised to binary functions. For example, the division example above is surjective (or onto) because every rational number may be expressed as a quotient of an integer and a natural number. This example is injective in each input separately, because the functions fx and fy are always injective. However, it's not injective in both variables simultaneously, because (for example) f(2,4) = f(1,2). One can also consider partial binary functions, which may be defined only for certain values of the inputs. For example, the division example above may also be interpreted as a partial binary function from Z and N to Q, where N is the set of all natural numbers, including zero. But this function is undefined when the second input is zero. A binary operation is a binary function where the sets X, Y, and Z are all equal; binary operations are often used to define algebraic structures. In linear algebra, a bilinear transformation is a binary function where the sets X, Y, and Z are all vector spaces and the derived functions fx and fy are all linear transformations. A bilinear transformation, like any binary function, can be interpreted as a function from X × Y to Z, but this function in general won't be linear. However, the bilinear transformation can also be interpreted as a single linear transformation from the tensor product X (×) Y to Z. The concept of binary function generalises to ternary (or 3-ary) function, quaternary (or 4-ary) function, or more generally to n-ary function for any natural number n. A 0-ary function to Z is simply given by an element of Z. One can also define an A-ary function where A is any set; there is one input for each element of A. In category theory, n-ary functions generalise to n-ary morphisms in a multicategory. The interpretation of an n-ary morphism as an ordinary morphisms whose domain is some sort of product of the domains of the original n-ary morphism will work in a monoidal category. The construction of the derived morphisms of one variable will work in a closed monoidal category. The category of sets is closed monoidal, but so is the category of vector spaces, giving the notion of bilinear transformation above. | Binary_function |@lemmatized mathematics:1 binary:16 function:35 two:2 variable:4 take:1 input:5 precisely:1 state:1 exist:2 set:10 cartesian:2 product:4 example:7 z:20 integer:2 n:10 natural:4 number:6 except:1 zero:3 q:3 rational:2 division:3 theoretically:1 one:8 may:5 represent:1 subset:3 x:23 belong:2 f:10 conversely:1 r:2 define:5 unique:1 alternatively:1 interpret:4 simply:2 even:1 thought:1 way:1 however:3 generally:2 write:1 instead:1 pair:2 parenthesis:1 use:2 indicate:1 application:1 formation:1 ordered:1 turn:1 also:6 derive:1 ordinary:2 give:6 element:4 fx:4 similarly:1 fy:4 computer:1 science:1 identification:1 zy:1 call:1 curry:1 various:1 concept:2 relate:1 generalise:2 surjective:1 onto:1 every:1 express:1 quotient:1 injective:3 separately:1 always:1 simultaneously:1 consider:1 partial:2 certain:1 value:1 include:1 undefined:1 second:1 operation:2 equal:1 often:1 algebraic:1 structure:1 linear:4 algebra:1 bilinear:4 transformation:6 vector:2 space:2 derived:2 like:1 general:1 single:1 tensor:1 generalises:1 ternary:1 ary:9 quaternary:1 category:5 theory:1 morphisms:3 multicategory:1 interpretation:1 morphism:2 whose:1 domain:2 sort:1 original:1 work:2 monoidal:3 construction:1 closed:2 notion:1 |@bigram cartesian_product:2 ordered_pair:1 n_ary:6 |
5,628 | Harry_Kroto | Sir Harold (Harry) Walter Kroto, FRS (born 7 October, 1939) is an English chemist and one of the three recipients to share the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He is currently on faculty at Florida State University, which he joined in 2004; prior to that he spent a large part of his working career at the University of Sussex, where he holds an emeritus professorship. Biography Early years He was born Harold Krotoschiner in Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, England with his unusual name being of Silesian origin . His father's family came from Bojanowo, Poland, and his mother's from Berlin, Germany. Both his parents were born in Berlin but came to Great Britain in the 1930s as refugees from the Nazis because his father was Jewish. He was raised in Bolton, Lancashire, England, and attended Bolton School, where he was a contemporary of the highly acclaimed actor Sir Ian McKellen. In 1955, the family name was shortened to Kroto. As a child, he became fascinated by a Meccano set. Kroto credits Meccano — amongst other things — with developing skills useful in scientific research Kroto Nobel Prize autobiography . Although raised Jewish, he has stated that religion never made any sense to him Career Early work In 1961 he obtained a first class BSc honours degree in chemistry at the University of Sheffield, followed in 1964 by a PhD at the same institution. His doctoral research involved high-resolution electronic spectra of free radicals produced by flash photolysis (breaking of chemical bonds by light). Among other things such as making the first phosphaalkenes (compounds with carbon phosphorus double bonds), his doctoral studies included some unpublished research on carbon suboxide, O=C=C=C=O, and this led to a general interest in molecules containing chains of carbon atoms with numerous multiple bonds. He started his work with an interest in organic chemistry, but when he learned about spectroscopy it inclined him towards quantum chemistry; he later developed an interest in astrochemistry. After postdoctoral research at the National Research Council in Canada and Bell Laboratories in the USA he began teaching and research at the University of Sussex in England in 1967. He became a full professor in 1985, and a Royal Society Research Professor from 1991 – 2001. Subsequent work In the 1970s he launched a research programme at Sussex to look for carbon chains in interstellar space. Earlier studies had detected the molecule cyanoacetylene, H-C≡C-C≡N. Kroto's group searched for spectral evidence of longer similar molecules such as cyanobutadiyne, H-C≡C-C≡C-C≡N and cyanohexatriyne, H-C≡C-C≡C-C≡C-C≡N, and found them from 1975–1978. Trying to explain them led to the discovery of the C60 molecule. (See buckminsterfullerene.) He heard of laser spectroscopy work being done by Richard Smalley and Robert Curl at Rice University in Texas. He suggested that they should use the Rice apparatus to simulate the carbon chemistry that occurs in the atmosphere of a carbon star. The experiment carried out in September 1985 not only proved that carbon stars could produce the chains but revealed an amazing, serendipitous result - the existence of the C60 species. The three scientists carried out the work with graduate students Jim Heath (now a full Professor at Caltech), Sean O'Brien (now at Texas Instruments), and Yuan Liu (now at Oak Ridge). The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was shared by Curl, Kroto and Smalley in 1996. In 1995 he jointly set up the Vega Science Trust a UK educational charity (see www.vega.org.uk) to create high quality science films including lectures, interviews with Nobel Laureates, discussion programmes, careers and teaching resources for TV and Internet Broadcast. Vega has produced some 100 plus programmes of which 50 have been broadcast on BBC TV in late-night slots. Additionally, all programmes stream for free from the Vega website which acts as a TV science channel. Viewing figures on terrestrial TV vary from 300,000 to 700,000. The website which is accessed by over 165 countries is designed by Harry Kroto and shows his other main interest - graphic design. He presently carries out research in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. He attended and was a speaker at the Beyond Belief symposia in 2006 and 2007. Personal life Kroto now declares four "religions": humanism, atheism, amnesty-internationalism and humourism. He developed an interest in chemistry, physics, and mathematics in secondary school, and because his sixth form chemistry teacher (Harry Heaney - who subsequently became a University Professor) felt that the University of Sheffield had the best chemistry department in the United Kingdom, he went to Sheffield. In 1963 he married Margaret Henrietta Hunter, also a student at the University. Honours and awards He awarded Richard Strutt the King Edward VI College VIth Form Chemistry Prize 1995. He is also a member of the Board of Scientific Governors at The Scripps Research Institute. References External links Harry Kroto autobiography from Nobel foundation Art, Buckyballs and Chemistry: The ABCs of Discovery The Science Network interview with Sir Harold Kroto Sir Harry Kroto FRS - Chemical architecture from the Royal Society Harry Kroto homepage at the University of Sussex Professor Harry Kroto Vega Science Trust Harry Kroto personal website Florida State University page University of Sheffield Kroto Incubator Kroto Research Campus | Harry_Kroto |@lemmatized sir:4 harold:3 harry:8 walter:1 kroto:16 fr:2 born:1 october:1 english:1 chemist:1 one:1 three:2 recipient:1 share:2 nobel:5 prize:4 chemistry:11 currently:1 faculty:1 florida:2 state:3 university:11 join:1 prior:1 spend:1 large:1 part:1 work:6 career:3 sussex:4 hold:1 emeritus:1 professorship:1 biography:1 early:3 year:1 bear:2 krotoschiner:1 wisbech:1 cambridgeshire:1 england:3 unusual:1 name:2 silesian:1 origin:1 father:2 family:2 come:2 bojanowo:1 poland:1 mother:1 berlin:2 germany:1 parent:1 great:1 britain:1 refugee:1 nazi:1 jewish:2 raise:2 bolton:2 lancashire:1 attend:2 school:2 contemporary:1 highly:1 acclaimed:1 actor:1 ian:1 mckellen:1 shorten:1 child:1 become:3 fascinate:1 meccano:2 set:2 credit:1 amongst:1 thing:2 develop:3 skill:1 useful:1 scientific:2 research:11 autobiography:2 although:1 religion:2 never:1 make:2 sense:1 obtain:1 first:2 class:1 bsc:1 honour:2 degree:1 sheffield:4 follow:1 phd:1 institution:1 doctoral:2 involve:1 high:2 resolution:1 electronic:1 spectrum:1 free:2 radical:1 produce:3 flash:1 photolysis:1 break:1 chemical:2 bond:3 light:1 among:1 phosphaalkenes:1 compound:1 carbon:7 phosphorus:1 double:1 study:2 include:2 unpublished:1 suboxide:1 c:18 lead:2 general:1 interest:5 molecule:4 contain:1 chain:3 atom:1 numerous:1 multiple:1 start:1 organic:1 learn:1 spectroscopy:2 incline:1 towards:1 quantum:1 later:1 astrochemistry:1 postdoctoral:1 national:1 council:1 canada:1 bell:1 laboratory:1 usa:1 begin:1 teach:1 full:2 professor:5 royal:2 society:2 subsequent:1 launch:1 programme:4 look:1 interstellar:1 space:1 detect:1 cyanoacetylene:1 h:3 n:3 group:1 search:1 spectral:1 evidence:1 long:1 similar:1 cyanobutadiyne:1 cyanohexatriyne:1 find:1 try:1 explain:1 discovery:2 see:2 buckminsterfullerene:1 hear:1 laser:1 richard:2 smalley:2 robert:1 curl:2 rice:2 texas:2 suggest:1 use:1 apparatus:1 simulate:1 occur:1 atmosphere:1 star:2 experiment:1 carry:3 september:1 prove:1 could:1 reveal:1 amazing:1 serendipitous:1 result:1 existence:1 specie:1 scientist:1 graduate:1 student:2 jim:1 heath:1 caltech:1 sean:1 brien:1 instrument:1 yuan:1 liu:1 oak:1 ridge:1 jointly:1 vega:5 science:5 trust:2 uk:2 educational:1 charity:1 www:1 org:1 create:1 quality:1 film:1 lecture:1 interview:2 laureate:1 discussion:1 teaching:1 resource:1 tv:4 internet:1 broadcast:2 plus:1 bbc:1 late:1 night:1 slot:1 additionally:1 stream:1 website:3 act:1 channel:1 view:1 figure:1 terrestrial:1 vary:1 access:1 country:1 design:2 show:1 main:1 graphic:1 presently:1 nanoscience:1 nanotechnology:1 speaker:1 beyond:1 belief:1 symposium:1 personal:2 life:1 declare:1 four:1 humanism:1 atheism:1 amnesty:1 internationalism:1 humourism:1 physic:1 mathematics:1 secondary:1 sixth:1 form:2 teacher:1 heaney:1 subsequently:1 felt:1 best:1 department:1 united:1 kingdom:1 go:1 marry:1 margaret:1 henrietta:1 hunter:1 also:2 award:2 strutt:1 king:1 edward:1 vi:1 college:1 vith:1 member:1 board:1 governor:1 scripps:1 institute:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 foundation:1 art:1 buckyball:1 abc:1 network:1 architecture:1 homepage:1 page:1 incubator:1 campus:1 |@bigram nobel_prize:3 highly_acclaimed:1 ian_mckellen:1 carbon_atom:1 organic_chemistry:1 richard_smalley:1 oak_ridge:1 nobel_laureate:1 harry_kroto:6 external_link:1 |
5,629 | Economy_of_Benin | The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture and cotton. Cotton accounts for 40% of GDP and roughly 80% of official export receipts. There is also production of textiles, palm products, and cocoa. Maize (corn), beans, rice, peanuts, cashews, pineapples, cassava, yams, and other various tubers are grown for local subsistence. Benin began producing a modest quantity of offshore oil in October 1982. Production ceased in recent years but exploration of new sites is ongoing. A modest fishing fleet provides fish and shrimp for local subsistence and export to Europe. Formerly government-owned commercial activities are now privatized. A French brewer acquired the former state-run brewery. Smaller businesses are privately owned by Beninese citizens, but some firms are foreign owned, primarily French and Lebanese. The private commercial and agricultural sectors remain the principal contributors to growth. Economic Development Since the transition to a democratic government in 1990, Benin has undergone an economic recovery. A large injection of external investment from both private and public sources has alleviated the economic difficulties of the early 1990s caused by global recession and persistently low commodity prices (although the latter continues to affect the economy). The manufacturing sector is confined to some light industry, which is mainly involved in processing primary products and the production of consumer goods. A planned joint hydroelectric project with neighboring Togo is intended to reduce Benin's dependence on imported energy mostly from Ghana, which currently accounts for a significant proportion of the country's imports. The service sector has grown quickly, stimulated by economic liberalization and fiscal reform, and the use of modern technology such as automobiles and computers has grown considerably as a result. Membership of the CFA Franc Zone offers reasonable currency stability as well as access to French economic support. Benin sells its products mainly to France and, in smaller quantities, to the Netherlands, Korea, Japan, and India. France is Benin's leading source for imports. Benin is also a member of the West African economic community ECOWAS. Despite its rapid growth, the economy of Benin still remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output averaged a sound 5% since 1996, but a rapid population rise offset much of this growth on a per capita basis. Inflation has subsided over the past several years. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are vulnerable to developments in Nigeria, particularly fuel shortages. Although trade unions in Benin represent up to 75% of the formal workforce, the large informal economy has been noted by the International Trade Union Confederation (ITCU) to contain ongoing problems, including a lack of women's wage equality, the use of child labour, and the continuing issue of forced labour. Banks Banque Internationale du Bénin (I.BE) Bank of Africa Benin Continental Bank Benin Diamond Bank Benin (DBB) Ecobank Financial Bank Finadev Caisse Nationale d'Epargne Credit du Benin Equibail References External links West African Agricultural Market Observer/Observatoire du Marché Agricole (RESIMAO), a project of the West-African Market Information Network (WAMIS-NET), provides live market and commodity prices from fifty seven regional and local public agricultural markets across Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Niger, Mali, Senegal, Togo, and Nigeria. Sixty commodities are tracked weekly. The project is run by the Benin Ministry of Agriculture, and a number of European, African, and United Nations agencies. | Economy_of_Benin |@lemmatized economy:4 benin:15 remain:3 underdeveloped:2 dependent:2 subsistence:4 agriculture:3 cotton:3 account:2 gdp:2 roughly:1 official:1 export:2 receipt:1 also:2 production:4 textile:1 palm:1 product:3 cocoa:1 maize:1 corn:1 bean:1 rice:1 peanut:1 cashew:1 pineapple:1 cassava:1 yam:1 various:1 tuber:1 grow:3 local:3 begin:1 produce:1 modest:2 quantity:2 offshore:1 oil:1 october:1 cease:1 recent:1 year:2 exploration:1 new:1 site:1 ongoing:2 fishing:1 fleet:1 provide:2 fish:1 shrimp:1 europe:1 formerly:1 government:2 commercial:3 activity:2 privatize:1 french:3 brewer:1 acquire:1 former:1 state:1 run:2 brewery:1 small:2 business:1 privately:1 beninese:1 citizen:1 firm:1 foreign:1 primarily:1 lebanese:1 private:2 agricultural:3 sector:3 principal:1 contributor:1 growth:4 economic:6 development:2 since:2 transition:1 democratic:1 undergone:1 recovery:1 large:3 injection:1 external:2 investment:1 public:2 source:2 alleviate:1 difficulty:1 early:1 cause:1 global:1 recession:1 persistently:1 low:1 commodity:3 price:2 although:2 latter:1 continue:2 affect:1 manufacturing:1 confine:1 light:1 industry:1 mainly:2 involve:1 process:1 primary:1 consumer:1 good:1 planned:1 joint:1 hydroelectric:1 project:3 neighboring:1 togo:2 intend:1 reduce:1 dependence:1 import:3 energy:1 mostly:1 ghana:1 currently:1 significant:1 proportion:1 country:1 service:1 quickly:1 stimulate:1 liberalization:1 fiscal:1 reform:1 use:2 modern:1 technology:1 automobile:1 computer:1 considerably:1 result:1 membership:1 cfa:1 franc:1 zone:1 offer:1 reasonable:1 currency:1 stability:1 well:1 access:1 support:1 sell:1 france:2 netherlands:1 korea:1 japan:1 india:1 lead:1 member:1 west:3 african:4 community:1 ecowas:1 despite:1 rapid:2 still:1 regional:2 trade:3 real:1 output:1 average:1 sound:1 population:1 rise:1 offset:1 much:1 per:1 capita:1 basis:1 inflation:1 subside:1 past:1 several:1 transport:1 make:1 part:1 vulnerable:1 nigeria:2 particularly:1 fuel:1 shortage:1 union:2 represent:1 formal:1 workforce:1 informal:1 note:1 international:1 confederation:1 itcu:1 contain:1 problem:1 include:1 lack:1 woman:1 wage:1 equality:1 child:1 labour:2 issue:1 force:1 bank:5 banque:1 internationale:1 du:3 bénin:1 africa:1 continental:1 diamond:1 dbb:1 ecobank:1 financial:1 finadev:1 caisse:1 nationale:1 epargne:1 credit:1 equibail:1 reference:1 link:1 market:4 observer:1 observatoire:1 marché:1 agricole:1 resimao:1 information:1 network:1 wamis:1 net:1 live:1 fifty:1 seven:1 across:1 burkina:1 faso:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 guinea:1 niger:1 mali:1 senegal:1 sixty:1 tracked:1 weekly:1 ministry:1 number:1 european:1 united:1 nation:1 agency:1 |@bigram subsistence_agriculture:2 maize_corn:1 cfa_franc:1 per_capita:1 external_link:1 observer_observatoire:1 observatoire_du:1 du_marché:1 marché_agricole:1 agricole_resimao:1 resimao_project:1 network_wamis:1 wamis_net:1 benin_burkina:1 burkina_faso:1 faso_côte:1 côte_ivoire:1 mali_senegal:1 senegal_togo:1 togo_nigeria:1 commodity_tracked:1 tracked_weekly:1 |
5,630 | History_of_mathematics | Page from The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (c. AD 820) The area of study known as the history of mathematics is primarily an investigation into the origin of discoveries in mathematics and, to a lesser extent, an investigation into the mathematical methods and notation of the past. Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples of new mathematical developments have come to light only in a few locales. The most ancient mathematical texts available are Plimpton 322 (Babylonian mathematics c. 1900 BC), the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus (Egyptian mathematics c. 1850 BC), the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (Egyptian mathematics c. 1650 BC), and the Shulba Sutras (Indian mathematics c. 800 BC). All of these texts concern the so-called Pythagorean theorem, which seems to be the most ancient and widespread mathematical development after basic arithmetic and geometry. Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics influenced Greek and Hellenistic mathematics, which greatly refined the methods (especially the introduction of mathematical rigor in proofs) and expanded the subject matter of mathematics. Sir Thomas L. Heath, A Manual of Greek Mathematics, Dover, 1963, p. 1: "In the case of mathematics, it is the Greek contribution which it is most essential to know, for it was the Greeks who first made mathematics a science." Islamic mathematics, in turn, developed and expanded the mathematics known to these ancient civilizations. Many Greek and Arabic texts on mathematics were then translated into Latin, which led to further development of mathematics in medieval Europe. From ancient times through the Middle Ages, bursts of mathematical creativity were often followed by centuries of stagnation. Beginning in Renaissance Italy in the 16th century, new mathematical developments, interacting with new scientific discoveries, were made at an ever increasing pace, and this continues to the present day. Early mathematics The Ishango bone, dating to perhaps 18000 to 20000 B.C. Long before the earliest written records, there are drawings that indicate some knowledge of elementary mathematics and of time measurement based on the stars. For example, paleontologists have discovered ochre rocks in a South African cave that were about 70,000 years old, adorned with scratched geometric patterns. Also prehistoric artifacts discovered in Africa and France, dated between 35,000 and 20,000 years old, An old mathematical object suggest early attempts to quantify time. Mathematics in (central) Africa before colonization There is evidence that women devised counting to keep track of their menstrual cycles; 28 to 30 scratches on bone or stone, followed by a distinctive marker. Moreover, hunters and herders employed the concepts of one, two, and many, as well as the idea of none or zero, when considering herds of animals. The Ishango bone, found near the headwaters of the Nile river (northeastern Congo), may be as much as 20,000 years old. One common interpretation is that the bone is the earliest known demonstration of sequences of prime numbers and of Ancient Egyptian multiplication. Predynastic Egyptians of the 5th millennium BC pictorially represented geometric spatial designs. It has been claimed that megalithic monuments in England and Scotland, dating from the 3rd millennium BC, incorporate geometric ideas such as circles, ellipses, and Pythagorean triples in their design. Thom, Alexander, and Archie Thom, 1988, "The metrology and geometry of Megalithic Man", pp 132-151 in C.L.N. Ruggles, ed., Records in Stone: Papers in memory of Alexander Thom. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0-521-33381-4. The earliest known mathematics in ancient India dates from 3000–2600 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan civilization) of North India and Pakistan. This civilization developed a system of uniform weights and measures that used the decimal system, a surprisingly advanced brick technology which utilized ratios, streets laid out in perfect right angles, and a number of geometrical shapes and designs, including cuboids, barrels, cones, cylinders, and drawings of concentric and intersecting circles and triangles. Mathematical instruments included an accurate decimal ruler with small and precise subdivisions, a shell instrument that served as a compass to measure angles on plane surfaces or in horizon in multiples of 40–360 degrees, a shell instrument used to measure 8–12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, and an instrument for measuring the positions of stars for navigational purposes. The Indus script has not yet been deciphered; hence very little is known about the written forms of Harappan mathematics. Archeological evidence has led some to suspect that this civilization used a base 8 numeral system and had a value of , the ratio of the length of the circumference of the circle to its diameter. The earliest extant Chinese mathematics dates from the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC), and consists of numbers scratched on a tortoise shell . These numbers were represented by means of a decimal notation. For example, the number 123 is written (from top to bottom) as the symbol for 1 followed by the symbol for 100, then the symbol for 2 followed by the symbol for 10, then the symbol for 3. This was the most advanced number system in the world at the time, and allowed calculations to be carried out on the suan pan or (Chinese abacus). The date of the invention of the suan pan is not certain, but the earliest written mention dates from AD 190, in Xu Yue's Supplementary Notes on the Art of Figures. Ancient Near East (c. 1800–500 BC) Mesopotamia Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the people of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians until the beginning of the Hellenistic period. It is named Babylonian mathematics due to the central role of Babylon as a place of study, which ceased to exist during the Hellenistic period. From this point, Babylonian mathematics merged with Greek and Egyptian mathematics to give rise to Hellenistic mathematics. Later under the Arab Empire, Mesopotamia, especially Baghdad, once again became an important center of study for Islamic mathematics. In contrast to the sparsity of sources in Egyptian mathematics, our knowledge of Babylonian mathematics is derived from more than 400 clay tablets unearthed since the 1850s. Written in Cuneiform script, tablets were inscribed whilst the clay was moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of the sun. Some of these appear to be graded homework. The earliest evidence of written mathematics dates back to the ancient Sumerians, who built the earliest civilization in Mesopotamia. They developed a complex system of metrology from 3000 BC. From around 2500 BC onwards, the Sumerians wrote multiplication tables on clay tablets and dealt with geometrical exercises and division problems. The earliest traces of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this period. Duncan J. Melville (2003). Third Millennium Chronology, Third Millennium Mathematics. St. Lawrence University. The majority of recovered clay tablets date from 1800 to 1600 BC, and cover topics which include fractions, algebra, quadratic and cubic equations, and the calculation of regular reciprocal pairs (see Plimpton 322). The tablets also include multiplication tables and methods for solving linear and quadratic equations. The Babylonian tablet YBC 7289 gives an approximation to √2 accurate to five decimal places. Babylonian mathematics were written using a sexagesimal (base-60) numeral system. From this we derive the modern day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 x 6) degrees in a circle, as well as the use of seconds and minutes of arc to denote fractions of a degree. Babylonian advances in mathematics were facilitated by the fact that 60 has many divisors. Also, unlike the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values, much as in the decimal system. They lacked, however, an equivalent of the decimal point, and so the place value of a symbol often had to be inferred from the context. Egypt Egyptian mathematics refers to mathematics written in the Egyptian language. From the Hellenistic period, Greek replaced Egyptian as the written language of Egyptian scholars, and from this point Egyptian mathematics merged with Greek and Babylonian mathematics to give rise to Hellenistic mathematics. Mathematical study in Egypt later continued under the Arab Empire as part of Islamic mathematics, when Arabic became the written language of Egyptian scholars. The oldest mathematical text discovered so far is the Moscow papyrus, which is an Egyptian Middle Kingdom papyrus dated c. 2000–1800 BC. Like many ancient mathematical texts, it consists of what are today called word problems or story problems, which were apparently intended as entertainment. One problem is considered to be of particular importance because it gives a method for finding the volume of a frustum: "If you are told: A truncated pyramid of 6 for the vertical height by 4 on the base by 2 on the top. You are to square this 4, result 16. You are to double 4, result 8. You are to square 2, result 4. You are to add the 16, the 8, and the 4, result 28. You are to take one third of 6, result 2. You are to take 28 twice, result 56. See, it is 56. You will find it right." The Rhind papyrus (c. 1650 BC ) is another major Egyptian mathematical text, an instruction manual in arithmetic and geometry. In addition to giving area formulas and methods for multiplication, division and working with unit fractions, it also contains evidence of other mathematical knowledge Egyptian Unit Fractions at MathPages , including composite and prime numbers; arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means; and simplistic understandings of both the Sieve of Eratosthenes and perfect number theory (namely, that of the number 6). It also shows how to solve first order linear equations as well as arithmetic and geometric series . Also, three geometric elements contained in the Rhind papyrus suggest the simplest of underpinnings to analytical geometry: (1) first and foremost, how to obtain an approximation of accurate to within less than one percent; (2) second, an ancient attempt at squaring the circle; and (3) third, the earliest known use of a kind of cotangent. Finally, the Berlin papyrus (c. 1300 BC ) shows that ancient Egyptians could solve a second-order algebraic equation . Ancient Indian mathematics (c. 900 BC–AD 200) Brahmi numerals in the first century CE Vedic mathematics began in the early Iron Age, with the Shatapatha Brahmana (c. 9th century BC), which approximates the value of π to 2 decimal places., and the Sulba Sutras (c. 800–500 BC) were geometry texts that used irrational numbers, prime numbers, the rule of three and cube roots; computed the square root of 2 to five decimal places; gave the method for squaring the circle; solved linear equations and quadratic equations; developed Pythagorean triples algebraically and gave a statement and numerical proof of the Pythagorean theorem. (c. 5th century BC) formulated the grammar rules for Sanskrit. His notation was similar to modern mathematical notation, and used metarules, transformations, and recursions with such sophistication that his grammar had the computing power equivalent to a Turing machine. Pingala (roughly 3rd-1st centuries BC) in his treatise of prosody uses a device corresponding to a binary numeral system. His discussion of the combinatorics of meters, corresponds to the binomial theorem. Pingala's work also contains the basic ideas of Fibonacci numbers (called mātrāmeru). The Brāhmī script was developed at least from the Maurya dynasty in the 4th century BC, with recent archeological evidence appearing to push back that date to around 600 BC. The Brahmi numerals date to the 3rd century BC. Between 400 BC and AD 200, Jaina mathematicians began studying mathematics for the sole purpose of mathematics. They were the first to develop transfinite numbers, set theory, logarithms, fundamental laws of indices, cubic equations, quartic equations, sequences and progressions, permutations and combinations, squaring and extracting square roots, and finite and infinite powers. The Bakhshali Manuscript written between 200 BC and AD 200 included solutions of linear equations with up to five unknowns, the solution of the quadratic equation, arithmetic and geometric progressions, compound series, quadratic indeterminate equations, simultaneous equations, and the use of zero and negative numbers. Accurate computations for irrational numbers could be found, which includes computing square roots of numbers as large as a million to at least 11 decimal places. Greek and Hellenistic mathematics (c. 550 BC–AD 300) Pythagoras of Samos Greek mathematics refers to mathematics written in the Greek language between about 600 BC and AD 300. Howard Eves, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0030295580 Greek mathematicians lived in cities spread over the entire Eastern Mediterranean, from Italy to North Africa, but were united by culture and language. Greek mathematics of the period following Alexander the Great is sometimes called Hellenistic mathematics. Thales of Miletus Greek mathematics was more sophisticated than the mathematics that had been developed by earlier cultures. All surviving records of pre-Greek mathematics show the use of inductive reasoning, that is, repeated observations used to establish rules of thumb. Greek mathematicians, by contrast, used deductive reasoning. The Greeks used logic to derive conclusions from definitions and axioms. Martin Bernal, "Animadversions on the Origins of Western Science", pp. 72–83 in Michael H. Shank, ed., The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press) 2000, p. 75. Greek mathematics is thought to have begun with Thales (c. 624–c.546 BC) and Pythagoras (c. 582–c. 507 BC). Although the extent of the influence is disputed, they were probably inspired by the mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia and India. According to legend, Pythagoras traveled to Egypt to learn mathematics, geometry, and astronomy from Egyptian priests. Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. Pythagoras is credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean theorem, though the statement of the theorem has a long history. Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0. In his commentary on Euclid, Proclus states that Pythagoras expressed the theorem that bears his name and constructed Pythagorean triples algebraically rather than geometrically. The Academy of Plato had the motto, "Let none unversed in geometry enter here". The Pythagoreans proved the existence of irrational numbers. Eudoxus (408–c.355 BC) developed the method of exhaustion, a precursor of modern integration. Aristotle (384—c.322 BC) first wrote down the laws of logic. Euclid (c. 300 BC) is the earliest example of the format still used in mathematics today, definition, axiom, theorem, proof. He also studied conics. His book, Elements, was known to all educated people in the West until the middle of the 20th century. Howard Eves, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0030295580 p. 141: "No work, except The Bible, has been more widely used...." In addition to the familiar theorems of geometry, such as the Pythagorean theorem, Elements includes a proof that the square root of two is irrational and that there are infinitely many prime numbers. The Sieve of Eratosthenes (c. 230 BC) was used to discover prime numbers. Archimedes (c.287–212 BC) of Syracuse used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave remarkably accurate approximations of . He also studied the spiral bearing his name, formulas for the volumes of surfaces of revolution, and an ingenious system for expressing very large numbers. Classical Chinese mathematics (c. 500 BC–AD 1300) The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. In China, the Emperor Qin Shi Huang (Shi Huang-ti) commanded in 212 BC that all books outside of Qin state to be burned. It was not universally obeyed, but as a consequence of this order little is known about ancient Chinese mathematics. From the Western Zhou Dynasty (from 1046 BC), the oldest mathematical work to survive the book burning is the I Ching, which uses the 8 binary 3-tuples (trigrams) and 64 binary 6-tuples (hexagrams) for philosophical, mathematical, and mystical purposes. The binary tuples are composed of broken and solid lines, called yin (female) and yang (male), respectively (see King Wen sequence). The oldest existent work on geometry in China comes from the philosophical Mohist canon c. 330 BC, compiled by the followers of Mozi (470–390 BC). The Mo Jing described various aspects of many fields associated with physical science, and provided a small wealth of information on mathematics as well. After the book burning, the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) produced works of mathematics which presumably expand on works that are now lost. The most important of these is The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, the full title of which appeared by AD 179, but existed in part under other titles beforehand. It consists of 246 word problems involving agriculture, business, employment of geometry to figure height spans and dimension ratios for Chinese pagoda towers, engineering, surveying, and includes material on right triangles and π. It also made use of Cavalieri's principle on volume more than a thousand years before Cavalieri would propose it in the West. It created mathematical proof for the Pythagorean theorem, and a mathematical formula for Gaussian elimination. Liu Hui commented on the work by the 3rd century AD. In addition, the mathematical works of the Han astronomer and inventor Zhang Heng (AD 78–139) had a formulation for as well, which differed from Liu Hui's calculation. Zhang Heng used his formula of pi to find spherical volume. There was also the written work of the mathematician and music theorist Jing Fang (78–37 BC); by using the Pythagorean comma, Jing observed that 53 just fifths approximates 31 octaves. This would later lead to the discovery of 53 equal temperament, and was not calculated precisely elsewhere until the German Nicholas Mercator did so in the 17th century. The Chinese also made use of the complex combinatorial diagram known as the magic square and magic circles, described in ancient times and perfected by Yang Hui (AD 1238–1398). Zhang Heng (78–139) Zu Chongzhi (5th century) of the Southern and Northern Dynasties computed the value of π to seven decimal places, which remained the most accurate value of π for almost 1000 years. Even after European mathematics began to flourish during the Renaissance, European and Chinese mathematics were separate traditions, with significant Chinese mathematical output in decline, until the Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci carried mathematical ideas back and forth between the two cultures from the 16th to 18th centuries. Classical Indian mathematics (c. 400–1600) Aryabhata The Surya Siddhanta (c. 400) introduced the trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, and inverse sine, and laid down rules to determine the true motions of the luminaries, which conforms to their actual positions in the sky. The cosmological time cycles explained in the text, which was copied from an earlier work, corresponds to an average sidereal year of 365.2563627 days, which is only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.25636305 days. This work was translated into to Arabic and Latin during the Middle Ages. Aryabhata, in 499, introduced the versine function, produced the first trigonometric tables of sine, developed techniques and algorithms of algebra, infinitesimals, differential equations, and obtained whole number solutions to linear equations by a method equivalent to the modern method, along with accurate astronomical calculations based on a heliocentric system of gravitation. An Arabic translation of his Aryabhatiya was available from the 8th century, followed by a Latin translation in the 13th century. He also computed the value of π to the fourth decimal place as 3.1416. In the 14th century, Madhava of Sangamagrama computed the value of π to the eleventh decimal place as 3.14159265359. In the 7th century, Brahmagupta identified the Brahmagupta theorem, Brahmagupta's identity and Brahmagupta's formula, and for the first time, in Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta, he lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and decimal digit, and explained the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. It was from a translation of this Indian text on mathematics (c. 770) that Islamic mathematicians were introduced to this numeral system, which they adapted as Arabic numerals. Islamic scholars carried knowledge of this number system to Europe by the 12th century, and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the world. In the 10th century, Halayudha's commentary on Pingala's work contains a study of the Fibonacci sequence and Pascal's triangle, and describes the formation of a matrix. In the 12th century, Bhaskara first conceived differential calculus, along with the concepts of the derivative, differential coefficient and differentiation. He also stated Rolle's theorem (a special case of the mean value theorem), studied Pell's equation, and investigated the derivative of the sine function. From the 14th century, Madhava and other Kerala School mathematicians further developed his ideas. They developed the concepts of mathematical analysis and floating point numbers, and concepts fundamental to the overall development of calculus, including the mean value theorem, term by term integration, the relationship of an area under a curve and its antiderivative or integral, the integral test for convergence, iterative methods for solutions to non-linear equations, and a number of infinite series, power series, Taylor series, and trigonometric series. In the 16th century, Jyeshtadeva consolidated many of the Kerala School's developments and theorems in the Yuktibhasa, the world's first differential calculus text, which also introduced concepts of integral calculus. Mathematical progress in India stagnated from the late 16th century onwards due to political turmoil. Islamic mathematics (c. 800–1500) Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī The Islamic Arab Empire established across the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Iberia, and in parts of India in the 8th century made significant contributions towards mathematics. Although most Islamic texts on mathematics were written in Arabic, they were not all written by Arabs, since much like the status of Greek in the Hellenistic world, Arabic was used as the written language of non-Arab scholars throughout the Islamic world at the time. Alongside Arabs, many important Islamic mathematicians were also Persians. In the 9th century, wrote several important books on the Hindu-Arabic numerals and on methods for solving equations. His book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals, written about 825, along with the work of Al-Kindi, were instrumental in spreading Indian mathematics and Indian numerals to the West. The word algorithm is derived from the Latinization of his name, Algoritmi, and the word algebra from the title of one of his works, Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing). Al-Khwarizmi is often called the "father of algebra", for his fundamental contributions to the field. The History of Algebra. Louisiana State University. He gave an exhaustive explanation for the algebraic solution of quadratic equations with positive roots, "The six cases of equations given above exhaust all possibilities for linear and quadratic equations having positive root. So systematic and exhaustive was al-Khwarizmi's exposition that his readers must have had little difficulty in mastering the solutions." and he was the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake. Gandz and Saloman (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris i, pp. 263–77: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers". He also introduced the fundamental method of "reduction" and "balancing", referring to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation. This is the operation which Al-Khwarizmi originally described as al-jabr. "It is not certain just what the terms al-jabr and muqabalah mean, but the usual interpretation is similar to that implied in the translation above. The word al-jabr presumably meant something like "restoration" or "completion" and seems to refer to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation; the word muqabalah is said to refer to "reduction" or "balancing" - that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation." His algebra was also no longer concerned "with a series of problems to be resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the combinations must give all possible prototypes for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study." He also studied an equation for its own sake and "in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply emerge in the course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an infinite class of problems." Further developments in algebra were made by Al-Karaji in his treatise al-Fakhri, where he extends the methodology to incorporate integer powers and integer roots of unknown quantities. The first known proof by mathematical induction appears in a book written by Al-Karaji around 1000 AD, who used it to prove the binomial theorem, Pascal's triangle, and the sum of integral cubes. Victor J. Katz (1998). History of Mathematics: An Introduction, pp. 255–59. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0321016181. The historian of mathematics, F. Woepcke, F. Woepcke (1853). Extrait du Fakhri, traité d'Algèbre par Abou Bekr Mohammed Ben Alhacan Alkarkhi. Paris. praised Al-Karaji for being "the first who introduced the theory of algebraic calculus." Also in the 10th century, Abul Wafa translated the works of Diophantus into Arabic and developed the tangent function. Ibn al-Haytham was the first mathematician to derive the formula for the sum of the fourth powers, using a method that is readily generalizable for determining the general formula for the sum of any integral powers. He performed an integration in order to find the volume of a paraboloid, and was able to generalize his result for the integrals of polynomials up to the fourth degree. He thus came close to finding a general formula for the integrals of polynomials, but he was not concerned with any polynomials higher than the fourth degree. Victor J. Katz (1995), "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India", Mathematics Magazine 68 (3): 163–74. In the late 11th century, Omar Khayyam wrote Discussions of the Difficulties in Euclid, a book about flaws in Euclid's Elements, especially the parallel postulate, and laid the foundations for analytic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. He was also the first to find the general geometric solution to cubic equations. He was also very influential in calendar reform. In the late 12th century, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī introduced the concept of a function, and he was the first to discover the derivative of cubic polynomials. J. L. Berggren (1990). "Innovation and Tradition in Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi's Muadalat", Journal of the American Oriental Society 110 (2), pp. 304–09. His Treatise on Equations developed concepts related to differential calculus, such as the derivative function and the maxima and minima of curves, in order to solve cubic equations which may not have positive solutions. In the 13th century, Nasir al-Din Tusi (Nasireddin) made advances in spherical trigonometry. He also wrote influential work on Euclid's parallel postulate. In the 15th century, Ghiyath al-Kashi computed the value of π to the 16th decimal place. Kashi also had an algorithm for calculating nth roots, which was a special case of the methods given many centuries later by Ruffini and Horner. Other notable Muslim mathematicians included al-Samawal, Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi, Jamshid al-Kashi, Thabit ibn Qurra, Abu Kamil and Abu Sahl al-Kuhi. Other achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of algebra and algorithms (see Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī), the development of spherical trigonometry, the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals, the discovery of all the modern trigonometric functions besides the sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, the development of analytic geometry by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam, the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, the development of an algebraic notation by al-Qalasādī, and many other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry. During the time of the Ottoman Empire from the 15th century, the development of Islamic mathematics became stagnant. Medieval European mathematics (c. 500–1400) Medieval European interest in mathematics was driven by concerns quite different from those of modern mathematicians. One driving element was the belief that mathematics provided the key to understanding the created order of nature, frequently justified by Plato's Timaeus and the apocryphal biblical passage (in the Book of Wisdom) that God had ordered all things in measure, and number, and weight Wisdom, 11:21 ; however, many church authorities were opposed to attempts to understand the universe, the famed church father Augustine of Hippo himself declaring: The good Christian should beware of mathematicians, .... The danger already exists that the mathematicians have made a covenant with the devil to darken the spirit and to confine man in the bonds of Hell. Augustine of Hippo, The Literal Meaning of Genesis, 2:18:37 . Early Middle Ages (c. 500–1100) Boethius provided a place for mathematics in the curriculum when he coined the term quadrivium to describe the study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. He wrote De institutione arithmetica, a free translation from the Greek of Nicomachus's Introduction to Arithmetic; De institutione musica, also derived from Greek sources; and a series of excerpts from Euclid's Elements. His works were theoretical, rather than practical, and were the basis of mathematical study until the recovery of Greek and Arabic mathematical works. Caldwell, John (1981) "The De Institutione Arithmetica and the De Institutione Musica", pp. 135–54 in Margaret Gibson, ed., Boethius: His Life, Thought, and Influence, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell). Folkerts, Menso, "Boethius" Geometrie II, (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1970). Rebirth of mathematics in Europe (1100–1400) In the 12th century, European scholars traveled to Spain and Sicily seeking scientific Arabic texts, including al-Khwarizmi's The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, translated into Latin by Robert of Chester, and the complete text of Euclid's Elements, translated in various versions by Adelard of Bath, Herman of Carinthia, and Gerard of Cremona. Marie-Thérèse d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators", pp. 421–62 in Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable, Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982). Guy Beaujouan, "The Transformation of the Quadrivium", pp. 463–87 in Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable, Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982). These new sources sparked a renewal of mathematics. Fibonacci, writing in the Liber Abaci, in 1202 and updated in 1254, produced the first significant mathematics in Europe since the time of Eratosthenes, a gap of more than a thousand years. The work introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe, and discussed many other mathematical problems. The fourteenth century saw the development of new mathematical concepts to investigate a wide range of problems. Grant, Edward and John E. Murdoch (1987), eds., Mathematics and Its Applications to Science and Natural Philosophy in the Middle Ages, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0-521-32260-X. One important contribution was development of mathematics of local motion. Thomas Bradwardine proposed that speed (V) increases in arithmetic proportion as the ratio of force (F) to resistance (R) increases in geometric proportion. Bradwardine expressed this by a series of specific examples, but although the logarithm had not yet been conceived, we can express his conclusion anachronistically by writing: V = log (F/R). Clagett, Marshall (1961) The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press), pp. 421–40. Bradwardine's analysis is an example of transferring a mathematical technique used by al-Kindi and Arnald of Villanova to quantify the nature of compound medicines to a different physical problem. Murdoch, John E. (1969) "Mathesis in Philosophiam Scholasticam Introducta: The Rise and Development of the Application of Mathematics in Fourteenth Century Philosophy and Theology", in Arts libéraux et philosophie au Moyen Âge (Montréal: Institut d'Études Médiévales), at pp. 224–27. One of the 14th-century Oxford Calculators, William Heytesbury, lacking differential calculus and the concept of limits, proposed to measure instantaneous speed "by the path that would be described by [a body] if ... it were moved uniformly at the same degree of speed with which it is moved in that given instant". Clagett, Marshall (1961) The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press), pp. 210, 214–15, 236. Heytesbury and others mathematically determined the distance covered by a body undergoing uniformly accelerated motion (today solved by integration), stating that "a moving body uniformly acquiring or losing that increment [of speed] will traverse in some given time a [distance] completely equal to that which it would traverse if it were moving continuously through the same time with the mean degree [of speed]". Clagett, Marshall (1961) The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press), p. 284. Nicole Oresme at the University of Paris and the Italian Giovanni di Casali independently provided graphical demonstrations of this relationship, asserting that the area under the line depicting the constant acceleration, represented the total distance traveled. Clagett, Marshall (1961) The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press), pp. 332–45, 382–91. In a later mathematical commentary on Euclid's Elements, Oresme made a more detailed general analysis in which he demonstrated that a body will acquire in each successive increment of time an increment of any quality that increases as the odd numbers. Since Euclid had demonstrated the sum of the odd numbers are the square numbers, the total quality acquired by the body increases as the square of the time. Nicole Oresme, "Questions on the Geometry of Euclid" Q. 14, pp. 560–65, in Marshall Clagett, ed., Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968). Early modern European mathematics (c. 1400–1600) In Europe at the dawn of the Renaissance, mathematics was still limited by the cumbersome notation using Roman numerals and expressing relationships using words, rather than symbols: there was no plus sign, no equal sign, and no use of x as an unknown. In 16th century European mathematicians began to make advances without precedent anywhere in the world, so far as is known today. The first of these was the general solution of cubic equations, generally credited to Scipione del Ferro c. 1510, but first published by Johannes Petreius in Nuremberg in Gerolamo Cardano's Ars magna, which also included the solution of the general quartic equation from Cardano's student Lodovico Ferrari . From this point on, mathematical developments came swiftly, contributing to and benefiting from contemporary advances in the physical sciences. This progress was greatly aided by advances in printing. The earliest mathematical books printed were Peurbach's Theoricae nova planetarum (1472}, followed by a book on commercial arithmetic, the Treviso Arithmetic (1478), and then the first extant book on mathematics, Euclid's Elements, printed and published by Ratdolt in 1482. Driven by the demands of navigation and the growing need for accurate maps of large areas, trigonometry grew to be a major branch of mathematics. Bartholomaeus Pitiscus was the first to use the word, publishing his Trigonometria in 1595. Regiomontanus's table of sines and cosines was published in 1533. By century's end, thanks to Regiomontanus (1436–76) and François Vieta (1540–1603), among others, mathematics was written using Hindu-Arabic numerals and in a form not too different from the notation used today. 17th century The 17th century saw an unprecedented explosion of mathematical and scientific ideas across Europe. Galileo, an Italian, observed the moons of Jupiter in orbit about that planet, using a telescope based on a toy imported from Holland. Tycho Brahe, a Dane, had gathered an enormous quantity of mathematical data describing the positions of the planets in the sky. His student, Johannes Kepler, a German, began to work with this data. In part because he wanted to help Kepler in his calculations, John Napier, in Scotland, was the first to investigate natural logarithms. Kepler succeeded in formulating mathematical laws of planetary motion. The analytic geometry developed by René Descartes (1596–1650), a French mathematician and philosopher, allowed those orbits to be plotted on a graph, in Cartesian coordinates. Building on earlier work by many prececessors, Isaac Newton, an Englishman, discovered the laws of physics explaining Kepler's Laws, and brought together the concepts now known as calculus. Independently, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, in Germany, developed calculus and much of the calculus notation still in use today. Science and mathematics had become an international endeavor, which would soon spread over the entire world. Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0, p. 379, "...the concepts of calculus...(are) so far reaching and have exercised such an impact on the modern world that it is perhaps correct to say that without some knowledge of them a person today can scarcely claim to be well educated." In addition to the application of mathematics to the studies of the heavens, applied mathematics began to expand into new areas, with the correspondence of Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal. Pascal and Fermat set the groundwork for the investigations of probability theory and the corresponding rules of combinatorics in their discussions over a game of gambling. Pascal, with his wager, attempted to use the newly developing probability theory to argue for a life devoted to religion, on the grounds that even if the probability of success was small, the rewards were infinite. In some sense, this foreshadowed the development of utility theory in the 18th–19th century. 18th century Leonhard Euler by Emanuel Handmann. The most influential mathematician of the 1700s was arguably Leonhard Euler. His contributions range from founding the study of graph theory with the Seven Bridges of K%C3%B6nigsberg problem to standardizing many modern mathematical terms and notations. For example, he named the square root of minus 1 with the symbol i, and he popularized the use of the Greek letter to stand for the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. He made numerous contributions to the study of topology, graph theory, calculus, combinatorics, and complex analysis, as evidenced by the multitude of theorems and notations named for him. Other important European mathematicians of the 18th century included Joseph Louis Lagrange, who did pioneering work in number theory, algebra, differential calculus, and the calculus of variations, and Laplace who, in the age of Napoleon did important work on the foundations of celestial mechanics and on statistics. 19th century Behavior of lines with a common perpendicular in each of the three types of geometry Throughout the 19th century mathematics became increasingly abstract. In the 19th century lived Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855). Leaving aside his many contributions to science, in pure mathematics he did revolutionary work on functions of complex variables, in geometry, and on the convergence of series. He gave the first satisfactory proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra and of the quadratic reciprocity law. This century saw the development of the two forms of non-Euclidean geometry, where the parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry no longer holds. The Russian mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky and his rival, the Hungarian mathematician Janos Bolyai, independently defined and studied hyperbolic geometry, where uniqueness of parallels no longer holds. In this geometry the sum of angles in a triangle add up to less than 180°. Elliptic geometry was developed later in the 19th century by the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann; here no parallel can be found and the angles in a triangle add up to more than 180°. Riemann also developed Riemannian geometry, which unifies and vastly generalizes the three types of geometry, and he defined the concept of a manifold, which generalize the ideas of curves and surfaces. The 19th century saw the beginning of a great deal of abstract algebra. Hermann Grassmann in Germany gave a first version of vector spaces, William Rowan Hamilton in Ireland developed noncommutative algebra. The British mathematician George Boole devised an algebra that soon evolved into what is now called Boolean algebra, in which the only numbers were 0 and 1 and in which, famously, 1 + 1 = 1. Boolean algebra is the starting point of mathematical logic and has important applications in computer science. Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Bernhard Riemann, and Karl Weierstrass reformulated the calculus in a more rigorous fashion. Also, for the first time, the limits of mathematics were explored. Niels Henrik Abel, a Norwegian, and Évariste Galois, a Frenchman, proved that there is no general algebraic method for solving polynomial equations of degree greater than four. Other 19th century mathematicians utilized this in their proofs that straightedge and compass alone are not sufficient to trisect an arbitrary angle, to construct the side of a cube twice the volume of a given cube, nor to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. Mathematicians had vainly attempted to solve all of these problems since the time of the ancient Greeks. Abel and Galois's investigations into the solutions of various polynomial equations laid the groundwork for further developments of group theory, and the associated fields of abstract algebra. In the 20th century physicists and other scientists have seen group theory as the ideal way to study symmetry. In the later 19th century, Georg Cantor established the first foundations of set theory, which enabled the rigorous treatment of the notion of infinity and has become the common language of nearly all mathematics. Cantor's set theory, and the rise of mathematical logic in the hands of Peano, L. E. J. Brouwer, David Hilbert, Bertrand Russell, and A.N. Whitehead, initiated a long running debate on the foundations of mathematics. The 19th century saw the founding of a number of national mathematical societies: the London Mathematical Society in 1865, the Société Mathématique de France in 1872, the Circolo Mathematico di Palermo in 1884, the Edinburgh Mathematical Society in 1883, and the American Mathematical Society in 1888. 20th century A map illustrating the Four Color Theorem The 20th century saw mathematics become a major profession. Every year, thousands of new Ph.D.s in mathematics are awarded, and jobs are available in both teaching and industry. In earlier centuries, there were few creative mathematicians in the world at any one time. For the most part, mathematicians were either born to wealth, like Napier, or supported by wealthy patrons, like Gauss. A few, like Fourier, derived meager livelihoods from teaching in universities. Niels Henrik Abel, unable to obtain a position, died in poverty of malnutrition and tuberculosis at the age of twenty-six. In a 1900 speech to the International Congress of Mathematicians, David Hilbert set out a list of 23 unsolved problems in mathematics. These problems, spanning many areas of mathematics, formed a central focus for much of 20th century mathematics. Today, 10 have been solved, 7 are partially solved, and 2 are still open. The remaining 4 are too loosely formulated to be stated as solved or not. Famous historical conjectures were finally proved. In 1976, Wolfgang Haken and Kenneth Appel used a computer to prove the four color theorem. Andrew Wiles, building on the work of others, proved Fermat's Last Theorem in 1995. Paul Cohen and Kurt Gödel proved that the continuum hypothesis is independent of (could neither be proved nor disproved from) the standard axioms of set theory. Mathematical collaborations of unprecedented size and scope took place. A famous example is the classification of finite simple groups (also called the "enormous theorem"), whose proof between 1955 and 1983 required 500-odd journal articles by about 100 authors, and filling tens of thousands of pages. A group of French mathematicians, including Jean Dieudonné and André Weil, publishing under the pseudonym "Nicolas Bourbaki," attempted to exposit all of known mathematics as a coherent rigorous whole. The resulting several dozen volumes has had a controversial influence on mathematical education. Maurice Mashaal, 2006. Bourbaki: A Secret Society of Mathematicians. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 0821839675, ISBN13 978-0821839676. Entire new areas of mathematics such as mathematical logic, topology, complexity theory, and game theory changed the kinds of questions that could be answered by mathematical methods. At the same time, deep insights were made about the limitations to mathematics. In 1929 and 1930, it was proved the truth or falsity of all statements formulated about the natural numbers plus one of addition and multiplication, was decidable, i.e., could be determined by algorithm. In 1931, Kurt Gödel found that this was not the case for the natural numbers plus both addition and multiplication; this system, known as Peano arithmetic, was in fact incompletable. (Peano arithmetic is adequate for a good deal of number theory, including the notion of prime number.) A consequence of Gödel's two incompleteness theorems is that in any mathematical system that includes Peano arithmetic (including all of analysis and geometry), truth necessarily outruns proof; there are true statements that cannot be proved within the system. Hence mathematics cannot be reduced to mathematical logic, and David Hilbert's dream of making all of mathematics complete and consistent died. One of the more colorful figures in 20th century mathematics was Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan (1887–1920) who, despite being largely self-educated, conjectured or proved over 3000 theorems, including properties of highly composite numbers, the partition function and its asymptotics, and mock theta functions. He also made major investigations in the areas of gamma functions, modular forms, divergent series, hypergeometric series and prime number theory. See also List of important publications in mathematics History of algebra History of calculus History of combinatorics History of geometry History of logic History of mathematical notation History of statistics History of trigonometry History of writing numbers References Further reading Boyer, C. B., A History of Mathematics, 2nd ed. rev. by Uta C. Merzbach. New York: Wiley, 1989 ISBN 0-471-09763-2 (1991 pbk ed. ISBN 0-471-54397-7). Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0, Hoffman, Paul, The Man Who Loved Only Numbers: The Story of Paul Erdős and the Search for Mathematical Truth. New York: Hyperion, 1998 ISBN 0-7868-6362-5. van der Waerden, B. L., Geometry and Algebra in Ancient Civilizations, Springer, 1983, ISBN 0387121595. O'Connor, John J. and Robertson, Edmund F. The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. (See also MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.) This website contains biographies, timelines and historical articles about mathematical concepts; at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. (Or see the alphabetical list of history topics.) Burton, David M. The History of Mathematics: An Introduction. McGraw Hill: 1997. Katz, Victor J. A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, 2nd Edition. Addison-Wesley: 1998. Kline, Morris. Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times. External links MacTutor History of Mathematics archive (John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson; University of St Andrews, Scotland). An award-winning website containing detailed biographies on many historical and contemporary mathematicians, as well as information on famous curves and various topics in the history of mathematics. History of Mathematics Home Page (David E. Joyce; Clark University). Articles on various topics in the history of mathematics with an extensive bibliography. The History of Mathematics (David R. Wilkins; Trinity College, Dublin). Collections of material on the mathematics between the 17th and 19th century. History of Mathematics (Simon Fraser University). Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (Jeff Miller). Contains information on the earliest known uses of terms used in mathematics. Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols (Jeff Miller). Contains information on the history of mathematical notations. Biographies of Women Mathematicians (Larry Riddle; Agnes Scott College). Mathematicians of the African Diaspora (Scott W. Williams; University at Buffalo). Fred Rickey's History of Mathematics Page A Bibliography of Collected Works and Correspondence of Mathematicians (Steven W. Rockey; Cornell University Library). Mathourism - Places with a mathematical historic interest Journals Convergence, the Mathematical Association of America's online Math History Magazine Directories Links to Web Sites on the History of Mathematics (The British Society for the History of Mathematics) History of Mathematics Math Archives (University of Tennessee, Knoxville) History/Biography The Math Forum (Drexel University) History of Mathematics (Courtright Memorial Library). History of Mathematics Web Sites (David Calvis; Baldwin-Wallace College) Historia de las Matemáticas (Universidad de La La guna) História da Matemática (Universidade de Coimbra) Using History in Math Class Mathematical Resources: History of Mathematics (Bruno Kevius) History of Mathematics (Roberta Tucci) | History_of_mathematics |@lemmatized page:4 compendious:3 book:15 calculation:9 completion:4 balancing:3 muhammad:2 ibn:6 mūsā:3 al:37 khwārizmī:2 c:37 ad:14 area:11 study:18 know:14 history:42 mathematics:136 primarily:2 investigation:5 origin:2 discovery:4 less:3 extent:2 mathematical:63 method:17 notation:13 past:1 modern:13 age:13 worldwide:1 spread:4 knowledge:6 write:30 example:8 new:10 development:19 come:4 light:1 locale:1 ancient:17 text:13 available:3 plimpton:2 babylonian:12 bc:41 moscow:2 papyrus:7 egyptian:19 rhind:3 shulba:1 sutra:2 indian:6 concern:4 call:10 pythagorean:9 theorem:24 seem:2 widespread:1 basic:2 arithmetic:14 geometry:34 influence:4 greek:25 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5,631 | KAB-500L | The KAB-500L is a laser-guided bomb developed by the Soviet Air Force. It remains in service with the CIS and post-Soviet Russian Air Force. The KAB-500L is analogous to the U.S. Paveway series: it is a standard FAB-500 general-purpose bomb, which has a nominal weight of 500 kg (1,102 lb), fitted with a semi-active laser seeker and guidance fins, turning it into a guided, unpowered glide bomb. The KAB-500L is 3.05 m (10 ft) long and weighs 525 kg (1,155 lb). Its warhead comprises 450 kg (990 lb) of the total weight, of which roughly 50% is blast-effect high explosive. Russian sources credit it with a CEP of 7 meters (23 ft). It is also deployed by the Indian Air Force. The primary launch platform is Su-30MKI. LT-2 The Chinese LT-2 LGB bears many similarities to the Russian KAB-500L. It is probable that the LT-2 incorporated some technologies reverse-engineered from the KAB-500L. However, at the 7th Zhuhai Airshow held at in November, 2008, the developer of LT series revealed that the origin of LT series precision guided bombs actually traces back to American Paveway instead. External links Asia’s Advanced Precision Guided Munitions | KAB-500L |@lemmatized kab:5 laser:2 guide:3 bomb:4 develop:1 soviet:2 air:3 force:3 remain:1 service:1 ci:1 post:1 russian:3 analogous:1 u:1 paveway:2 series:3 standard:1 fab:1 general:1 purpose:1 nominal:1 weight:2 kg:3 lb:3 fit:1 semi:1 active:1 seeker:1 guidance:1 fin:1 turn:1 guided:1 unpowered:1 glide:1 ft:2 long:1 weigh:1 warhead:1 comprises:1 total:1 roughly:1 blast:1 effect:1 high:1 explosive:1 source:1 credit:1 cep:1 meter:1 also:1 deploy:1 indian:1 primary:1 launch:1 platform:1 su:1 lt:5 chinese:1 lgb:1 bear:1 many:1 similarity:1 probable:1 incorporate:1 technology:1 reverse:1 engineer:1 however:1 zhuhai:1 airshow:1 hold:1 november:1 developer:1 reveal:1 origin:1 precision:2 actually:1 trace:1 back:1 american:1 instead:1 external:1 link:1 asia:1 advance:1 munition:1 |@bigram kg_lb:3 weigh_kg:1 meter_ft:1 external_link:1 |
5,632 | Malcolm_III_of_Scotland | Máel Coluim mac Donnchada (Modern Gaelic: Maol Chaluim mac Dhonnchaidh), Máel Coluim mac Donnchada is the Mediaeval Gaelic form. called in most Anglicised regnal lists Malcolm III, and in later centuries nicknamed Canmore, "Big Head" Ritchie, p. 3 Burton, vol. 1, p. 350, states: "Malcolm the son of Duncan is known as Malcolm III., but still better perhaps by his characteristic name of Canmore, said to come from the Celtic 'Caenmohr', meaning 'great head'" or Long-neck Orkneyinga Saga, c. 33. (died 13 November 1093), was King of Scots. It has also been argued recently that the real "Malcolm Canmore" was this Malcolm's great-grandson Malcolm IV, who is given this name in the contemporary notice of his death. Duncan, pp. 51–52, 74–75; Oram, p. 17, note 1. He was the eldest son of King Duncan I (Donnchad mac Crínáin). Malcolm's long reign, lasting 35 years, preceded the beginning of the Scoto-Norman age. Malcolm's Kingdom did not extend over the full territory of modern Scotland: the north and west of Scotland remained in Scandinavian, Norse-Gael and Gaelic control, and the areas under the control of the Kings of Scots would not advance much beyond the limits set by Malcolm II (Máel Coluim mac Cináeda) until the 12th century. Malcolm III fought a succession of wars against the Kingdom of England, which may have had as their goal the conquest of the English earldom of Northumbria. However, these wars did not result in any significant advances southwards. Malcolm's main achievement is to have continued a line which would rule Scotland for many years, The question of what to call this family is an open one. "House of Dunkeld" is all but unknown; "Canmore kings" and "Canmore dynasty" are not universally accepted, nor are Richard Oram's recent coinage "meic Maíl Coluim" or Michael Lynch's "MacMalcolm". For discussions and examples: Duncan, pp. 53–54; McDonald, Outlaws, p. 3; Barrow, Kingship and Unity, Appendix C; Reid. Broun discusses the question of identity at length. although his role as "founder of a dynasty" has more to do with the propaganda of his youngest son David, and his descendants, than with any historical reality. Hammond, p. 21. The first genealogy known which traces descent from Malcolm, rather than from Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín) or Fergus Mór, is dated to the reign of Alexander II, see Broun, pp. 195–200. Malcolm's second wife, Saint Margaret of Scotland, was later beatified and is Scotland's only royal saint. However, Malcolm himself gained no reputation for piety. With the notable exception of Dunfermline Abbey he is not definitely associated with major religious establishments or ecclesiastical reforms. Background Malcolm's father Duncan I (Donnchad mac Crínáin) became king in late 1034, on the death of Malcolm II (Máel Coluim mac Cináeda), Duncan's maternal grandfather. According to John of Fordun, whose account is the original source of part at least of William Shakespeare's Macbeth, Malcolm's mother was a niece of Siward, Earl of Northumbria, Fordun, IV, xliv. Young also gives her as a niece of Siward. Young, p. 30. but an earlier king-list gives her the Gaelic name Suthen. Duncan, p. 37; M.O. Anderson, p. 284. Duncan's reign was not successful and he was killed by Macbeth (Mac Bethad mac Findlaích) on 15 August 1040. Although Shakespeare's Macbeth presents Malcolm as a grown man and his father as an old one, it appears that Duncan was still young in 1040, The notice of Duncan's death in the Annals of Tigernach, s.a. 1040, says he was "slain ... at an immature age"; Duncan, p.33. and Malcolm and his brother Donalbane (Domnall Bán) were children. Duncan, p. 33; Oram, David I, p. 18. There may have been a third brother if Máel Muire of Atholl was a son of Duncan. Oram, David I, p. 97, note 26, rejects this identification. Malcolm's family did attempt to overthrow Macbeth in 1045, but Malcolm's grandfather Crínán of Dunkeld was killed in the attempt. Duncan, p. 41; Annals of Ulster, s.a. 1045 ; Annals of Tigernach, s.a. 1045. Soon after the death of Duncan his two young sons were sent away for greater safety - exactly where is the subject of debate. According to one version, Malcolm (then aged about 9) was sent to England, and his younger brother Donalbane was sent to the Isles. Ritchie, p.3 Young, p.30 Based on Fordun's account, it was assumed that Malcolm passed most of Macbeth's seventeen year reign in the Kingdom of England at the court of Edward the Confessor. Barrell, p. 13; Barrow, Kingship and Unity, p. 25. Ritchie, p.3, states that it was fourteen years of exile, partly spent at Edward's Court. According to an alternative version, Malcolm's mother took both sons into exile at the court of Thorfinn Sigurdsson, Earl of Orkney, an enemy of Macbeth's family, and perhaps Duncan's kinsman by marriage. Duncan, p. 42; Oram, David I, pp. 18–20. Malcolm had ties to Orkney in later life. Earl Thorfinn may have been a grandson of Malcolm II and thus Malcolm's cousin. An English invasion in 1054, with Earl Siward in command, had as its goal the installation of Máel Coluim, "son of the King of the Cumbrians (i.e. of Strathclyde)". This Máel Coluim, perhaps a son of Owen the Bald, disappears from history after this brief mention. He has been confused with King Malcolm III. On Máel Coluim, "son of the King of the Cumbrians", see Duncan, pp. 37–41; Oram, David I, pp.18–20. But see Ritchie, p. 5, who states that Duncan placed his son, the future Malcolm III of Scotland, in possession of Cumbria as its Prince, and states that Siward invaded Scotland in 1054 to restore him to the Scottish throne. Hector Boece also says this (vol.XII p.249), as does Young, p. 30 In 1057 various chroniclers report the death of Macbeth at Malcolm's hand, on 15 August 1057 at Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire. Ritchie, p. 7 Anderson, ESSH, pp. 600–602; the Prophecy of Berchán has Macbeth wounded in battle and places his death at Scone. Macbeth was succeeded by his stepson Lulach, who was crowned at Scone, probably on 8 September 1057. Lulach was killed by Malcolm, "by treachery", According to the Annals of Tigernach; the Annals of Ulster say Lulach was killed in battle against Malcolm; see Anderson, ESSH, pp. 603–604. near Huntly on 23 April 1058. After this, Malcolm became king, perhaps being inaugurated on 25 April 1058, although only John of Fordun reports this. Duncan, pp. 50–51 discusses the dating of these events. Malcolm and Ingibiorg Late medieval depiction of Máel Coluim III with MacDuib ("MacDuff"), from an MS (Corpus Christi MS 171) of Walter Bower's Scotichronicon. If Orderic Vitalis is to be relied upon, one of Malcolm's earliest actions as King may have been to travel south to the court of Edward the Confessor in 1059 to arrange a marriage with Edward's kinswoman Margaret, who had arrived in England two years before from Hungary. Duncan, p. 43; Ritchie, pp. 7-8. If he did visit the English court, he was the first reigning King of Scots to do so in more than eighty years. If a marriage agreement was made in 1059, however, it was not kept, and this may explain the Scots invasion of Northumbria in 1061 when Lindisfarne was plundered. Duncan, p. 43; Oram, David I, p. 21. Equally, Malcolm's raids in Northumbria may have been related to the disputed "Kingdom of the Cumbrians", reestablished by Earl Siward in 1054, which was under Malcolm's control by 1070. Oram, David I, p. 21. The Orkneyinga saga reports that Malcolm married the widow of Thorfinn Sigurdsson, Ingibiorg, a daughter of Finn Arnesson. Orkneyinga Saga, c. 33, Duncan, pp. 42–43. Although Ingibiorg is generally assumed to have died shortly before 1070, it is possible that she died much earlier, around 1058. See Duncan, pp. 42–43, dating Ingibiorg's death to 1058. Oram, David I, pp. 22–23, dates the marriage of Malcolm and Ingibiorg to c. 1065. The Orkneyinga Saga records that Malcolm and Ingibiorg had a son, Duncan II (Donnchad mac Maíl Coluim), who was later king. Some Medieval commentators, following William of Malmesbury, claimed that Duncan was illegitimate, but this claim is propaganda reflecting the need of Malcolm's descendants by Margaret to undermine the claims of Duncan's descendants, the Meic Uilleim. Duncan, pp. 54–55; Broun, p. 196; Anderson, SAEC, pp. 117–119. Malcolm's son Domnall, whose death is reported in 1085, is not mentioned by the author of the Orkneyinga Saga. He is assumed to have been born to Ingibiorg. Duncan, p. 55; Oram, David I, p. 23. Domnall's death is reported in the Annals of Ulster, s.a. 1085: "... Domnall son of Máel Coluim, king of Alba, ... ended [his] life unhappily." However, it is not certain that Domnall's father was this Máel Coluim. M.O. Anderson, ESSH, corrigenda p. xxi, presumes Domnall to have been a son of Máel Coluim mac Maíl Brigti, King or Mormaer of Moray, who is called "king of Scotland" in his obituary in 1029. Malcolm's marriage to Ingibiorg secured him peace in the north and west. The Heimskringla tells that her father Finn had been an adviser to Harald Hardraade and, after falling out with Harald, was then made an Earl by Sweyn Estridsson, King of Denmark, which may have been another recommendation for the match. Saga of Harald Sigurðson, cc. 45ff.; Saga of Magnus Erlingsson, c. 30. See also Oram, David I, pp. 22–23. Malcolm enjoyed a peaceful relationship with the Earldom of Orkney, ruled jointly by his stepsons, Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson. The Orkneyinga Saga reports strife with Norway but this is probably misplaced as it associates this with Magnus Barefoot, who became king of Norway only in 1093, the year of Malcolm's death. Orkneyinga Saga, cc. 39–41; McDonald, Kingdom of the Isles, pp. 34–37. Malcolm and Margaret Máel Coluim and Margaret as depicted in a 16th century armorial. Note the coats of arms both bear on their clothing - Malcolm wears the Lion of Scotland, which historically was not used until the time of his great-grandson William the Lion; Margaret wears the supposed arms of Edward the Confessor, her grand-uncle, although the arms were in fact concocted in the later Middle Ages. Although he had given sanctuary to Tostig Godwinson when the Northumbrians drove him out, Malcolm was not directly involved in the ill-fated invasion of England by Harald Hardraade and Tostig in 1066, which ended in defeat and death at the battle of Stamford Bridge. Adam of Bremen says that he fought at Stamford Bridge, but he is alone in claiming this: Anderson, SAEC, p. 87, n. 3. In 1068, he granted asylum to a group of English exiles fleeing from William of Normandy, among them Agatha, widow of Edward the Confessor's nephew Edward the Exile, and her children: Edgar Ætheling and his sisters Margaret and Cristina. They were accompanied by Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria. The exiles were disappointed, however, if they had expected immediate assistance from the Scots. Oram, David I, p. 23; Anderson, SAEC, pp. 87–90. Orderic Vitalis states that the English asked for Malcolm's assistance. In 1069 the exiles returned to England, to join a spreading revolt in the north. Even though Gospatric and Siward's son Waltheof submitted by the end of the year, the arrival of a Danish army under Sweyn Estridsson seemed to ensure that William's position remained weak. Malcolm decided on war, and took his army south into Cumbria and across the Pennines, wasting Teesdale and Cleveland then marching north, loaded with loot, to Wearmouth. There Malcolm met Edgar and his family, who were invited to return with him, but did not. As Sweyn had by now been bought off with a large Danegeld, Malcolm took his army home. In reprisal, William sent Gospatric to raid Scotland through Cumbria. In return, the Scots fleet raided the Northumbrian coast where Gospatric's possessions were concentrated. Duncan, pp. 44–45; Oram, David I, pp. 23–24. Late in the year, perhaps shipwrecked on their way to a European exile, Edgar and his family again arrived in Scotland, this time to remain. By the end of 1070, Malcolm had married Edgar's sister Margaret, the future Saint Margaret of Scotland. Oram, David I, p. 24; Clancy, "St. Margaret", dates the marriage to 1072. The naming of their children represented a break with the traditional Scots Regal names such as Malcolm, Cináed and Áed. The point of naming Margaret's sons, Edward after her father Edward the Exile, Edmund for her grandfather Edmund Ironside, Ethelred for her great-grandfather Ethelred the Unready and Edgar for her great-great-grandfather Edgar was unlikely to be missed in England, where William of Normandy's grasp on power was far from secure. Malcolm's sons by Ingebiorg were probably expected to succeed to the kingdom of the Scots, Oram, David I, p. 26. Whether the adoption of the classical Alexander for the future Alexander I of Scotland (either for Pope Alexander II or for Alexander the Great) and the biblical David for the future David I of Scotland represented a recognition that William of Normandy would not be easily removed, or was due to the repetition of Anglo-Saxon Royal name—another Edmund had preceded Edgar—is not known. Oram, p. 26. Margaret also gave Malcolm two daughters, Edith, who married Henry I of England, and Mary, who married Eustace III of Boulogne. In 1072, with the Harrying of the North completed and his position again secure, William of Normandy came north with an army and a fleet. Malcolm met William at Abernethy and, in the words of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle "became his man" and handed over his eldest son Duncan as a hostage and arranged peace between William and Edgar. Oram, pp. 30–31; Anderson, SAEC, p. 95. Accepting the overlordship of the king of the English was no novelty, previous kings had done so without result. The same was true of Malcolm; his agreement with the English king was followed by further raids into Northumbria, which led to further trouble in the earldom and the killing of Bishop William Walcher at Gateshead. In 1080, William sent his son Robert Curthose north with an army while his brother Odo punished the Northumbrians. Malcolm again made peace, and this time kept it for over a decade. Oram, David I, p. 33. Malcolm faced little recorded internal opposition, with the exception of Lulach's son Máel Snechtai. In an unusual entry, for the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle contains little on Scotland, it says that in 1078: Whatever provoked this strife, Máel Snechtai survived until 1085. His death is reported by the Annals of Ulster amongst clerics and described as "happy", usually a sign that the deceased had entered religion. Malcolm and William Rufus William Rufus, "the Red", King of the English (1087-1100). When William Rufus became king of England after his father's death, Malcolm did not intervene in the rebellions by supporters of Robert Curthose which followed. In 1091, however, William Rufus confiscated Edgar Ætheling's lands in England, and Edgar fled north to Scotland. In May, Malcolm marched south, not to raid and take slaves and plunder, but to besiege Newcastle, built by Robert Curthose in 1080. This appears to have been an attempt to advance the frontier south from the River Tweed to the River Tees. The threat was enough to bring the English king back from Normandy, where he had been fighting Robert Curthose. In September, learning of William Rufus's approaching army, Malcolm withdrew north and the English followed. Unlike in 1072, Malcolm was prepared to fight, but a peace was arranged by Edgar Ætheling and Robert Curthose whereby Malcolm again acknowledged the overlordship of the English king. Oram, David I, pp. 34–35; Anderson, SAEC, pp. 104–108. In 1092, the peace began to break down. Based on the idea that the Scots controlled much of modern Cumbria, it had been supposed that William Rufus's new castle at Carlisle and his settlement of English peasants in the surrounds was the cause. However, it is unlikely that Malcolm did control Cumbria, and the dispute instead concerned the estates granted to Malcolm by William Rufus's father in 1072 for his maintenance when visiting England. Malcolm sent messengers to discuss the question and William Rufus agreed to a meeting. Malcolm travelled south to Gloucester, stopping at Wilton Abbey to visit his daughter Edith and sister-in-law Cristina. Malcolm arrived there on 24 August 1093 to find that William Rufus refused to negotiate, insisting that the dispute be judged by the English barons. This Malcolm refused to accept, and returned immediately to Scotland. Duncan, pp. 47–48; Oram, David I, pp. 35–36; Anderson, SAEC, pp. 109–110. It does not appear that William Rufus intended to provoke a war, Oram, David I, pp.36–37. but, as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports, war came: Malcolm was accompanied by Edward, his eldest son by Margaret and probable heir-designate (or tánaiste), and by Edgar. Duncan, p. 54; Oram, David I, p. 42. Even by the standards of the time, the ravaging of Northumbria by the Scots was seen as harsh. Anderson, SAEC, pp. 97–113, contains a number of English chronicles condemning Malcolm's several invasions of Northumbria. Death While marching north again, Malcolm was ambushed by Robert de Mowbray, Earl of Northumbria, whose lands he had devastated, near Alnwick on 13 November 1093. There he was killed by Arkil Morel, steward of Bamburgh Castle. The conflict became known as the Battle of Alnwick. The Annals of Innisfallen say he "was slain with his son in an unguarded moment in battle". Edward was mortally wounded in the same fight. Margaret, it is said, died soon after receiving the news of their deaths from Edgar. Oram, pp. 37–38; Anderson, SAEC, pp. 114–115. The Annals of Ulster say: Malcolm's body was taken to Tynemouth Priory for burial, where it remains to this day. A body of a local farmer was sent north for burial in Dunfermline Abbey in the reign of his son Alexander or perhaps on Iona. Anderson, SAEC, pp. 111–113. M.O. Anderson reprints three regnal lists, lists F, I and K, which give a place of burial for Malcolm. These say Iona, Dunfermline, and Tynemouth, respectively. On 19 June 1250, following the canonisation of Malcolm's wife Margaret by Pope Innocent IV, Margaret's remains were disinterred and placed in a reliquary. Tradition has it that as the reliquary was carried to the high altar of Dunfermline Abbey, past Malcolm's grave, it became too heavy to move. As a result, Malcolm's remains were also disinterred, and buried next to Margaret beside the altar. Dunlop, p. 93. Issue Malcolm and Ingebjorg had a son: Duncan II of Scotland, suceeded his father as King of Scotland Malcolm and Margaret had eight children, six sons and two daughters: Edward, killed 1093. Edmund of Scotland Ethelred, abbot of Dunkeld King Edgar of Scotland King Alexander I of Scotland King David I of Scotland Edith of Scotland, also called Matilda, married King Henry I of England Mary of Scotland, married Eustace III of Boulogne Depictions in fiction Malcolm's accession to the throne, as modified by tradition, is the climax (and finale) of Macbeth by William Shakespeare. An imaginary version of Malcom's reign is portrayed in the modern sequel The Tragedy of Macbeth Part II, by Noah Lukeman. Ancestry Ancestors of Malcolm III of Scotland Notes References Anderson, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History A.D 500–1286, volume 1. Reprinted with corrections. Paul Watkins, Stamford, 1990. ISBN 1-871615-03-8 Anderson, Alan Orr, Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers. D. Nutt, London, 1908. Anderson, Marjorie Ogilvie, Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland. Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh, revised edition 1980. ISBN 0-7011-1604-8 Anon., Orkneyinga Saga: The History of the Earls of Orkney, tr. Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards. Penguin, London, 1978. ISBN 0-14-044383-5 Barrell, A.D.M. Medieval Scotland. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000. ISBN 0-521-58602-X Clancy, Thomas Owen, "St. Margaret" in Michael Lynch (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Scottish History. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002. ISBN 0-19-211696-7 Barrow, G.W.S., Kingship and Unity: Scotland, 1000–1306. Reprinted, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 1989. ISBN 0-7486-0104-X Barrow, G.W.S., The Kingdom of the Scots. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2003. ISBN 0-7486-1803-1 Broun, Dauvit, The Irish Identity of the Kingdom of the Scots in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Boydell, Woodbridge, 1999. ISBN 0-85115-375-5 Burton, John Hill, The History of Scotland, New Edition, 8 vols, Edinburgh 1876 Duncan, A.A.M., The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2002. ISBN 0-7486-1626-8 Dunlop, Eileen, Queen Margaret of Scotland. National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, 2005. ISBN 1-901663-92-2 John of Fordun, Chronicle of the Scottish Nation, ed. William Forbes Skene, tr. Felix J.H. Skene, 2 vols. Reprinted, Llanerch Press, Lampeter, 1993. ISBN 1-897853-05-X Hammond, Matthew H., "Ethnicity and Writing of Medieval Scottish History", in The Scottish Historical Review, Vol. 85, April, 2006, pp. 1-27 McDonald, R. Andrew, The Kingdom of the Isles: Scotland's Western Seaboard, c. 1100–c.1336. Tuckwell Press, East Linton, 1997. ISBN 1-898410-85-2 McDonald, R. Andrew, Outlaws of Medieval Scotland: Challenges to the Canmore Kings, 1058–1266. Tuckwell Press, East Linton, 2003. ISBN 1-86232-236-8 Oram, Richard, David I: The King Who Made Scotland. Tempus, Stroud, 2004. ISBN 0-7524-2825-X Ritchie, R. L. Graeme, The Normans in Scotland, Edinburgh University Press, 1954 Reid, Norman, "Kings and Kingship: Canmore Dynasty" in Michael Lynch (ed.), op. cit. Sturluson, Snorri, Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway, tr. Lee M. Hollander. Reprinted University of Texas Press, Austin, 1992. ISBN 0-292-73061-6 Young, James, ed., Historical References to the Scottish Family of Lauder, Glasgow, 1884 External links CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork includes the Annals of Ulster, Tigernach and Innisfallen, the Lebor Bretnach and the Chronicon Scotorum among others. Most are translated or translations are in progress. 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5,633 | Elihu_Yale | Elihu Yale (April 5, 1649, in Boston, Massachusetts - July 8, 1721, in London, England), was the first benefactor and namesake of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Life Born in Boston, Massachusetts to David Yale (1613-1690) and Ursula Knight (1624-1698), Yale was the grandson of Ann Lloyd (1591-1659), who after the death of her first husband, Thomas Yale (1590-1619) in Chester, Cheshire, England, married Governor Theophilus Eaton (1590-1657) of New Haven Colony. When Elihu was four years old, the Yale family moved to England and never returned to North America. Yale's ancestry can be traced back to the family estate at Plas yn Iâl near the village of Llandegla, Denbighshire, Wales. The name Yale is the English spelling of the Welsh place name, Iâl. For 20 years, Yale was part of the British East India Company, and he became the second governor of a settlement at Madras (now Chennai), India, in 1687, after Streynsham Master. He was instrumental in the development of the Government General Hospital, housed at Fort St. George. Madras Medical College History Yale amassed a fortune in his lifetime, largely through secret contracts with Madras merchants, against the East India Company's directive. By 1692, Elihu Yale's repeated flouting of East India Company regulations and growing embarrassment at his illegal profiteering resulted in his being relieved of the post of governor. In 1718, Cotton Mather contacted Yale and asked for his help. Mather represented a small institution of learning that had been founded as the Collegiate School of Connecticut in 1701, and it needed money for a new building in New Haven, Connecticut. Yale sent Mather a carton of goods that the school subsequently sold, earning them 560 pounds sterling, a substantial sum in the early 1700s. In gratitude, officials named the new building Yale; eventually the entire institution became Yale College. Tenure as President of Madras As soon as Elihu Yale took over the administration of Fort St George on July 26, 1687, he implemented an order dated January 14, 1685 which required the British at Fort St George to make all attempts at procurement of the town of St Thome on lease. To this effect, Chinna Venkatadri was sent to negotiate with the local Governor on August 4, 1687. The mission was successful and Chinna Venkatadri assumed sovereignty over St Thome for a period of three years. Notwithstanding the vehement protests of the Portuguese inhabitants of St Thome, the British gained absolute control over all lands up to St Thomas Mount for a period of three years. In September 1688, the Mughal Emperor Aurangazeb took Golconda after a prolonged battle. The Sultan of Golconda was taken prisoner and the state annexed by the Mughals. The newly designated Mughal Subedar of the province immediately sent a letter to the British authorities at Fort St George demanding that the British at Madras acknowledge the overlordship of the Mughal Emperor. To this, the British complied willingly. Aurangazeb guaranteed the independence of Madras, but in return demanded that the British supply troops in the event of a war against the Marathas. It was around this time that Yale's three-year old son David Yale died and was interred in the Madras cemetery. The records of this period mention a flourishing slave trade in Madras. When the demand began to increase rapidly, the British merchants began to kidnap young children and deport them to distant parts of the world, very much against their will. The administration of Fort St George eventually stepped in and introduced laws to curb the menace. On February 2, 1688, Elihu Yale, with the support of a majority of factors, decreed that henceforth, slaves should be examined by the judges of the choultry before being transported. Transportation of young children, in particular, was made illegal. During Yale's Presidency, a plan for setting up a corporation in Madras was conceived by Josiah Child, the President of the Board of Directors of the British East India Company, in a letter addressed to the factors at Madras on September 28, 1687. Three months later, Josiah Child and his deputy had an audience with James II, and as per the ensuing discussions, a Charter was issued by the king on December 30, 1687 which established the Corporation of Madras. The charter came into effect on September 29, 1688, and a Corporation was established comprising a Mayor, 12 Aldermen, 60-100 Burgesses and sergeants. Nathaniel Higginson, who was then the second member of the Council of Fort St George took office as the Mayor of Madras. On June 22, 1688, an Armenian delegation to London met with the Directors of the British East India Company and demanded permission for Armenian traders to settle in Madras. Soon Armenians began to arrive in Madras in large numbers giving rise to the large and powerful Armenian community which played a significant part in the politics of Madras in the 1700s. In August 1689, a French fleet appeared near the coast of Ceylon compelling the Governor of Pulicat Lawrence Pitt who was on high seas to seek protection within the bastions of Fort St George. Throughout the year 1690, French naval ships from Pondicherry ravaged the coast in order to drive the British and the Dutch out of the East Indies but were unsuccessful. They eventually withdrew from their enterprise when faced with heavy losses. It was also during this time that the British purchased the town of Tegnapatnam from the Marathas. Accusations of Corruption and Removal As governor of Fort St. George, Yale purchased territory for private purposes with East India Company funds, including a fort at Tevnapatam (now Cuddalore). Yale imposed high taxes for the maintenance of the colonial garrison and town, resulting in an unpopular regime and several revolts by Indians, brutally quelled by garrison soldiers. Yale was also notorious for arresting and trying Indians on his own private authority, including the hanging of a stable boy who had absconded with a Company horse.. Charges of corruption were brought against Elihu Yale in the last years of his Presidency. He was eventually removed in 1692 and replaced with Nathaniel Higginson as the President of Madras. Death and legacy Yale's grave on the grounds of St. Giles' Church in Wrexham Yale died on July 8, 1721 in London, England but was buried in the churchyard of the parish church of St. Giles in Wrexham, Wales. His tomb is inscribed with these lines: Born in America, in Europe bred In Africa travell'd and in Asia wed Where long he liv'd and thriv'd; In London dead Much good, some ill, he did; so hope all's even And that his soul thro' mercy's gone to Heaven You that survive and read this tale, take care For this most certain exit to prepare Where blest in peace, the actions of the just Smell sweet and blossom in silent dust. Wrexham Tower, part of Saybrook College, Yale, is a replica of that of St. Giles' Church, Wrexham. In her article for Atlantic Monthly about Skull and Bones, Alexandra Robbins alleges that the gravestone of Elihu Yale was stolen years ago from its proper setting in Wrexham, and is displayed in a glass case, in a room with purple walls, which belongs to a building called the Tomb of the Skull and Bones at Yale University. In 1999, American Heritage magazine rated Elihu Yale the "most overrated philanthropist" in American history, arguing that the college that would later bear his name (Yale University) was successful largely because of the generosity of a man named Jeremiah Dummer, but that the trustees of the school did not want it known by the name "Dummer College". Cultural references Elihu later became the name of a "senior society" founded in 1903 at Yale. Tom Wolfe, who earned a Ph.D. in American Studies from Yale, named the African-American Atlanta police chief in A Man in Full Elihu Yale. Yale College, a college in Wrexham, is also named after Elihu Yale. Elihu Yale is the name given to a JD Weatherspoons Public House in the town of Wrexham. Theodore Roosevelt's son Quentin kept a Hyacinth macaw named Eli Yale. References | Elihu_Yale |@lemmatized elihu:12 yale:38 april:1 boston:2 massachusetts:2 july:3 london:4 england:4 first:2 benefactor:1 namesake:1 university:3 new:5 connecticut:3 united:1 state:2 life:1 bear:3 david:2 ursula:1 knight:1 grandson:1 ann:1 lloyd:1 death:2 husband:1 thomas:2 chester:1 cheshire:1 marry:1 governor:6 theophilus:1 eaton:1 colony:1 four:1 year:8 old:2 family:2 move:1 never:1 return:2 north:1 america:2 ancestry:1 trace:1 back:1 estate:1 plas:1 yn:1 iâl:2 near:2 village:1 llandegla:1 denbighshire:1 wale:2 name:11 english:1 spelling:1 welsh:1 place:1 part:4 british:12 east:7 india:7 company:7 become:3 second:2 settlement:1 madras:16 chennai:1 streynsham:1 master:1 instrumental:1 development:1 government:1 general:1 hospital:1 house:2 fort:9 st:15 george:8 medical:1 college:7 history:2 amass:1 fortune:1 lifetime:1 largely:2 secret:1 contract:1 merchant:2 directive:1 repeat:1 flouting:1 regulation:1 grow:1 embarrassment:1 illegal:2 profiteering:1 result:2 relieve:1 post:1 cotton:1 mather:3 contact:1 ask:1 help:1 represent:1 small:1 institution:2 learn:1 found:2 collegiate:1 school:3 need:1 money:1 building:3 send:3 carton:1 good:2 subsequently:1 sell:1 earn:2 pound:1 sterling:1 substantial:1 sum:1 early:1 gratitude:1 official:1 eventually:4 entire:1 tenure:1 president:3 soon:2 take:5 administration:2 implement:1 order:2 date:1 january:1 require:1 make:2 attempt:1 procurement:1 town:4 thome:3 lease:1 effect:2 chinna:2 venkatadri:2 negotiate:1 local:1 august:2 mission:1 successful:2 assume:1 sovereignty:1 period:3 three:4 notwithstanding:1 vehement:1 protest:1 portuguese:1 inhabitant:1 gain:1 absolute:1 control:1 land:1 mount:1 september:3 mughal:3 emperor:2 aurangazeb:2 golconda:2 prolonged:1 battle:1 sultan:1 prisoner:1 annex:1 mughals:1 newly:1 designate:1 subedar:1 province:1 immediately:1 letter:2 authority:2 demand:4 acknowledge:1 overlordship:1 comply:1 willingly:1 guarantee:1 independence:1 supply:1 troop:1 event:1 war:1 maratha:2 around:1 time:2 son:2 die:2 inter:1 cemetery:1 record:1 mention:1 flourishing:1 slave:2 trade:1 begin:3 increase:1 rapidly:1 kidnap:1 young:2 child:4 deport:1 distant:1 world:1 much:2 step:1 introduce:1 law:1 curb:1 menace:1 february:1 support:1 majority:1 factor:2 decree:1 henceforth:1 examine:1 judge:1 choultry:1 transport:1 transportation:1 particular:1 presidency:2 plan:1 set:1 corporation:3 conceive:1 josiah:2 board:1 director:2 address:1 month:1 later:3 deputy:1 audience:1 james:1 ii:1 per:1 ensue:1 discussion:1 charter:2 issue:1 king:1 december:1 establish:2 come:1 comprise:1 mayor:2 alderman:1 burgess:1 sergeant:1 nathaniel:2 higginson:2 member:1 council:1 office:1 june:1 armenian:4 delegation:1 met:1 permission:1 trader:1 settle:1 arrive:1 large:2 number:1 give:2 rise:1 powerful:1 community:1 play:1 significant:1 politics:1 french:2 fleet:1 appear:1 coast:2 ceylon:1 compel:1 pulicat:1 lawrence:1 pitt:1 high:2 sea:1 seek:1 protection:1 within:1 bastion:1 throughout:1 naval:1 ship:1 pondicherry:1 ravage:1 drive:1 dutch:1 indie:1 unsuccessful:1 withdraw:1 enterprise:1 face:1 heavy:1 loss:1 also:3 purchase:2 tegnapatnam:1 accusation:1 corruption:2 removal:1 territory:1 private:2 purpose:1 fund:1 include:2 tevnapatam:1 cuddalore:1 impose:1 tax:1 maintenance:1 colonial:1 garrison:2 unpopular:1 regime:1 several:1 revolt:1 indian:2 brutally:1 quell:1 soldier:1 notorious:1 arrest:1 try:1 hanging:1 stable:1 boy:1 abscond:1 horse:1 charge:1 bring:1 last:1 remove:1 replace:1 legacy:1 grave:1 ground:1 giles:3 church:3 wrexham:7 bury:1 churchyard:1 parish:1 tomb:2 inscribe:1 line:1 europe:1 breed:1 africa:1 travell:1 asia:1 wed:1 long:1 liv:1 thriv:1 dead:1 ill:1 hope:1 even:1 soul:1 thro:1 mercy:1 go:1 heaven:1 survive:1 read:1 tale:1 care:1 certain:1 exit:1 prepare:1 blest:1 peace:1 action:1 smell:1 sweet:1 blossom:1 silent:1 dust:1 tower:1 saybrook:1 replica:1 article:1 atlantic:1 monthly:1 skull:2 bone:2 alexandra:1 robbins:1 allege:1 gravestone:1 steal:1 ago:1 proper:1 setting:1 display:1 glass:1 case:1 room:1 purple:1 wall:1 belong:1 call:1 american:4 heritage:1 magazine:1 rat:1 overrated:1 philanthropist:1 argue:1 would:1 generosity:1 man:2 jeremiah:1 dummer:2 trustee:1 want:1 know:1 cultural:1 reference:2 senior:1 society:1 tom:1 wolfe:1 ph:1 study:1 african:1 atlanta:1 police:1 chief:1 full:1 jd:1 weatherspoons:1 public:1 theodore:1 roosevelt:1 quentin:1 keep:1 hyacinth:1 macaw:1 eli:1 |@bigram elihu_yale:10 boston_massachusetts:2 chennai_india:1 cotton_mather:1 pound_sterling:1 mayor_alderman:1 bury_churchyard:1 skull_bone:2 tom_wolfe:1 theodore_roosevelt:1 |
5,634 | Laser_construction | Schematic diagram of a typical laser, showing the three major parts A laser is constructed from three principal parts: An energy source (usually referred to as the pump or pump source), A gain medium or laser medium, and Two or more mirrors that form an optical resonator. Pump source The pump source is the part that provides energy to the laser system. Examples of pump sources include electrical discharges, flashlamps, arc lamps, light from another laser, chemical reactions and even explosive devices. The type of pump source used principally depends on the gain medium, and this also determines how the energy is transmitted to the medium. A helium-neon (HeNe) laser uses an electrical discharge in the helium-neon gas mixture, a Nd:YAG laser uses either light focused from a xenon flash lamp or diode lasers, and excimer lasers use a chemical reaction. Gain medium The gain medium is the major determining factor of the wavelength of operation, and other properties, of the laser. There are hundreds if not thousands of different gain media in which laser operation has been achieved. The gain medium is excited by the pump source to produce a population inversion, and it is in the gain medium that spontaneous and stimulated emission of photons takes place, leading to the phenomenon of optical gain, or amplification. Examples of different gain media include: Liquids, such as dye lasers. These are usually organic chemical solvents, such as methanol, ethanol or ethylene glycol, to which are added chemical dyes such as coumarin, rhodamine and fluorescein. The exact chemical configuration of the dye molecules determines the operation wavelength of the dye laser. Gases, such as carbon dioxide, argon, krypton and mixtures such as helium-neon. These lasers are often pumped by electrical discharge. Solids, such as crystals and glasses. The solid host materials are usually doped with an impurity such as chromium, neodymium, erbium or titanium ions. Typical hosts include YAG (yttrium aluminium garnet), YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride), sapphire (aluminium oxide) and various glasses. Examples of solid-state laser media include Nd:YAG, Ti:sapphire, Cr:sapphire (usually known as ruby), Cr:LiSAF (chromium-doped lithium strontium aluminium fluoride), Er:YLF, Nd:glass, and Er:glass. Solid-state lasers are usually pumped by flashlamps or light from another laser. Semiconductors, a type of solid, in which the movement of electrons between material with differing dopant levels can cause laser action. Semiconductor lasers are typically very small, and can be pumped with a simple electric current, enabling them to be used in consumer devices such as compact disc players. See laser diode. Optical resonator The optical resonator, or optical cavity, in its simplest form is two parallel mirrors placed around the gain medium which provide feedback of the light. The mirrors are given optical coatings which determine their reflective properties. Typically one will be a high reflector, and the other will be a partial reflector. The latter is called the output coupler, because it allows some of the light to leave the cavity to produce the laser's output beam. Light from the medium, produced by spontaneous emission, is reflected by the mirrors back into the medium, where it may be amplified by stimulated emission. The light may reflect from the mirrors and thus pass through the gain medium many hundreds of times before exiting the cavity. In more complex lasers, configurations with four or more mirrors forming the cavity are used. The design and alignment of the mirrors with respect to the medium is crucial to determining the exact operating wavelength and other attributes of the laser system. Other optical devices, such as spinning mirrors, modulators, filters, and absorbers, may be placed within the optical resonator to produce a variety of effects on the laser output, such as altering the wavelength of operation or the production of pulses of laser light. Some lasers do not use an optical cavity, but instead rely on very high optical gain to produce significant amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) without needing feedback of the light back into the gain medium. Such lasers are said to be superluminescent, and emit light with low coherence but high bandwidth. Since they do not use optical feedback, these devices are often not categorized as lasers. See also List of laser types Injection seeder Mode locking Q-switching References Koechner, Walter (1992). Solid-State Laser Engineering, 3rd ed., Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-53756-2 External links Sam's Laser FAQ A Practical Guide to Lasers for Experimenters and Hobbyists | Laser_construction |@lemmatized schematic:1 diagram:1 typical:2 laser:32 show:1 three:2 major:2 part:3 construct:1 principal:1 energy:3 source:7 usually:5 refer:1 pump:10 gain:13 medium:17 two:2 mirror:8 form:3 optical:11 resonator:4 provide:2 system:2 example:3 include:4 electrical:3 discharge:3 flashlamps:2 arc:1 lamp:2 light:10 another:2 chemical:5 reaction:2 even:1 explosive:1 device:4 type:3 use:8 principally:1 depend:1 also:2 determine:5 transmit:1 helium:3 neon:3 hene:1 gas:2 mixture:2 nd:3 yag:3 either:1 focus:1 xenon:1 flash:1 diode:2 excimer:1 factor:1 wavelength:4 operation:4 property:2 hundred:2 thousand:1 different:2 achieve:1 excite:1 produce:5 population:1 inversion:1 spontaneous:3 stimulated:2 emission:4 photon:1 take:1 place:3 lead:1 phenomenon:1 amplification:1 liquid:1 dye:4 organic:1 solvent:1 methanol:1 ethanol:1 ethylene:1 glycol:1 added:1 coumarin:1 rhodamine:1 fluorescein:1 exact:2 configuration:2 molecules:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 argon:1 krypton:1 often:2 solid:6 crystal:1 glass:4 host:2 material:2 dope:2 impurity:1 chromium:2 neodymium:1 erbium:1 titanium:1 ion:1 yttrium:2 aluminium:3 garnet:1 ylf:2 lithium:2 fluoride:2 sapphire:3 oxide:1 various:1 state:3 ti:1 cr:2 know:1 ruby:1 lisaf:1 strontium:1 er:2 semiconductor:2 movement:1 electron:1 differ:1 dopant:1 level:1 cause:1 action:1 typically:2 small:1 simple:2 electric:1 current:1 enable:1 consumer:1 compact:1 disc:1 player:1 see:2 cavity:5 parallel:1 around:1 feedback:3 give:1 coating:1 reflective:1 one:1 high:3 reflector:2 partial:1 latter:1 call:1 output:3 coupler:1 allow:1 leave:1 beam:1 reflect:2 back:2 may:3 amplify:2 thus:1 pas:1 many:1 time:1 exit:1 complex:1 four:1 design:1 alignment:1 respect:1 crucial:1 operating:1 attribute:1 spin:1 modulators:1 filter:1 absorber:1 within:1 variety:1 effect:1 alter:1 production:1 pulse:1 instead:1 rely:1 significant:1 ase:1 without:1 need:1 say:1 superluminescent:1 emit:1 low:1 coherence:1 bandwidth:1 since:1 categorize:1 list:1 injection:1 seeder:1 mode:1 lock:1 q:1 switch:1 reference:1 koechner:1 walter:1 engineering:1 ed:1 springer:1 verlag:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 sam:1 faq:1 practical:1 guide:1 experimenter:1 hobbyist:1 |@bigram schematic_diagram:1 arc_lamp:1 helium_neon:3 nd_yag:2 yag_laser:1 diode_laser:1 excimer_laser:1 hundred_thousand:1 stimulated_emission:2 methanol_ethanol:1 ethylene_glycol:1 carbon_dioxide:1 argon_krypton:1 neon_laser:1 yttrium_aluminium:1 aluminium_garnet:1 lithium_fluoride:1 aluminium_oxide:1 aluminium_fluoride:1 compact_disc:1 laser_diode:1 springer_verlag:1 external_link:1 |
5,635 | Fusion_cuisine | |This is a combination of Japanese and Vietnamese cuisine: smoked salmon wrapped in rice paper, with avocado, cucumber, and crab stick Fusion cuisine combines elements of various culinary traditions while not fitting specifically into any. The term generally refers to the innovations in many contemporary restaurant cuisines since the 1970s. Categories and types Fusion cuisine is general term for the combination of various forms of cookery, the concept can take several forms. One approach is regional fusion that combines the cuisine of a region or sub-region into a single eating experience. Of these sort, Asian fusion restaurants have become popular in many parts of the United States, often featuring Indian, East Asian, and South-East Asian dishes alongside one another and offering dishes that are inspired combinations of such cuisines. Another incarnation of fusion cuisine is a more eclectic approach, featuring original dishes using varieties of ingredients from various cuisines and regions and combining them. Such restaurants are often trendy and have no singular thematic cohesion other than innovative eclecticism in their menus. Such a restaurant might feature a wide variety of dishes inspired by combinations of various regional cuisines with new ideas. A third approach uses foods with a form based on one cuisine, but prepared using ingredients and flavors inherent to another cuisine or cuisines. For instance, pizza made with cheddar and pepper jack cheese, salsa, refried beans and other common taco ingredients is often marketed as "Taco Pizza" or a similar concept, and is a fusion of Italian-American (pizza) and Mexican-American cuisines. Similar approaches have been used for fusion-sushi, such as rolling maki with different types of rice and ingredients, e.g. curry and basmati rice, cheese and salsa sauce with Spanish rice, or spiced ground lamb and capers rolled with Greek-style rice and grape leaves (resembling inside-out dolmades). Since fusion cuisine is a general term, it is legitimately applied to either sort of restaurant. While many diners feature dishes from Greek, Italian, and sometimes Asian cuisines side-by-side, these restaurants are generally not considered fusion as they fail to combine any elements of the cooking styles and also have no over-arching fusion or eclectic theme. Background This type of restaurant's success depends on a number of factors. Among these are: Clientele's (or prospective clientele's) cultural diversity Clientele's travel patterns and experiences. Clientele's culinary sophistication and openness to new eating experiences. Wolfgang Puck is considered as one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine. However, his restaurant "Chinois" was named after the term attributed to Richard Wing, who in the 1960s combined French and Chinese cooking at the former Imperial Dynasty restaurant in Hanford, California. A sampling from the menu of an American-European-Japanese restaurant in California might include the following items: Sake cocktails Salad with crisp nori topping, and a miso-cilantro vinaigrette dressing Rock shrimp dumplings Eel, lettuce and tomato sushi handroll Poached tofu See also Tex-Mex cuisine California cuisine External links References | Fusion_cuisine |@lemmatized combination:4 japanese:2 vietnamese:1 cuisine:18 smoked:1 salmon:1 wrap:1 rice:5 paper:1 avocado:1 cucumber:1 crab:1 stick:1 fusion:11 combine:5 element:2 various:4 culinary:2 tradition:1 fit:1 specifically:1 term:4 generally:2 refer:1 innovation:1 many:3 contemporary:1 restaurant:10 since:2 category:1 type:3 general:2 form:3 cookery:1 concept:2 take:1 several:1 one:4 approach:4 regional:2 region:3 sub:1 single:1 eating:2 experience:3 sort:2 asian:4 become:1 popular:1 part:1 united:1 state:1 often:3 feature:4 indian:1 east:2 south:1 dish:5 alongside:1 another:3 offering:1 inspired:1 incarnation:1 eclectic:2 original:1 use:4 variety:2 ingredient:4 trendy:1 singular:1 thematic:1 cohesion:1 innovative:1 eclecticism:1 menu:2 might:2 wide:1 inspire:1 new:2 idea:1 third:1 food:1 base:1 prepare:1 flavor:1 inherent:1 instance:1 pizza:3 make:1 cheddar:1 pepper:1 jack:1 cheese:2 salsa:2 refried:1 bean:1 common:1 taco:2 market:1 similar:2 italian:2 american:3 mexican:1 sushi:2 roll:2 maki:1 different:1 e:1 g:1 curry:1 basmati:1 sauce:1 spanish:1 spice:1 ground:1 lamb:1 caper:1 greek:2 style:2 grape:1 leaf:1 resemble:1 inside:1 dolmades:1 legitimately:1 apply:1 either:1 diner:1 sometimes:1 side:2 consider:2 fail:1 cooking:2 also:2 arch:1 theme:1 background:1 success:1 depend:1 number:1 factor:1 among:1 clientele:4 prospective:1 cultural:1 diversity:1 travel:1 pattern:1 sophistication:1 openness:1 wolfgang:1 puck:1 pioneer:1 however:1 chinois:1 name:1 attribute:1 richard:1 wing:1 french:1 chinese:1 former:1 imperial:1 dynasty:1 hanford:1 california:3 sampling:1 european:1 include:1 following:1 item:1 sake:1 cocktail:1 salad:1 crisp:1 nori:1 top:1 miso:1 cilantro:1 vinaigrette:1 dress:1 rock:1 shrimp:1 dumpling:1 eel:1 lettuce:1 tomato:1 handroll:1 poach:1 tofu:1 see:1 tex:1 mex:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 |@bigram tex_mex:1 external_link:1 |
5,636 | Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria | The Christian Social Union in Bavaria () is a Christian democratic and conservative political party in Germany. It operates only in the state of Bavaria, while its sister party, the CDU, operates in the other 15 states of Germany. The difference between the CDU and the CSU is mainly that the CSU is more conservative in domestic and social issues but more progressive in fiscal issues. On the federal level, it forms a common faction in the Bundestag (Federal Parliament) with the CDU, the CDU/CSU faction, which is frequently referred to as die Unionsfraktion (the Union faction). The CDU/CSU currently governs with the SPD faction on the federal level. In the German state of Bavaria the CSU governs in a coalition with the Free Democratic Party (FDP). Franz Josef Strauß (1915–1988) had set the ideology of the party, although he was not a founding member of the party, which began as a continuation of the Weimar-era Catholic Bavarian People's Party. The CSU has led the Bavarian state government since it came into existence in 1949, save from 1950 to 1953 when the Bavaria Party formed a state government in coalition with the German Branches of the Social Democratic Party of Germany and the Free Democratic Party. The CSU has occasionally governed with the Free Democratic Party FDP and sometimes alone. This level of dominance is unique in post-war Germany. Edmund Stoiber took over the CSU leadership in 1999. He ran for Chancellor in 2002, but lost against the Social Democrat Gerhard Schröder. In 2003, the CSU was re-elected as the Bavarian government with a majority (60.7% and 124 of 180 seats in the state diet). On January 18, 2007, Stoiber announced his decision to step down from the posts of minister-president and CSU chairman by September 30 of that year. The CSU has strong support throughout Bavaria, but on the municipal level the situation is more diverse, with independent voter groups leading many municipal administrations in the rural areas. The two largest cities in Bavaria, Munich and Nuremberg, have elected mayors from the German SPD. In state and federal elections the CSU usually wins the majority in both cities. On September 28, 2008, the CSU failed to gain an absolute majority (it just reached 43%) in the Bavaria state election for the first time since 1966 on a percentage basis (in 1966 the party got about 48% then) and was forced into a coalition with the FDP. The CSU is a member of the European People's Party (EPP) and its European parliamentarians sit in the EPP-ED group. At the moment they have two ministers in Berlin: Baron Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (Minister of Economics and Technology) and Ilse Aigner (Minister of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection). Chairmen of the Christian Social Union, 1946–present Josef Müller 1946–1949 Hans Ehard 1949–1955 Hanns Seidel 1955–1961 Franz Josef Strauß 1961–1988 Theodor Waigel 1988–1999 Edmund Stoiber 1999–2007 Erwin Huber 2007-2008 Horst Seehofer from 2008 See also Christian Democratic Union of Germany Politics of Germany Bundestag (Federal Assembly of Germany) Notes and references [] [] External links Christlich-Soziale Union - Official site (English page) | Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria |@lemmatized christian:4 social:5 union:5 bavaria:7 democratic:6 conservative:2 political:1 party:12 germany:7 operate:2 state:8 sister:1 cdu:5 difference:1 csu:14 mainly:1 domestic:1 issue:2 progressive:1 fiscal:1 federal:5 level:4 form:2 common:1 faction:4 bundestag:2 parliament:1 frequently:1 refer:1 die:1 unionsfraktion:1 currently:1 governs:1 spd:2 german:3 govern:2 coalition:3 free:3 fdp:3 franz:2 josef:3 strauß:2 set:1 ideology:1 although:1 founding:1 member:2 begin:1 continuation:1 weimar:1 era:1 catholic:1 bavarian:3 people:2 lead:2 government:3 since:2 come:1 existence:1 save:1 branch:1 occasionally:1 sometimes:1 alone:1 dominance:1 unique:1 post:2 war:1 edmund:2 stoiber:3 take:1 leadership:1 run:1 chancellor:1 lose:1 democrat:1 gerhard:1 schröder:1 elect:2 majority:3 seat:1 diet:1 january:1 announce:1 decision:1 step:1 minister:4 president:1 chairman:2 september:2 year:1 strong:1 support:1 throughout:1 municipal:2 situation:1 diverse:1 independent:1 voter:1 group:2 many:1 administration:1 rural:1 area:1 two:2 large:1 city:2 munich:1 nuremberg:1 mayor:1 election:2 usually:1 win:1 fail:1 gain:1 absolute:1 reach:1 first:1 time:1 percentage:1 basis:1 get:1 force:1 european:2 epp:2 parliamentarian:1 sit:1 ed:1 moment:1 berlin:1 baron:1 karl:1 theodor:2 zu:1 guttenberg:1 economics:1 technology:1 ilse:1 aigner:1 food:1 agriculture:1 consumer:1 protection:1 present:1 müller:1 hans:1 ehard:1 hanns:1 seidel:1 waigel:1 erwin:1 huber:1 horst:1 seehofer:1 see:1 also:1 politics:1 assembly:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 christlich:1 soziale:1 official:1 site:1 english:1 page:1 |@bigram cdu_csu:3 franz_josef:2 gerhard_schröder:1 coalition_fdp:1 epp_ed:1 external_link:1 |
5,637 | Bee | Bees are flying insects closely related to wasps and ants. Bees are a monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea, presently classified by the unranked taxon name Anthophila. There are nearly 20,000 known species of bees in nine recognized families, Danforth, B.N., Sipes, S., Fang, J., Brady, S.G. (2006) The history of early bee diversification based on five genes plus morphology. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103: 15118-15123. though many are undescribed and the actual number is probably higher. They are found on every continent except Antarctica, in every habitat on the planet that contains insect-pollinated flowering plants. Introduction Morphology of a female honey bee Bees are adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients. Most pollen is used as food for larvae. Bees have a long proboscis (a complex "tongue") that enables them to obtain the nectar from flowers. They have antennae almost universally made up of 13 segments in males and 12 in females, as is typical for the superfamily. Bees all have two pairs of wings, the hind pair being the smaller of the two; in a very few species, one sex or caste has relatively short wings that make flight difficult or impossible, but none is wingless. The smallest bee is Trigona minima, a stingless bee whose workers are about 2.1 mm (5/64") long. The largest bee in the world is Megachile pluto, a leafcutter bee whose females can attain a length of 39 mm (1.5"). Members of the family Halictidae, or sweat bees, are the most common type of bee in the Northern Hemisphere, though they are small and often mistaken for wasps or flies. The best-known bee species is the European honey bee, which, as its name suggests, produces honey, as do a few other types of bee. Human management of this species is known as beekeeping or apiculture. Bees are the favorite meal of Merops apiaster, the bee-eater bird. Other common predators are kingbirds, mockingbirds, bee wolves and dragonflies. Pollination Bees play an important role in pollinating flowering plants, and are the major type of pollinator in ecosystems that contain flowering plants. Bees either focus on gathering nectar or on gathering pollen depending on demand, especially in social species. Bees gathering nectar may accomplish pollination, but bees that are deliberately gathering pollen are more efficient pollinators. It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on insect pollination, most of which is accomplished by bees, especially the domesticated European honey bee. Contract pollination has overtaken the role of honey production for beekeepers in many countries. Monoculture and the massive decline of many bee species (both wild and domesticated) have increasingly caused honey bee keepers to become migratory so that bees can be concentrated in seasonally-varying high-demand areas of pollination. Osmia ribifloris Most bees are fuzzy and carry an electrostatic charge, which aids in the adherence of pollen. Female bees periodically stop foraging and groom themselves to pack the pollen into the scopa, which is on the legs in most bees, and on the ventral abdomen on others, and modified into specialized pollen baskets on the legs of honey bees and their relatives. Many bees are opportunistic foragers, and will gather pollen from a variety of plants, while others are oligolectic, gathering pollen from only one or a few types of plant. A small number of plants produce nutritious floral oils rather than pollen, which are gathered and used by oligolectic bees. One small subgroup of stingless bees, called "vulture bees," is specialized to feed on carrion, and these are the only bees that do not use plant products as food. Pollen and nectar are usually combined together to form a "provision mass", which is often soupy, but can be firm. It is formed into various shapes (typically spheroid), and stored in a small chamber (a "cell"), with the egg deposited on the mass. The cell is typically sealed after the egg is laid, and the adult and larva never interact directly (a system called "mass provisioning"). Visiting flowers can be a dangerous occupation. Many assassin bugs and crab spiders hide in flowers to capture unwary bees. Other bees are lost to birds in flight. Insecticides used on blooming plants kill many bees, both by direct poisoning and by contamination of their food supply. A honey bee queen may lay 2000 eggs per day during spring buildup, but she also must lay 1000 to 1500 eggs per day during the foraging season, mostly to replace daily casualties, most of which are workers dying of old age. Among solitary and primitively social bees, however, lifetime reproduction is among the lowest of all insects, as it is common for females of such species to produce fewer than 25 offspring. Two honey bees are collecting pollen from Nightblooming cereus The population value of bees depends partly on the individual efficiency of the bees, but also on the population itself. Thus while bumblebees have been found to be about ten times more efficient pollinators on cucurbits, the total efficiency of a colony of honey bees is much greater due to greater numbers. Likewise during early spring orchard blossoms, bumblebee populations are limited to only a few queens, and thus are not significant pollinators of early fruit. Depopulation In 2007, managed populations of European honey bees experienced substantial declines. This has prompted investigations into the phenomenon amidst great concern over the nature and extent of the losses. "Honey bees in US facing extinction", Telegraph 14 March 2007 One aspect of the problem is believed to be "Colony Collapse Disorder" but many of the losses outside the US are attributed to other causes. Pesticides used to treat seeds, such as Clothianidin and Imidacloprid, may also negatively impact honey bee populations. German Consumer Protection Agency Bulletin June 9, 2008 Other species of bees such as mason bees are increasingly cultured and used to meet the agricultural pollination need. Mason bee from Everything.About. Retrieved 10 March 2009. Native pollinators include bumblebees and solitary bees, which often survive in refuges in wild areas away from agricultural spraying, but may still be poisoned in massive spray programs for mosquitoes, gypsy moths, or other insect pests. Although pesticide use remains a concern, the major problem for wild pollinator populations is the loss of the flower-rich habitat on which they depend for food. Throughout the northern hemisphere, the last 70 or so years has seen an intensification of agricultural systems which has decreased the abundance and diversity of wild flowers. Evolution Bees vary tremendously in size. Here a tiny halictid bee is gathering pollen, while a bumblebee behind her gathers nectar from a lily. Bees, like ants, are a specialized form of wasp. The ancestors of bees were wasps in the family Crabronidae, and therefore predators of other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the consumption of prey insects that were flower visitors and were partially covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. This same evolutionary scenario has also occurred within the vespoid wasps, where the group known as "pollen wasps" also evolved from predatory ancestors. Up until recently the oldest non-compression bee fossil had been Cretotrigona prisca in New Jersey amber and of Cretaceous age, a meliponine. A recently reported bee fossil, of the genus Melittosphex, is considered "an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea sister to the modern bees", and dates from the early Cretaceous (~100 mya). Poinar, G.O. Jr., Danforth, B.N. 2006. A fossil bee from early Cretaceous Burmese amber. Science 314: 614. Derived features of its morphology ("apomorphies") place it clearly within the bees, but it retains two unmodified ancestral traits ("plesiomorphies") of the legs (two mid-tibial spurs, and a slender hind basitarsus), indicative of its transitional status. The earliest animal-pollinated flowers were pollinated by insects such as beetles, so the syndrome of insect pollination was well established before bees first appeared. The novelty is that bees are specialized as pollination agents, with behavioral and physical modifications that specifically enhance pollination, and are generally more efficient at the task than any other pollinating insect such as beetles, flies, butterflies and pollen wasps. The appearance of such floral specialists is believed to have driven the adaptive radiation of the angiosperms, and, in turn, the bees themselves. Among living bee groups, the Dasypodaidae are now considered to be the most "primitive", and sister taxon to the remainder of the bees, contrary to earlier hypotheses that the "short-tongued" bee family Colletidae was the basal group of bees; the short, wasp-like mouthparts of colletids are the result of convergent evolution, rather than indicative of a plesiomorphic condition. Eusocial and semisocial bees A honey bee swarm A European honey bee extracts nectar from an Aster flower Bees may be solitary or may live in various types of communities. The most advanced of these are eusocial colonies found among the honey bees, bumblebees, and stingless bees. Sociality, of several different types, is believed to have evolved separately many times within the bees. In some species, groups of cohabiting females may be sisters, and if there is a division of labor within the group, then they are considered semisocial. If, in addition to a division of labor, the group consists of a mother and her daughters, then the group is called eusocial. The mother is considered the "queen" and the daughters are "workers". These castes may be purely behavioral alternatives, in which case the system is considered "primitively eusocial" (similar to many paper wasps), and if the castes are morphologically discrete, then the system is "highly eusocial". There are many more species of primitively eusocial bees than highly eusocial bees, but they have rarely been studied. The biology of most such species is almost completely unknown. The vast majority are in the family Halictidae, or "sweat bees". Colonies are typically small, with a dozen or fewer workers, on average. The only physical difference between queens and workers is average size, if they differ at all. Most species have a single season colony cycle, even in the tropics, and only mated females (future queens, or "gynes") hibernate (called diapause). A few species have long active seasons and attain colony sizes in the hundreds. The orchid bees include a number of primitively eusocial species with similar biology. Certain species of allodapine bees (relatives of carpenter bees) also have primitively eusocial colonies, with unusual levels of interaction between the adult bees and the developing brood. This is "progressive provisioning"; a larva's food is supplied gradually as it develops. This system is also seen in honey bees and some bumblebees. Highly eusocial bees live in colonies. Each colony has a single queen, many workers and, at certain stages in the colony cycle, drones. When humans provide the nest, it is called a hive. A honey bee hive can contain up to 40,000 bees at their annual peak, which occurs in the spring, but usually have fewer. Bumblebee Bumblebees Bumblebees (Bombus terrestris, B. pratorum, et al.) are eusocial in a manner quite similar to the eusocial Vespidae such as hornets. The queen initiates a nest on her own (unlike queens of honey bees and stingless bees which start nests via swarms in the company of a large worker force). Bumblebee colonies typically have from 50 to 200 bees at peak population, which occurs in mid to late summer. Nest architecture is simple, limited by the size of the nest cavity (pre-existing), and colonies are rarely perennial. Bumblebee queens sometimes seek winter safety in honey bee hives, where they are sometimes found dead in the spring by beekeepers, presumably stung to death by the honey bees. It is unknown whether any survive winter in such an environment. Bumblebees are one of the more important wild pollinators, but have declined significantly in recent decades. In the UK, 2 species have become nationally extinct during the last 75 years while others have been placed on the UK Biodiversity Action Plan as priority species in recognition of the need for conservation action. In 2006 a new charity, the Bumblebee Conservation Trust, was established in order to coordinate efforts to conserve remaining populations through conservation and education. Stingless bees Stingless bees are very diverse in behavior, but all are highly eusocial. They practice mass provisioning, complex nest architecture, and perennial colonies. A north-American Honey bee extracting nectar Honey bees The true honey bees (genus Apis) have arguably the most complex social behavior among the bees. The European (or Western) honey bee, Apis mellifera, is the best known bee species and one of the best known of all insects. Africanized honey bee Africanized bees, also called killer bees, are a hybrid strain of Apis mellifera derived from experiments to cross European and African honey bees by Warwick Estevam Kerr. Several queen bees escaped his laboratory in South America and have spread throughout the Americas. Africanized honey bees are more defensive than European honey bees. Solitary and communal bees Most other bees, including familiar species of bee such as the Eastern carpenter bee (Xylocopa virginica), alfalfa leafcutter bee (Megachile rotundata), orchard mason bee (Osmia lignaria) and the hornfaced bee (Osmia cornifrons) are solitary in the sense that every female is fertile, and typically inhabits a nest she constructs herself. There are no worker bees for these species. Solitary bees typically produce neither honey nor beeswax. They are immune from acarine and Varroa mites (see diseases of the honey bee), but have their own unique parasites, pests and diseases. A solitary bee, Anthidium florentinum (family Megachilidae), visiting Lantana Solitary bees are important pollinators, and pollen is gathered for provisioning the nest with food for their brood. Often it is mixed with nectar to form a paste-like consistency. Some solitary bees have very advanced types of pollen carrying structures on their bodies. A very few species of solitary bees are being increasingly cultured for commercial pollination. Solitary bees are often oligoleges, in that they only gather pollen from one or a few species/genera of plants (unlike honey bees and bumblebees which are generalists). No known bees are nectar specialists; many oligolectic bees will visit multiple plants for nectar, but there are no bees which visit only one plant for nectar while also gathering pollen from many different sources. Specialist pollinators also include bee species that gather floral oils instead of pollen, and male orchid bees, which gather aromatic compounds from orchids (one of the only cases where male bees are effective pollinators). In a very few cases only one species of bee can effectively pollinate a plant species, and some plants are endangered at least in part because their pollinator is dying off. There is, however, a pronounced tendency for oligolectic bees to be associated with common, widespread plants which are visited by multiple pollinators (e.g., there are some 40 oligoleges associated with creosote bush in the US desert southwest, Hurd, P.D. Jr., Linsley, E.G. 1975. The principal Larrea bees of the southwestern United States. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 193: 1-74. and a similar pattern is seen in sunflowers, asters, mesquite, etc.) Solitary bees create nests in hollow reeds or twigs, holes in wood, or, most commonly, in tunnels in the ground. The female typically creates a compartment (a "cell") with an egg and some provisions for the resulting larva, then seals it off. A nest may consist of numerous cells. When the nest is in wood, usually the last (those closer to the entrance) contain eggs that will become males. The adult does not provide care for the brood once the egg is laid, and usually dies after making one or more nests. The males typically emerge first and are ready for mating when the females emerge. Providing nest boxes for solitary bees is increasingly popular for gardeners. Solitary bees are either stingless or very unlikely to sting (only in self defense, if ever). A bee on a cornel While solitary females each make individual nests, some species are gregarious, preferring to make nests near others of the same species, giving the appearance to the casual observer that they are social. Large groups of solitary bee nests are called aggregations, to distinguish them from colonies. In some species, multiple females share a common nest, but each makes and provisions her own cells independently. This type of group is called "communal" and is not uncommon. The primary advantage appears to be that a nest entrance is easier to defend from predators and parasites when there are multiple females using that same entrance on a regular basis. Cleptoparasitic bees Cleptoparasitic bees, commonly called "cuckoo bees" because their behavior is similar to cuckoo birds, occur in several bee families, though the name is technically best applied to the apid subfamily Nomadinae. Females of these bees lack pollen collecting structures (the scopa) and do not construct their own nests. They typically enter the nests of pollen collecting species, and lay their eggs in cells provisioned by the host bee. When the cuckoo bee larva hatches it consumes the host larva's pollen ball, and if the female cleptoparasite has not already done so, kills and eats the host larva. In a few cases where the hosts are social species, the cleptoparasite remains in the host nest and lays many eggs, sometimes even killing the host queen and replacing her. Many cleptoparasitic bees are closely related to, and resemble, their hosts in looks and size, (i.e., the Bombus subgenus Psithyrus, which are parasitic bumblebees that infiltrate nests of species in other subgenera of Bombus). This common pattern gave rise to the ecological principle known as "Emery's Rule". Others parasitize bees in different families, like Townsendiella, a nomadine apid, one species of which is a cleptoparasite of the dasypodaid genus Hesperapis, while the other species in the same genus attack halictid bees. Nocturnal bees Four bee families (Andrenidae, Colletidae, Halictidae, and Apidae) contain some species that are crepuscular (these may be either the vespertine or matinal type). These bees have greatly enlarged ocelli, which are extremely sensitive to light and dark, though incapable of forming images. Many are pollinators of flowers that themselves are crepuscular, such as evening primroses, and some live in desert habitats where daytime temperatures are extremely high. Bee flight In his 1934 French book Le vol des insectes, M. Magnan wrote that he and a Mr. Saint-Lague had applied the equations of air resistance to bumblebees and found that their flight could not be explained by fixed-wing calculations, but that "One shouldn't be surprised that the results of the calculations don't square with reality". Ingram, Jay The Barmaid's Brain, Aurum Press, 2001, pp. 91-92. This has led to a common misconception that bees "violate aerodynamic theory", but in fact it merely confirms that bees do not engage in fixed-wing flight, and that their flight is explained by other mechanics, such as those used by helicopters. In 1996 Charlie Ellington at Cambridge University showed that vortices created by many insects’ wings and non-linear effects were a vital source of lift; Secrets of bee flight revealed, Phillips, Helen. 28 November 2005. Retrieved 2007-12-28. vortices and non-linear phenomena are notoriously difficult areas of hydrodynamics, which has made for slow progress in theoretical understanding of insect flight. In 2005 Michael Dickinson and his Caltech colleagues studied honey bee flight with the assistance of high-speed cinematography and a giant robotic mock-up of a bee wing. Deciphering the Mystery of Bee Flight Caltech Media Relations. Nov. 29, 2005. Retrieved 2007, 4-7. Their analysis revealed sufficient lift was generated by "the unconventional combination of short, choppy wing strokes, a rapid rotation of the wing as it flops over and reverses direction, and a very fast wing-beat frequency". Wing beat frequency normally increases as size decreases, but as the bee's wing beat covers such a small arc, it flaps approximately 230 times per second, faster than a fruitfly (200 times per second) which is 80 times smaller. In 2008 Barbara Shipman discovered a mathematical connection between the dance of bees and the Flag manifold. Bees and humans Bees figure prominently in mythology (See Bee (mythology)) and have been used by political theorists as a model for human society. Journalist Bee Wilson states that the image of a community of honey bees "occurs from ancient to modern times, in Aristotle and Plato; in Virgil and Seneca; in Erasmus and Shakespeare; Tolstoy, as well as by social theorists Bernard Mandeville and Karl Marx." Despite the honey bee's painful sting and the stereotype of insects as pests, bees are generally held in high regard. This is most likely due to their usefulness as pollinators and as producers of honey, their social nature, and their reputation for diligence. Bees are one of the few insects regularly used on advertisements, being used to illustrate honey and foods made with honey (such as Honey Nut Cheerios). In North America, yellowjackets and hornets, especially when encountered as flying pests, are often misidentified as bees, despite numerous differences between them - see Characteristics of common wasps and bees. Although a bee sting can be deadly to those with allergies, virtually all bee species are non-aggressive if undisturbed and many cannot sting at all. Humans are often a greater danger to bees, as bees can be affected or even harmed by encounters with toxic chemicals in the environment - see Bees and toxic chemicals. Gallery See also Apiology Honey bee life cycle Pesticide toxicity to bees Schmidt Sting Pain Index Starr sting pain scale International Union for the Study of Social Insects Bee and wasp stings References External links All Living Things Images, identification guides, and maps of bees Bee Genera of the World Carl Hayden Bee Research Center Rescuing Australian stingless bees The first bee of spring Solitary Bees & Things Solitary Bees in British gardens Scientists identify the oldest known bee, a 100 million-year-old specimen preserved in amber Search for North American species at Bugguide here The Bumblebee Conservation Trust - Learn about the UK's bumblebees, recent declines and how you can help For Hymenoptera: Bees and other related Insects Natural History of Bees, Wasps, and Insects Bee images on Morphbank, biological image database Dickinson Lab Video: Life Cycle of a Honey Bee Video: Orchid Bees | Bee |@lemmatized bee:186 fly:4 insect:19 closely:2 relate:2 wasp:12 ant:2 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5,638 | Non-fiction | Non-fiction is an account or representation of a subject which is presented as fact. This presentation may be accurate or not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question. However, it is generally assumed that the authors of such accounts believe them to be truthful at the time of their composition. Note that reporting the beliefs of others in a nonfiction format is not necessarily an endorsement of the ultimate veracity of those beliefs, it is simply saying that it is true that people believe that (for such topics as mythology, religion). Nonfiction can also be written about fiction, giving information about these other works. Nonfiction is one of the two main divisions in writing, particularly used in libraries, the other being fiction. However, nonfiction need not be written text necessarily, since pictures and film can also purport to present a factual account of a subject. Types Essays, journals, documentaries, histories, scientific papers, photographs, biographies, textbooks, blueprints, technical documentation, user manuals, diagrams and some journalism are all common examples of nonfiction works, and including information that the author knows to be untrue within any of these works is usually regarded as dishonest. Other works can legitimately be either fiction or nonfiction, such as journals of self-expression, letters, magazine articles, and other expressions of imagination. Although they are mostly either one or the other it is possible for there to be a blend of both. Some fiction may include nonfictional elements. Some nonfiction may include elements of unverified supposition, deduction, or imagination for the purpose of smoothing out a narrative, but the inclusion of open falsehoods would discredit it as a work of nonfiction. Distinctions The numerous literary and creative devices used within fiction are generally thought inappropriate for use in nonfiction. They are still present particularly in older works but they are often muted so as not to overshadow the information within the work. Simplicity, clarity and directness are some of the most important considerations when producing non-fiction. Audience is important in any artistic or descriptive endeavour but it is perhaps most important in nonfiction. In fiction, the writer believes that readers will make an effort to follow and interpret an indirectly or abstractly presented progression of theme, whereas the production of nonfiction has more to do with the direct provision of information. Understanding of the potential readers' use for the work and their existing knowledge of a subject are both fundamental for effective nonfiction. Despite the truth of nonfiction it is often necessary to persuade the reader to agree with the ideas and so a balanced, coherent and informed argument is also vital. Mark Twain said, paraphrased: "The difference between fiction and nonfiction is that fiction must be absolutely believable." History Cave paintings, from 32,000 years ago, are one of the oldest forms of human expression and could be either a record of what prehistoric man caught on hunting trips, i.e. non-fiction, or alternately a story expressing what they would like to catch on future occasions, i.e. fiction. If cave art is ambiguous on this matter, cuneiform inscriptions which hold the earliest writings seem to have been initially for nonfiction. Some of the most important symbols in cuneiform represent goods such as oxen and barley and the earliest texts in existence deal with the buying and selling of these items and other economic matters, although fiction was not far behind. Much of the nonfiction produced throughout history is of a mundane and everyday variety such as records and legal documents which were only ever seen by a few and are of little interest except to the historian. It probably easily outweighs fiction in the amount that has been produced but fiction generally has a longer lasting appeal as it is designed for entertainment and even rather mediocre fiction survives a few generations. The nonfiction that transcends its original time tends to be viewed as either exceptionally well made or perfectly embodying the ideas, manners and attitudes of the time it was produced, even if it was not actually created as history. At any one time in history there is the body of nonfiction work which represents the currently accepted truths of the period. Although these nonfiction works may be contradictory they form a corpus that is regularly being altered with better explanations of ideas or with new facts. A good example of this are the nonfiction scientific books and papers which explain the science of the day but are then superseded by better representations. Textbooks for explaining and teaching the current state of scientific and historical knowledge are regularly updated and manuals for operating new technology are also produced. Types of nonfiction Almanac Autobiography Biography Blueprint Book report Creative nonfiction Design document Diagram Diary Dictionary Non-fiction films (e.g. documentaries) Encyclopedia Essay History Journal Journalism Letter Literary criticism Memoir Natural history Philosophy Photograph Science book Scientific paper Statute Textbook Travelogue User manual See also Fiction Documentary practice External links Nonfiction Awards Citizen Reader: Nonfiction Book Reviews | Non-fiction |@lemmatized non:4 fiction:18 account:4 representation:2 subject:4 present:4 fact:2 presentation:1 may:4 accurate:1 give:2 either:5 true:2 false:1 question:1 however:2 generally:3 assume:1 author:2 believe:3 truthful:1 time:4 composition:1 note:1 report:2 belief:2 others:1 nonfiction:24 format:1 necessarily:2 endorsement:1 ultimate:1 veracity:1 simply:1 say:2 people:1 topic:1 mythology:1 religion:1 also:5 write:2 information:4 work:10 one:4 two:1 main:1 division:1 writing:2 particularly:2 use:4 library:1 need:1 text:2 since:1 picture:1 film:2 purport:1 factual:1 type:2 essay:2 journal:3 documentary:3 history:7 scientific:4 paper:3 photograph:2 biography:2 textbook:3 blueprint:2 technical:1 documentation:1 user:2 manual:3 diagram:2 journalism:2 common:1 example:2 include:3 know:1 untrue:1 within:3 usually:1 regard:1 dishonest:1 legitimately:1 self:1 expression:3 letter:2 magazine:1 article:1 imagination:2 although:3 mostly:1 possible:1 blend:1 nonfictional:1 element:2 unverified:1 supposition:1 deduction:1 purpose:1 smooth:1 narrative:1 inclusion:1 open:1 falsehood:1 would:2 discredit:1 distinction:1 numerous:1 literary:2 creative:2 device:1 think:1 inappropriate:1 still:1 old:2 often:2 mute:1 overshadow:1 simplicity:1 clarity:1 directness:1 important:4 consideration:1 produce:5 audience:1 artistic:1 descriptive:1 endeavour:1 perhaps:1 writer:1 reader:4 make:2 effort:1 follow:1 interpret:1 indirectly:1 abstractly:1 progression:1 theme:1 whereas:1 production:1 direct:1 provision:1 understanding:1 potential:1 existing:1 knowledge:2 fundamental:1 effective:1 despite:1 truth:2 necessary:1 persuade:1 agree:1 idea:3 balanced:1 coherent:1 informed:1 argument:1 vital:1 mark:1 twain:1 paraphrase:1 difference:1 must:1 absolutely:1 believable:1 cave:2 painting:1 year:1 ago:1 form:2 human:1 could:1 record:2 prehistoric:1 man:1 catch:2 hunt:1 trip:1 e:3 alternately:1 story:1 express:1 like:1 future:1 occasion:1 art:1 ambiguous:1 matter:2 cuneiform:2 inscription:1 hold:1 early:2 seem:1 initially:1 symbol:1 represent:2 good:4 ox:1 barley:1 existence:1 deal:1 buying:1 selling:1 item:1 economic:1 far:1 behind:1 much:1 throughout:1 mundane:1 everyday:1 variety:1 legal:1 document:2 ever:1 see:2 little:1 interest:1 except:1 historian:1 probably:1 easily:1 outweigh:1 amount:1 longer:1 lasting:1 appeal:1 design:2 entertainment:1 even:2 rather:1 mediocre:1 survive:1 generation:1 transcend:1 original:1 tend:1 view:1 exceptionally:1 well:1 perfectly:1 embody:1 manner:1 attitude:1 actually:1 create:1 body:1 currently:1 accept:1 period:1 contradictory:1 corpus:1 regularly:2 alter:1 explanation:1 new:2 book:4 explain:2 science:2 day:1 supersede:1 teach:1 current:1 state:1 historical:1 update:1 operate:1 technology:1 almanac:1 autobiography:1 diary:1 dictionary:1 g:1 encyclopedia:1 criticism:1 memoir:1 natural:1 philosophy:1 statute:1 travelogue:1 practice:1 external:1 link:1 award:1 citizen:1 review:1 |@bigram mark_twain:1 cuneiform_inscription:1 buying_selling:1 external_link:1 |
5,639 | Economic_security | For financial securities such as stocks and bonds, see security (finance) Economic security or financial security is the condition of having stable income or other resources to support a standard of living now and in the foreseeable future. It includes probable continued solvency predictability of the future cash flow of a person or other economic entity, such as a country employment security or job security Financial security more often refers to individual and family money management and savings. Financial Security in Later Life GAO-08-105 Retirement Security: Women Face Challenges in Ensuring Financial Security in Retirement Economic security tends to include the broader effect of a society's production levels and monetary support for non-working citizens. Components of individual economic security In the United States, children's economic security is indicated by the income level and employment security of their families. Childstats.gov - America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being 2007 - Economic Circumstances Economic security of people over 50 years old is based on Social Security benefits, pensions and savings, earnings and employment, and health insurance coverage. Beyond 50: Summary Tables and Charts In 1972, the state legislature of Arizona formed a Department of Economic Security with a mission to promote "the safety, well-being, and self sufficiency of children, adults, and families". This department combines state government activities previously managed by the Employment Security Commission, the State Department of Public Welfare, the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, the State Office of Economic Opportunity, the Apprenticeship Council, the State Office of Manpower Planning, and the State Department of Mental Retardation. About DES The Minnesota Department of Economic Security was formed in 1977 from the departments of Employment Services and Vocational Rehabilitation, the Governor's Manpower Office, and the Economic Opportunity Office, which administered anti-poverty programs. In 1985, State Services for the Blind was included in this department. In 2003, the Minnesota Department of Economic Security and Minnesota Department of Trade and Economic Development were merged to form The Minnesota Department of Employment and Economic Development. DEED History Economic security of countries Economic security has been proposed as a key determinant of international relations, particularly in the geopolitics of petroleum in American foreign policy after September 11, 2001. In Canada, threats to the country's overall economic security are considered economic espionage, which is "illegal, clandestine or coercive activity by a foreign government in order to gain unauthorized access to economic intelligence, such as proprietary information or technology, for economic advantage." Backgrounder No. 6: Economic Security Other It is widely believed that there is a tradeoff between economic security and economic opportunity. Notes and references | Economic_security |@lemmatized financial:5 security:25 stock:1 bond:1 see:1 finance:1 economic:23 condition:1 stable:1 income:2 resource:1 support:2 standard:1 living:1 foreseeable:1 future:2 include:3 probable:1 continued:1 solvency:1 predictability:1 cash:1 flow:1 person:1 entity:1 country:3 employment:6 job:1 often:1 refer:1 individual:2 family:3 money:1 management:1 saving:2 late:1 life:1 gao:1 retirement:2 woman:1 face:1 challenge:1 ensure:1 tend:1 broad:1 effect:1 society:1 production:1 level:2 monetary:1 non:1 work:1 citizen:1 component:1 united:1 state:8 child:3 indicate:1 childstats:1 gov:1 america:1 key:2 national:1 indicator:1 well:2 circumstance:1 people:1 year:1 old:1 base:1 social:1 benefit:1 pension:1 earnings:1 health:1 insurance:1 coverage:1 beyond:1 summary:1 table:1 chart:1 legislature:1 arizona:1 form:3 department:10 mission:1 promote:1 safety:1 self:1 sufficiency:1 adult:1 combine:1 government:2 activity:2 previously:1 manage:1 commission:1 public:1 welfare:1 division:1 vocational:2 rehabilitation:2 office:4 opportunity:3 apprenticeship:1 council:1 manpower:2 planning:1 mental:1 retardation:1 de:1 minnesota:4 service:2 governor:1 administer:1 anti:1 poverty:1 program:1 blind:1 trade:1 development:2 merge:1 deed:1 history:1 propose:1 determinant:1 international:1 relation:1 particularly:1 geopolitics:1 petroleum:1 american:1 foreign:2 policy:1 september:1 canada:1 threat:1 overall:1 consider:1 espionage:1 illegal:1 clandestine:1 coercive:1 order:1 gain:1 unauthorized:1 access:1 intelligence:1 proprietary:1 information:1 technology:1 advantage:1 backgrounder:1 widely:1 believe:1 tradeoff:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram foreseeable_future:1 self_sufficiency:1 mental_retardation:1 |
5,640 | Konrad_Lorenz | Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (November 7, 1903 in Vienna – February 27, 1989 in Vienna) was an Austrian zoologist, animal psychologist, ornithologist, and Nobel Prize winner. He is often regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology, developing an approach that began with an earlier generation, including his teacher Oskar Heinroth. Lorenz studied instinctive behavior in animals, especially in greylag geese and jackdaws. Working with geese, he rediscovered the principle of imprinting (originally described by Douglas Spalding in the 19th century) in the behavior of nidifugous birds. He wrote numerous books, some of which, such as King Solomon's Ring and On Aggression became popular reading. In later life his interest shifted to the study of man in society. Biography In his autobiographical essay, published in 1973 in Les Prix Nobel (winners of the prizes are requested to provide such essays), Lorenz credits his career to his parents, who "were supremely tolerant of my inordinate love for animals," and to his childhood encounter with Selma Lagerlof's The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, which filled him with a great enthusiasm about wild geese. At the request of his father, Adolf, Lorenz began a premedical curriculum in 1922 at Columbia University, but he returned to Vienna in 1923 to continue his studies at the University of Vienna. He graduated as Doctor of Medicine (MD) in 1928 and became an assistant professor at the Institute of Anatomy until 1935. He finished his zoological studies in 1933 and received his second doctorate (PhD). In 1936, at an international scientific symposium on instinct, Lorenz met his great friend and colleague Niko Tinbergen. Together they studied geese - wild, domestic, and hybrid. One result of these studies was that Lorenz "realized that an overpowering increase in the drives of feeding as well as of copulation and a waning of more differentiated social instincts is characteristic of very many domestic animals." Lorenz began to suspect and fear "that analogous processes of deterioration may be at work with civilized humanity." In 1940 he became a professor of psychology at the University of Königsberg. He was drafted into the Wehrmacht in 1941. He sought to be a motorcycle mechanic, but instead he was assigned as a medic. He was a prisoner of war in the Soviet Union from 1942 to 1948. In captivity he continued to work as a medical doctor and "got quite friendly with some Russians, mostly doctors." When he was repatriated, he was allowed to keep the manuscript of a book he had been writing, and his pet starling. He arrived back in Altenberg "with manuscript and bird intact." The manuscript became his book Behind the Mirror. The Max Planck Society established the Lorenz Institute for Behavioral Physiology in Buldern, Germany, in 1950. In 1958, Lorenz transferred to the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology in Seewiesen. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for discoveries in individual and social behavior patterns" with two other important early ethologists, Niko Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch. In 1969, he became the first recipient of the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca. Lorenz retired from the Max Planck Institute in 1973 but continued to research and publish from Altenberg (his family home, near Vienna) and Grünau im Almtal in Austria. Konrad Lorenz died on February 27, 1989, in Altenberg. Lorenz was also a friend and student of renowned biologist Sir Julian Sorell Huxley (grandson of "Darwin's bulldog," Thomas Henry Huxley). Famed psycho-analyst Ralph Greenson was among his friends and Sir Peter Scott were good friends. Politics Lorenz joined the Nazi Party in 1938 and accepted a university chair under the Nazi regime. In his application for membership to the Nazi-party NSDAP he wrote in 1938: "I'm able to say that my whole scientific work is devoted to the ideas of the National Socialists." His publications during that time led in later years to allegations that his scientific work had been contaminated by Nazi sympathies: his published writing during the Nazi period included support for Nazi ideas of "racial hygiene" couched in pseudoscientific metaphors. Eisenberg, L. 2005. "Which Image for Lorenz?" American Journal of Psychiatry 162:1760 When accepting the Nobel Prize, he apologized for a 1940 publication that included Nazi views of science, saying that "many highly decent scientists hoped, like I did, for a short time for good from National Socialism, and many quickly turned away from it with the same horror as I." It seems highly likely that Lorenz's ideas about an inherited basis for behavior patterns were congenial to the Nazi authorities, but there is no evidence to suggest that his experimental work was inspired by Nazi ideas. During the final years of his life Lorenz supported the fledgling Austrian Green Party and in 1984 became the figurehead of the Konrad Lorenz Volksbegehren, a grass-roots movement that was formed to prevent the building of a power plant at the Danube near Hainburg an der Donau and thus the destruction of the yet untouched woodland surrounding the planned site. Contributions and legacy With Nikolaas Tinbergen (left), 1978 Together with Nikolaas Tinbergen (Stefan Zeller), Lorenz developed the idea of an innate releasing mechanism to explain instinctive behaviors (fixed action patterns). Influenced by the ideas of William McDougall, Lorenz developed this into a "psychohydraulic" model of the motivation of behavior, which tended towards group selectionist ideas, which were influential in the 1960s. Another of his contributions to ethology is his work on imprinting. His influence on a younger generation of ethologists; and his popular works, were important in bringing ethology to the attention of the general public. There are three Konrad Lorenz Institutes in Austria; one is housed in his family mansion at Altenberg , and another at his field station in Grünau. Lorenz, like other ethologists, performed research largely by observation, or where experiments were conducted they were conducted in a natural setting. Occasionally there were long-term problems from his research, for example when geese imprinted on baby buggies as goslings were later released into Vienna's parks, some later had an unforeseen propensity for attempting to mate with similar objects . Nevertheless, animal welfare advocates like to point out that Lorenz won a Nobel Prize without ever using invasive techniques. Lorenz's vision of the challenges facing humanity Lorenz also predicted the relationship between market economics and the threat of ecological catastrophe. In his 1973 book, Civilized Man's Eight Deadly Sins, Konrad Lorenz addresses the following paradox: All the advantages that man has gained from his ever-deepening understanding of the natural world that surrounds him, his technological, chemical and medical progress, all of which should seem to alleviate human suffering... tends instead to favor humanity's destruction (Gli otto peccati capitali della nostra civiltà - Civilized Man's Eight Deadly Sins, Adelphi edizioni, Milano, 1974, p.26; the citation is translated from the Italian version of the book). Lorenz adopts an ecological model to attempt to grasp the mechanisms behind this contradiction. Thus all species... are adapted to their environment... including not only inorganic components... but all the other living beings that inhabit the locality (page 31) Fundamental to Lorenz' theory of ecology is the function of feedback mechanisms, especially negative ones which, in hierarchical fashion, dampen impulses that occur beneath a certain threshold. The thresholds themselves are the product of the interaction of contrasting mechanisms. Thus pain and pleasure act as checks on each other: To gain a desired prey, a dog or wolf will do things that, in other contexts, they would shy away from: run through thorn bushes, jump into cold water and expose themselves to risks which would normally frighten them. All these inhibitory mechanisms... act as a counterweight to the effects of learning mechanisms... The organism cannot allow itself to pay a price which is not worth paying (page 53). In nature, these mechanisms tend towards a 'stable state' among the living beings of an ecology: A closer examination shows that these beings... not only do not damage each other, but often constitute a community of interests. It is obvious that the predator is strongly interested in the survival of that species, animal or vegetable, which constitutes its prey. ... It is not uncommon that the prey species derives specific benefits from its interaction with the predator species... (pages 31-33). Lorenz states that humanity is the one species not bound by these mechanisms, being the only one that has defined its own environment: [The pace of human ecology] is determined by the progress of man's technology (page 35). Not only, but human ecology (economy) is governed by mechanisms of POSITIVE feedback, defined as a mechanism which tends to encourage behavior rather than to attenuate it (page 43). Positive feedback always involves the danger of an 'avalanche' effect... One particular kind of positive feedback occurs when individuals OF THE SAME SPECIES enter into competition among themselves... For many animal species, environmental factors keep... intraspecies selection from [leading to] disaster... But there is no force which exercises this type of healthy regulatory effect on humanity's cultural development; unfortunately for itself, humanity has learned to overcome all those environmental forces which are external to itself (page 44). Lorenz does not see human independence from natural ecological processes as necessarily bad. Indeed, he states that a completely new [ecology] which corresponds in every way to [humanity's] desires... could, theoretically, prove as durable as that which would have existed without his intervention (page 36). However, the principle of competition, typical of Western societies, destroys any chance of this: The competition between human beings destroys with cold and diabolic brutality... Under the pressure of this competitive fury we have not only forgotten what is useful to humanity as a whole, but even that which is good and advantageous to the individual. [...] One asks, which is more damaging to modern humanity: the thirst for money or consuming haste... in either case, fear plays a very important role: the fear of being overtaken by one's competitors, the fear of becoming poor, the fear of making wrong decisions or the fear of not being up to snuff... (pages 45-47). In this book, Lorenz proposes that the best hope for mankind lies in our looking for mates based on the kindness of their hearts rather than good looks or wealth. He illustrates this with a Jewish story, explicitly described as such. Lorenz was one of the early scientists who recognised the significance of overpopulation. The number one deadly sin of civilized man in his book is overpopulation, what leads to agression. Philosophical speculations In his 1973 book Behind the Mirror: A Search for a Natural History of Human Knowledge, Lorenz considers the old philosophical question of whether our senses correctly inform us about the world as it is, or provide us only with an illusion. His answer comes from evolutionary biology. Only traits that help us survive and reproduce are transmitted. If our senses gave us wrong information about our environment, we would soon be extinct. Therefore we can be sure that our senses give us correct information, for otherwise we would not be here to be deceived. Bekoff on Lorenz "I remember meeting Lorenz at an ethological conference in Parma, Italy, and his passion and enthusiasm were incredibly contagious. For hours, he told stories of the animals with whom he had shared his life and never once repeated himself. He clearly loved what he did and loved his animal friends." Marc Bekoff, Animal Passions and Beastly Virtues (2006), ISBN 1-59213-347-9 Works Lorenz's best-known books are King Solomon's Ring and On Aggression, both written for a popular audience. His scientific work appeared mainly in journal articles, written in German; they became widely known to English-speaking scientists through the descriptions of it in Tinbergen's 1951 book The Study of Instinct, though many of his papers were later published in English translation in the two volumes titled Studies in Animal and Human Behavior.King Solomon's Ring (1949)Man Meets Dog (1950)Evolution and Modification of Behavior (1965)On Aggression (1966)Studies in Animal and Human Behavior, Volume I (1970)Studies in Animal and Human Behavior, Volume II (1971)Behind the Mirror (1973)Civilized Man's Eight Deadly Sins (1974)The Year of the Greylag Goose (1979)The Foundations of Ethology (1982)The Natural Science of the Human Species: An Introduction to Comparative Behavioral Research - The Russian Manuscript (1944-1948)''(1995) References External links Short Autobiography on the Nobel Foundation website Review of Biologists Under Hitler Konrad Lorenz Institutes: Konrad Lorenz Institute for 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5,641 | Telecommunications_in_India | For the past decade or so, telecommunication activities have gained momentum in India. Efforts have been made from both governmental and non-governmental platforms to enhance the infrastructure. The idea is to help modern telecommunication technologies to serve all segments of India’s culturally diverse society, and to transform it into a country of technologically aware people. Modern growth A large population, low telephony penetration levels, and a rise in consumers' income and spending owing to strong economic growth have helped make India the fastest-growing telecom market in the world. The first and largest operator is the state-owned incumbent BSNL, which is also the 7th largest telecom company in the world in terms of its number of subscribers. BSNL BSNL was created by corporatization of the erstwhile DTS (Department of Telecommunication Services), a government unit responsible for provision of telephony services. Subsequently, after the telecommunication policies were revised to allow private operators, companies such as Bharti Telecom, Tata Indicom, Vodafone, MTNL, Idea,Vodafone and BPL have entered the space. major operators in India. However, rural India still lacks strong infrastructure. In 2007, an article by Businessweek magazine reported that India's mobile phone market is the fastest growing in the world, with companies adding some 6 million new customers a month. The total number of telephones in the country crossed the 300 million mark on June 18 2008 http://www.ibef.org/industry/telecommunications.aspx . The overall tele-density has increased to 36.98% in March 2009 http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/trai/upload/PressReleases/611/pr24nov08no89.pdf . Telecom Regulatory Authority of India,Information note to the Press (Press Release No. 61 / 2007), 20 Jun 2007 In the wireless segment, 15.87 million subscribers have been added in March 2009. The total wireless subscribers (GSM, CDMA & WLL (F)) base is more than 391.76 million now. The wireline segment subscriber base stood at 38.22 million with a decline of 0.13 million in October 2008. History Telecom in the real sense means transfer of information between two distant points in space. The popular meaning of telecom always involves electrical signals and nowadays people exclude postal or any other raw telecommunication methods from its meaning. Therefore, the history of Indian telecom can be started with the introduction of telegraph. Introduction of telegraph The postal and telecom sectors had a slow and uneasy start in India. In 1850, the first experimental electric telegraph Line was started between Kolkata and Diamond Harbor. In 1851, it was opened for the British East India Company. The Posts and Telegraphs department occupied a small corner of the Public Works Department, Public Works Department at that time. Construction of 4,000 miles (6,400 km) of telegraph lines connecting Kolkata (Calcutta) and Peshawar in the north via Agra, Mumbai (Bombay) through Sindwa Ghats, and Chennai in the south, as well as Ootacamund and Bangalore was started in November 1853. Dr. William O'Shaughnessy, who pioneered telegraph and telephone in India, belonged to the Public Works Department. He tried his level best for the development of telecom through out this period. A separate department was opened in 1854 when telegraph facilities were opened to the public. Introduction of the telephone In 1880, two telephone companies namely The Oriental Telephone Company Ltd. and The Anglo-Indian Telephone Company Ltd. approached the Government of India to establish telephone exchanges in India. The permission was refused on the grounds that the establishment of telephones was a Government monopoly and that the Government itself would undertake the work. By 1881, the Government changed its earlier decision and a licence was granted to the Oriental Telephone Company Limited of England for opening telephone exchanges at Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai (Madras) and Ahmedabad. January 28, 1882, is a Red Letter Day in the history of telephone in India. On this day Major E. Baring, Member of the Governor General of India's Council declared open the Telephone Exchange in Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai. The exchange at Kolkata named "Central Exchange" was opened at third floor of the building at 7, Council House Street. The Central Telephone Exchange had 93 number of subscribers. Bombay also witnessed the opening of Telephone Exchange in 1882. Further developments 1902 - First wireless telegraph station established between Saugor Islands and Sandheads. 1907 - First Central Battery of telephones introduced in Kanpur. 1913-1914 - First Automatic Exchange installed in Shimla. July 23, 1927 - Radio-telegraph system between the UK and India, with beam stations at Khadki and Daund, inaugurated by Lord Irwin by exchanging greetings with the King of England. 1933 - Radiotelephone system inaugurated between the UK and India. 1953 - 12 channel carrier system introduced. 1960 - First subscriber trunk dialing route commissioned between Kanpur and Lucknow. 1975 - First PCM system commissioned between Mumbai City and Andheri telephone exchanges. 1976 - First digital microwave junction introduced. 1979 - First optical fibre system for local junction commissioned at Pune. 1980 - First satellite earth station for domestic communications established at Secunderabad, A.P.. 1983 - First analog Stored Program Control exchange for trunk lines commissioned at Mumbai. 1984 - C-DOT established for indigenous development and production of digital exchanges. 1985 - First mobile telephone service started on non-commercial basis in Delhi. While all the major cities and towns in the country were linked with telephones during the British period, the total number of telephones in 1948 was only around 80,000. Even after independence, growth was extremely slow. The telephone was a status symbol rather than being an instrument of utility. The number of telephones grew leisurely to 980,000 in 1971, 2.15 million in 1981 and 5.07 million in 1991, the year economic reforms were initiated in the country. While certain innovative steps were taken from time to time, as for example introduction of the telex service in Mumbai in 1953 and commissioning of the first [subscriber trunk dialing] route between Delhi and Kanpur in 1960, the first waves of change were set going by Sam Pitroda in the eighties. BSNL He brought in a whiff of fresh air. The real transformation in scenario came with the announcement of the National Telecom Policy in 1994. Indian Government India, emerging as a major player In 1975, the Department of Telecom (DoT) was separated from P&T. DoT was responsible for telecom services in entire country until 1985 when Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) was carved out of DoT to run the telecom services of Delhi and Mumbai. In 1990s the telecom sector was opened up by the Government for private investment as a part of Liberalisation-Privatization-Globalization policy. Therefore, it became necessary to separate the Government's policy wing from its operations wing. The Government of India corporatised the operations wing of DoT on October 01, 2000 and named it as Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL). Many private operators, such as Reliance India Mobile, Tata Telecom, Vodafone, BPL, Bharti, Idea etc., successfully entered the high potential Indian telecom market. Liberalisation of telcommunications in India The Indian government was composed of many factions (parties) which had different ideologies. Some of them were willing to throw open the market to foreign players (the centrists) and others wanted the government to regulate infrastructure and restrict the involvement of foreign players. Due to this political background it was very difficult to bring about liberalization in telecommunications. When a bill was in parliament a majority vote had to be passed, and such a majority was difficult to obtain, given to the number of parties having different ideologies. Liberalization started in 1981 when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi signed contracts with Alcatel CIT of France to merge with the state owned Telecom Company (ITI), in an effort to set up 5,000,000 lines per year. But soon the policy was let down because of opposition from leaders of the opposite political party. She invited Sam Pitroda a US based NRI to set up a Center for Development of Telematics(C-DOT), however the plan failed due to political reasons. During this period, after the assassination of Indira Gandhi, under the leadership of Rajiv Gandhi, many public sector organizations were set up like the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) , VSNL and MTNL. Many technological developments took place in this regime but still foreign players were not allowed to participate in the telecommunications business. The demand for telephones was ever increasing. It was during this period that the P.N Rao led government introduced the national telecommunications policy [NTP] in 1994 which brought changes in the following areas: ownership, service and regulation of telecommunications infrastructure. They were also successful in establishing joint ventures between state owned telecom companies and international players. But still complete ownership of facilities was restricted only to the government owned organizations. Foreign firms were eligible to 49% of the total stake. The multi-nationals were just involved in technology transfer, and not policy making. During this period, the World Bank and ITU had advised the Indian Government to liberalize long distance services in order to release the monopoly of the state owned DoT and VSNL; and to enable competition in the long distance carrier business which would help reduce tariff's and better the economy of the country. The Rao run government instead liberalized the local services, taking the opposite political parties into confidence and assuring foreign involvement in the long distance business after 5 years. The country was divided into 20 telecommunication circles for basic telephony and 18 circles for mobile services. These circles were divided into category A, B and C depending on the value of the revenue in each circle. The government threw open the bids to one private company per circle along with government owned DoT per circle. For cellular service two service providers were allowed per circle and a 15 years license was given to each provider. During all these improvements, the government did face oppositions from ITI, DoT, MTNL, VSNL and other labor unions, but they managed to keep away from all the hurdles. After 1995 the government set up TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) which reduced the interference of Government in deciding tariffs and policy making. The DoT opposed this. The political powers changed in 1999 and the new government under the leadership of A.B Vajpayee was more pro-reforms and introduced better liberalization policies. They split DoT in two- one policy maker and the other service provider (DTS) which was later renamed as BSNL. The proposal of raising the stake of foreign investors from 49% to 74% was rejected by the opposite political party and leftist thinkers. Domestic business groups wanted the government to privatize VSNL. Finally in April 2002, the government decided to cut its stake of 53% to 26% in VSNL and to throw it open for sale to private enterprises. TATA finally took 25% stake in VSNL. This was a gateway to many foreign investors to get entry into the Indian Telecom Markets. After March 2000, the government became more liberal in making policies and issuing licenses to private operators. The government further reduced license fees for cellular service providers and increased the allowable stake to 74% for foreign companies. Because of all these factors, the service fees finally reduced and the call costs were cut greatly enabling every common middle class family in India to afford a cell phone. Growth of mobile technology India has become one of the fastest-growing mobile markets in the world. Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, press release no. 89 /2006, 12 September 2006 The mobile services were commercially launched in August 1995 in India. In the initial 5–6 years the average monthly subscribers additions were around 0.05 to 0.1 million only and the total mobile subscribers base in December 2002 stood at 10.5 millions. However, after the number of proactive initiatives taken by regulator and licensor, the monthly mobile subscriber additions increased to around 2 million per month in the year 2003-04 and 2004-05. Although mobile telephones followed the New Telecom Policy 1994, growth was tardy in the early years because of the high price of hand sets as well as the high tariff structure of mobile telephones. The New Telecom Policy in 1999, the industry heralded several pro consumer initiatives. Mobile subscriber additions started picking up. The number of mobile phones added throughout the country in 2003 was 16 million, followed by 22 million in 2004, 32 million in 2005 and 65 million in 2006. The only country with more mobile phones than India with 246 million mobile phones is China – 408 million. Indian Cell Population: 246 Million and Counting - GigaOM India has opted for the use of both the GSM (global system for mobile communications) and CDMA (code-division multiple access) technologies in the mobile sector. In addition to landline and mobile phones, some of the companies also provide the WLL service. The mobile tariffs in India have also become lowest in the world. A new mobile connection can be activated with a monthly commitment of US$0.15 only. In 2005 alone 32 million handsets were sold in India. The data reveals the real potential for growth of the Indian mobile market. TRAI In March 2008 the total GSM and CDMA mobile subscriber base in the country was 375 million, which represented a nearly 50% growth when compared with previous year. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/News-By-Industry/Telecom/GSM-CDMA-players-maintain-subscriber-growth-momentum/articleshow/4281903.cms In April 2008 the Indian Department of Telecom (DoT) has directed all mobile phone service users to disconnect the usage of unbranded Chinese mobile phones that do not have International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) numbers, because they pose a serious security risk to the country. Mobile network operators therefore planned to suspend the usage of around 30 million mobile phones (about 8 % of all mobiles in the country) by April 30. http://in.news.yahoo.com/139/20090404/868/ttc-dot-directs-ban-on-usage-of-chinese.html Revenue and growth The total revenue in the telecom service sector was Rs. 86,720 crore in 2005-06 as against Rs. 71, 674 crore in 2004-2005, registering a growth of 21%. The total investment in the telecom services sector reached Rs. 200,660 crore in 2005-06, up from Rs. 178,831 crore in the previous fiscal. Press Release no. 60/2006 issued on 28 June 2006 by TRAI Telecommunication is the lifeline of the rapidly growing Information Technology industry. Internet subscriber base has risen to 6.94 million in 2005- 2006. Out of this 1.35 million were broadband connections. Press Release No. no. 60/2006 issued on 28 June 2006 by TRAI More than a billion people use the internet globally. Under the Bharat Nirman Programme, the Government of India will ensure that 66,822 revenue villages in the country, which have not yet been provided with a Village Public Telephone (VPT), will be connected. However doubts have been raised about what it would mean for the poor in the country. Hindu Net It is difficult to ascertain fully the employment potential of the telecom sector but the enormity of the opportunities can be gauged from the fact that there were 3.7 million Public Call Offices in December 2005 Press Release No. no. 35/2006 issued on 10 April 2006 by TRAI up from 2.3 million in December 2004. The value added services (VAS) market within the mobile industry in India has the potential to grow from $500 million in 2006 to a whopping $10 billion by 2009. (Music, games to drive mobile VAS growth) Sectors Telephone Until recently, only the PSU's BSNL and MTNL were allowed to provide Basic Phone Service through copper wires in India. MTNL is operating in Delhi and Mumbai only and all other parts are covered by BSNL. However private operators have now entered the fray, although their focus is largely on the cellular business which is growing rapidly. Telephony Subscribers (Wireless and Landline): 400.05 million (Jan 2009) Cellphones: 362.3 million (Jan 2009) Land Lines: 37.75 million (Jan 2009) Yearly Cellphone Addition: 113.26 million (2007) India adds 83 mn mobile users in a year Monthly Cellphone Addition: 15.41 million (Jan 2009) Teledensity: 34.5% (Jan 2009) Projected teledensity: 500 million, 40% of population by 2010. Finance News on Yahoo! India Broadband connection: 6.22 million (March 2009) "Present scenerio" In the fixed line arena, BSNL and MTNL are the incumbents in their respective areas of operation and continue to enjoy the dominant service provider status in the domain of fixed line services. For example BSNL controls 79% of fixed line share in the country. On the other hand, in the mobile telephony space, Airtel controls 21.4% subscriber base followed by Reliance with 20.3%, BSNL with 18.6%, Vodafone with 14.7% subscriber base (as per June 2005 data). TRAI Report Press Release Following list shows the GSM subscriber figure till Jan 2009 1 Bharti Airtel 88382758 33.04% 2 Vodafone Essar 63340024 23.68% 3 BSNL 42673357 15.95% 4 IDEA 40016153 14.96% 5 Aircel 16761397 6.27% 6 Reliance Telecom 10353841 3.87% 8 MTNL 4003807 1.50% 9 BPL 2007303 0.75% All India 267538640 Telephone system: The Mobile telecommunications system in India is the second largest in the world and it was thrown open to private players in the 1990s. The country is divided into multiple zones, called circles (roughly along state boundaries). Government and several private players run local and long distance telephone services. Competition has caused prices to drop and calls across India are one of the cheapest in the world. The death of STD The rates are supposed to go down further with new measures to be taken by the Information Ministry. Free broadband, rent-free landlines likely: Maran Landlines: Landline service in India is primarily run by BSNL/MTNL and Reliance Infocomm though there are several other private players too, such as Touchtel and Tata Teleservices. Landlines are facing stiff competition from mobile telephones. The competition has forced the landline services to become more efficient. The landline network quality has improved and landline connections are now usually available on demand, even in high density urban areas. Mobile Cellular: The mobile service has seen phenomenal growth since 2000. In September 2004, the number of mobile phone connections have crossed fixed-line connections. Currently there are an estimated 201.29 million mobile phone users in India compared to 39.73 million fixed line subscribers. India primarily follows the GSM mobile system, in the 900 MHz band. Recent operators also operate in the 1800 MHz band. The dominant players are Airtel, Reliance Infocomm, Vodafone, Idea cellular and BSNL/MTNL. There are many smaller players, with operations in only a few states. International roaming agreements exist between most operators and many foreign carriers. Dialling System: On landlines, intra circle calls are considered local calls while inter circle are considered long distance calls. Currently Government is working to integrate the whole country in one telecom circle. For long distance calls, you dial the area code prefixed with a zero (e.g. For calling Delhi, you would dial 011-XXXX XXXX). For international calls, you would dial "00" and the country code+area code+number. The country code for India is 91. Call Rates Slashed: Communication rates in India fell sharply after the year 2000 when infrastructure improvements and entry of many major players made Indian Telecom a highly competitive sector. There is a conversion process underway to make all numbers in India 10 digits long. Internet The number of broadband connections in india have seen a continous growth since the beginning of 2006. At the end of August 2008, total broadband connections in the country have reached 4.73 million. However the definition of broadband is pretty constrained in India compared to other countries. A 256 kbit/s always on connection is the definition of broadband in India compared to 2 Mbit/s in other countries. However most ISPs,especially the Government managed companies are now offering speeds up to 2 Mbit/s. Status Paper on Broadband by Trai BSNL, Sify, MTNL, STPI, Airtel, Netcom, Reliance Communications and Hathway are some of the major ISPs in India. TRAI has defined broadband as 256 kbit/s or higher. However, many ISPs advertise their service as broadband but don't offer the suggested speeds. Broadband in India is more expensive as compared to Western Europe/United Kingdom and United States. After economic liberalization in 1992, many private ISPs have entered the market, many with their own local loop and gateway infrastructures. The telecom services market is regulated by TRAI. ADSL providers include: Tata Indicom (VSNL) MTNL/BSNL Bharti Telecom (Airtel, Bharti Televentures) Reliance Infocomm Because of the increase in ISPs and the quality of service Qos, It became cheaper to call India from around the world. Many Indians today, studying or living all around the world, are using calling cards to India to speak with their families back home. It used to be much more expensive prior to 2002. Airtel and BSNL have launched 8 Mbit/s & Reliance Communication offers 10 Mb/s broadband internet services in selected areas recently . For home users , the maximum speed for unlimited downloads is 1 Mbit/s , available for USD 60 (roughly , with taxes) Internet Users: 60,000,000 (September 2007) Source: Internet World Stats Broadband Subscribers: Broadband in India is defined as 256 kbit/s and above by the government regulator. Total subscribers were 2.3 million (April 2007) Source: TRAI Internet Users: Number of Internet users in India is the 4th largest in the world. Internet population is expected to grow to 100 million users by 2007. Zinnov Though the number of internet users is high, the penetration level is still lower than most countries across the globe. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) & Hosts: 86,571 (2004) Source: CIA World FactBook Country code (Top-level domain): IN Broadcasting Radio broadcast stations: AM 153, FM 91, shortwave 68 (1998) Radios: 116 million (1997) Television terrestrial broadcast stations: 562 (of which 82 stations have 1 kW or greater power and 480 stations have less than 1 kW of power) (1997) Televisions: 110 million (2006) In India, only the government owned Doordarshan (Door = Distant = Tele, Darshan == Vision) is allowed to broadcast terrestrial television signals. It initially had one major National channel (DD National) and a Metro channel in some of the larger cities (also known as DD Metro). Satellite/Cable television took off during the first Gulf War with CNN. There are no regulations against ownership of satellite dish antennas, or operation of cable television systems, which led to an explosion of viewership and channels, led by the Star TV group and Zee TV. Initially restricted to music and entertainment channels, viewership grew, giving rise to several channels in regional languages and many in the national language, Hindi. The main news channels available were CNN and BBC World. In the late 1990s, many current affairs and news channels sprouted, becoming immensely popular because of the alternative viewpoint they offered compared to Doordarshan. Some of the notable ones are Aaj Tak (means Till Today, run by the India Today group) and Star News, initially run by the NDTV group and their lead anchor, Prannoy Roy (NDTV now has its own channels, NDTV 24x7, NDTV Profit,NDTV India and NDTV Imagine).New Delhi TeleVision. Here is a reasonably comprehensive List of Indian television stations. Next generation networks In the Next Generation Networks, multiple access networks can connect customers to a core network based on IP technology. These access networks include fibre optics or coaxial cable networks connected to fixed locations or customers connected through wi-fi as well as to 3G networks connected to mobile users. As a result, in the future, it would be impossible to identify whether the next generation network is a fixed or mobile network and the wireless access broadband would be used both for fixed and mobile services. It would then be futile to differentiate between fixed and mobile networks – both fixed and mobile users will access services through a single core network. Indian telecom networks are not so intensive as developed country’s telecom networks and India's teledensity is low only in rural areas. 670,000 route kilometers (419,000 miles) of optical fibres has been laid in India by the major operators, even in remote areas and the process continues. BSNL alone, has laid optical fibre to 30,000 Telephone Exchanges out of their 36 Exchanges. Keeping in mind the viability of providing services in rural areas, an attractive solution appears to be one which offers multiple service facility at low costs. A rural network based on the extensive optical fibre network, using Internet Protocol and offering a variety of services and the availability of open platforms for service development, viz. the Next Generation Network, appears to be an attractive proposition. Fibre network can be easily converted to Next Generation network and then used for delivering multiple services at cheap cost. International Nine satellite earth stations - 8 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region). Nine gateway exchanges operating from Mumbai, New Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Jalandhar, Kanpur, Gandhinagar, Hyderabad and Ernakulam. Submarine cables LOCOM linking Chennai to Penang, Malaysia India-UAEcable linking Mumbai to Al Fujayrah, UAE. SEA-ME-WE 2, SEA-ME-WE 3, SEA-ME-WE 4 - (South East Asia-Middle East-Western Europe) with landing sites at Cochin and Mumbai. Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe (FLAG) with a landing site at Mumbai (2000). See also TRAI External links Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Wireless Planning & Coordination Wing Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd 3G Services inaugurated in India Telecom Industry Coverage Indian Telephone Industries Limited Telecommunications Consultants of India Limited Department of Telecommuincations, Government of India Measurments and Controls India Ltd. 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5,642 | New_Brunswick | New Brunswick ( /nuvobʁɔnzwik/) is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province (French and English) in the federation. Section Sixteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The provincial capital is Fredericton. Statistics Canada estimates the provincial population in 2009 to be 748,319; a majority are English-speaking, but there is also a large Francophone minority (32%), chiefly of Acadian origin. The province's name comes from the English and French translation for the city of Braunschweig in north Germany, the ancestral home of the Hanoverian King George III of the United Kingdom. Geography New Brunswick is bounded on the north by Quebec's Gaspé Peninsula and by Chaleur Bay. Along the east coast, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Northumberland Strait form the boundaries. In the southeast corner of the province, the narrow Isthmus of Chignecto connects New Brunswick to the Nova Scotia peninsula. The south of the province is bounded by the Bay of Fundy, which, with a rise of , has the highest tides in the world. To the west, the province borders the U.S. state of Maine. New Brunswick differs from the other Maritime provinces physiographically, climatologically, and ethnoculturally. Both Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island are either wholly or almost completely surrounded by water; oceanic effects, therefore, tend to define their climate, economy, and culture. On the other hand, New Brunswick—although it has a significant seacoast—is sheltered from the Atlantic Ocean proper and has a large interior that is removed from oceanic influences. As a result, the climate tends to be more continental in character rather than maritime. The settlement patterns and the economy of New Brunswick also are different from its Maritime neighbours in that they are based more on the province's river systems rather than its seacoasts. The major river systems of the province include the St. Croix River, Saint John River, Kennebecasis River, Petitcodiac River, Miramichi River, Nepisiguit River, and the Restigouche River. Northern New Brunswick lies within the Appalachian Mountains, and the New Brunswick Lowlands form the eastern and central portions of the province. The Caledonia Highlands and St. Croix Highlands extend along the Bay of Fundy coastal region, reaching elevations of more than . The northwestern part of the province consists of the remote and more rugged Miramichi Highlands as well as the Chaleur Uplands and the Notre Dame Mountains, with a maximum elevation at Mount Carleton of . The total land and water area of the province is , over 80% of which is forested. Agricultural lands are found mostly in the upper Saint John River valley, with lesser amounts of farmland in the southeast of the province, especially in the Kennebecasis and Petitcodiac river valleys. The three major urban centres are in the southern third of the province. History First Nations People have lived in New Brunswick since before contact with Europeans. Many are called Mi'kmaq, a possessive form indicating awareness of their spiritual and collective unity. The concept roughly translates as "my skin friends." The Augustine mound was built during this time, in 2500 BC, near Metepnákiaq (Red Bank First Nation). The French Colonial era The first known exploration of New Brunswick was that of French explorer Jacques Cartier in 1534. The next French contact was in 1604, when a party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain set up camp for the winter on St.Croix Island, between New Brunswick and Maine. The colony relocated the following year across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal, Nova Scotia. Over the next 150 years, other French settlements and seigneuries were founded along the St. John River, the upper Bay of Fundy region, in the Tantramar Marshes at Beaubassin, and finally at St. Pierre (site of present day Bathurst). The whole maritime region (as well as parts of Maine) were at that time proclaimed to be part of the French colony Acadia. One of the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 was the surrender of peninsular Nova Scotia to the British. The bulk of the Acadian population found themselves residing in the new British colony of Nova Scotia; the remainder of Acadia (including the New Brunswick region) was only lightly populated and poorly defended. In 1750, in order to protect their territorial interests in what remained of Acadia, France built two forts (Fort Beauséjour and Fort Gaspareaux) along the frontier with Nova Scotia at either end of the Isthmus of Chignecto. A major French fortification (Fortress of Louisbourg) was also built on Ile Royale (now Cape Breton Island), but the function of this fort was mostly to defend the approaches to the colony of Canada, not Acadia. As part of the Seven Years' War (1756–63), the British extended their control to include all of New Brunswick. Fort Beauséjour (near Sackville) was captured by a British force commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Monckton in 1755; Acadians of the nearby Beaubassin and Petitcodiac regions were subsequently expelled in the Great Upheaval. Some of the Acadians in the Petitcodiac and Memramcook region escaped, and under the leadership of Joseph Broussard continued to conduct guerrilla action against the British forces for a couple of years. Other actions in the war included British expeditions up the St. John River in both 1758 and 1759. Fort Anne (Fredericton) fell during the 1759 campaign, and following this, all of present-day New Brunswick came under British control. The British Colonial era After the Seven Years' War, most of New Brunswick (and parts of Maine) were absorbed into the colony of Nova Scotia and designated Sunbury County. New Brunswick's relative location away from the Atlantic coastline hindered settlement during the postwar period, although there were a few exceptions, such as the coming of New England Planters to the Sackville region and the arrival of Pennsylvania Dutch settlers in Moncton in 1766. The American Revolutionary War had little effect on the New Brunswick region, aside from an attack on Fort Cumberland (the renamed Fort Beauséjour) by rebel sympathizers led by Jonathan Eddy. Significant population growth came when 14,000 refugee Loyalists from the United States arrived on the Saint John River in 1783. Influential Loyalists such as Harvard-educated Edward Winslow saw themselves as the natural leaders of their communities, that they should be recognized for their rank and that their loyalty deserved special compensation. Gerald Hallowell, ed. Oxford Companion to Canadian History (2004) p. 368-9 However they were not appreciated by the settlers in Nova Scotia. As Colonel Thomas Dundas wrote from Saint John, "They [the loyalists] have experienced every possible injury from the old inhabitants of Nova Scotia." Quoted in S.D. Clark, Movements of Political Protest in Canada, 1640–1840, (1959), pp. 150-51 Therefore 55 prominent merchants and professionals petitioned for 5,000-acre grants each. Winslow pressed for the creation of a Loyalist colony—an asylum that could become "the envy of the American states". Hallowell, ed. Oxford Companion to Canadian History p. 369 Nova Scotia was therefore partitioned, and the colony of New Brunswick was created on August 16, 1784; Sir Thomas Carleton was appointed as Lieutenant-Governor in 1784, and in 1785 a new assembly was established with the first elections. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, some of the deported Acadians from Nova Scotia found their way back to "Acadie," where they settled mostly along the eastern and northern shores of the new colony of New Brunswick. Here, they lived in relative (and in many ways, self-imposed) isolation. Other immigration to New Brunswick in the early part of the 19th century was from Scotland; western England; and Waterford, Ireland, often after first having come through (or having lived in) Newfoundland. A large influx of settlers arrived in New Brunswick after 1845 from Ireland as a result of the Potato Famine; many of these people settled in Saint John or Chatham. The northwestern border between Maine and New Brunswick had not been clearly defined by the Treaty of Paris (1783) that had ended the American Revolution. By the late 1830s, population growth and competing lumber interests in the area created the need for a definite boundary. In the winter of 1838–39, the situation quickly deteriorated, with both Maine and New Brunswick calling out their respective militias. The "Aroostook War" was bloodless, and the boundary was subsequently settled by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. Throughout the 19th century, shipbuilding, both on the Bay of Fundy shore and also on the Miramichi River, was the dominant industry in New Brunswick; the Marco Polo, the fastest clipper ship ever built, was launched from Saint John in 1851. Resource-based industries such as logging and farming were also important components of the New Brunswick economy. A Canadian province Current license plate. New Brunswick, one of the four original provinces of Canada, entered the Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867. The Charlottetown Conference of 1864, which ultimately led to the confederation movement, originally had been intended to discuss only a Maritime Union, but concerns over the American Civil War as well as Fenian activity along the border led to an interest in expanding the scope of the proposed union. This interest in an expanded union arose from the Province of Canada (formerly Upper and Lower Canada, later Ontario and Quebec), and a request was made by the Canadian political leaders to the organizers of the Maritime conference to have the meeting agenda altered. Although the Maritime leaders were swayed by the arguments of the Canadians, many ordinary residents of the Maritimes wanted no part of this larger confederation for fear that their interests and concerns would be ignored in a wider national union. Many politicians who supported confederation, such as Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley (New Brunswick's best-known Father of Confederation), found themselves without a seat after the next election; nevertheless, backers of the wider confederation eventually prevailed. Following confederation, the fears of the anti-confederates were proven correct as new national policies and trade barriers were soon adopted by the central government, thus disrupting the historic trading relationship between the Maritime Provinces and New England. The situation in New Brunswick was exacerbated by both the Great Fire of 1877 in Saint John and the decline of the wooden shipbuilding industry; skilled workers were thus forced to move to other parts of Canada or to the United States to seek employment. As the 20th century dawned, however, the province's economy again began to expand. Manufacturing gained strength with the construction of several textile mills; and in the crucial forestry sector, the sawmills that had dotted inland sections of the province gave way to larger pulp and paper mills. The railway industry, meanwhile, provided for growth and prosperity in the Moncton region. Nevertheless, unemployment remained high throughout the province, and the Great Depression brought another setback. Two influential families, the Irvings and the McCains, emerged from the Depression to begin to modernise and vertically integrate the provincial economy—especially in the vital forestry, food processing, and energy sectors. The Acadians in northern New Brunswick had long been geographically and linguistically isolated from the more numerous English-speakers, who lived in the south of the province. Government services were often not available in French, and the infrastructure in predominantly Francophone areas was noticeably less developed than in the rest of the province; this changed with the election of Premier Louis Robichaud in 1960. He embarked on the ambitious Equal Opportunity Plan, in which education, rural road maintenance, and health care fell under the sole jurisdiction of a provincial government that insisted on equal coverage of all areas of the province. County councils were abolished, and the rural areas came under direct provincial jurisdiction. The 1969 Official Languages Act made French an official language. Demographics Ethnicity First Nations in New Brunswick include the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet (Wolastoqiyik). The first European settlers, the Acadians, are today survivors of the Great Expulsion (1755), which drove several thousand French residents into exile in North America, Britain, and France for refusing to take an oath of allegiance to King George III during the French and Indian War. American Acadians, who were deported to Louisiana, are referred to as Cajuns. Much of the English Canadian population of New Brunswick is descended from Loyalists who fled the American Revolution. This is commemorated in the province's motto, Spem reduxit ("hope was restored"). There is also a significant population with Irish ancestry, especially in Saint John and the Miramichi Valley. People of Scottish descent are scattered throughout the province, with higher concentrations in the Miramichi and in Campbellton. In the 2001 Canadian census, the most commonly reported ethnicities were 193,470 French (26.9%); 165,235 English (23.0%); 135,835 Irish (18.9%); 127,635 Scottish (17.7%); 27,490 German (3.8%); 26,220 Acadians (3.6%); 23,815 "North American Indian" (First Nations) (3.3%); 13,355 Dutch (Netherlands) (1.9%); and 7,620 Welsh (1.1%). It should be noted that 242,220 people (33.7%) identified themselves as simply "Canadian" or "Canadien," while 173,585 (24.1%) also selected another ethnicity—for a total of 415,810 (57.8%) calling themselves Canadian. (Each person could choose more than one ethnicity.) Ethnic Origin (232), Sex (3) and Single and Multiple Responses (3) (2001 Census) Population since 1851 YearPopulationFive Year % changeTen Year % changeRank AmongProvinces1851 500n/a n/a 41861 252,047 n/a 30.0 41871 285,594 n/a 13.3 41881 321,233 n/a 12.5 41891 321,263 n/a 0.0 41901 331,120 n/a 3.1 41911 351,889 n/a 6.3 81921 387,876 n/a 10.2 81931 408,219 n/a 5.2 81941 457,401 n/a 12.0 81951 515,697 n/a 12.7 81956 554,616 7.5 n/a 81961 597,936 7.8 15.9 81966 616,788 3.2 11.2 81971 634,560 2.9 6.9 81976 677,250 6.7 9.8 81981 696,403 2.8 9.7 81986 709,445 1.9 4.8 81991 723,900 2.0 3.9 81996 738,133 2.0 4.0 82001 729,498 -1.2 0.8 82006 729,997 0.1 -0.1 8 Population and dwelling counts, for Canada provinces and territories, 2006 and 2001 censuses - 100% data. Statistics Canada, 2007. Canada's population. Statistics Canada. Last accessed September 28, 2006. Languages The 2006 Canadian census showed a population of 729,997. Of the 708,145 singular responses to the census question concerning "mother tongue," the most commonly reported languages were: 1.English463,16364.83%2.French232,97532.61%3.Mi'kmaq2,5150.35%4.Chinese2,1600.30%5.German1,9350.27%6.Dutch1,2900.18%7.Spanish1,0400.15%8.Arabic9700.14%9.Korean6300.09%10.Italian5900.08%11.Malecite4900.07%12.Persian4600.06% In addition, there were 560 responses of both English and a "nonofficial language"; 120 of both French and a nonofficial language; 4,450 of both English and French; 30 of English, French, and a nonofficial language; and about 10,300 people who either did not respond to the question, reported multiple nonofficial languages, or gave some other unenumerated response. New Brunswick's official languages are shown in bold. Figures shown are for the number of single-language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses. Detailed Mother Tongue (186), Knowledge of Official Languages (5), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) (2006 Census) Religion The largest denominations by number of adherents according to the 2001 census were the Roman Catholic Church, with 385,985 (54%); Baptists, with 80,490 (11%); the United Church of Canada, with 69,235 (10%); the Anglicans, with 58,215; the Pentecostals with 20,155 (3%). Religions in Canada Anglican Schism fact sheet by province compiled by CBC News. Economy New Brunswick's urban areas have modern, service-based economies dominated by the health care, educational, retail, finance, and insurance sectors. These sectors are reasonably equitably distributed in all three principal urban centres. In addition, heavy industry and port facilities are found in Saint John; Fredericton is dominated by government services, universities, and the military; and Moncton has developed as a commercial, retail, transportation, and distribution centre with important rail and air terminal facilities. The rural primary economy is best known for forestry, mining, mixed farming, and fishing. Forestry is important in all areas of the province, but especially in the heavily forested central regions. There are many sawmills in the smaller towns and several large pulp and paper mills located in Saint John, Miramichi, Nackawic, and Edmundston. Heavy metals, including lead and zinc, are mined in the north around Bathurst. One of the world's largest potash deposits is located in Sussex; a second potash mine, costing over a billion dollars, is in development in the Sussex region. Oil and natural gas deposits are also being developed in the Sussex region. Farming is concentrated in the upper Saint John River valley (in the northwest portion of the province), where the most valuable crop is potatoes. Mixed and dairy farms are found elsewhere, but especially in the southeast, concentrated in the Kennebecasis and Petitcodiac river valleys. The most valuable fish catches are lobster, scallops and king crab. The farming of Atlantic salmon in the Passamaquoddy Bay region is an important local industry. The largest employers in the province are the Irving group of companies, several large multinational forest companies, the government of New Brunswick, and the McCain group of companies. Tourism Some of the province's tourist attractions include the New Brunswick Museum, Kouchibouguac National Park, Mactaquac Provincial Park, the Beaverbrook Art Gallery, Kings Landing Historical Settlement, Village Historique Acadien, Les Jardins de la Republique, Parlee Beach, Hopewell Rocks, La Dune de Bouctouche, Saint John Reversing Falls, Magnetic Hill and the Magnetic Hill Zoo, Crystal Palace, Magic Mountain Water Park, Cape Jourimain National Wildlife Preserve, Sugarloaf Provincial Park, Sackville Waterfowl Park, Fundy National Park, and the Fundy Hiking Trail. Government and politics NB Legislative Building, seat of New Brunswick Government since 1882. New Brunswick has a unicameral legislature with 55 seats. Elections are held at least every five years, but may be called at any time by the Lieutenant Governor (the viceregal representative) on consultation with the Premier. The Premier is the leader of the party that holds the most seats in the legislature. There are two dominant political parties in New Brunswick, the Liberal Party and the Progressive Conservative Party. While consistently polling approximately 10% of the electoral vote since the early 1980s, the New Democratic Party has elected few members to the Legislative Assembly. From time to time, other parties, such as the Confederation of Regions Party, have held seats in the legislature, but only on the strength of a strong protest vote. The dynamics of New Brunswick politics are different from those of other Canadian provinces. The lack of a dominant urban centre in the province means that the government has to be responsive to issues affecting all areas of the province. In addition, the presence of a large Francophone minority dictates that consensus politics is necessary, even when there is a majority government present. In this manner, the ebb and flow of New Brunswick provincial politics parallels the federal stage. Since 1960, the province has elected a succession of young bilingual leaders. This combination of attributes has permitted recent premiers of New Brunswick to be disproportionately influential players on the federal stage. Former Premier Bernard Lord (Progressive Conservative) has been touted as a potential leader of the Conservative Party of Canada. Frank McKenna (premier, 1987–97), had been considered to be a front-runner to lead the Liberal Party of Canada. Richard Hatfield (premier, 1970–87) played an active role in the patriation of the Canadian constitution and creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Louis Robichaud (premier, 1960–70) was responsible for a wide range of social reforms. On September 18, 2006, the Liberals won a majority, with 29 out of 55 seats, making 38-year old Shawn Graham the new Premier of New Brunswick. Municipalities Metropolitan Moncton (Moncton, Riverview, Dieppe), with a population of 126,424 (Canada 2006 census), is the largest urban centre in the province. Saint John is the largest city and has a metropolitan population (Saint John, Quispamsis, Rothesay) of 122,389. Greater Fredericton has a census agglomeration population of 85,000. Moncton. Saint John in Summer 2002. Moncton is the fastest-growing metropolitan area in the province and among the top ten fastest growing urban areas in Canada. Its economy is principally based on the transportation, distribution, information technology, commercial, and retail sectors. Moncton has a sizeable Francophone Acadian minority population (35%) and became officially bilingual in 2002. Saint John is one of the busiest shipping ports in Canada in terms of gross tonnage. Saint John is a major energy hub for the East Coast. It is the home of Canada's biggest oil refinery (with a second one planned); an LNG terminal is being constructed in the city; and there are major oil-fired and nuclear power plants located in or around the town. The retail, commercial, and residential sectors are currently experiencing a resurgence. Fredericton, the capital of the province, is home to the Beaverbrook Art Gallery, the University of New Brunswick, and St. Thomas University. Canada's largest military base, CFB Gagetown, is located in suburban Oromocto. The economy of Fredericton is tied to the governmental, military, and university sectors. Education Sir Howard Douglas Hall on the UNB Fredericton campus, currently the oldest university building still in use in Canada. Convocation Hall from the swan pond, Mount Allison University. Public education in the province is administered by the Department of Education, a department of the Government of New Brunswick. New Brunswick has a comprehensive parallel system of Anglophone and Francophone public schools providing education to both the primary and secondary levels. There are also several secular and religious private schools in the province. The New Brunswick Community College system has campuses in all regions of the province. This comprehensive trade school system offers roughly parallel programs in both official languages at either Francophone or Anglophone campuses. Each campus, however, tends to have areas of concentration to allow for specialisation. There are also a number of private colleges for specialised training in the province, such as the Moncton Flight College, one of the top pilot-training academies in Canada. There are four publicly funded secular universities and four private degree-granting religious institutions in the province. The two comprehensive provincial universities are the University of New Brunswick and Université de Moncton. These institutions have extensive postgraduate programs and Schools of Law. Mount Allison University, in Sackville, consistently ranks as one of the best liberal arts universities in Canada and has produced 47 Rhodes Scholars—more than any other liberal arts university in the British Commonwealth. Publicly funded provincial comprehensive universities University of New Brunswick (Fredericton and Saint John), Anglophone Université de Moncton (Moncton, Shippagan, and Edmundston), Francophone Publicly funded undergraduate liberal arts universities St. Thomas University (Fredericton), Anglophone Mount Allison University (Sackville), Anglophone Private religious undergraduate liberal arts university Atlantic Baptist University (Moncton), Anglophone Private degree granting religious training institutions St. Stephen's University (St. Stephen), Anglophone Bethany Bible College (Sussex), Anglophone New Brunswick Bible Institute (Hartland), Anglophone Culture Early New Brunswick culture was aboriginal in flavour, influenced by the native populations who made their home along the coast and riverbanks until the arrival of French-speaking (in the early 17th century) and English-speaking settlers (in the 18th century). As described by Arthur Doyle Arthur T. Doyle, Front Benches & Back Rooms, Green Tree (1976}, p. 6 in a paper written in 1976, an invisible line separated the two founding European cultures, beginning on the eastern outskirts of Moncton and running diagonally across the province northwest towards Grand Falls. Franco-New Brunswick (Acadie) lay to the northeast of this divide, and Anglo-New Brunswick lay to the southwest. Doyle's statement was made not long after government reforms by former premier Louis J. Robichaud had significantly improved the status of French-speaking Acadians within the province and initiated their journey towards cultural recognition and equality with their English-speaking counterparts. The Capitol Theatre in Moncton. Nineteenth-century New Brunswick was influenced by colonial ties to France, England, Scotland, and Ireland as well as by its geographical proximity to New England and the arrival of about 40,000 Loyalists. As local society was founded in forestry and seaborne endeavours, a tradition of lumber camp songs and sea chanties prevailed. Acadian cloggers and Irish and Scots step dancers competed at festivals to expressive fiddle and accordion music. The art of storytelling, well-known to the native populations, passed on to the early settlers, and poetry—whether put to music or not—was a common form of commemorating shared events, as the voice of a masterful poet or soulful musician easily conquered the province's language barriers. Other cultural expressions were found in family gatherings and the church; both French and English cultures saw a long and early influence of ecclesiastical architecture, with Western European and American influences dominating rather than any particular vernacular sense. Poets produced the first important literary contributions in the province. Cousins Bliss Carman and Sir Charles G.D. Roberts found inspiration in the landscape of the province, as would later writers as well. In painting, individual artists such as Anthony Flower worked in obscurity, either through design or neglect. Few 19th-century artists emerged, but those who did often benefited from fine arts training at Mount Allison University in Sackville, which began classes in 1854. The program came into its own under John A. Hammond, who served from 1893 to 1916; Alex Colville and Lawren Harris later studied and taught art there. Both Christopher Pratt and Mary Pratt were trained at Mount Allison. The university’s art gallery—which opened in 1895 and is named for its patron, John Owens of Saint John—is Canada’s oldest (it actually opened in Saint John ten years earlier, but was moved to Sackville). In French-speaking New Brunswick, it would not be until the 1960s that a comparable institution was founded, the Université de Moncton. Then, a cultural renaissance occurred under the influence of Acadian historians and such teachers as Claude Roussel through coffeehouses, music, and protest; an outpouring of Acadian art, literature, and music has pressed on unabated since that time. Popular exponents of modern Acadian literature and music include Antonine Maillet and Édith Butler. The current New Brunswick Lieutenant Governor, Herménégilde Chiasson, is a poet. (See also "Music of New Brunswick"). Dr. John Clarence Webster and Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook have made important endowments to provincial museums. Dr. Webster gave his art collection to the New Brunswick Museum in 1934, thereby endowing the museum with one of its greatest assets. James Barry's Death of General Wolfe Death of General Wolfe ranks as a Canadian national treasure. Courtesy of Lord Beaverbrook, the Beaverbrook Art Gallery in Fredericton has a collection of world-class art, including works of such luminaries as Salvador Dalí. The performing arts have a long tradition in New Brunswick, dating back to travelling road shows and 19th-century opera in Saint John. The early crooner Henry Burr was discovered at the Imperial Theatre in Saint John. Based in Fredericton, the most important proponent of theatre today is Theatre New Brunswick, originally under the direction of Walter Learning, which tours plays around the province; Canadian playwright Norm Foster saw his early works premiere at TNB. Other live theatre troops include Théâtre l’Escaouette in Moncton, the Théatre populaire d'Acadie in Caraquet, and Live Bait Theatre in Sackville. All three major cities have significant performance spaces. The refurbished Imperial and Capitol Theatres are found in Saint John and Moncton, respectively; the more modern Playhouse is located in Fredericton. In modern literature, writers Alfred Bailey and Alden Nowlan dominated the New Brunswick literary scene in the last third of the 20th century; world-renowned literary critic Northrop Frye was influenced by his upbringing in Moncton. The expatriate British poet John Thompson, who settled outside Sackville, proved influential in his short-lived career. Douglas Lochhead and K. V. Johansen are other prominent writers living in the town of Sackville. David Adams Richards, born in the Miramichi, has become a well-respected Governor-General's Award-winning author. Canadian novelist, story-writer, biographer and poet, Raymond Fraser, grew up in Chatham and lives now in Fredericton. The Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada, based in Moncton and featuring Russian and European trained dancers, has recently flourished and has started touring both nationally and internationally. Symphony New Brunswick, based in Saint John, also tours extensively in the province. Media outlets New Brunswick has four daily newspapers (three of which are in English), the largest being the Times & Transcript (40,000 daily), based in Moncton and serving eastern New Brunswick. Also, there is the Telegraph-Journal (37,000 daily), which serves Saint John and is distributed throughout the province, and the provincial capital daily The Daily Gleaner (25,000 daily), based in Fredericton. The French-language daily is L'Acadie Nouvelle (12,000 daily), based in Caraquet. There are also several weekly newspapers that are local in scope and based in the province's smaller towns and communities. The three English-language dailies and the majority of the weeklies are owned and operated by Brunswick News, privately owned by J.K. Irving. The other major media group in the province is Acadie Presse, which publishes L'Acadie Nouvelle. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation has various news bureaus throughout the province, but its main Anglophone television and radio operations are centred in Fredericton. Télévision de Radio-Canada (CBC French) service is based in Moncton. Global has its New Brunswick base in Saint John, with news and sales bureaus in Fredericton and Moncton. CTV Atlantic, the regional CTV station, is based in Halifax and has offices in Moncton, Fredericton, and Saint John. There are many private radio stations in New Brunswick, with each of the three major cities having a dozen or more stations. Most smaller cities and towns also have one or two stations. Photo gallery See also List of airports in New Brunswick Counties of New Brunswick List of New Brunswick general elections (post-Confederation) List of people from New Brunswick List of rivers of New Brunswick Scouting and Guiding in New Brunswick Notes References L.W. Bailey and D.R. Jack, Woods and Minerals of New Brunswick (Fredericton, 1876) William H. Benedict. New Brunswick in History (2001) S.D. Clark, Movements of Political Protest in Canada, 1640–1840, University of Toronto Press, 1959. Tim Frink, New Brunswick: A Short History (1997) W. Reavley Gair and Reavley W. Gair, A Literary and Linguistic History of New Brunswick (1986) Godfrey, W. G. "Carleton, Thomas," Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online (2000) online edition James Hannay, History of New Brunswick (St. John, 1909) William Kingsford, History of Canada (London, 1887–98) Greg Marquis, "Commemorating the Loyalists in the Loyalist City: Saint John, New Brunswick, 1883–1934" Urban History Review, Vol. 33, 2004 M.H. Perley, On the Early History of New Brunswick (St. John, 1891) A.R.C. Selwyn and G.M. Dawson, Descriptive Sketch of the Physical Geography and Geology of the Dominion of Canada (Montreal, 1884) Robert Summerby-Murray, "Interpreting Deindustrialised Landscapes of Atlantic Canada: Memory and Industrial Heritage in Sackville, New Brunswick" The Canadian Geographer, Vol. 46, 2002 William Menzies Whitelaw, The Maritimes and Canada before Confederation Oxford University Press, 1934 A.B. Willmott, The Mineral Wealth of Canada (London, 1898) External links Official site of the Government of New Brunswick New Brunswick at the Department of Canadian Heritage Maritime Tourism Symbols of New Brunswick New Brunswick Museum New Brunswick Covered Bridges New Brunswick Lighthouses Historical and Genealogical Resources of New Brunswick historical census, birth, marriage and death records, immigration, settlement, biography, cemeteries, burial records, land records, First Nations and more From Louis to Lord: New Brunswick Elections, 1960–2003 | New_Brunswick |@lemmatized new:96 brunswick:88 nuvobʁɔnzwik:1 one:11 canada:33 three:7 maritime:10 province:55 constitutionally:1 bilingual:3 french:22 english:14 federation:1 section:2 sixteen:1 canadian:22 charter:2 right:2 freedom:2 provincial:12 capital:3 fredericton:18 statistic:3 estimate:1 population:16 majority:4 speaking:5 also:16 large:15 francophone:7 minority:3 chiefly:1 acadian:15 origin:2 name:2 come:7 translation:1 city:7 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5,643 | History_of_Hungary | See also History of Europe, History of present-day nations and states, Pannonian basin before Hungary. Hungary is a state in central Europe, its history under this name dating to the early Middle Ages, when the region previously known as Pannonia was colonized by the Magyar nomad people from what is now central-northern Russia. For history of the area before this period, see Pannonian basin before Hungary. Early history Prince Árpád crossing the Carpathians. A detail of Árpád Feszty and assistants' vast (1800 m²) canvas, painted to celebrate the 1000th anniversary of the Magyar conquest of Hungary, now displayed at Ópusztaszer National Memorial Site in Hungary. In the time of the Roman Empire, the region west of the Danube river was known as Pannonia. After the Western Roman Empire collapsed under the stress of the migration of Germanic tribes and Carpian pressure, the Migration Period continued bringing many invaders to Europe. Among the first to arrive were the Huns, who built up a powerful empire under Attila. Attila the Hun in the past centuries was regarded as an ancestral ruler of the Hungarians. This belief however is considered to be erroneous today. Hungarian Studies Review, 2000 - Chapter I. Myth: The Foundation of Historical Consciousness. It is believed that the origin of the name "Hungary" does not come from the Central Asian nomadic invaders called the Huns, but rather originated from 7th century, when Magyar tribes were part of a Bulgar alliance called On-Ogour, which in Bulgar Turkic meant "(the) Ten Arrows". Hungary, Encyclopædia Britannica. After Hunnish rule faded, the Germanic Ostrogoths then the Lombards came to Pannonia, and the Gepids had a presence in the eastern part of the Carpathian Basin for about 100 years. In the 560s the Avars founded the Avar Khaganate, The Avar Khaganate a state which maintained supremacy in the region for more than two centuries and had the military power to launch attacks against all its neighbours. The Avar Khagnate was weakened by constant wars and outside pressure and the Franks under Charlemagne managed to defeat the Avars ending their 250-year rule. Neither the Franks nor others were able to create a lasting state in the region until the freshly unified Hungarians led by Árpád settled in the Carpathian Basin starting in 896. Magyar (Hungarian) migration, 9th century Much of early Hungarian history is recorded in the following Hungarian chronicles, retelling the early legends and history of the Huns, Magyars and the Kingdom of Hungary:Anonymi Gesta Hungarorum (Anonymous "Deeds of the Hungarians") by Magister P. (around 1200)Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum or Gesta Hungarorum (II) ("Deeds of the Huns and Hungarians" or just "Deeds of the Hungarians") by Simon of Kéza (late 13th century) Chronicon Pictum ("Illuminated Chronicle") (late 14th century)Chronicle of the Hungarians by Johannes de Thurocz (1480s) Middle Ages (895–1526) Hungarian raids in the 10th century. Most European nations were praying for mercy: "Sagittis hungarorum libera nos Domine" - "Lord save us from the arrows of Hungarians". The Magyars settled in Hungary in 896. Árpád was the Magyar leader whom sources name as the single leader who unified the Magyar tribes via the Covenant of Blood () forged one nation, thereafter known as the Hungarian nation Stephen Sisa: The Spirit of Hungary - 1 Who Are the Magyars? and led the new nation to the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century. After an early Hungarian state was formed in this territory military power of the nation allowed the Hungarians to conduct successful fierce campaigns and raids as far as today's Spain. The Maygars of Hungary A later defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 signaled an end to raids on foreign territories, and links between the tribes weakened. The ruling prince (fejedelem) Géza of the Árpád dynasty, who was the ruler of only some of the united territory, but the nominal overlord of all seven Magyar tribes, intended to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe, rebuilding the state according to the Western political and social model. He established a dynasty by naming his son Vajk (the later King Stephen I of Hungary) as his successor. This was contrary to the then-dominant tradition of the succession of the eldest surviving member of the ruling family. (See:agnatic seniority) By ancestral right prince Koppány, -as the oldest member of the dynasty- should have claimed the throne, but Géza chose his first-born son to be his successor. The fight in the chief prince's family started after Géza's death, in 997. Duke Koppány took up arms, and many people in Transdanubia joined him. The rebels represented the old faith and order, ancient human rights, tribal independence and pagan belief, but Stephen won a decisive victory over his uncle Koppány, and had him executed. King Stephen I of Hungary, patron saint of Kings (from the Chronicon Hungariae Pictum). The Patrimonial Kingdom Hungary in the 11th century Hungary was recognized as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom under Saint Stephen I. Stephen was the son of Géza and thus a descendant of Árpád. Applying to Pope Sylvester II, Stephen received the insignia of royalty (including the still existent Holy Crown of Hungary) from the papacy. He was crowned in December 1000 AD in the capital, Esztergom. Papacy confers on him the right to have the cross carried before him, with full administrative authority over bishoprics and churches. By 1006, Stephen had solidified his power, eliminating all rivals who either wanted to follow the old pagan traditions or wanted an alliance with the Eastern Christian Byzantine Empire. Then he started sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a western feudal state, complete with forced Christianisation. Stephen established a network of 10 episcopal and 2 archiepiscopal sees,and ordered the buildup of monasteries churches and cathedrals. In the earliest times Hungarian language was written in a runic-like script. The country switched to the Latin alphabet under Stephen. Romanesque church of Pécs Gothic Church of Our Lady in Buda From 1000 to 1844, Latin was the official language of the country. He followed the Frankish administrative model: The whole of this land was divided into counties (megyék), each under a royal official called an ispán count ()—later főispán (). This official represented the king’s authority, administered its population, and collected the taxes that formed the national revenue. Each ispán maintained at his fortified headquarters (castrum or vár) an armed force of freemen. What emerged was a strong kingdom that withstood attacks from German kings and Emperors, and nomadic tribes following the Hungarians from the East, integrating some of the latter into the population (along with Germans invited to Transylvania and the northern part of the kingdom, especially after the Battle of Mohi), and conquering Croatia in 1091. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/croatia http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Ladislaus+I Britannica 2009 History of Hungary Britannica 2009 Ladislas I According to an alternative history based on the document Pacta Conventa, which is most likely a forgery http://books.google.hr/books?id=YIAYMNOOe0YC&pg=RA3-PA267&vq=King+of+Hungary,+Slavonia,+Croatia,+and+Dalmatia&dq=pacta+conventa+croatia+cambridge&source=gbs_search_s&cad=0 Hungary and Croatia created a personal union. There is no undoubtedley genuine document of the personal union, and medieval sources mention the annexation into the hungarian kingdom. After the Great Schism (The East-West Schism /formally in 1054/, between Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity.) Hungary determined itself as the Easternmost bastion of Western civilization. Important members of the Árpád dynasty: King Coloman the "Book-lover" (King: 1095-1116): One of his most famous laws was half a millennium ahead of its time: De strigis vero quae non sunt, nulla amplius quaestio fiat (As for the matter of witches, no such things exist, therefore no further investigations or trials are to be held). Béla III (King: 1172-1192): was the most powerful and wealthiest member of the dynasty, Béla disposed of annual equivalent of 23,000 kg of pure silver. It exceeded those of the French king (estimated at some 17,000 kilograms) and was double the receipts of the English Crown. http://books.google.co.uk/books?ct=result&id=y0g4YEp7ZrsC&dq=%22B%C3%A9la+III%22+annual+revenue&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&sig=ACfU3U2STdXJyC_RFJp9Ipb3Rw4SmsrWww&q=ladis#PPA28,M1 He rolled back the Byzantine potency in Balkan region. In 1195, Bela III had expanded the Hungarian Kingdom southward and westward to Bosnia and Dalmatia, helping to break up the Byzantine Empire, and extending suzerainty over Serbia. http://www.archive.org/stream/destinyofuniteds00smit/destinyofuniteds00smit_djvu.txt Andrew II of Hungary (King: 1205-1235) : Golden Bull of 1222. In 1211 Andrew II of Hungary (ruled from 1205 to 1235) granted the Burzenland (in Transylvania) to the Teutonic Knights. In 1225, Andrew II expelled the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania, hence Teutonic Order had to transfer to the Baltic sea. In 1224, Andrew issued the Diploma Andreanum which unified and ensured the special privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons. It is considered the first Autonomy law in the world. http://www.hungarianhistory.com/lib/autonomy/komlossy.pdf He led the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217. He set up the largest royal army in the history of Crusades (20,000 knights and 12,000 castle-garrisons). The Golden Bull of 1222 was the first constitution in Continental Europe. It limited the king's power. The Golden Bull — the Hungarian equivalent of England’s Magna Carta — to which every Hungarian king thereafter had to swear, had a twofold purpose: to reaffirm the rights of the smaller nobles of the old and new classes of royal servants (servientes regis) against both the crown and the magnates and to defend those of the whole nation against the crown by restricting the powers of the latter in certain fields and legalizing refusal to obey its unlawful/unconstitutional commands (the ius resistendi). The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the parliament, or Diet. Hungary became the first country where the parliament had supremacy over the kingship. The most important legal ideology was the Doctrine of the Holy Crown. Mongol attacks Mongol invasion of the Kingdom of Hungary In 1241–1242, Hungary received a major blow in the form of the Mongol invasion: after the defeat of the Hungarian army in the Battle of Mohi, Béla IV of Hungary fled, and a large part (historians estimate that up to half of Hungary's two million population at that time were victims of the Mongol invasion. The Mongol invasion: the last Arpad kings, Encyclopaedia Britannica ) of the population died http://www.kulugyminiszterium.hu/NR/rdonlyres/C9FDF041-86A7-4B20-8B73-94C568E448E5/0/Culture_en.pdf (leading later to the invitation of settlers largely from Germany) in the ensuing destruction (Tatárjárás). During the Russian campaign, the Mongols drove some 200,000 Cumans, a nomadic tribe of pagan Kipchaks, west of the Carpathian Mountains. There, the Cumans appealed to King Béla IV of Hungary for protection. Mongol Invasions: Battle of Liegnitz, HistoryNet The Iranian Jassic people reached Hungary together with the Cumans after they were defeated by the Mongols. During the centuries they were fully assimilated to the Hungarian population, their language disappeared, but they preserved their identity and their regional autonomy until 1876. National and historical symbols of Hungary Only strongly fortified cities and abbeys could withstand the assault. As a consequence, after the Mongols retreated, King Béla IV ordered the construction of hundreds of stone/brick castles and fortifications, meant to be defense against a possible second Mongol invasion. Mongols returned to Hungary in 1286, but the new built stone-castle systems and new tactics (using higher ratio of heavy knights) stopped them. The invading Mongol force was defeated near Pest by the royal army of Ladislaus IV of Hungary. These castles proved to be very important later in the long struggle with the Ottoman Empire in the following centuries (from the late 14th century onwards), but their cost indebted the King to the major feudal landlords again, so the royal power reclaimed by Béla IV after his father Andrew II weakened it (leading to the Golden Bull of 1222) was lost again. Age of elected Kings King Charles' last battle against the oligarchy, Rozgony (1312) King Louis the Great the strongest king in medieval Hungarian history Árpád's direct descendants in the male line ruled the country until 1301. During the reigns of the Kings after the Árpád dynasty, the Kingdom of Hungary reached its greatest extent, yet royal power was weakened as the major landlords (the so called Barons) greatly increased their influence. The most powerful landlords started to use royal prerogatives (coinage ,customs, own diplomacy, declaration of wars against foreign monarchs). After the destructive period of interregnum (1301–1308), the first Angevin king, Charles I of Hungary (King: 1308–1342) -a descendant of the Árpád dynasty on the female line- successfully restored the royal power, who defeated oligarch rivals, the so called "little kings". His new fiscal, customs and monetary policies proved successful under his reign. One of the primary sources of his power was the wealth derived from the gold mines of east and northern Hungary. Eventually production reached the remarkable figure of 3,000 lb. of gold annually - one third of the total production of the world as then known, and five times as much as that of any other European state. Charles also sealed an alliance with the Polish king Casimir III. Hungary was the first non-Italian country, where the renaissance appeared in Europe. http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/inglese/relaz00_01/mester.htm The second Hungarian king in the Angevin line, Louis I the Great (King: 1342–1382) extended his rule over territories to the Adriatic Sea, and occupied the Kingdom of Naples several times. Under his reign lived the most famous epic hero of Hungarian literature and warfare, the king's Champion: Nicolas Toldi. Louis had become popular in Poland due to his successful campaigns against the Mongols (Golden Horde) Tatars and pagan Lithuanians. Two successful wars (1357–1358, 1378–1381) against Venice annexed Dalmatia and Ragusa and more territories at Adriatic Sea. Venice also had to raise the Angevin flag on St. Mark's Square on holy days. Louis I established a university in Pécs in 1367 (by papal accordance). The Ottoman Turks confronted the country ever more often. In 1366 and 1377, Louis led successful champaigns against the Ottomans (Batlle at Nicapoli in 1366), therefore Balkanian states became his vassals. From 1370, the death of his uncle (Casimir III of Poland), he was also king of Poland. Until his death, he retained his strong potency in political life of Italian Peninsula. King Louis died without a male successor, and the country was stabilized only after years of anarchy when Sigismund (king: 1387–1437) a prince from the Luxembourg line succeeded to the throne by marrying Louis's daughter, Queen Mary. It was not for entirely selfless reasons that one of the leagues of barons helped him to power: Sigismund had to pay for the support of the lords by transferring a sizeable part of the royal properties. (For some years, the baron's council governed the country in the name of the Holy Crown , the king was impirsoned for a short time ) The restoration of the authority of the central administration took decades of work. In 1404 Sigismund introduced the Placetum Regium. According to this decree, Papal bulls and messages could not be pronounced in Hungary without the consent of the king. Sigismund congregated Council of Constance (1414–1418) to abolish the Papal Schism of Catholic church, which was solved by the election of a new pope. In 1433 he even became Holy Roman Emperor. During his long reign Royal castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. The first Hungarian Bible translation completed in 1439, but Hungarian Bible was illegal in its age. John Hunyadi - One of the greatest generals and a later regent of Hungary In 1446, the parliament elected the great general János Hunyadi as governor (1446–1453) and then as regent (1453–1456) of the kingdom. Hunyadi was a successful crusader against the Ottoman Turks, one of his greatest victories being the Siege of Belgrade in 1456. Hunyadi defended the city against the onslaught of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. During the siege, Pope Callixtus III ordered the bells of every church to be rung every day at noon, as a call for believers to pray for the defenders of the city. However, in many countries (like England and Spanish kingdoms), news of the victory arrived before the order, and the ringing of the church bells at noon thus transformed into a commemoration of the victory. The Popes didn't withdraw the order, and Catholic (and the older Protestant) churches still ring the noon bell in the Christian world to this day. Age of early absolutism Western conquests of Matthias Corvinus The last strong king was the Renaissance king Matthias Corvinus (king from 1458 to 1490). Matthias was the son of John Hunyadi. András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. This was the first time in the medieval Hungarian kingdom that a member of the nobility, without dynastic ancestry and relationship, mounted the royal throne. A true Renaissance prince, a successful military leader and administrator, an outstanding linguist, a learned astrologer, and an enlightened patron of the arts and learning. Although Matyas regularly convened the Diet and expanded the lesser nobles' powers in the counties, he exercised absolute rule over Hungary by means of huge secular bureaucracy. Matthias set out to build a great empire, expanding southward and northwest, while he also implemented internal reforms. The serfs, common people considered Matthias a just ruler because he protected them from excessive demands and other abuses by the magnates. http://countrystudies.us/hungary/9.htm Like his father, Matthias desired to strengthen the Kingdom of Hungary to the point where it became the foremost regional power and overlord, strong enough to push back the Ottoman Empire; toward that end he deemed necessary the conquering of large parts of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1479, under the leadership of Pál Kinizsi, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield. Army of Hungary, almost all times destroyed the enemies when Matthias was the king. His mercenary standing army called the Black Army of Hungary () was an unusually big army in its age, it accomplished a series of victories also capturing parts of Austria, Vienna (1485) and parts of Bohemia. The king died without a legal successor. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe's greatest collection of historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century, and second only in size to the Vatican Library which mainly contained religious material. His renaissance library is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The battle of Mohács, by Bertalan Székely. Decline (1490-1526) By the early 16th century, the Ottoman Empire became the second most populous state in the world, which opened the door to creation of the largest armies of the era. Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia, the young king, who died at the Battle of Mohács. The magnates, who did not want another heavy-handed king, procured the accession of Vladislaus II (King: 1490-1516), king of Bohemia (Ulászló II in Hungarian), precisely because of his notorious weakness: he was known as King Dobže, or Dobzse (meaning “Good” or, loosely, “OK”), from his habit of accepting with that word every paper laid before him. Under his reign the central power began to experience severe financial difficulties, largely due to the enlargement of feudal lands at his expense. The magnates also dismantled administration and institute systems of the country. The country's defenses sagged as border guards and castle garrisons went unpaid, fortresses fell into disrepair, and initiatives to increase taxes to reinforce defenses were stifled. http://geography.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/hutoc.html In 1514, the weakened old King Vladislaus II faced a major peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa, which was ruthlessly crushed by the nobles, led by János Szapolyai. The resulting degradation of order paved the way for Ottoman preeminence. In 1521, the strongest Hungarian fortress in the South, Nándorfehérvár (modern Belgrade) fell to the Turks, and in 1526, the Hungarian army was crushed at the Battle of Mohács. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori died in the battle. The early appearance of protestantism further worsened internal relations in the anarchical country. Through the centuries Hungary kept its old "constitution", which granted special "freedoms" or rights to the nobility and groups like the Saxons or the Jassic people, and to free royal towns such as Buda, Kassa (Košice), Pozsony (Bratislava), and Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca). Early modern age (1526 - 1700) Hungary around 1550. Hungary in the 17th century. After some 150 years of war in the south of Hungary, Ottoman forces conquered parts of the country, continuing their expansion until 1556. The Ottomans achieved their first decisive victory over the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács in 1526. The Siege of Eger (1552), in which 2,000 Hungarians fought with close to 200,000 Turk warriors. The battle finished with Hungarian victory. Subsequent decades were characterised by political chaos. A divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously, János Szapolyai (1526-1540, of Hungarian-German origin) and the Austrian Ferdinand of Habsburg (1527-1540). Armed conflicts between the rival monarchs further weakened the country from the internal side. With the conquest of Buda in 1541 by the Turks, Hungary was riven into three parts. The north-west (present-day Slovakia, western Transdanubia and Burgenland, western Croatia and parts of north-eastern present-day Hungary) remained under Habsburg rule; although initially independent, later it became a part of Habsburg Monarchy under the informal name Royal Hungary. The Habsburg Emperors would from then on be crowned also as Kings of Hungary. Turks were unable to counquer Northern and Western parts of Hungary. The eastern part of the kingdom (Partium and Transylvania) became at first an independent principality, but gradually was brought under Turkish rule as a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. The remaining central area (most of present-day Hungary), including the capital of Buda, became a province of the Ottoman Empire. Much of the land was devastated by recurrent warfare. Most small Hungarian settlements disappeared. Rural people living in the now Ottoman provinces could survive only in larger settlements known as Khaz towns, which were owned and protected directly by the Sultan. The Turks were indifferent to the sect of Christianity practiced by their Hungarian subjects. For this reason, a majority of Hungarians living under Ottoman rule became Protestant (largely Calvinist), as Habsburg counter-reformation efforts could not penetrate Ottoman lands. Largely throughout this time, Pozsony (Pressburg, today: Bratislava) acted as the capital (1536-1784), coronation town (1563-1830) and seat of the Diet of Hungary (1536-1848). Nagyszombat (modern Trnava) acted in turn as the religious center, starting from 1541. In 1558 the Transylvanian Diet of Turda declared free practice of both the Catholic and Lutheran religions, but prohibited Calvinism. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for his religion". Four religions were declared as accepted (recepta) religions, while Orthodox Christianity was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). Hungary entered the Thirty Years' War, Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joined the catholic side, until Transylvania joined the Protestant side. In 1686, two years after the unsuccessful siege of Buda, a renewed European campaign was started to enter the Hungarian capital. This time, the Holy League's army was twice a large, containing over 74,000 men, including German, Croat, Dutch, Hungarian, English, Spanish, Czech, Italian, French, Burgundian, Danish and Swedish soldiers, along with other Europeans as volunteers, artilleryman, and officers, the Christian forces reconquered Buda, and in the next few years, all of the former Hungarian lands, except areas near Timişoara (Temesvár), were taken from the Turks. In the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz these territorial changes were officially recognized, and in 1718 the entire Kingdom of Hungary was removed from Ottoman rule. Concurrently, between 1604 and 1711, there was a series of anti-Austrian, and anti-Habsburg uprisings which took place in the Habsburg state of Royal Hungary (more precisely, in present-day Slovakia), as well as anti-Catholic uprisings, which were to be found across the Hungarian lands. Religious protesters demanded equal rights among Christian groups. The uprisings were usually organized from Transylvania. Modern and contemporary age (1700–1919) Ferenc Rákóczi. BME, The oldest University of Technology in the World, founded in 1782 There were a series of anti-Habsburg (i.e. anti-Austrian) and anti-Catholic (requiring equal rights and freedom for all Christian religions) uprisings between 1604 and 1711, which – with the exception of the last one – took place in Royal Hungary. The uprisings were usually organized from Transylvania. The last one was an uprising led by 'II. Rákóczi Ferenc', who after the dethronement of the Habsburgs in 1707 at the Diet of Ónód took power as the "Ruling Prince" of Hungary. The Hungarian Kuruc army lost the main battles at Battle of Trencin however there were also success actions, for example when Ádám Balogh almost captured the Austrian Emperor with Kuruc troops. When Austrians defeated the uprising in 1711, Rákóczi was in Poland. He later fled to France, finally Turkey, and lived to the end of his life (1735) in nearby Rodosto. Ladislas Ignace de Bercheny who was son of Miklós Bercsényi immigrated to France and created the first French hussar regiment. Afterwards, to make further armed resistance impossible, the Austrians blew up some castles (most of the castles on the border between the now-reclaimed territories occupied earlier by the Ottomans and Royal Hungary), and allowed peasants to use the stones from most of the others as building material (the végvárs among them). In this century lived one of the most famous Hungarian hussar named Michael de Kovats who created the modern US cavalry in the American Revolutionary War. He has statue now in Charleston. The Period of Reforms (1825–1848) During the Napoleonic Wars and afterwards, the Hungarian Diet had not convened for decades. In the 1820s, the Emperor was forced to convene the Diet, and thus a Reform Period began. Nevertheless, its progress was slow, because the nobles insisted on retaining their privileges (no taxation, exclusive voting rights, etc.). Therefore the achievements were mostly of national character (e.g. introduction of Hungarian as one of the official languages of the country, instead of the former Latin). Count István Széchenyi,the most prominent statesmen of the country recognized the urgent need of modernization and their message got through. The Hungarian Parliament was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged in the Diet. The party focused on providing for the peasantry in mostly symbolic ways because of their inability to understand the needs of the laborers. Louis Kossuth emerged as leader of the lower gentry in the Parliament. Habsburg monarchs tried to preclude the industrialisation of the country. A remarkable upswing started as the nation concentrated its forces on the inevitable modernization, even though the reactionary Habsburgs were obstructing all important liberal reforms. Revolution, and War of Independence Artist Mihály Zichy's rendition of Sándor Petőfi reciting the Nemzeti dal to a crowd on March 15, 1848 On March 15, 1848, mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda enabled Hungarian reformists to push through a list of 12 demands. Faced with revolution both at home and in Vienna, Austria first had to accept Hungarian demands. Later, under governor and president Lajos Kossuth and the first Prime minister, Lajos Batthyány, the House of Habsburg was dethroned and the form of government was changed to create the first Republic of Hungary. After the Austrian revolution was suppressed,emperor Franz Joseph replaced his epileptic uncle Ferdinand I as Emperor. The Habsburg Ruler and his advisors skillfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian peasantry, led by priests and officers firmly loyal to the Habsburgs, and induced them to rebel against the Hungarian government. The Hungarians were supported by the vast majority of the Slovak, German and Rusyn nationalities and by all the Jews of the kingdom, as well as by a large number of Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers. Géza Jeszenszky: From "Eastern Switzerland" to Ethnic Cleansing ,Address at Duquesne History Forum, November 17, 2000, The author is former Ambassador of Hungary to the United States and was Foreign Minister in 1990–1994. Some members of the nationalities gained coveted positions within the Hungarian Army, like General János Damjanich, an ethnic Serb who became a Hungarian national hero through his command of the 3rd Hungarian Army Corps. Initially, the Hungarian forces (Honvédség) defeated Austrian armies. In July 1849, Hungarian Parliament proclaimed foremost the ethnic and minority rights in the world, but it was too late: To counter the successes of the Hungarian revolutionary army, Franz Joseph asked for help from the "Gendarme of Europe," Czar Nicholas I, whose Russian armies invaded Hungary. The huge army of the Russian Empire and the Austrian forces proved too powerful for the Hungarian army, and General Artúr Görgey surrendered in August 1849. Julius Freiherr von Haynau, the leader of the Austrian army, then became governor of Hungary for a few months and on October 6, ordered the execution of 13 leaders of the Hungarian army as well as Prime Minister Batthyány. Lajos Kossuth escaped into exile. Following the war of 1848–1849, the whole country was in "passive resistance". Archduke Albrecht von Habsburg was appointed governor of the Kingdom of Hungary, and this time was remembered for Germanization pursued with the help of Czech officers. Austria–Hungary (1867–1918) Map of the counties in Hungary around 1880 Due to external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable to secure the integrity of the Habsburg Empire. Major military defeats, like the Battle of Königgrätz (1866), forced the Emperor to concede internal reforms. To appease Hungarian separatism, the Emperor made a deal with Hungary, negotiated by Ferenc Deák, called the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, by which the dual Monarchy of Austria–Hungary came into existence. The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments, with a common monarch and common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The first prime minister of Hungary after the Compromise was Count Gyula Andrássy. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire (239,977 sq. m in 1905 http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Austria-Hungary ), and the third most populous (after Russia and the German Empire). Cutaway Drawing of Millennium Underground in Budapest (1894–1896) which was the first underground in Continental Europe. World War I Memorial in Solt, Hungary. The era witnessed an impressive economic development. The formerly backward Hungarian economy became relatively modern and industrialized by the turn of the century, although agriculture remained dominant. In 1873, the old capital Buda and Óbuda(Ancient Buda) were officially merged with the third city, Pest, thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. The dynamic Pest grew into the country's administrative, political, economic, trade and cultural hub. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). The key symbols of industrialization were (at the time) the famous Ganz concern, and Tungsram works. Many of the state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. Due to various reasons like the policy of Magyarization Sugar, Peter F. (ed.), A history of Hungary, Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1990, p. 274, ISBN 0-253-20867-X. Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian, A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change, Routledge 2007, pp. 252-256, ISBN 0-415-36626-7. and the migration of millions, the census in 1910 (excluding Croatia), recorded the following distribution of population: Hungarian 54.5%, Romanian 16.1%, Slovak 10.7%, and German 10.4%. The largest religious denomination was the Roman Catholic (49.3%), followed by the Calvinist (14.3%), Greek Orthodox (12.8%) /Romanians Serbians Ruthenians), Greek Catholic (11.0%), Lutheran (7.1%), and Jewish (5.0%) religions. In 1910, 6.37% of the population were eligible to vote in elections due to census. Vol. 3, p.825 in Magyarország Történelmi Kronológiája, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1982. World War I Austria–Hungary drafted 9 million (fighting forces: 7,8 million) soldiers in World War I (4 million from Kingdom of Hungary). The prime minister, István Tisza tried to avoid the breaking out and excalating of a war in Europe, but his diplomatic attempts remained unsuccessful. In the conflict Austria–Hungary was fighting on the side of Germany, Bulgaria and Turkey. The Central Powers conquered Serbia; then, with great difficulty, they were able to stop and repel the attacks of the Russian Empire. Romania proclaimed war. The Central Powers conquered Southern Romania and the Romanian capital Bucharest. On the Italian front, the Austro-Hungarian army could not make significant progress against Italy after January 1918. By that period, the economic situation had deteriorated (strikes in factories were organized by leftist and pacifist movements), and uprisings in the army had become commonplace. French Entente troops landed in Greece. In places of Austria and Hungary where, Austrians and Hungarians were the majority (like Vienna and Budapest), the leftist liberal movements and politicians strengthened and supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. In October 1918, the personal union with Austria was dissolved. Between the two world wars (1918–1941) Hungarian Democratic Republic In 1918, as a political result of defeat in World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed. PM. Tisza was murdered in Budapest by a gang of soldiers during Aster Revolution of October 1918. On October 31, 1918, the success of the Aster Revolution in Budapest brought the leftist liberal count Mihály Károlyi to power as Prime-Minister. Károlyi was a devotee of Entente from the beginning of the war. On November 13, 1918, Charles IV surrendered his powers as King of Hungary; however, he did not abdicate, a technicality that made a return to the throne possible. In 1918, by a notion of Wilson's pacifism, Károlyi ordered the full disarmament of Hungarian Army. Hungary remained without national defense in the darkest hour of its history. Sorrounding countries started to arm. The First Republic was proclaimed in November 16, 1918, with Károlyi being named as president. The Károlyi government pronounced illegal all armed associations and proposals which wanted to defend the integrity of the country. By February 1919 the government had lost all popular support, having failed on domestic and military fronts. On March 21, after the Entente military representative demanded more and more territorial concessions from Hungary, Károlyi signed all concessions and resigned. Hungarian Soviet Republic ("Republic of the Councils") The Communist Party of Hungary, led by Béla Kun, came to power and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. The Communists also promised equality and social justice. The Communists – "The Reds" – came to power largely thanks to being the only group with an organized fighting force, and they promised that Hungary would defend its territory without conscription. (possibly with the help of the Soviet Red Army). Hence: the Red Army of Hungary was a little voluntary army (53,000 men). Most soldiers of the Red Army were armed factory workers from Budapest. Initially, Kun's regime achieved some impressive military successes: the Hungarian Red Army, under the lead of the genius strategist, Colonel Aurél Stromfeld, ousted Czech troops from the north and planned to march against the Romanian army in the east. In terms of domestic policy, the Communist government nationalized industrial and commercial enterprises, socialized housing, transport, banking, medicine, cultural institutions, and all landholdings of more than 400,000 square metres. The support of the Communists proved to be short lived. In the aftermath of a coup attempt, the government took a series of actions called the Red Terror, murdering several hundred people(mostly scientists and intellectuals). The Soviet Red Army was never able to aid the new Hungarian republic. Despite the great military successes against Czechoslovakian army, the communists gave back all recaptured lands. That attitude demoralized the voluntary army. The Hungarian Red Army was dissolved before it could successfully complete its campaigns. In the face of domestic backlash and an advancing Romanian force, Béla Kun and most of his comrades fled to Austria, while Budapest was occupied on August 6. Kun and his followers took along numerous art treasures and the gold stocks of the National Bank. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A05E4D91338EE32A25750C1A96E9C946896D6CF All these events, and in particular the final military defeat, led to a deep feeling of dislike among the general population against the Soviet Union (which did not offer military assistance) and the Jews (since most members of Kun's government were Jewish, making it easy to blame the Jews for the government's mistakes). Counterrevolution The new fighting force in Hungary were the Conservative Royalists counter-revolutionaries – the "Whites". These, who had been organizing in Vienna and established a counter-government in Szeged, assumed power, led by István Bethlen, a Transylvanian aristocrat, and Miklós Horthy, the former commander in chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. The conservatives determinded the Károlyi government and communists as capital treason. Starting in Western Hungary and spreading throughout the country, a White Terror began by other half-regular and half-militarist detachments (as the police power crashed, there were no serious national regular forces and authorities), and many Communists and other leftists were tortured and executed without trial. Radical Whites launched pogroms against the Jews, displayed as the cause of all territorial losses of Hungary. The leaving Romanian army pillaged the country: livestock, machinery and agricultural products were carried to Romania in hundreds of freight cars. Ignác Romsics: Magyarország története a XX. században, 2004, p. 134 The estimated property damage of their activity was so much that the international peace conference in 1919 did not require Hungary to pay war redemption to Romania. On November 16, with the consent of Romanian forces, Horthy's army marched into Budapest. His government gradually restored security, stopped terror, and set up authorities, but thousands of sympathizers of the Károlyi and Kun regimes were imprisoned. Radical political movements were suppressed. In March, the parliament restored the Hungarian monarchy but postponed electing a king until civil disorder had subsided. Instead, Miklos Horthy was elected Regent and was empowered, among other things, to appoint Hungary's Prime Minister, veto legislation, convene or dissolve the parliament, and command the armed forces. Trianon Hungary and the Regency The Treaty of Trianon: Hungary ceded 72% of its land and sea ports in Croatia, 3,425,000 Magyars found themselves separated from their motherland. Molnar, A Concise History of Hungary, p. 262 online Richard C. Frucht, Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture p. 359-360 online The country lost 8 of its 10 biggest cities. Hungary's signing of the Treaty of Trianon on June 4, 1920, ratified the country's borders being redrawn. The territorial provisions of the treaty required Hungary to surrender more than two-thirds of its pre-war lands. However, nearly one-third of the 10 million ethnic Hungarians found themselves outside the diminished homeland. The country's ethnic composition was left almost homogeneous, Hungarians constituting about 90% of the population, Germans made up about 6%, and Slovaks, Croats, Romanians, and Roma accounted for the remainder. New international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Furthermore, post-Trianon Hungary possessed 90% of the engineering and printing industry of the Kingdom, while only 11% of timber and 16% iron was retained. In addition, 61% of arable land, 74% of public road, 65% of canals, 62% of railroads, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of pig iron output, 55% of industrial plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and most of all, 67% of credit and banking institutions of the former Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of Hungary's neighbors. Flood-light on Europe: a guide to the next war By Felix Wittmer Published by C. Scribner's sons, 1937 Item notes: pt. 443 Original from Indiana University Digitized Nov 13, 2008 p. 114 History of the Hungarian Nation By Domokos G. Kosáry, Steven Béla Várdy, Danubian Research Center Published by Danubian Press, 1969 Original from the University of California Digitized Jun 19, 2008 p. 222 The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia By Spencer Tucker, Laura Matysek Wood, Justin D. Murphy Edition: illustrated Published by Taylor & Francis, 1996 ISBN 0815303998, 9780815303992 p.697 Horthy appointed Count Pál Teleki as Prime Minister in July 1920. His government issued a numerus clausus law, limiting admission of "political insecure elements" (these were often Jews) to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent, took initial steps toward fulfilling a promise of major land reform by dividing about 3,850 km2 from the largest estates into smallholdings. Teleki's government resigned, however, after, Charles IV, unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's throne in March 1921. King Charles's return produced split parties between conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing radicals who supported election of a Hungarian king. Count István Bethlen, a non-affiliated right-wing member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming a new Party of Unity under his leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a second time to reclaim the throne in October 1921. (For more detail on Charles's attempts to retake the throne, see Charles IV of Hungary's conflict with Miklós Horthy.) Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya, Regent of Hungary As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counter-revolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social Democrats and trade unions (called the Bethlen-Peyer Pact), agreeing, among other things, to legalize their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain from spreading anti-Hungarian propaganda, calling political strikes, and organising the peasantry. Bethlen brought Hungary into the League of Nations in 1922 and out of international isolation by signing a treaty of friendship with Italy in 1927. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted of strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of his economic, social and political policies. The Great Depression induced a drop in the standard of living and the political mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy appointed a new prime minister, Gyula Gömbös, that changed the course of Hungarian policy towards closer cooperation with Germany and started an effort to magyarise the few remaining ethnic minorities in Hungary. Gömbös signed a trade agreement with Germany that drew Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on the German economy for both raw materials and markets. Adolf Hitler appealed to Hungarian desires for territorial revisionism, while extreme right wing organizations, like the Arrow Cross party, increasingly embraced extreme Nazi policies, including those relating to the suppression and victimisation of Jews. The government passed the First Jewish Law in 1938. The law established a quota system to limit Jewish involvement in the Hungarian economy. Imrédy's attempts to improve Hungary's diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom initially made him very unpopular with Germany and Italy. In light of Germany's Anschluss of Austria in March, he realized that he could not afford to alienate Germany and Italy for long. In the autumn of 1938 his foreign policy became very much pro-German and pro-Italian. Hungary: The Unwilling Satellite John F. Montgomery, Hungary: The Unwilling Satellite. Devin-Adair Company, New York, 1947. Reprint: Simon Publications, 2002. Intent on amassing a base of power in Hungarian right wing politics, Imrédy began to suppress political rivals, so the increasingly influential Arrow Cross Party was harassed, and eventually banned by Imrédy's administration. As Imrédy drifted further to the right, he proposed that the government be reorganized along totalitarian lines and drafted a harsher Second Jewish Law. Parliament, under the new government of Pál Teleki, approved the Second Jewish Law in 1939, which greatly restricted Jewish involvement in the economy, culture and society and, significantly, defined Jews by race instead of religion. This definition significantly and negatively altered the status of those who had formerly converted from Judaism to Christianity. World War II Map of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1941 Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy sought to enforce peacefully the claims of Hungarians on territories Hungary lost in 1920 with the signing of the Treaty of Trianon, and the two Vienna Awards returned parts of Czechoslovakia and Transylvania to Hungary. On 20 November 1940, under pressure from Germany, Pál Teleki affiliated Hungary with the Tripartite Pact. In December 1940, he also signed an ephemeral "Treaty of Eternal Friendship" with the Yugoslavia. A few months later, after a Yugoslavian coup threatened the success of the planned German invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), Hitler asked the Hungarians to support his invasion of Yugoslavia. He promised to return some former Hungarian territories lost after World War I in exchange for cooperation. Unable to prevent Hungary's participation in the war alongside Germany, Teleki committed suicide. The right-wing radical László Bárdossy succeeded him as Prime Minister. Eventually Hungary annexed small parts of present day Slovenia and Serbia. After war broke out on the Eastern Front many Hungarian officials argued for participation in the war so as not to encourage Hitler into favouring Romania in the event of border revisions in Transylvania. Hungary entered the war and on July 1, 1941, at the direction of the Germans, the Hungarian Karpat Group advanced far into southern Russia. At the Battle of Uman the Gyorshadtest participated in the encirclement of the 6th Soviet Army and the 12th Soviet Army. Twenty Soviet divisions were captured or destroyed. Worried about Hungary's increasing reliance on Germany, Admiral Horthy forced Bárdossy to resign and replaced him with Miklós Kállay, a veteran conservative of Bethlen's government. Kállay continued Bárdossy's policy of supporting Germany against the Red Army, while he also serrupticiously entered into negotiations with the Western Powers. During the Battle of Stalingrad, the Hungarian Second Army suffered terrible losses. The heavy Soviet breakthrough at the Don River sliced directly through the Hungarian units. Shortly after the fall of Stalingrad in January 1943, the Hungarian Second Army effectively ceased to exist as a functioning military unit. Secret negotiations with the British and Americans continued. As per the request of the Western Allies, there were no connection made with the Soviets. Aware of Kállay's deceit and fearing that Hungary might conclude a separate peace, Hitler ordered Nazi troops to launch Operation Margarethe and occupy Hungary in March 1944. Döme Sztójay, an avid supporter of the Nazis, become the new Prime Minister with the aid of a Nazi military governor, Edmund Veesenmayer. The infamous SS Colonel Adolf Eichmann went to Hungary to oversee the large-scale deportations of Jews to German death camps in occupied Poland. Between May 15 and July 9, 1944, the Hungarians deported 437,402 Jews to the Auschwitz concentration camp. Martin Gilbert, The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust, Routledge, New York, 2002. ISBN 0-415-28145-8, p. 249 Randolph L. Braham, Scott Miller: The Nazis' Last Victims, Indiana University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-253-21529-3, p. 423 In August 1944, Horthy replaced Sztójay with the anti-Fascist General Géza Lakatos. Under the Lakatos regime, the acting Interior Minister Béla Horváth ordered Hungarian gendarmes to prevent any Hungarian citizens from being deported. In September 1944, Soviet forces crossed the Hungarian border. On 15th October 1944, Horthy announced that Hungary had signed an armistice with the Soviet Union. The Hungarian army ignored the armistice. The Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust and, by kidnapping his son (Miklós Horthy, Jr.), forced Horthy to abrogate the armistice, depose the Lakatos government, and name the leader of the Arrow Cross Party, Ferenc Szálasi, as Prime Minister. Szálasi became Prime Minister and Horthy abdicated, thus ending the Regency. In cooperation with the Nazis, Szálasi restarted the deportations of Jews, particularly in Budapest. Thousands more Jews were killed by Hungarian Arrow Cross members. The retreating German army demolished the rail, road, and communications systems. On December 28, 1944, a provisional government was formed in Hungary under acting Prime Minister Béla Miklós. Miklós immediately ousted Prime Minister Ferenc Szálasi's government. The Germans and pro-German Hungarians loyal to Szálasi fought on. The Red Army completed the encirclement of Budapest on 29 December 1944 and the Battle of Budapest began and continued into February 1945. Most of what remained of the Hungarian First Army was destroyed about 200 miles north of Budapest between January 1 and February 16, 1945. On January 20, 1945, representatives of the Hungarian provisional government signed an armistice in Moscow. Officially, Soviet operations in Hungary ended on April 4, 1945 when the last German troops were expelled. On May 7, 1945, General Alfred Jodl, the German Chief of Staff, signed the unconditional surrender of all German forces. Hungary's World War II casualties: Tamás Stark of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences has provided the following assessment of losses from 1941-45 in Hungary. Military losses were 300,000-310,000 including 110-120,000 killed in battle and 200,000 missing in action and POW in the Soviet Union. Hungarian military losses include 110,000 men who were conscripted from the annexed territories of Greater Hungary in Slovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia and the deaths of 20-25,000 Jews conscripted for Army labor units. Civilian losses of about 80,000 include 45,500 killed in the 1944-45 military campaign and in air attacks, Tamás Stark. Hungary's Human Losses in World War II. Uppsala Univ. 1995 ISBN 91-86624-21-0 and the genocide of Romani people of 28,000 persons. Donald Kendrick, The Destiny of Europe's Gypsies. Basic Books 1972 ISBN 0-465-01611-1 Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 200,000. Martin Gilbert. Atlas of the Holocaust 1988 ISBN 0-688-12364-3 See World War II casualties. Post-War Communist period Transition to Communism (1944-1949) The Soviet Army occupied Hungary from September 1944 until April 1945. The siege of Budapest lasted almost 2 months, from December 1944 to February 1945 (the longest successful siege of any city in the entire war, including Berlin) and the city suffered widespread destruction, including all the Danube bridges which were blown up by the Germans in an effort to slow the Soviet advance. By signing the Peace Treaty of Paris, Hungary again lost all the territories that it had gained between 1938 and 1941. Neither the Western Allies nor the Soviet Union supported any change in Hungary's pre-1938 borders, which was the primary motive behind the Hungarian involvement in the war. The Soviet Union itself annexed Sub-Carpathia (before 1938 the eastern edge of Czechoslovakia), which is today part of Ukraine. The Treaty of Peace with Hungary signed on 10 February 1947 declared that "The decisions of the Vienna Award of 2 November 1938 are declared null and void" and Hungarian boundaries were fixed along the former frontiers as they existed on 1 January 1938, except a minor loss of territory on the Czechoslovakian border. The first major violation of civil rights was suffered by the ethnic German minority, half of which (240,000 people) were deported to Germany in 1946-48, although the great majority of them did not support Germany and were not members of any pro-Nazi movement. There was a forced "exchange of population" between Hungary and Czechoslovakia, which involved about 70,000 Hungarians living in Slovakia and somewhat smaller numbers of ethnic Slovaks living in the territory of Hungary. Unlike the Germans, these people were allowed to carry some of their property with them. The Soviets originally planned for a piecemeal introduction of the Communist regime in Hungary, therefore when they set up a provisional government in Debrecen on December 21, 1944, they were careful to include representatives of several moderate parties. Following the demands of the Western Allies for a democratic election, the Soviets authorized the only essentially free election in Eastern Europe in November 1945 in Hungary. This was also the first election held in Hungary on the basis of universal franchise. People voted for party lists, not for individual candidates. At the elections the Independent Smallholders' Party, a center-right peasant party, won 57% of the vote. Despite the hopes of the Communists and the Soviets that the distribution of the aristocratic estates among the poor peasants would increase their popularity, the Hungarian Communist Party received only 17% of the votes. The Soviet commander in Hungary, Marshal Voroshilov, refused to allow the Smallholders' Party to form a government on their own. Under Voroshilov's pressure, the Smallholders organized a coalition government including the Communists, the Social Democrats and the National Peasant Party (a left-wing peasant party), in which the Communists held some of the key posts. On February 1 1946, Hungary was declared a Republic, and the leader of the Smallholders, Zoltán Tildy, became President handing over the office of Prime Minister to Ferenc Nagy. Mátyás Rákosi, leader of the Communist Party, became deputy prime minister. Another leading Communist, László Rajk became minister of the interior responsible for controlling law enforcement, and in this position established the security police (ÁVH). The Communists exercised constant pressure on the Smallholders both inside and outside the government, nationalising industrial companies, banning religious civil organizations and occupying key positions in local public administration. In February 1947 the police began arresting leaders of the Smallholders Party, charging them with "conspiracy against the Republic". Several prominent figures decided to emigrate or were forced to escape abroad, including Prime Minister Ferenc Nagy in May 1947. Later Mátyás Rákosi boasted that he had dealt with his partners in the government, one by one, "cutting them off like slices of salami." At the next parliamentary election in August 1947, the Communists committed widespread election fraud with absentee ballots (the so-called "blue slips"), but even so, they only managed to increase their share from 17% to 24% in Parliament. The Social Democrats (by this time a servile ally of the Communists) received 15% in contrast to their 17% in 1945. The Smallholders' Party lost much of its popularity and ended up with 15%, but their former voters turned towards three new center-right parties which seemed more determined to resist the Communist onslaught: their combined share of the total votes was 35%. Faced with their second failure at the polls, the Communists changed tactics, and, under new orders from Moscow, decided to eschew democratic facades and speed up the Communist takeover. In June 1948, the Social Democratic Party was forced to "merge" with the Communist Party, creating the Hungarian Working People's Party, which was dominated by the Communists. Anti-Communist leaders of the Social Democrats, such as Károly Peyer or Anna Kéthly, were forced into exile or excluded from the party. Soon after, President Zoltán Tildy was also removed from his position, and replaced by a fully cooperative Social Democrat, Árpád Szakasits. Ultimately, all "democratic" parties were organized into a so-called People's Front in February 1949, thereby losing even the vestiges of their autonomy. The leader of the People's Front was Rákosi himself. Opposition parties were simply declared illegal and their leaders arrested or forced into exile. On 18 August, 1949, the Parliament passed the new constitution of Hungary (1949/XX.) modelled after the 1936 constitution of the Soviet Union. The name of the country changed to the People's Republic of Hungary, "the country of the workers and peasants" where "every authority is held by the working people". Socialism was declared as the main goal of the nation. A new coat-of-arms was adopted with Communist symbols, such the red star, hammer and sickle. Stalinist era (1949-1956) Mátyás Rákosi, who as chief secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party was de facto the leader of Hungary, possessed practically unlimited power and demanded complete obedience from fellow members of the Party, including his two most trusted colleagues, Ernő Gerő and Mihály Farkas. All three of them returned to Hungary from Moscow, where they spent long years and had close ties to high-ranking Soviet leaders there. Their main rivals in the party were the 'Hungarian' Communists who led the illegal party during the war in Hungary, and were considerably more popular within party ranks. Their most influential leader, László Rajk, who was minister of foreign affairs at the time, was arrested in May 1949. He was accused of rather surreal crimes, such as spying for Western imperialist powers and for Yugoslavia (which was also a Communist country but in very bad relations with the Soviet Union at the time). At his trial in September 1949 he made a forced confession to be an agent of Miklós Horthy, Leon Trotsky, Josip Broz Tito and Western imperialism. He also admitted that he had taken part in a murder plot against Mátyás Rákosi and Ernő Gerő. Rajk was found guilty and executed. In the next three years, other leaders of the party deemed untrustworthy, like former Social Democrats or other Hungarian illegal Communists such as János Kádár, were also arrested and imprisoned on trumped-up charges. The showcase trial of Rajk is considered the beginning of the worst period of the Rákosi dictatorship. Mátyás Rákosi now attempted to impose totalitarian rule on Hungary. The centrally orchestrated personality cult focused on him and Stalin soon reached unprecedented proportions. Rákosi's images and busts were everywhere, all public speakers were required to glorify his wisdom and leadership. In the meantime, the secret police, led through Gábor Péter by Rákosi himself, mercilessly persecuted all 'class enemies' and 'enemies of the people'. An estimated 2,000 people were executed and over 100,000 were imprisoned. Some 44,000 ended up in forced-labour camps, where many died due to horrible work conditions, poor food and practically no medical care. Another 15,000 people, mostly former aristocrats, industrialists, military generals and other upper-class people were deported from the capital and other cities to countryside villages where they were forced to do hard agricultural labour. These policies were opposed by some members of the Hungarian Working People's Party and around 200,000 were expelled by Rákosi from the organization. By 1950, the state controlled most of the economy, as all large and mid-sized industrial companies, plants, mines, banks of all kind as well as all companies of retail and foreign trade were nationalized without any compensation. Slavishly following Soviet economic policies, Rákosi declared that Hungary would become a "country of iron and steel", even though Hungary lacked iron ore completely. The forced development of heavy industry served military purposes; it was meant to be preparation for the impending World War III against Western imperialism. A disproportionate amount of the country's resources were spent on building whole industrial cities and plants from scratch, while much of the country was still in ruins since the war. Traditional strengths of Hungary, such as the food and textile industries were neglected. Large agricultural latifundia were divided and distributed among poor peasants already in 1945. In agriculture, the government tried to force independent peasants to enter co-operatives in which they would become merely paid labourers, but many of them stubbornly resisted. The government retaliated with ever higher requirements of compulsory food quotas imposed on peasants' produce. Rich peasants, called 'kulaks' in Russians, were declared 'class enemies' and suffered all sorts of discrimination, including imprisonment and loss of property. With them, some of the most able farmers were removed from production. The declining agricultural output led to a constant scarcity of food, especially meat. Rákosi rapidly expanded the education system in Hungary. This was an attempt to replace the educated class of the past by what Rákosi called a new "working intelligentsia". In addition to effects such as better education for the poor, more opportunities for working class children and increased literacy in general, this measure also included the dissemination of communist ideology in schools and universities. Also, as part of an effort to separate the Church from the State, practically all religious schools were taken into state ownership, and religious instruction was denounced as retrograde propaganda and was gradually eliminated from schools. The Hungarian churches were systematically intimidated. Cardinal József Mindszenty, who had bravely opposed the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists during the Second World War, was arrested in December, 1948, and accused of treason. After five weeks under arrest (which included torture), he confessed to the charges against him and he was sentenced to life imprisonment. The Protestant churches were also purged and their leaders were replaced by those willing to remain loyal to Rákosi's government. The new Hungarian military hastily staged public, pre-arranged trials to purge "Nazi remnants and imperialist saboteurs". Several officers were sentenced to death and executed in 1951, including Lajos Toth, a 28 victory-scoring fighter ace of World War II Royal Hungarian Air Force, who had voluntarily returned from US captivity to help revive Hungarian aviation. The victims were cleared posthumously following the fall of communism. Preparations for a show trial started in Budapest in 1953 József Szekeres: Saving the Ghettos of Budapest in January 1945, Pál Szalai "the Hungarian Schindler" ISBN 9637323147, Budapest 1997, Publisher: Budapest Archives, Page 74 to prove that Raoul Wallenberg had not been dragged off in 1945 to the Soviet Union but was the victim of cosmopolitan Zionists. For the purposes of this show trial, three Jewish leaders as well as two would-be "eyewitnesses" were arrested and interrogated by torture. The show trial was initiated in Moscow, following Stalin-s anti-Zionist campaign. After the death of Stalin and Lavrentiy Beria, the preparations for the trial were stopped and the arrested persons were released. Rákosi had great difficulties managing the economy and the people of Hungary saw living standards fall. Although his government became increasingly unpopular, he had a firm grip on power until Joseph Stalin died on March 5, 1953, when a confused power struggle began in Moscow. Some of the Soviet leaders perceived the unpopularity of the Hungarian regime and ordered Rákosi to give up his position as prime minister in favour of another former Communist-in-exile in Moscow, Imre Nagy, who was Rákosi's chief opponent in the party. Rákosi, however, retained his position as general secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party and over the next three years the two men became involved in a bitter struggle for power. As Hungary's new prime minister, Imre Nagy slightly relaxed state control over the economy and the mass media and encouraged public discussion on political and economic reform. In order to improve the general supply, he increase the production and distribution of consumer goods and reduced the tax and quota burdens of the peasants. Nagy also closed forced-labour camps, released most of the political prisoners - the Communists were allowed back into Party ranks -, and reined in the secret police, whose hated head, Gábor Péter, was convicted and imprisoned in 1954. All these rather moderate reforms earned him widespread popularity in the country, especially among the peasantry and the left-wing intellectuals. Following a turn in Moscow, where Malenkov, Nagy's primary patron lost the power struggle against Khrushchev, Mátyás Rákosi started a counterattack on Nagy. On 9 March 1955, the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party condemned Nagy for "rightist deviation". Hungarian newspapers joined the attacks and Nagy was accused of being responsible for the country's economic problems and on 18 April he was dismissed from his post by a unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Soon after, Nagy was even excluded from the Party and temporarily retired from politics. Rákosi once again became the unchallenged leader of Hungary. Rákosi's second reign, however, did not last long. His power was undermined by a speech made by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956, in which he denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and his followers in Eastern Europe, especially the attacks on Yugoslavia and the cult of personality. On 18 July 1956, visiting Soviet leaders removed Rákosi from all his positions and he boarded a plane bound for the Soviet Union, never to return to Hungary. But the Soviets made a major mistake by the appointment of his close friend and ally, Ernő Gerő, as his successor, who was equally unpopular and shared responsibility for most of Rákosi's crimes. The fall of Rákosi was followed by a flurry of reform agitation both inside and outside the Party. László Rajk and his fellow victims of the showcase trial of 1949 were cleared of all charges, and on 6 October 1956, the Party authorized a reburial, which was attended by tens of thousands of people and became a silent demonstration against the crimes of the regime. On 13 October it was announced that Imre Nagy had been reinstated as a member of the party. 1956 Revolution On October 23 1956, a peaceful student demonstration in Budapest produced a list of 16 demands for reform and greater political freedom. As the students attempted to broadcast these demands, police made some arrests and tried to disperse the crowd with tear gas. When the students attempted to free those arrested, the police opened fire on the crowd, setting off a chain of events which led to the Hungarian Revolution. That night, commissioned officers and soldiers joined the students on the streets of Budapest. Stalin's statue was brought down and the protesters chanted "Russians go home", "Away with Gerő" and "Long Live Nagy". The Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party responded to these developments by requesting Soviet military intervention and deciding that Imre Nagy should become head of a new government. Soviet tanks entered Budapest at 2 a.m. on 24 October. On October 25 Soviet tanks opened fire on protesters in Parliament Square. One journalist at the scene saw 12 dead bodies and estimated that 170 had been wounded. Shocked by these events the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party forced Ernő Gerő to resign from office and replaced him with János Kádár. Imre Nagy now went on Radio Kossuth and announced he had taken over the leadership of the Government as Chairman of the Council of Ministers." He also promised "the far-reaching democratization of Hungarian public life, the realisation of a Hungarian road to socialism in accord with our own national characteristics, and the realisation of our lofty national aim: the radical improvement of the workers' living conditions." On October 28, Nagy and a group of his supporters, including János Kádár, Géza Losonczy, Antal Apró, Károly Kiss, Ferenc Münnich and Zoltán Szabó, managed to take control of the Hungarian Working People's Party. At the same time revolutionary workers' councils and local national committees were formed all over Hungary. The change of leadership in the party was reflected in the articles of the government newspaper, Szabad Nép (i.e. Free People). On 29 October the newspaper welcomed the new government and openly criticised Soviet attempts to influence the political situation in Hungary. This view was supported by Radio Miskolc that called for the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country. On October 30, Imre Nagy announced that he was freeing Cardinal József Mindszenty and other political prisoners. He also informed the people that his government intends to abolish the one-party state. This was followed by statements of Zoltán Tildy, Anna Kéthly and Ferenc Farkas concerning the restitution of the Smallholders Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Petőfi (former Peasants) Party. Nagy's most controversial decision took place on 1 November when he announced that Hungary intended to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact as well as proclaiming Hungarian neutrality he asked the United Nations to become involved in the country's dispute with the Soviet Union. On 3 November, Nagy announced details of his coalition government. It included communists (János Kádár, Georg Lukács, Géza Losonczy), three members of the Smallholders Party (Zoltán Tildy, Béla Kovács and István Szabó), three Social Democrats (Anna Kéthly, Gyula Keleman, Joseph Fischer), and two Petőfi Peasants (István Bibó and Ferenc Farkas). Pál Maléter was appointed minister of defence. Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union, became increasingly concerned about these developments and on November 4 1956 he sent the Red Army into Hungary. Soviet tanks immediately captured Hungary's airfields, highway junctions and bridges. Fighting took place all over the country but the Hungarian forces were quickly defeated. During the Hungarian Uprising an estimated 20,000 people were killed, nearly all during the Soviet intervention. Imre Nagy was arrested and replaced by the Soviet loyalist, János Kádár. Nagy was imprisoned until being executed in 1958. Other government ministers or supporters who were either executed or died in captivity included Pál Maléter, Géza Losonczy, Attila Szigethy and Miklós Gimes. Post Revolution (or Kádár) era 1956-1989 Once he was in power, János Kádár led an attack against revolutionaries. 21,600 mavericks (democrats, liberals, reformist communists alike) were imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 400 killed. But in the early 1960s, Kádár announced a new policy under the motto of "He who is not against us is with us." (this was a modification of Rákosi's statement 'He who is not with us is against us'). He declared a general amnesty, gradually curbed some of the excesses of the secret police, and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "New Economic Mechanism," through which it sought to rebuild the economy, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure political stability. Over the next two decades of relative domestic quiet, Kádár's government responded alternately to pressures for minor political and economic reforms as well as to counter-pressures from reform opponents. By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt, incurred to shore up unprofitable industries. Hungary's transition to a Western-style democracy was one of the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By late 1988, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Some of these became reform socialists, while others began movements which were to develop into parties. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution. In 1988, Kádár was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party, and reform communist leader Imre Pozsgay was admitted to the Politburo. In 1989, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package," which included trade-union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and in October 1989 a radical revision of the constitution, among others. Since then, Hungary has tried to reform its economy and increase its connections with western Europe, hoping to become a member of the European Union as soon as possible. A Central Committee plenum in February 1989 endorsed in principle the multiparty political system and the characterization of the October 1956 revolution as a "popular uprising," in the words of Pozsgay, whose reform movement had been gathering strength as Communist Party membership declined dramatically. Kádár's major political rivals then cooperated to move the country gradually to democracy. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991. National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national round table, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties -- such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats -- the Communist Party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system. In October 1989, the communist party convened its last congress and re-established itself as the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP). In a historic session on October 16 - October 20, 1989, the Parliament adopted legislation providing for multiparty parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election. The legislation transformed Hungary from a People's Republic into the Republic of Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensures separation of powers among the judicial, executive, and legislative branches of government. On the day of the 1956 Revolution, October 23, the Hungarian Republic was officially declared (by the provisional President of the Republic Mátyás Szűrös), replacing the Hungarian People's Republic. The revised constitution also championed the "values of bourgeois democracy and democratic socialism" and gave equal status to public and private property. Free elections and a democratic government since 1989 Choose, please! - A 1990 political poster by Fidesz, depicting Leonid Brezhnev and Erich Honecker performing a traditional and widely known communist-style kiss-greeting (archive photo, above) and a kissing contemporary young couple (below). The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the communist past. The revitalized and reformed communists performed poorly despite having more than the usual advantages of an "incumbent" party. Populist, center-right, and liberal parties fared best, with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister József Antall, the MDF formed a center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the parliament. Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of Young Democrats (Fidesz). Péter Boross succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died in December 1993. The Antall/Boross coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary democracy and laid the foundation for a free-market economy, and the massive worsening of living standards because of the free-market reforms led to a massive loss of support. In May 1994, the socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. After its disappointing result in the election, Fidesz changed its political position from liberal to conservative. In 1995, it added "Hungarian Civic Party" (Magyar Polgári Párt) to its shortened name. The conservative turn caused a severe split in the membership. Péter Molnár left the party, as well as Gábor Fodor and Klára Ungár, who joined the liberal Alliance of Free Democrats. The MSZP, whose politics was as much determined by the socialism of PM Gyula Horn and a large part of the base, as by the economic focus of its technocrats (educated with a Western orientation in seventies-eighties) and ex-cadre entrepreneur supporters, and its liberal coalition partner SzDSz continued economic reforms and privatization, adopting a painful policy of fiscal austerity (the "Bokros plan") in 1995. The government pursued a foreign policy of integration with Euro-Atlantic institutions and reconciliation with neighboring countries. But neither an invitation to join NATO nor improving economic indicators guaranteed the governing parties' re-election; dissatisfaction with the pace and style of economic recovery, rising crime, the attempt to re-start the unpopular program of building a dam in the Danube, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998. Fidesz captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister Viktor Orbán, promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orbán administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it was a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government. In 2002 it was decided that Hungary, together with 9 other countries was to join the European Union on 1 January, 2004. However, Fidesz lost the next election in April 2002, in which the MSZP and its liberal ally SzDSz 51% won over Fidesz and its ally MDF 48% in a fierce fight that showed a loss of trust in Fidesz due to supposed professed corruption problems, a style seen as arrogant by parts of the population, and lack of communication between the government and the other parties and some strategically bad connections to extreme right-wing parties during the election campaign, while also showing the doubt and memories of already mentioned problems with the socialist party's last government. On April 12, 2003 Hungary voted for joining the European Union, where 83% of the votes said "Yes" to EU (45% of the population voted). Since the EU already accepted Hungary as a possible member, the 4 leading political parties (MSZP, Fidesz, SZDSZ and MDF) agreed to establish the required prerequisites and policies and to work together to prepare the country for the accession with the least possible harm to the economy and people while maximising the positive effects on the country. On May 1, 2004, Hungary became a member of the EU. In the elections of April 2006, Hungary decided to keep its government in place for the first time in the history of the Third Hungarian Republic. The left-wing strengthened its positions, with the coalition of the Social Democrats (MSZP) and the Liberals (SZDSZ) reaching 54 percent of the votes, gaining 210 seats as opposed to the previous 198. Surprise elements were the rise in votes for the smaller parties SZDSZ and MDF, and the largest conservative party Fidesz (joining forces with one of the Christian Democrat parties for the elections) winning a considerably lower number, 164 of the altogether 386 seats, while most polls showed a head-to-head competition and an almost equal amount of seats won by the two large parties. Many analysts have pointed to Fidesz's largely negative political campaign, its conflicts with MDF (which refused to ally with Fidesz because, among others, of differences in basic principles and a number of alleged blackmail incidents hvg.hu - hírek szünet nélkül : DF v Fidesz: A stormy four years - Alone or in coalition ), as well as the content of public speeches of some of its candidates (such as deputy prime minister nominee István Mikola referring to young Hungarians participating in Budapest Parade as "hordes made up of single people" Fidesz Maintains Two-Point Edge in Hungary: Angus Reid Global Monitor ) as probable causes of the party's loss of voters especially in the second round where, according to the Tárki institute, Fidesz lost as much as ten percent of its voters. The new Parliament assembled in late May 2006, and the new government was formed in June 2006. Under the socialist-liberal government (since 2002) all index of the Hungaran economy started to downfall. There were mass protests against social-liberal Gyurcsány government between 17 September and 23 October 2006. It is the first sustained protest in Hungary since 1989. See also List of Hungarian rulers Heads of state of Hungary List of Prime Ministers of Hungary Aftermath of World War I Timeline of liberal and radical parties in Hungary Pannonian basin before Hungary Hungarian art Music history of Hungary Collectivisation in Hungary History of the Jews in Hungary History of the Székely people References External links History of Hungary: Primary Documents Hungarian Maps and Shields Hungarian History Borders in the region between 1000-1995 Hungarian Genealogical Resources Encyclopaedia Humana Hungarica (1–5) Emese saga : Hungarian prehistory from the beginnings to King St. Stephen (1038) The Vazul-line : Kings of the Árpád dynasty after St. Stephen (1038-1301) Knight kings : The Anjou- and Sigismund age in Hungary (1301-1437) Pannonian Renaissance : The Hunyadis and the Jagello age (1437-1526) Cross and crescent : The Turkish age in Hungary (1526-1699) (The English translations of volumes 6 to 9 are in preparation.) be-x-old:Гісторыя Вугоршчыны | 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5,644 | History_of_Asia | The Silk Road connected many civilisations across Asia. ANCIENT SILK ROAD TRAVELLERS Asia in 1200 CE, just before the Mongol Empire Map of Asia, 1892 The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe.cars sink like feet. The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, with each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. These valleys were fertile because the soil there was rich with opium. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area. Cities, states and then empires developed in these lowlands. The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes they could reach all areas of the Asian continent. The earliest known such central expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans which spread their languages into the Middle East, India, and in the Tocharians to the borders of China. The northern part of the continent, covering much of Siberia was also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the tundra. These areas were very sparsely populated. The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus, Himalaya, Karakum Desert, and Gobi Desert formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies. 1.83 Million BCE Archaeologists have found stone tools in Malaysia which have been dated to be 1.83 million years old. Malaysian scientists find stone tools 'oldest in Southeast Asia' 9000 BC to 4500 BC Western Asia saw the world's earliest transition to a Neolithic (settled farming) lifestyle. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated to 10000 BC has been seen as the beginning of the "Neolithic 1" culture. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherers since there is no permanent housing in the vicinity. This temple site is the oldest known man-made place of worship. Around 9000 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures appeared in the Fertile Crescent. Around 8000 BC the world's first town Jericho appeared in the Levant (present-day West Bank). It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2000–3000 people and a massive stone tower. "Jericho", Encyclopedia Britannica The exact date is not established with certainty due to different results in carbon dating by different laboratories. Jbeil (Byblos), present-day Lebanon is another early site. The Neolithic culture of Jericho developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered wild cereal use, which then evolved into true farming. By 8500–8000 BC farming communities began to spread to Anatolia, North Africa and north Mesopotamia. The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 7000–8000 BC, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases. Around 5500 BCE the Halafian culture appeared in the Levant, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia, based upon dryland agriculture. In southern Mesopotamia were the alluvial plains of Sumer and Elam. Since there was little rainfall irrigation systems were necessary. The Ubaid culture from flourished from 5500 BCE. Bronze Age The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BCE, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BCE, replacing the Neolithic cultures. China and Vietnam were also centres of metalworking. Iron Age The Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, ruled an area from Greece and Turkey to the Indus River and Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BC. Alexander the Great conquered this empire in the 4th century BC. The Roman Empire would later control parts of Western Asia. The Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanian dynasties of Persia dominated Western Asia for centuries. Many ancient civilizations were influenced by the Silk Road, which connected China, India, the Middle East and Europe. The religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, which began in India, were an important influence on South, East and Southeast Asia. Middle Ages The Islamic Caliphate and other Islamic states took over the Middle East, Caucasus and Central Asia during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, and later expanded into the Indian subcontinent and Malay archipelago. The Crusades would be fought from the 12th century, in Christian Europe's attempt to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims. The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Modern period The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, eventually taking control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire controlled Turkey and the Middle East from the 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty, although this was in decline by the nineteenth century and had been overthrown in 1912. one European powers had control of other parts of Asia by the 1900s, such as British India, French Indochina and Portuguese Macau and Goa. The Great Game between Russia and Britain was the struggle for power in the Central Asian region in the nineteenth century. The Trans-Siberian Railway, crossing Asia by train, was complete by 1916. Parts of Asia remained free from European control, although not influence, such as Persia, Thailand and most of China. In the twentieth century, Imperial Japan expanded into China, Korea and Southeast Asia during the Second World War. After the war, many Asian countries became independent from European powers. During the Cold War, the northern parts of Asia were communist controlled with the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China, while western allies formed pacts such as CENTO and SEATO. Conflicts such as the Korean War, Vietnam War and Soviet invasion of Afghanistan were fought between communists and anti-communists. In the decades after the Second World War, a massive restructuring plan drove Japan to become the world's second-largest economy, a phenomenon known as the Japanese post-war economic miracle. The Arab-Israeli conflict has dominated much of the recent history of the Middle East. After the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991, there were many new independent nations in Central Asia. See also Exploration of Asia List of conflicts in Asia Imperialism in Asia History of Eurasia History of Central Asia History of East Asia History of the Middle East History of Southeast Asia References | History_of_Asia |@lemmatized silk:3 road:3 connect:2 many:5 civilisation:1 across:1 asia:28 ancient:2 traveller:1 ce:1 mongol:2 empire:8 map:1 history:8 see:3 collective:1 several:1 distinct:1 peripheral:1 coastal:2 region:5 east:12 south:2 middle:9 link:1 interior:1 mass:1 eurasian:1 steppe:7 car:1 sink:1 like:1 foot:1 periphery:2 home:1 world:6 early:5 know:4 civilization:4 three:1 develop:6 around:4 fertile:3 river:2 valley:3 soil:1 rich:1 opium:1 mesopotamia:4 indus:2 china:11 share:1 similarity:1 likely:2 exchange:1 technology:1 idea:1 mathematics:1 wheel:1 notion:1 write:1 individually:1 area:7 city:2 state:3 lowland:2 long:1 inhabit:1 mounted:2 nomad:3 central:8 could:3 reach:1 asian:3 continent:2 expansion:1 indo:1 european:4 spread:2 language:1 india:5 tocharian:1 border:1 northern:4 part:6 cover:1 much:2 siberia:2 also:3 inaccessible:1 due:2 dense:1 forest:1 tundra:1 sparsely:1 populate:1 centre:2 keep:1 separate:1 mountain:2 desert:3 caucasus:2 himalaya:1 karakum:1 gobi:1 form:2 barrier:1 horseman:1 cross:2 difficulty:1 technologically:1 culturally:1 dweller:1 advanced:1 little:2 militarily:1 defend:1 horde:1 however:1 enough:1 open:1 grassland:1 support:1 large:3 horsebound:1 force:2 thus:1 conquer:4 soon:1 adapt:1 local:1 society:1 million:2 bce:5 archaeologist:1 find:2 stone:4 tool:2 malaysia:1 date:3 year:1 old:3 malaysian:1 scientist:1 southeast:4 bc:9 western:4 saw:1 transition:1 neolithic:7 settled:1 farming:2 lifestyle:1 temple:2 southeastern:1 turkey:3 göbekli:1 tepe:1 beginning:1 culture:11 site:5 nomadic:1 hunter:1 gatherer:1 since:2 permanent:1 housing:1 vicinity:1 man:1 make:1 place:1 worship:1 first:2 fully:1 appear:3 crescent:1 town:1 jericho:3 levant:2 present:2 day:2 west:1 bank:1 surround:1 marble:1 wall:1 contain:2 population:1 people:3 massive:2 tower:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 exact:1 establish:2 certainty:1 different:2 result:1 carbon:1 dating:1 laboratory:1 jbeil:1 byblos:1 lebanon:2 another:1 directly:1 epipaleolithic:1 natufian:1 whose:1 pioneer:1 wild:1 cereal:1 use:1 evolve:1 true:1 farm:1 community:1 begin:5 anatolia:2 north:2 africa:1 prehistoric:1 beifudi:1 near:1 yixian:1 hebei:1 province:1 relic:1 contemporaneous:1 cishan:1 xinglongwa:1 taihang:1 fill:1 archaeological:1 gap:1 two:2 chinese:1 total:1 excavated:1 square:1 meter:1 collection:1 finding:1 consist:1 phase:1 halafian:1 palestine:1 syria:1 base:1 upon:1 dryland:1 agriculture:1 southern:1 alluvial:1 plain:1 sumer:1 elam:1 rainfall:1 irrigation:1 system:1 necessary:1 ubaid:1 flourish:1 bronze:2 age:4 chalcolithic:1 period:2 replace:1 vietnam:2 metalworking:1 iron:1 achaemenid:1 dynasty:3 persian:1 found:1 cyrus:1 great:3 rule:1 greece:1 century:13 alexander:1 roman:1 would:2 later:2 control:6 seleucid:1 parthian:1 sassanian:1 persia:2 dominate:2 influence:3 europe:3 religion:1 hinduism:1 buddhism:1 important:1 islamic:2 caliphate:1 take:2 muslim:2 conquest:1 expand:3 indian:1 subcontinent:1 malay:1 archipelago:1 crusade:1 fight:2 christian:1 attempt:1 retake:1 holy:1 land:1 extend:1 modern:1 russian:1 eventually:1 end:1 ottoman:1 onwards:1 manchu:1 qing:1 although:2 decline:1 nineteenth:2 overthrow:1 one:1 power:3 british:1 french:1 indochina:1 portuguese:1 macau:1 goa:1 game:1 russia:1 britain:1 struggle:1 trans:1 siberian:1 railway:1 train:1 complete:1 remain:1 free:1 thailand:1 twentieth:1 imperial:1 japan:2 korea:1 second:3 war:7 country:1 become:2 independent:2 cold:1 communist:3 soviet:3 union:2 republic:1 ally:1 pact:1 cento:1 seato:1 conflict:3 korean:1 invasion:1 afghanistan:1 anti:1 decade:1 restructuring:1 plan:1 drive:1 economy:1 phenomenon:1 japanese:1 post:1 economic:1 miracle:1 arab:1 israeli:1 recent:1 collapse:1 new:1 nation:1 exploration:1 list:1 imperialism:1 eurasia:1 reference:1 |@bigram silk_road:3 eurasian_steppe:1 fertile_soil:1 indus_valley:1 indo_european:1 steppe_nomad:1 sparsely_populate:1 gobi_desert:1 southeast_asia:4 göbekli_tepe:1 nomadic_hunter:1 hunter_gatherer:1 fertile_crescent:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 natufian_culture:1 alluvial_plain:1 hinduism_buddhism:1 indian_subcontinent:1 malay_archipelago:1 ottoman_empire:1 qing_dynasty:1 nineteenth_century:2 trans_siberian:1 siberian_railway:1 twentieth_century:1 soviet_union:2 |
5,645 | Hero_System | The Hero System (or HERO System) is a generic role-playing game system that developed from the superhero RPG Champions. It is used as the underlying mechanics of other Hero Games role-playing games such as Dark Champions, Fantasy Hero, Star Hero, and Pulp Hero. It is characterized by point-based character creation and the rigor with which it measures character abilities. It was one of the first RPG systems to forgo the use of non-cubical dice. System features The HERO System character creation system is entirely points-based with no random elements. Players are given a pool of points, the size of which varies depending on the campaign type, with which to buy Characteristics, Skills, Talents and Powers. They can gain additional points by taking Disadvantages that hamper their character in play. Abilities in the HERO System, particularly Powers (a broad category that includes superpowers, magic, psionics and high technology), are modeled based on their effects. The player chooses an effect the power models (such as Energy Blast) and chooses a set of modifiers to fine-tune the power's function. Each modifier makes the Power more or less expensive. HERO System products and players are notorious for the ingenuity and complexity of their power constructions. Tasks are resolved using three six-sided dice and Power effects (especially damage) are resolved by rolling a number of dice based on the power's level. Unlike the d20 System, experience awards are in the form of character points, which have the same value as those used in character creation and can be applied directly to the character's abilities upon receipt. Character creation The HERO System's biggest innovation was its use of a point-based system for character creation with a tool-kit approach to creating abilities. The rules only define the ability's effects in combat -- the player defines what the ability looks like when used. For example, the ability to project a jet of fire could be bought as "Energy Blast," or any of a number of other abilities. The player then defines it as a "jet of fire," with all that implies: it has the possibility of starting secondary fires; it looks, smells and sounds like a jet of fire; etc. This Energy Blast could be modified by any number of modifiers such as "Explosion," "Area of Effect" or "No Range." These affect how the power works as well as its final cost. Each player creates his character starting with a pool of points to buy abilities (such as the aforementioned "Energy Blast" and "Armor"), increase characteristics (such as "Strength" and "Intelligence") and buy skills (such as "Computer Programming" and "Combat Driving"). This pool can be increased by taking disadvantages for your character (such as being hunted by an enemy, a dependency of some sort or having people who depend on your character in some way). The initial pool, as well as the final pool size, is determined by the Game Master (GM), as well as the point limits on each individual ability. Advantages and disadvantages The advantages of the HERO System are commonly considered to be: It eases game balance issues for the GM: characters of similar point totals are usually of roughly equal power. It is very flexible in character creation, allowing players to create nearly any character they can imagine. It uses only six-sided dice, the most commonly used type. The primary disadvantages are commonly considered to be: Complexity, as character generation provides a sometimes overwhelming number of options and requires more mathematical computation than other games (but see "Mathematics issues" below). The long amount of time it can take to adjudicate combat. The ability for players familiar with the system's quirks to use the system to decrease the point cost of powers, leading to one character being much more powerful than another character of similar point value. A large number of dice required at high power levels The "large number of dice required at high power levels" has been called both an advantage and a disadvantage. The original designers, and some contemporary players, have cited a "feeling of power" when rolling large numbers of dice and counting off huge amounts of damage. On the other hand, rolling such a large load of dice can be physically unwieldy and take a long time to add up. Powers The powers system is divided into a set of standard powers, and a list of advantages and limitations that can be applied to each power. Many of the powers have specific advantages and limitations that apply only to that power. The powers in the HERO System are categorized roughly as follows: Adjustment Powers — Modify the Characteristics of self or another. Attack Powers — Inflict physical damage or some other negative effect on an opponent. Body-Affecting Powers — Change shape, size, density, etc. Defense Powers — Protect against an attack or mishap. Mental Powers — Detect and/or affect the mind of another. Movement Powers — Employ various forms of movement. Sense-Affecting Powers — Alter or hinder a character's senses. Sensory Powers — Improve or expand upon the sensory abilities. Size Powers — Growth and Shrinking. Special Powers — Powers with some unusual quality, including ones that do not fall into the other categories. Standard Powers — A "catch-all" for Powers that are not Adjustment, Mental, Movement, Size, or Special Powers. Within each of these categories are multiple Powers that have more specialized effects. Thus for the movement category there are powers that can be used for Running, Swimming, Climbing, Leaping, Gliding, Flying, Tunneling through solid surfaces, and even Teleportation. For certain game genres there are even powers for traveling to other dimensions or moving faster than light. Also, many Powers appear in at least two categories. For example, most Attack Powers are also Standard Powers, and Size Powers are basically just a subcategory of Body-Affecting Powers. Darkness is in three categories — Standard, Attack, and Sense-Affecting. Point Cost Each power has a base point cost for a given effect. This could be, for example, a certain number of points per six-sided-die (or "d6") of damage inflicted upon a foe. Powers can have both advantages and limitations. Both are modifiers applied at different stages in calculating cost. These modifiers are typically in integer increments of ±¼, but can range up to ±2 or even higher. After the base cost is calculated, advantages are applied. These, which can make a power more useful, typically expand its effectiveness or make it more powerful, and thus make it more expensive. Once advantages are applied, the base cost becomes the Active Cost. The formula for calculating the Active Cost is: Active Cost = Base Cost × (1 + Advantages) Once Active Cost is calculated, limitations are applied. These represent shortcomings in the power, lessened reliability or situations in which the power can not be used. Limitations are added separately as positive numbers, even though they are listed as negative. The real cost of the power is then determined by: Real Cost = Active Cost / (1 + Limitations) The Active Cost by itself is used in other calculations, such as ENDurance usage, skill level required, or slot usage in a power framework. The real cost just gives the point expenditure required to gain the power. Power Frameworks The rules also include schemes for providing a larger number of powers to a character for a given cost. These power frameworks reduce the cost either by requiring the group of powers to have a common theme as in an Elemental Control Framework, or by limiting the number of powers that can be active at one time with a Multipower Framework. Powers within a framework can share common limitations, further reducing the cost. A third type of power framework, the Variable Power Pool (VPP), trades thrift for flexibility. With it, powers can be arbitrarily chosen on the fly, granting enhanced in-game flexibility. The price is a premium on points, called the Control Cost. Additionally, it is marked as potentially unbalancing, so not all GMs will permit VPP's. Mathematics issues One of the criticisms levelled at the HERO System almost since its inception is the relatively large amount of computation involved in its use, particularly during character creation. While almost none of this math goes beyond the basic functions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (certain obscure and completely optional situations may call for a logarithmic function), this can seem daunting to newcomers. As a result, software has been created to automate the bookkeeping involved. "Heromaker", a MS-DOS program, was distributed with some versions of Champions. Today, "Hero Designer" "Hero Designer: Character creation software for HERO System, 5th Edition", vendor website for the Fifth Edition is available on several platforms, and is supported by numerous character packs and other extensions linked to Hero Games book releases. Publishing history Although several games based on the HERO System were published in the 1980s, including Champions, Danger International, Justice, Inc., Robot Warriors and the original versions of Fantasy HERO and Star HERO, each of the RPGs was self-contained, much as Chaosium's Basic Role-Playing games are. The HERO System itself was not released as an independent entity until 1989, as GURPS (Generic Universal Roleplaying System) became more popular. As a joint venture between Hero Games and Iron Crown Enterprises, a stand-alone HERO System Rulebook was published alongside the fourth edition of Champions. The content was identical to the opening sections of the Champions rules, but all genre-related material was removed. Afterward, genre books such as Ninja HERO and Fantasy HERO were published as sourcebooks for the HERO System Rulebook as opposed to being independent games. With the collapse of the Hero-ICE alliance, the HERO System went into limbo for several years. The Champions franchise released a new version under the Fuzion system, which had been a joint development with R. Talsorian Games, called Champions: the New Millennium. Although two editions were published, it was very poorly received by Champions fans. In 2001, a reconstituted Hero Games was formed under the leadership of Steve Long, who had written several books for the earlier version of the system. It regained the rights to the HERO System and to the Champions trademark. In 2001, the Fifth Edition of the HERO System Rulebook was released, incorporating heavy revisions by Long. A large black hardcover, it was critically well-received and attained a degree of commercial success. (Following problems with fragile bindings on Fourth Edition rulebooks, the planned binding for the larger Fifth Edition was tested using a clothes dryer. "News", Hero Games website, January 25, 2002 ) The Fifth Edition is often referred to as "FREd", which is a backronym for "Fifth Rules Edition". The name actually comes from Steve Long's reply when asked what the standard abbreviation for the Fifth Edition would be: "I don't care if you call it 'Fred', as long as you buy it." A revised version (ISBN 1-58366-043-7) was issued in 2004, along with HERO System Sidekick, a condensed version of the rulebook with a cover price of under $10. Fans often call the revised Fifth Edition "Fiver," ReFREd," or "5ER" (from "Fifth Edition revised"; "Fiver" also alludes to Watership Down). This rulebook is so big (592 pages) that some fans speculated that it might be bulletproof, and it did indeed stop some bullets when tested by Hero Games staffers. "5ER Bulletproof Video", Steve Long, Hero Games forum. Video hosted at YouTube. On February 28, 2008, Cryptic Studios purchased the Champions intellectual property, and sold the rights back to Hero Games to publish the 6th edition books, which will debut in 2009 at GenCon. One of the new features will be to allow players to adapt their Champions Online characters to the pen-and-paper game. In late 2008, Hero released a licensed RPG for Aaron Williams's popular comic PS238 using a simplified version of the Fifth Edition rules. References External links HERO Games Company website | Hero_System |@lemmatized hero:38 system:30 generic:2 role:3 playing:2 game:21 develop:1 superhero:1 rpg:3 champion:12 use:15 underlie:1 mechanic:1 play:2 dark:1 fantasy:3 star:2 pulp:1 characterize:1 point:16 base:10 character:24 creation:8 rigor:1 measure:1 ability:12 one:6 first:1 forgo:1 non:1 cubical:1 dice:8 feature:2 entirely:1 random:1 element:1 player:10 give:4 pool:6 size:6 varies:1 depend:2 campaign:1 type:3 buy:5 characteristic:3 skill:3 talent:1 power:60 gain:2 additional:1 take:4 disadvantage:5 hamper:1 particularly:2 broad:1 category:6 include:4 superpower:1 magic:1 psionics:1 high:4 technology:1 model:2 effect:8 choose:3 energy:4 blast:4 set:2 modifier:5 fine:1 tune:1 function:3 make:4 less:1 expensive:2 product:1 notorious:1 ingenuity:1 complexity:2 construction:1 task:1 resolve:2 three:2 six:3 side:3 especially:1 damage:4 roll:3 number:11 level:5 unlike:1 experience:1 award:1 form:3 value:2 apply:7 directly:1 upon:3 receipt:1 big:2 innovation:1 tool:1 kit:1 approach:1 create:4 rule:5 define:3 combat:3 look:2 like:2 example:3 project:1 jet:3 fire:4 could:3 imply:1 possibility:1 start:2 secondary:1 smell:1 sound:1 etc:2 modify:2 explosion:1 area:1 range:2 affect:5 work:1 well:4 final:2 cost:21 aforementioned:1 armor:1 increase:2 strength:1 intelligence:1 computer:1 program:2 drive:1 hunt:1 enemy:1 dependency:1 sort:1 people:1 way:1 initial:1 determine:2 master:1 gm:3 limit:2 individual:1 advantage:9 commonly:3 consider:2 ease:1 balance:1 issue:4 similar:2 total:1 usually:1 roughly:2 equal:1 flexible:1 allow:2 nearly:1 imagine:1 primary:1 generation:1 provide:2 sometimes:1 overwhelming:1 option:1 require:6 mathematical:1 computation:2 see:1 mathematics:2 long:7 amount:3 time:3 adjudicate:1 familiar:1 quirk:1 decrease:1 lead:1 much:2 powerful:2 another:3 large:8 call:6 original:2 designer:3 contemporary:1 cite:1 feeling:1 count:1 huge:1 hand:1 load:1 physically:1 unwieldy:1 add:2 divide:1 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identical:1 opening:1 section:1 related:1 material:1 remove:1 afterward:1 ninja:1 sourcebooks:1 oppose:1 collapse:1 ice:1 alliance:1 limbo:1 year:1 franchise:1 new:3 fuzion:1 development:1 r:1 talsorian:1 millennium:1 poorly:1 receive:2 fan:3 reconstituted:1 leadership:1 steve:3 write:1 early:1 regain:1 right:2 trademark:1 incorporate:1 heavy:1 revision:1 black:1 hardcover:1 critically:1 attain:1 degree:1 commercial:1 success:1 problem:1 fragile:1 binding:2 rulebooks:1 plan:1 test:2 clothes:1 dryer:1 news:1 january:1 often:2 refer:1 fred:2 backronym:1 name:1 actually:1 come:1 reply:1 ask:1 abbreviation:1 would:1 care:1 revised:1 isbn:1 along:1 sidekick:1 condensed:1 cover:1 revise:2 fiver:2 refred:1 allude:1 watership:1 page:1 speculate:1 might:1 bulletproof:2 indeed:1 stop:1 bullet:1 staffer:1 video:2 forum:1 host:1 youtube:1 february:1 cryptic:1 studio:1 purchase:1 intellectual:1 property:1 sell:1 back:1 debut:1 gencon:1 adapt:1 online:1 pen:1 paper:1 late:1 licensed:1 aaron:1 williams:1 comic:1 simplified:1 reference:1 external:1 company:1 |@bigram advantage_disadvantage:2 addition_subtraction:1 subtraction_multiplication:1 joint_venture:1 r_talsorian:1 external_link:1 |
5,646 | Black_hole | Simulated view of a black hole in front of the Milky Way. The hole has 10 solar masses and is viewed from a distance of 600 km. Of note is the gravitational lensing effect known as an Einstein ring. In general relativity, a black hole is a region of space in which the gravitational field is so powerful that nothing, including light, can escape its pull. The black hole has a one-way surface, called an event horizon, into which objects can fall, but out of which nothing can come. It is called "black" because it absorbs all the light that hits it, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect blackbody in thermodynamics. Quantum analysis of black holes shows them to possess a temperature and Hawking radiation. Despite its invisible interior, a black hole can reveal its presence through interaction with other matter. A black hole can be inferred by tracking the movement of a group of stars that orbit a region in space which looks empty. Alternatively, one can see gas falling into a relatively small black hole, from a companion star. This gas spirals inward, heating up to very high temperature and emitting large amounts of radiation that can be detected from earthbound and earth-orbiting telescopes. Such observations have resulted in the general scientific consensus that, barring a breakdown in our understanding of nature, black holes do exist in our universe. arΧiv:astro-ph/9912186v1 Introduction and terminology A black hole is often defined as an object whose escape velocity exceeds the speed of light. This picture is qualitatively wrong, but provides a way of understanding the order of magnitude for the black hole radius. The escape velocity is the speed at which an object needs to travel so as to just manage to get infinitely far away from a source of gravity before stopping. On the Earth, the escape velocity is equal to 11 km/s, so no matter what the object is, a rocket or a baseball, it must go at least 11 km/s to avoid falling back to the Earth's surface eventually. To calculate the escape velocity in Newtonian mechanics, consider a heavy object of mass M centered at the origin. A second object with mass starting at distance from the origin with speed , trying to escape to infinity, needs to have just enough kinetic energy to make up for the negative gravitational potential energy, with nothing left over: That way, as it gets closer to it has less and less kinetic energy, finally ending up at infinity with no speed. This relation gives the critical escape velocity in terms of and . But it also says that for each value of and , there is a critical value of so that a particle with speed is just able to escape: When the velocity is equal to the speed of light, this gives the radius of a hypothetical Newtonian dark star, a Newtonian body from which a particle moving at the speed of light cannot escape. In the most commonly used convention for the value of the radius of a black hole, the radius of the event horizon is equal to this Newtonian value. In general relativity, the coordinate r is not completely straightforward to define due to the curved nature of space-time and the choice of different coordinates. For this result to be true, the value of r should be defined so that the surface area A of a sphere of radius r in the curved space time is still given by the formula . This definition of r only makes sense when the gravitational field is spherically symmetric, so that there are concentric spheres on which the gravitational field is constant. The escape velocity of an object depends on how compact it is; that is, the ratio of its mass to radius. A black hole forms when an object is so compact that, within a certain distance of it, even the speed of light is not fast enough to escape. Unlike in Newtonian gravity, in General relativity, light going away from a black hole doesn't slow down and turn around. The Schwarzschild radius is still the last distance from which light can escape to infinity, but outgoing light which starts at the Schwartschild radius doesn't go out and come back, it just stays there. Inside the Schwartschild radius, everything must move inward, getting crushed somehow at the center. In general relativity, the black hole's mass can be thought of as concentrated at a singularity, which can be a point, a ring, a light-ray, or a sphere, the exact details are not currently well understood in all circumstances. Surrounding the singularity is a spherical boundary called the event horizon. The event horizon marks the 'point of no return,' a boundary that, if crossed, inevitably leads falling matter and radiation inwards, towards the singularity. The radius of this sphere is the size of the black hole, and is equal to twice the mass in units where G and c equal 1. The radius of a black hole of mass equal to that of the Sun is about 3 km. At distances much larger than this, the black hole has the exact same total gravitational attraction as any other body of the same mass, just like the sun. So if the sun were replaced by a black hole of the same mass, the orbits of the planets would remain unchanged. There are several types of black holes, characterized by their typical size. When they form as a result of the gravitational collapse of a star, they are called stellar black holes. Black holes found at the center of galaxies have a mass up to several billion solar masses and are called supermassive black holes, because they are so big. Between these two scales, there are believed to be intermediate black holes with a mass of several thousand solar masses. Black holes with very small masses, believed to have formed early in the history of the Universe, during the Big Bang, might also exist, and are referred to as primordial black holes. Their existence is, at present, not confirmed. It is impossible to directly observe a black hole. However, it is possible to infer its presence by its gravitational action on the surrounding environment, particularly with microquasars and active galactic nuclei, where material falling into a nearby black hole is significantly heated and emits a large amount of X-ray radiation. This observation method allows astronomers to detect their existence. The only objects that agree with these observations and are consistent within the framework of general relativity are black holes. History Schwarzchild black hole|Simulation of Gravitational lensing by a black hole which distorts a galaxy in the background. The idea of a body so massive that even light could not escape was put forward by geologist John Michell in a letter written to Henry Cavendish in 1783 to the Royal Society: In 1796, mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace promoted the same idea in the first and second editions of his book Exposition du système du Monde (it was removed from later editions). Laplace; see Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W. & Israel, Werner, 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, Sec. 7.4 Such "dark stars" were largely ignored in the nineteenth century, since light was then thought to be a massless wave and therefore not influenced by gravity. Unlike the modern black hole concept, the object behind the horizon is assumed to be stable against collapse. In 1915, Albert Einstein developed his general theory of relativity, having earlier shown that gravity does in fact influence light's motion. A few months later, Karl Schwarzschild gave the solution for the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass, showing that a black hole could theoretically exist. The Schwarzschild radius is now known to be the radius of the event horizon of a non-rotating black hole, but this was not well understood at that time, for example Schwarzschild himself thought it was not physical. Johannes Droste, a student of Hendrik Lorentz, independently gave the same solution for the point mass a few months after Schwarzschild and wrote more extensively about its properties. In 1930, astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar calculated using general relativity that a non-rotating body of electron-degenerate matter above 1.44 solar masses (the Chandrasekhar limit) would collapse. His arguments were opposed by Arthur Eddington, who believed that something would inevitably stop the collapse. Eddington was partly correct: a white dwarf slightly more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a neutron star. But in 1939, Robert Oppenheimer and others predicted that stars above approximately three solar masses (the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit) would collapse into black holes for the reasons presented by Chandrasekhar. On Massive Neutron Cores, J. R. Oppenheimer and G. M. Volkoff, Physical Review 55, #374 (15 February 1939), pp. 374–381. Oppenheimer and his co-authors used Schwarzschild's system of coordinates (the only coordinates available in 1939), which produced mathematical singularities at the Schwarzschild radius, in other words some of the terms in the equations became infinite at the Schwartschild radius. This was interpreted as indicating that the Schwarzschild radius was the boundary of a bubble in which time stopped. This is a valid point of view for external observers, but not for infalling observers. Because of this property, the collapsed stars were briefly known as "frozen stars," because an outside observer would see the surface of the star frozen in time at the instant where its collapse takes it inside the Schwarzschild radius. This is a known property of modern black holes, but it must be emphasized that the light from the surface of the frozen star becomes redshifted very fast, turning the black hole black very quickly. Many physicists could not accept the idea of time standing still at the Schwarzschild radius, and there was little interest in the subject for over 20 years. In 1958, David Finkelstein introduced the concept of the event horizon by presenting Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates, which enabled him to show that "The Schwarzschild surface r = 2 m is not a singularity, but that it acts as a perfect unidirectional membrane: causal influences can cross it in only one direction". D. Finkelstein (1958). "Past-Future Asymmetry of the Gravitational Field of a Point Particle". Phys. Rev. 110: 965–967. This did not strictly contradict Oppenheimer's results, but extended them to include the point of view of infalling observers. All theories up to this point, including Finkelstein's, covered only non-rotating black holes. In 1963, Roy Kerr found the exact solution for a rotating black hole. The rotating singularity of this solution was a ring, and not a point. A short while later, Roger Penrose was able to prove that singularities occur inside any black hole. In 1967, astronomers discovered pulsars, and within a few years could show that the known pulsars were rapidly rotating neutron stars. Until that time, neutron stars were also regarded as just theoretical curiosities. So the discovery of pulsars awakened interest in all types of ultra-dense objects that might be formed by gravitational collapse. Physicist John Wheeler is widely credited with coining the term black hole in his 1967 public lecture Our Universe: the Known and Unknown, as an alternative to the more cumbersome "gravitationally completely collapsed star." However, Wheeler insisted that someone else at the conference had coined the term and he had merely adopted it as useful shorthand. The term was also cited in a 1964 letter by Anne Ewing to the AAAS: Properties and features The No hair theorem states that, once it settles down, a black hole has only three independent physical properties: mass, charge and angular momentum. Any two black holes that share the same values for these properties, or parameters, are classically indistinguishable. These properties are special because they are visible from outside the black hole. For example, a charged black hole repels other like charges just like any other charged object, despite the fact that photons, the particles responsible for electric and magnetic forces, cannot escape from the interior region. The reason is Gauss's law, the total electric flux going out of a big sphere always stays the same, and measures the total charge inside the sphere. When charge falls into a black hole, electric field lines still remain, poking out of the horizon, and these field lines conserve the total charge of all the infalling matter. The electric field lines eventually spread out evenly over the surface of the black hole, settling down to a uniform field-line density on the surface. The black hole acts in this regard like a classical conducting sphere with a definite resistivity. Thorne, "Black Holes, The Membrane Paradigm" Similarly, the total mass inside a sphere containing a black hole can be found by using the gravitational analog of Gauss's law, far away from the black hole. Likewise, the angular momentum can be measured from far away using frame dragging by the gravitomagnetic field. When a black hole swallows any form of matter, its horizon oscillates like a stretchy membrane with friction, a dissipative system, until it settles down to a simple final state. This is different from other field theories like electromagnetism or gauge theory, which never have any friction or resistivity, because they are time reversible. Because the black hole eventually settles down into a final state with only three parameters, there is no way to avoid losing information about the initial conditions: The gravitational and electric fields of the black hole give very little information about what went in. The information that is lost includes every quantity that cannot be measured far away from the black hole horizon, including the total baryon number, lepton number, and all the other nearly conserved pseudo-charges of particle physics. This behavior is so puzzling, that it has been called the black hole information loss paradox. John Preskill(1994)"Black holes and information: A crisis in quantum physics" Daniel Carmody(2008)"The Fate of Quantum Information in a Black Hole" The loss of information in black holes is puzzling even classically, because General Relativity is a Lagrangian theory, which superficially appears to be time reversible and Hamiltonian. But because of the horizon, a black hole is not time reversible: matter can enter but it cannot escape. The time reverse of a classical black hole has been called a white hole, although entropy considerations and quantum mechanics suggest that white holes are just the same as black holes. The no-hair theorem makes some assumptions about the nature of our universe and the matter it contains, and other assumptions lead to different conclusions. For example, if Magnetic monopoles exist, as predicted by some theories , the magnetic charge would be a fourth parameter for a classical black hole. Counterexamples to the no-hair theorem are known for the following cases: In spacetime dimensions higher than four In the presence of non-abelian Yang-Mills fields For discrete gauge symmetries. Some non-minimally coupled scalar fields , When scalars can be topologically twisted, as in the case of skyrmions In modified theories of gravity, different from Einstein’s general relativity. These exceptions are sometimes unstable, and sometimes do not lead to new conserved quantum numbers far away from the black hole. For large black holes in our apparently four-dimensional, very nearly flat universe . , the theorem should hold. Classification By physical properties The simplest black hole has mass but neither charge nor angular momentum. These black holes are often referred to as Schwarzschild black holes after the physicist Karl Schwarzschild who discovered this solution in 1915. and . It was the first non-trivial exact solution to the Einstein field equations to be discovered, and according to Birkhoff's theorem, the only vacuum solution that is spherically symmetric. This means that there is no observable difference between the gravitational field of such a black hole and that of any other spherical object of the same mass. The popular notion of a black hole "sucking in everything" in its surroundings is therefore only correct near the black hole horizon; far away, the external gravitational field is essentially like that of ordinary massive bodies. More general black hole solutions were discovered later in the 20th century. The Reissner-Nordström metric describes a black hole with electric charge, while the Kerr metric yields a rotating black hole. The more generally known stationary black hole solution, the Kerr-Newman metric, describes both charge and angular momentum. While the mass of a black hole can take any positive value, the charge and angular momentum are constrained by the mass. In natural units , the total charge and the total angular momentum are expected to satisfy for a black hole of mass M. Black holes saturating this inequality are called extremal. Solutions of Einstein's equations violating the inequality do exist, but do not have a horizon. These solutions have naked singularities and are deemed unphysical, as the cosmic censorship hypothesis rules out such singularities due to the generic gravitational collapse of realistic matter. For a review see . This is supported by numerical simulations. For a discussion of these numerical simulations see . Due to the relatively large strength of the electromagnetic force, black holes forming from the collapse of stars are expected to retain the nearly neutral charge of the star. Rotation, however, is expected to be a common feature of compact objects, and the black-hole candidate binary X-ray source GRS 1915+105 . appears to have an angular momentum near the maximum allowed value. By mass Class Mass Size Supermassive black hole ~105–109 MSun ~0.001–10 AU Intermediate-mass black hole ~103 MSun ~103 km = REarth Stellar-mass ~10 MSun ~30 km Micro black hole up to ~MMoon up to ~0.1 mm Black holes are commonly classified according to their mass, independent of angular momentum . The size of a black hole, as determined by the radius of the event horizon, or Schwarzschild radius, is proportional to the mass through where is the Schwarzschild radius and is the mass of the Sun. A black hole's size and mass are thus simply related independent of rotation. According to this criterion, black holes are classed as: Supermassive – contain hundreds of thousands to billions of solar masses. and are thought to exist in the center of most galaxies, including the Milky Way. They are believed to be responsible for active galactic nuclei, and presumably form either from the coalescence of smaller black holes, or by the accretion of stars and gas onto them. The largest known supermassive black hole is located in OJ 287 weighing in at 18 billion solar masses. Intermediate – contain thousands of solar masses. They have been proposed as a possible power source for ultraluminous X-ray sources. There is no known mechanism for them to form directly, so they likely form via collisions of lower mass black holes, either in the dense stellar cores of globular clusters or galaxies. Such creation events should produce intense bursts of gravitational waves, which may be observed soon. The boundary between super- and intermediate-mass black holes is a matter of convention. Their lower mass limit, the maximum mass for direct formation of a single black hole from collapse of a massive star, is poorly known at present, but is thought to be somewhere well below 200 solar masses. Stellar-mass – have masses ranging from a lower limit of about 1.4–3 solar masses (the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit for the maximum mass of neutron stars) up to perhaps 15–20 solar masses. They are created by the collapse of individual stars, or by the coalescence (inevitable, due to gravitational radiation) of binary neutron stars. Stars may form with initial masses up to about 100 solar masses, or in the distant past, possibly even higher, but these shed most of their outer massive layers during earlier phases of their evolution, either blown away in stellar winds during the red giant, AGB, and Wolf-Rayet stages, or expelled in supernova explosions for stars that turn into neutron stars or black holes. Being known mostly by theoretical models for late-stage stellar evolution, the upper limit for the mass of stellar-mass black holes is somewhat uncertain at present. The cores of still lighter stars form white dwarfs. Micro – (also mini black holes) have masses much less than that of a star. At these sizes, quantum mechanics is expected to take effect. There is no known mechanism for them to form via normal processes of stellar evolution, but certain inflationary scenarios predict their production during the early stages of the evolution of the universe. According to some theories of quantum gravity they may also be produced in the highly energetic reaction produced by cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere or even in particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider. The theory of Hawking radiation predicts that such black holes will evaporate in bright flashes of gamma radiation. NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope satellite (formerly GLAST) launched in 2008 is searching for such flashes. Event horizon Far away from the black hole a particle can move in any direction. It is only restricted by the speed of light. Closer to the black hole spacetime starts to deform. There are more paths going towards the black hole than paths moving away. Inside of the event horizon all paths bring the particle closer to the center of the black hole. It is no longer possible for the particle to escape. The defining feature of a black hole is the appearance of an event horizon; a boundary in spacetime beyond which events cannot affect an outside observer. As predicted by general relativity, the presence of a mass deforms spacetime in such a way that the paths particles take tend towards the mass. At the event horizon of a black hole this deformation becomes so strong that there are no more paths that lead away from the black hole. Once a particle is inside the horizon, moving into the hole is as inevitable as moving forward in time (and can actually be thought of as equivalent to doing so). To a distant observer clocks near a black hole appear to tick more slowly than those further away from the black hole. Due to this effect (known as gravitational time dilation) the distant observer will see an object falling into a black hole slow down as it approaches the event horizon, taking an infinite time to reach it. At the same time all processes on this object slow down causing emitted light to appear redder and dimmer, an effect known as gravitational red shift. Eventually, the falling object becomes so dim that it can no longer be seen, at a point just before it reaches the event horizon. For a non rotating (static) black hole, the Schwarzschild radius delimits a spherical event horizon. The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to the mass. Rotating black holes have distorted, nonspherical event horizons. Since the event horizon is not a material surface but rather merely a mathematically defined demarcation boundary, nothing prevents matter or radiation from entering a black hole, only from exiting one. The description of black holes given by general relativity is known to be an approximation, and it is expected that quantum gravity effects become significant near the vicinity of the event horizon. This allows observations of matter in the vicinity of a black hole's event horizon to be used to indirectly study general relativity and proposed extensions to it. Though black holes themselves may not radiate energy, electromagnetic radiation and matter particles may be radiated from just outside the event horizon via Hawking radiation. Singularity At the center of a black hole lies the singularity, where matter is crushed to infinite density, the pull of gravity is infinitely strong, and spacetime has infinite curvature. This means that a black hole's mass becomes entirely compressed into a region with zero volume. This zero-volume, infinitely dense region at the center of a black hole is called a gravitational singularity. The singularity of a non-rotating black hole has zero length, width, and height; a rotating black hole's is smeared out to form a ring shape lying in the plane of rotation. The ring still has no thickness and hence no volume. The appearance of singularities in general relativity is commonly perceived as signaling the breakdown of the theory. This breakdown, however, is expected; it occurs in a situation where quantum mechanical effects should describe these actions due to the extremely high density and therefore particle interactions. To date it has not been possible to combine quantum and gravitational effects into a single theory. It is generally expected that a theory of quantum gravity will feature black holes without singularities. Photon sphere The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness such that photons moving along tangents to the sphere will be trapped in a circular orbit. For non-rotating black holes, the photon sphere has a radius 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius. The orbits are dynamically unstable, hence any small perturbation (such as a particle of infalling matter) will grow over time, either setting it on an outward trajectory escaping the black hole or on an inward spiral eventually crossing the event horizon. While light can still escape from inside the photon sphere, any light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound trajectory will be captured by the black hole. Hence any light reaching an outside observer from inside the photon sphere must have been emitted by objects inside the photon sphere but still outside of the event horizon. Other compact objects, such as neutron stars, can also have photon spheres. This follows from the fact that the gravitational field of an object does not depend on its actual size, hence any object that is smaller than 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius corresponding to its mass will indeed have a photon sphere. Ergosphere ergosphere of a rotating black hole|The ergosphere is an oblate spheroid region outside of the event horizon, where objects cannot remain stationary. Rotating black holes are surrounded by a region of spacetime in which it is impossible to stand still, called the ergosphere. This is the result of a process known as frame-dragging; general relativity predicts that any rotating mass will tend to slightly "drag" along the spacetime immediately surrounding it. Any object near the rotating mass will tend to start moving in the direction of rotation. For a rotating black hole this effect becomes so strong near the event horizon that an object would have to move faster than the speed of light in the opposite direction to just stand still. The ergosphere of black hole is bounded by: On the outside, an oblate spheroid, which coincides with the event horizon at the poles and is noticeably wider around the "equator." This boundary is sometimes called the "ergosurface," but it is just a boundary and has no more solidity than the event horizon. At points exactly on the ergosurface, spacetime is "dragged around at the speed of light." On the inside, the (outer) event horizon. Within the ergosphere, space-time is dragged around faster than light—general relativity forbids material objects to travel faster than light (so does special relativity), but allows regions of space-time to move faster than light relative to other regions of space-time. Objects and radiation (including light) can stay in orbit within the ergosphere without falling to the center. But they cannot hover (remain stationary, as seen by an external observer), because that would require them to move backwards faster than light relative to their own regions of space-time, which are moving faster than light relative to an external observer. Objects and radiation can also escape from the ergosphere. In fact the Penrose process predicts that objects will sometimes fly out of the ergosphere, obtaining the energy for this by "stealing" some of the black hole's rotational energy. If a large total mass of objects escapes in this way, the black hole will spin more slowly and may even stop spinning eventually. Formation and Evolution From the exotic nature of black holes, it is natural to question if such bizarre objects could actually exist in nature or that they are merely pathological solutions to Einstein's equations. Einstein himself wrongly believed that black holes would not form, because he believed that the angular momentum of collapsing particles would stabilize their motion at some radius. . This led the general relativity community to dismiss all results to the contrary for many years. But a minority of relativists continued to believe that black holes were physical objects , and by the end of the 1960s, they had persuaded the majority of researchers in the field that there is no obstacle to forming an event horizon. Once an event horizon forms, Roger Penrose proved that a singularity will form somewhere inside it. Shortly afterwards, Stephen Hawking showed that many cosmological solutions describing the big bang have singularities, in the absence of scalar fields or other exotic matter (see Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems). The Kerr solution, the no-hair theorem and the laws of black hole thermodynamics showed that the physical properties of black holes were simple and comprehensible, making them respectable subjects for research. The primary formation process for black holes is expected to be the gravitational collapse of heavy objects such as stars, but there are also more exotic processes that can lead to the production of black holes. Gravitational collapse Gravitational collapse occurs when an object's internal pressure is insufficient to resist the object's own gravity. For stars this usually occurs either because a star has too little "fuel" left to maintain its temperature, or because a star which would have been stable receives a lot of extra matter in a way which does not raise its core temperature. In either case the star's temperature is no longer high enough to prevent it from collapsing under its own weight (the ideal gas law explains the connection between pressure, temperature, and volume). The collapse may be stopped by the degeneracy pressure of the star's constituents, condensing the matter in an exotic denser state. The result is one of the various types of compact star. Which type of compact star is formed depends on the mass of the remnant - the matter left over after changes triggered by the collapse (such as supernova or pulsations leading to a planetary nebula) have blown away the outer layers. Note that this can be substantially less than the original star - remnants exceeding 5 solar masses are produced by stars which were over 20 solar masses before the collapse. If the mass of the remnant exceeds ~3-4 solar masses (the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit)—either because the original star was very heavy or because the remnant collected additional mass through accretion of matter—even the degeneracy pressure of neutrons is insufficient to stop the collapse. After this no known mechanism (except possibly quark degeneracy pressure, see quark star) is powerful enough to stop the collapse and the object will inevitably collapse to a black hole. This gravitational collapse of heavy stars is assumed to be responsible for the formation of most (if not all) stellar mass black holes. Creation of primordial black holes in The Big Bang Gravitational collapse requires great densities. In the current epoch of the universe these high densities are only found in stars, but in the early universe shortly after the big bang densities were much greater, possibly allowing for the creation of black holes. The high density alone is not enough to allow the formation of black holes since a uniform mass distribution will not allow the mass to bunch up. In order for primordial black holes to form in such a dense medium, there must be initial density perturbations which can then grow under their own gravity. Different models for the early universe vary widely in their predictions of the size of these perturbations. Various models predict the creation of black holes, ranging from a Planck mass to hundreds of thousands of solar masses. Primordial black holes could thus account for the creation of any type of black hole. High energy collisions A simulated event in the CMS detector, a collision in which a micro black hole may be created. Gravitational collapse is not the only process that could create black holes. In principle, black holes could also be created in high energy collisions that create sufficient density. However, to date, no such events have ever been detected either directly or indirectly as a deficiency of the mass balance in particle accelerator experiments. This suggests that there must be a lower limit for the mass of black holes. Theoretically this boundary is expected to lie around the Planck mass (~1019 GeV/c2 = ~2 × 10-8 kg), where quantum effects are expected to make the theory of general relativity break down completely. This would put the creation of black holes firmly out of reach of any high energy process occurring on or near the Earth. Certain developments in quantum gravity however suggest that this bound could be much lower. Some braneworld scenarios for example put the Planck mass much lower, may be even as low as 1 TeV/c2. This would make it possible for micro black holes to be created in the high energy collisions occurring when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere, or possibly in the new Large Hadron Collider at CERN. These theories are however very speculative, and the creation of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikely by many specialists. Growth Once a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing additional matter. Any black hole will continually absorb interstellar dust from its direct surroundings and omnipresent cosmic background radiation, but neither of these processes should significantly affect the mass of a stellar black hole. More significant contributions can occur when the black hole formed in a binary star system. After formation the black hole can then leech significant amounts of matter from its companion. Much larger contributions can be obtained when a black hole merges with other stars or compact objects. The supermassive black holes suspected in the center of most galaxies are expected to have formed from the coagulation of many smaller objects. The process has also been proposed as the origin of some intermediate-mass black holes. As an object approaches the event horizon, the horizon near the object bulges up and swallows the object. Shortly thereafter the increase in radius (due to the extra mass) is distributed evenly around the hole. Evaporation In 1974, Stephen Hawking showed that black holes are not entirely black but emit small amounts of thermal radiation. He got this result by applying quantum field theory in a static black hole background. The result of his calculations is that a black hole should emit particles in a perfect black body spectrum. This effect has become known as Hawking radiation. Since Hawking's result many others have verified the effect through various methods. If his theory of black hole radiation is correct then black holes are expected to emit a thermal spectrum of radiation, and thereby lose mass, because according to the theory of relativity mass is just highly condensed energy (E = mc2). Black holes will shrink and evaporate over time. The temperature of this spectrum (Hawking temperature) is proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole, which in turn is inversely proportional to the mass. Large black holes, therefore, emit less radiation than small black holes. A stellar black hole of 5 solar masses has a Hawking temperature of about 12 nanokelvins. This is far less than the 2.7 K produced by the cosmic microwave background. Stellar mass (and larger) black holes receive more mass from the cosmic microwave background than they emit through Hawking radiation and will thus grow instead of shrink. In order to have a Hawking temperature larger than 2.7 K (and be able to evaporate) a black hole needs to be lighter than the Moon (and therefore a diameter of less than a tenth of a millimeter). On the other hand if a black hole is very small, the radiation effects are expected to become very strong. Even a black hole that is heavy compared to a human would evaporate in an instant. A black hole the weight of a car (~10-24 m) would only take a nanosecond to evaporate, during which time it would briefly have a luminosity more than 200 times that of the sun. Lighter black holes are expected to evaporate even faster, for example a black hole of mass 1 TeV/c2 would take less than 10-88 seconds to evaporate completely. Of course, for such a small black hole quantum gravitation effects are expected to play an important role and could even although current developments in quantum gravity do not indicate so hypothetically make such a small black hole stable. Observation Accretion disks and gas jets Formation of extragalactic jets from a black hole's accretion disk Most accretion disks and gas jets are not clear proof that a stellar-mass black hole is present, because other massive, ultra-dense objects such as neutron stars and white dwarfs cause accretion disks and gas jets to form and to behave in the same ways as those around black holes. But they can often help by telling astronomers where it might be worth looking for a black hole. On the other hand, extremely large accretion disks and gas jets may be good evidence for the presence of supermassive black holes, because as far as we know any mass large enough to power these phenomena must be a black hole. Strong radiation emissions Steady X-ray and gamma ray emissions also do not prove that a black hole is present, but can tell astronomers where it might be worth looking for one - and they have the advantage that they pass fairly easily through nebulae and gas clouds. But strong, irregular emissions of X-rays, gamma rays and other electromagnetic radiation can help to prove that a massive, ultra-dense object is not a black hole, so that "black hole hunters" can move on to some other object. Neutron stars and other very dense stars have surfaces, and matter colliding with the surface at a high percentage of the speed of light will produce intense flares of radiation at irregular intervals. Black holes have no material surface, so the absence of irregular flares around a massive, ultra-dense object suggests that there is a good chance of finding a black hole there. Intense but one-time gamma ray bursts (GRBs) may signal the birth of "new" black holes, because astrophysicists think that GRBs are caused either by the gravitational collapse of giant stars or by collisions between neutron stars, and both types of event involve sufficient mass and pressure to produce black holes. But it appears that a collision between a neutron star and a black hole can also cause a GRB, so a GRB is not proof that a "new" black hole has been formed. All known GRBs come from outside our own galaxy, and most come from billions of light years away so the black holes associated with them are actually billions of years old. Some astrophysicists believe that some ultraluminous X-ray sources may be the accretion disks of intermediate-mass black holes. Quasars are thought to be the accretion disks of supermassive black holes, since no other known object is powerful enough to produce such strong emissions. Quasars produce strong emission across the electromagnetic spectrum, including UV, X-rays and gamma-rays and are visible at tremendous distances due to their high luminosity. Between 5 and 25% of quasars are "radio loud," so called because of their powerful radio emission. Gravitational lensing A gravitational lens is formed when the light from a very distant, bright source (such as a quasar) is bent around a massive object (such as a black hole) between the source object and the observer. The process is known as gravitational lensing, and is one of the predictions of the general theory of relativity. According to this theory, mass warps space-time to create gravitational fields and therefore bend light as a result. A source image behind the lens may appear as multiple images to the observer. In cases where the source, massive lensing object, and the observer lie in a straight line, the source will appear as a ring behind the massive object. Gravitational lensing can be caused by objects other than black holes, because any very strong gravitational field will bend light rays. Some of these multiple-image effects are probably produced by distant galaxies. Orbiting objects Objects orbiting black holes probe the gravitational field around the central object. An early example, discovered in the 1970s, is the accretion disk orbiting the putative black hole responsible for Cygnus X-1, a famous X-ray source. While the material itself cannot be seen directly, the X rays flicker on a millisecond time scale, as expected for hot clumpy material orbiting a ~10 solar-mass black hole just prior to accretion. The X-ray spectrum exhibits the characteristic shape expected for a disk of orbiting relativistic material, with an iron line, emitted at ~6.4 keV, broadened to the red (on the receding side of the disk) and to the blue (on the approaching side). Another example is the star S2, seen orbiting the Galactic center. Here the star is several light hours from the ~3.5×106 solar mass black hole, so its orbital motion can be plotted. Nothing is observed at the center of the observed orbit, the position of the black hole itself—as expected for a black object. Determining the mass of black holes Quasi-periodic oscillations can be used to determine the mass of black holes. The technique uses a relationship between black holes and the inner part of their surrounding disks, where gas spirals inward before reaching the event horizon. As the gas collapses inwards, it radiates X-rays with an intensity that varies in a pattern that repeats itself over a nearly regular interval. This signal is the Quasi-Periodic Oscillation, or QPO. A QPO’s frequency depends on the black hole’s mass; the event horizon lies close in for small black holes, so the QPO has a higher frequency. For black holes with a larger mass, the event horizon is farther out, so the QPO frequency is lower. Black hole candidates Supermassive The jet originating from the center of M87 in this image comes from an active galactic nucleus that may contain a supermassive black hole. Credit: Hubble Space Telescope/NASA/ESA. It is now widely accepted that the center of nearly every galaxy contains a supermassive black hole. The close observational correlation between the mass of this hole and the velocity dispersion of the host galaxy's bulge, known as the M-sigma relation, strongly suggests a connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself. For decades, astronomers have used the term "active galaxy" to describe galaxies with unusual characteristics, such as unusual spectral line emission and very strong radio emission. However, theoretical and observational studies have shown that the active galactic nuclei (AGN) in these galaxies may contain supermassive black holes. The models of these AGN consist of a central black hole that may be millions or billions of times more massive than the Sun; a disk of gas and dust called an accretion disk; and two jets that are perpendicular to the accretion disk. Although supermassive black holes are expected to be found in most AGN, only some galaxies' nuclei have been more carefully studied in attempts to both identify and measure the actual masses of the central supermassive black hole candidates. Some of the most notable galaxies with supermassive black hole candidates include the Andromeda Galaxy, M32, M87, NGC 3115, NGC 3377, NGC 4258, and the Sombrero Galaxy. Astronomers are confident that our own Milky Way galaxy has a supermassive black hole at its center, in a region called Sagittarius A* since: A star called S2 follows an elliptical orbit with a period of 15.2 years and a pericenter (closest) distance of 17 light hours from the central object. The first estimates indicated that the central object contains 2.6 million solar masses and has a radius of less than 17 light hours. Only a black hole can contain such a vast mass in such a small volume. Further observations strengthened the case for a black hole, by showing that the central object's mass is about 3.7 million solar masses and its radius no more than 6.25 light-hours. Intermediate-mass In 2002, the Hubble Space Telescope produced observations indicating that globular clusters named M15 and G1 may contain intermediate-mass black holes. This interpretation is based on the sizes and periods of the orbits of the stars in the globular clusters. But the Hubble evidence is not conclusive, since a group of neutron stars could cause similar observations. Until recent discoveries, many astronomers thought that the complex gravitational interactions in globular clusters would eject newly-formed black holes. In November 2004 a team of astronomers reported the discovery of the first well-confirmed intermediate-mass black hole in our Galaxy, orbiting three light-years from Sagittarius A*. This black hole of 1,300 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars, possibly the remnant of a massive star cluster that has been stripped down by the Galactic Centre. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars. In January 2007, researchers at the University of Southampton in the United Kingdom reported finding a black hole, possibly of about 10 solar masses, in a globular cluster associated with a galaxy named NGC 4472, some 55 million light-years away. Stellar-mass Artist's impression of a binary system consisting of a black hole and a main sequence star. The black hole is drawing matter from the main sequence star via an accretion disk around it, and some of this matter forms a gas jet. Our Milky Way galaxy contains several probable stellar-mass black holes which are closer to us than the supermassive black hole in the Sagittarius A* region. These candidates are all members of X-ray binary systems in which the denser object draws matter from its partner via an accretion disk. The probable black holes in these pairs range from three to more than a dozen solar masses. The most distant stellar-mass black hole ever observed is a member of a binary system located in the Messier 33 galaxy. Micro There is theoretically no smallest size for a black hole. Once created, it has the properties of a black hole. Stephen Hawking theorized that primordial black holes could evaporate and become even tinier, i.e. micro black holes. Searches for evaporating primordial black holes are proposed for the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, which was launched on June 11, 2008. However, if micro black holes can be created by other means, such as by cosmic ray impacts or in colliders, that does not imply that they must evaporate. The formation of black hole analogs on Earth in particle accelerators has been reported. These black hole analogs are not the same as gravitational black holes, but they are vital testing grounds for quantum theories of gravity. They act like black holes because of the correspondence between the theory of the strong nuclear force, which has nothing to do with gravity, and the quantum theory of gravity. They are similar because both are described by string theory. So the formation and disintegration of a fireball in quark gluon plasma can be interpreted in black hole language. The fireball at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider [RHIC] is a phenomenon which is closely analogous to a black hole, and many of its physical properties can be correctly predicted using this analogy. The fireball, however, is not a gravitational object. It is presently unknown whether the much more energetic Large Hadron Collider [LHC] would be capable of producing the speculative large extra dimension micro black hole, as many theorists have suggested. See Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider for a more in depth discussion. Advanced Topics Worm Holes Diagram of a Schwarzschild wormhole. General relativity describes the possibility of configurations in which two black holes are connected to each other. Such a configuration is usually called a wormhole. Wormholes have inspired science fiction authors because they offer a means to travel quickly over long distances and even time travel. In practice, such configurations seem completely unfeasible in astrophysics, because no known process seems to allow the formation of such objects. Entropy and Hawking radiation In 1971, Stephen Hawking showed that the total area of the event horizons of any collection of classical black holes can never decrease, even if they collide and swallow each other; that is merge. This is remarkably similar to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, with area playing the role of entropy. As a classical object with zero temperature it was assumed that black holes had zero entropy. If this were the case, the second law of thermodynamics would be violated by entropy-laden matter entering the black hole, resulting in a decrease of the total entropy of the universe. Therefore, Jacob Bekenstein proposed that a black hole should have an entropy, and that it should be proportional to its horizon area. Since black holes do not classically emit radiation, the thermodynamic viewpoint seemed simply an analogy, since zero temperature implies infinite changes in entropy with any addition of heat, which implies infinite entropy. However, in 1974, Hawking applied quantum field theory to the curved spacetime around the event horizon and discovered that black holes emit Hawking radiation, a form of thermal radiation, allied to the Unruh effect, which implied they had a positive temperature. This strengthened the analogy being drawn between black hole dynamics and thermodynamics: using the first law of black hole mechanics, it follows that the entropy of a non-rotating black hole is one quarter of the area of the horizon. This is a universal result and can be extended to apply to cosmological horizons such as in de Sitter space. It was later suggested that black holes are maximum-entropy objects, meaning that the maximum possible entropy of a region of space is the entropy of the largest black hole that can fit into it. This led to the holographic principle. The Hawking radiation reflects a characteristic temperature of the black hole, which can be calculated from its entropy. The more its temperature falls, the more massive a black hole becomes: the more energy a black hole absorbs, the colder it gets. A black hole with roughly the mass of the planet Mercury would have a temperature in equilibrium with the cosmic microwave background radiation (about 2.73 K). More massive than this, a black hole will be colder than the background radiation, and it will gain energy from the background faster than it gives energy up through Hawking radiation, becoming even colder still. However, for a less massive black hole the effect implies that the mass of the black hole will slowly evaporate with time, with the black hole becoming hotter and hotter as it does so. Although these effects are negligible for black holes massive enough to have been formed astronomically, they would rapidly become significant for hypothetical smaller black holes, where quantum-mechanical effects dominate. Indeed, small black holes are predicted to undergo runaway evaporation and eventually vanish in a burst of radiation. If ultra-high-energy collisions of particles in a particle accelerator can create microscopic black holes, it is expected that all types of particles will be emitted by black hole evaporation, providing key evidence for any grand unified theory. Above are the high energy particles produced in a gold ion collision on the RHIC. Although general relativity can be used to perform a semi-classical calculation of black hole entropy, this situation is theoretically unsatisfying. In statistical mechanics, entropy is understood as counting the number of microscopic configurations of a system which have the same macroscopic qualities(such as mass, charge, pressure, etc.). But without a satisfactory theory of quantum gravity, one cannot perform such a computation for black holes. Some promise has been shown by string theory, however, which posits that the microscopic degrees of freedom of the black hole are D-branes. By counting the states of D-branes with given charges and energy, the entropy for certain supersymmetric black holes has been reproduced. Extending the region of validity of these calculations is an ongoing area of research. Black hole unitarity An open question in fundamental physics is the so-called information loss paradox, or black hole unitarity paradox. Classically, the laws of physics are the same run forward or in reverse. That is, if the position and velocity of every particle in the universe were measured, we could (disregarding chaos) work backwards to discover the history of the universe arbitrarily far in the past. In quantum mechanics, this corresponds to a vital property called unitarity, which has to do with the conservation of probability. Black holes, however, might violate this rule. The position under classical general relativity is subtle but straightforward: because of the classical no hair theorem, it can never be determined what went into the black hole. However, as seen from the outside, information is never actually destroyed, as matter falling into the black hole takes an infinite time to reach the event horizon. Ideas about quantum gravity, on the other hand, suggest that there can only be a limited finite entropy (i.e. a maximum finite amount of information) associated with the space near the horizon; but the change in the entropy of the horizon plus the entropy of the Hawking radiation is always sufficient to take up all of the entropy of matter and energy falling into the black hole. Many physicists are concerned, however, that this is still not sufficiently well understood. In particular, at a quantum level, is the quantum state of the Hawking radiation uniquely determined by the history of what has fallen into the black hole; and is the history of what has fallen into the black hole uniquely determined by the quantum state of the black hole and the radiation? This is what determinism, and unitarity, would require. For a long time Stephen Hawking had opposed such ideas, holding to his original 1975 position that the Hawking radiation is entirely thermal and therefore entirely random, containing none of the information held in material the hole has swallowed in the past; this information he reasoned had been lost. However, on 21 July 2004 he presented a new argument, reversing his previous position. On this new calculation, the entropy (and hence information) associated with the black hole escapes in the Hawking radiation itself. However, making sense of it, even in principle, is difficult until the black hole completes its evaporation. Until then it is impossible to relate in a 1:1 way the information in the Hawking radiation (embodied in its detailed internal correlations) to the initial state of the system. Once the black hole evaporates completely, such identification can be made, and unitarity is preserved. By the time Hawking completed his calculation, it was already very clear from the AdS/CFT correspondence that black holes decay in a unitary way. This is because the fireballs in gauge theories, which are analogous to Hawking radiation, are unquestionably unitary. Hawking's new calculation has not been evaluated by the specialist scientific community, because the methods he uses are unfamiliar and of dubious consistency; but Hawking himself found it sufficiently convincing to pay out on a bet he had made in 1997 with Caltech physicist John Preskill, to considerable media interest. Holographic world Leonard Susskind and Nobel prizewinner Gerard 't Hooft have suggested that the three dimensional space surrounding a black hole can be completely described by a two dimensional behavior of the horizon. They believe this because this can resolve the black hole information-loss paradox. This idea has been made precise within string theory, and it is known as the holographic principle. See also Black hole information paradox Black string Fuzzball (string theory) Gravitational singularity Neutron star Spacetime Supermassive black hole Timeline of black hole physics References Further reading Popular reading . . . . . . . , poem. University textbooks and monographs , the lecture notes on which the book was based are available for free from Sean Carroll's website. . . . . . . . . Research papers Stephen Hawking's purported solution to the black hole unitarity paradox, first reported at a conference in July 2004. More accurate mass and position for the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way. Lecture notes from 2005 SLAC Summer Institute. External links Black hole on Scholarpedia Black Hole confirmed in Milky Wayretrieved December 10, 2008 Yale University Video Lecture: Introduction to Black Holes at Google Video Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull - Award-winning interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute FAQ on black holes Schwarzschild Geometry on Andrew Hamilton’s website Tufts University: Student Project (Great Kid's Section) Movie of Black Hole Candidate from Max Planck Institute UT Brownsville Group Simulates Spinning Black-Hole Binaries Black Hole Research News on ScienceDaily Scientific American Magazine (July 2003 Issue) The Galactic Odd Couple - giant black holes and stellar baby booms Scientific American Magazine (May 2005 Issue) Quantum Black Holes SPACE.com All About Black Holes - News, Features and Interesting Original Videos Black Holes Intro - Introduction to Black Holes Advanced Mathematics of Black Hole Evaporation HowStuffWorks: How Black Holes Work - Easy to consume guide to Black Holes Ted Bunn's Black Holes FAQ explains in simple language some other consequences of the way in which black holes bend space-time. 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5,647 | Lesser_Poland | Lesser Poland (also "Little Poland", Polish: Małopolska, Latin: Polonia Minor) is one of the historical regions of Poland. It forms the southeastern corner of the country. It should not be confused with the modern Lesser Poland Voivodeship, which covers just a part of the historical region of Lesser Poland Geography Lesser Poland lies in the upper confluence of the Vistula river and covers a large upland, including the Świętokrzyskie Mountains, Lesser Polish Upland, Sandomierz Basin, and Lublin Upland. It stretches from the Carpathians in the south to Pilica and Wieprz rivers to the north. It borders Mazovia to the north, Podlachia to the northeast, Silesia to the west, Slovakia to the south and the border with Ukraine (Red Ruthenia) to the east. Historically, until World War II the region also included large parts of modern Ukraine (see Galicia). Lesser Poland during the interwar period (II Republic), 1921- 17 September 1939 Lesser Poland - province of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, during the period of its maximum expansion 1635 Lesser Poland (ger. Kleinpolen) - province of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, before 1660 In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Lesser Poland Province (prowincja małopolska) consisted of Lesser Poland proper, Podlachia, Red Ruthenia, Volhynia, Podolia, Ukraine, and the Czernihów Voivodeship; capital: Kraków Administratively, the historical area is divided into the voivodeships of Lesser Poland, Subcarpathia, Świętokrzyskie, Lublin, the eastern half of the neighbouring Upper Silesia, and southern parts of Masovia and Lodz. Major cities and towns The most notable cities of the region include: Kraków Lwów (today a part of Ukraine) as well as: Częstochowa Rzeszów Lublin Jaworzno Dąbrowa Górnicza Mielec Kielce Sandomierz Sosnowiec Tarnów Krosno Nowy Sącz BrzeskoTarnobrzeg Stalowa Wola Sanok Wieliczka Bochnia Oświęcim Radom Zawiercie Zakopane Bielsko-Biała Łuków Siedlce Sucha Beskidzka History 9th century state of Vistulans, Lendians and other smaller Slavic tribes, end of 10th century – inclussion to the Polans' state: provinces of Krakow and Sandomierz. around 1040 Krakow becomes the capital of Poland. 1138 Poland feudal fragmentation period begins – Duchy of Krakow and Sandomierz ("senioral part") becomes a seat of a senior prince. 1241 First Mongol raid, led by Baidar and Kadan. 1259 Second Mongol raid, led by Nogai Khan. 1287 Third Mongol raid, led by Talabuga. 1320, 20th Jan coronation of Władysław I the Elbow-high in Krakow ends the fragmentation period - united Poland restored 15th c. Sejmik general in Nowy Korczyn. 1340 annexation of Red Ruthenia, with the city of Lwow to Poland. 16th c. annexation of Ruthenia (up to Kiev), which goes under administration of Lesser Poland Bełz Voivodeship, Bracław Voivodeship, Czernihów Voivodeship, Kiev Voivodeship, Podole Voivodeship, Volhynian Voivodeship . 16-17th c. Lesser Poland the main centre of Polish culture. 1545 Sejmik general of Ruthenian Voivodship is established in Sądowa Wisznia. 1795-1918 Poland partition period: Galicia, Free City of Krakow. Northern part of Lesser Poland, with Radom, Kielce and Lublin, belongs to the Russian Empire, southern part, with Krakow, Przemysl and Lwow - to Austria-Hungary, 1918 returning to Poland after regaining the independence. World War II German-occupied General Government. currently: Lesser Poland Voivodship, Lublin Voivodship, Subcarpathian Voivodship, Świętokrzyskie Voivodship and parts of Silesian Voivodship, Mazovian Voivodship and Lodz Voivodship. A fragment of Russiae, Moscoviae et Tartariae map by Anthony Jenkinson (London 1562) published by Ortelius in 1570. Tourism The historical capital of Lesser Poland – Krakow – is regarded by many to be the cultural capital of Poland. In 1978, UNESCO placed Kraków on the list of World Heritage Sites. The wooden architecture (most notably, churches) of Lesser Poland are also on that list as well as the Wieliczka Salt Mine located on the outskirsts of Krakow. The following National Parks are located in Lesser Poland: Tatra National Park, Ojców National Park, Pieniny National Park (Poland), Babia Góra National Park, Gorce National Park, Magurski National Park, Bieszczady National Park, Roztocze National Park, Świętokrzyski National Park. Polesie National Park References </div> | Lesser_Poland |@lemmatized less:18 poland:27 also:3 little:1 polish:6 małopolska:2 latin:1 polonia:1 minor:1 one:1 historical:4 region:4 form:1 southeastern:1 corner:1 country:1 confuse:1 modern:2 voivodeship:8 cover:2 part:8 geography:1 lie:1 upper:2 confluence:1 vistula:1 river:2 large:2 upland:3 include:3 świętokrzyskie:3 mountain:1 sandomierz:4 basin:1 lublin:5 stretch:1 carpathians:1 south:2 pilica:1 wieprz:1 north:2 border:2 mazovia:1 podlachia:2 northeast:1 silesia:2 west:1 slovakia:1 ukraine:4 red:3 ruthenia:4 east:1 historically:1 world:3 war:2 ii:3 see:1 galicia:2 interwar:1 period:5 republic:1 september:1 province:4 lithuanian:3 commonwealth:3 maximum:1 expansion:1 ger:1 kleinpolen:1 prowincja:1 consist:1 proper:1 volhynia:1 podolia:1 czernihów:2 capital:4 kraków:3 administratively:1 area:1 divide:1 voivodeships:1 subcarpathia:1 eastern:1 half:1 neighbouring:1 southern:2 masovia:1 lodz:2 major:1 city:4 towns:1 notable:1 lwów:1 today:1 well:2 częstochowa:1 rzeszów:1 jaworzno:1 dąbrowa:1 górnicza:1 mielec:1 kielce:2 sosnowiec:1 tarnów:1 krosno:1 nowy:2 sącz:1 brzeskotarnobrzeg:1 stalowa:1 wola:1 sanok:1 wieliczka:2 bochnia:1 oświęcim:1 radom:2 zawiercie:1 zakopane:1 bielsko:1 biała:1 łuków:1 siedlce:1 sucha:1 beskidzka:1 history:1 century:2 state:2 vistulans:1 lendians:1 small:1 slavic:1 tribe:1 end:2 inclussion:1 polans:1 krakow:8 around:1 become:2 feudal:1 fragmentation:2 begin:1 duchy:1 senioral:1 seat:1 senior:1 prince:1 first:1 mongol:3 raid:3 lead:3 baidar:1 kadan:1 second:1 nogai:1 khan:1 third:1 talabuga:1 jan:1 coronation:1 władysław:1 elbow:1 high:1 united:1 restore:1 c:3 sejmik:2 general:3 korczyn:1 annexation:2 lwow:2 kiev:2 go:1 administration:1 bełz:1 bracław:1 podole:1 volhynian:1 main:1 centre:1 culture:1 ruthenian:1 voivodship:8 establish:1 sądowa:1 wisznia:1 partition:1 free:1 northern:1 belong:1 russian:1 empire:1 przemysl:1 austria:1 hungary:1 return:1 regain:1 independence:1 german:1 occupy:1 government:1 currently:1 subcarpathian:1 silesian:1 mazovian:1 fragment:1 russiae:1 moscoviae:1 et:1 tartariae:1 map:1 anthony:1 jenkinson:1 london:1 publish:1 ortelius:1 tourism:1 regard:1 many:1 cultural:1 unesco:1 place:1 list:2 heritage:1 site:1 wooden:1 architecture:1 notably:1 church:1 salt:1 mine:1 locate:2 outskirsts:1 following:1 national:11 park:11 tatra:1 ojców:1 pieniny:1 babia:1 góra:1 gorce:1 magurski:1 bieszczady:1 roztocze:1 świętokrzyski:1 polesie:1 reference:1 div:1 |@bigram southeastern_corner:1 vistula_river:1 interwar_period:1 polish_lithuanian:3 lithuanian_commonwealth:3 upper_silesia:1 nowy_sącz:1 władysław_elbow:1 austria_hungary:1 |
5,648 | Demographics_of_Chad | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Chad, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of Chad, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The people of Chad speak more than 100 different languages and divide themselves into many ethnic groups. However, language and ethnicity are not the same. Moreover, neither element can be tied to a particular physical type. In Chad, European conquest and administration intensified feelings of ethnic separateness by drawing local boundaries along perceived ethnic lines. The Europeans also appointed chiefs and other local African authorities who had little legitimacy over the groups they were to lead. In general, the French favored southerners over northerners and settled populations over nomads. This bias continued after independence and has been an important element in internecine conflict. Although the possession of a common language shows that its speakers have lived together and have a common history, peoples also change languages. This is particularly so in Chad, where the openness of the terrain, marginal rainfall, frequent drought and famine, and low population densities have encouraged physical and linguistic mobility. Slave raids among non-Muslim peoples, internal slave trade, and exports of captives northward from the ninth to the twentieth centuries also have resulted in language changes. Anthropologists view ethnicity as being more than genetics. Like language, ethnicity implies a shared heritage, partly economic, where people of the same ethnic group may share a livelihood, and partly social, taking the form of shared ways of doing things and organizing relations among individuals and groups. Ethnicity also involves a cultural component made up of shared values and a common worldview. Like language, ethnicity is not immutable. Shared ways of doing things change over time and alter a group's perception of its own identity. Not only do the social aspects of ethnic identity change but the biological composition (or gene pool) also may change over time. Although most ethnic groups emphasize intermarriage, people are often proscribed from seeking partners among close relatives -- a prohibition that promotes biological variation. In all groups, the departure of some individuals or groups and the integration of others also changes the biological component. The Chadian government has avoided official recognition of ethnicity. With the exception of a few surveys conducted shortly after independence, little data were available on this important aspect of Chadian society. Nonetheless, ethnic identity was a significant component of life in Chad. Chad's languages fall into ten major groups, each of which belongs to either the Nilo-Saharan, Afro-Asiatic, or Congo-Kordofanian language family. These represent three of the four major language families in Africa; only the Khoisan languages of southern Africa are not represented. The presence of such different languages suggests that the Lake Chad Basin may have been an important point of dispersal in ancient times. Religions The separation of religion from social structure in Chad represents a false dichotomy, for they are perceived as two sides of the same coin. Three religious traditions coexist in Chad-- classical African religions, Islam (see Islam in Chad), and Christianity. None is monolithic. The first tradition includes a variety of ancestor and/or place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific. Islam, although characterized by an orthodox set of beliefs and observances, also is expressed in diverse ways. Christianity arrived in Chad much more recently with the arrival of Europeans. Its followers are divided into Roman Catholics and Protestants (including several denominations); as with Chadian Islam, Chadian Christianity retains aspects of pre-Christian religious belief. The number of followers of each tradition in Chad is unknown. Estimates made in 1962 suggested that 35 percent of Chadians practiced classical African religions, 55 percent were Muslims, and 10 percent were Christians. In the 1970s and 1980s, this distribution undoubtedly changed. Observers report that Islam has spread among the Hajerai and among other non-Muslim populations of the Saharan and sahelian zones. However, the proportion of Muslims may have fallen because the birthrate among the followers of traditional religions and Christians in southern Chad is thought to be higher than that among Muslims. In addition, the upheavals since the mid-1970s have resulted in brought the departure of some missionaries; whether or not Chadian Christians have been numerous enough and organized enough to have attracted more converts since that time is unknown. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 10,460,000 Age structure 0-14 years: 47.9% (male 2,396,393/female 2,369,261) 15-64 years: 49.3% (male 2,355,940/female 2,550,535) 65 years and over: 2.7% (male 107,665/female 164,407) (2006 est.) Median age Total: 16 years Male: 15.3 years Female: 16.6 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate 2.93% (2006 est.) Birth rate 45.73 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 16.38 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate -0.11 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.04 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.66 male(s)/female Total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 91.45 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 100.12 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 82.43 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 47.52 years Male: 45.88 years Female: 49.21 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 6.25 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 4.8% (2003 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 200,000(2003 est.) Deaths: 18,000 (2003 est.) Major infectious diseases Degree of risk: very high Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Vectorborne disease: malaria Water contact disease: schistosomiasis Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2005) Nationality Noun: Chadian(s) Adjective: Chadian Ethnic groups 200 distinct groups; in the north and center: Arabs, Gorane (Toubou, Daza, Kreda), Zaghawa, Kanembou, Ouaddai, Baguirmi, Hadjerai, Fulbe, Kotoko, Hausa, Boulala, and Maba, most of whom are Muslim; in the south: Sara (Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye), Moundang, Moussei, Massa, most of whom are Christian or animist; about 5,000 French citizens live in Chad. Religions Muslim 51%, Christian 35%, animist 7%, other 7% Languages French (official), Arabic (official), Sara (in south), more than 120 different languages and dialects Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write French or Arabic Total population: 47.5% Male: 56% Female: 39.3% (2003 est.) References | Demographics_of_Chad |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:14 chad:15 include:3 density:2 ethnicity:7 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:2 status:1 religious:3 affiliation:1 aspect:4 data:2 fao:1 year:13 number:2 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 people:6 speak:1 different:3 language:13 divide:2 many:1 ethnic:8 group:11 however:2 moreover:1 neither:1 element:2 tie:1 particular:1 physical:2 type:1 european:3 conquest:1 administration:1 intensify:1 feeling:1 separateness:1 draw:1 local:2 boundary:1 along:1 perceive:2 line:1 also:7 appoint:1 chief:1 african:3 authority:1 little:2 legitimacy:1 lead:1 general:1 french:4 favored:1 southerner:1 northerner:1 settled:1 nomad:1 bias:1 continue:1 independence:2 important:3 internecine:1 conflict:1 although:3 possession:1 common:3 show:1 speaker:1 live:6 together:1 history:1 change:7 particularly:1 openness:1 terrain:1 marginal:1 rainfall:1 frequent:1 drought:1 famine:1 low:1 encourage:1 linguistic:1 mobility:1 slave:2 raid:1 among:7 non:2 muslim:7 internal:1 trade:1 export:1 captive:1 northward:1 ninth:1 twentieth:1 century:1 result:2 anthropologist:1 view:1 genetics:1 like:2 imply:1 shared:1 heritage:1 partly:2 may:4 share:4 livelihood:1 social:3 take:1 form:1 way:3 thing:2 organize:2 relation:1 individual:2 involve:1 cultural:1 component:3 make:2 value:1 worldview:1 immutable:1 time:4 alter:1 perception:1 identity:3 biological:3 composition:1 gene:1 pool:1 emphasize:1 intermarriage:1 often:1 proscribe:1 seek:1 partner:1 close:1 relative:1 prohibition:1 promote:1 variation:1 departure:2 integration:1 others:1 chadian:8 government:1 avoid:1 official:3 recognition:1 exception:1 survey:1 conduct:1 shortly:1 available:1 society:1 nonetheless:1 significant:1 life:2 languages:1 fall:2 ten:1 major:3 belong:1 either:1 nilo:1 saharan:2 afro:1 asiatic:1 congo:1 kordofanian:1 family:2 represent:3 three:2 four:1 africa:2 khoisan:1 southern:2 presence:1 suggest:2 lake:1 basin:1 point:1 dispersal:1 ancient:1 religion:7 separation:1 structure:2 false:1 dichotomy:1 two:1 side:1 coin:1 tradition:3 coexist:1 classical:2 islam:5 see:1 christianity:3 none:1 monolithic:1 first:1 variety:1 ancestor:1 place:1 orient:1 whose:1 expression:1 highly:1 specific:1 characterize:1 orthodox:1 set:1 belief:2 observance:1 express:1 diverse:1 arrive:1 much:1 recently:1 arrival:1 follower:3 roman:1 catholic:1 protestant:1 several:1 denomination:1 retain:1 pre:1 christian:6 unknown:2 estimate:1 percent:3 practice:1 distribution:1 undoubtedly:1 observer:1 report:1 spread:1 hajerai:1 sahelian:1 zone:1 proportion:1 birthrate:1 traditional:1 think:1 high:2 addition:1 upheaval:1 since:2 mid:1 brought:1 missionary:1 whether:1 numerous:1 enough:2 attract:1 convert:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 age:3 male:12 female:12 est:14 median:1 total:6 growth:1 rate:7 birth:7 death:6 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 aid:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 infectious:1 disease:5 degree:1 risk:1 food:1 waterborne:1 bacterial:1 protozoal:1 diarrhea:1 hepatitis:1 typhoid:1 fever:1 vectorborne:1 malaria:1 water:1 contact:1 schistosomiasis:1 respiratory:1 meningococcal:1 meningitis:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 distinct:1 north:1 center:1 arab:1 gorane:1 toubou:1 daza:1 kreda:1 zaghawa:1 kanembou:1 ouaddai:1 baguirmi:1 hadjerai:1 fulbe:1 kotoko:1 hausa:1 boulala:1 maba:1 south:2 sara:2 ngambaye:1 mbaye:1 goulaye:1 moundang:1 moussei:1 massa:1 animist:2 citizen:1 arabic:2 dialect:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 drought_famine:1 twentieth_century:1 nilo_saharan:1 afro_asiatic:1 false_dichotomy:1 sahelian_zone:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 infectious_disease:1 food_waterborne:1 waterborne_disease:1 bacterial_protozoal:1 protozoal_diarrhea:1 diarrhea_hepatitis:1 hepatitis_typhoid:1 typhoid_fever:1 fever_vectorborne:1 vectorborne_disease:1 meningococcal_meningitis:1 nationality_noun:1 christian_animist:2 literacy_definition:1 |
5,649 | Mass_deacidification | Mass deacidification is a term used in Library and Information Science for one possible measure against the degradation of paper in old books (the so-called "slow fires"). The goal of the process is to increase the pH of acidic paper on a large scale. Although acid-free paper has become more common, a large body of acidic paper still exists in books made after the 1850s because of its cheaper and simpler production methods. Acidic paper, especially when exposed to light, air pollution, or high relative humidity, yellows and becomes brittle over time. Cheradame, H et al. (2003).Mass Deacidification of paper and books: I: study of the limitations of the gas phase process. Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material, 24, 227. During mass deacidification an alkaline agent is deposited in the paper to neutralize existing acid and prevent further decay. Lienardy, A. & Van Damme, P. (1990).Practical Deacidification, Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material, 11,2. However, current methods of mass deacidification have not been proven to restore mechanical strength to the paper. Current Services There are several commercial deacidification techniques currently on the market. The BookKeeper process is a non-aqueous, liquid phase process that uses magnesium oxide. Porck, H. (1996). Mass deacidification. An update of possibilities and limitations. BookKeeper. URL accessed December 1, 2007. BookKeeper is available through Preservation Technologies, L.P. with plants in the U.S., Canada, Japan and the Netherlands. The CSC Book Saver uses carbonated magnesium propylate for deacidification. Banik, G. (2003).Mass deacidification technology in Germany and its Quality Control. Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material,26, 64. It is available through Conservación de Sustratos Celulósicos S.L. (CSC) (Barcelona, Spain). The Papersave process was developed by Battelle Ingenieurtechnik GmbH and is, therefore, sometimes referred to as "the Battelle Process". The process uses magnesium titanium alkoxide. It is available in Europe through Nitrochemie Wimmis (Wimmis, Switzerland) under the name of Papersave Swiss http://www.nitrochemie.com/pdfdoc/papersave/papersave-swiss-brosch_en.pdf and the Zentrum für Bucherhaltung (Leipzig, Germany). The Wei T'o process uses methoxy magnesium methyl carbonate, or isopropoxy magnesium isopropyl carbonate, Porck, H. (1996). Mass deacidification. An update of possibilities and limitations. Wei T'o and Sable. URL accessed October 5, 2007. and new products are coming out in 2008. Wei T'o is less commonly used for mass deacidification treatment than for single item deacidification. Wei T'o products are available through Wei T'o Associates Inc.(Matteson, USA). BookKeeper, CSC Booksaver, Papersave and Wei T'o are also available as a hand held sprays. Goals of Mass Deacidification These are the results that the Library of Congress expected of an ideal mass deacidification treatment in 1994. neutralize acidic paper and add an alkaline reserve. produce a pH value between 6.8 and 10.4 which is evenly distributed throughout the book. should not cause any damage to adhesives, inks or dyes. should not cause any odor or any change in the color of the paper. should not cause loss of pliancy or mechanical strength. Library of Congress. (1994). An evaluation of the BookKeeper mass deacidification process: Technical evaluation team report URL accessed September 29, 2007. Faculty members of the Slovak University of Technology added these further requirements. the chemicals used have to be safe. the process has to be able to be applied to any kind of paper. the process can not cause swelling or warping of the paper. Cedzova, M. et al. (2006). Patents for Paper Deacidification. Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material,27, 36. Effects of Mass Deacidification All of the processes imparted an adequately high pH in studies conducted by the European Commission on Preservation and Access, the Library of Congress, and a team of scientists from the Centre de Recherches sur la Conservation des Documents Graphiques in the early and mid-nineties. BookKeeper produced a pH of 9-10. CSC Book Saver gives a pH of 8.78-10.5. Dupont, A. et al. (2002). Testing CSC Book Saver, a commercial deacidification process. Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material,23, 40. Wei T'o gives 7.5 to 10.4, Brandis, L. (1994). Summary and evaluation of the testing sponsored by the Library of Congress of books deacidified by the FMC, AKSO and Wei T'o mass deacidification process. Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material,15, 112. and Papersave gives a pH of 7.5-9. Wittekind, J. (1994). The Battelle mass deacidification process: A New method for deacidifying books and archival materials. Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material,15, 195. The same studies also found that the processes had negative cosmetic side effects. BookKeeper left "a palpable residue", clamp marks on the covers, and caused some of the colored inks to rub off. CSC Book Saver left a "white powdery deposit" on books. Dupont, A. et al. (2002). Testing CSC Book Saver, a commercial deacidification process. Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material,23, 45. Papersave caused "discoloration, white deposit, Newton rings, bleeding of inks and dyes, odor and different 'feel' of the paper." Porck, H. (1996). Mass deacidification. An update of possibilities and limitations. Battelle. URL accessed December 1, 2007. Wei T'o caused "odor, white residues, rings, cockling, (yellow) discolorations and adhesive bleeding." However, these studies are now more than ten years old and several of the processes have changed their formulae since the mid-nineties. Conservators from the British Library acknowledge that the existing mass deacidification processes are still developing and further research needs to be conducted on their chemical and mechanical effects. Knight, B. (2004). A Conservation research strategy for the British Library. pg. 4. URL accessed December 1, 2007. The Library of Congress recommends libraries use mass deacidification to ensure that collections survive. Library of Congress. (2006). Deterioration and preservation of paper: Some essential facts. URL accessed December 1, 2007. Clearly, the conservators working for the Library of Congress believe that mass deacidification is vital to library collections, whatever the cosmetic effects may or may not be. The History of Deacidification Research and Process Development Mass deacidification - along with microfilm and lamination - was developed during the early- and mid-20th century as a response to the chemical process of hydrolysis by which the fibers that constitute paper, providing its structure and strength, have their bonds broken, resulting in paper that becomes increasingly brittle over time. Environmental pollutants can react with paper to form acids that promote oxidation, creating more acid as a by-product, which results in a positive feedback loop of autocatalytic destruction. Library of Congress. (1994). An evaluation of the BookKeeper mass deacidification process: Technical Evaluation Team Report for the Preservation Directorate, Library of Congress, Appendix E. Supported in part by grants from the Council on Library Resources, William J. Barrow conducted research into paper decay and found that no more than three percent of the books published between 1900 and 1949 would survive more than fifty years. In response to this, the a Standing Committee on the Preservation of Research Library Materials was formed by the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) in 1960. Marcum, D. & Friedlander, D. (2003). Keepers of the Crumbling Culture: What Digital Preservation Can Learn from Library History. URL accessed April 28, 2008. Barrow also invented an aqueous process to neutralize acid in paper while depositing an alkaline buffer that would retard the rate of decay. Ritzenthaler, M. (1993). Preserving Archives and Manuscripts, . In addition to Barrow’s original method, both non-aqueous - employing organic solvents - and vaporous - the Library of Congress’ DEZ (diethyl zinc) treatment - methods of achieving the same results have been researched in an attempt to reduce time, labor, and cost requirements. Pillete, R. (2003). Mass Deacidification: A Preservation Option for Libraries World Library and Information Congress: 69th IFLA General Conference and Council. URL accessed April 28, 2008. One technique proposed was to place books in an evacuated chamber, then introduce diethylzinc (DEZ). In theory, the diethyl zinc reacts with acidic residues in the paper, leaving an alkaline residue that would protect the paper against further degradation. Porck, H. (1996). Mass deacidification. An update of possibilities and limitations. DEZ. URL accessed December 2, 2007. In practice, the heating required to remove trace water from the books before reaction (DEZ reacts violently with water) caused an accelerated degradation of the paper, and a range of other chemical reactions between DEZ and other components of the book (glues, bindings) caused further damage and the production of unpleasant smells. Regardless, in the 1980s, a pilot plant for mass deacidification using this process was constructed by NASA and was tested on books provided by the Library of Congress. Harris, K. & Shahani, C. (1994) Library of Congress. Preservation. Mass deacidification: An initiative to refine the diethyl zinc process URL accessed December 1, 2007. However, it was discovered in 1986 that the DEZ had not been removed in one of the deacidification runs and was pooled in the bottom of the chamber, and probably remained within some of the plumbing. DEZ is violently flammable when it comes in contact with either oxygen or water vapor, so the vacuum chamber could not be opened to remove the books within. Eventually, explosives were used to rupture the suspect plumbing; suspicions of the presence of residual DEZ were confirmed by the subsequent fire that destroyed the plant. In his book Double Fold, Nicholson Baker discusses the failure of the NASA program at great length. The chemical company Akzo made later attempts at refining the process; though the risks of fire and explosions were reduced by better process design, damage and odours remained a problem. In the end, Akzo decided the process was not a viable commercial proposition, and shut down their research at the end of 1994. Adoption and Costs While deacidification has been adopted by major research libraries such as the Library of Congress and the New York Public Library, it is not clear that many archives, particularly those in the United States, have followed suit. Whereas some European national archives have tested deacidification techniques, the United States’ National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), which pioneered an aqueous technique that improved upon Barrow’s, has chosen to invest its preservation dollars elsewhere. In 2000, the Chief of the NARA Document Conservation Laboratory defended the lack of a mass deacidification program by pointing to differences between library and archival collections, for example noting that many of the papers coming to NARA were of a higher quality than those in library collections; that the Archives does not receive records from Federal government agencies until they are at least 30 years old, by which time acidic paper will have already been irrevocably weakened; and that limited resources might best be applied elsewhere, such as climate control, as under the Archives' Twenty-Year Preservation Plan, the emphasis was on "maximum benefit for the greatest number of records." Jones, N. (2000). Mass Deacidification: Considerations for Archives ''National Archives and Records Administration 15th Annual Preservation Conference." Washington, DC, March 2000, URL accessed April 28, 2008. Though now dated, several sources estimate the costs and suitability of deacidification treatment. Studies conducted by the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center and the General State Archive of the Netherlands found the DEZ method, properly used, might particularly applicable to archival materials. Harris, K. & Shahani, C. (1994). Mass Deacidification: An Initiative to Refine the Diethyl Zinc Process It was estimated that deacidification costs, excluding transportation and handling, during the early 1990s was $5-10 per volume. Sparks, Peter G. (1990). Technical Considerations in Choosing Mass Deacidification Processes. URL accessed April 28, 2008. During 1995-1997, the Library of Congress received $2 million in appropriations to deacidify 72,000 books using the Bookkeeper commercial method and evaluate alternative methods. The actual cost per book was $11.70. Dalrymple, W. (1997). A Paper Chase: Technology Helps Library Save its Paper Collections. LC Information Bulletin. URL accessed April 28, 2008. Finally, a recent cost comparison with reformatting options per volume yielded $125 for microfilming, $50 for scanning and minimal indexing, and, based on a New York Public Library project, $16.20 for deacidification. References See also Preservation: Library and Archival Science Double Fold Paper Wood-pulp paper External links The Library of Congress' links to Mass Deacidification Publications The Canadian Conservation Institute's study on Evaluating Commercial Deacidification Processes Council on Library and Information Resources report on the Technical Considerations in Choosing a Mass Deacidification Process | Mass_deacidification |@lemmatized mass:30 deacidification:45 term:1 use:12 library:42 information:4 science:2 one:3 possible:1 measure:1 degradation:3 paper:29 old:3 book:21 call:1 slow:1 fire:3 goal:2 process:32 increase:1 ph:6 acidic:6 large:2 scale:1 although:1 acid:5 free:1 become:3 common:1 body:1 still:2 exist:3 make:2 cheap:1 simple:1 production:2 method:8 especially:1 expose:1 light:1 air:1 pollution:1 high:3 relative:1 humidity:1 yellow:2 brittle:2 time:4 cheradame:1 h:5 et:4 al:4 study:6 limitation:5 gas:1 phase:2 restaurator:8 international:8 journal:8 preservation:20 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5,650 | European_Free_Trade_Association | The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was established on 3 May 1960 as a trade bloc-alternative for European states who were either unable to, or chose not to, join the then-European Economic Community (EEC) (now the European Union (EU)). The EFTA Convention was signed on 4 January 1960 in Stockholm by seven states. Today only Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein remain members of EFTA (of which only Norway and Switzerland are founding members). The Stockholm Convention was subsequently replaced by the Vaduz Convention. This Convention provides for the liberalisation of trade among the member states. Three of the EFTA countries are part of the European Union Internal Market through the Agreement on a European Economic Area (EEA), which took effect in 1994; the fourth, Switzerland, opted to conclude bilateral agreements with the EU. In addition, the EFTA states have jointly concluded free trade agreements with a number of other countries. In 1999 Switzerland concluded a set of bilateral agreements with the European Union covering a wide range of areas, including movement of persons, transport and technical barriers to trade. This development prompted the EFTA States to modernise their Convention to ensure that it will continue to provide a successful framework for the expansion and liberalization of trade among them and with the rest of the world. Membership history The founding members of EFTA were Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. During the 1960s these countries were often referred to as the Outer Seven, as opposed to the Inner Six of the then-European Economic Community. Now, the Seven and a Half - TIME Finland became an associate member in 1961 (becoming a full member in 1986), and Iceland joined in 1970. The United Kingdom and Denmark joined the European Communities in 1973 (together with Ireland), and hence ceased to be EFTA members. Portugal also left EFTA for the European Community in 1986. Liechtenstein joined in 1991 (previously its interests in EFTA had been represented by Switzerland). Finally, Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the European Union in 1995 and hence ceased to be EFTA members. Current members Flag State Official name Accession Population Area (km²) Capital GDP in millions (PPP) GDP per capita (PPP) Iceland Republic of Iceland Reykjavík 12,144 39,168 Liechtenstein Principality of Liechtenstein Vaduz 4,160 118,000 Norway Kingdom of Norway Oslo 247,416 53,152 Switzerland Swiss Confederation (Confoederatio Helvetica ) Bern 300,186 41,265 General Secretaries General Secretaries of EFTA: 1960-1965: Frank E. Figgures 1965-1972: Sir John Coulson 1972-1975: Bengt Rabaeus 1976-1981: Charles Müller 1981-1988: Per Kleppe 1988-1994: Georg Reisch 1994-2000: Kjartan Jóhannsson 2000-2006: William Rossier 2006-present: Kåre Bryn Institutions EFTA is governed by the EFTA Council and serviced by the EFTA Secretariat. In addition, in connection with the EEA Agreement of 1992, two other EFTA organisations were established, the EFTA Surveillance Authority and the EFTA Court. EEA-related institutions The EFTA Surveillance Authority and the EFTA Court regulate the activities of the EFTA members in respect of their obligations in the European Economic Area (EEA). Since Switzerland is not an EEA member, it does not participate in these institutions. The EFTA Surveillance Authority performs the European Commission's role as "guardian of the treaties" for the EFTA countries, while the EFTA Court performs the European Court of Justice's role for those countries. The original plan for the EEA lacked the EFTA Court or the EFTA Surveillance Authority, and instead had the European Court of Justice and the European Commission were to exercise those roles. However, during the negotiations for the EEA agreement, the European Court of Justice informed the Council of the European Union by way of letter that they considered that giving the EU institutions powers with respect to non-EU member states would be a violation of the treaties, and therefore the current arrangement was developed instead. The EEA and Norway Grants are administered by the Financial Mechanism Office, which is affiliated to the EFTA Secretariat in Brussels. Locations The EFTA Secretariat is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. The EFTA Surveillance Authority has its headquarters in Brussels, Belgium (the same location as the headquarters of the European Commission), while the EFTA Court has its headquarters in Luxembourg (the same location as the headquarters of the European Court of Justice). Portugal Fund The Portugal Fund was established in 1975 when Portugal was still a member of EFTA, to provide funding for the development and reconstruction of Portugal after the Carnation Revolution. When Portugal left EFTA in 1985 to join the EEC, the remaining EFTA members decided to nonetheless continue the Portugal Fund, so Portugal would continue to benefit from it. The Fund originally took the form of a low-interest loan from the EFTA member states to Portugal, to the value of 100 million US dollars. Repayment was originally to commence in 1988, but EFTA then decided to postpone the start of repayments until 1998. The Portugal Fund has now been dissolved by the Member States. International conventions EFTA also originated the Hallmarking Convention and the Pharmaceutical Inspection Convention, both of which are open to non-EFTA states. Relationship to the European Economic Area The EFTA members, except for Switzerland, are also members of the European Economic Area (EEA). International relationships EFTA has several free trade agreements with non-EU countries as well as declarations on cooperation and joint workgroups to improve trade. Currently, the EFTA States have established preferential trade relations with 20 States and Territories, in addition to the 27 Member States of the European Union. Official EFTA site Free Trade Agreement Nations the EFTA has an FTA with in dark blue, negotiating an FTA with in dark cyan, has a declaration on cooperation with in purple, and is in a "joint workgroup" with in dark red; the EFTA is light green. Chile Croatia Egypt Israel (Switzerland exempt) Jordan South Korea Lebanon Republic of Macedonia Mexico Morocco Palestinian National Authority Singapore Southern African Customs Union (Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, South Africa) Tunisia Turkey Signed agreement 2008, not yet ratified Canada Colombia Finalised negotiations 2008 Gulf Co-operation Council (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates) Peru Currently negotiating agreements Thailand Algeria India Declarations on Cooperation Albania Mercosur (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay) Mongolia Serbia Ukraine Joint workgroups Indonesia Russia Future The Norwegian electorate has rejected treaties of accession to the EU in two referenda. At the time of the first referendum (1972) their neighbours the Kingdom of Denmark joined. The second time (1994) two other Nordic neighbours, Sweden and Finland joined the EU. The two last governments of Norway have been unable and unwilling to advance the question, as they have both been coalition governments consisting of both proponents and opponents. Since Switzerland rejected the EEA in 1992, referenda on EU membership have been initiated, the last time in 2001. These were rejected by clear majorities. Iceland, on the other hand, may join the EU in the near future, following the global financial crisis of 2008, which has particularly affected the local economy. In mid-2005, representatives of the Faroe Islands have hinted at the possibility of their territory joining EFTA. However, the chances of the Faroes' bid for membership are uncertain because, according to the EFTA Convention, only states may become members of the Association. It is speculated that Morocco may join the EFTA by 2012. EFTA and the European Union This table summarises the various components of EU laws applied in the EFTA countries and their sovereign territories. Some territories of EU member states also have a special status in regard to EU laws applied as is the case with some european microstates. EFTA member states andsovereign territories Application ofEU law Enforceable in local courts? EURATOM? EU citizenship? EU elections? Schengen area? EU VAT area? EU customs territory? EU single market? Eurozone? Partial European Economic Area , ISK PartialUnclear Set to implement later, CHF , except: PartialUnclear, NOK Svalbard PartialUnclear Norway and Iceland Schengen association agreement Article 14 Because of the Svalbard treaty it is even outside of the Norway taxation area. Agreement on the European Economic Area - Protocol 40 on Svalbard No source showing such exemption is activated, thus considering it included. , NOK Bouvet Island PartialUnclear Not explicitely mentioned in the treaty as excluded, thus considering it included. Agreement on the European Economic Area, Article 126 Not explicitely mentioned in the treaty as excluded, thus considering it included. , NOK Peter I Island PartialUnclear, NOK Queen Maud Land PartialUnclear, NOK PartialUnclear Through multiple sectoral agreements , CHFMember states andsovereign territoriesApplication ofEU lawEnforceable in local courts?EURATOM?EU citizenship?EU elections?Schengen area? EU VAT area? EU customs territory?EU single market?Eurozone? See also Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) Enlargement of the European Union Euro-Mediterranean free trade area (EU-MEFTA) Free trade areas in Europe European Union Association Agreement, which covers many more countries Trade bloc Schengen Agreement References | European_Free_Trade_Association |@lemmatized european:31 free:7 trade:14 association:4 efta:49 establish:4 may:4 bloc:2 alternative:1 state:17 either:1 unable:2 choose:1 join:11 economic:9 community:4 eec:2 union:10 eu:23 convention:9 sign:2 january:1 stockholm:2 seven:3 today:1 iceland:6 norway:9 switzerland:12 liechtenstein:4 remain:2 member:22 found:2 subsequently:1 replace:1 vaduz:2 provide:3 liberalisation:1 among:2 three:1 country:8 part:1 internal:1 market:3 agreement:17 area:16 eea:10 take:2 effect:1 fourth:1 opt:1 conclude:3 bilateral:2 addition:3 jointly:1 number:1 set:2 cover:2 wide:1 range:1 include:4 movement:1 person:1 transport:1 technical:1 barrier:1 development:2 prompt:1 modernise:1 ensure:1 continue:3 successful:1 framework:1 expansion:1 liberalization:1 rest:1 world:1 membership:3 history:1 austria:2 denmark:3 portugal:11 sweden:3 united:3 kingdom:4 often:1 refer:1 outer:1 oppose:1 inner:1 six:1 half:1 time:4 finland:3 become:3 associate:1 full:1 together:1 ireland:1 hence:2 cease:2 also:5 leave:2 previously:1 interest:2 represent:1 finally:1 current:2 flag:1 official:2 name:1 accession:2 population:1 capital:1 gdp:2 million:2 ppp:2 per:2 caput:1 republic:2 reykjavík:1 principality:1 oslo:1 swiss:1 confederation:1 confoederatio:1 helvetica:1 bern:1 general:2 secretary:2 frank:1 e:1 figgures:1 sir:1 john:1 coulson:1 bengt:1 rabaeus:1 charles:1 müller:1 kleppe:1 georg:1 reisch:1 kjartan:1 jóhannsson:1 william:1 rossier:1 present:1 kåre:1 bryn:1 institution:4 govern:1 council:3 service:1 secretariat:3 connection:1 two:4 organisation:1 surveillance:5 authority:6 court:11 related:1 regulate:1 activity:1 respect:2 obligation:1 since:2 participate:1 perform:2 commission:3 role:3 guardian:1 treaty:6 justice:4 original:1 plan:1 lack:1 instead:2 exercise:1 however:2 negotiation:2 inform:1 way:1 letter:1 consider:4 give:1 power:1 non:3 would:2 violation:1 therefore:1 arrangement:1 develop:1 grant:1 administer:1 financial:2 mechanism:1 office:1 affiliate:1 brussels:2 location:3 headquarter:1 geneva:1 headquarters:4 belgium:1 luxembourg:1 fund:5 still:1 funding:1 reconstruction:1 carnation:1 revolution:1 decide:2 nonetheless:1 benefit:1 originally:2 form:1 low:1 loan:1 value:1 u:1 dollar:1 repayment:2 commence:1 postpone:1 start:1 dissolve:1 international:2 originate:1 hallmarking:1 pharmaceutical:1 inspection:1 open:1 relationship:2 except:2 several:1 well:1 declaration:3 cooperation:3 joint:3 workgroups:2 improve:1 currently:2 preferential:1 relation:1 territory:7 site:1 nations:1 fta:2 dark:3 blue:1 negotiate:2 cyan:1 purple:1 workgroup:1 red:1 light:1 green:1 chile:1 croatia:1 egypt:1 israel:1 exempt:1 jordan:1 south:2 korea:1 lebanon:1 macedonia:1 mexico:1 morocco:2 palestinian:1 national:1 singapore:1 southern:1 african:1 custom:3 botswana:1 lesotho:1 namibia:1 swaziland:1 africa:1 tunisia:1 turkey:1 yet:1 ratify:1 canada:1 colombia:1 finalise:1 gulf:1 co:1 operation:1 bahrain:1 kuwait:1 oman:1 qatar:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 arab:1 emirate:1 peru:1 thailand:1 algeria:1 india:1 albania:1 mercosur:1 brazil:1 argentina:1 uruguay:1 paraguay:1 mongolia:1 serbia:1 ukraine:1 indonesia:1 russia:1 future:2 norwegian:1 electorate:1 reject:3 referendum:3 first:1 neighbour:2 second:1 nordic:1 last:2 government:2 unwilling:1 advance:1 question:1 coalition:1 consist:1 proponent:1 opponent:1 initiate:1 clear:1 majority:1 hand:1 near:1 follow:1 global:1 crisis:1 particularly:1 affect:1 local:3 economy:1 mid:1 representative:1 faroe:1 island:3 hint:1 possibility:1 chance:1 faroes:1 bid:1 uncertain:1 accord:1 speculate:1 table:1 summarise:1 various:1 component:1 law:3 apply:2 sovereign:1 special:1 status:1 regard:1 case:1 microstates:1 andsovereign:2 application:1 ofeu:2 enforceable:1 euratom:2 citizenship:2 election:2 schengen:4 vat:2 single:2 eurozone:2 partial:1 isk:1 partialunclear:7 implement:1 later:1 chf:1 nok:5 svalbard:3 article:2 even:1 outside:1 taxation:1 protocol:1 source:1 show:1 exemption:1 activate:1 thus:3 bouvet:1 explicitely:2 mention:2 excluded:2 peter:1 queen:1 maud:1 land:1 multiple:1 sectoral:1 chfmember:1 territoriesapplication:1 lawenforceable:1 see:1 central:1 cefta:1 enlargement:1 euro:1 mediterranean:1 mefta:1 europe:1 many:1 reference:1 |@bigram switzerland_liechtenstein:1 per_caput:1 caput_ppp:1 principality_liechtenstein:1 efta_surveillance:5 geneva_switzerland:1 brussels_belgium:1 carnation_revolution:1 republic_macedonia:1 tunisia_turkey:1 kuwait_oman:1 oman_qatar:1 qatar_saudi:1 saudi_arabia:1 arab_emirate:1 argentina_uruguay:1 uruguay_paraguay:1 unable_unwilling:1 faroe_island:1 bouvet_island:1 queen_maud:1 agreement_cefta:1 schengen_agreement:1 |
5,651 | Project_Mercury | McDonnell Mercury spacecraftThe Mercury spacecraft with escape towerDescriptionRole: Suborbital and orbital spaceflight Crew: one, pilot DimensionsHeight: 11.5 ft 3.51 mDiameter: 6.2 ft 1.89 mVolume: 60 ft³ 1.7 m³Weights (MA-6)Launch: 4,265 lb 1,935 kgOrbit: 2,986 lb 1,354 kgPost Retro: 2,815 lb 1,277 kgReentry: 2,698 lb 1,224 kgLanding: 2,421 lb 1,098 kgRocket enginesRetros (solid fuel) x 3: 1,000 lbf ea 4.5 kNPosigrade (solid fuel) x 3: 400 lbf ea 1.8 kNRCS high (H2O2) x 6: 25 lbf ea 108 NRCS low (H2O2) x 6: 12 lbf ea 49 NPerformance Endurance: 34 hours 22 orbits Apogee: 175 miles 282 km Perigee: 100 miles 160 km Retro delta v: 300 mph 483 km/h Mercury spacecraft diagramMercury spacecraft Diagram (NASA)McDonnell Mercury spacecraft Project Mercury was the first human spaceflight program of the United States. It ran from 1959 through 1963 with the goal of putting a human in orbit around the Earth. The Mercury-Atlas 6 flight on 20 February 1962 was the first Mercury flight to achieve this goal. Early planning and research was carried out by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, and the program was officially conducted by the newly created NASA. The name comes from Mercury, a Roman mythological god who is often seen as a symbol of speed. Mercury is also the name of the innermost planet of the solar system, which moves faster than any other and hence provides an image of speed, although Project Mercury had no other connection to that planet. The Mercury program cost approximately $384 million, or about $2.7 billion in 2007 dollars. It was developed by a team of predominantly German rocket engineers who had emigrated to the United States after World War II. Spacecraft Mercury program monument Because of their small size it was said that the Mercury spacecraft were worn, not ridden. With 1.7 cubic meters of habitable volume, the spacecraft was just large enough for the single crew member. Inside were 120 controls: 55 electrical switches, 30 fuses and 35 mechanical levers. The spacecraft was designed by Max Faget and NASA's Space Task Group. During the launch phase of the mission, the Mercury spacecraft and astronaut were protected from launch vehicle failures by the Launch Escape System. The LES consisted of a solid fuel, 52,000 lbf (231 kN) thrust rocket mounted on a tower above the spacecraft. In the event of a launch abort, the LES would fire for 1 second, pulling the Mercury spacecraft and the astronaut away from a defective launch vehicle. The spacecraft would then descend on its parachute recovery system. After booster engine cutoff (BECO), the LES was no longer needed and was separated from the spacecraft by a solid fuel, 800 lbf (3.6 kN) thrust jettison rocket that fired for 1.5 seconds. Unfortunately, as with the later Apollo and Gemini programs, the scientists believed that if there was a catastrophic failure with the launch vehicle, then the possibilities of survival were minimal even with the tower in place. There simply wasn't enough time between the detection of the problem and the resulting consequences. There was never a problem during launch that caused the firing of the tower, and in Project Gemini (which didn't use the LES), Gemini 6 misfired but was aborted before any trouble arose. To separate the Mercury spacecraft from the launch vehicle, the spacecraft fired three small solid-fuel, 400 lbf (1.8 kN) thrust rockets for 1 second. These rockets are called the Posigrade rockets. The spacecraft was only equipped with attitude control thrusters - after orbit insertion and before retrofire they could not change their orbit. There were three sets of high and low powered automatic control jets and separate manual jets - one for each axis (yaw, pitch, and roll), supplied from two separate fuel tanks - one automatic and one manual. The pilot could use any one of the three thruster systems and fuel them from either of the two fuel tanks to provide spacecraft attitude control. The Mercury spacecraft were designed to be completely controllable from the ground in the event that something impaired the pilot's ability to function. The spacecraft had three solid-fuel, 1000 lbf (4.5 kN) thrust retrorockets that fired for 10 seconds each. One was sufficient to return the spacecraft to earth if the other two failed. The firing sequence (known as ripple firing) required firing the first retro, followed by the second retro five seconds later (while the first was still firing). Five seconds after that, the third retro fired (while the second retro was still firing). There was a small metal flap at the nose of the spacecraft called the "spoiler". If the spacecraft started to reenter nose first (another stable reentry attitude for the spacecraft), airflow over the "spoiler" would flip the spacecraft around to the proper, heatshield-first reentry attitude, a technique called 'Shuttlecocking'. During reentry, the astronaut would experience about 4 g-forces. Initial designs for the spacecraft suggested the use of either beryllium heat-sink heat shields or an ablative shield. Extensive testing settled the issue - ablative shields proved to be reliable (so much so that the initial shield thickness was safely reduced, allowing a lower total spacecraft weight), easier to produce (at that time, beryllium was only produced in sufficient quantities by a single company in the US) and cheaper. NASA ordered 20 production spacecraft, numbered 1 through 20, from McDonnell Aircraft Company, St. Louis, Missouri. Five of the twenty spacecraft, #10, 12, 15, 17, and 19, were not flown. Spacecraft #3 and #4 were destroyed during unmanned test flights. Spacecraft #11 sank and was recovered from the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean after 38 years. Some spacecraft were modified after initial production (refurbished after launch abort, modified for longer missions, etc) and received a letter designation after their number, examples 2B, 15B. Some spacecraft were modified twice; for example, spacecraft 15 became 15A and then 15B. A number of Mercury Boilerplate spacecraft (including mockup/prototype/replica spacecrafts, made from non-flight materials or lacking production spacecraft systems and/or hardware) were also made by NASA and McDonnell Aircraft. They were designed and used to test spacecraft recovery systems, and escape tower and rocket motors. Formal tests were done on test pad at Langley and at Wallops Island using the Little Joe and Big Joe Atlas rockets. NASA Mercury History Sections #44 and #47 Boosters Mercury Atlas 9. The Mercury program used three boosters: Little Joe - 8 suborbital robotic flights, 2 carrying monkeys. Launch escape system tests. Redstone - 4 suborbital robotic flights, 1 carrying a chimpanzee; 2 piloted suborbital flights. Atlas - 4 suborbital robotic flights; 2 orbital robotic flights, 1 carrying a chimpanzee; 4 piloted orbital flights. Little Joe and a Mercury Boilerplate A Fieldguide to American Spacecraft was used to test the escape tower and abort procedures. Mercury Boilerplate Tests Redstone was used for suborbital flights, and Atlas for orbital ones. Starting in October, 1958, Jupiter missiles were also considered as suborbital launch vehicles for the Mercury program, but were cut from the program in July, 1959 due to budget constraints. The Atlas boosters required extra strengthening in order to handle the increased weight of the Mercury spacecraft beyond that of the nuclear warheads they were designed to carry. Little Joe was a solid-propellant booster designed specially for the Mercury program. The Titan missile was also considered for use for later Mercury missions; however, the Mercury program was terminated before these missions were flown. The Titan was used for the Gemini program which followed Mercury. The Mercury program used a Scout booster for a single flight, Mercury-Scout 1, which launched a small satellite intended to evaluate the worldwide Mercury Tracking Network. The rocket was destroyed by the Range Safety Officer after 44 seconds of flight. Mercury Control - Cape Canaveral, Florida. (NASA) Unmanned flights The program included 20 robotic launches. Not all of these were intended to reach space and not all were successful in completing their objectives. Four of these flights included non-human primates, starting with the fifth flight (1959) which launched a Rhesus macaque named Sam (after the Air Force's School of Aerospace Medicine). The Mercury program's complete roster of non-human space-farers is given below: Sam, a Rhesus macaque, launched 4 December 1959 on Little Joe 2 to 85 km altitude. Miss Sam, a Rhesus macaque, launched 21 January 1960 on Little Joe 1B to 15 km altitude. Ham, a chimpanzee, launched 31 January 1961 on Mercury-Redstone 2 for a suborbital flight. Enos, a chimpanzee, launched 29 November 1961 on Mercury-Atlas 5 for a 2-orbit flight. MissionRocketCall SignLaunch DateLaunch TimeDurationRemarksMercury-Jupiter JupiterN/AN/AN/AN/ACancelled in July, 1959 - Proposed suborbital launch vehicle for Mercury. Not flown.Little Joe 1Little JoeLJ-121 August 1959N/A00d 00h 00 m 20sTest of launch escape system during flight.Big Joe 1Atlas 10-DBig Joe 19 September 1959N/A00d 00h 13 mTest of heat shield and Atlas / spacecraft interface.Little Joe 6Little JoeLJ-64 October 1959N/A00d 00h 05 m 10sTest of spacecraft aerodynamics and integrity.Little Joe 1ALittle JoeLJ-1A4 November 1959N/A00d 00h 08 m 11sTest of launch escape system during flight.Little Joe 2Little JoeLJ-24 December 1959N/A00d 00h 11 m 06sCarried Sam the monkey to 85 kilometres in altitude.Little Joe 1BLittle JoeLJ-1B21 January 1960N/A00d 00h 08 m 35sCarried Miss Sam the monkey to 9.3 statute miles (15 kilometres) in altitude.Beach AbortLaunch escape systemBeach Abort9 May 1960N/A00d 00h 01 m 31sTest of the Off-The-Pad abort system.Mercury-Atlas 1AtlasMA-129 July 196013:13 UTC00d 00h 03 m 18sFirst flight of Mercury spacecraft and Atlas Booster.Little Joe 5Little JoeLJ-58 November 1960N/A00d 00h 02 m 22sFirst flight of a production Mercury spacecraft.Mercury-Redstone 1RedstoneMR-121 November 1960N/A00d 00h 00 m 02sLaunched 4 inches (100 mm). Settled back on pad due to electrical malfunction.Mercury-Redstone 1ARedstoneMR-1A19 December 1960N/A00d 00h 15 m 45sFirst flight of Mercury spacecraft and Redstone booster.Mercury-Redstone 2RedstoneMR-231 January 196116:55 UTC00d 00h 16 m 39sCarried Ham the Chimpanzee on suborbital flight.Mercury-Atlas 2AtlasMA-221 February 196114:10 UTC00d 00h 17 m 56sTest of Mercury spacecraft and Atlas Booster.Little Joe 5ALittle JoeLJ-5A18 March 1961N/A00d 00h 23 m 48sTest of the launch escape system during the most severe conditions of a launch.Mercury-Redstone BDRedstoneMR-BD24 March 196117:30 UTC00d 00h 8 m 23sRedstone Booster Development - test flight.Mercury-Atlas 3AtlasMA-325 April 196116:15 UTC00d 00h 07 m 19sTest of Mercury spacecraft and Atlas Booster.Little Joe 5BLittle JoeAB-128 April 1961N/A00d 00h 05 m 25sTest of the launch escape system during the most severe conditions of a launch.Mercury-Atlas 4AtlasMA-413 September 196114:09 UTC00d 01h 49 m 20sTest of Mercury spacecraft and Atlas Booster. Completed 1 orbit.Mercury-Scout 1ScoutMS-11 November 196115:32 UTC00d 00h 00 m 44sTest of Mercury tracking network.Mercury-Atlas 5AtlasMA-529 November 196115:08 UTC00d 03h 20 m 59sCarried Enos the Chimpanzee on a two orbit flight. Manned flights Astronauts Wernher von Braun and astronaut Gordon Cooper in the blockhouse during MR-3 recovery operations May 5, 1961. The first Americans to venture into space were drawn from a group of 110 military pilots chosen for their flight test experience and because they met certain physical requirements. NASA announced the selection of seven of these - known as the Mercury Seven - as astronauts on 9 April 1959, though only six of the seven flew Mercury missions, after Slayton was grounded due to a heart condition. The "Mercury seven" astronauts pose with an Atlas model July 12, 1962. L to R: Grissom, Shepard, Carpenter, Schirra, Slayton, Glenn, Cooper. Malcolm Scott Carpenter, USN (born 1925) Leroy Gordon "Gordo" Cooper, Jr., USAF (1927 – 2004) John Herschel Glenn, Jr., USMC (born 1921) First American to orbit the earth. Virgil Ivan "Gus" Grissom, USAF (1926 – 1967) Died during Apollo 1 Pre-Launch Test Walter Marty "Wally" Schirra, Jr., USN (1923 – 2007) Alan Bartlett Shepard, Jr., USN (1923 – 1998) First American in space Donald Kent "Deke" Slayton, USAF (1924 – 1993) Grounded in 1962 due to irregular heartbeat, reinstated in 1972 and later flew on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975 Beginning with Alan Shepard's Freedom 7 flight, the astronauts named their own spacecraft, and all added "7" to the name to acknowledge the teamwork of their fellow astronauts. MissionCallsignRocketDesignationPilotLaunch DateLaunch TimeDurationRemarksMercury-Redstone 3Freedom 7RedstoneMR-3Shepard5 May 196114:34 UTC00d 00h15 m 28sFirst American to make a suborbital flight into space.Mercury-Redstone 4Liberty Bell 7RedstoneMR-4Grissom21 July 196112:20 UTC00d 00h15 m 37sSecond suborbital flight. Spacecraft sank before recovery when hatch unexpectedly blew off.Mercury-Atlas 6Friendship 7AtlasMA-6Glenn20 February 196214:47 UTC00d 04h55 m 23sFirst American to orbit the Earth (for a total of 3 orbits). Spacecraft's retropack retained during re-entry due to concerns about heatshield.Mercury-Atlas 7Aurora 7AtlasMA-7Carpenter24 May 196212:45 UTC00d 04h56 m 15s3 orbits. Reentered off-target by 402 km. Pilot Carpenter replaced Deke Slayton.Mercury-Atlas 8Sigma 7AtlasMA-8Schirra3 October 196212:15 UTC00d 09h13 m 11sCarried out engineering tests. 6 orbits.Mercury-Atlas 9Faith 7AtlasMA-9Cooper15 May 196313:04 UTC01d 10h19 m 49sFirst American in space for over a day. Last American to orbit the Earth solo. 22 orbits.Mercury-Atlas 10Freedom 7-IIAtlasMA-10ShepardN/AN/AN/AIntended to be a 3-day mission in October, 1963. Cancelled 13 June 1963.Mercury-Atlas 11AtlasMA-11GrissomN/AN/AN/AIntended to be a 1-day mission in 1963. Cancelled by October, 1962.Mercury-Atlas 12AtlasMA-12SchirraN/AN/AN/AIntended to be a 1-day mission in 1963. Cancelled by October, 1962. Piloted Mercury launches Piloted Mercury Launches. Mercury Flight insignias Flight patches that purport to be patches from various Mercury missions are available to the public. In reality, these patches were designed by private entrepreneurs long after the Mercury program ended. When genuine flight patches were created by crews in the Gemini program, this caused a public demand for Mercury flight patches, which was filled by these private entrepreneurs. The only patches the Mercury astronauts wore were the NASA logo and a name tag. Each manned Mercury spacecraft, however, was decorated with a flight insignia. These are the genuine Mercury flight insignias. Further reading Chris Kraft, Flight: My Life in Mission Control (March 2001). Factual, written by one of the pivotal figures in America's space programme, whose involvement ran from the early days of NACA through the formation of NASA, Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, ASTP, Skylab and the early days of Shuttle operations. Hardcover, 371 pages, ISBN 0-525-94571-7 or paperback (2002) ISBN 0-452-28304-3. Gene Kranz, Failure is Not an Option. Factual, from the standpoint of a chief flight controller during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs. ISBN 0-7432-0079-9 Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff. (Wolfe interviewed many of those involved). Schirra, Grissom, Glenn, Slayton, Shepherd, Carpenter, Cooper, We Seven. (ISBN B00005X54G); Simon & Schuster - 1962. Factual; a collection of articles written by the seven Mercury astronauts describing events from their points of view. Francis French and Colin Burgess, Into That Silent Sea:Trailblazers of the Space Era 1961-1965. ISBN 978-0-8032-1146-9. History of the Mercury program with many unique first-hand interviews with the participants. James M. Grimwood, This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury James M. Grimwood, Project Mercury - A Chronology Mae Mills Link, Space Medicine In Project Mercury Results of the first US manned orbital space flight - Feb 20, 1962 (Friendship 7) NASA report - (PDF format) Results of the second u.s. manned orbital space flight, May 24, 1962 (Aurora 7) NASA report - (PDF format) This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury - NASA report (PDF format) Chronology of Project Mercury - NASA report (PDF format) See also Man In Space Soonest Vostok program Splashdown Mercury 13 Mercury Seven Navy Mark IV - Mercury "spacesuit" External links The Mercury Project (Kennedy Space Center) Project Mercury A Chronology (Prepared by James M. Grimwood) Space Medicine In Project Mercury By Mae Mills Link Project Mercury Drawings and Technical Diagrams Technical Diagrams and Drawings Mercury-Atlas Diagrams Project Mercury Simulator for the PC (Orbiter) Project Mercury Simulator for Mac and PC The Mercury Redstone Project (PDF) December 1964 Project Mercury familiarization manual (PDF) November 1961 Various PDFs of historical Mercury documents including familiarization manuals. Buzz Aldrin's Race Into Space: a game that simulates the Space Race Randall Model 17 "Astro" designed for Project Mercury NASA History Series Publications (many of which are on-line) U.S. Spaceflight History- Mercury Program References | Project_Mercury |@lemmatized mcdonnell:4 mercury:98 spacecraftthe:1 spacecraft:51 escape:10 towerdescriptionrole:1 suborbital:12 orbital:6 spaceflight:3 crew:3 one:8 pilot:8 dimensionsheight:1 ft:2 mdiameter:1 mvolume:1 launch:29 lb:5 kgorbit:1 kgpost:1 retro:6 kgreentry:1 kglanding:1 kgrocket:1 enginesretros:1 solid:7 fuel:9 x:4 lbf:8 ea:4 knposigrade:1 knrcs:1 high:2 nrcs:1 low:3 nperformance:1 endurance:1 hour:1 orbit:14 apogee:1 mile:3 km:6 perigee:1 delta:1 v:1 mph:1 h:1 diagrammercury:1 diagram:4 nasa:15 project:18 first:11 human:4 program:20 united:2 state:2 run:2 goal:2 put:1 around:2 earth:5 atlas:26 flight:41 february:3 achieve:1 early:3 planning:1 research:1 carry:5 national:1 advisory:1 committee:1 aeronautics:1 officially:1 conduct:1 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5,652 | History_of_France | The history of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right. The chronological era articles address broad French historical, cultural and sociological developments. The dynasty and regime articles deal with the specific political and governmental regimes in France. The history of other cultural topics such as French art and literature can be found on their own pages. For information on the modern country, see the France article. For other information, go to Portal:France. Prehistory Cave painting in Lascaux.</s> The Neanderthals, a member of the homo genus, began to occupy Europe from about 200,000 BC, but seem to have died out by about 30,000 years ago, presumably out-competed by the modern humans during a period of cold weather. The earliest modern humans — Homo sapiens — entered Europe (including France) around 50,000 years ago (the Upper Palaeolithic). The caves paintings of Lascaux and Gargas (Gargas in the Hautes-Pyrénées) as well as the Carnac stones are remains of the local prehistoric activity. Gaul Covering large parts of modern day France, Belgium, and northwest Germany, Gaul was inhabited by many Celtic tribes whom the Romans referred to as Gauls and who spoke the Gaulish language. On the lower Garonne the people spoke Aquitanian, an archaic language related to Basque. The Celts founded cities such as Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) and Burdigala (Bordeaux) while the Aquitanians founded Tolosa (Toulouse). Long before any Roman settlements, Greek navigators settled in what would become Provence. The Phoceans founded important cities such as Massalia (Marseille) and Nikaia (Nice), bringing them in to conflict with the neighboring Celts and Ligurians. The Phoceans were great navigators such as Pytheas who was born in Marseille. The Celts themselves often fought with Aquitanians and Germans, and a Gaulish war band led by Brennus invaded Rome circa 393 or 388 BC following the Battle of the Allia. However Gaulish tactics would not evolve and the Romans would learn to counter them, the Gauls would from then be defeated in battles such as Sentinum and Telamon. When Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca fought the Romans, he recruited several Gaulish mercenaries which fought on his side at Cannae. It was this Gaulish participation that caused Provence to be annexed in 122 BC by the Roman Republic. Later, the Consul of Gaul—Julius Caesar—conquered all of Gaul. Despite Gaulish opposition led by Vercingetorix, the Overking of the Warriors, Gauls succumbed to the Roman onslaught; the Gauls had some success at first at Gergovia, but were ultimately defeated at Alesia. The Romans founded cities such as Lugdunum (Lyon) and Narbonensis (Narbonne). Roman Gaul Vercingetorix surrenders to Julius Caesar after Alesia. Painting by Lionel-Noël Royer, 1899. Gaul was divided into several different provinces. The Romans displaced populations to prevent local identities from becoming a threat to the Roman control. Thus, many Celts were displaced in Aquitania or were enslaved and moved out of Gaul. There was a strong cultural evolution in Gaul under the Roman Empire, the most obvious one being the replacement of the Gaulish language by Vulgar Latin. It has been argued the similarities between the Gaulish and Latin languages favoured the transition. Gaul remained under Roman control for centuries and Celtic culture was then replaced by Gallo-Roman culture. Gauls became better integrated with the Empire with the passage of time. For instance Marcus Antonius Primus, an important general of the Roman Empire, and Emperor Claudius were both born in Gaul, as were general Gnaeus Julius Agricola and emperor Caracalla; Antoninus Pius also came from a Gaulish family. In the decade following Valerian’s capture by the Persians in 260 Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire, which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes, the Franks and the Alamanni, entered Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian's victory at Chalons in 274. Left|Gaul soldiers. A migration of Celts appeared in the 4th century in Armorica. They were led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc and came from Britain. They spoke the now extinct British language which evolved into the Breton, Cornish, and Welsh languages. In 418 the Aquitanian province was given to the Goths in exchange for their support against the Vandals. Those Goths had previously sacked Rome in 410 and established a capital in Toulouse. The Roman Empire had difficulty responding to all the barbarian raids, and Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used Huns against Burgundians and these mercenaries destroyed Worms, killed king Gunther, and pushed the Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near Lugdunum in 443. The Huns, united by Attila became a greater threat, and Aëtius used the Visigoths against the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Chalons, in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila. The Roman Empire was on the verge of collapsing. Aquitania was definitely abandoned to the Visigoths, who would soon conquer a significant part of southern Gaul as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula. The Burgundians claimed their own kingdom, and northern Gaul was practically abandoned to the Franks. Aside of the Germanic peoples the Vascones entered Wasconia from the Pyrenees and the Bretons formed three kingdoms in Armorica: Domnonia, Cornouaille and Broërec. Frankish kingdoms (486–987) Battle of Tours. This battle is often considered of macro-importance in European and Islamic history. In 486, Clovis I, leader of the Salian Franks, defeated Syagrius at Soissons and subsequently united most of northern and central Gaul under his rule. Clovis then recorded a succession of victories against other Germanic tribes such as the Alamanni at Tolbiac. In 496, he adopted Christianity. This gave him greater legitimacy and power over his Christian subjects and granted him clerical support against the Visigoths. He defeated Alaric II at Vouillé in 507 and annexed Aquitaine, and thus Toulouse, into his Frankish kingdom. The Goths retired to Toledo in what would become Spain. Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian Dynasty but his kingdom would not survive his death. The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and divided it among heirs, so four kingdoms emerged: Paris, Orleans, Soissons, and Rheims. When the majordome of Austrasia Pepin of Herstal defeated his Neustrian counterpart at Tertry the Merovingian dynasty eventually lost effective power to their successive mayors of the palace (majordomes). The House of Herstal was to become the Carolingian dynasty. By this time Muslims invaders had conquered Hispania and were threatening the Frankish kingdoms. Duke Odo the Great defeated a major invading force at Toulouse in 721 but failed to repel a raiding party in 732. The mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, defeated that raiding party at the Battle of Tours (actually the battle between Tours and Poitiers) and earned respect and power within the Frankish Kingdom. The assumption of the crown in 751 by Pippin the Short (son of Charles Martel) established the Carolingian dynasty as Kings of the Franks. The coronation of Charlemagne The new rulers' power reached its fullest extent under Pippin's son Charlemagne. In 771 Charlemagne reunited the Frankish domains after a further period of division, subsequently conquering the Lombards under Desiderius in what is now northern Italy (774), incorporating Bavaria (788) into his realm, defeating the Avars of the Danubian plain (796), advancing the frontier with Islamic Spain as far south as Barcelona (801), and subjugating Lower Saxony (804) after prolonged campaigning. In recognition of his successes and his political support for the Papacy, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans, or Roman Emperor in the West, by Pope Leo III in 800. Charlemagne's son Louis I (emperor 814–840) kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive Louis I's death. Two of his sons — Charles the Bald and Louis the German — swore allegiance to each other against their brother — Lothair I — in the Oaths of Strasbourg, and the empire was divided among Louis's three sons (Treaty of Verdun, 843). After a last brief reunification (884–887), the imperial title ceased to be held in the western realm which was to form the basis of the future French kingdom. The eastern realm, which would become Germany, elected the Saxon dynasty of Henry the Fowler. Under the Carolingians, the kingdom was ravaged by Viking raiders. In this struggle some important figures such as Count Odo of Paris and his brother King Robert rose to fame and became kings. This emerging dynasty, whose members were called the Robertines, was the predecessor of the Capetian Dynasty, who were descended from the Robertines. Led by Rollo, some Vikings had settled in Normandy and were granted the land first as counts and then as dukes by King Charles the Simple, in order to protect it from other raiders. The people that emerged from the interactions between the new Viking aristocracy and the already mixed Franks and Gallo-Romans became known as the Normans. See also: List of Frankish Kings Merovingians Carolingians Carolingian Empire Carolingian Renaissance Early Middle Ages France in the Middle Ages (987–1453) France was a very decentralised state during the middle ages. The authority of the king was more religious than administrative. The eleventh century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like Normandy, Flanders or Languedoc enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The Capetians, as they were descended from the Robertines, were former powerful princes themselves who had successfully removed the weak and unfortunate Carolingian kings. The Carolingian Kings had nothing more than a royal title when the Capetian Kings added their principality to that title. The Capetians in a way had this double status of King and Prince, as king they held the Crown of Charlemagne and as Count of Paris they held their personal fief best known as Île-de-France. The fact the Capetians both held lands as prince as well as the title of King gave them a complicated status, thus they were involved in the struggle for power within France as princes but they also had a religious authority over the Church of France as King. However and despite the fact the Capetian kings often treated other princes more as enemies and allies than subordinates their royal title was often recognised yet not often respected. The authority was so weak in some remote places that bandits were the effective power. Some of the king's vassals would grow so powerful that they would be among the strongest rulers of western Europe. The Normans, the Plantagenets, the Lusignans, the Hautevilles, the Ramnulfids, and the House of Toulouse successfully carved lands outside of France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history was the Norman Conquest of England following the Battle of Hastings by William the Conqueror because it linked England to France through Normandy. Although the Normans were now both vassals of the French kings and their equals as King of England, their zone of political activity remained centered in France. David Carpenter The Struggle for Mastery. The Penguin history of Britain 1066–1284 page 91: "In the first place, after 1072 William was largely an absentee. Of the 170 months remaining of his reign he spent around 130 in France, returning to England only on four occasions. This was no passing phase. Absentee kings continued to spend at best half their time in England until the loss of Normandy in 1204... But this absenteeism solidified rather than sapped royal government since it engendered structures both to maintain peace and extract money on the king's absence, money which was above all needed across the channel". These Norman nobles then commissioned the Bayeux Tapestry. An important part of the French aristocracy involved itself in the crusades. French knights founded and ruled the Crusader states. An example of legacy left in the Mideast from these nobles is the Krak des Chevaliers' enlargement by the Counts of Tripoli and Toulouse. The Early Capetians (987–1165) A view of the remains of the Abbey of Cluny. This church was the centre of monastic life revival in the middle age and marked an important step of the cultural rebirth following the Dark Age. Hugh Capet was elected by an assembly summoned in Reims on 1 June 987. Capet was previously "Duke of the Franks" and then became "King of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). He was recorded to be recognised king by the Gauls, Bretons, Danes, Aquitanians, Goths, Spanish and Gascons. Richerus Liber IV: 12. (987, Jun. 1.) Promotio Hugonis in regnum. Hac sententia promulgata et ab omnibus laudata, dux omnium consensu in regnum promovetur, et per metropolitanum aliosque episcopos Noviomi coronatus, Gallis, Brittannis, Dahis, Aquitanis, Gothis, Hispanis, Wasconibus, rex Kalendis Jun. The text is available here in the paragraph 12, from the Latin Library. The Danes here are certainly the Normans (of Normandy), and the Spanish entry probably refers to the Carolingian Spanish marches. Hugh Capet's reign was marked by the loss of the Spanish marches as they grew more and more independent. Count Borell of Barcelona called for Hugh's help against Islamic raids, but even if Hugh intended to help Borell, he was otherwise occupied in fighting Charles of Lorraine. The loss of other Spanish principalities then followed. Hugh Capet, the first Capetian king, is not a well documented figure, his greatest achievement being certainly to survive as king and defeating the Caroligian claimant, thus allowing him to establish what would become one of Europe's most powerful house of kings. Hugh's son — Robert the Pious — was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's demise. Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert II, as King of the Franks, met Emperor Henry II in 1023 on the borderline. They agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships. The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the Peace and Truce of God and the Cluniac Reforms. Although a king weak in power, Robert II's efforts were considerable. His surviving charters imply he was heavily relying over the church to rule France, much like his father did. Although he lived with a mistress —Bertha of Burgundy— and was excommunicated because of this, he was regarded as a model of piety for monks (hence his nickname, Robert the Pious). He crowned his son —Hugh Magnus— King of the Franks to secure his succession, however Hugh Magnus rebelled against his father and died fighting him. The next King of the Franks —Henry I— was crowned after Robert's death, which is quite exceptional for a French king of the times. Henry I was one of the weakest kings of the Franks, and his reign saw the rise of some very powerful nobles such as William the Conqueror. However his biggest source of concerns was his brother —Robert I of Burgundy— who was pushed by his mother to the conflict. Robert of Burgundy was made Duke of Burgundy by King Henry I and had to be satisfied with that title. From Henry I onward the Dukes of Burgundy were relatives of the King of the Franks until the end of the Duchy proper. King Philip I, named by his Kievan mother with a typically Eastern European name, was no more fortunate than his predecessor. Godefroy de Bouillon, a French knight, leader of the First Crusade and founder of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. It is from Louis VI onward that royal authority became more accepted. Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar. The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite unpopular, he was described as greedy and ambitious and that is corroborated by records of the time. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the royal image, reinforced the royal power. From 1127 onward the royal advisor was a skilled politician — Abbot Suger —. The abbot was the son of a minor family of knights however his policital advices would show extremely valuables to the king. Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of the robber barons. Louis VI often summoned his vassals to the court, those who did not show up often had their land possessions confiscated and then military campaigns were mounted against them. This drastic policy clearly imposed some royal authority on Paris and its surrounding areas. When Louis VI died in 1137 there still was a long way to go, however a lot of efforts had been done. Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advices King Louis VII enjoyed greater moral authority over France than his predecessors. Even more powerful vassals such as Henry Plantagenet paid homage to the French king. Capetian France 937–1328 page 64: Then in 1151 Henry Plantagenet paid homage for the duchy to Louis VII in Paris, homage he repeated as king of England in 1156. Abbot Suger arranged the marriage between Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine in Bordeaux which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him considerable power. However the couple disagreed over the burning of more than a thousand people in Vitry during the conflict against the Count of Champagne. King Louis VII was deeply horrified by the event and sought penitence by going to the holy land. He later involved the Kingdom of France in the Second Crusade but his relationship with Eleanor did not improve. The marriage was ultimately annulled by the pope under the pretext of consanguinity and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy —Henry Fitzempress— who would become King of England as Henry II two years later. Louis VII was once a very powerful monarch and was now facing a much stronger vassal, who was his equal as King of England and his strongest prince as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine. Abbot Sugar's vision of construction became known as the Gothic Architecture during the later Renaissance. This style became standard for most French cathedrals built in the late middle-age. The late Capetians (1165–1328) The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than the earliest ones. While Philip I could hardly control his Parisian barons Philip IV, on the other hand, could dictate popes and emperors. The late Capetians, although they often ruled for a shorter time than their earlier peers, were often much more influential. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, Kings of France and England and Holy Roman Emperor. Philip II Augustus The reign of Philip II Augustus marked an important step in the history of French monarchy. His reign saw the French royal domain and influence greatly expanded. He had set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip the Fair. Philip II victorious at Bouvines thus annexing Normandy and Anjou into his royal domains. This battle involved a complex set of alliances from three important states, the Kingdoms of France and England and the Holy Roman Empire. Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-called Angevin Empire, which was probably the greatest threat to the King of France since the rise of the Capetian dynasty. During the first part of his reign Philip II tried using Henry II of England's son against him. He allied himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II —Richard Lionheart— and together they launched a decisive attack on Henry's castle and home of Chinon and removed him from power. Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then went crusading during the Third Crusade however their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade. The two men were once again at odds and fought each others in France and Richard was on the verge of totally defeating Philip II. Adding to their battles in France the Kings of France and England were trying to install their respective allies at the head of the Holy Roman Empire. If Philip II Augustus supported Philip of Swabia, member of the House of Hohenstaufen, Richard Lionheart supported Otto IV, member of the House of Welf. Otto IV had the upper hand and became the Holy Roman Emperor at the expense of Philip of Swabia. The crown of France was saved by Richard's demise after a wound he received fighting his own vassals in Limousin. John Lackland, Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against the Lusignans and like Louis VI often did to his rebellious vassals Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France. John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the Battle of Bouvines showed being a complete failure. His allies, most notably Emperor Otto IV, were all defeated or captured and even as King of England he had no mean to reconquer Normandy and Anjou. Not only Philip II annexed Normandy and Anjou but he had captured the Counts of Boulogne and Flanders. Otto IV was overthrown by Frederick II, allied of Philip II of France and member of the House of Hohenstaufen. The King of France however stopped before conquering Aquitaine and Gascony who remained loyal to the Plantagenet King. In addition to defeating John of England, Philip Augustus founded the Sorbonne and made Paris a city for scholars. Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII) was involved in the subsequent English civil war as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances. While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for the Albigensian Crusade. Southern France was then largely absorbed in the royal domains. Saint Louis Saint Louis. He saw France's cultural expansion in the Western Christian world. It can be said that France became a truly centralised kingdom under Louis IX, who initiated several administrative reforms. Saint Louis has often been portrayed as a one dimensional character, a flawless representant of the faith and an administrator caring for the governed ones. However his reign was far from perfect for everyone, he made unsuccessful crusades and his expanding administrations raised oppositions. His judgments were not often practical, although they seemed fair by the standards of the time. It appears Louis had a strong sense of justice and always wanted to judge people himself before applying any sentence. This was said about Louis and French clergy asking for excommunications of Louis' vassals: Capetian France page 265. Louis IX was only twelve years old when he became King of France, his mother —Blanche of Castile— was the effective power although the King was indeed Louis IX. Blanche's authority was strongly opposed by the French barons yet she could maintain her position as regent (although she did not formally use the title) until Louis was old enough to rule by himself. In 1229 the King had to struggle with a long lasting strike at the University of Paris, the Quartier Latin was strongly hit by these strikes. War was still going on in the County of Toulouse, the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc and the kingdom was therefore vulnerable. Count Raymond VII of Toulouse finally signed the Treaty of Paris in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands to life, but his daughter, married to Count Alfonso of Poitou, produced him no heir and so the County of Toulouse went to the King of France. King Henry III of England had not yet recognised the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire. He landed in 1230 at Saint-Malo with a massive force. Henry III's allies in Brittany and Normandy fell down because they did not dare fight their king who led the counterstrike himself. This evolved into the Saintonge War, Henry III was defeated and had to recognise Louis IX's overlordship although the King of France did not seize Aquitaine from Henry III. Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France, adding to his royal title. There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which had been brutally conquered. The Conseil du Roi, which would evolve into the Parlement, was founded in these times. Saint Louis also supported new forms of art such as Gothic architecture; his Sainte-Chapelle became a very famous gothic building, and he is also credited for the Morgan Bible. After his conflict with King Henry III of England Louis established a cordial relation with the Plantagenet King. An amusing anecdote is about Henry III's attending the French Parlement, as Duke of Aquitaine, the King of England was always late because he liked to stop each time he met a priest to hear the mass, so Louis made sure no priest was on the way of Henry III. Henry III and Louis IX then started a long contest in who was the most faithful up to the point none ever arrived anymore on time to the Parlement which was then allowed to debate in their absence. Capetian France page 264. The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Saint Louis: the Seventh Crusade and the Eighth Crusade. Both proved to be complete failures for the French King. He died in the Eighth Crusade and Philip III became king. Philip III took part in another crusading disaster: the Aragonese Crusade, which cost him his life. More administrative reforms were made by Philip the Fair. This king was responsible for the end of the Templars, signed the Auld Alliance, and established the Parlement of Paris. Philip IV was so powerful that he could name popes and emperors, unlike the early Capetians. The papacy was moved to Avignon and all the contemporary popes were French such as Philip IV's puppet: Bertrand de Goth. Capetian Dynasty House of Capet Hugh Capet Robert the Pious Henry I Philip I Louis VI the Fat Louis VII the Young Philip II Augustus Louis VIII the Lion Saint Louis IX Philip III the Bold Philip IV the Fair Louis X the Quarreller John I the Posthumous Philip V the Tall Charles IV the Fair The early Valois Kings and the Hundred Years' War (1328–1453) The tensions between the Houses of Anjou and Capet climaxed during the so-called Hundred Years' War (actually several distinct wars) when the English descendants of the former claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the Black Death, as well as several civil wars. The French population suffered much from these wars. In 1420 By the Treaty of Troyes Henry V was made heir to Charles VI.Henry V failed to outlive Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who concildated the Dual-Monarchy of England and France.It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc. Although this is debatable, the Hundred Years War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and militarily. Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at Baugé, the humiliating defeats of Poitiers and Agincourt forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. Charles VII established the first French standing army, the Compagnies d'ordonnance, and defeated the English once at Patay and again, using cannons, at Formigny. Thet Battle of Castillon was regarded as the last engagement of this "war", yet Calais and the Channel Islands remained ruled by the English crown. French Kings: House of Valois Philip VI of Valois John II the Good Charles V the Wise Charles VI the Mad Charles VII the Well Served English interlude (between Charles VI and VII) Henry V of England Henry VI of England and France. Early Modern France (1453–1789) Charles the Bold, the last Capetian Duke of Burgundy, died at the Battle of Nancy. His death marked the division of his lands between the Kings of France and Castile. France evolved from a feudal country to an increasingly centralized state (albeit with many regional differences) organized around a powerful absolute monarchy that relied on the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the explicit support of the Gallican Church. The Duke of Burgundy had assembled a large territory including his native duchy and the Burgundian Netherlands. King Louis XI faced Charles the Bold during Burgundian Wars and the French King was allied with the Old Swiss Confederacy. The Duke of Burgundy was defeated at Morat, Battle of Grandson, Héricourt and ultimately defeated at Nancy in 1477. The Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France but the part of Burgundy that formed Franche-Comté was given to Philip I of Castile in 1493. France engaged in the long Italian Wars (1494–1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. Francis I faced powerful foes, and he was captured at Pavia. The French monarchy then sought for allies and found one in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa captured Nice on 5 August 1543 and handed it down to Francis I. Around this same time, the Protestant Reformation, led in France mainly by John Calvin, was challenging the power of the Catholic Church in France. During the 16th century, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were the dominant power in Europe. In addition to Spain and Austria, they controlled a number of kingdoms and duchies across Europe. Charles Quint, under the titles of Count of Burgundy, Holy Roman Emperor, and King of Aragon, Castile and Germany, among other, encircled France. The Spanish Tercio was used with great success against French knights. Finally, on 7 January 1558, the Duke of Guise seized Calais from the English. Despite the challenge to French power posed by the Habsburgs, French became the preferred language of Europe's aristocracy. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (born in 1500) said this about languages: Because of its international status, there was a desire to regulate the French language. Several reforms of the French language worked to uniformise it. The Renaissance writer François Rabelais (probably born in 1494) helped to shape the French language as a literary language, Rabelais' French is characterised by the re-introduction of Greek and Latin words. Jacques Peletier du Mans (born 1517) was one of the scholars that reformed the French language. He improved Nicolas Chuquet's long scale system by adding names for intermediate numbers (milliards instead of thousand million, etc...). During the 16th century, the French kingdom also established colonies began to claim North American territories. Jacques Cartier was one of the great explorers who ventured deep into American territories during the 16th century. The largest group of French colonies became known as New France, and several cities such as Quebec City, Montreal, Detroit and New Orleans were founded by the French. The Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano worked for the French crown and discovered New Angoulême which would later come to be known as New York City. Religious conflicts Henry IV of France, King of France and Navarre, was the first French Bourbon king. Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful duke of Guise, led to a massacre of Huguenots at Vassy in 1562, starting the first of the French Wars of Religion, during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant and Catholic forces. In the most notorious incident, thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572. The Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henrys in which Henry III assassinated Henry de Guise, leader of the Spanish-backed Catholic league, and the king was murdered in return. Following this war Henry III of Navarre became king of France as Henry IV and enforced the Edict of Nantes (1598). Religious conflicts resumed under Louis XIII when Cardinal de Richelieu forced Protestants to disarm their army and fortresses. This conflict ended in the Siege of La Rochelle (1627–1628), in which Protestants and their English supporters were defeated. The following Peace of Alais confirmed religious freedom yet dismantled the Protestant defences. The religious conflicts that plagued France also ravaged the Habsburg-led Holy Roman Empire. The Thirty Years War eroded the power of the Catholic Habsburgs. Although Cardinal Richelieu, the powerful chief minister of France, had previously mauled the Protestants, he joined this war on their side in 1636 because it was the raison d'état. Imperial Habsburg forces invaded France, ravaged Champagne, and nearly threatened Paris. Richelieu died in 1642 and was replaced by Mazarin, while Louis XIII died one year later and was succeeded by Louis XIV. France was served by some very efficient commanders such as Louis II de Bourbon (Condé) and Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne (Turenne). The French forces won a decisive victory at Rocroi (1643), and the Spanish army was decimated; the Tercio was broken. The Truce of Ulm (1647) and the Peace of Westphalia (1648) brought an end to the war. But some challenges remained. France was hit by civil unrest known as the Fronde which in turn evolved into the Franco-Spanish War in 1653. Louis II de Bourbon joined the Spanish army this time, but suffered a severe defeat at Dunkirk (1658) by Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne. The terms for the peace inflicted upon the Spanish kingdoms in the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) were harsh, as France annexed Northern Catalonia. Amidst this turmoil, René Descartes sought answers to philosophical questions through the use of logic and reason and formulated what would be called Cartesian Dualism in 1641. Louis XIV Louis XIV, the "Sun King" The Sun King wanted to be remembered as a patron of the arts, like his ancestor Louis IX. He invited Jean-Baptiste Lully to establish the French opera. A tumultuous friendship was established between Lully and Molière. Jules Hardouin Mansart became France's most important architect of the period. Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many wars that drained its treasury. His reign began during the Thirty Years' War and during the Franco-Spanish war. His military architect, Vauban, became famous for his pentagonal fortresses, and Jean-Baptiste Colbert supported the royal spending as much as possible. French dominated League of the Rhine fought against the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Saint Gotthard in 1664. The battle was won by the Christians, chiefly through the brave attack of 6,000 French troops led by La Feuillade and Coligny. Count Miklós Zrínyi,the Poet-Warlord France fought the War of Devolution against Spain in 1667. France's defeat of Spain and invasion of the Spanish Netherlands alarmed England and Sweden. With the Dutch Republic they formed the Triple Alliance to check Louis XIV's expansion. Louis II de Bourbon had captured Franche-Comté, but in face of an indefensible position, Louis XIV agreed to a peace at Aachen. Under its terms, Louis XIV did not annex Franche-Comté but did gain Lille. Peace was fragile, and war broke out again between France and the Dutch Republic in the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678). Louis XIV asked for the Dutch Republic to resume war against the Spanish Netherlands, but the republic refused. France attacked the Dutch Republic and was joined by England in this conflict. Through targeted inundations of polders by breaking dykes, the French invasion of the Dutch Republic was brought to a halt. The Dutch Admiral Michiel de Ruyter inflicted a few strategic defeats on the Anglo-French naval alliance and forced England to retire from the war in 1674. Because the Netherlands could not resist eternally, it agreed to peace in the Treaties of Nijmegen, according to which France would annex France-Comté and acquire further concessions in the Spanish Netherlands. On 6 May 1682, the royal court moved to the Palace of Versailles, which Louis XIV had greatly expanded. Peace did not last, and war between France and Spain again resumed. The War of the Reunions broke out (1683–1684), and again Spain, with its ally the Holy Roman Empire, was easily defeated. Meanwhile, in October 1685 Louis signed the Edict of Fontainebleau ordering the destruction of all Protestant churches and schools in France. Its immediate consequence was a large Protestant exodus from France. The two massive famines struck France between 1693 and 1710, killing over two million people. France would soon be involved in another war, the War of the Grand Alliance. This time the theatre was not only in Europe but also in North America. Although the war was long and difficult (it was also called the Nine Years War), its results were inconclusive. The Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 confirmed French sovereignty over Alsace, yet rejected its claims to Luxembourg. Louis also had to evacuate Catalonia and the Palatinate. This peace was considered a truce by all sides, thus war was to start again. In 1701 the War of the Spanish Succession began. The Bourbon Philip of Anjou was designated heir to the throne of Spain. The Habsburg Emperor Leopold opposed a Bourbon succession, because the power that such a succession would bring to the Bourbon rulers of France would disturb the delicate balance of power in Europe. Therefore, he claimed the Spanish thrones for himself. England and the Dutch Republic joined Leopold against Louis XIV and Philip of Anjou. The allied forces were led by John Churchill and by Prince Eugene of Savoy. They inflicted a few resounding defeats to the French army; the Battle of Blenheim in 1704 was the first major land battle lost by France since its victory at Rocroi in 1643. Yet, after the extremely bloody battles of Ramillies and Malplaquet, Pyrrhic victories for the allies, they had lost too many men to continue the war. Led by Villars, the French forces recovered much of the lost ground in battles such as Denain. Finally, a compromise was achieved with the Ultrecht in 1713. Philip of Anjou was confirmed as Philip V, king of Spain, and Emperor Leopold did not get the throne, but Philip V was barred from inheriting France. Colonial struggles and the dawn of the revolution Louis XIV died in 1715 of gangrene. In 1718, France was once again at war, as Philip II of Orleans's regency joined the War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain. King Philip V of Spain had to withdraw from the conflict confronted with the reality that Spain was no longer a great power of Europe. Under Fleury's administration, peace was maintained as long as possible. However, in 1733 another war broke in central Europe, this time about the Polish succession, and France joined the war against the Austrian Empire. This time there was no invasion of the Netherlands, and Britain remained neutral. As a consequence, Austria was left alone against a Franco-Spanish alliance and faced a military disaster. Peace was settled in the Treaty of Vienna (1738), according to which France would annex, through inheritance, the Duchy of Lorraine. Two years later war broke out over the Austrian succession, and France seized the opportunity to join the conflict. The war played out in North America and India as well as Europe, and inconclusive terms were agreed to in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Once again, no one regarded this as a peace, but rather as a mere truce. Prussia was then becoming a new threat, as it had gained substantial territory from Austria. This led to the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, in which the alliances seen during the previous war were mostly inverted. France was now allied to Austria and Russia while Britain was now allied to Prussia. In the North American theatre, France was allied with various Native American peoples during the Seven Years' War and, despite a temporary success at the battles of the Great Meadows and Monongahela, French forces were defeated at the disastrous Battle of the Plains of Abraham in Quebec. In Europe, Russia was on the verge of crushing Prussia, and the Anglo-Prussian alliance was saved by The miracle of the House of Brandenburg, while the French suffered naval defeats against British fleets at Lagos and Quiberon Bay. Finally peace was concluded in the Treaty of Paris (1763), and France lost most of its North American empire. In 1768 the French Kingdom bought Corsica from Genoa. Lord Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown to American and French allies. Having lost its colonial empire, France saw a good opportunity for revenge against Britain in assisting insurgent troops in the American Revolutionary War. Spain, allied to France by the Family Compact, and the Netherlands also joined the war on the American side. Admiral de Grasse defeated a British fleet at Chesapeake Bay while Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau and Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette joined American forces in defeating the British at Yorktown. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Paris (1783), under which Britain lost its former American colonies. While the state expanded, new ideas broke on the role of the king and the powers of the state. Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu described the separation of powers. Many other French philosophers and intellectuals gained social, political and philosophical influence on a global scale, including Voltaire, Denis Diderot and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose essay The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right was a catalyst for governmental and societal reform throughout Europe. Science, mathematics and technology also flourished. French scientists such as Antoine Lavoisier worked to replace the archaic units of weights and measures by a coherent scientific system, commissioned by king Louis XVI. Lavoisier also formulated the law of Conservation of mass and discovered Oxygen and Hydrogen. The Early Modern period in French history spans the following reigns: House of Valois Louis XI the Prudent Charles VIII the Affable Louis XII Francis I Henry II and Catherine de' Medici Francis II Charles IX Henry III House of Bourbon Henry IV the Great the Regency of Marie de Medici Louis XIII the Just and his minister Cardinal Richelieu the Regency of Anne of Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin Louis XIV the Sun King and his minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert the Régence of Philip II of Orleans Louis XV the Beloved and his minister Cardinal Fleury Louis XVI See also: French Renaissance French colonization of the Americas French Opera Separation of powers Wars of Religion Ancien Régime in France Age of Enlightenment France in modern times I (1789–1914) From the Revolution to World War I. The Revolution Storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789 The immediate trigger for the Revolution was Louis XVI’s attempts to solve the government’s worsening financial situation. In February 1787 his finance minister, Charles Alexandre de Calonne, convened an Assembly of Notables, a group of nobles, clergy, bourgeoisie, and bureaucrats selected in order to bypass the parlements. This group was asked to approve a new land tax that would, for the first time, include a tax on the property of nobles and clergy. The assembly did not approve the tax, instead demanding that Louis XVI call the Estates-General. In August 1788 the King agreed to convene the Estates-General in May of 1789. While the Third Estate demanded and was granted "double representation" so as to balance the First and Second Estate, voting was to occur "by orders" - votes of the Third Estate were to be weighted - effectively cancelling double representation. This eventually led to the Third Estate breaking away from the Estates-General and joined by members of the other estates, proclaiming the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People." In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met. After finding the door to their chamber locked and guarded, they met nearby on a tennis court and pledged the Tennis Court Oath on 20 June 1789, binding them "never to separate, and to meet wherever circumstances demand, until the constitution of the kingdom is established and affirmed on solid foundations". They were joined by some members of the second and first estates. After the king fired his finance minister, Jacques Necker, for giving his support and guidance to the Third Estate, worries surfaced that the legitimacy of the newly-formed National Assembly might be threatened by royalists. Paris was soon consumed with riots, anarchy, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of the French Guard, including arms and trained soldiers, because the royal leadership essentially abandoned the city. On 14 July 1789 the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress, which also served as a symbol of royal tyranny. Insurgents seized the Bastille prison, killing the governor and several of his guards. The French now celebrate July 14 each year as a symbol of the shift away from the Ancien Regime to a more modern democratic state. Gilbert du Motier, hero of American independence, took command of the National Guard, and the king was forced to recognize the Tricolour Cockade. Although peace was found, several nobles did not regard the new order as acceptable and migrated to push neighbouring kingdoms to war against the new rule. Because of this new period of instability, the state was struck for several weeks in July and August of 1789 by the Great Fear, a period of violent class conflict. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted by the National Assembly in August 1789 as a first step in their effort to write a constitution. Considered to be a precursor to modern international rights instruments and using the U.S. Declaration of Independence as a model, it defined a set of individual rights and collective rights of all of the estates as one. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights were deemed universal and valid in all times and places, pertaining to human nature itself. The Assembly also replaced France's historic provinces with eighty-three départements, uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population. On 4 August 1789 the Assembly abolished feudalism, in what is known as the August Decrees, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the Ancien Régime, armorial bearings, liveries, etc., which alienated the more conservative nobles. Amidst these intrigues, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. A new judicial organization made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The King would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers' organizations: any individual gained the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a license; strikes became illegal. The Revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the Roman Catholic Church to the state. Under the Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops, cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property. The Assembly essentially addressed the financial crisis in part by having the nation take over the property of the Church. The republican government also enforced the Système International d'Unités, commissioned by Louis XVI, which became known as the Metric System. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb and André-Marie Ampère's works on electricity and electromagnetism were also recognised, and their units are integrated into the Metric System. When a mob from Paris attacked the royal palace at Versailles in October 1789 seeking address of severe poverty conditions, the royal family was forced to move to the Tuileries Palace in Paris. Later in June 1791 the royal family secretly fled Paris in disguise for Varennes near France's northeastern border to seek royalist support the king sensed he could trust, but they were soon discovered en route. They were brought back to Paris, after which they were essentially kept under house-arrest at the Tuileries. Factions within the Assembly began to clarify. The opposition to revolution sat on the right-hand side of the Assembly. The "Royalist democrats" or monarchiens inclined toward organizing France along lines similar to the British constitutional model. The "National Party", representing the centre or centre-left of the assembly represented somewhat more extreme views. The increasingly middle-class National Guard under Lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right. With most of the Assembly still favoring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise that left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead. He had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication. Under the Constitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy. The King had to share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers. The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791, and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165 Feuillants (constitutional monarchists) on the right, about 330 Girondists (liberal republicans) and Jacobins (radical revolutionaries) on the left, and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with either faction. Early on, the King vetoed legislation that threatened the émigrés with death and that decreed that every non-juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this would lead to a constitutional crisis, leading the Revolution to higher levels. On the foreign affairs front, in the Declaration of Pillnitz of August 1791 Emperor Leopold II, Count Charles of Artois and King William II of Prussia made Louis XVI's cause theirs. These noblemen also required the Assembly to be dissolved through threats of war, but, instead of cowing the French, it infuriated them. The borderlines were militarised as a consequence. Under the Constitution of 1791 the solution of a constitutional monarchy was adopted, and the king supported a war against Austria to increase his popularity, starting the long French Revolutionary Wars. On the night of the 10th of August the Jacobins, who had mainly opposed the war, suspended the monarchy. With the Prussian army entering France, more doubts were raised against the aristocracy, and these tensions climaxed during the September Massacres. After the first great victory of the French revolutionary troops at the Battle of Valmy on 1792 20 September, the French First Republic was proclaimed the day after on 1792 21 September. The French Republican Calendar was enforced. Execution of Louis XVI in what is now the Place de la Concorde, facing the empty pedestal where the statue of his grandfather, Louis XV, had stood. When the Brunswick Manifesto of July 1792 threatened once more the French population from Austrian (Imperial) and Prussian attacks, Louis XVI was suspected of treason and taken along with his family from the Tuileries Palace in August 1792 by insurgents supported by a new revolutionary Paris Commune. The King and Queen ended up prisoners, and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy. Little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. The King was later tried and convicted and on 21 January 1793 was guillotined. Marie Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on 16 October. What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. When the Commune sent gangs into prisons to try arbitrarily and butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example, the Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until a National Convention, charged with writing a new constitution, met on 20 September 1792 and became the new de facto government of France. The next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. When war went badly, prices rose and the sans-culottes (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans-culottes. An alliance of Jacobin and sans-culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical. In September of 1793 a period known as the Reign of Terror ensued for approximately 12 months. The Committee of Public Safety, set up by the National Convention on April 6, 1793, formed the de facto executive government of France. Under war conditions and with national survival seemingly at stake, the Jacobins under Maximilien Robespierre centralized denunciations, trials, and executions under the supervision of this committee of twelve members. At least 18,000 people met their deaths under the guillotine or otherwise, after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. In 1794 Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. On 27 July 1794, the Thermidorian Reaction led to the arrest and execution of Robespierre. The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror, and after taking power, they took revenge as well by banning the Jacobin Club and executing many of its former members in what was known as the White Terror. After the stated aim of the National Convention to export revolution, the guillotining of Louis XVI of France, and the French opening of the Scheldt, a military coalition was formed and set up against France. Spain, Naples, Great Britain and the Netherlands joined Austria and Prussia in the The First Coalition (1792–1797), the first major concerted effort of multiple European powers to contain Revolutionary France. It took shape after the wars had already begun. The Republican government in Paris was radicalised after a diplomatic coup from the Jacobins and said it would be the Guerre Totale and called for a Levée en masse. Royalist invading forces were defeated at Toulon in 1793, leaving the French republican forces in an offensive position and granting a young officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, a certain fame. Following their victory at Fleurus, the Republicans occupied Belgium and the Rhineland. An invasion of the Netherlands established the puppet Batavian Republic. Finally a peace agreement was found between France, Spain and Prussia in 1795 at Basel. The Convention approved a new "Constitution of the Year III" on 17 August 1795; a plebiscite ratified it in September; and it took effect on 26 September 1795. The new constitution created the Directory and created the first bicameral legislature in French history. The parliament consisted of 500 representatives — le Conseil des Cinq-Cents (the Council of the Five Hundred) — and 250 senators — le Conseil des Anciens (the Council of Elders). Executive power went to five "directors," named annually by the Conseil des Anciens from a list submitted by the le Conseil des Cinq-Cents. The nation desired rest and the healing of its many wounds. Those who wished to restore Louis XVIII and the Ancien Régime and those who would have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant in number. The possibility of foreign interference had vanished with the failure of the First Coalition. Nevertheless, the four years of the Directory were a time of arbitrary government and chronic disquiet. The late atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between parties impossible. As the majority of French people wanted to be rid of them, they could achieve their purpose only by extraordinary means. The Convention habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, when the elections went against them, appealed to the sword. They resolved to prolong the war as the best expedient for prolonging their power. They were thus driven to rely upon the armies, which also desired war and were becoming less and less civic in temper. The Directory lasted until 1799 when Napoleon staged a coup and installed the Consulate. The Napoleonic Era Napoleon on his Imperial throne, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres During the War of the First Coalition the Directoire had replaced the National Convention. Five directors then ruled France. As Great Britain was still at war with France, a plan was made to take Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, a British ally. This was Napoleon's idea and the Directoire agreed to the plan in order to send the popular general away from the mainland. Napoleon captured Malta from the Knights of Saint John on the way to Egypt. The French army met Ottoman forces during the Battle of the Pyramids and defeated them. While the land campaign was so far a success, the British fleet, led by Admiral Nelson, destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile. Hearing of the French defeat, the Ottoman Empire gathered armies to attack Napoleon in Egypt, and Napoleon again adopted a policy of attack. An invasion of Syria was planned but failed during the Siege of Acre, and Napoleon had to return to Europe, leaving a significant part of his army behind. These men were supposed to be given honourable terms by the British forces, yet Admiral Keith decided to attack them anyway with a Mameluk force, although this force was defeated at Heliopolis in March 1800. Disease had hit the French troops to such a point they were forced to surrender. The Rosetta Stone was discovered during this campaign and Champollion translated it. When Napoleon came back to France, the Directoire was threatened by the Second Coalition. Royalists and their allies still dreamed of restoring the monarchy to power, while the Prussian and Austrian crowns did not accept their territorial losses during the previous war. The Russian army expelled the French from Italy in battles such as Cassano while the Austrian army defeated the French in Switzerland at Stockach and Zurich. Napoleon then seized power through a coup and established the Consulate in 1799. The Austrian army was defeated at Marengo in 1800 and again at Hohenlinden. While at sea Admiral Louis-René Levassor de Latouche Tréville had some success at Boulogne against a British fleet. The British Admiral Nelson would destroy an anchored Danish and Norwegian fleet at Copenhagen because the Scandinanian kingdoms were against the British blockade on France. The Second Coalition was beaten and peace was settled in two distinct treaties: The Treaty of Lunéville and the Treaty of Amiens. In 1803 Napoleon sold French Louisiana to the American government, a territory he considered indefensible. On 21 March 1804 the Napoleonic Code was applied over all the territory under French control, and on May 18 Napoleon was titled Emperor by the senate, thus founding the French Empire. Technically Napoleon's rule was constitutional, and although autocratic, it was much more advanced than other European monarchies of the time. The proclamation of the French Empire was met by the Third Coalition. The French army was renamed the Grande Armée in 1805 and Napoleon used propaganda and nationalism to control the French population. The French army achieved a resounding victory at Ulm, where an entire Austrian army was captured. A Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at Trafalgar and all plans to invade Britain were then made impossible. Despite this naval defeat, it was on the ground that this war would be won, Napoleon inflicted the Austrian and Russian Empires one of their greatest defeats at Austerlitz, destroying the third coalition. The peace was settled in the Treaty of Pressburg, the Austrian Empire lost the title of Holy Roman Emperor and the Confederation of the Rhine was created by Napoleon over former Austrian territories. The destruction of the Holy Roman Empire and the dramatic Austrian defeat caused Prussia to join Britain and Russia, thus forming the Fourth Coalition. Although the Coalition was joined by other allies, the French Empire was also not alone since it now had a complex network of allies and submitted states. Largely outnumbered, the Prussian army was crushed at Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, Napoleon captured Berlin and went as far as Eastern Prussia. There the Russian Empire was defeated at the Battle of Friedland. Peace was dictated in the Treaties of Tilsit, in which Russia had to join the Continental System and Prussia handed down half of its territories to France. The Duchy of Warsaw was formed over these territorial losses, and the Polish troops entered the Grande Armée in significant numbers. Freed from his obligation in the east, Napoleon then went back to the west, as the French Empire was still at war with Britain. Only two countries remained neutral in the war: Sweden and Portugal, and Napoleon then looked toward the latter. In the Treaty of Fontainebleau, a Franco-Spanish alliance against Portugal was sealed as Spain eyed Portuguese territories. French armies entered Spain in order to attack Portugal, but then seized Spanish fortresses and took over the kingdom by surprise. Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, was made King of Spain after Charles IV's abdication. This occupation of the Iberian peninsula fueled local nationalism, and soon the Spanish and Portuguese would fight the French using guerilla tactics, defeating the French forces at the Battle of Bailén. Britain sent a short-lived ground support force to Portugal, and French forces evacuated Portugal as defined in the Convention of Sintra following the Allied victory at Vimeiro. France was only controlling Catalonia and Navarre and could have been definitely expelled from the Iberian peninsula had the Spanish armies attacked again, but the Spanish did not. Another French attack was launched on Spain, led by Napoleon himself, and was described as "an avalanche of fire and steel." However, the French Empire was no longer regarded as invincible by European powers. In 1808 Austria formed the War of the Fifth Coalition in order to break down the French Empire. The Austrian Empire defeated the French at Aspern-Essling, yet was beaten at Wagram while the Polish allies defeated the Austrian Empire at Raszyn. Although not as decisive as the previous Austrian defeats, the peace treaty caused Austria to lose a large amount of territories, reducing it even more. Napoleon Bonaparte retreating from Moscow, Russia after a disastrous campaign. In 1812 war broke out with Russia, engaging Napoleon in the disastrous Patriotic War. Napoleon assembled the largest army Europe had ever seen, including troops from all submitted states, to invade Russia, which had just left the continental system and was gathering an army on the Polish frontier. Following an exhausting march and the bloody but inconclusive Battle of Borodino, near Moscow, the Grande Armée entered and captured Moscow, just to find it burning, as part of the Russian scorched earth tactics. Although there still were battles such as Maloyaroslavets the Napoleonic army left Russia decimated most of all by the Russian winter, exhaustion and scorched earth warfare. On the Spanish front the French troops were defeated at Vitoria and then at the Battle of the Pyrenees. Since the Spanish guerrillas seemed to be uncontrollable, the French troops eventually evacuated Spain. France having been defeated on these two fronts, the states controlled and previously conquered by Napoleon saw a good opportunity to strike back. The Sixth Coalition was formed and the German states of the Confederation of the Rhine switched sides, finally opposing Napoleon. Napoleon was largely defeated in the Battle of the Nations and was overwhelmed by much larger armies during the Six Days Campaign, although, because of the much larger amount of casualties suffered by the allies, the Six Days Campaign is often considered a tactical masterpiece. Napoleon abdicated on 6 April 1814, and was exiled to Elba. The conservative Congress of Vienna reversed the political changes that had occurred during the wars. Napoleon's attempted restoration, a period known as the Hundred Days, ended with his final defeat at Waterloo in 1815. The monarchy was subsequently restored and Louis XVIII became king. The Restored Monarchy and the Second Empire Napoleon III, Emperor of the French This period of time is called the Bourbon Restoration and was marked by conflicts between reactionary Ultra-royalists and more liberal movements. On 12 June 1830 Polignac, King Charles X's minister, exploited the weakness of the Algerian Dey by invading Algeria and establishing French rule in Algeria. The news of the fall of Algiers had barely reached Paris when Charles X was deposed and replaced by King Louis-Philippe during the July Revolution. Louis-Philippe's "July Monarchy" (1830–1848) is generally seen as a period during which the haute bourgeoisie was dominant. Anarchism, as formulated by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, began to take root in France. To honour the victims of the July Revolution, Hector Berlioz composed a Requiem; he also rearranged La Marseillaise, which would become the French national anthem. In 1838 the French government declared war on Mexico after a French pastry cook in Mexico accused Mexican officers of looting his shop. The Mexican government was defeated in the short Pastry War. Finally, the last King of France abdicated, and the French Second Republic was proclaimed. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president and proclaimed himself President for Life following a coup that was confirmed and accepted in a dubious referendum. Napoleon III of France took the imperial title in 1852 and held it until his downfall in 1870. The era saw great industrialization, urbanization (including the massive rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann) and economic growth, but Napoleon III's foreign policies were not so successful. In 1854, The Second Empire joined the Crimean War, which saw France and Britain opposed to the Russian Empire, who were decisively defeated at Sevastopol in 1855 and at Inkerman. In 1856 France joined the Second Opium War on the British side against China; a missionary's murder was used as a pretext to take interests in southwest Asia in the Treaty of Tientsin. In 1859 the Second Italian War of Independence broke out between Italian states and Austria. The Second French Empire joined the war on the Italian side, which was concluded by an Austrian defeat at Solferino. In return for this intervention, the French government acquired the city of Nice, while in March 1860 Savoy was annexed by similar means. In 1861 Napoleon III largely supported Maximilian in his claim to Mexico, a move that was also supported by Britain and Spain but condemned by the U.S. This led to the French intervention in Mexico, which turned out to be a failure. When France was negotiating with The Netherlands about purchasing Luxembourg, the Prussian Kingdom threatened the French government with war. This came as a shock to French diplomats as there previously was an agreement between the Prussian and French governments about Luxembourg. Napoleon III suffered stronger and stronger criticism from Republicans like Jules Favre, and his position seemed more fragile with the passage of time. France was looking for more interests in Asia and interfered in Korea in 1866 taking, once again, missionaries' murders as a pretext. The French finally withdrew from the war with little gain but war's booty. The next year a French expedition to Japan was formed to help the Tokugawa shogunate to modernise its army. However, Tokugawa was defeated during the Boshin War at the Battle of Toba-Fushimi by large Imperial armies. Rising tensions about a possible Prussian succession in Spain raised the scale of animosity between the two states, and finally the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) broke out. German nationalism united the German states, with the exception of Austria, against Napoleon III. The French Empire was defeated decisively at Metz and Sedan. The last straw was the Siege of Paris. The newly-formed German Empire subsequently annexed Alsace-Lorraine in the Treaty of Frankfurt. The Third Republic and the Belle Epoque The French legislature established the Third Republic, which was to last until the military defeat of 1940 (longer than any government in France since the Revolution). The birth of the republic saw France occupied by foreign troops, the capital in a popular socialist insurrection — the Paris Commune (which was violently repressed by Adolphe Thiers) — and two provinces (Alsace-Lorraine) annexed to Germany. Feelings of national guilt and a desire for vengeance ("revanchism") would be major preoccupations of the French throughout the next half century. The repression of the Commune was bloody. Hundreds were executed in front of the Communards' Wall in the Père Lachaise cemetery, while thousands of others were marched to Versailles for trials. The number killed during La Semaine Sanglante (The Bloody Week) can never be established for certain, but the best estimates are 30,000 dead, many more wounded, and perhaps as many as 50,000 later executed or imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to New Caledonia. Thousands of them fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. Besides this defeat, the Republican movement also had to confront counterrevolutionaries who rejected the legacy of the 1789 Revolution. Both the Legitimist and the Orleanist royalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension of modernity and atheism, breaking with France's traditions. This lasted until at least the 16 May 1877 crisis, which finally led to the resignation of royalist Marshal MacMahon in January 1879. The death of Henri, comte de Chambord in 1883, who, as the grandson of Charles X, had refused to abandon the fleur-de-lys and the white flag, thus jeopardizing the alliance between Legitimists and Orleanists, convinced many of the remaining Orleanists to rally themselves to the Republic, as Adolphe had already done. The vast majority of the Legitimists abandoned the political arena or became marginalised. Some of them founded Action Française in 1898, during the Dreyfus Affair, which became an influent movement throughout the 1930s, in particular among the intellectuals of Paris' Quartier Latin. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII's encyclic Rerum Novarum brought legitimacy to the Social Catholic movement, which in France could be traced back to Hughes Felicité Robert de Lamennais' efforts under the July Monarchy. The initial republic was in effect led by pro-royalists, but republicans (the "Radicals") and bonapartists scrambled for power. The period from 1879–1899 saw power come into the hands of moderate republicans and former "radicals" (around Léon Gambetta); these were called the "Opportunists". The newly found Republican control of the Republic allowed the vote of the 1881 and 1882 Jules Ferry laws on a free, mandatory and laic public education. The moderates however became deeply divided over the Dreyfus Affair, and this allowed the Radicals eventually to gain power from 1899 until World War I. During this period, crises like the potential "Boulangist" coup d'état (see Georges Boulanger) in 1889, showed the fragility of the republic. The Radicals' policies on education (suppression of local languages, compulsory education), mandatory military service, and control of the working classes eliminated internal dissent and regionalisms. Their participation in the Scramble for Africa and in the acquiring of overseas possessions (such as French Indochina) created myths of French greatness. Both of these processes transformed a country of regionalisms into a modern nation state. Conflicts between the Chinese Emperor and the French Republic over Indochina climaxed during the Sino-French War, Admiral Courbet destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at Foochow. France then put a protectorate over northern and central Vietnam, which it divided into Tonkin and Annam. In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and the United Kingdom to its side, first by means of the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, the 1904 Entente Cordiale with the U.K, and finally, with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907 which became the Triple Entente and eventually led Russia and the U.K. to enter World War I as Allies. France still had interests in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally. During his visit to France, Iwakura Tomomi asked for French assistance in reforming Japan. French military missions were sent to Japan in 1872–1880, in 1884–1889 and the last one much later in 1918–1919 to help modernize the Japanese army. Distrust of Germany, faith in the army and native French anti-semitism combined to make the Dreyfus Affair (the unjust trial and condemnation of a Jewish military officer for treason) a political scandal of the utmost gravity. The nation was divided between "dreyfusards" and "anti-dreyfusards," and far-right Catholic agitators inflamed the situation even when proofs of Dreyfus' innocence came to light. The writer Emile Zola published an impassioned editorial on the injustice, and was himself condemned by the government for libel. Once Dreyfus was finally pardoned, the progressive legislature enacted the 1905 laws on laïcité, which created a complete separation of church and state and stripped churches of most of their property rights. Eiffel Tower under construction in July 1888. The period at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is often termed the belle époque. Although associated with cultural innovations and popular amusements (cabaret, can-can, the cinema, new art forms such as Impressionism and Art Nouveau), France was nevertheless a nation divided internally on notions of religion, class, regionalisms and money, and on the international front France came repeatedly to the brink of war with the other imperial powers, including Great Britain (the Fashoda Incident). World War I was inevitable, but its human and financial costs would be catastrophic for the French. In 1889 the Exposition Universelle took place in Paris, and the Eiffel Tower was built as a temporary gate to the fair. Meant to last only a few decades, the tower was never removed and became France's most iconic landmark. See also: French Revolution Causes of the French Revolution Estates-General of 1789 National Assembly Storming of the Bastille National Constituent Assembly National Constituent Assembly French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly) Legislative Assembly The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy National Convention Reign of Terror Directory Consulate Glossary Timeline Wars List of people associated with the French Revolution List of historians of the French Revolution First Empire of Napoleon, Napoleonic Wars, Continental System Restoration of Louis XVIII and Charles X July Revolution (1830) and the July Monarchy of Louis-Philippe (often treated as a continuation of the Restoration) 1848 Revolution French Second Republic Second Empire of Napoleon III Franco-Prussian War, Paris Commune French Third Republic France in modern times II (1914–today) World War I On 28 June 1914 a Bosnian member of the Mlada Bosna assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austria-Hungary throne, in Sarajevo, the capital of the Austrian province of Bosnia. This event ultimately triggered a complex set of formal and secret military alliances between European states, causing most of the continent, including France, to be drawn into war within a few short weeks. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in late July, triggering Russian mobilization. On August 1 both Germany and France ordered mobilization. Germany was much better prepared militarily than any of the other countries involved, including France. Later on that day the German Empire, as an ally of Austria, declared war on Russia, when it heard no response to its request for Russia's demobilization. France was allied with Russia and Serbia and so was ready to commit to war against the German Empire. Germany occupied Luxembourg on August 2 and gave neutral Belgium an ultimatum: let German armies pass through on their way to invade France or face invasion itself. The Belgians refused, so Germany invaded and declared war on France. Britain entered the war on August 4, although was relatively unprepared militarily and thus couldn't assist France much until August 7. (See main entry for World War I for more detailed background about events leading up to France's entry into the war.) A French bayonet charge in World War I The war on the Western Front was fought largely in France and characterized by extremely violent battles, often with new and more destructive military technology. Famous battles in France include First Battle of the Marne, Battle of Verdun, Battle of the Somme and the Second Battle of the Marne. Germany's plan (see Schlieffen Plan) was to defeat the French quickly and then shift from defense to offense against Russia on the Eastern Front. The Germans captured Brussels by August 20 and soon had taken over a large portion of northern France. The original plan was to continue southwest and attack Paris from the west. By early September they were within 40 miles of Paris, and the French government had relocated to Bordeaux. The Allies finally stopped the advance northeast of Paris at the Marne River. This was the farthest push west by the Germans during the entire war. On the Western Front the small improvised trenches of the first few months rapidly grew deeper and more complex, gradually becoming vast areas of interlocking defensive works. The land war quickly became dominated by the muddy, bloody stalemate of Trench warfare, a form of war in which both opposing armies had static lines of defense. The war of movement quickly turned into a war of position. Attack followed others counterattack after counterattack. Neither side advanced much, but both sides suffered hundreds of thousands of casualties. German and Allied armies produced essentially a matched pair of trench lines from the Swiss border in the south to the North Sea coast of Belgium. Trench warfare prevailed on the Western Front from September 1914 until the Germans launched their "Spring Offensive", Operation Michael, in March 1918. The space between the opposing trenches was referred to as "no man's land" (for its lethal uncrossability) and varied in width depending on the battlefield. On the Western Front it was typically between 100 and 300 yards (90–275 m), though sometimes much less. The common infantry soldier had four weapons to use in the trenches: the rifle, bayonet, shotgun, and hand grenade. Britain introduced the first tanks to the war, while Renault enhanced the concept by adding a turret. The use in large quantity of these light tanks by Jean-Baptiste Estienne can be considered a decisive evolution in World War I's strategies. When Russia exited the war in 1917 due to revolution, the Central Powers controlled all of the Balkans and could now shift military efforts to the Western Front. The U.S. had entered the war also in 1917, so the Central Powers hoped this could be achieved mostly prior to America's delivery of military support. In March 1918 Germany launched the last major offensive on the Western Front. By May Germany had reached the Marne again, as in September 1914, and was again close to Paris. In Second Battle of the Marne, however, the Allies were able to defend and then shift to offense due in part to the fatigue of the Germans and the arrival of more Americans. The Germans were ultimately pushed back toward the German border. Other Central Power strongholds in Europe had fallen, and in early October, when a new government assumed power in Germany, it asked for an armistice. A French woman returns when the Germans retreat from her district and finds her home in ruins. Peace terms were agreed upon in the Treaty of Versailles on November 11, largely negotiated by Georges Clemenceau for French matters. Germany was required to take full responsibility for the war and to pay war reparations; and the German industrial Saarland, a coal and steel region, was occupied by France. The German African colonies were partitioned between France and Britain such as Kamerun. Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, and the German Empire lost eastern territories such as the Danzig Corridor. Ferdinand Foch wanted a peace that would never allow Germany to be a threat to France again. After the peace was signed he said, This is not a peace. It is an armistice for 20 years. The war brought great losses of troops and resources. Fought in large part on French soil, the war led to approximately 1.4 million French dead including civilians (see World War I casualties), and four times as many casualties. From the remains of the Ottoman Empire, France acquired the Mandate of Syria and the Mandate of Lebanon. Les années folles Ferdinand Foch supported Poland in the Greater Poland Uprising and in the Polish-Soviet War and France also joined Spain during the Rif War. This period of time is also called the Great Depression. Leon Blum, leading the Popular Front was elected Prime Minister from 1936 to 1937 and became the first Jew to lead France. During the Spanish Civil War he did not support the Spanish Republicans because of the French internal political context of complex alliances and risk of war with Germany and Italy. In the 1920s, France established an elaborate system of border defences (the Maginot Line) and alliances (see Little Entente) to offset resurgent German strength and in the 1930s, the massive losses of the war led many in France to choose a policy guaranteeing peace, even in the face of Hitler's violations of the Versailles treaty and (later) his demands at Munich in 1938; this would be the much maligned policy of appeasement. Édouard Daladier refused to go to war against Germany and Italy without British support as Neville Chamberlain wanted to save peace at Munich. World War II The Invasion of Poland finally caused France and Britain to declare war against Germany. But the allies did not launch massive assaults and kept a defensive stance: this was called the Phoney War in Britain or Drôle de guerre—the funny sort of war—in France. It did not prevent the German army from conquering Poland in a matter of weeks with its innovative Blitzkrieg tactics. When Germany had its hands free for an attack in the west, the Battle of France began in May 1940, and the same tactics proved just as devastating there. The Wehrmacht bypassed the Maginot Line by marching through the Ardennes forest. A second German force was sent into Belgium and the Netherlands to act as a diversion to this main thrust. In six weeks of savage fighting the French lost 90,000 men. Joel Blatt (ed), The French Defeat of 1940 (Oxford, 1998) Many civilians sought refuge by taking to the roads of France: some two million refugees from Belgium and Holland were joined by between eight and ten million French civilians, representing a quarter of the French population, all heading south and west. This movement may well have been the largest single movement of civilians in history prior to 1947. French leaders surrendered to Nazi Germany on 24 June 1940, after the British Expeditionary Force was evacuated from Dunkirk. Nazi Germany occupied three fifths of France's territory, leaving the rest in the south east to the new Vichy government. This regime sought to collaborate with Germany. It was established on 10 July 1940. The Vichy Regime was led by Philippe Pétain, the aging war hero of First World war. It was originally intended to be a temporary, care-taker regime, to supervise French administration before the soon-expected defeat of Britain. Instead, it lasted four years and imposed a tyrannical regime on the French people. It was unique among the various collaborating regimes of wartime Europe in that it was established constitutionally, through the French parliament, and not imposed by the Nazis. However, Charles de Gaulle declared himself by radio from London the head of a rival government in exile, gathering the Free French Forces around him, finding support in some French colonies and recognition from Britain and the USA. The Vichy regime adopted violent, repressive anti-semitic policies on its own initiative, without direction from Nazi Germany, as has been highlighted by the historian Robert Paxton. Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France, Old Guard and New Order, New York, 1972 During the German occupation 76,000 Jews would be deported, often with the help of the Vichy French authorities, and murdered in the Nazis' extermination camps. After the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir in 1940, where the British fleet destroyed a large part of the French navy, still under command of Vichy France, that killed about 1,100 sailors, there was nationwide indignation and a feeling of distrust in the French forces, leading to the events of the Battle of Dakar. Eventually, several important French ships such as the Richelieu and the Surcouf joined the Free French Forces. On the Eastern Front the USSR was lacking pilots and several French pilots joined the Soviet Union and fought the Luftwaffe in the Normandie-Niemen squadron. Within France proper, very few people organised themselves against the German Occupation in the summer of 1940. However, their numbers grew as Vichy's true nature became more apparent and the decline of Nazi Germany more obvious. Isolated opposers eventually formed a real movement: the Resistants. H. R. Kedward, In Search of the Maquis (Oxford, 1993) The most famous figure of the French resistance was Jean Moulin. He was tortured by Klaus Barbie (the butcher of Lyon). Increasing repression culminated in the complete destruction and extermination of the village of Oradour-sur-Glane, at the height of the Battle of Normandy. There were also Frenchmen that joined the SS, they were known as the Charlemagne Division; knowing they would not survive should Germany be defeated, they were among the last ones to surrender at Berlin. Whilst recognising this extensive collaboration, the British historian Simon KItson has shown that the Vichy regime engaged in an extensive programme of arresting German intelligence agents in the unoccupied zone. Simon Kitson, Vichy et la Chasse aux Espions Nazis, Paris, Autrement, 2005; Simon Kitson, The Hunt for Nazi Spies, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2007 Around 2000 were arrested and some were subsequently executed. Vichy's purpose in this respect was to preserve its sovereignty and to centralise collaboration. In November 1942 Vichy France was finally occupied by German forces, because the war in North Africa was coming to an end; the Germans foresaw a threat in southern Europe by the allied forces. On 6 June 1944 the allied landed on Normandy while on 15 August they landed on Provence (including the 260,000 men of the French army B). General Leclerc freed Paris and Strasbourg and later, along with the battleship Richelieu, represented France at Tokyo during the Japanese surrender. The Vichy regime fled to Germany. The 1sr French army recruited FFI fighters to continue the war until the final defeat of Germany.This army numbered 300,000 men by September 1944 and 370,000 by spring in 1945 (the 2nd DB wasn't in it). France was liberated by allied forces in 1944. The day Germany surrendered French forces were involved in the Sétif massacre in Algeria. Cold War After a short period of provisional government initially led by General Charles de Gaulle, a new constitution (13 October 1946) established the Fourth Republic under a parliamentary form of government controlled by a series of coalitions. During the following 16 years the French Colonial Empire would disintegrate. Israel was established in 1948, and France was one of the fiercest supporters of the Jewish state, supplying it with extensive weaponry it used during 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The French Republic needed an alliance with Israel to secure the Suez Canal from potential threats in a context of decolonisation. In Indochina the French government was facing the Viet Minh communist rebels and lost its Indochinese colonies during the First Indochina War in 1954 after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Vietnam was divided in two states while Cambodia and Laos were made independent. France left Indochina only to be replaced there by the United States, which would soon be engaged in the long Vietnam War. In 1956 another crisis struck French colonies, this time in Egypt. The Suez Canal, having been built by the French government, belonged to the French Republic and was operated by the Compagnie universelle du canal maritime de Suez. Great Britain had bought the Egyptian share from Isma'il Pasha and was the second largest owner of the canal before the crisis. The Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised the canal despite French and British opposition; he estimated a European answer was most unlikely to happen. Great Britain and France attacked Egypt and built an alliance with Israel against Nasser. Israel attacked from the east, Britain from Cyprus and France from Algeria. Egypt, the most powerful Arab state of the time, was defeated in a mere few days. This caused an outcry of indignation in the entire Arab world and Saudi Arabia set an embargo on oil on France and Britain. The US President Dwight D. Eisenhower forced a ceasefire when he threatened to sell all American shares of British Pounds and to crash the British economy. The British forces were retired from the conflict and Israel, having seized interests in the Sinai region, withdrew soon leaving France alone in Egypt. Under stronger political pressures the French government ultimately evacuated its troops from Suez. This was a major political defeat for France and the American threats during the war were received with indignation by the French popular opinion. This led directly, and was used as a point, to the French withdrawal from the integrated military command of NATO in 1966. Another consequence of this was the French loss of geopolitical interests in the region; this meant an alliance with Israel was no longer of any use for French diplomacy. General de Gaulle was elected president in 1958 and made the French Force de Frappe, the nuclear power, a priority of the French Defence. France then adopted the dissuasion du faible au fort doctrine which meant a Soviet attack on France would only bring total destruction to both sides. The May 1958 seizure of power in Algiers by French army units and French settlers opposed to concessions in the face of Arab nationalist insurrection led to the fall of the French government and a presidential invitation to de Gaulle to form an emergency government to forestall the threat of civil war. In May 1968 students revolted, with a variety of demands including educational, labor and governmental reforms, sexual and artistic freedom, and the end of the Vietnam War. The student protest in unruely movements quickly joined with labor and mass strikes erupted. Post Cold War Signing the Treaty of Nice After the fall of the USSR and the end of the Cold War potential menaces to mainland France appeared considerably reduced. France began reducing its nuclear capacities and conscription was abolished in 2001. In 1990 France, led by François Mitterrand, joined the short lived Gulf War against Iraq, the French participation to this war would be called the Opération Daguet. However, despite the end of the cold war and the fact future conflicts would be fought away from home, there were still menaces against mainland France in the form of terrorism. In 1994 Air France Flight 8969 was hijacked by Islamic terrorists with the suspected intent to crash the plane over Paris. The hijacking was a failure for the terrorist group, known as the GIA after an intervention from the GIGN in Marseille, where the plane was grounded. More terrorist attacks would happen and these culminated into the 1995 Paris Metro bombing. Important leaders of the GIA in France fell afterward: Khaled Kelkal was killed in Lyon by the EPIGN and Rachid Ramda was arrested in London although it took ten years for the French justice to have him extradited. Jacques Chirac assumed office as president on 17 May 1995, after a campaign focused on the need to combat France's stubbornly high unemployment rate. While France continues to revere its rich history and independence, French leaders increasingly tie the future of France to the continued development of the European Union. In 1992 France ratified the Maastricht Treaty establishing the European Union. In 1999, the Euro was introduced to replace the French franc. Beyond membership in the European Union, France is also involved in many joint European projects such as Airbus, the Galileo positioning system and the Eurocorps. The French have stood among the strongest supporters of NATO and policy in the Balkans to prevent genocide in Yugoslavia. French troops joined the 1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. France has also been actively involved against international terrorism. In 2002 Alliance Base, an international Counterterrorist Intelligence Center, was secretly established in Paris. The same year France contributed to the toppling of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, but it strongly rejected the 2003 invasion of Iraq, even threatening to veto in central coners in the US proposed resolution. Jacques Chirac was reelected in 2002, mainly because his socialist rival Lionel Jospin was defeated by the extreme right wing candidate Jean-Marie Le Pen. France was struck by a long period of civil unrest in 2005 after the death of two teenagers. At the end of his second term Jacques Chirac chose not to run again at the age of 74. The cabinet minister and rival Nicolas Sarkozy was elected and took office on 16 May 2007. The problem of high unemployment has yet to be resolved. In 2008, France was one of the first states to recognise Kosovo as an independent nation. See also Military history of France French Fifth Republic created by Charles de Gaulle French Fourth Republic French judicial system in post-Napoleonic France French Third Republic French colonial empire Bourbon Dynasty Kings of France family tree List of French monarchs List of Presidents of the French Republic Timeline of French history Vichy France Further reading General Texts André Maurois, A History of France 20th Century France Robert Gildea, France Since 1945 Tyler Stovall, ''France since the Second World War. External links History of France by French Ministry of Foreign Affairs History of France, from Middle Ages to XIXe century (in French) History of France: Primary Documents (English interface) Websites about History of France (in French) A History of France (in English) Voices in the Dark—Paris in World War II (in English) Simon Kitson's Vichy web-page "Becoming France," David Bell, The New Republic, 1 April 2009 (in English) Notes be-x-old:Гісторыя Францыі | History_of_France |@lemmatized history:18 france:197 divide:9 series:2 separate:2 historical:2 article:4 navigable:1 list:7 right:17 chronological:1 era:3 address:4 broad:1 french:196 cultural:6 sociological:1 development:2 dynasty:12 regime:12 deal:1 specific:1 political:12 governmental:3 topic:1 art:5 literature:1 find:10 page:6 information:2 modern:12 country:6 see:13 go:13 portal:1 prehistory:1 cave:2 painting:3 lascaux:2 neanderthal:1 member:10 homo:2 genus:1 begin:10 occupy:9 europe:19 bc:3 seem:4 die:8 year:25 ago:2 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5,653 | Book_of_Alma | The Book of Alma is one of the books that make up the Book of Mormon. The full title is The Book of Alma: The Son of Alma. The title refers to Alma the Younger, a prophet and "chief judge" of the Nephites. Content Historical Outline The Book of Alma is the longest of all the books of the Book of Mormon, consisting of 63 chapters. The book records the first 39 years of what the Nephites termed "the reign of the judges", a period in which the Nephite nation adopted a constitutional theocratic government in which the judicial and executive branches of the government were combined. The history of the book is outlined as follows: Challenges to the Beginning of the Republic The first four chapters, describe the rebellions of followers of Nehor and Amlici. Contrary to the dominant lay ministry that existed in the Nephite culture, Nehor established a church in which priests were given a separate social status and were paid for their ministry. After killing a religious leader during a theological argument, Nehor was tried and executed for his crimes. The followers of Amlici resented the dominant political and religious parties and sought to reestablish the monarchy that the reign of the judges replaced. Alma, the chief judge and governor as well as the high priest over the people of Nephi, lead an army against Amlici and his followers and drove the rebellion out of the land. The Ministry of Alma Among the Nephites Towards the end of chapter four, Alma realizes that the affairs of the Church require his entire concentration. He resigns from his political office and appoints Nephihah as chief judge and governor of the land. Chapters 5-16 record sermons and missionary travels of Alma between 83 and 78 B.C. Alma and one of his converted followers, Amulek, provide important teachings about the atonement of Christ, overcoming pride and the natural man, retaining conversion, the resurrection of all men, and judgment day. Later, their teachings about faith and worship in Alma 32-34 are important sources of instruction and insight. The Ministry of the Sons of Mosiah Among the Lamanites Chapters 17 to 27 describe the missionary labors of the sons of King Mosiah II who was the last king over the people of Nephi prior to the peaceful transition of the nation from a monarchy to a republican form of government. The sons of Mosiah, named Ammon, Aaron, Omner and Himni, chose to devote themselves to missionary labors preaching to the people of the Lamanite nation, which periodically went to war against the Nephite nation. They lived and taught among the Lamanites between the years 91 and 77 B.C. The Ministry of Alma Among the Zoramites Chapters 28 to 35 relate the account of a rebellion of a subgroup of the Nephite nation who called themselves Zoramites. The Zoramites believed in a form of predestination and taught that all others except their people would be damned. Their apostasy from the Church was conjoined with plans to rebel against the Nephite government. Alma took two of his sons, the sons of Mosiah, Amulek, and Zeezrom on a mission among the Zoramites in an attempt to restore their loyalty to both the Church and the state. Alma and his companions had some success among the poor class of Zoramites who were then exiled from the Zoramite community by the governing rich class of Zoramites. The wealthier Zoramites eventually defected and united with the Lamanites. The Commandments of Alma to his Children Chapters 36 to 42 record the teachings of Alma to his sons, Helaman, Shiblon, and Corianton. These teachings discuss the ministry and atonement of Jesus, the laws of justice and mercy, the need for repentance, and the resurrection and judgment of all people. A Period of War Chapters 43 to 62 record the struggles of the Nephite people during a war against the attacking Lamanite nation between the years of 74 and 57 B.C. The Chief Captain (senior military commander) of the Nephites during this time was Captain Moroni. The Nephites were ultimately successful in their defense against the Lamanites. Conclusion Chapter 63 includes concluding historical notes covering the years 56 to 53 B.C. This is largely a period of post-war reconstruction and exploration in the Nephite nation. Simple Outline This outline is based on main sections and antagonist characters in the Book of Alma. There are two main features in this history, chapters 1 - 42 deal with Missionary Work, and chapters 43 - 63 contain the Wars. The history of the Zoramites provides a transition from Missionary Work to the War chapters of the Book of Alma. The two main sections also mirror the first two antagonist characters, Nehor (religious agenda) and Amlici (political agenda). Mission Chapters ( see Alma 1-42 ) Nehor: rebels against the Church ( see Alma 1 ) Amlici: rebels against the Republic ( see Alma 2 ) Korihor: the AntiChrist ( see Alma 30 ) The Zoramites ( see Alma 31 - 43 ) Zoram: the Apostate Nephites religious ( see Alma 31 ) Zerahemnah: the war leader of the Zoramites political (see Alma 43 ) War Chapters (see Alma 43-63 ) Amalickiah: the man who wants to be king (see Alma 46 ) Ammoron: the vengeful brother of Amalickiah ( see Alma 52 ) Characters Protagonist Alma the Younger Gideon Nephihah Sons of Mosiah Ammon Aaron3 Omner Himni Amulek Zoram2 Ammon Melek Lehonti Helaman Shiblon Corianton Captain Moroni Two thousand stripling warriors Teancum Laman4 Gid Teomner Pahoran Hagoth Moronihah Antagonist Nehor Amlici Korihor Zoram Zerahemnah Amalickiah Ammoron King-men Converts Zeezrom Lamoni Anti-Nephi-Lehi Doctrine 50 Questions of Alma In Alma Chapter 5, Alma the Younger speaks to the people of Zarahemla in which he asks 50 rhetorical questions which are widely cited in the LDS church. External links The Book of Mormon: The Book of Alma | Book_of_Alma |@lemmatized book:13 alma:33 one:2 make:1 mormon:3 full:1 title:2 son:8 refers:1 young:3 prophet:1 chief:4 judge:5 nephites:6 content:1 historical:2 outline:4 long:1 consist:1 chapter:15 record:4 first:3 year:4 term:1 reign:2 period:3 nephite:7 nation:7 adopt:1 constitutional:1 theocratic:1 government:4 judicial:1 executive:1 branch:1 combine:1 history:3 follow:1 challenge:1 beginning:1 republic:2 four:2 describe:2 rebellion:3 follower:4 nehor:6 amlici:6 contrary:1 dominant:2 lay:1 ministry:6 exist:1 culture:1 establish:1 church:6 priest:2 give:1 separate:1 social:1 status:1 pay:1 kill:1 religious:4 leader:2 theological:1 argument:1 try:1 execute:1 crime:1 resent:1 political:4 party:1 seek:1 reestablish:1 monarchy:2 replace:1 governor:2 well:1 high:1 people:7 nephi:3 lead:1 army:1 drive:1 land:2 among:6 towards:1 end:1 realize:1 affair:1 require:1 entire:1 concentration:1 resign:1 office:1 appoints:1 nephihah:2 sermon:1 missionary:5 travel:1 b:4 c:4 converted:1 amulek:3 provide:2 important:2 teaching:4 atonement:2 christ:1 overcome:1 pride:1 natural:1 man:2 retain:1 conversion:1 resurrection:2 men:2 judgment:2 day:1 later:1 faith:1 worship:1 source:1 instruction:1 insight:1 mosiah:5 lamanites:4 labor:2 king:4 ii:1 last:1 prior:1 peaceful:1 transition:2 republican:1 form:2 name:1 ammon:3 aaron:1 omner:2 himni:2 choose:1 devote:1 preach:1 lamanite:2 periodically:1 go:1 war:8 live:1 teach:1 zoramites:10 relate:1 account:1 subgroup:1 call:1 believe:1 predestination:1 taught:1 others:1 except:1 would:1 damn:1 apostasy:1 conjoin:1 plan:1 rebel:3 take:1 two:5 zeezrom:2 mission:2 attempt:1 restore:1 loyalty:1 state:1 companion:1 success:1 poor:1 class:2 exile:1 zoramite:1 community:1 govern:1 rich:1 wealthy:1 eventually:1 defect:1 united:1 commandment:1 child:1 helaman:2 shiblon:2 corianton:2 discuss:1 jesus:1 law:1 justice:1 mercy:1 need:1 repentance:1 struggle:1 attack:1 captain:3 senior:1 military:1 commander:1 time:1 moroni:2 ultimately:1 successful:1 defense:1 conclusion:1 include:1 conclude:1 note:1 cover:1 largely:1 post:1 reconstruction:1 exploration:1 simple:1 base:1 main:3 section:2 antagonist:3 character:3 feature:1 deal:1 work:2 contain:1 also:1 mirror:1 agenda:2 see:10 korihor:2 antichrist:1 zoram:2 apostate:1 zerahemnah:2 amalickiah:3 want:1 ammoron:2 vengeful:1 brother:1 protagonist:1 gideon:1 melek:1 lehonti:1 thousand:1 stripling:1 warrior:1 teancum:1 gid:1 teomner:1 pahoran:1 hagoth:1 moronihah:1 convert:1 lamoni:1 anti:1 lehi:1 doctrine:1 question:2 speaks:1 zarahemla:1 ask:1 rhetorical:1 widely:1 cite:1 lds:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram lds_church:1 external_link:1 |
5,654 | Eusebius_Amort | Eusebius Amort (November 15, 1692 – February 5, 1775) was a German Roman Catholic theologian. Life Amort was born at Bibermuhle, near Tolz, in Upper Bavaria. He studied at Munich, and at an early age joined the Canons Regular at Polling, where, shortly after his ordination in 1717, he taught theology and philosophy. In 1733 he went to Rome as theologian to Cardinal Niccolo Maria Lercari (d. 1757). He returned to Polling in 1735 and devoted the rest of his life to the revival of learning in Bavaria. He died at Polling in 1775. Works Amort, who had the reputation of being the most learned man of his age, was a voluminous writer on every conceivable subject, from poetry to astronomy, from dogmatic theology to mysticism. His best known works are: A manual of theology in 4 vols, Theologia eclectica, moralis et scholastica (Augsburg, 1752; revised by Pope Benedict XIV for the 1753 edition published at Bologna) A defence of Catholic doctrine, entitled Demonstratio critica religionis Catholicae (Augsburg, 1751) A work on indulgences, which has often been criticized by Protestant writers, De Origine, Progressu, Valore, et Fructu Indulgentiorum (Augsburg, 1735) A treatise on mysticism, De Revelationibus et Visionibus, etc. (2 vols, 1744) The astronomical work Nova philosophiae planetarum et artis criticae systemata (Nuremberg, 1723). The list of his other works, including his three erudite contributions to the question of authorship of the Imitatio Christi, will be found in C. Toussaint's scholarly article in Alfred Vacant's Dictionnaire de theologie (1900, cols 1115-1117). References | Eusebius_Amort |@lemmatized eusebius:1 amort:3 november:1 february:1 german:1 roman:1 catholic:2 theologian:2 life:2 bear:1 bibermuhle:1 near:1 tolz:1 upper:1 bavaria:2 study:1 munich:1 early:1 age:2 join:1 canon:1 regular:1 polling:2 shortly:1 ordination:1 teach:1 theology:3 philosophy:1 go:1 rome:1 cardinal:1 niccolo:1 maria:1 lercari:1 return:1 poll:1 devote:1 rest:1 revival:1 learn:1 die:1 work:5 reputation:1 learned:1 man:1 voluminous:1 writer:2 every:1 conceivable:1 subject:1 poetry:1 astronomy:1 dogmatic:1 mysticism:2 best:1 know:1 manual:1 vols:2 theologia:1 eclectica:1 moralis:1 et:4 scholastica:1 augsburg:3 revise:1 pope:1 benedict:1 xiv:1 edition:1 publish:1 bologna:1 defence:1 doctrine:1 entitle:1 demonstratio:1 critica:1 religionis:1 catholicae:1 indulgence:1 often:1 criticize:1 protestant:1 de:3 origine:1 progressu:1 valore:1 fructu:1 indulgentiorum:1 treatise:1 revelationibus:1 visionibus:1 etc:1 astronomical:1 nova:1 philosophiae:1 planetarum:1 artis:1 criticae:1 systemata:1 nuremberg:1 list:1 include:1 three:1 erudite:1 contribution:1 question:1 authorship:1 imitatio:1 christi:1 find:1 c:1 toussaint:1 scholarly:1 article:1 alfred:1 vacant:1 dictionnaire:1 theologie:1 cols:1 reference:1 |@bigram dogmatic_theology:1 pope_benedict:1 benedict_xiv:1 |
5,655 | Distributed_computing | Distributed computing deals with hardware and software systems containing more than one processing element or storage element, concurrent processes, or multiple programs, running under a loosely or tightly controlled regime. In distributed computing a program is split up into parts that run simultaneously on multiple computers communicating over a network. Distributed computing is a form of parallel computing, but parallel computing is most commonly used to describe program parts running simultaneously on multiple processors in the same computer. Both types of processing require dividing a program into parts that can run simultaneously, but distributed programs often must deal with heterogeneous environments, network links of varying latencies, and unpredictable failures in the network or the computers. Organization Organizing the interaction between the computers that execute distributed computations is of prime importance. In order to be able to use the widest possible variety of computers, the protocol or communication channel should not contain or use any information that may not be understood by certain machines. Special care must also be taken that messages are indeed delivered correctly and that invalid messages, which would otherwise bring down the system and perhaps the rest of the network, are rejected. Another important factor is the ability to send software to another computer in a portable way so that it may execute and interact with the existing network. This may not always be practical when using differing hardware and resources, in which case other methods, such as cross-compiling or manually porting this software, must be used. Goals and advantages There are many different types of distributed computing systems and many challenges to overcome in successfully designing one. The main goal of a distributed computing system is to connect users and resources in a transparent, open, and scalable way. Ideally this arrangement is drastically more fault tolerant and more powerful than many combinations of stand-alone computer systems. Openness Openness is the property of distributed systems such that each subsystem is continually open to interaction with other systems (see references). Web services protocols are standards which enable distributed systems to be extended and scaled. In general, an open system that scales has an advantage over a perfectly closed and self-contained system. Openness cannot be achieved unless the specification and documentation of the key software interface of the component of a system are made available to the software developer. Consequently, open distributed systems are required to meet the following challenges: Monotonicity Once something is published in an open system, it cannot be taken back. Pluralism Different subsystems of an open distributed system include heterogeneous, overlapping and possibly conflicting information. There is no central arbiter of truth in open distributed systems. Unbounded Nondeterminism Asynchronously, different subsystems can come up and go down and communication links can come in and go out between subsystems of an open distributed system. Therefore the time that it will take to complete an operation cannot be bounded in advance. Drawbacks and disadvantages Technical issues If not planned properly, a distributed system can decrease the overall reliability of computations if the unavailability of a node can cause disruption of the other nodes. Leslie Lamport famously quipped that: "A distributed system is one in which the failure of a computer you didn't even know existed can render your own computer unusable." Troubleshooting and diagnosing problems in a distributed system can also become more difficult, because the analysis may require connecting to remote nodes or inspecting communication between nodes. Many types of computation are not well suited for distributed environments, typically owing to the amount of network communication or synchronization that would be required between nodes. If bandwidth, latency, or communication requirements are too significant, then the benefits of distributed computing may be negated and the performance may be worse than a non-distributed environment. Architecture Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely-coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system. Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures or categories: Client-server, 3-tier architecture, N-tier architecture, Distributed objects, loose coupling, or tight coupling. Client-server — Smart client code contacts the server for data, then formats and displays it to the user. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change. 3-tier architecture — Three tier systems move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are 3-Tier. N-tier architecture — N-Tier refers typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of application servers. Tightly coupled (clustered) — refers typically to a cluster of machines that closely work together, running a shared process in parallel. The task is subdivided in parts that are made individually by each one and then put back together to make the final result. Peer-to-peer — an architecture where there is no special machine or machines that provide a service or manage the network resources. Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and servers. Space based — refers to an infrastructure that creates the illusion (virtualization) of one single address-space. Data are transparently replicated according to application needs. Decoupling in time, space and reference is achieved. Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a master/slave relationship. Alternatively, a "database-centric" architecture can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct inter-process communication, by utilizing a shared database. A database-centric virtual chemistry system, J Chem Inf Model. 2006 May-Jun;46(3):1034-9 Concurrency Distributed computing implements a kind of concurrency. It interrelates tightly with concurrent programming so much that they are sometimes not taught as distinct subjects. CS236370 Concurrent and Distributed Programming 2002 Multiprocessor systems A multiprocessor system is simply a computer that has more than one CPU on its motherboard. If the operating system is built to take advantage of this, it can run different processes (or different threads belonging to the same process) on different CPUs. Multicore systems Intel CPUs from the late Pentium 4 era (Northwood and Prescott cores) employed a technology called Hyper-threading that allowed more than one thread (usually two) to run on the same CPU. The more recent Sun UltraSPARC T1, AMD Athlon 64 X2, AMD Athlon FX, AMD Opteron, AMD Phenom, Intel Pentium D, Intel Core, Intel Core 2, Intel Core 2 Quad, and Intel Xeon processors feature multiple processor cores to also increase the number of concurrent threads they can run. Multicomputer systems A multicomputer may be considered to be either a loosely coupled NUMA computer or a tightly coupled cluster. Multicomputers are commonly used when strong computer power is required in an environment with restricted physical space or electrical power. Common suppliers include Mercury Computer Systems, CSPI, and SKY Computers. Common uses include 3D medical imaging devices and mobile radar. Computing taxonomies The types of distributed systems are based on Flynn's taxonomy of systems; single instruction, single data (SISD), single instruction, multiple data (SIMD), multiple instruction, single data (MISD), and multiple instruction, multiple data (MIMD). Other taxonomies and architectures are available at Computer architecture and in :Category:Computer architecture. Computer clusters A cluster consists of multiple stand-alone machines acting in parallel across a local high speed network. Distributed computing differs from cluster computing in that computers in a distributed computing environment are typically not exclusively running "group" tasks, whereas clustered computers are usually much more tightly coupled. Distributed computing also often consists of machines which are widely separated geographically. Grid computing A grid uses the resources of many separate computers, loosely connected by a network (usually the Internet), to solve large-scale computation problems. Public grids may use idle time on many thousands of computers throughout the world. Such arrangements permit handling of data that would otherwise require the power of expensive supercomputers or would have been impossible to analyze. Languages Nearly any programming language that has access to the full hardware of the system could handle distributed programming given enough time and code. Remote procedure calls distribute operating system commands over a network connection. Systems like CORBA, Microsoft DCOM, Java RMI and others, try to map object oriented design to the network. Loosely coupled systems communicate through intermediate documents that are typically human readable (e.g. XML, HTML, SGML, X.500, and EDI). Examples Projects Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC), became useful as a platform for several distributed applications in areas as diverse as mathematics, medicine, molecular biology, climatology, and astrophysics. BOINC - Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing, Dr. David Anderson describes SETI@home, BOINC and Distributed Computing, youtube.com A variety of distributed computing projects have grown up in recent years. Many are run on a volunteer basis, and involve users donating their unused computational power to work on interesting computational problems. Examples of such projects include the Stanford University Chemistry Department Folding@home project, which is focused on simulations of protein folding to find disease cures and to understand biophysical systems; World Community Grid, an effort to create the world's largest public computing grid to tackle scientific research projects that benefit humanity, run and funded by IBM; SETI@home, which is focused on analyzing radio-telescope data to find evidence of intelligent signals from space, hosted by the Space Sciences Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley (the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC), was originally developed to support this project); OurGrid, which is a free-to-join peer-to-peer grid provided by the idle resources of all participants; LHC@home, which is used to help design and tune the Large Hadron Collider, hosted by CERN in Geneva; and distributed.net, which is focused on finding optimal Golomb rulers and breaking various cryptographic ciphers. Distributed computing projects also often involve competition with other distributed systems. This competition may be for prestige, or it may be a matter of enticing users to donate processing power to a specific project. For example, stat races are a measure of the work a distributed computing project has been able to compute over the past day or week. This has been found to be so important in practice that virtually all distributed computing projects offer online statistical analyses of their performances, updated at least daily if not in real-time. See also Fallacies of Distributed Computing :Category:Concurrent programming languages List of distributed computing publications List of distributed computing conferences Distributed design patterns Parallel computing Sideband computing Network Agility Application server Software componentry Shared nothing architecture Distributed computing environment Distributed hash table Distributed Resource Management System High-Throughput Computing List of distributed computing projects Active message References Further reading ISBN 0471453242. ISBN 1558603484. External links A primer on distributed computing Distributed computing conferences at confsearch.org MIT's Open Course - Distributed Algorithms Melbourne's Masters Course in Distributed Computing DynaOS - Description of a conceptual Distributed Operating System DCLinux - USB flash drive linux for disk-less DC machines | Distributed_computing |@lemmatized distribute:25 compute:25 deal:2 hardware:4 software:7 system:38 contain:3 one:10 processing:2 element:2 storage:1 concurrent:6 process:9 multiple:10 program:9 run:12 loosely:5 tightly:5 control:1 regime:1 distributed:28 split:1 part:4 simultaneously:3 computer:21 communicate:4 network:17 computing:14 form:2 parallel:5 commonly:2 use:11 describe:2 processor:3 type:5 require:6 divide:2 often:3 must:3 heterogeneous:2 environment:6 link:3 vary:1 latency:2 unpredictable:1 failure:2 organization:1 organize:1 interaction:2 execute:2 computation:4 prime:1 importance:1 order:1 able:2 wide:1 possible:1 variety:2 protocol:3 communication:7 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5,656 | Atari_Lynx | The Atari Lynx was a handheld game console released by Atari Corporation in 1989. The Lynx holds the distinction of being the world's first handheld electronic game with a color LCD display. The system is also notable for its forward-looking features, advanced graphics, and ambidextrous layout. The Lynx was released in 1989, the same year as Nintendo's (monochromatic) Game Boy. However, the Lynx failed to achieve the sales numbers required to attract quality third party developers, and was eventually abandoned. Today, as with many older consoles, there is still a small group of devoted fans, creating and selling games for the system. Atari Age Self Published Lynx Games Features The Atari Lynx had several innovative features including it being the first color handheld, with a backlit display, a switchable right-handed/left-handed (upside down) configuration, and the ability to network with up to 17 other units via its "ComLynx" system (though most games would network eight or fewer players). ComLynx was originally developed to run over infrared links (and was codenamed RedEye). Atari Explorer Lynx page This was changed to a cable-based networking system before the final release. The Lynx was also the first gaming console with hardware support for zooming/distortion of sprites, allowing fast pseudo-3D games with unrivaled quality at the time and a capacity for drawing filled polygons with limited CPU intervention. Blue Lightning, an After Burner clone, was especially notable and featured in TV advertising for the console. The games were originally meant to be loaded from tape, but were later changed to load from ROM. The game data still needed to be copied from ROM to RAM before it could be used, so less memory was available and the games loaded relatively slowly. History The Lynx was the second handheld game with the Atari name to actually be produced, the first was Atari Inc.'s handheld electronic game Touch Me. Atari Inc. had previously worked on several other handheld projects including the Breakout and Space Invaders, the Atari Cosmos portable/tabletop console. However, those projects were shut down during development - some just short of their intended commercial release. The Lynx system was originally developed by Epyx as the Handy Game. Planning and design of the console began in 1986 and completed in 1987. Epyx first showed the Handy system at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in January 1989. Facing financial difficulties, Epyx sought out partners. Atari Corp. and Epyx eventually agreed that Atari Corp. would handle production and marketing, while Epyx would handle software development. Atari Corp. changed the internal speaker and removed the thumb-stick on the control pad before releasing it as the Lynx, initially retailing in the US at US$189.95. Atari Corp. then showed the Lynx to the press at the Summer 1989 CES as the "Portable Color Entertainment System", which was changed to Lynx when actual consoles were distributed to resellers. However, Nintendo's new Game Boy was also introduced at the 1989 CES. At $90, it was much less expensive than the Lynx, without the color or custom chips. Nintendo had no problems supplying retailers with the Game Boy for the Christmas season while Atari Corp. only managed limited distribution of their Lynx by year's end. Atari Lynx II During 1990, the Lynx had moderate sales but Nintendo's Game Boy continued to gain market share. In 1991, Atari Corp. relaunched the Lynx with a new marketing campaign, new packaging, slightly improved hardware, and a new sleek look. The new system (referred to within Atari Corp. as the "Lynx II") featured rubber hand grips and a clearer backlit color screen with a power save option (which turned off the LCD panel's backlighting). It also replaced the monaural headphone jack of the original Lynx with one wired for stereo. The new packaging made the Lynx available without any accessories, dropping the price to $99. Although sales improved, Nintendo still dominated the handheld market. As with the actual console units, the game cartridges themselves evolved over the first year of the console's release. The first generation of cartridges were flat, and were designed to be stackable for ease of storage. However, this design proved to be very difficult to remove from the console and was replaced by a second design. This style, called "tabbed" or "ridged", used the same basic design as the original cartridges with the addition of two small tabs on the cartridge's underside to aid in removal. The original flat style cartridges could be stacked on top of the newer cartridges, but the newer cartridges could not be easily stacked on each other, nor were they stored easily. Thus a third style, the "curved lip" style was produced, and all official and third-party cartridges during the console's lifespan were released (or re-released) using this style. Atari Lynx cartridge style illustrations at AtariAge.com. In May 1991, Sega launched its Game Gear portable gaming handheld. Also a color handheld, in comparison to the Lynx it had a higher cost, smaller bulk, and lower battery life. However, the Game Gear was backed up by significantly more popular titles and consequently the market became dominated by Nintendo followed by Sega in a distant second and the Lynx in third. In 1994, Atari Corp. shifted its focus away from the Lynx. As Nintendo's Super Nintendo and Sega's Mega Drive/Genesis filled retailers' shelves, Atari Corp. refocused its efforts on its Jaguar console. A handful of games were released during this time, including Battlezone 2000. In 1996, Atari shut down its internal game development. Telegames released a number of games in the second half of the 1990s, including a port of Raiden, a platformer called Fat Bobby, and an action sports game called Hyperdrome. At the end of the 1990s, Hasbro, the owners of the Atari properties at the time, released the rights to develop for the system to the public domain. Since then a number of independent developers released games into the new decade, like Championship Rally, CyberVirus, and Alpine Games Alpine Games by Duranik . Some of the late 90s/early 2000s games were under development by other companies at one time, but rights to the game programs and all of the existing code was bought and finished by other developers. Songbird Productions' development page for CyberVirus In 2008 Atari was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for pioneering the development of handheld games with its Lynx game unit. Drawbacks Though technologically superior to the Game Boy, a number of factors thwarted success of the unit: Nintendo's marketing muscle, domination of 3rd party developers, and quality first party game releases (particularly Tetris), ensured the Game Boy always enjoyed vastly superior software support. Nintendo's clout with retailers gave plenty of shelf space for Game Boy. Atari struggled to convince retailers to sell the Lynx. The Lynx needed six batteries versus the four in the original Game Boy. The more powerful architecture of the Lynx, plus its backlit screen, would drain a set of six AA batteries in less than four hours (five to six hours in the Lynx II). The original Lynx was also physically large and cumbersome. Atari Corp. had followed the advice of focus groups who wanted a bigger unit because that gave them "more" for their money. Article at 1up.com. While the system is considered comfortable to hold, its portability was limited, and proved to be much harder to carry around than the Game Boy (which easily fits in a large pocket), this was especially true when the Lynx was full of batteries making it quite heavy. The Lynx sold at a substantially higher price than the Game Boy, due to the cost of the screen and more elaborate custom chips. The original Lynx had problems with its cartridge slot. A cartridge was easy to insert, but because of their design, were difficult to remove from the system. The Lynx II remedied this problem. The developer's kit for the Lynx was expensive and required an Amiga computer (Atari Corp.'s own ST computers could not be used). The two creators of the system, RJ Mical and Dave Needle, were also members of the Amiga design team and much to the frustration of Atari Corp., the Amiga was used as the software development platform. Technical specifications MOS 65SC02 processor running at up to 4 MHz (~3.6 MHz average) 8-bit CPU, 16-bit address space Sound engine 4 channel sound (Lynx II with panning) 8-bit DAC for each channel (4 channels × 8-bits/channel = 32 bits commonly quoted) Video DMA driver for liquid-crystal display 4,096 color (12-bit) palette 16 simultaneous colors (4 bits) from palette per scanline (more than 16 colors can be displayed by changing palettes after each scanline) 8 System timers (2 reserved for LCD timing, one for UART) Interrupt controller UART (for ComLynx) (fixed format 8E1, up to 62500Bd) 512 bytes of bootstrap and game-card loading ROM Suzy (16-bit custom CMOS chip running at ) Graphics engine Hardware drawing support Unlimited number of high-speed sprites with collision detection Hardware high-speed sprite scaling, distortion, and tilting effects Hardware decoding of compressed sprite data Hardware clipping and multi-directional scrolling Variable frame rate (up to 75 frames/second) 160 x 102 standard resolution (16,320 addressable pixels) Math co-processor Hardware 16-bit × 16-bit → 32-bit multiply with optional accumulation; 32-bit ÷ 16-bit → 16-bit divide Parallel processing of CPU and a single multiply or a divide instruction RAM: 64 KB 120ns DRAM Storage: Cartridge - 128, 256 and 512 KB exist, up to 2 MB is possible with bank-switching logic. Some (homebrew) carts with EEPROM to save hi-scores. Ports: Headphone port ( stereo; wired for mono on the original Lynx) ComLynx (multiple unit communications, serial) LCD Screen: 3.5" diagonal Battery holder (six AA) ~4-5 hours See also List of Atari Lynx games History of Atari References External links AtariAge – Comprehensive Lynx Database and information | Atari_Lynx |@lemmatized atari:29 lynx:40 handheld:10 game:39 console:12 release:13 corporation:1 hold:2 distinction:1 world:1 first:8 electronic:2 color:9 lcd:4 display:4 system:13 also:8 notable:2 forward:1 look:2 feature:5 advance:1 graphic:2 ambidextrous:1 layout:1 year:3 nintendo:10 monochromatic:1 boy:10 however:5 fail:1 achieve:1 sale:3 number:5 require:2 attract:1 quality:3 third:4 party:4 developer:5 eventually:2 abandon:1 today:1 many:1 old:1 still:3 small:3 group:2 devoted:1 fan:1 create:1 sell:3 age:1 self:1 publish:1 several:2 innovative:1 include:4 backlit:3 switchable:1 right:3 hand:3 leave:1 upside:1 configuration:1 ability:1 network:2 unit:6 via:1 comlynx:4 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5,657 | Dukkha | Dukkha (Pāli दुक्ख; Sanskrit दुःख ; according to grammatical tradition derived from "uneasy", but according to Monier-Williams more likely a Prakritized form of "unsteady, disquieted" Monier-Williams (1899, 1964), A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (London: Oxford University Press), p. 483, entry for "", retrieved 27 December 2008 from "U. Cologne" at http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/MWScanpdf/mw0483-dut.pdf. ) is a Pali term roughly corresponding to a number of terms in English including suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness, sorrow, affliction, anxiety, dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress, misery, and frustration. In Buddhism, the cessation of dukkha is regularly identified as the teaching's ultimate aim. Meaning In classic Sanskrit, the term was often compared to a large potter's wheel that would screech as it was spun around, and did not turn smoothly. The opposite of dukkha was the term sukha, which brought to mind a potter's wheel that turned smoothly and noiselessly. In other Buddhist-influenced cultures, similar imagery was used to describe dukkha. An example from China is the cart with one wheel that is slightly broken, so that the rider is jolted each time the wheel rolls over the broken spot. Although dukkha is often translated as "suffering", its philosophical meaning is more analogous to "disquietude" as in the condition of being disturbed. As such, "suffering" is too narrow a translation with "negative emotional connotations" (Jeffrey Po) Jeffrey Po, “Is Buddhism a Pessimistic Way of Life?”, http://www.4ui.com/eart/172eart1.htm , which can give the impression that the Buddhist view is one of pessimism, but Buddhism is neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic. Thus in English-language Buddhist literature dukkha is often left untranslated, so as to encompass its full range of meaning. . Non-English translations Dukkha was translated as kǔ (苦 "bitterness; hardship; suffering; pain") in Chinese Buddhism, and this loanword is pronounced ku (苦) in Japanese Buddhism and ko (苦) in Korean Buddhism. In Tibetan it is སྡུག་བསྔལ་ sdug bsngal. Buddhist literature Dukkha is the focus of the Four Noble Truths, which state its nature, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. This way is known as the Noble Eightfold Path. Michael Carrithers, The Buddha. Cited in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986, page 51. Ancient texts, like Cula-Malunkyovada Sutta MN 63, trans. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, retrieved from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.063.than.html and Anuradha Sutta, SN 22.86, trans., Thanissaro Bhikkhu, retrieved from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn22/sn22.086.than.html show Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha, as insisting that the truths about dukkha are the only ones he is teaching as far as attaining the ultimate goal of nirvana is concerned. The Buddha discussed three kinds of dukkha: Dukkha-dukkha (pain of pain) is the obvious sufferings of : pain illness old age death bereavement Viparinama-dukkha (pain of alteration) is suffering caused by change: violated expectations the failure of happy moments to last Sankhara-dukkha (pain of formation) is a subtle form of suffering arising as a reaction to qualities of conditioned things, including the skandhas the factors constituting the human mind Dukkha is also listed among the three marks of existence: impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and not-self (anatta). Dukkha denotes the experience that all formations (sankhara) are impermanent (anicca) - thus it explains the qualities which make the mind as fluctuating and impermanent entities. It is therefore also a gateway to anatta, not-self. Insofar as it is dynamic, ever-changing, uncontrollable and not finally satisfactory, unexamined life is itself precisely dukkha. Carrithers (1986), op cit., pages 55-56. The question which underlay the Buddha's quest was "in what may I place lasting relevance?" He did not deny that there are satisfactions in experience: the exercise of vipassana assumes that the meditator sees instances of happiness clearly. Pain is to be seen as pain, and pleasure as pleasure. It is denied that happiness dependent on conditions will be secure and lasting. In the early texts, the skandhas explain what suffering is. According to Noa Ronkin, "What emerges from the texts ... is a wider signification of the khandhas than merely the aggregates constituting the person. Sue Hamilton has provided a detailed study of the khandhas. Her conclusion is that the associating of the five khandhas as a whole with dukkha indicates that experience is a combination of a straightforward cognitive process together with the psychological orientation that colours it in terms of unsatisfactoriness. Experience is thus both cognitive and affective, and cannot be separated from perception. As one's perception changes, so one's experience is different: we each have our own particular cognitions, perceptions and volitional activities in our own particular way and degree, and our own way of responding to and interpreting our experience is our very experience. In harmony with this line of thought, Gethin observes that the khadhas are presented as five aspects of the nature of conditioned existence from the point of view of the experiencing subject; five aspects of one's experience. Hence each khandha represents 'a complex class of phenomena that is continuously arising and falling away in response to processes of consciousness based on the six spheres of sense. They thus become the five upādānakhandhas, encompassing both grasping and all that is grasped.'"<ref>Noa Ronkin, Early Buddhist Metaphysics: the Making of a Philosophical Tradition." Routledge, 2005, page 43.</ref> The Buddha himself on Dukkha — SN 56.11 Non-Buddhist literature In Brahmanic sacred literature, the earliest Upaniads — the and the — are believed to predate or coincide with the advent of Buddhism. See, e.g., Patrick Olivelle (1996), Upaniads (Oxford: Oxford University Press), ISBN 978-0-19-283576-5, p. xxxvi: "The scholarly consensus, well-founded I think, is that the and the are the two earliest Upaniads.... The two texts as we have them are, in all likelihood, pre-Buddhist; placing them in the seventh to sixth centuries BCE may be reasonable, give or take a century or so." In these texts' verses, the Sanskrit word dukha (translated below as "suffering" and "distress") occurs only twice. In the , it states (in English and Sanskrit): <tr> While we are still here, we have come to know it [tman.If you've not known it, great is your destruction.Those who have known it — they become immortal.As for the rest — only suffering awaits them. BU 4.4.14, trans. Olivelle (1996), p. 66. BrhUp 4,4.14. Retrieved 28 December 2008 from "Georg-August-Universität Göttingen" at http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/4_upa/brup___u.htm. <tr> In the is written: <tr>When a man rightly sees,he sees no death, no sickness or distress.When a man rightly sees,he sees all, he wins all, completely. CU 7.26.2, trans. Olivelle (1996), p. 166. Compare this statement to that in the Pali Canon's Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56.11) where sickness and death are formulaically identified as examplars of dukkha. ChUp 7,26.2. Retrieved 27 December 2008 from "Georg-August-Universität Göttingen" at http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/4_upa/chup___u.htm. <tr> Thus, as in Buddhism, in these sacred texts the eradication of dukha is a desired and promised outcome, here serving as an antipode to the ultimate Brahmanic goal of immortality (). In addition, as in Buddhism, one overcomes dukha through the development of a transcendent understanding. For a general discussion of the core Indian spiritual goal of developing transcendent "seeing," see, e.g., Hamilton, Sue (2000/2001), Indian Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction, (Oxford: Oxford U. Press), pp. 9-10, ISBN 978-0-19285374-5. Nonetheless, in these Brahmanic sacred texts, dukha is either identified as a general condition or as simply one of many undesirable states, not embodying the conceptual centrality assigned to it in Buddhism's Pali Canon. References External linksDukkha entry, Access to Insight On understanding the teaching of Dukkha by the Buddha, Kingsley Heendeniya Ku 苦 entry (use "guest" with no password for one-time login), Digital Dictionary of Buddhism Definitions, Objectives, Premises and Principles of the International Society for Panetics, Ralph Siu. Panetics: The study of the infliction of suffering. J. Humanistic Psychology 28(3), 6-22. 1988, The humane chief of state and the Gross National Dukkhas (GND). Panetics 2(2), 1-5. 1993. Panetics Trilogy. Washington: The International Society for Panetics, 1994. Vol. I, Less Suffering for Everybody. Ibid. Vol. II, Panetics and Dukkhas. Ibid. Vol. III, Seeds of Contemplation. Understanding and Minimizing the Infliction of suffering. Unpublished text. 711 pages. Introduction to panetic system design. Panetics 3(4), 3-12. 1994. Panetic inflation, deflation, and the Humane Index. 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5,658 | Educational_essentialism | Educational essentialism is an educational philosophy whose adherents believe that children should learn the traditional basic subjects and that these should be learned thoroughly and rigorously. An essentialist program normally teaches children progressively, from less complex skills to more complex. An Essentialist will usually teach some set subjects similar to Reading, Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Mathematics, Science, Art, and Music. The teacher's role is to instill respect for authority, perseverance, duty, consideration, and practicality. Essentialism strives to teach students the accumulated knowledge of our civilization through core courses in the traditional academic disciplines. Essentialists aim to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, patriotism, and character development. This traditional approach is meant to train the mind, promote reasoning, and ensure a common culture. William Bagley (1874-1946) was an important historical Essentialist. Essentialism is related to the cultural literacy movement, which advocates the teaching of a core set of knowledge common to (and assumed to be possessed by) members of a culture or society. See also E.D. Hirsch. External links | Educational_essentialism |@lemmatized educational:2 essentialism:3 philosophy:1 whose:1 adherent:1 believe:1 child:2 learn:2 traditional:3 basic:1 subject:2 thoroughly:1 rigorously:1 essentialist:3 program:1 normally:1 teach:3 progressively:1 less:1 complex:2 skill:1 usually:1 set:2 similar:1 reading:1 write:1 literature:1 foreign:1 language:1 history:1 mathematics:1 science:1 art:1 music:1 teacher:1 role:1 instill:2 respect:1 authority:1 perseverance:1 duty:1 consideration:1 practicality:1 strive:1 student:2 accumulated:1 knowledge:3 civilization:1 core:2 course:1 academic:2 discipline:1 essentialists:1 aim:1 essential:1 patriotism:1 character:1 development:1 approach:1 mean:1 train:1 mind:1 promote:1 reasoning:1 ensure:1 common:2 culture:2 william:1 bagley:1 important:1 historical:1 relate:1 cultural:1 literacy:1 movement:1 advocate:1 teaching:1 assume:1 possess:1 member:1 society:1 see:1 also:1 e:1 hirsch:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
5,659 | Homeomorphism | Topological equivalence redirects here; see also topological equivalence (dynamical systems). A continuous deformation between a coffee mug and a donut illustrating that they are homeomorphic. But there does not need to be a continuous deformation for two spaces to be homeomorphic — only a continuous mapping with a continuous inverse. In the mathematical field of topology, a homeomorphism or topological isomorphism (from the Greek words ὅμοιος (homoios) = similar and μορφή (morphē) = shape = form (Latin deformation of morphe)) is a bicontinuous function between two topological spaces. Homeomorphisms are the isomorphisms in the category of topological spaces — that is, they are the mappings which preserve all the topological properties of a given space. Two spaces with a homeomorphism between them are called homeomorphic, and from a topological viewpoint they are the same. Roughly speaking, a topological space is a geometric object, and the homeomorphism is a continuous stretching and bending of the object into a new shape. Thus, a square and a circle are homeomorphic to each other, but a sphere and a donut are not. An often-repeated joke is that topologists can't tell the coffee cup from which they are drinking from the donut they are eating, since a sufficiently pliable donut could be reshaped to the form of a coffee cup by creating a dimple and progressively enlarging it, while shrinking the hole into a handle. Topology is the study of those properties of objects that do not change when homeomorphisms are applied. As Henri Poincaré famously said, mathematics is not the study of objects, but instead, the relations (isomorphisms for instance) between them. Definition A function f: X → Y between two topological spaces (X, TX) and (Y, TY) is called a homeomorphism if it has the following properties: f is a bijection (one-to-one and onto), f is continuous, the inverse function f −1 is continuous (f is an open mapping). A function with these three properties is sometimes called bicontinuous. If such a function exists, we say X and Y are homeomorphic. A self-homeomorphism is a homeomorphism of a topological space and itself. The homeomorphisms form an equivalence relation on the class of all topological spaces. The resulting equivalence classes are called homeomorphism classes. Examples 240|A trefoil knot is homeomorphic to a circle. While this may seem illogical, in four dimensions they can easily be deformed continuously. Here the knot has been thickened to make the image understandable. The unit 2-disc D2 and the unit square in R2 are homeomorphic. The open interval (−1, +1) is homeomorphic to the real numbers R. The product space S1 × S1 and the two-dimensional torus are homeomorphic. Every uniform isomorphism and isometric isomorphism is a homeomorphism. Any 2-sphere with a single point removed is homeomorphic to the set of all points in R2 (a 2-dimensional plane). Let be a commutative ring with unity and let be a multiplicative subset of . Then Spec is homeomorphic to . and are not homeomorphic for . An example of a continuous bijection that is not a homeomorphism is the map that takes the half-open interval and wraps it around the circle. In this case the inverse – although it exists – fails to be continuous. The preimages of certain sets which are actually open in the relative topology of the half-open interval are not open in the more natural topology of the circle (they are half-open intervals). Notes The third requirement, that f −1 be continuous, is essential. Consider for instance the function f : [0, 2π) → S1 defined by f(φ) = (cos(φ), sin(φ)). This function is bijective and continuous, but not a homeomorphism. Homeomorphisms are the isomorphisms in the category of topological spaces. As such, the composition of two homeomorphisms is again a homeomorphism, and the set of all self-homeomorphisms X → X forms a group, called the homeomorphism group of X, often denoted Homeo(X); this group can be given a topology, such as the compact-open topology, making it a topological group. For some purposes, the homeomorphism group happens to be too big, but by means of the isotopy relation, one can reduce this group to the mapping class group. Similarly, as usual in category theory, given two spaces that are homeomorphic, the space of homeomorphisms between, Homeo(X, Y) them is a torsor for the homeomorphism groups Homeo(X) and Homeo(Y), and given a specific homeomorph between X and Y, all three sets are identified. Properties Two homeomorphic spaces share the same topological properties. For example, if one of them is compact, then the other is as well; if one of them is connected, then the other is as well; if one of them is Hausdorff, then the other is as well; their homology groups will coincide. Note however that this does not extend to properties defined via a metric; there are metric spaces which are homeomorphic even though one of them is complete and the other is not. A homeomorphism is simultaneously an open mapping and a closed mapping, that is it maps open sets to open sets and closed sets to closed sets. Every self-homeomorphism in can be extended to a self-homeomorphism of the whole disk (Alexander's Trick). Informal discussion The intuitive criterion of stretching, bending, cutting and gluing back together takes a certain amount of practice to apply correctly — it may not be obvious from the description above that deforming a line segment to a point is impermissible, for instance. It is thus important to realize that it is the formal definition given above that counts. This characterization of a homeomorphism often leads to confusion with the concept of homotopy, which is actually defined as a continuous deformation, but from one function to another, rather than one space to another. In the case of a homeomorphism, envisioning a continuous deformation is a mental tool for keeping track of which points on space X correspond to which points on Y — one just follows them as X deforms. In the case of homotopy, the continuous deformation from one map to the other is of the essence, and it is also less restrictive, since none of the maps involved need to be one-to-one or onto. Homotopy does lead to a relation on spaces: homotopy equivalence. There is a name for the kind of deformation involved in visualizing a homeomorphism. It is (except when cutting and regluing are required) an isotopy between the identity map on X and the homeomorphism from X to Y. See also Local homeomorphism Diffeomorphism Uniform isomorphism is an isomorphism between uniform spaces Isometric isomorphism is an isomorphism between metric spaces Dehn twist Homeomorphism (graph theory) (closely related to graph subdivision) Isotopy Mapping class group External links | Homeomorphism |@lemmatized topological:14 equivalence:5 redirects:1 see:2 also:3 dynamical:1 system:1 continuous:14 deformation:7 coffee:3 mug:1 donut:4 illustrate:1 homeomorphic:15 need:2 two:8 space:20 mapping:6 inverse:3 mathematical:1 field:1 topology:6 homeomorphism:23 isomorphism:10 greek:1 word:1 ὅμοιος:1 homoios:1 similar:1 μορφή:1 morphē:1 shape:2 form:4 latin:1 morphe:1 bicontinuous:2 function:8 homeomorphisms:7 category:3 preserve:1 property:7 give:5 call:5 viewpoint:1 roughly:1 speak:1 geometric:1 object:4 stretching:1 bending:2 new:1 thus:2 square:2 circle:4 sphere:2 often:3 repeat:1 joke:1 topologists:1 tell:1 cup:2 drink:1 eat:1 since:2 sufficiently:1 pliable:1 could:1 reshape:1 create:1 dimple:1 progressively:1 enlarge:1 shrink:1 hole:1 handle:1 study:2 change:1 apply:2 henri:1 poincaré:1 famously:1 say:2 mathematics:1 instead:1 relation:4 instance:3 definition:2 f:8 x:14 tx:1 ty:1 following:1 bijection:2 one:13 onto:2 open:11 three:2 sometimes:1 exist:2 self:4 class:5 result:1 examples:1 trefoil:1 knot:2 may:2 seem:1 illogical:1 four:1 dimension:1 easily:1 deform:2 continuously:1 thicken:1 make:2 image:1 understandable:1 unit:2 disc:1 interval:4 real:1 number:1 r:1 product:1 dimensional:2 torus:1 every:2 uniform:3 isometric:2 single:1 point:5 remove:1 set:8 plane:1 let:2 commutative:1 ring:1 unity:1 multiplicative:1 subset:1 spec:1 example:2 map:5 take:2 half:3 wrap:1 around:1 case:3 although:1 fails:1 preimages:1 certain:2 actually:2 relative:1 natural:1 note:2 third:1 requirement:1 essential:1 consider:1 define:3 φ:3 co:1 sin:1 bijective:1 composition:1 group:10 denote:1 homeo:4 compact:2 purpose:1 happen:1 big:1 mean:1 isotopy:3 reduce:1 similarly:1 usual:1 theory:2 torsor:1 specific:1 homeomorph:1 identify:1 share:1 well:3 connect:1 hausdorff:1 homology:1 coincide:1 however:1 extend:2 via:1 metric:3 even:1 though:1 complete:1 simultaneously:1 closed:2 maps:1 close:1 whole:1 disk:1 alexander:1 trick:1 informal:1 discussion:1 intuitive:1 criterion:1 stretch:1 cut:2 glue:1 back:1 together:1 amount:1 practice:1 correctly:1 obvious:1 description:1 line:1 segment:1 impermissible:1 important:1 realize:1 formal:1 count:1 characterization:1 lead:2 confusion:1 concept:1 homotopy:4 another:2 rather:1 envision:1 mental:1 tool:1 keep:1 track:1 correspond:1 follow:1 deforms:1 essence:1 less:1 restrictive:1 none:1 involve:2 name:1 kind:1 visualize:1 except:1 regluing:1 require:1 identity:1 local:1 diffeomorphism:1 dehn:1 twist:1 graph:2 closely:1 relate:1 subdivision:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram topological_space:7 henri_poincaré:1 equivalence_relation:1 commutative_ring:1 homotopy_equivalence:1 homeomorphism_diffeomorphism:1 isomorphism_isomorphism:2 closely_relate:1 external_link:1 |
5,660 | Charles_McCarry | Christopher's Ghosts The Overlook Press, 2007 Charles McCarry (born 1930 Massachusetts, USA) is an American writer primarily of spy fiction. Life McCarry served in the United States Army, where he was a correspondent for Stars and Stripes, has been a small-town newspaperman, and was a speechwriter in the Eisenhower administration. From 1958 to 1967 he worked for the CIA, under deep cover in Europe, Asia, and Africa. However, his cover was not as a writer or journalist. He is married with four grown sons. His family is from The Berkshires area of western Massachusetts, where he currently lives. He is an admirer of the work of W. Somerset Maugham, especially the Ashenden stories. He was also an admirer of Richard Condon, author of The Manchurian Candidate, Prizzi's Honor and numerous other novels. McCarry was editor-at-large for National Geographic and has contributed pieces to The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, and other national publications. Work The Last Supper Arrow edition, 1984 His novels, which are highly regarded for their expertise and literary quality, are currently being reprinted by Overlook Press, starting with Tears of Autumn, republished in 2005. Charles N. Brown, the publisher of Locus, which primarily addresses the science-fiction publishing world, wrote in the July 2006 issue: "Two Charles McCarry hardcover reprints from Overlook... aren't really SF or fantasy, but they are two of the best spy thrillers ever written and form a secret or alternate history of the 20th century." McCarry is best known for a series of books concerning the life of super spy Paul Christopher. Born in Germany before WWII of a German mother and an American father, Christopher joins the CIA after the war and becomes one of its most effective spies. After launching an unauthorized investigation of the Kennedy assassination, Christopher becomes a pariah to the agency and a hunted man. Eventually he spends ten years in a Chinese prison before being released and embarking on a solution to the mystery that has haunted him his entirely life: the fate of his mother who disappeared at the beginning of WWII. The books are notable for their historical detail and attention to the details of spycraft as well as their careful and extensive examination of Christopher's relationship with his family, friends, wives, and lovers. Also notable are two books having to do with Paul Christopher's American cousins, Horace and Julian Hubbard: "The Better Angels" and "Shelly's Heart." These surprisingly prescient books tell the story of a U.S. President who approves the assassination of the leader of an oil-rich Arab nation who has acquired nuclear arms and intends to pass them onto a terrorist organization. When news of this threatens to ruin the President's chances for re-election, the Hubbards conspire to steal the election. In "Shelly's Heart," the conspiracy is revealed and the newly re-elected President is impeached and placed on trial in the Senate with surprising results. Both books are written with a great deal of Washington insider knowledge and the political ins-and-outs of the latter novel are breathtaking. McCarry's most unusual book in the series, albeit one also concerning the Christopher family, is "Bride of the Wilderness. Set in the 17th century, it's a historical romance concerning one of Paul Christopher's ancestors, the English-born Fanny Harding. After the death of her father, she travels to America and is abducted by Indians during the French-Indian Wars and eventually marries one of her captors, a French officer named Philippe de Saint-Christophe (or Christopher). The film Wrong is Right (1982) starring Sean Connery was loosely based on his novel, The Better Angels. Books Novels featuring Paul Christopher or his family The Miernik Dossier Coronet edition, 1975 The Miernik Dossier (1973) Christopher investigates a possible Soviet spy in Geneva The Tears of Autumn (1974) Christopher investigates the JFK Assassination The Secret Lovers (1977) Christopher discovers a secret plot within the CIA The Better Angels (1979) Christopher's cousins steal a Presidential election The Last Supper (1983) Introduction to Christopher's parents in pre-WWII Germany; Christopher is imprisoned in China The Bride of the Wilderness (1988) Historical novel concerning 17th century Christopher ancestors Second Sight (1991) Released from a Chinese prison, Christopher meets a daughter he didn't know he had Shelley's Heart (1995) Sequel to "The Better Angels:" Christopher's cousins cause a Presidential impeachment Old Boys (2004) Christopher's old associates discover a plot involving terrorists and the fate of Christopher's mother Christopher's Ghosts (2007) The story of Christopher's first love in pre-WWII Germany Non-Christopher family novel Lucky Bastard (1999) A Bill Clinton-like politician is really a Soviet spy Non-Fiction Citizen Nader (1972) Double Eagle: Ben Abruzzo, Maxie Anderson, Larry Newman (1979) The Great Southwest (1980) Isles of the Caribbean (National Geographic Society, Washington, DC, 1980, co-author) Paths of Resistance: The Art and Craft of the Political Novel (1989, with Isabel Allende, Marge Piercy, Robert Stone and Gore Vidal) Inner Circles: How America Changed the World: a Memoir (1992, by Alexander Haig with Charles McCarry) From the Field: A Collection of Writings from National Geographic (1997, editor) External links http://www.themorningnews.org/archives/personalities/birnbaum_v_charles_mccarry.php A 2004 interview with McCarry. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0565010/ IMDb page for Charles McCarry. http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?Charles_McCarry Internet Speculative Fiction Data Base (ISFDB) for Charles McCarry. 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art:1 craft:1 isabel:1 allende:1 marge:1 piercy:1 robert:1 stone:1 gore:1 vidal:1 inner:1 circle:1 change:1 memoir:1 alexander:1 haig:1 field:1 collection:1 writing:1 external:1 link:1 http:4 www:4 themorningnews:1 org:2 archive:1 personality:1 php:1 interview:1 imdb:2 com:2 page:1 isfdb:2 cgi:2 bin:1 ea:1 internet:1 speculative:1 data:1 laweekly:1 general:1 |@bigram charles_mccarry:5 somerset_maugham:1 manchurian_candidate:1 science_fiction:1 spy_thriller:1 kennedy_assassination:1 sean_connery:1 jfk_assassination:1 presidential_election:1 bill_clinton:1 washington_dc:1 isabel_allende:1 marge_piercy:1 gore_vidal:1 external_link:1 http_www:4 www_imdb:1 imdb_com:1 org_cgi:1 cgi_bin:1 |
5,661 | Economics | Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek (, "management of a household, administration") from (, "house") + (, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)". Current economic models developed out of the broader field of political economy in the late 19th century, owing to a desire to use an empirical approach more akin to the physical sciences. Clark, B. (1998). Political-economy: A comparative approach. Westport, CT: Preager. A definition that captures much of modern economics is that of Lionel Robbins in a 1932 essay: "the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses." , p. 16 Scarcity means that available resources are insufficient to satisfy all wants and needs. Absent scarcity and alternative uses of available resources, there is no economic problem. The subject thus defined involves the study of choices as they are affected by incentives and resources. Economics aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact. Economic analysis is applied throughout society, in business, finance and government, but also in crime, Friedman, David D. (2002). "Crime," The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Accessed October 21, 2007. education, The World Bank (2007). "Economics of Education." Accessed October 21, 2007. the family, health, law, politics, religion, Iannaccone, Laurence R. (1998). "Introduction to the Economics of Religion," Journal of Economic Literature, 36(3), pp. 1465–1495.. social institutions, war, Nordhaus, William D. (2002). "The Economic Consequences of a War with Iraq", in War with Iraq: Costs, Consequences, and Alternatives, pp. 51–85. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Cambridge, MA. Accessed October 21, 2007. and science. Arthur M. Diamond, Jr. (2008). "science, economics of," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition, Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Pre-publication cached ccpy. The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. Lazear, Edward P. (2000|. "Economic Imperialism," Quarterly Journal Economics, 115(1)|, pp. 99–146. Cached copy. Pre-publication copy(larger print.} Becker, Gary S. (1976). The Economic Approach to Human Behavior. Links to arrow-page viewable chapter. University of Chicago Press. Common distinctions are drawn between various dimensions of economics: between positive economics (describing "what is") and normative economics (advocating "what ought to be") or between economic theory and applied economics or between mainstream economics (more "orthodox" dealing with the "rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus") and heterodox economics (more "radical" dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus" Davis, John B. (2006). "Heterodox Economics, the Fragmentation of the Mainstream, and Embedded Individual Analysis,” in Future Directions in Heterodox Economics. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ). However the primary textbook distinction is between microeconomics ("small" economics), which examines the economic behavior of agents (including individuals and firms) and macroeconomics ("big" economics), addressing issues of unemployment, inflation, monetary and fiscal policy for an entire economy. History of economic thought The city states of Sumer developed a trade and market economy based originally on the commodity money of the Shekel which was a certain weight measure of barley, while the Babylonians and their city state neighbors later developed the earliest system of economics using a metric of various commodities, that was fixed in a legal code. Kramer, History Begins at Sumer, pp. 52–55. The early law codes from Sumer could be considered the first (written) economic formula, and had many attributes still in use in the current price system today... such as codified amounts of money for business deals (interest rates), fines in money for 'wrong doing', inheritance rules, laws concerning how private property is to be taxed or divided, etc. http://history-world.org/reforms_of_urukagina.htm For a summary of the laws, see Babylonian law and Ancient economic thought. Economic thought dates from earlier Mesopotamian, Greek, Roman, Indian, Chinese, Persian and Arab civilizations. Notable writers include Aristotle, Chanakya (also known as Kautilya), Qin Shi Huang, Thomas Aquinas and Ibn Khaldun through to the 14th century. Joseph Schumpeter initially considered the late scholastics of the 14th to 17th centuries as "coming nearer than any other group to being the 'founders' of scientific economics" as to monetary, interest, and value theory within a natural-law perspective. Schumpeter, Joseph A. (1954). History of Economic Analysis, pp. 97–115. Oxford. After discovering Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah, however, Schumpeter later viewed Ibn Khaldun as being the closest forerunner of modern economics, I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses, New York University Press, ISBN 0887066984. as many of his economic theories were not known in Europe until relatively modern times. Nonetheless, recent research indicates that the Indian scholar-philosopher Chanakya (c. 340-293 BCE) predates Ibn Khaldun by a millennium and a half as the forerunner of modern economics, L. K. Jha, K. N. Jha (1998). "Chanakya: the pioneer economist of the world", International Journal of Social Economics 25(2–4): 267–282. Waldauer, C., Zahka, W.J. and Pal, S. (1996) Kautilya's Arthashastra: A neglected precursor to classical economics. Indian Economic Review Vol. 31(1): 101–108. Tisdell, C. (2003) A Western perspective of Kautilya's Arthasastra: does it provide a basis for economic science? Economic Theory, Applications and Issues Working Paper No. 18. Brisbane: School of Economics, The University of Queensland. Sihag, B.S. (2007) Kautilya on institutions, governance, knowledge, ethics and prosperity. Humanomics 23 (1): 5–28. and has written more expansively on this subject, particularly on political economy. His magnus opus, the Arthashastra (The Science of Wealth and Welfare), Sihag, B.S. (2005) Kautilya on public goods and taxation. History of Political Economy 37 (4): 723–753. is the genesis of economic concepts that include the opportunity cost, the demand-supply framework, diminishing returns, marginal analysis, public goods, the distinction between the short run and the long run, asymmetric information and the producer surplus. Sihag, B.S. (2009) An introduction to Kautilya and his Arthashastra. Humanomics 25(1). In his capacity as an advisor to the throne of the Maurya Empire of ancient India, he has also advised on the sources and prerequisites of economic growth, obstacles to it and on tax incentives to encourage economic growth. Sihag, B.S. (2007) Kautilya on institutions, governance, knowledge, ethics and prosperity. Humanomics 23(1): 5–28. Two other groups, later called 'mercantilists' and 'physiocrats', more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject. Both groups were associated with the rise of economic nationalism and modern capitalism in Europe. Mercantilism was an economic doctrine that flourished from the 16th to 18th century in a prolific pamphlet literature, whether of merchants or statesmen. It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver. Nations without access to mines could obtain gold and silver from trade only by selling goods abroad and restricting imports other than of gold and silver. The doctrine called for importing cheap raw materials to be used in manufacturing goods, which could be exported, and for state regulation to impose protective tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and prohibit manufacturing in the colonies. NA (2007). "mercantilism," Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics". The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, p. 343. Physiocrats, a group of 18th century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output. Adam Smith described their system "with all its imperfections" as "perhaps the purest approximation to the truth that has yet been published" on the subject. Physiocrats believed that only agricultural production generated a clear surplus over cost, so that agriculture was the basis of all wealth. Thus, they opposed the mercantilist policy of promoting manufacturing and trade at the expense of agriculture, including import tariffs. Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners. Variations on such a land tax were taken up by subsequent economists (including Henry George a century later) as a relatively non-distortionary source of tax revenue. In reaction against copious mercantilist trade regulations, the physiocrats advocated a policy of laissez-faire, which called for minimal government intervention in the economy. NA (2007). "physiocrat," Blaug, Mark (1997, 5th ed.) Economic Theory in Retrospect, pp, 24–29, 82–84. Cambridge. Classical political economy Publication of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations in 1776, has been described as "the effective birth of economics as a separate discipline." Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics". The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, p. 343. The book identified land, labor, and capital as the three factors of production and the major contributors to a nation's wealth. In Smith's view, the ideal economy is a self-regulating market system that automatically satisfies the economic needs of the populace. He described the market mechanism as an "invisible hand" that leads all individuals, in pursuit of their own self-interests, to produce the greatest benefit for society as a whole. Smith incorporated some of the Physiocrats' ideas, including laissez-faire, into his own economic theories, but rejected the idea that only agriculture was productive. In his famous invisible-hand analogy, Smith argued for the seemingly paradoxical notion that competitive markets tended to advance broader social interests, although driven by narrower self-interest. The general approach that Smith helped initiate was called political economy and later classical economics. It included such notables as Thomas Malthus, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill writing from about 1770 to 1870. Blaug, Mark (1987). "Classical Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 434–35. Blaug notes less widely used datings and uses of 'classical economics', including those of Marx and Keynes. While Adam Smith emphasized the production of income, David Ricardo focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists. Ricardo saw an inherent conflict between landowners on the one hand and labor and capital on the other. He posited that the growth of population and capital, pressing against a fixed supply of land, pushes up rents and holds down wages and profits. Thomas Robert Malthus used the idea of diminishing returns to explain low living standards. Population, he argued, tended to increase geometrically, outstripping the production of food, which increased arithmetically. The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labor. The result, he claimed, was chronically low wages, which prevented the standard of living for most of the population from rising above the subsistence level. Malthus also questioned the automatic tendency of a market economy to produce full employment. He blamed unemployment upon the economy's tendency to limit its spending by saving too much, a theme that lay forgotten until John Maynard Keynes revived it in the 1930s. Coming at the end of the Classical tradition, John Stuart Mill parted company with the earlier classical economists on the inevitability of the distribution of income produced by the market system. Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income. The market might be efficient in allocating resources but not in distributing income, he wrote, making it necessary for society to intervene. Value theory was important in classical theory. Smith wrote that the "real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it" as influenced by its scarcity. Smith maintained that, with rent and profit, other costs besides wages also enter the price of a commodity. Smith, Adam (1776). The Wealth of Nations, Bk. 1, Ch. 5, 6. Other classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the 'labour theory of value'. Classical economics focused on the tendency of markets to move to long-run equilibrium. Marxism Marxist (later, Marxian) economics descends from classical economics. It derives from the work of Karl Marx. The first volume of Marx's major work, Das Kapital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital. Roemer, J.E. (1987). "Marxian Value Analysis". The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, 383. Mandel, Ernest (1987). "Marx, Karl Heinrich", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economicsv. 3, pp. 372, 376.</ref> The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labor that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern understanding that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing. Neoclassical economics A body of theory later termed 'neoclassical economics' or 'marginalism' formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term 'economics' was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for 'economic science' and a substitute for the earlier, broader term 'political economy'.<ref> Marshall, Alfred, and Mary Paley Marshall (1879). The Economics of Industry, p. 2. W. Stanley Jevons (1879, 2nd ed.) The Theory of Political Economy, p. xiv. This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences. Clark, B. (1998). Political-economy: A comparative approach, 2nd ed., Westport, CT: Preagerp. p. 32.. Neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. It dispensed with the labour theory of value inherited from classical economics in favor of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side. Campos, Antonietta (1987). "Marginalist Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 320 In microeconomics, neoclassical economics represents incentives and costs as playing a pervasive role in shaping decision making. An immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded. In macroeconomics it is reflected in an early and lasting neoclassical synthesis with Keynesian macroeconomics. Hicks, J.R. (1937). "Mr. Keynes and the 'Classics': A Suggested Interpretation," Econometrica, 5(2), pp. 147–159. Blanchard, Olivier Jean (1987). "Neoclassical Synthesis", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 634–36. Neoclassical economics is occasionally referred as orthodox economics whether by its critics or sympathizers. Modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalize earlier analysis, such as econometrics, game theory, analysis of market failure and imperfect competition, and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analyzing long-run variables affecting national income. Keynesian economics Keynesian economics derives from John Maynard Keynes, in particular his book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936), which ushered in contemporary macroeconomics as a distinct field. Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics," The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, p. 347. Chicago. The book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible. Keynes attempted to explain in broad theoretical detail why high labour-market unemployment might not be self-correcting due to low "effective demand" and why even price flexibility and monetary policy might be unavailing. Such terms as "revolutionary" have been applied to the book in its impact on economic analysis. Tarshis, L. (1987). "Keynesian Revolution", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 47–50. Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). Economics, p. 5. Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics," The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, p. 346. Chicago. Keynesian economics has two successors. Post-Keynesian economics also concentrates on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes. Research on micro foundations for their models is represented as based on real-life practices rather than simple optimizing models. It is generally associated with the University of Cambridge and the work of Joan Robinson. Harcourt, G.C.(1987). "Post-Keynesian Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 47–50. New-Keynesian economics is also associated with developments in the Keynesian fashion. Within this group researchers tend to share with other economists the emphasis on models employing micro foundations and optimizing behavior but with a narrower focus on standard Keynesian themes such as price and wage rigidity. These are usually made to be endogenous features of the models, rather than simply assumed as in older Keynesian-style ones. Chicago School of economics The Chicago School of economics is best known for its free market advocacy and monetarist ideas. According to Milton Friedman and monetarists, market economies are inherently stable if left to themselves and depressions result only from government intervention. Friedman, for example, argued that the Great Depression was result of a contraction of the money supply, controlled by the Federal Reserve, and not by the lack of investment as Keynes had argued. Ben Bernanke, current Chairman of the Federal Reserve, is among the economists today generally accepting Friedman's analysis of the causes of the Great Depression. Milton Friedman effectively took many of the basic principles set forth by Adam Smith and the classical economists and modernized them, in a way. One example of this is his article in the September 1970 issue of The New York Times Magazine, where he claims that the social responsibility of business is “to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits…(through) open and free competition without deception or fraud.” This is tantamount to Smith’s argument that self interest in turn benefits the whole of society. Friedman, Milton. "The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits." The New York Times Magazine 13 Sep. 1970. Other schools and approaches Other well-known schools or trends of thought referring to a particular style of economics practiced at and disseminated from well-defined groups of academicians that have become known worldwide, include the Austrian School, the Freiburg School, the School of Lausanne and the Stockholm school. Contemporary mainstream economics is sometimes separated into the MIT, or Saltwater, approach, and the Chicago, or Freshwater, approach. Within macroeconomics there is, in general order of their appearance in the literature; classical economics, Keynesian economics, the neoclassical synthesis, post-Keynesian economics, monetarism, new classical economics, and supply-side economics. Alternative developments include ecological economics, institutional economics, evolutionary economics, dependency theory, structuralist economics, world systems theory, thermoeconomics, econophysics and technocracy. Microeconomics Microeconomics looks at interactions through individual markets, given scarcity and government regulation. A given market might be for a product, say fresh corn, or the services of a factor of production, say bricklaying. The theory considers aggregates of quantity demanded by buyers and quantity supplied by sellers at each possible price per unit. It weaves these together to describe how the market may reach equilibrium as to price and quantity or respond to market changes over time. This is broadly termed supply and demand analysis. Market structures, such as perfect competition and monopoly, are examined as to implications for behavior and economic efficiency. Analysis of change in a single market often proceeds from the simplifying assumption that behavioral relations in other markets remain unchanged, that is, partial-equilibrium analysis. General-equilibrium theory allows for changes in different markets and aggregates across all markets, including their movements and interactions toward equilibrium. Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics," Microeconomics, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, pp. 347–49. Chicago. ISBN 0852294239 Varian, Hal R. (1987). "Microeconomics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 461–63. London and New York: Macmillan and Stockton. ISBN 0-333-37235-2 Markets In microeconomics, production is the conversion of inputs into outputs. It is an economic process that uses resources to create a commodity that is suitable for exchange. This can include manufacturing, warehousing, shipping, and packaging. Some economists define production broadly as all economic activity other than consumption. They see every commercial activity other than the final purchase as some form of production. Production is a process, and as such it occurs through time and space. Because it is a flow concept, production is measured as a "rate of output per period of time". There are three aspects to production processes, including the quantity of the commodity produced, the form of the good created and the temporal and spatial distribution of the commodity produced. Opportunity cost expresses the idea that for every choice, the true economic cost is the next best opportunity. Choices must be made between desirable yet mutually exclusive actions. It has been described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice.". James M. Buchanan (1987). "Opportunity Cost", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 718–21. The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that scarce resources are used efficiently. The Economist's definition of Opportunity Cost Thus, opportunity costs are not restricted to monetary or financial costs: the real cost of output forgone, lost time, pleasure or any other benefit that provides utility should also be considered. The inputs or resources used in the production process are called factors of production. Possible inputs are typically grouped into six categories. These factors are raw materials, machinery, labour services, capital goods, land, and enterprise. In the short-run, as opposed to the long-run, at least one of these factors of production is fixed. Examples include major pieces of equipment, suitable factory space, and key personnel. A variable factor of production is one whose usage rate can be changed easily. Examples include electrical power consumption, transportation services, and most raw material inputs. In the "long-run", all of these factors of production can be adjusted by management. In the short run, a firm's "scale of operations" determines the maximum number of outputs that can be produced, but in the long run, there are no scale limitations. Long-run and short-run changes play an important part in economic models. Economic efficiency describes how well a system generates the maximum desired output a with a given set of inputs and available technology. Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs, or in other words, the amount of "friction" or "waste" is reduced. Economists look for Pareto efficiency, which is reached when a change cannot make someone better off without making someone else worse off. Economic efficiency is used to refer to a number of related concepts. A system can be called economically efficient if: No one can be made better off without making someone else worse off, more output cannot be obtained without increasing the amount of inputs, and production ensures the lowest possible per unit cost. These definitions of efficiency are not exactly equivalent. However, they are all encompassed by the idea that nothing more can be achieved given the resources available. Specialization Specialization is considered key to economic efficiency because different individuals or countries have different comparative advantages. While one country may have an absolute advantage in every area over other countries, it could nonetheless specialize in the area which it has a relative comparative advantage, and thereby gain from trading with countries which have no absolute advantages. For example, a country may specialize in the production of high-tech knowledge products, as developed countries do, and trade with developing nations for goods produced in factories, where labor is cheap and plentiful. According to theory, in this way more total products and utility can be achieved than if countries produced their own high-tech and low-tech products. The theory of comparative advantage is largely the basis for the typical economist's belief in the benefits of free trade. This concept applies to individuals, farms, manufacturers, service providers, and economies. Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding division of labour with each worker having a distinct occupation or doing a specialized task as part of the production effort, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses. Groenewegen, Peter (1987). "Division of Labour", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 901–05. Johnson, Paul M. (2005)."Specialization," A Glossary of Political Economy Terms. Yang, Xiaokai, and Yew-Kwang Ng (1993). [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/505043/description#descriptionSpecialization and Economic Organization.] Amsterdam: North-Holland. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776) discusses the benefits of the division of labour. Smith noted that an individual should invest a resource, for example, land or labour, so as to earn the highest possible return on it. Consequently, all uses of the resource should yield an equal rate of return (adjusted for the relative riskiness of each enterprise). Otherwise reallocation would result. This idea, wrote George Stigler, is the central proposition of economic theory, and is today called the marginal productivity theory of income distribution. French economist Turgot had made the same point in 1766. Adam Smith, Biography: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics: Library of Economics and Liberty In more general terms, it is theorized that market incentives, including prices of outputs and productive inputs, select the allocation of factors of production by comparative advantage, that is, so that (relatively) low-cost inputs are employed to keep down the opportunity cost of a given type of output. In the process, aggregate output increases as a by product or by design. Cameron, Rondo (1993, 2nd ed.). A Concise Economic History of the World: From Paleolithic Times to the Present, Oxford, pp. 25, 32, 276–80.</ref> Such specialization of production creates opportunities for gains from trade whereby resource owners benefit from trade in the sale of one type of output for other, more highly-valued goods. A measure of gains from trade is the increased output (formally, the sum of increased consumer surplus and producer profits) from specialization in production and resulting trade. Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). Economics,ch. 2, "Trade, Specialization, and Division of Labor" section, ch. 12, 15, "Comparative Advantage among Nations" section," "Glossary of Terms," Gains from trade. Findlay, Ronald (1987). "Comparative Advantage", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 514–17. Kemp, Murray C. (1987). "Gains from Trade", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 453–54. Supply and demand The theory of demand and supply is an organizing principle to explain prices and quantities of goods sold and changes thereof in a market economy. In microeconomic theory, it refers to price and output determination in a perfectly competitive market. This has served as a building block for modeling other market structures and for other theoretical approaches. For a given market of a commodity, demand shows the quantity that all prospective buyers would be prepared to purchase at each unit price of the good. Demand is often represented using a table or a graph relating price and quantity demanded (see boxed figure). Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc. A term for this is 'constrained utility maximization' (with income as the constraint on demand). Here, utility refers to the (hypothesized) preference relation for individual consumers. Utility and income are then used to model hypothesized properties about the effect of a price change on the quantity demanded. The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related. In other words, the higher the price of a product, the less of it people would be able and willing to buy of it (other things unchanged). As the price of a commodity rises, overall purchasing power decreases (the income effect) and consumers move toward relatively less expensive goods (the substitution effect). Other factors can also affect demand; for example an increase in income will shift the demand curve outward relative to the origin, as in the figure. Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale from suppliers (such as producers) at that price. Supply is often represented using a table or graph relating price and quantity supplied. Producers are hypothesized to be profit-maximizers, meaning that they attempt to produce the amount of goods that will bring them the highest profit. Supply is typically represented as a directly proportional relation between price and quantity supplied (other things unchanged). In other words, the higher the price at which the good can be sold, the more of it producers will supply. The higher price makes it profitable to increase production. At a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This pulls the price up. At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This pushes the price down. The model of supply and demand predicts that for given supply and demand curves, price and quantity will stabilize at the price that makes quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded. This is at the intersection of the two curves in the graph above, market equilibrium. For a given quantity of a good, the price point on the demand curve indicates the value, or marginal utility Baumol, William J. (2007). "Economic Theory" (Measurement and ordinal utility). The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 17, p. 719. to consumers for that unit of output. It measures what the consumer would be prepared to pay for the corresponding unit of the good. The price point on the supply curve measures marginal cost, the increase in total cost to the supplier for the corresponding unit of the good. The price in equilibrium is determined by supply and demand. In a perfectly competitive market, supply and demand equate cost and value at equilibrium. Demand and supply can also be used to model the distribution of income to the factors of production, including labour and capital, through factor markets. In a labour market for example, the quantity of labour employed and the price of labour (the wage rate) are modeled as set by the demand for labour (from business firms etc. for production) and supply of labour (from workers). Demand and supply are used to explain the behavior of perfectly competitive markets, but their usefulness as a standard of performance extends to any type of market. Demand and supply can also be generalized to explain variables applying to the whole economy, for example, quantity of total output and the general price level, studied in macroeconomics. In supply-and-demand analysis, the price of a good coordinates production and consumption quantities. Price and quantity have been described as the most directly observable characteristics of a good produced for the market. Brody, A. (1987). "Prices and Quantities", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 957. Supply, demand, and market equilibrium are theoretical constructs linking price and quantity. But tracing the effects of factors predicted to change supply and demand—and through them, price and quantity—is a standard exercise in applied microeconomics and macroeconomics. Economic theory can specify under what circumstances price serves as an efficient communication device to regulate quantity. Jordan, J.S. (1982). "The Competitive Allocation Process Is Informationally Efficient Uniquely." Journal of Economic Theory, 28(1), p. 1–18. A real-world application might attempt to measure how much variables that increase supply or demand change price and quantity. Marginalism is the use of marginal concepts within economics. Marginal concepts are associated with a specific change in the quantity used of a good or of a service, as opposed to some notion of the over-all significance of that class of good or service, or of some total quantity thereof. The central concept of marginalism proper is that of marginal utility, but marginalists following the lead of Alfred Marshall were further heavily dependent upon the concept of marginal physical productivity in their explanation of cost; and the neoclassical tradition that emerged from British marginalism generally abandoned the concept of utility and gave marginal rates of substitution a more fundamental rôle in analysis. Market failure The term "market failure" encompasses several problems which may undermine standard economic assumptions. Although economists categorise market failures differently, Cf. Barr (2004) pp. 72–79, whose list of market failures is melded with failures of economic assumptions, which are (1) producers as price takers (i.e. presence of oligopoly or monopoly; but why is this not a product of the following?) (2) equal power of consumers (what labour lawyers call an imbalance of bargaining power) (3) complete markets (4) public goods (5) external effects (i.e. externalities?) (6) increasing returns to scale (i.e. practical monopoly) (7) perfect information. the following categories emerge in the main texts. Stiglitz (2000) Ch.4, states the sources of market failure can be enumerated as natural monopolies, information asymmetries, incomplete markets, externalities, public good situations and macroeconomic disturbances. Natural monopoly, or the overlapping concepts of "practical" and "technical" monopoly, involves a failure of competition as a restraint on producers. The problem is described as one where the more of a product is made, the greater the returns are. This means it only makes economic sense to have one producer. Information asymmetries arise where one party has more or better information than the other. The existence of information asymmetry gives rise to problems such as moral hazard, and adverse selection, studied in contract theory. The economics of information has relevance in many fields, including finance, insurance, contract law, and decision-making under risk and uncertainty. Lippman, S. S., and J. J. McCall (2001). "Information, Economics of," International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 7480–7486. Abstract. Incomplete markets is a term used for a situation where buyers and sellers do not know enough about each other's positions to price goods and services properly. Based on George Akerlof's Market for Lemons article, the paradigm example is of a dodgy second hand car market. Customers without the possibility to know for certain whether they are buying a "lemon" will push the average price down below what a good quality second hand car would be. In this way, prices may not reflect true values. Public goods are goods which are undersupplied in a typical market. The defining features are that people can consume public goods without having to pay for them and that more than one person can consume the good at the same time. Externalities occur where there are significant social costs or benefits from production or consumption that are not reflected in market prices. For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.). Governments often tax and otherwise restrict the sale of goods that have negative externalities and subsidize or otherwise promote the purchase of goods that have positive externalities in an effort to correct the price distortions caused by these externalities. Laffont, J.J. (1987). "Externalities", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, p. 263–65. Elementary demand-and-supply theory predicts equilibrium but not the speed of adjustment for changes of equilibrium due to a shift in demand or supply. Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics". The New Encyclopædia Britannicav. 27, p. 347. Chicago. ISBN 0852294239 In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side. This includes standard analysis of the business cycle in macroeconomics. Analysis often revolves around causes of such price stickiness and their implications for reaching a hypothesized long-run equilibrium. Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition. Macroeconomic instability, addressed below, is a prime source of market failure, whereby a general loss of business confidence or external shock can grind production and distribution to a halt, undermining ordinary markets that are otherwise sound. Some specialised fields of economics deal in market failure more than others. The economics of the public sector is one example, since where markets fail, some kind of regulatory or government programme is the remedy. Much environmental economics concerns externalities or "public bads". Policy options include regulations that reflect cost-benefit analysis or market solutions that change incentives, such as emission fees or redefinition of property rights. Kneese, Allen K., and Clifford S. Russell (1987). "Environmental Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 159–64. Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). Economics, ch. 18, "Protecting the Environment." McGraw-Hill. Environmental economics is related to ecological economics but there are differences. http://www.eoearth.org/by/Topic/Ecological%20economics Firms One of the assumptions of perfectly competitive markets is that there are many producers, none of whom can influence prices or act independently of market forces. In reality, however, people do not simply trade on markets, they work and produce through firms. The most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts. According to Ronald Coase people begin to organise their production in firms when the costs of doing business becomes lower than doing it on the market. Coase, The Nature of the Firm (1937) Firms combine labour and capital, and can achieve far greater economies of scale (when producing two or more things is cheaper than one thing) than individual market trading. Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning of the market and dynamics for labour. Labour markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers), the demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting patterns of wages and other labour income and of employment and unemployment, Practical uses include assisting the formulation of full employment of policies. Freeman, R.B. (1987). "Labour Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 72–76. Industrial organization studies the strategic behavior of firms, the structure of markets and their interactions. The common market structures studied include perfect competition, monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly. Schmalensee, Richard (1987). "Industrial Organization", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 803–808. Financial economics, often simply referred to as finance, is concerned with the allocation of financial resources in an uncertain (or risky) environment. Thus, its focus is on the operation of financial markets, the pricing of financial instruments, and the financial structure of companies. Ross, Stephen A. (1987). "Finance", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 322–26. Managerial economics applies microeconomic analysis to specific decisions in business firms or other management units. It draws heavily from quantitative methods such as operations research and programming and from statistical methods such as regression analysis in the absence of certainty and perfect knowledge. A unifying theme is the attempt to optimize business decisions, including unit-cost minimization and profit maximization, given the firm's objectives and constraints imposed by technology and market conditions. NA (2007). "managerial economics". Hughes, Alan (1987). "Managerial Capitalism", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 293–96. Public sector Public finance is the field of economics that deals with budgeting the revenues and expenditures of a public sector entity, usually government. The subject addresses such matters as tax incidence (who really pays a particular tax), cost-benefit analysis of government programs, effects on economic efficiency and income distribution of different kinds of spending and taxes, and fiscal politics. The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behavior analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats. Musgrave, R.A. (1987). "Public Finance", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 1055–60. Much of economics is positive, seeking to describe and predict economic phenomena. Normative economics seeks to identify what is economically good and bad. Welfare economics is a normative branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to simultaneously determine the allocative efficiency within an economy and the income distribution associated with it. It attempts to measure social welfare by examining the economic activities of the individuals that comprise society. Feldman, Allan M. (1987). "Welfare Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 889–95. Macroeconomics Macroeconomics examines the economy as a whole to explain broad aggregates and their interactions "top down," that is, using a simplified form of general-equilibrium theory. Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics," The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, p. 345. Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components. It also studies effects of monetary policy and fiscal policy. Since at least the 1960s, macroeconomics has been characterized by further integration as to micro-based modeling of sectors, including rationality of players, efficient use of market information, and imperfect competition. Ng, Yew-Kwang (1992). "Business Confidence and Depression Prevention: A Mesoeconomic Perspective," American Economic Review 82(2), pp. 365–371. This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject. Howitt, Peter M. (1987). "Macroeconomics: Relations with Microeconomics". Macroeconomic analysis also considers factors affecting the long-term level and growth of national income. Such factors include capital accumulation, technological change and labor force growth. Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics," Macroeconomics, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, p. 349. Blanchard, Olivier Jean (1987). "Neoclassical Synthesis", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 634–36. GrowthGrowth economics studies factors that explain economic growth – the increase in output per capita of a country over a long period of time. The same factors are used to explain differences in the level of output per capita between countries. Much-studied factors include the rate of investment, population growth, and technological change. These are represented in theoretical and empirical forms (as in the neoclassical growth model) and in growth accounting. Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). Economics, ch. 27, "The Process of Economic Growth" McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-287205-5. Uzawa, H. (1987). "Models of Growth", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 483–89. Depression and unemployment The economics of a depression were the spur for the creation of "macroeconomics" as a separate discipline field of study. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, John Maynard Keynes produced a book entitled The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. In it he argued that markets were not self correcting and that if the economy was in a crisis of confidence and downward spiral, it was necessary for government to use spending to stimulate the economy (and the animal spirits of the people to regain confidence) back to good health. It would pay the money back later. Otherwise a general deficit of effective demand would lead to a very long slump. A crisis in confidence could send stock markets plummeting, meaning companies go out of business, meaning more redundancies and fewer people with jobs, meaning people have less money to spend, meaning businesses have fewer customers, meaning more companies go out of business, and so on. The circular flow of income needed an external boost by the state. Inflation and monetary policy Money is a means of final payment for goods in most price system economies and the unit of account in which prices are typically stated. It includes currency held by the nonbank public and checkable deposits. It has been described as a social convention, like language, useful to one largely because it is useful to others. As a medium of exchange, money facilitates trade. Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange). Given a diverse array of produced goods and specialized producers, barter may entail a hard-to-locate double coincidence of wants as to what is exchanged, say apples and a book. Money can reduce the transaction cost of exchange because of its ready acceptability. Then it is less costly for the seller to accept money in exchange, rather than what the buyer produces. Tobin, James (1992). "Money" (Money as a Social Institution and Public Good), The New Palgrave Dictionary of Finance and Money, v. 2, pp. 770–71. At the level of an economy, theory and evidence are consistent with a positive relationship running from the total money supply to the nominal value of total output and to the general price level. For this reason, management of the money supply is a key aspect of monetary policy. Milton Friedman (1987). "Quantity Theory of Money", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 15–19. Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). Economics, ch. 2, "Money: The Lubroicant of Exchange" section, ch. 33, Fig. 33–3. Fiscal policy and regulation National accounting is a method for summarizing aggregate economic activity of a nation. The national accounts are double-entry accounting systems that provide detailed underlying measures of such information. These include the national income and product accounts (NIPA), which provide estimates for the money value of output and income per year or quarter. NIPA allows for tracking the performance of an economy and its components through business cycles or over longer periods. Price data may permit distinguishing nominal from real amounts, that is, correcting money totals for price changes over time. Usher, D. (1987), "Real Income", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, p. 104. Sen, Amartya (1979), "The Welfare Basis of Real Income Comparisons: A Survey," Journal of Economic Literature, 17(1), p p. 1–45. The national accounts also include measurement of the capital stock, wealth of a nation, and international capital flows. Ruggles, Nancy D. (1987), "Social Accounting". International economics International trade studies determinants of goods-and-services flows across international boundaries. It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade. Policy applications include estimating the effects of changing tariff rates and trade quotas. International finance is a macroeconomic field which examines the flow of capital across international borders, and the effects of these movements on exchange rates. Increased trade in goods, services and capital between countries is a major effect of contemporary globalization.<ref>Anderson, James E. (2008). "International Trade Theory", The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition.Abstract. Venables, A. (2001), "International Trade: Economic Integration," International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 7843–7848. Abstract. Obstfeld, Maurice (2008). "International Finance", The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract. The distinct field of development economics examines economic aspects of the development process in relatively low-income countries focussing on structural change, poverty, and economic growth. Approaches in development economics frequently incorporate social and political factors. Bell, Clive (1987). "Development Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 818–26. Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics," Growth and development, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, p. 351. Chicago. Economic systems is the branch of economics that studies the methods and institutions by which societies determine the ownership, direction, and allocaton of economic resources. An economic system of a society is the unit of analysis. Among contemporary systems at different ends of the organizational spectrum are socialist systems and capitalist systems, in which most production occurs in respectively state-run and private enterprises. In between are mixed economies. A common element is the interaction of economic and political influences, broadly described as political economy. Comparative economic systems studies the relative performance and behavior of different economies or systems. Heilbroner, Robert L. and Peter J. Boettke (2007). "Economic Systems", The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 17, pp. 908–15. NA (2007). "economic system," Encyclopædia Britannica online Concise Encyclopedia entry. Economics in practice Contemporary mainstream economics, as a formal mathematical modeling field, could also be called mathematical economics. It draws on the tools of calculus, linear algebra, statistics, game theory, and computer science. Debreu, Gerard (1987). "Mathematical Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 401–03. Professional economists are expected to be familiar with these tools, although all economists specialize, and some specialize in econometrics and mathematical methods while others specialize in less quantitative areas. Heterodox economists place less emphasis upon mathematics, and several important historical economists, including Adam Smith and Joseph Schumpeter, have not been mathematicians. Economic reasoning involves intuition regarding economic concepts, and economists attempt to analyze to the point of discovering unintended consequences. Theory Mainstream economic theory relies upon a priori quantitative economic models, which employ a variety of concepts. Theory typically proceeds with an assumption of ceteris paribus, which means holding constant explanatory variables other than the one under consideration. When creating theories, the objective is to find ones which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories. Friedman Milton (1953). "The Methodology of Positive Economics," Essays in Positive Economics, University of Chicago Press, p. 10. In microeconomics, principal concepts include supply and demand, marginalism, rational choice theory, opportunity cost, budget constraints, utility, and the theory of the firm. Boland, Lawrence A. (1987). "Methodology", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 455–58. Accessed on 2007-03-17. Early macroeconomic models focused on modeling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists were pressured to base their models in microfoundations. The aforementioned microeconomic concepts play a major part in macroeconomic models – for instance, in monetary theory, the quantity theory of money predicts that increases in the money supply increase inflation, and inflation is assumed to be influenced by rational expectations. In development economics, slower growth in developed nations has been sometimes predicted because of the declining marginal returns of investment and capital, and this has been observed in the Four Asian Tigers. Sometimes an economic hypothesis is only qualitative, not quantitative. Quirk, James (1987). "Qualitative Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 1–3. Expositions of economic reasoning often use two-dimensional graphs to illustrate theoretical relationships. At a higher level of generality, Paul Samuelson's treatise Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) used mathematical methods to represent the theory, particularly as to maximizing behavioral relations of agents reaching equilibrium. The book focused on examining the class of statements called operationally meaningful theorems in economics, which are theorems that can conceivably be refuted by empirical data. Empirical investigation Economic theories are sometimes tested empirically, largely through the use of econometrics using economic data. Hashem, M. Pesaren (1987). "Econometrics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, p. 8. The controlled experiments common to the physical sciences are difficult and uncommon in economics, and instead broad data is observationally studied; this type of testing is typically regarded as less rigorous than controlled experimentation, and the conclusions typically more tentative. Statistical methods such as regression analysis are common. Practitioners use such methods to estimate the size, economic significance, and statistical significance ("signal strength") of the hypothesized relation(s) and to adjust for noise from other variables. By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense. Acceptance is dependent upon the falsifiable hypothesis surviving tests. Use of commonly accepted methods need not produce a final conclusion or even a consensus on a particular question, given different tests, data sets, and prior beliefs. Criticism based on professional standards and non-replicability of results serve as further checks against bias, errors, and over-generalization, Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics" ( Methods of inference and Testing theories), The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, p. 347. although much economic research has been accused of being non-replicable, and prestigious journals have been accused of not facilitating replication through the provision of the code and data. Like theories, uses of test statistics are themselves open to critical analysis, Kennedy, Peter (2003). A Guide to Econometrics, 5th ed., "21.2 The Ten Commandments of Applied Econometrics," pp. 390–96 (excerpts). McCloskey, Deirdre N. and Stephen T. Ziliak (1996). "The Standard Error of Regressions," Journal of Economic Literature, 34(1), pp. 97–114. Hoover, Kevin D., and Mark V. Siegler (2008). "Sound and Fury: McCloskey and Significance Testing in Economics," Journal of Economic Methodology, 15(1), pp. 1–37 (2005 prepubication version). Reply of McCloskey and Ziliak and rejoinder, pp. 39–68. although critical commentary on papers in economics in prestigious journals such as the American Economic Review has declined precipitously in the past 40 years. This has been attributed to journals' incentives to maximize citations in order to rank higher on the Social Science Citation Index (SSCI). In applied economics, input-output models employing linear programming methods are quite common. Large amounts of data are run through computer programs to analyze the impact of certain policies; IMPLAN is one well-known example. Experimental economics has promoted the use of scientifically controlled experiments. This has reduced long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences allowed direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms. [Bastable, C.F.] (1925). "Experimental Methods in Economics," Palgrave's Dictionary of Economics, reprinted in The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics (1987, v. 2, p. 241. Smith, Vernon L. (1987), "Experimental Methods in Economics", ii. The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 241–42. In some cases these have found that the axioms are not entirely correct; for example, the ultimatum game has revealed that people reject unequal offers. In behavioral economics, psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky have won Nobel Prizes in economics for their empirical discovery of several cognitive biases and heuristics. Similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics. Another example is the assumption of narrowly selfish preferences versus a model that tests for selfish, altruistic, and cooperative preferences. Fehr, Ernst, and Urs Fischbacher (2003). "The Nature of Human Altruism," Nature 425, October 23, pp. 785–791. Sigmund, Karl, Ernst Fehr, and Martin A. Nowak (2002),"The Economics of Fair Play," Scientific American, 286(1) January, pp. 82–87. These techniques have led some to argue that economics is a "genuine science.". Game theory Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that studies strategic interactions between agents. In strategic games, agents choose strategies that will maximize their payoff, given the strategies the other agents choose. It provides a formal modeling approach to social situations in which decision makers interact with other agents. Game theory generalizes maximization approaches developed to analyze markets such as the supply and demand model. The field dates from the 1944 classic Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern. It has found significant applications in many areas outside economics as usually construed, including formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary theory. Aumann, R.J. (1987). "Game Theory", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 460–82. Profession The professionalization of economics, reflected in the growth of graduate programs on the subject, has been described as "the main change in economics since around 1900". O. Ashenfelter (2001), "Economics: Overview," The Profession of Economics, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, v. 6, p. 4159. Most major universities and many colleges have a major, school, or department in which academic degrees are awarded in the subject, whether in the liberal arts, business, or for professional study. The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (colloquially, the Nobel Prize in Economics) is a prize awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions in the field. In the private sector, professional economists are employed as consultants and in industry, including banking and finance. Economists also work for various government departments and agencies, for example, the national Treasury, Central Bank or Bureau of Statistics. Economics and other subjects Economics is one social science among several and has fields bordering on other areas, including economic geography, economic history, public choice, energy economics, cultural economics, and institutional economics. Law and economics, or economic analysis of law, is an approach to legal theory that applies methods of economics to law. It includes the use of economic concepts to explain the effects of legal rules, to assess which legal rules are economically efficient, and to predict what the legal rules will be. Friedman, David (1987). "Law and Economics," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 144. Posner, Richard A. (1972). Economic Analysis of Law. Aspen, 7th ed., 2007) ISBN 978-0-735-56354-4. A seminal article by Ronald Coase published in 1961 suggested that well-defined property rights could overcome the problems of externalities. Coase, Ronald, "The Problem of Social Cost", The Journal of Law and Economics Vol.3, No.1 (1960). This issue was actually published in 1961. The relationship between economics and ethics is complex. Many economists consider normative choices and value judgments, like what needs or wants, or what is good for society, to be political or personal questions outside the scope of economics. Once a person or government has established a set of goals, however, economics can provide insight as to how they might best be achieved. Others see the influence of economic ideas, such as those underlying modern capitalism, to promote a certain system of values with which they may or may not agree. (See, for example, consumerism and Buy Nothing Day.) According to some thinkers, a theory of economics is also, or implies also, a theory of moral reasoning. E.F.Schumacher: Small is Beautiful, Economics as if People matter. The premise of ethical consumerism is that one should take into account ethical and environmental concerns, in addition to financial and traditional economic considerations, when making buying decisions. On the other hand, the rational allocation of limited resources toward public welfare and safety is also an area of economics. Some have pointed out that not studying the best ways to allocate resources toward goals like health and safety, the environment, justice, or disaster assistance is a sort of willful ignorance that results in less public welfare or even increased suffering. Douglas Hubbard, "How to Measure Anything: Finding the Value of Intangibles in Business", John Wiley & Sons, 2007. In this sense, it would be unethical not to assess the economics of such issues. In fact, state agencies all over the world, including the federal agencies in the United States, routinely conduct economic analysis studies toward that end. Energy economics relating to thermoeconomics, is a broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to supply and use of energy in societies. Thermoeconomists argue that economic systems always involve matter, energy, entropy, and information. Baumgarter, Stefan. (2004). Thermodynamic Models, Modeling in Ecological Economics (Ch. 18) Thermoeconomics is based on the proposition that the role of energy in biological evolution should be defined and understood through the second law of thermodynamics but in terms of such economic criteria as productivity, efficiency, and especially the costs and benefits of the various mechanisms for capturing and utilizing available energy to build biomass and do work. Peter A. Corning 1 *, Stephen J. Kline. (2000). Thermodynamics, information and life revisited, Part II: Thermoeconomics and Control information Systems Research and Behavioral Science, Apr. 07, Volume 15, Issue 6 , Pages 453 – 482 Corning, P. (2002). “Thermoeconomics – Beyond the Second Law” – source: www.complexsystems.org As a result, thermoeconomics are often discussed in the field of ecological economics, which itself is related to the fields of sustainability and sustainable development. Georgescu-Roegen reintroduced into economics, the concept of entropy from thermodynamics (as distinguished from the mechanistic foundation of neoclassical economics drawn from Newtonian physics) and did foundational work which later developed into evolutionary economics. His work contributed significantly to bioeconomics and to ecological economics. Cleveland, C. and Ruth, M. 1997. When, where, and by how much do biophysical limits constrain the economic process? A survey of Georgescu-Roegen's contribution to ecological economics. Ecological Economics 22: 203–223. Daly, H. 1995. On Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen’s contributions to economics: An obituary essay. Ecological Economics 13: 149–54. Mayumi, K. 1995. Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906–1994): an admirable epistemologist. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 6: 115–120. Mayumi, K. and Gowdy, J. M. (eds.) 1999. Bioeconomics and Sustainability: Essays in Honor of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Mayumi, K. 2001. The Origins of Ecological Economics: The Bioeconomics of Georgescu-Roegen. London: Routledge. Exergy analysis is performed in the field of industrial ecology to use energy more efficiently. http://exergy.se/goran/thesis/ Exergy - a useful concept by Göran Wall The term exergy, was coined by Zoran Rant in 1956, but the concept was developed by J. Willard Gibbs. In recent decades, utilization of exergy has spread outside of physics and engineering to the fields of industrial ecology, ecological economics, systems ecology, and energetics. Criticisms of economics The dismal science is a derogatory alternative name for economics devised by the Victorian historian Thomas Carlyle in the 19th century. It is often stated that Carlyle gave economics the nickname "dismal science" as a response to the late 18th century writings of The Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, who grimly predicted that starvation would result, as projected population growth exceeded the rate of increase in the food supply. The teachings of Malthus eventually became known under the umbrella phrase "Malthus' Dismal Theorem". His predictions were forestalled by unanticipated dramatic improvements in the efficiency of food production in the 20th century; yet the bleak end he proposed remains as a disputed future possibility, assuming human innovation fails to keep up with population growth. Some economists, like John Stuart Mill or Leon Walras, have maintained that the production of wealth should not be tied to its distribution. The former is in the field of "applied economics" while the latter belongs to "social economics" and is largely a matter of power and politics. The Origin of Economic Ideas, Guy Routh (1989) In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith addressed many issues that are currently also the subject of debate and dispute. Smith repeatedly attacks groups of politically aligned individuals who attempt to use their collective influence to manipulate a government into doing their bidding. In Smiths day, these were referred to as factions, but are now more commonly called special interests, a term which can comprise international bankers, corporate conglomerations, outright oligopolies, monopolies, trade unions and other groups. See Noam Chomsky (Understanding Power), on Smith's emphasis on class conflict in the Wealth of Nations Economics per se, as a social science, does not stand on the political acts of any government or other decision-making organization, however, many policymakers or individuals holding highly ranked positions that can influence other people's lives are known for arbitrarily use a plethora of economic theory concepts and rhetoric as vehicles to legitimize agendas and value systems, and do not limit their remarks to matters relevant to their responsibilities. Dr. Locke Carter (Summer 2006 graduate course)—Texas Tech University The close relation of economic theory and practice with politics Research Paper No. 2006/148 Ethics, Rhetoric and Politics of Post-conflict Reconstruction How Can the Concept of Social ContractHelp Us in Understanding How to Make Peace Work? Sirkku K. Hellsten, pg. 13 is a focus of contention that may shade or distort the most unpretentious original tenets of economics, and is often confused with specific social agendas and value systems. Political Communication: Rhetoric, Government, and Citizens, second edition, Dan F. Hahn In Steady State Economics 1977, Herman Daly points out the logical inconsistencies between the emphasis placed on economic growth and the energy and environmental realities confronting us. http://dieoff.org/page88.htm Steady-State Economics, by Herman Daly Like Frederick Soddy, Daly argued that our preoccupation with monetary flows at the expense of thermodynamics principles misleads us into believing that technological advance is limitless, and that perpetual economic growth is not only physically possible, but morally and ethically desirable as well. In Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt, (George Allen & Unwin 1926), Frederick Soddy turned his attention to the role of energy in economic systems. He criticized the focus on monetary flows in economics, arguing that "real" wealth was derived from the use of energy to transform materials into physical goods and services. Soddy's economic writings were largely ignored in his time, but would later be applied to the development of biophysical economics and ecological economics and also bioeconomics in the late 20th century. http://www.eoearth.org/article/Soddy,_Frederick Soddy, Frederick - Encyclopedia of Earth Issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies Johan Scholvinck, Director of the UN Division for Social Policy and Development in New York, Making the Case for the Integration of Social and Economic Policy, The Social Development Review (monetary and fiscal policy) of the States, are focus of contention and criticism. Bernd Hayo (Georgetown University & University of Bonn), Do We Really Need Central Bank Independence? A Critical Re- examination, IDEAS at the Department of Economics, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Connecticut Gabriel Mangano (Centre Walras-Pareto, University of Lausanne BFSH 1, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland, and London School of Economics), Measuring Central Bank Independence: A Tale of Subjectivity and of Its Consequences, Oxford Economic Papers. 1998; 50: 468–492 Friedrich Heinemann, Does it Pay to Watch Central Bankers' Lips? The Information Content of ECB Wording, IDEAS at the Department of Economics, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Connecticut Stephen G. Cecchetti, Central Bank Policy Rules: Conceptual Issues and Practical Considerations, IDEAS at the Department of Economics, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Connecticut Deirdre McCloskey has argued that many empirical economic studies are poorly reported, and while her critique has been well-received, she and Stephen Ziliak argue that practice has not improved. This latter contention is controversial. Criticism of assumptions Economics has been subject to criticism that it relies on unrealistic, unverifiable, or highly simplified assumptions, in some cases because these assumptions lend themselves to elegant mathematics. Examples include perfect information, profit maximization and rational choices. Rappaport, Steven (1996). "Abstraction and Unrealistic Assumptions in Economics," Journal of Economic Methodology, 3(2}, pp. 215–236. Abstract, (1998). Models and Reality in Economics. Edward Elgar, p. 6, ch. 6–8. Friedman, Milton (1953), "The Methodology of Positive Economics," Essays in Positive Economics, University of Chicago Press, pp. 14–15, 22, 31. Boland, Lawrence A. (2008). "Assumptions Controversy", The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition Online abstract. Accessed May 30, 2008. Some contemporary economic theory has focused on addressing these problems through the emerging subdisciplines of information economics, behavioral economics, and complexity economics, with Geoffrey Hodgson forecasting a major shift in the mainstream approach to economics. Nevertheless, prominent mainstream economists such as Keynes and Joskow, along with heterodox economists, have observed that much of economics is conceptual rather than quantitative, and difficult to model and formalize quantitatively. In a discussion on oligopoly research, Paul Joskow pointed out in 1975 that in practice, serious students of actual economies tended to use "informal models" based upon qualitative factors specific to particular industries. Joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were "trotted out ex post". He argued that formal models were largely not important in the empirical work, either, and that the fundamental factor behind the theory of the firm, behavior, was neglected. Despite these concerns, mainstream graduate programs have become increasingly technical and mathematical. Although much of the most groundbreaking economic research in history involved concepts rather than math, today it is nearly impossible to publish a non-mathematical paper in top economic journals. Disillusionment on the part of some students with the abstract and technical focus of economics led to the post-autistic economics movement, which began in France in 2000. David Colander, an advocate of complexity economics, has also commented critically on the mathematical methods of economics, which he associates with the MIT approach to economics, as opposed to the Chicago approach (although he also states that the Chicago school can no longer be called intuitive). He believes that the policy recommendations following from Chicago's intuitive approach had something to do with the decline of intuitive economics. He notes that he has encountered colleagues who have outright refused to discuss interesting economics without a formal model, and he believes that the models can sometimes restrict intuition. Colander, D. (1998). Confessions of an Economic Gadfly. In Passion and Craft. pp. 39 – 55. More recently, however, he has written that heterodox economics, which generally takes a more intuitive approach, needs to ally with mathematicians and become more mathematical. Colander, D. (2007). Pluralism and Heterodox Economics: Suggestions for an "Inside the Mainstream" Heterodoxy "Mainstream economics is a formal modeling field", he writes, and what is needed is not less math but higher levels of math. He notes that some of the topics highlighted by heterodox economists, such as the importance of institutions or uncertainty, are now being studied in the mainstream through mathematical models without mention of the work done by the heterodox economists. New institutional economics, for example, examines institutions mathematically without much relation to the largely heterodox field of institutional economics. In his 1974 Nobel Prize lecture, Friedrich Hayek, known for his close association to the heterodox school of Austrian economics, attributed policy failures in economic advising to an uncritical and unscientific propensity to imitate mathematical procedures used in the physical sciences. He argued that even much-studied economic phenomena, such as labor-market unemployment, are inherently more complex than their counterparts in the physical sciences where such methods were earlier formed. Similarly, theory and data are often very imprecise and lend themselves only to the direction of a change needed, not its size. , paragraphs 2, 4, 5, and 7–10. In part because of criticism, economics has undergone a thorough cumulative formalization and elaboration of concepts and methods since the 1940s, some of which have been toward application of the hypothetico-deductive method to explain real-world phenomena. Blaug, Mark (2007). "The Social Sciences: Economics" (Postwar developments, Methodological considerations in contemporary economics), The New Encyclopædia Britannica, v. 27, pp. 346–47. See also Wikipedia Books: Economics Notes References Barr, Nicholas (2004) Economics of the Welfare State, 4th ed., Oxford University Press Stiglitz, Joseph (2000) Economics of the Public Sector, 3rd ed., Norton Press External links General information Economic journals on the web Economics at Encyclopædia Britannica. Intute: Economics: Internet directory of universities. Research Papers in Economics (RePEc) Resources For Economists: American Economic Association-sponsored guide to 2,000+ Internet resources from "Data" to "Neat Stuff," updated quarterly. Institutions and organizations Center for Economic and Policy Research (USA) Economics Departments, Institutes and Research Centers in the World Organization For Co-operation and Economic Development (OECD) Statistics United Nations Statistics Division World Bank Data World Trade Organization Study resources A guide to several online economics textbooks Ask The Professor section of EH.Net Economic History Services Economics at About.com Economics textbooks on Wikibooks Introduction to Economics: Short Creative commons-licensed introduction to basic economics MERLOT Learning Materials: Economics: US-based database of learning materials MIT OpenCourseWare: Economics: Archive of study materials from MIT courses Online Learning and Teaching Materials UK Economics Network's database of text, slides, glossaries and other resources Schools of Thought: Compare various economic schools of thought on particular issues The Library of Economics and Liberty (Econlib): Economics Books, Articles, 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5,662 | In_the_Beginning..._Was_the_Command_Line | In the Beginning...was the Command Line is a lengthy essay by Neal Stephenson which was originally published online in 1999 and later made available in book form (November 1999, ISBN 0380815931). The essay is a commentary on why the proprietary operating systems business is unlikely to remain profitable in the future because of competition from free software. It also analyzes the corporate/collective culture of the Microsoft, Macintosh, and free software communities. Stephenson explores the GUI as a metaphor in terms of the increasing interposition of abstractions between humans and the actual workings of devices (in a similar manner to Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance) and explains the beauty hackers feel in good-quality tools. He does this with a car analogy. He compares four operating systems, Mac OS by Apple Computer to a luxury European car, Windows by Microsoft to a station wagon, Linux to a free tank, and BeOS to a batmobile. Stephenson argues that people continue to buy the station wagon despite free tanks being given away, because people do not want to learn how to operate a tank; they know that the station wagon dealership has a machine shop that they can take their car to when it breaks down. Because of this attitude, Stephenson argues that Microsoft is not really a monopoly, as evidenced by the free availability of other choice OS's, but rather has simply accrued enough mindshare among the people to have them coming back. He compares Microsoft to Disney, in that both are selling a vision to their customers, who in turn "want to believe" in that vision. Stephenson spends some time discussing Debian and its impressive bug tracking system in the essay. Debian developers were extremely pleased to find out that an author whom many of them respect uses and approves of their work. He also gives Microsoft's view on bug tracking. Initially it is impossible to find any mention of specific bugs on Microsoft's website, but later he notices that Microsoft has instated a system similar to the Debian one, though sugar-coated so as to not ruin the vision demanded by its customers. The essay was written before the advent of Mac OS X. In a Slashdot interview on 2004-10-20, he remarked: I embraced OS X as soon as it was available and have never looked back. So a lot of In the Beginning...was the Command Line is now obsolete. I keep meaning to update it, but if I'm honest with myself, I have to say this is unlikely. With Neal Stephenson's permission, Garrett Birkel responded to In the Beginning...was the Command Line in 2004, bringing it up to date and critically discussing Stephenson's argument. Birkel's response is interspersed throughout the original text, which remains untouched. See also History of operating systems Command line interface External links Slashdot: Neal Stephenson responds Essay Homepage including link to download the full text | In_the_Beginning..._Was_the_Command_Line |@lemmatized beginning:3 command:4 line:4 lengthy:1 essay:5 neal:3 stephenson:8 originally:1 publish:1 online:1 later:2 make:1 available:2 book:1 form:1 november:1 isbn:1 commentary:1 proprietary:1 operating:2 system:5 business:1 unlikely:2 remain:2 profitable:1 future:1 competition:1 free:5 software:2 also:3 analyze:1 corporate:1 collective:1 culture:1 microsoft:7 macintosh:1 community:1 explore:1 gui:1 metaphor:1 term:1 increase:1 interposition:1 abstraction:1 human:1 actual:1 working:1 device:1 similar:2 manner:1 zen:1 art:1 motorcycle:1 maintenance:1 explain:1 beauty:1 hacker:1 feel:1 good:1 quality:1 tool:1 car:3 analogy:1 compare:2 four:1 mac:2 apple:1 computer:1 luxury:1 european:1 window:1 station:3 wagon:3 linux:1 tank:3 beos:1 batmobile:1 argue:1 people:3 continue:1 buy:1 despite:1 give:2 away:1 want:2 learn:1 operate:2 know:1 dealership:1 machine:1 shop:1 take:1 break:1 attitude:1 argues:1 really:1 monopoly:1 evidence:1 availability:1 choice:1 rather:1 simply:1 accrue:1 enough:1 mindshare:1 among:1 come:1 back:2 disney:1 sell:1 vision:3 customer:2 turn:1 believe:1 spend:1 time:1 discuss:2 debian:3 impressive:1 bug:3 track:1 developer:1 extremely:1 pleased:1 find:2 author:1 many:1 respect:1 us:1 approves:1 work:1 view:1 tracking:1 initially:1 impossible:1 mention:1 specific:1 website:1 notice:1 instated:1 one:1 though:1 sugar:1 coat:1 ruin:1 demand:1 write:1 advent:1 x:2 slashdot:2 interview:1 remark:1 embrace:1 os:1 soon:1 never:1 look:1 lot:1 obsolete:1 keep:1 mean:1 update:1 honest:1 say:1 permission:1 garrett:1 birkel:2 respond:1 bring:1 date:1 critically:1 argument:1 response:1 intersperse:1 throughout:1 original:1 text:2 untouched:1 see:1 history:1 interface:1 external:1 link:2 responds:1 homepage:1 include:1 download:1 full:1 |@bigram neal_stephenson:3 debian_developer:1 external_link:1 |
5,663 | List_of_NASCAR_drivers | Sprint Cup Drivers All statistics used in these tables are as of the end of the 2009 Coca-Cola 600. Full Time Drivers DriverCarRookie YearStartsWinsTop 5sTop 10sPolesBest Points Finish A. J. Allmendinger 44 2007 56 0 1 4 0 36th (2008) Marcos Ambrose 47 2008 23 0 2 3 0 45th (2008) John Andretti 34 1994 368 2 13 37 4 11th (1998) Greg Biffle 16 2003 234 14 50 84 6 2nd (2005) Dave Blaney 66 2000 312 0 3 27 2 19th (2002) Clint Bowyer 33 2006 121 2 20 49 2 3rd (2007) Jeff Burton 31 1994 523 21 119 217 6 3rd (2000) Kurt Busch 2 2001 304 19 64 121 10 1st (2004) Kyle Busch 18 2005 162 15 51 77 5 5th (2007) Dale Earnhardt, Jr. 88 2000 339 18 87 140 8 3rd (2003) Carl Edwards 99 2004 169 16 56 90 4 2nd (2008) David Gilliland 71 2006 98 0 2 4 2 27th (2008) Jeff Gordon 24 1993 556 82 254 344 67 1st (1995, 1997-1998, 2001) Robby Gordon 7 1997 318 3 15 38 1 16th (2003) Denny Hamlin 11 2006 127 4 34 64 6 3rd (2006) Kevin Harvick 29 2001 298 11 58 122 5 4th (2006, 2008) Sam Hornish, Jr. 77 2008 48 0 0 2 0 35th (2008) Jimmie Johnson 48 2002 267 41 106 163 19 1st (2006-2008) Kasey Kahne 9 2004 192 9 36 66 16 8th (2006) Matt Kenseth 17 2000 340 18 91 167 4 1st (2003) Bobby Labonte 96 1993 558 21 114 198 26 1st (2000) Joey Logano 20 2009 15 0 0 3 0 64th (2008) Mark Martin 5 1982 734 37 246 402 44 2nd (1990, 1994, 1998, 2002) Jamie McMurray 26 2003 234 2 29 78 3 11th (2004) Casey Mears 07 2003 228 1 12 43 3 14th (2006) Paul Menard 98 2007 87 0 1 2 1 26th (2008) Juan Pablo Montoya 42 2007 85 1 5 13 1 20th (2007) Joe Nemechek 87 1994 499 4 18 62 10 15th (2000) Ryan Newman 39 2002 272 13 67 112 44 6th (2002, 2003, 2005) David Ragan 6 2007 86 0 8 18 0 13th (2008) David Reutimann 00 2007 75 1 2 7 2 22nd (2008) Elliott Sadler 19 1999 369 3 19 64 7 9th (2004) Reed Sorenson 43 2006 121 0 5 14 1 22nd (2007) Scott Speed 82 2009 16 0 1 1 0 55th (2008) Tony Stewart 14 1999 367 33 134 215 10 1st (2002, 2005) David Stremme 12 2006 87 0 0 3 0 24th (2007) Martin Truex Jr. 1 2006 129 1 12 34 2 11th (2007) Brian Vickers 83 2004 184 1 16 39 7 15th (2006) Michael Waltrip 55 1986 737 4 39 127 4 12th (1994, 1995) Part-Time Drivers DriverCarRookie YearStartsWinsTop 5sTop 10sPolesBest Points Finish Mike Bliss 09 2000 85 0 1 5 0 28th (2005) Geoffrey Bodine 64 1982 570 18 100 190 37 3rd (1990) Todd Bodine 64 1993 231 0 7 21 5 20th (1994) Trevor Boys 06 1983 102 0 0 2 0 17th (1984) Patrick Carpentier 36 2008 27 0 0 0 1 38th (2008) Derrike Cope 75 1987 408 2 6 32 1 15th (1995) Bill Elliott 21 1976 800 44 175 320 55 1st (1988) Mike Garvey 73 2005 13 0 0 0 0 48th (2005) James Hylton 08 1966 601 2 140 301 4 2nd (1966, 1967, 1971) Brad Keselowski 25/09 N/A 6 1 1 2 0 56th (2008) Sterling Marlin 09 1983 744 10 83 216 11 3rd (1995, 2001) Max Papis 13 2009 6 0 0 0 0 65th (2008) Tony Raines 37 2003 132 0 0 3 0 29th (2007) Boris Said 60 2005 33 0 2 7 2 42nd (2005) Mike Skinner 36 1997 256 0 10 39 6 10th (1999) Regan Smith 78 2008 47 0 0 0 0 34th (2008) David Starr 06 N/A 0 0 0 0 0 Nationwide Series Drivers Full-time drivers Drivers in these lists are as of April 18, 2008. Stats current as of the 2009 Basha's Supermarkets 300. DriverCarRookie YearStartsWinsTop 5sTop 10sPolesBest Points Finish Justin Allgaier 12 2009 16 0 2 6 0 72nd (2008) Michael Annett 15 2009 13 0 0 0 0 134th (2008) Casey Atwood 05 1998 147 2 7 30 4 8th (2000) Mike Bliss 1 2003 155 2 21 57 3 5th (2004, 2008) Kyle Busch 18 2004 150 24 62 85 16 2nd (2004) Johnny Chapman 90 1997 69 0 0 0 0 25th (1997) Terry Cook 91 2009 17 0 0 0 0 80th (2008) Kertus Davis 49 2005 111 0 0 1 0 31st (2005) Carl Edwards 60 2005 153 20 72 98 14 1st (2007) Brendan Gaughan 62 2009 13 0 1 4 1 153rd (2001) Mike Harmon 84 1996 108 0 0 0 0 23rd (2003) Kenny Hendrick 42 2008 37 0 0 0 0 52nd (2008) Jason Keller 27 1993 470 10 82 170 11 2nd (2000, 2002) Brad Keselowski 88 2007 81 3 16 32 1 3rd (2008) Brian Keselowski 26 2008 27 0 0 1 0 53rd (2008) Jason Leffler 38 2000 200 2 29 69 8 3rd (2007) Scott Lagasse Jr. 11 2009 26 0 0 3 0 59th (2008) Eric McClure 24 2005 85 0 0 0 0 21st (2008) Michael McDowell 47 2009 17 0 0 2 0 94th (2007) Danny O'Quinn 01 2006 60 0 1 5 0 19th (2006) Tony Raines 34 1999 205 0 15 48 1 6th (2001) Morgan Shepherd 89 N/A 251 15 44 67 6 11th (1982) John Wes Townley 09 2009 12 0 0 0 0 92nd (2008) Kenny Wallace 28 1989 430 9 64 157 10 2nd (1991) Steve Wallace 66 2006 99 0 2 10 2 14th (2008) Brandon Whitt 61 2008 28 0 0 0 0 46th (2008) Scott Wimmer 5/40 2001 178 6 29 69 1 3rd (2002) Part-time drivers DriverCarRookie YearStartsWinsTop 5sTop 10sPolesBest Points Finish Tim Andrews 31 N/A 1 0 0 0 0 N/A Stanton Barrett 31 1997 177 0 1 7 0 22nd (2005, 2008) Greg Biffle 16 2001 226 20 89 136 14 1st (2002) Kelly Bires 33 2007 57 0 2 9 0 13th (2008) Johnny Borneman III 83 N/A 9 0 0 0 0 68th (2008) Clint Bowyer 29 2004 148 6 58 97 6 1st (2008) Tim Brown 31 N/A 0 0 0 0 0 N/A Jeff Burton 29 1989 300 27 88 148 11 9th (1992) Ken Butler III 23 2009 6 0 0 0 0 N/A Sean Caisse 2 N/A 1 0 0 0 0 146th (2006) Brad Coleman 20 2007 43 0 3 7 1 23rd (2008) Kevin Conway 87 2007 13 0 0 0 0 71st (2007) Derrike Cope 73 N/A 144 1 2 8 1 27th (2004) Erik Darnell 6 2009 3 0 1 1 0 120th (2008) Marc Davis 10/36 2009 7 0 0 0 0 76th (2008) Austin Dillon 2 N/A 3 0 1 1 0 85th (2008) Jeffrey Earnhardt 31 N/A 0 0 0 0 0 N/A Kerry Earnhardt 41 2002 71 0 3 6 0 22nd (2002) Dale Earnhardt, Jr. 5 1997 111 22 51 71 9 1st (1998, 1999) Cale Gale 33 2008 24 0 1 3 1 37th (2008) Mark Green 0 1996 257 0 2 15 0 11th (1998) Denny Hamlin 20 2005 113 9 34 65 12 4th (2006) Kevin Hamlin 81 2005 30 0 0 2 0 45th (2005) Kevin Harvick 33 2000 222 33 110 156 18 1st (2001, 2006) Shelby Howard 70 N/A 15 0 0 0 0 66th (2004) D. J. Kennington 81 2007 44 0 0 0 0 24th (2008) Matt Kenseth 16 1997 234 25 113 160 15 2nd (1998) Travis Kittleson 31 N/A 7 0 0 0 0 88th (2008) Burney Lamar 32 2006 56 0 1 3 0 22nd (2006) Stephen Leicht 29 2006 63 1 3 10 0 7th (2007) Kevin Lepage 52 1994 250 2 19 51 4 8th (1996) Joey Logano 20 2008 30 2 11 22 4 20th (2008) Paul Menard 98 2004 119 1 15 39 2 6th (2005, 2006) Joe Nemechek 87 1989 284 16 73 121 18 1st (1992) Ryan Newman 5 2001 43 7 15 24 12 28th (2001) David Ragan 6 2007 87 1 14 37 2 4th (2008) David Reutimann 10 2006 105 1 15 36 3 2nd (2007) Robert Richardson 23 2007 37 0 0 0 0 45th (2008) Peyton Sellers 77 2009 6 0 0 0 0 109th (2006) Dennis Setzer 96 1994 105 2 6 22 1 9th (1994) Scott Speed 99 N/A 6 0 0 2 1 N/A Ricky Stenhouse, Jr. 16 N/A 1 0 0 0 0 N/A Tony Stewart 33 1996 88 8 27 37 6 21st (1998) J. C. Stout 19 N/A 6 0 0 0 0 108th (2008) Martin Truex, Jr. 5 2003 95 13 37 57 10 1st (2004, 2005) Brian Vickers 32 2002 99 3 26 46 2 1st (2003) Michael Waltrip 99 N/A 276 11 59 104 14 13th (2004) Camping World Truck Series Drivers Full time drivers DriverCarRookie YearStartsWinsTop 5sTop 10sPolesBest Points Finish T. J. Bell 11 2003 54 0 1 9 0 22nd (2007, 2008) Norm Benning 57 2008 15 0 0 0 0 47th (2008) Johnny Benson 1 N/A 132 14 55 84 5 1st (2008) Todd Bodine 30 N/A 122 16 57 77 4 1st (2006) Colin Braun 6 2008 33 0 3 10 1 13th (2008) James Buescher 10 2009 8 0 0 0 0 83rd (2008) Terry Cook 25 1997 297 6 32 107 8 7th (2001) Stacy Compton 60 1997 125 2 26 53 9 4th (1999) Matt Crafton 88 2001 204 1 23 94 1 5th (2004, 2008) Rick Crawford 14 1997 304 5 73 151 6 2nd (2002) Ron Hornaday 33 N/A 232 40 110 164 21 1st (1996, 1998, 2007) Tayler Malsam 81 2009 9 0 0 2 0 70th (2008) Chad McCumbee 07 2006 78 0 3 16 0 11th (2008) Timothy Peters 17 2005 50 0 0 7 0 27th (2006) Johnny Sauter 13 2009 18 0 2 4 0 54th (2004) Brian Scott 16 2008 39 1 4 11 0 16th (2008) Mike Skinner 5 N/A 186 26 83 119 46 1st (1995) David Starr 24 1999 222 4 43 87 5 4th (2006) Jason White 23 2007 61 0 1 2 0 19th (2008) Part-time drivers DriverCarRookie YearStartsWinsTop 5sTop 10sPolesBest Points Finish Chase Austin 32 2009 2 0 0 0 0 N/A Tim Bainey, Jr. 00 N/A 1 0 0 0 0 N/A Mike Bliss 40 N/A 201 13 61 108 18 1st (2002) Kyle Busch 51 2005 60 11 28 43 5 14th (2008) Ricky Carmichael 4 2009 5 0 0 1 0 N/A Gabi DiCarlo 90 N/A 3 0 0 0 0 N/A Wayne Edwards 48 2000 59 0 0 1 0 26th (2000) J. R. Fitzpatrick 4 2009 8 0 1 1 0 58th (2008) David Gilliland 7 N/A 2 0 0 1 0 79th (2005) Mario Gosselin 12 N/A 9 0 0 0 0 47th (2008) Ryan Hackett 76 N/A 4 0 0 0 0 109th (2008) Kevin Harvick 2 1997 97 4 27 40 0 12th (1999) Brian Ickler 51 N/A 3 0 1 1 0 N/A Chris Jones 87 2009 13 0 0 0 0 59th (2007) Mikey Kile 29 N/A 1 0 0 0 0 N/A Brandon Knupp 47 N/A 10 0 0 0 0 86th (2007) Butch Miller 08 N/A 128 1 23 51 1 4th (1995) Andy Ponstein 02 N/A 3 0 0 0 0 83rd (2003) Brent Raymer 85 2009 11 0 0 0 0 49th (2008) Shane Sieg 15 2004 41 0 0 3 0 24th (2004) Bryan Silas 48 N/A 9 0 0 0 0 54th (2007) Ben Stancill 63 N/A 2 0 0 0 0 N/A Brett Thompson 61 N/A 5 0 0 0 0 70th (2007) Auggie Vidovich II 35 N/A 4 0 0 0 0 62nd (1999) J. J. Yeley 73 2009 2 0 0 0 0 84th (2004) Free Agents Drivers with over 100 Combined Starts DriverCup StartsCup WinsNationwide StartsNationwide WinsTruck StartsTruck WinsNotes Chad Chaffin 14 0 83 0 116 2 Occasionally runs for Front Row Motorsports Jeff Green 265 0 260 16 9 0 Has filled in for various Nationwide teams Bobby Hamilton, Jr. 64 0 245 5 30 0 Co-owner of Rensi/Hamilton Racing, wants to drive Travis Kvapil 110 0 4 0 130 9 Lack of funding caused team to close Ashton Lewis 0 0 226 0 0 0 Hasn't raced since 2006 release. Ted Musgrave 305 0 22 0 191 17 Will reportedly drive Trucks part-time Kyle Petty 829 8 55 0 1 0 Wants to run sports car races in 2009 Scott Riggs 175 0 80 4 43 5 Parted ways with Tommy Baldwin Racing Tim Sauter 2 0 111 0 28 0 Lost sponsorship from Lester Buildings Ken Schrader 732 4 115 2 88 1 Looking for a part-time ride Jack Sprague 24 0 108 1 297 28 May retire Mike Wallace 188 0 332 4 113 4 Attempted the Daytona 500 but didn't qualify Drivers with over 50 Combined Starts DriverCup StartsCup WinsNationwide StartsNationwide WinsTruck StartsTruck WinsNotes Aric Almirola 25 0 27 1 33 0 Sponsorship never materialized Larry Gunselman 7 0 70 0 28 0 Co-owner of a Sprint Cup team P. J. Jones 26 0 32 0 18 0 May run ARCA in 2009. Kyle Krisiloff 0 0 44 0 12 0 Released after Earnhardt Ganassi Racing merger Justin Labonte 0 0 76 1 1 0 Has raced at Caraway Speedway recently. Chase Montgomery 0 0 15 0 53 0 Deal with Curry Racing fell through Donnie Neuenberger 0 0 32 0 13 0 Usually runs a few Nationwide races Kelly Sutton 0 0 0 0 53 0 Ran part-time for Billy Ballew Motorsports in 2007 Drivers with fewer than 50 Combined Starts DriverCup StartsCup WinsNationwide StartsNationwide WinsTruck StartsTruck WinsNotes Willie Allen 0 0 2 0 29 0 May drive for Randy Moss Motorsports. Justin Ashburn 0 0 30 0 0 0 Has driven for Day Enterprises in the past Brad Baker 0 0 44 0 0 0 Team was parked during 2008 season Chad Beahr 0 0 1 0 0 0 Attempted some races with his own team in 2008. Blake Bjorklund 0 0 3 0 15 0 Released from Haas CNC Racing in 2007 Chad Blount 4 0 21 0 1 0 Runs for various teams in ARCA. Landon Cassill 0 0 25 0 7 0 Still contracted with Hendrick Motorsports Joey Clanton 0 0 18 0 19 0 Teamed with Roush Fenway Racing but was fired. Bryan Clauson 0 0 26 0 0 0 Still employed with Earnhardt Ganassi Racing Jeremy Clements 0 0 8 0 0 0 May drive a partial Nationwide schedule in 2009 Jennifer Jo Cobb 0 0 3 0 2 0 Drove part-time for Derrike Cope in 2008. Kevin Conway 0 0 13 0 0 0 Released from Joe Gibbs Racing after 2007 Erin Crocker 0 0 10 0 29 0 May run part-time in ARCA in 2009 Scotty Crockett 0 0 0 0 2 0 Ran Trucks part-time in 2008 Justin Diercks 0 0 14 0 0 0 Drove in ARCA and Nationwide Series in 2007. Bobby East 0 0 11 0 31 0 Still a Ford Factory driver Danny Efland 0 0 21 0 0 0 Will race some late models in 2009 A. J. Foyt IV 0 0 11 0 0 0 Released from IRL ride Scott Gaylord 4 0 17 0 0 0 Ran some races for Means Racing in 2009 Shane Huffman 0 0 31 0 7 0 Is a crew chief for Pete Knight Racing (USAR) Ryan Lawler 0 0 0 0 8 0 Drove for SS-Green Light Racing in 2008 Donny Lia 0 0 0 0 24 1 Drove for two teams in 2008 Scott Lynch 0 0 3 0 23 0 Team shut down in early 2008 Justin Marks 0 0 1 0 22 0 May drive in Nationwide in 2009 Ryan Mathews 0 0 0 0 14 0 Ran one Truck race in 2008 Phillip McGilton 0 0 0 0 4 0 Released from Bill Davis Racing in 2008. Chase Miller 0 0 20 0 13 0 Nationwide team shut down Marc Mitchell 0 0 4 0 15 0 Lost funding from Hyprene Ergon Boston Reid 0 0 10 0 20 0 Released from Woodard Racing in 2006. Bradley Riethmeyer 0 0 0 0 4 0 Won the All American Driver Challenge in 2006. Clay Rogers 0 0 12 0 19 0 Ended 2007 with Spears Motorsports. Brett Rowe 0 0 20 0 0 0 Left Day Enterprises Racing in 2008. Jason Rudd 0 0 9 0 0 0 Hasn't run an NBS race since 2004. Nick Tucker 0 0 0 0 12 0 Drove for Derrike Cope Racing in 2008 Jacques Villeneuve 2 0 1 0 7 0 Deal with Bill Davis Racing fell through Josh Wise 0 0 18 0 9 0 Still under contract with Michael Waltrip Racing Unemployed/Former drivers who currently race in another seriesDrivers in these lists are as January 18, 2009.Driver Cup StartsCup WinsNationwide Starts Nationwide WinsTruck StartsTruck WinsCurrent Series and Ride Gene Albert 0 0 1 0 0 0 Short track racing in Tennessee Jerry Allec, Jr. 0 0 0 0 2 0 #50 FLASCO SRL Southwest Tour Series Rusty Alton 0 0 0 0 1 0 Local short tracks in Maryland Wayne Anderson 1 0 0 0 23 0 Short track racing in Florida Joe Aramendia 0 0 3 0 3 0 Short tracks in Texas Tommy Archer 0 0 0 0 5 0 Road racing Dave Ashley 0 0 0 0 1 0 Endurance racing Tony Ave 1 0 0 0 0 0 SCCA Trans-AM GT Racing Danny Bagwell 0 0 0 0 3 0 #10 - ISCARS Jack Bailey 0 0 0 0 6 0 #19 - ARCA RE/MAX Series Jack Baldwin 0 0 4 0 0 0 Sports cars Dexter Bean 0 0 1 0 0 0 #37 - ARCA RE/MAX Series Jeff Beck 0 0 0 0 5 0 Spec racing - Sports Car Club of America Lowell Bennett 0 0 7 0 0 0 Short tracks in Wisconsin Olivier Beretta 0 0 0 0 1 0 Corvette racing Billy Bigley 0 0 0 0 24 0 #25 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Geoffrey Bodine 570 18 94 6 21 0 #99 - ISCARS) Mike Borkowski 0 0 9 0 1 0 GrandAm Series Pierre Bourque 0 0 0 0 1 0 #29 - Canadian Tire Series Stan Boyd 0 0 13 0 47 0 #08 Dodge/Chevy - ARCA RE/MAX Series Wheeler Boys 0 0 2 0 0 0 Short track racing in Canada Babe Branscombe 0 0 2 0 0 0 Short track racing in New England Robb Brent 0 0 0 0 3 0 #36 - ARCA RE/MAX Series Pete Brittain 0 0 0 0 1 0 #66 - Whelen Modified Series Hal Browning 0 0 2 0 0 0 Local racing in Delaware Joe Buford 0 0 18 0 3 0 Local racing at Nashville Fairgrounds Joe Bush 0 0 3 0 1 0 Short track races in the Midwest Brandon Butler 0 0 5 0 4 0 #29 - South Boston Speedway Sean Caisse 0 0 1 0 1 0 #01 - ARCA RE/MAX Series Austin Cameron 2 0 3 0 3 0 #18 - NASCAR Camping World West Series Matt Carter 0 0 1 0 1 0 #46 Ford - ARCA RE/MAX Series Jamey Caudill 0 0 1 0 4 0 #50 - UARA Steve Christman 20 0 0 0 0 0 ARCA Lincoln Welders Truck Series Ted Christopher 6 0 21 0 2 0 #13 - NASCAR Whelen Modified Series Dion Ciccarelli 0 0 10 0 0 0 #84 - NASCAR Camping World East Series Adam Clarke 0 0 0 0 2 0 Midget racing in Australia Carlos Contreras 0 0 14 0 70 0 #22 - NASCAR Mexico Corona Series Chris Cook 1 0 9 0 0 0 Team Mopar - Drifting Joe Cooksey 0 0 3 0 1 0 ARCA RE/MAX Series Jimmy Cope 0 0 1 0 0 0 Todd Cray 0 0 4 0 0 0 Short tracks in New Jersey George Crenshaw 0 0 5 0 0 0 Short track racing Robbie Crouch 0 0 10 0 1 0 #48 - American Canadian Tour Series Clay Dale 0 0 2 0 0 0 Short track racing Travis Dassow 0 0 0 0 2 0 ASA Late Models Blake Feese 0 0 13 0 1 0 #8 Ford - ARCA RE/MAX Series A. J. Fike 0 0 7 0 2 0 #69 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Christian Fittipaldi 16 0 3 0 0 0 A1 Grand Prix Jay Fogleman 0 0 19 0 0 0 #4 - USAR Hooters Pro Cup Series Dario Franchitti 10 0 18 0 1 0 #10 - IndyCar Series A. J. Frank 0 0 3 0 0 0 #11 - USAR Hooters Pro Cup Series Hideo Fukuyama 4 0 0 0 0 0 GT Championship Jeff Fultz 0 0 7 0 0 0 #54 Ford - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Scott Gaylord 4 0 15 0 0 0 #00 - NASCAR Camping World West Series Bobby Gerhart 24 0 6 0 3 0 #5 Pontiac - ARCA RE/MAX Series John Graham 0 0 10 0 0 0 Various sports car and ARCA teams Jason Hedlesky 1 0 0 0 1 0 #08 - ARCA RE/MAX Series Ryan Hemphill 0 0 11 0 9 0 #38 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Bobby Hillis 0 0 0 0 2 0 #27 - Camping World West Series Tracy Hines 0 0 17 0 52 0 #22 - USAC Justin Hobgood 0 0 12 0 7 0 #64 - ISCARS Larry Hollenbeck 0 0 5 0 0 0 #62 - ARCA RE/MAX Series Richard Johns 0 0 15 0 2 0 #59 - NASCAR Camping World East Series Chris Jones 0 0 0 0 10 0 NASCAR Late Models Eric Jones 0 0 9 0 27 0 Midwest Sprint Series Frank Kimmel 7 0 1 0 12 0 #44 Ford - ARCA RE/MAX Series Kraig Kinser 0 0 0 0 31 0 #20 - USAC Steve Kinser 5 0 0 0 0 0 #11 - World of Outlaws Jimmy Kite 0 0 0 0 4 0 Indy Racing League Jerry Kobza 0 0 0 0 1 0 USAC, CRSA Brandon Knupp 0 0 0 0 6 0 #96 - ARCA RE/MAX Series Cory Kruseman 0 0 0 0 1 0 Various sprint car Series Andy Lally 0 0 2 0 12 0 Road course/Sports car events Mike Laughlin, Jr. 0 0 5 0 0 0 #14 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Jody Lavender 0 0 1 0 23 0 #84 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Rick Markle 0 0 13 0 1 0 #60 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Mark McFarland 0 0 31 0 11 0 #81 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series L.W. Miller 0 0 13 0 6 0 #46 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Sean Murphy 0 0 0 0 21 0 ASA Late Models Jeff Oakley 0 0 1 0 0 0 #7 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Steve Park 181 2 56 3 61 1 #35 - NASCAR Camping World East Series Michael Ritch 1 0 39 0 7 0 #28 - USAR Hooters ProCup Series Rob Rizzo 0 0 0 0 19 0 Brian Ross 2 0 3 0 2 0 #42 - USAR ProCup Series Johnny Rumley 0 0 51 2 0 0 #8 - USAR ProCup Series Lonnie Rush, Jr. 0 0 11 0 55 0 #71 - USAR ProCup Series Brent Sherman 6 0 61 0 0 0 Panther Racing - Indy Pro Series Dave Steele 0 0 2 0 0 0 #91 - USAC National Midget Series Mike Stefanik 0 0 26 0 26 0 #16 - NASCAR Whelen Modified Series Brian Tyler 0 0 9 0 1 0 ARCA RE/MAX Series Ken Weaver 0 0 0 0 24 0 #20 - ARCA RE/MAX Series Chris Wimmer 0 0 4 0 21 0 #52 - ASA Midwest Tour Series Craig Wood 0 0 0 0 1 0 Ron Young 0 0 37 0 0 0 Short track racing </td></tr></table> Semi-Retired Drivers DriverSprint StartsSprint WinsNationwide StartsNationwide WinsTruck StartsTruck WinsNotes Rich Bickle 85 0 54 0 79 3 Runs short tracks in the Midwest. Rick Bye 0 0 1 0 0 0 Occasionally tests for Porsche teams Wally Dallenbach 226 0 16 0 2 0 Sometimes runs charity or road races Bobby Dotter 0 0 209 1 73 0 Sometimes runs for his own team Larry Foyt 23 0 67 0 3 0 Currently operates A. J. Foyt Enterprises. Jeff Fuller 13 0 185 1 0 0 Working with Robert Richardson II's team. David Green 78 0 396 9 11 0 Works with SK Motorsports Steve Grissom 151 0 306 11 24 0 Usually runs one or two Nationwide races a year Shane Hall 1 0 190 0 0 0 Ran one race for Jay Robinson Racing in 2008 Terry Labonte 862 22 124 11 3 1 Plans to run 10-15 Cup Races in 2009. Dwayne Leik 0 0 14 0 0 0 Runs occasional Nationwide races Randy MacDonald 5 0 32 0 94 0 Occasionally starts for his own team Joe Ruttman 225 0 21 1 172 13 Ran part-time in the Truck Series in 2007. Hermie Sadler 59 0 256 2 6 0 Race commentator, but drives part-time. Kirk Shelmerdine 26 0 13 0 2 0 Attempts occasional restrictor plate races Brad Teague 44 0 226 1 9 0 Often runs a few Nationwide races Retired DriversPlease use this format when formatting this page.DriverFirst YearLast YearCup StartsCup WinsBusch Starts Busch WinsTruck StartsTruck Wins Marv Acton 1971 1977 14 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Adams 1953 1953 2 0 0 0 0 0 Boyd Adams 1965 1965 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bubba Adams 1984 1986 13 0 0 0 0 0 Carl Adams 1972 1975 28 0 5 0 0 0 Eddie Adams 1950 1952 2 0 0 0 0 0 Joe Bill Adams 1965 1965 2 0 0 0 0 0 Serge Adams 1968 1968 3 0 0 0 0 0 Allen Adkins 1954 1957 14 0 0 0 0 0 Billy Adkins 1982 1982 0 0 3 0 0 0 Blair Aiken 1985 1985 2 0 0 0 0 0 Thomas Aiken 1958 1958 1 0 0 0 0 0 Chuck Akerblade 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Will Albright 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 John Alexander 1990 1994 1 0 1 0 0 0 Ken Alexander 2001 2002 0 0 12 0 0 0 Mike Alexander 1980 1990 74 0 71 2 0 0 Elbert Allen 1952 1952 4 0 0 0 0 0 Glenn Allen, Jr. 1992 2000 0 0 113 0 0 0 Johnny Allen 1955 1967 173 1 0 0 0 0 Kenny Allen 1995 2000 0 0 0 0 41 0 Loy Allen Jr. 1993 1999 48 0 4 0 0 0 Olin Allen 1952 1952 4 0 0 0 0 0 Bobby Allison 1961 1988 718 85 43 2 0 0 Donnie Allison 1961 1989 242 10 20 0 0 0 Dick Allwine 1953 1956 6 0 0 0 0 0 Dave Alonzo 1969 1970 4 0 0 0 0 0 George Alsobrook 1958 1962 18 0 0 0 0 0 A. J. Alsup 2001 2003 0 0 5 0 0 0 Nipper Alsup 1998 1999 0 0 0 0 3 0 George Altheide 1971 1972 16 0 0 0 0 0 Bernard Alvarez 1964 1965 9 0 0 0 0 0 Pancho Alvarez 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Lyndon Amick 1997 2003 0 0 93 0 4 0 Art Anderson 1957 1957 1 0 0 0 0 0 Carl Anderson 1956 1957 2 0 0 0 0 0 Dave Anderson 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Fuzzy Anderson 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Anderson 1963 1965 36 0 0 0 0 0 Jess Anderson 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Johnny Anderson 1971 1974 9 0 0 0 0 0 Ken Anderson 1964 1964 3 0 0 0 0 0 Ole Anderson 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tony Anderson 1982 1985 0 0 2 0 0 0 Jeff Andretti 1999 1999 0 0 0 0 3 0 Mario Andretti 1966 1969 14 1 0 0 0 0 Ed Andrews 1960 1960 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tommy Andrews 1971 1971 2 0 0 0 0 0 Wayne Andrews 1971 1973 6 0 0 0 0 0 Don Angel 1958 1959 5 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Apperson 1949 1952 11 0 0 0 0 0 Allen Applegate 1982 1989 0 0 10 0 0 0 Nelson Applegate 1951 1952 5 0 0 0 0 0 Sam Ard 1982 1984 1 0 92 22 0 0 Russell Armentrout 1953 1953 2 0 0 0 0 0 Glen Armstrong 1982 1984 5 0 0 0 0 0 Ben Arnold 1968 1973 132 0 0 0 0 0 Pete Arnold 1971 1971 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ralph Arnold 1969 1969 1 0 0 0 0 0 Buddy Arrington 1964 1988 561 0 0 0 0 0 Joey Arrington 1974 1980 9 0 0 0 0 0 Woody Arrington 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ralph Ascue 1982 1982 0 0 1 0 0 0 Bob Ashbrook 1969 1970 3 0 0 0 0 0 George Ashbrook 1969 1969 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bruce Atchley 1952 1952 6 0 0 0 0 0 Irv Atkinson 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ray Atkinson 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 W.H. Atkinson 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Roger Attard 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jamie Aube 1986 2003 0 0 46 1 11 0 Claude Aubin 1982 1982 1 0 0 0 0 0 Buzz Auckland 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Gene Austin 1950 1950 2 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Austin 1959 1959 2 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Austin 1959 1960 7 0 0 0 0 0 L.D. Austin 1957 1962 169 0 0 0 0 0 Paul Austin 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Scott Autrey 1985 1985 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jimmy Ayers 1950 1955 17 0 0 0 0 0 Bobby Babb 1987 1988 0 0 2 0 0 0 George Babb 1986 1986 0 0 1 0 0 0 Bill Bade 1954 1958 7 0 0 0 0 0 George Bagnell 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Dick Bailey 1951 1959 4 0 0 0 0 0 Don Bailey 1951 1957 12 0 0 0 0 0 Blake Bainbridge 1998 1998 0 0 0 0 3 0 Buck Baity 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bobby Baker 1987 1987 1 0 0 0 0 0 Brandon Baker 1989 1989 0 0 14 0 0 0 Bryan Baker 1985 1985 1 0 1 0 0 0 Buddy Baker 1959 1992 699 19 0 0 0 0 Charlie Baker 1982 1990 12 0 0 0 0 0 Gary Baker 1980 1980 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Baker 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Randy Baker 1982 1996 14 0 5 0 0 0 W.E. Baker 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Roger Baldwin 1956 1957 2 0 0 0 0 0 Walter Ballard 1966 1978 176 0 0 0 0 0 Earl Balmer 1959 1968 32 1 0 0 0 0 Gary Balough 1979 1992 22 0 4 0 0 0 Tom Bambard 1999 2000 0 0 0 0 2 0 John Banks 1974 1975 4 0 0 0 0 0 Ron Barfield 1996 2003 1 0 29 0 71 0 Phil Barkdoll 1984 1992 23 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Barker 1952 1954 6 0 0 0 0 0 Curley Barker 1956 1956 4 0 0 0 0 0 John Barker 1949 1951 8 0 0 0 0 0 Johnny Barnes 1971 1974 13 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry Barnett 1971 1971 2 0 0 0 0 0 Dick Baron 1961 1961 1 0 0 0 0 0 Buck Barr 1950 1950 2 0 0 0 0 0 Charles Barrett 1973 1973 4 0 0 0 0 0 Stan Barrett 1980 2008 19 0 2 0 0 0 Steve Barrett 1987 1987 0 0 1 0 0 0 Bob Barron 1960 1961 32 0 0 0 0 0 Chester Barron 1956 1959 6 0 0 0 0 0 Paul Barrow 1962 1962 2 0 0 0 0 0 Charles Barry 1952 1953 4 0 0 0 0 0 Jeff Barry 1991 1995 0 0 15 0 0 0 Mike Barry 1992 1992 0 0 1 0 0 0 Paul Bass 1959 1959 1 0 0 0 0 0 George Bauer 1969 1969 2 0 0 0 0 0 Larry Baumel 1969 1971 45 0 0 0 0 0 Ray Baxter 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Eddie Beahr 1998 2004 0 0 5 0 0 0 Harold Beal 1956 1953 10 0 0 0 0 0 Joe Bean 1997 1997 0 0 0 0 2 0 Mark Beard 1982 1986 0 0 2 0 0 0 Nix Beard 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Byron Beatty 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bruce Bechtel 2002 2004 0 0 10 0 0 0 Bob Beck 1955 1955 2 0 0 0 0 0 Randy Becker 1982 1983 4 0 0 0 0 0 Christine Beckers 1977 1977 1 0 0 0 0 0 Yzon Bedart 1987 1987 0 0 1 0 0 0 Rick Beebe 1996 2001 0 0 2 0 4 0 Troy Beebe 1989 1997 2 0 48 0 6 0 Earl Beer 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Barry Beggarly 1982 1984 0 0 6 0 0 0 George Behlman 1973 1974 2 0 0 0 0 0 Sam Beler 1976 1976 1 0 0 0 0 0 John Belgard 1949 1949 1 0 0 0 0 0 Phillips Bell 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Joe Bellinato 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Andy Belmont 1989 2004 12 0 5 0 0 0 Tim Bender 1990 1997 0 0 19 0 0 0 Ed Benedict 1951 1954 12 0 0 0 0 0 Corey Benjamin 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry Benjamin 1955 1958 5 0 0 0 0 0 Arnold Bennett 1970 1970 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Bennett 1949 1949 1 0 0 0 0 0 Brad Bennett 2000 2002 0 0 0 0 11 0 Bud Bennett 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Danny Bennett 1982 1982 0 0 1 0 0 0 Dennis Bennett 1982 1982 0 0 1 0 0 0 Harry Bennett 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Benson 1957 1958 16 0 0 0 0 0 Johnny Benson, Sr. 1973 1973 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tiny Benson 1958 1959 6 0 0 0 0 0 Roy Bentley 1950 1956 6 0 0 0 0 0 Charles Benton 1949 1949 1 0 0 0 0 0 Robby Benton 2002 2004 0 0 4 0 3 0 Ben Benz 1958 1959 9 0 0 0 0 0 Leo Bergeron 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ed Bergin 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Gene Bergin 1956 1956 2 0 0 0 0 0 Darren Bernier 1987 1988 0 0 2 0 0 0 Ed Berrier 1984 2003 19 0 250 1 1 0 Max Berrier 1955 1972 7 0 0 0 0 0 Robert Berrier 1961 1962 2 0 0 0 0 0 Jeff Berry 1982 1990 0 0 14 0 0 0 Joe Bessey 1988 2002 1 0 163 1 4 0 Randy Bethea 1975 1975 1 0 0 0 0 0 Fred Bethune 1952 1952 2 0 0 0 0 0 Gary Bettenhausen 1967 1974 8 0 0 0 0 0 Buzzie Bezanson 1986 1987 0 0 2 0 0 0 Jim Bickerstaff 1959 1959 1 0 0 0 0 0 Andy Biddle 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Eddie Bierschwale 1983 1992 117 0 0 0 0 0 Tom Bigelow 1986 1986 1 0 0 0 0 0 Chris Bingham 2003 2003 0 0 11 0 0 0 Gordon Birkett 1971 1971 2 0 0 0 0 0 Gordon Bishop 1952 1952 2 0 0 0 0 0 Terry Bivins 1975 1977 28 0 0 0 0 0 Howard Bixman 2001 2001 0 0 0 0 1 0 Don Black 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Gene Black 1965 1968 37 0 0 0 0 0 Gene Blackburn 1961 1962 2 0 0 0 0 0 Glenn Blackman 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Blackwell 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Dick Blackwell 1956 1959 6 0 0 0 0 0 T.L. Blakely 1966 1966 1 0 0 0 0 0 Pug Blalock 1951 1951 3 0 0 0 0 0 Leonard Blanchard 1970 1971 3 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Bland 1982 1986 0 0 37 0 0 0 David Blankenship 1994 1999 0 0 3 0 0 0 Lem Blankenship 1972 1972 1 0 0 0 0 0 Charlie Blanton 1973 1978 3 0 0 0 0 0 Erwin Blatt 1949 1958 4 0 0 0 0 0 Willie Blevins 1982 1985 0 0 4 0 0 0 Charles Blewitt 1954 1957 6 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Block 1962 1962 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bruce Blodgett 1976 1976 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Blomgren 1956 1964 20 0 0 0 0 0 Billy Boat 2003 2003 0 0 1 0 0 0 Larry Bock 1969 1969 1 0 0 0 0 0 Kerry Bodenhamer 1982 1984 0 0 2 0 0 0 Barry Bodine 1995 2002 0 0 4 0 29 0 Brett Bodine 1985 2003 480 1 77 5 3 0 Eric Bodine 1998 1999 0 0 1 0 0 0 Rick Bogart 2002 2004 0 0 0 0 4 0 Tommy Boger 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bobby Boggero 1984 1984 2 0 0 0 0 0 David Ray Boggs 1971 1986 32 0 3 0 0 0 Pete Boland 1961 1964 5 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Boldt 1958 1965 3 0 0 0 0 0 Aubrey Boles 1959 1960 5 0 0 0 0 0 Fred Boles 1959 1959 1 0 0 0 0 0 Steve Boley 1992 1995 0 0 6 0 0 0 Bob Bolheimer 1958 1958 2 0 0 0 0 0 Al Bolinger 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tom Bolles 1992 1998 0 0 11 0 0 0 Toy Bolton 1964 1966 4 0 0 0 0 0 Les Bomar 1951 1951 4 0 0 0 0 0 Eddie Bond 1973 1973 6 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Bondurant 1969 1981 4 0 0 0 0 0 Mike Bonicelli 1986 1987 7 0 0 0 0 0 Phil Bonifield 1999 2004 0 0 8 0 70 0 Bill Bonner 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 David Bonnett 1992 1997 0 0 11 0 0 0 Bud Boone 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bobby Booth 1951 1951 3 0 0 0 0 0 John Borden 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 John Borneman 1977 1995 8 0 0 0 2 0 Joe Bossard 1954 1954 2 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Bossic 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Barry Bostick 1982 1994 0 0 8 0 0 0 Tommy Bostick 1966 1966 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tom Boston 2000 2000 0 0 0 0 3 0 Dickie Boswell 1982 1986 0 0 57 0 0 0 Rodney Bottinger 1964 1964 3 0 0 0 0 0 Ken Bouchard 1983 1999 33 0 44 0 5 0 Ron Bouchard 1981 1987 160 1 20 2 0 0 Tim Boulton 1998 1998 0 0 0 0 1 0 Elias Bowie 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Bowman 1955 1957 8 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry Bowman 1982 1987 19 0 0 0 0 0 Chuck Bown 1972 1999 73 0 187 11 35 0 Dick Bown 1961 1975 20 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Bown 1981 2000 23 0 122 0 1 0 Frank Boylan 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bobby Boyles 1970 1970 1 0 0 0 0 0 Buddie Boys 1984 1986 3 0 0 0 0 0 Geoff Brabham 1994 1994 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bobby Brack 1971 1979 6 0 0 0 0 0 Gorden Bracken 1953 1953 6 0 0 0 0 0 Gary Bradberry 1994 2002 47 0 4 0 0 0 Melvin Bradley 1962 1967 6 0 0 0 0 0 Eddie Bradshaw 1974 1978 7 0 0 0 0 0 Art Brady 1962 1962 2 0 0 0 0 0 Lonnie Bragg 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Whitey Brainerd 1954 1954 2 0 0 0 0 0 Al Brand 1961 1964 5 0 0 0 0 0 Don Branson 1964 1964 8 0 0 0 0 0 Wally Branston 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bruce Brantley 1962 1963 5 0 0 0 0 0 Frank Brantley 1962 1964 3 0 0 0 0 0 Everett Brashear 1957 1957 1 0 0 0 0 0 Andy Brass 1995 1995 0 0 0 0 1 0 Darin Brassfield 1989 1997 3 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Braun 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Bray 1962 1974 15 0 0 0 0 0 Leo Breithaupt 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Victor Brenzelli 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Brevak 1994 1997 0 0 3 0 36 0 Bobby Brewer 1969 1969 1 0 0 0 0 0 E. J. Brewer 1957 1958 6 0 0 0 0 0 Richard Brickhouse 1968 1995 39 1 0 0 0 0 Johnny Bridgers 1952 1953 2 0 0 0 0 0 Buck Brigance 1958 1960 16 0 0 0 0 0 Randy Briggs 1999 2004 0 0 1 0 25 0 Mason Bright 1953 1954 3 0 0 0 0 0 Kenny Brightbill 1974 1978 6 0 0 0 0 0 Charles Brinkley 1954 1954 2 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Brinkley 1991 1991 1 0 0 0 0 0 Maudis Brissette 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ronnie Bristow 1963 1963 2 0 0 0 0 0 John Britt 1982 1982 1 0 0 0 0 0 Leonard Brock 1968 1968 3 0 0 0 0 0 Pete Brock 1963 1963 1 0 0 0 0 0 Larry Brolsma 1986 1991 0 0 6 0 0 0 Barry Brooks 1965 1965 4 0 0 0 0 0 Earl Brooks 1962 1979 262 0 0 0 0 0 Gary Brooks 1991 1991 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tex Brooks 1954 1954 2 0 0 0 0 0 Willard Brooks 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Wayne Broome 1979 1983 2 0 1 0 0 0 Bill Brown 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Brownie Brown 1960 1961 2 0 0 0 0 0 Cannonball Brown 1958 1958 2 0 0 0 0 0 Chester Brown 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Clay Brown 1992 2003 0 0 10 0 1 0 Len Brown 1949 1951 5 0 0 0 0 0 Richard Brown 1954 1963 2 0 0 0 0 0 Richard D. Brown 1971 1976 50 0 0 0 0 0 Robert Brown 1971 1973 9 0 0 0 0 0 Russell Brown 1997 1997 0 0 1 0 0 0 Slim Brown 1952 1959 4 0 0 0 0 0 Woody Brown 1951 1954 7 0 0 0 0 0 Don Browning 1982 1982 2 0 0 0 0 0 Richard Brownlee 1954 1955 8 0 0 0 0 0 Danny Broyles 1983 1983 0 0 1 0 0 0 Rodney Bruce 1970 1970 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Brunell 1991 1991 0 0 2 0 0 0 Laird Bruner 1953 1954 25 0 0 0 0 0 Andy Bruni 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Darrell Bryant 1964 1976 18 0 0 0 0 0 Kirk Bryant 1983 1990 5 0 26 0 0 0 Larry Buckner 1983 1983 0 0 1 0 0 0 Julian Buesnick 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Andy Buffington 1964 1964 1 0 0 0 0 0 George Bumgardner 1957 1957 1 0 0 0 0 0 Frank Bumgarner 1991 1991 0 0 2 0 0 0 Paul Bumhaver 1966 1966 2 0 0 0 0 0 Hully Bunn 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ann Bunselmeyer 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Clarence Burch 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Burcham 1968 1979 36 0 0 0 0 0 Bud Burdick 1960 1960 2 0 0 0 0 0 Rich Burgess 1990 1992 8 0 0 0 0 0 Don Burkhalter 1990 1990 0 0 1 0 0 0 Bob Burkhart 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Kenny Burks 1984 1989 0 0 93 0 0 0 Charles Burnett 1968 1968 2 0 0 0 0 0 Frank Burnett 1967 1969 3 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry Burnett 1962 1962 1 0 0 0 0 0 Wes Burnette 1986 1988 2 0 0 0 0 0 Dick Burns 1950 1956 9 0 0 0 0 0 Herbert Burns 1950 1950 2 0 0 0 0 0 Jimmy Burns 1988 1988 0 0 1 0 0 0 Conrad Burr 2000 2003 0 0 0 0 11 0 Carl Burris 1953 1960 10 0 0 0 0 0 Clarence Burris 1949 1949 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Burton 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ward Burton 1990 2007 375 5 161 4 0 0 George Bush 1952 1952 5 0 0 0 0 0 Darrell Busham 1979 1979 1 0 0 0 0 0 Frank Butler 1982 1983 3 0 0 0 0 0 Tobey Butler 1995 1997 0 0 0 0 39 0 Randy Butner 1982 1985 0 0 5 0 0 0 Nathan Buttke 1992 2001 0 0 55 0 22 0 Bill Butts 1972 1972 2 0 0 0 0 0 Terry Byers 1989 1996 5 0 0 0 0 0 Danny Byrd 1965 1965 4 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Byrd 1951 1951 3 0 0 0 0 0 Hal Callentine 1979 1979 2 0 0 0 0 0 John Callis 1980 1982 7 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Cameron 1949 1953 2 0 0 0 0 0 Gordon Campbell 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Kim Campbell 1991 1991 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ray Campbell 1957 1958 2 0 0 0 0 0 Frank Canale 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Earle Canavan 1969 1986 68 0 0 0 0 0 Ted Cannady 1955 1956 15 0 0 0 0 0 Ben Cannaziaro 1949 1949 1 0 0 0 0 0 Terry Cannon 1982 1987 0 0 5 0 0 0 Jimmy Lee Capps 1964 1978 11 0 0 0 0 0 John Capps 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Billy Carden 1949 1959 73 0 0 0 0 0 Pete Cardenas 1957 1957 1 0 0 0 0 0 Carl Cardey 1966 1967 2 0 0 0 0 0 Rick Carelli 1992 2003 9 0 2 0 134 4 Tom Carey, Jr. 1998 2002 0 0 2 0 19 0 Jackie Carithers 1984 1984 0 0 1 0 0 0 Frank Carlin 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Larry Carnes 1999 1999 0 0 0 0 1 0 Larry Caron 1986 1988 0 0 3 0 0 0 Bob Carpenter 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bow Carpenter 1999 1999 0 0 0 0 1 0 Erwin Carpenter 1959 1959 1 0 0 0 0 0 Don Carr 1956 1956 5 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Carr 1950 1950 2 0 0 0 0 0 Lee Roy Carrigg 1970 1970 9 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Carroll 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Larry Carroll 1992 1995 0 0 3 0 0 0 Lynn Carroll 1978 1978 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Carrusso 1949 1949 2 0 0 0 0 0 Hank Carruthers 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Crash Carson 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Pancho Carter 1985 1995 14 0 0 0 2 0 Raymond Carter 1964 1965 10 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry Carver 1951 1951 2 0 0 0 0 0 Joe Carver 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Walt Carver 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Joe Caspolich 1957 1961 8 0 0 0 0 0 Neil Castles 1957 1976 498 0 0 0 0 0 Robert Caswell 1951 1954 7 0 0 0 0 0 Larry Cates 1988 1988 0 0 1 0 0 0 Larry Caudill 1987 1987 1 0 0 0 0 0 Charlie Causey 1952 1953 4 0 0 0 0 0 George Cavana 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Don Cecchini 1949 1950 2 0 0 0 0 0 Bud Chaddock 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Floyd Chaddock 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Hank Chaffee 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ray Chaike 1955 1956 4 0 0 0 0 0 Gerald Chamberlain 1969 1969 2 0 0 0 0 0 Ted Chamberlain 1949 1959 63 0 0 0 0 0 Charlie Chamblee 1980 1981 2 0 0 0 0 0 Charlie Chapman 1960 1961 7 0 0 0 0 0 Hank Chapman 1957 1957 1 0 0 0 0 0 J.R. Charbonneau 1982 1982 1 0 0 0 0 0 Rene Charaland 1964 1971 9 0 0 0 0 0 Mike Chase 1986 2001 13 0 4 0 15 0 Ray Chase 1951 1952 7 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Chauncey 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tru Cheek 1971 1972 2 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Cheesbourg 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ann Chester 1950 1950 2 0 0 0 0 0 Lloyd Chick 1954 1955 3 0 0 0 0 0 Rodney Childers 2000 2000 0 0 1 0 0 0 Richard Childress 1969 1981 285 0 0 0 0 0 Ronnie Childress 1974 1974 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Choquette 1955 1956 6 0 0 0 0 0 Gene Christensen 2001 2001 6 0 0 0 0 0 Frank Christian 1949 1949 1 0 0 0 0 0 J. Christopher 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ronnie Chumley 1964 1972 7 0 0 0 0 0 Obie Chupp 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Randy Churchill 1995 1995 0 0 0 0 3 0 Raul Cilloniz 1959 1959 2 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Claren 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Billy Clark 1987 1992 0 0 13 0 0 0 Gary Clark 1993 1993 0 0 1 0 0 0 Gene Clark 1985 1986 0 0 2 0 0 0 George Clark 1951 1954 5 0 0 0 0 0 Greg Clark 1993 1996 0 0 9 0 0 0 Jim Clark 1952 1954 7 0 0 0 0 0 Joe Clark 1961 1971 14 0 0 0 0 0 Mike Clark 1998 1998 0 0 0 0 3 0 Mitchell Clark 1982 1986 0 0 14 0 0 0 Paul Clark 1963 1963 4 0 0 0 0 0 T.J. Clark 1995 1997 31 0 0 0 0 0 Travis Clark 2001 2001 0 0 0 0 1 0 Jack Clarke 1954 1954 3 0 0 0 0 0 Terry Clattenburg 1986 1986 0 0 1 0 0 0 Leo Cleary 1987 1987 0 0 1 0 0 0 John Cleek 1982 1982 0 0 2 0 0 0 Johnny Clements 1963 1963 1 0 0 0 0 0 Roger Clemmens 1957 1957 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Cleveland 1953 1954 4 0 0 0 0 0 Fuzzy Clifton 1959 1959 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ernie Cline 1980 1983 4 0 0 0 0 0 Troy Cline 2002 2003 0 0 5 0 0 0 Bill Clinton 1961 1964 6 0 0 0 0 0 Tommy Coates 1949 1951 3 0 0 0 0 0 Mike Cofer 2002 2002 0 0 0 0 3 0 Bobby Coffey 2001 2002 0 0 0 0 2 0 Morris Coffman 2001 2001 0 0 0 0 2 0 James Cogdill 1982 1982 0 0 1 0 0 0 Michael Cohen 1997 1999 0 0 0 0 1 0 Mike Colabucci 1996 1997 0 0 0 0 3 0 Shelby Colby 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ed Cole 1955 1957 26 0 0 0 0 0 Fred Cole 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 George Cole 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Neil Cole 1950 1953 19 1 0 0 0 0 Bob Coleman 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 Earl Coleman 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 James Coleman 1983 1983 0 0 3 0 0 0 Clay Collier 2002 2002 0 0 0 0 1 0 Bob Collins 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Gary Collins 1988 1995 4 0 0 0 4 0 Roy Collins 1971 1971 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Coltrane 1983 1983 0 0 2 0 0 0 Sam Colvin 1958 1958 1 0 0 0 0 0 Leland Colvin, Jr. 1964 1964 1 0 0 0 0 0 Dean Combs 1981 1984 24 0 0 0 0 0 George Combs 1955 1955 1 0 0 0 0 0 R. L. Combs 1957 1959 21 0 0 0 0 0 Rodney Combs 1982 1997 55 0 116 0 6 0 Rodney Combs, Jr. 1995 1995 0 0 0 0 3 0 Doug Congden 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Conley 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Lee Connell 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Connor 1957 1965 2 0 0 0 0 0 Paul Connors 1966 1970 5 0 0 0 0 0 Al Conroy 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Conway 1965 1967 2 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Cook 1960 1960 1 0 0 0 0 0 Dick Cook 1961 1961 3 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry Cook 1998 1998 0 0 0 0 1 0 Jim V. Cook 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Mel Cook 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Smokey Cook 1960 1963 2 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Cooper 1989 1995 1 0 0 0 1 0 Bob Cooper 1962 1969 64 0 0 0 0 0 Edward Cooper 1985 1990 3 0 0 0 0 0 Elmer Cooper 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Cooper 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ronald Cooper 1988 1994 0 0 72 1 0 0 Ernie Cope 1995 1999 1 0 0 0 10 0 Mike Cope 1996 2000 0 0 18 0 13 0 Marvin Copple 1953 1955 2 0 0 0 0 0 George Cork 1956 1956 4 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Corley 1958 1958 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Cornett 1982 1983 2 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Cornwall 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tony Correnti 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Joe Cote 1964 1964 4 0 0 0 0 0 Randy Couch 1987 1987 0 0 1 0 0 0 Vince Cougineri 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Les Covey 1972 1972 7 0 0 0 0 0 Delma Cowart 1981 1997 21 0 0 0 0 0 Lowell Cowell 1981 1983 10 0 0 0 0 0 A. J. Cox 1971 1972 2 0 0 0 0 0 Bobby Cox 1982 1983 3 0 0 0 0 0 Buddy Cox 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Doug Cox 1955 1961 31 0 0 0 0 0 James Cox 1969 !172 22 0 0 0 0 0 Lonnie Cox 1996 2002 16 0 0 0 0 0 Tom Cox 1962 1963 44 0 0 0 0 0 Johnny Coy, Jr. 1984 1986 3 0 0 0 0 0 Randy Craft 1988 1988 0 0 1 0 0 0 Charlie Cragan 1996 1996 0 0 0 0 9 0 Herb Craig 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Cramblitt 1955 1955 2 0 0 0 0 0 Pappy Crane 1960 1960 2 0 0 0 0 0 Willie Crane 1968 1968 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry Cranmer 1986 1987 10 0 0 0 0 0 Ricky Craven 1986 2006 278 2 142 4 26 1 Freddie Crawford 1990 1990 1 0 0 0 0 0 Spook Crawford 1956 1960 6 0 0 0 0 0 Walt Crawford 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Charlie Cregar 1954 1959 16 0 0 0 0 0 Curtis Crider 1959 1965 232 0 0 0 0 0 Tommy Croft 1997 2000 0 0 0 0 6 0 Kim Crosby 2004 2006 0 0 10 0 0 0 Ken Cross 1982 1982 0 0 1 0 0 0 Bud Crothers 1959 1959 3 0 0 0 0 0 Dennis Crowder 1982 1982 0 0 1 0 0 0 Ray Crowley 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ronnie Croy 1964 1964 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tommie Crozier 1984 1989 8 0 0 0 0 0 Joe Cudmore 1986 1988 5 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Culpepper 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Cumiford 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Richard Cummings 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Rodney Cundiff 1988 1988 0 0 1 0 0 0 Brian Cunningham 1997 1998 0 0 0 0 13 0 Pepper Cunningham 1949 1955 10 0 0 0 0 0 Tony Cunningham 1983 1984 3 0 0 0 0 0 Danny Curley 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 John Currence 1982 1982 1 0 0 0 0 0 Floyd Curtis 1954 1955 3 0 0 0 0 0 Kevin Cywinski 1997 1999 0 0 2 0 46 0 Steve Dabb 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Fred Dagavar 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Clyde Dagit 1974 1975 2 0 0 0 0 0 Don Dahle 1959 1959 1 0 0 0 0 0 Darrell Dake 1960 1961 4 0 0 0 0 0 Wally Dallenbach, Sr. 1962 1974 4 0 0 0 0 0 Dean Dalton 1971 1977 118 0 0 0 0 0 George Dalton 1982 1984 17 0 0 0 0 0 Lloyd Dane 1951 1964 52 4 0 0 0 0 Charles Danello 1955 1955 2 0 0 0 0 0 Dan Danello 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Aaron Daniel 2001 2003 0 0 0 0 11 0 Ronnie Daniel 1971 1973 8 0 0 0 0 0 Dan Daniels 1951 1951 2 0 0 0 0 0 Peter Daniels 1991 1993 0 0 2 0 0 0 Quinton Daniels 1951 1951 7 0 0 0 0 0 Ray Daniels 1995 1995 5 0 0 0 0 0 Jim Danielson 1972 1990 5 0 0 0 0 0 Steve Darne 1995 1995 0 0 0 0 1 0 Bay Darnell 1954 1967 3 0 0 0 0 0 Reitzel Darner 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Gene Darragh 1950 1953 6 0 0 0 0 0 Hugh Darragh 1950 1950 3 0 0 0 0 0 Ronnie Davidson 1982 1986 0 0 19 0 0 0 Bennie Davis 1982 1986 0 0 14 0 0 0 Bill Davis 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Davis 1973 1973 1 0 0 0 0 0 Dave Davis 1987 1990 0 0 10 0 0 0 Bill Dennis 1962 1981 83 0 0 0 0 0 Kelly Denton 1996 2002 0 0 36 0 10 0 Mike Dillon 1995 2001 1 0 154 0 3 0 Dominic Dobson 1998 1998 0 0 0 0 10 0 Michael Dokken 1995 2003 0 0 3 0 74 0 Ray Elder 1967 1978 31 2 0 0 0 0 Tommy Ellis 1976 1995 78 0 235 22 0 0 Walker Evans 1995 1996 0 0 0 0 41 0 Red Farmer 1953 1992 36 0 2 0 0 0 Chet Fillip 1985 1987 24 0 0 0 0 0 Elliott Forbes-Robinson 1977 1982 22 0 0 0 0 0 A. J. Foyt 1963 1997 128 7 0 0 3 0 Joe Gaita 1996 1999 0 0 0 0 10 0 Harry Gant 1973 1996 474 18 128 21 11 0 Ruben Garcia 1984 1988 9 0 0 0 0 0 Andy Genzman 1996 2000 0 0 0 0 13 0 Doug George 1995 2000 2 0 0 0 56 0 Coy Gibbs 2000 2003 0 0 39 0 58 0 J. D. Gibbs 1998 2002 0 0 5 0 8 0 Mickey Gibbs 1982 1991 36 0 1 0 0 0 Mark Gibson 1982 2004 2 0 7 0 13 0 Bobby Gill 1996 2000 0 0 0 0 16 0 Butch Gilliland 1990 1999 10 0 0 0 12 0 Charlie Glotzbach 1960 1992 124 4 0 0 0 0 Paul Goldsmith 1956 1969 128 9 0 0 0 0 Cecil Gordon 1968 1985 450 0 0 0 0 0 Lee Gordon 1969 1970 8 0 0 0 0 0 Tina Gordon 2001 2004 0 0 14 0 16 0 Johnny Grubb 1950 1951 5 0 0 0 0 0 Wayne Grubb 1997 2000 0 0 52 0 7 0 Dan Gurney 1962 1980 16 5 0 0 0 0 Janet Guthrie 1976 1980 33 0 0 0 0 0 Pete Hamilton 1968 1973 64 4 0 0 0 0 Shigeaki Hattori 2005 2005 0 0 0 0 10 0 John Hayden 2002 2006 0 0 16 0 0 0 J. T. Hayes 1990 1990 1 0 0 0 0 0 Rick Hendrick 1987 1995 2 0 1 0 1 0 Roy Lee Hendrick 1986 1986 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jeff Hensley 1982 1985 0 0 90 0 0 0 Jimmy Hensley 1972 2001 99 0 255 9 146 2 Doug Heveron 1984 1997 31 0 65 0 0 0 Bruce Hill 1974 1981 100 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry Hill 1991 2004 8 0 2 0 58 0 Ray Hill 1966 1968 8 0 0 0 0 0 Andy Hillenburg 1991 2004 16 0 9 0 4 0 Bobby Hillin, Jr. 1982 2008 334 1 114 2 0 0 David Hobbs 1976 1976 2 0 0 0 0 0 Lance Hooper 1996 2009 9 0 22 0 77 0 Andy Houston 1996 2005 22 0 7 0 121 3 Marty Houston 1999 2003 0 0 19 0 44 0 Tommy Houston 1980 1999 13 0 417 24 1 0 Robert Huffman 1991 2005 0 0 11 0 40 0 Matt Hutter 1998 2000 0 0 22 0 2 0 James Hylton 1964 2006 601 2 2 0 0 0 Bill Ingram 1989 1989 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jack Ingram 1965 1991 19 0 275 31 0 0 Ernie Irvan 1986 1999 313 15 57 3 12 0 Dale Jarrett 1982 2008 668 32 329 11 0 0 Glenn Jarrett 1978 1993 10 0 67 0 0 0 Jason Jarrett 1997 2004 2 0 40 0 0 0 Ned Jarrett 1953 1966 353 50 0 0 0 0 Gordon Johncock 1966 1976 21 0 0 0 0 0 Bobby Johns 1956 1969 141 2 0 0 0 0 Amos Johnson 1969 1969 1 0 0 0 0 0 Buckshot Jones 1995 2004 56 0 147 2 0 0 Davey Johnson 1989 1991 0 0 27 0 0 0 Dick Johnson 1989 1990 3 0 0 0 0 0 Fred Johnson 1949 1956 7 0 0 0 0 0 Gary Johnson 1976 1978 4 0 0 0 0 0 Junior Johnson 1953 1966 313 50 0 0 0 0 Davy Jones 1995 1996 7 0 0 0 2 0 Page Jones 1993 1993 0 0 1 0 0 0 Parnelli Jones 1956 1970 34 4 0 0 0 0 Tommy Kendall 1987 1998 14 0 1 0 0 0 Bob Keselowski 1994 1999 1 0 0 0 86 1 Ron Keselowski 1970 1974 68 0 0 0 0 0 Stuart Kirby 2001 2005 10 0 9 0 2 0 Tammy Jo Kirk 1997 2003 0 0 15 0 32 0 Todd Kluever 2005 2007 4 0 51 0 25 0 Brandon Miller 2003 2007 0 0 14 0 10 0 Jeff Krogh 1996 1999 2 0 57 0 0 0 Mark Krogh 1997 1999 0 0 46 0 0 0 Randy LaJoie 1985 2006 44 0 350 15 7 0 Scott Lagasse 1993 1999 2 0 13 0 24 0 Brad Leighton 1997 1999 0 0 5 0 0 0 Tracy Leslie 1989 1998 5 0 206 1 0 0 Chad Little 1986 2002 217 0 134 6 1 0 Chuck Little 1975 1975 1 0 0 0 0 0 Fred Lorenzen 1956 1972 159 26 0 0 0 0 Dave Marcis 1968 2002 883 5 4 0 1 0 Rick Mast 1982 2002 364 0 243 9 0 0 Dick McCabe 1984 1994 0 0 20 1 0 0 Jeff McClure 1988 2000 1 0 20 0 3 0 Ryan McGlynn 1998 2005 0 0 0 0 44 0. Hershel McGriff 1950 1993 85 4 0 0 0 0 Norman McGriff 1957 1957 3 0 0 0 0 0 Mike McLaughlin 1984 2004 2 0 314 6 2 0 Jimmy Means 1976 1993 455 0 3 0 0 0 Roger Mears 1995 1995 0 0 0 0 4 0 Andy Michner 1996 1996 0 0 0 0 1 0 Joey Miller 2005 2006 0 0 1 0 20 0 Joe Millikan 1974 1988 80 0 5 0 0 0 Patty Moise 1986 1998 5 0 133 0 0 0 Bob Moore 1950 1952 9 0 0 0 0 0 Bud Moore 1964 1973 41 0 0 0 0 0 Lloyd Moore 1949 1955 49 1 0 0 0 0 Ryan Moore 2005 2006 0 0 4 0 11 0 Steve Moore 1977 1988 18 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry Nadeau 1995 2003 177 1 8 0 1 0 Bobby Norfleet 2000 2000 0 0 0 0 1 0 Lance Norick 1996 2003 0 0 7 0 154 0 Whitey Norman 1956 1959 29 0 0 0 0 0 Rick O'Dell 1981 1981 1 0 0 0 0 0 Jerry O'Neil 1989 1993 16 0 0 0 0 0 Cotton Owens 1950 1964 160 9 0 0 0 0 Marvin Panch 1951 1964 216 17 0 0 0 0 Dan Pardus 1998 2005 1 0 18 0 0 0 Billy Parker 2000 2004 0 0 11 0 0 0 Hank Parker Jr. 1997 2006 1 0 137 2 29 0 Phil Parsons 1982 2001 202 1 285 2 0 0 Billy Pauch 1997 1998 0 0 0 0 4 0 David Pearson 1960 1986 574 105 6 1 0 0 Hugh Pearson 1973 1977 9 0 0 0 0 0 Larry Pearson 1982 1999 57 0 259 15 0 0 Jack Pennington 1989 1990 16 0 6 0 0 0 Julian Petty 1952 1955 3 0 0 0 0 0 Mark Petty 2000 2001 0 0 0 0 9 0 Maurice Petty 1960 1964 26 0 0 0 0 0 Richard Petty 1958 1992 1185 200 0 0 0 0 Ritchie Petty 1993 1996 4 0 0 0 1 0 Steve Petty 1993 1993 0 0 1 0 0 0 Andy Petree 1988 2004 0 0 5 0 7 0 Ed Pimm 1987 1988 5 0 0 0 0 0 Lennie Pond 1969 1973 234 1 0 0 0 0 Mike Porter 1982 1992 0 0 88 0 0 0 Randy Porter 1986 1998 2 0 73 0 1 0 Mike Potter 1979 2004 60 0 15 0 0 0 Robert Pressley 1984 2005 205 0 244 10 69 2 Jeff Purvis 1989 2004 50 0 187 4 0 0 Stevie Reeves 1994 2000 0 0 85 0 3 0 Bryan Reffner 1996 2005 0 0 3 0 126 1 Deborah Renshaw 2004 2005 0 0 0 0 38 0 Robbie Reiser 1993 1997 0 0 29 0 3 0 Willy T. Ribbs 1986 2001 3 0 0 0 23 0 Jody Ridley 1973 1989 140 1 3 0 0 0 Rob Rizzo 1996 1999 0 0 0 0 19 0 Shawna Robinson 1991 2005 8 0 61 0 3 0 Earl Ross 1973 1976 26 1 0 0 0 0 Mario Rossi 1955 1958 4 0 0 0 0 0 Ricky Rudd 1975 2007 906 23 3 1 0 0 Johnny Rutherford 1963 1988 35 1 0 0 0 0 Greg Sacks 1983 2006 263 1 32 1 1 0 Eliseo Salazar 1997 1997 0 0 0 0 1 0 Jay Sauter 1996 2007 2 0 130 0 90 4 Jim Sauter 1980 2004 76 0 3 0 2 0 Elton Sawyer 1983 2002 29 0 392 2 0 0 Dorsey Schroeder 1991 2001 9 0 0 0 4 0 Jason Schuler 2000 2004 0 0 52 0 0 0 Kevin Schwantz 1997 1999 0 0 18 0 0 0 Lake Speed 1980 1998 402 1 6 0 0 0 Jimmy Spencer 1985 2006 478 2 212 12 31 1 Billy Standridge 1986 1999 23 0 84 0 0 0 Ramo Stott 1967 1977 35 0 0 0 0 0 Hut Stricklin 1985 2002 328 0 54 0 0 0 Randy Tolsma 1996 2002 0 0 13 0 108 2 Dick Trickle 1970 2003 303 0 158 2 0 0 D. K. Ulrich 1971 1992 273 0 0 0 0 0 Rusty Wallace 1980 2005 706 55 42 0 1 0 Darrell Waltrip 1972 2006 809 84 95 13 17 0 Rick Ware 1990 2003 1 0 2 0 16 0 Gus Wasson 1998 2004 0 0 51 0 0 0 Don White 24 0 0 0 0 0 Pap White 1950 1951 2 0 0 0 0 0 Rex White 1956 1964 233 28 0 0 0 0 Richard White 1973 1979 12 0 0 0 0 0 Bill Whittington 1980 1980 2 0 0 0 0 0 Don Whittington 1980 1981 10 0 0 0 0 0 Angie Wilson 2002 2002 0 0 0 0 4 0 B. A. Wilson 1997 2000 0 0 0 0 39 0 Rick Wilson 1980 1998 206 0 47 2 0 0 Paul Wolfe 2003 2005 0 0 16 0 0 0 Glen Wood 1953 1964 62 4 0 0 0 0 Cale Yarborough 1957 1988 560 83 0 0 0 0 Johnny Zeke 1953 1956 4 0 0 0 0 0 Deceased DriversPlease use this format when formatting this page.'' DriverFirst YearLast YearCup StartsCup WinsBusch Starts Busch WinsTruck StartsTruck WinsCause of Death Paul Aars 1958 1958 1 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (2002) Weldon Adams 1950 1964 25 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1995) Grant Adcox 1974 1989 60 0 1 0 0 0 Racing accident at Atlanta (1989) Francis Affleck 1984 1984 0 0 3 0 0 0 ARCA series crash (1985) Romie Alderman 1973 1973 1 0 0 0 0 0 Blaise Alexander 1997 2001 0 0 65 0 2 0 Accident in ARCA race at Lowe's (2001) Clifford Allison 1990 1992 0 0 22 0 0 0 Practice accident at Michigan (1992) Davey Allison 1983 1993 191 19 86 0 0 0 Helicopter crash (1993) Bill Amick 1954 1965 48 1 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1995) Axel Anderson 1955 1958 5 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (1994) Eddie Anderson 1951 1951 5 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (1995) John Anderson 1979 1983 32 0 5 0 0 0 Street car accident (1986) Frank Arford 1953 1953 4 0 0 0 0 0 Accident at Langhorne Speedway (1953) Reggie Ausmus 1956 1957 3 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1990) H. B. Bailey 1962 1994 85 0 0 0 0 0 Heart failure (2003) Bill Baker 1977 1978 3 0 0 0 0 0 Heart attack during race practice (1978) Buck Baker 1949 1976 637 46 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (2002) Ivan Baldwin 1971 1975 6 0 0 0 0 0 Highway accident (1996) Rick Baldwin 1981 1986 11 0 0 0 0 0 Coma from Michigan crash in 1986. (1997) Tom Baldwin Sr. 0 0 0 0 0 0 Racing accident in modified race (2004) Claude Ballot-Léna 1978 1979 6 0 0 0 0 0 Cancer (1999) Mike Batinich 1958 1958 2 0 0 0 0 0 Harold Beam 1957 1963 194 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1980) Dick Beaty 1955 1958 38 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1999) Johnny Beauchamp 1953 1961 23 2 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1981) Joe Bell 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1966) Jim Bennett 1961 1962 7 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1990) Russell Bennett 1950 1950 2 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1996) Tony Bettenhausen 1973 1982 33 0 0 0 0 0 Plane crash (2000) Don Biederman 1966 1969 42 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1999) Fred Bince 1951 1956 8 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2001) Art Binkley 1954 1957 5 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2007) Sonny Black 1951 1957 6 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1964) Bunkie Blackburn 1960 1970 11 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (2006) Bill Blair 1949 1958 123 3 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1995) Gene Blair 1957 1957 1 0 0 0 0 0 John Blewett III 1996 1998 0 0 0 0 4 0 Modified racing accident (2007) Fred Boggs 1957 1957 1 0 0 0 0 0 Tony Bonadies 1952 1952 2 0 0 0 0 0 Testing accident at Williams Grove (1964) Crash Bond 1961 1961 1 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2004) Al Bonnell 1949 1949 1 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1980) Neil Bonnett 1974 1993 362 18 13 1 0 0 Practice crash for the Daytona 500 (1994) Joe Booher 1978 1990 21 0 0 0 0 0 Accident at ARCA race at Daytona (1993) Ernie Boost 1952 1952 3 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1990) Smokey Boutwell 1964 1964 2 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1993) Jack Bowsher 1966 1967 4 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2006) Jim Boyd 1975 1975 2 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2006) Charlie Bradberry 2003 2004 0 0 0 0 11 0 Road accident (2006) Kenneth Bridge 1954 1954 1 0 0 0 0 0 Dick Brooks 1969 1985 358 1 0 0 0 0 Heart attack (2006) Ed Brown 1955 1968 9 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2000) Herschel Buchanan 1950 1954 23 0 0 0 0 0 Bob Burdick 1959 1962 15 1 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2007) Marvin Burke 1951 1951 1 1 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1994) Red Byron 1949 1951 15 2 0 0 0 0 Heart attack (1960) Scotty Cain 1956 1971 36 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1994) Leo Caldwell 1950 1952 4 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1996) Wally Campbell 1949 1953 11 0 0 0 0 0 Testing accident at Salem (1954) Willard Cantrell 1957 1965 2 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1986) Harold Carmac 1962 1962 2 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2001) Dick Carter 1954 1965 7 0 0 0 0 0 Racing accident at Berlin Raceway (1965) Duane Carter 1950 1950 1 0 0 0 0 0 Cancer (1993) Rags Carter 1952 1952 1 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1993) Fats Caruso 1966 1967 2 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1993) Bill Champion 1951 1976 289 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1991) Bill Cheesbourg 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (1995) Tom Cherry 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1990) Bill Chevalier 1954 1971 3 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2001) Sara Christian 1949 1950 7 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1980) Jerry Churchill 1971 1995 7 0 0 0 7 0 Natural causes (2008) Bill Cintia 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1997) Buck Clardy 1951 1951 1 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2003) Jimmy Clark 1967 1967 1 0 0 0 0 0 Racing Accident (1968) Ray Clark 1955 1955 2 0 0 0 0 0 Racing accident in Sprint Car (1958) Sherman Clark 1955 1957 8 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (2005) Spencer Clark 2006 2006 0 0 1 0 0 0 Road Accident (2006) Allan Clarke 1952 1955 6 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1998) June Cleveland 1950 1953 10 0 0 0 0 0 Dick Clothier 1950 1950 5 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1999) Byron Clouse 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1975) Hal Cole 1951 1951 3 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1970) Leland Colvin 1951 1951 5 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (1995) Gene Comstock 1950 1955 29 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (1991) Jim Cook 1954 1970 39 1 0 0 0 0 Murdered (1983) Doug Cooper 1963 1968 113 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1987) Bobby Courtwright 1950 1954 6 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1988) Johnny Coy 1956 1956 1 0 0 0 0 0 Gene Coyle 1984 1986 2 0 2 0 0 0 Unknown (1991) Lamar Crabtree 1951 1953 4 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2004) Herb Crawford 1955 1956 4 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1990) Jimmy Crawford 1970 1974 15 0 0 0 0 0 Heart failure (2007) Chauncey Crist 1958 1958 1 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1998) Jim Cushman 1956 1963 7 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2001) Chuck Daigh 1963 1964 2 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2008) Roxy Dancy 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1961) Dan Daughtry 1974 1975 10 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1998) Darel Dieringer 1957 1975 181 7 0 0 0 0 Cancer (1989) Mark Donohue 1972 1973 6 1 0 0 0 0 Crash before a Formula 1 race (1975) Glenn Dunnaway 1949 1951 18 0 0 0 0 0 Train accident (1964) Dale Earnhardt 1975 2001 676 76 136 21 0 0 Crash at the 2001 Daytona 500 (2001) Ralph Earnhardt 1956 1964 51 0 0 0 0 0 Heart attack (1973) Christian Elder 2001 2002 0 0 24 0 0 0 Unknown (2007) Richie Evans 0 0 0 0 0 0 Practice accident at Martinsville (1985) Lou Figaro 1951 1954 16 1 0 0 0 0 Race accident at North Wilkesboro (1954) Bob Flock 1949 1956 36 4 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1964) Fonty Flock 1950 1957 153 19 0 0 0 0 Cancer (1972) Tim Flock 1949 1961 187 39 0 0 0 0 Lung and Liver Cancer (1998) Danny Graves 1957 1958 9 1 0 0 0 0 Injuries from a bar fight (Unknown year) Kevin Grubb 1996 2006 0 0 174 0 8 0 Suicide (2009) Billy Hagan 1969 1979 3 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2007) Bobby Hamilton 1989 2006 371 4 12 1 102 10 Head and neck cancer (2007) Friday Hassler 1960 1972 135 0 0 0 0 0 Race crash at the Gatorade 125s (1972) Ray Hendrick 1956 1982 17 0 7 0 0 0 Cancer (1990) Ricky Hendrick 1999 2002 0 0 38 0 30 1 Plane crash near Martinsville (2004) Jim Hendrickson 1961 1961 2 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1997) Al Holbert 1976 1979 19 0 0 0 0 0 Plane crash (1988) Jim Hurtubise 1957 1977 36 1 0 0 0 0 Heart attack (1989) Dick Hutcherson 1964 1967 103 14 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2005) Sonny Hutchins 1955 1974 38 0 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2005) Kenny Irwin Jr. 1996 2000 87 0 14 0 32 2 Practice accident at Loudon (2000) Bobby Isaac 1961 1976 308 37 0 0 0 0 Heart attack racing at Hickory (1977) Dick Johnson 1967 1969 56 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (1997) Joe Lee Johnson 1956 1962 56 2 0 0 0 0 Cancer (2005) Julius Johnson 1979 1987 68 0 1 0 0 0 Accident in ARCA race at Daytona (1990) Al Keller 1949 1956 29 2 0 0 0 0 Injuries from a Champ Car wreck (1961) Andy Kirby 1999 2002 0 0 28 0 0 0 Motorcycle accident (2002) Alan Kulwicki 1984 1993 207 5 6 0 0 0 Plane crash (1993) Elmo Langley 1954 1981 536 2 0 0 0 0 Heart attack (1996) Butch Lindley 1979 1985 11 0 41 6 0 0 Head injuries from a 1985 crash (1990) Tiny Lund 1955 1975 303 5 0 0 0 0 Racing accident at Talladega (1975) Larry Mann 1952 1952 6 0 0 0 0 0 Racing accident at Langhorne (1952) Johnny Mantz 1950 1956 12 1 0 0 0 0 Highway accident (1972) Coo Coo Marlin 1966 1980 165 0 0 0 0 0 Cancer (2005) Banjo Matthews 1952 1963 51 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1996) Roger McCluskey 1969 1977 4 0 0 0 0 0 Cancer (1993) J. D. McDuffie 1963 1991 653 0 11 0 0 0 Racing accident at Watkins Glen (1991) Bill Miller 1951 1952 10 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1952) Charlie Miller 1953 1953 1 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1955) Kirby Miller 1958 1959 2 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (2003) Ethel Mobley 1949 1949 2 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1984) Ralph Moody 1956 1962 47 5 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2004) Lloyd Moore 1949 1955 49 1 0 0 0 0 Natural Causes (2008) Rob Moroso 1986 1990 29 0 86 6 0 0 Highway accident (1990) John Nemechek 1994 1997 0 0 1 0 43 0 Crash in Truck race at Homestead (1997) Rodney Orr - - 0 0 0 0 0 0 Practice crash for the Daytona 500 (1994) Jimmy Pardue 1955 1964 217 2 0 0 0 0 Crash during tire test at Charlotte (1964) Benny Parsons 1964 1988 526 21 0 0 0 0 Lung cancer (2007) Jim Paschal 1949 1972 421 25 0 0 0 0 Cancer (2005) Adam Petty 1998 2000 1 0 43 0 2 0 Practice accident at Loudon (2000) Lee Petty 1949 1964 427 54 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2000) Russell Phillips - - 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sportsman race crash at Lowe's. (1995) Dick Rathmann 1951 1955 128 13 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (2000) Bill Rexford 1949 1953 36 1 0 0 0 0 Natural causes (1994) Tim Richmond 1980 1987 185 13 10 2 0 0 AIDS (1989) Marty Robbins 1966 1982 35 0 0 0 0 0 Heart attack (1982) Fireball Roberts 1949 1964 206 33 0 0 0 0 Injuries from earlier crash (1964) Shorty Rollins 1958 1960 43 1 0 0 0 0 Heart ailment (1998) Jim Roper 1949 1949 2 1 0 0 0 0 Heart and liver failure (2000) Tony Roper 1995 2000 0 0 19 0 60 0 Accident in Truck race at Texas (2000) Swede Savage 1967 1969 9 0 0 0 0 0 Racing accident in the Indy 500 (1973) Terry Schoonover 1984 1984 2 0 0 0 0 0 Racing accident at Atlanta (1984) Wendell Scott 1961 1973 495 1 0 0 0 0 Spinal Cancer(1990) Buddy Shuman 1951 1955 29 1 0 0 0 0 Hotel Fire (1955) Jack Smith 1949 1964 264 21 0 0 0 0 Congestive Heart Failure (2001) Louise Smith 1949 1952 11 0 0 0 0 0 Cancer (2006) Gober Sosebee 1949 1952 71 2 0 0 0 0 Tractor accident (1996) Gwyn Staley 1951 1958 69 3 0 0 0 0 Racing Accident(1958) Herb Thomas 1949 1962 228 48 0 0 0 0 Heart Attack (2000) Speedy Thompson 1950 1971 198 20 0 0 0 0 Racing accident/heart attack (1972) Chris Trickle - - 0 0 0 0 0 0 Drive-by Shooting (1998) Curtis Turner 1949 1968 183 17 0 0 0 0 Plane Crash (1970) Billy Wade 1962 1964 71 4 0 0 0 0 Accident during tire test at Daytona (1965) Joe Weatherly 1952 1964 230 25 0 0 0 0 Racing accident at Riverside (1964) Woodie Wilson 1949 1962 10 0 0 0 0 0 Unknown (1994) LeeRoy Yarbrough 1960 1972 198 14 0 0 0 0 Internal head injuries (1984) Road Course Ringers Brandon Ash Tony Ave Austin Cameron Chris Cook Ron Fellows Adrian Fernandez Jorge Goeters Marc Goossens Klaus Graf Tom Hubert Jim Inglebright P. J. Jones Michel Jourdain, Jr. Terry Labonte- Ran full-time in Cup until 2005. Anthony Lazzaro Butch Leitzinger Johnny Miller Max Papis Scott Pruett- Also ran full-time in Cup in 2000. Jose Luis Ramirez Mara Reyes Boris Said- Occasionally runs at Daytona and Talladega. Brian Simo Joe Varde Former Road Course Ringers Elliott Forbes-Robinson Butch Gilliland Dorsey Schroeder Irv Hoerr Suspended Drivers Aaron Fike Shane Hmiel (First driver to be suspended for life from NASCAR) Carl Long Jeremy Mayfield Brian Rose Tyler Walker See also 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series 2009 NASCAR Nationwide Series 2009 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series List of NASCAR teams NASCAR Rookie of the Year List of NASCAR champions List of NASCAR all-time cup winners List of Canadians in NASCAR | List_of_NASCAR_drivers |@lemmatized sprint:6 cup:10 driver:20 statistic:1 use:3 table:2 end:2 coca:1 cola:1 full:5 time:17 drivercarrookie:6 yearstartswinstop:6 point:6 finish:6 j:23 allmendinger:1 marcos:1 ambrose:1 john:19 andretti:3 greg:4 biffle:2 dave:7 blaney:1 clint:2 bowyer:2 jeff:15 burton:4 kurt:1 busch:6 kyle:5 dale:5 earnhardt:8 jr:22 carl:7 edward:3 david:15 gilliland:4 gordon:9 robby:2 denny:2 hamlin:3 kevin:10 harvick:3 sam:4 hornish:1 jimmie:1 johnson:10 kasey:1 kahne:1 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5,664 | Master_of_Puppets | Master of Puppets is the third album by American heavy metal band Metallica. The album was released on March 3, 1986 through Elektra Records. Master of Puppets marks the last recording by bassist Cliff Burton, who died in a bus accident while on tour to promote the album. After debating whether to break up, or to move on with a new bass player, Metallica decided to hire a new bassist, Jason Newsted, who would stay with the band until 2001. Master of Puppets met high critical reception upon release, and is now considered a classic heavy metal album by fans, critics, and the band members themselves alike. All of the band members consider it Metallica's Magnum opus. Master of Puppets reached #29 on the U.S. Billboard 200 album chart and was the band's first Gold record for sales of 500,000 copies. This was done without any radio airplay or the release of a single. The album is now 6× Platinum in the U.S., with over 6 million copies sold in the U.S. alone. Almost every song now has radio play, with the title track and Welcome Home (Sanitarium) receiving the heaviest airplay. Critical reception and legacy According to Allmusic's Steve Huey, Master of Puppets "was the band's greatest achievement." "Some critics have called Master of Puppets the best thrash metal album ever recorded", Huey noted. Master of Puppets has been featured on several "greatest albums of all time" lists. The album is present in a list dubbed "The All-TIME 100 Albums" and published by TIME magazine in November 2006. In TIME critic Josh Tyrangiel's opinion, "Metallica didn't bother with hooks or pop discipline" in writing Master of Puppets. Metal Rules rated the album as being number one in a list of the "Top 100 Heavy Metal Albums" published in September 2003, whereas IGN also rated the album as being at first position in a list of the "Top 25 Metal Albums" issued in January 2007. It is included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die and Q magazine counted it among the 50 heaviest albums of all time. In 2003, the album was ranked number 167 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. When it was released, Master of Puppets provided many metal fans with an alternative image to the commercially popular glam metal bands, such as Poison, Bon Jovi, Mötley Crüe and Ratt. The album has frequently been tagged by critics as "one of the most influential thrash metal albums of all time." As an early parody of the PMRC's "explicit lyrics" warning labels, many prints of Metallica's 1986 release of Master of Puppets sported an octagonal sticker on the front saying: "The only track you probably won't want to play is "Damage, Inc." due to the multiple use of the infamous "F" word. Otherwise, there aren't any "Shits", "Fucks", "Pisses", "Sucks", "Cunts", "Motherfuckers" or "Cocksuckers" anywhere on this record." To celebrate the 20th anniversary of its release, Metallica played the album in its entirety on their Escape from the Studio '06 tour for the first time ever at the Rock am Ring festival on June 3, 2006. These concerts included the first-ever complete performances of the instrumental "Orion" (though portions of the song's lengthy middle section had been performed at various times as part of instrumental medleys and bass solos since the early 1990s). The title track was ranked Number 51 in the "The Greatest Guitar Solos" from Guitar World. In 2006, the album was voted the fourth "greatest guitar album of all time" in Guitar World. And the April 5th edition of Kerrang! was dedicated to it, providing readers with the cover album "Master of Puppets: Remastered". In March 2007, the guitar magazine Total Guitar ranked the 100 greatest riffs of all time and the main riff of the album's title track was ranked number one. "Damage, Inc." is the last of four songs to feature writing from all members of the Cliff Burton-Kirk Hammett era of Metallica. Every song from this album except "Leper Messiah" and "Damage, Inc." is playable on the music video game Guitar Hero: Metallica. The song "Battery" is also featured in the game Rock Band 2. Track listing Personnel James Hetfield — lead vocals, rhythm guitar, lead guitar in "Master of Puppets" & "Orion" Kirk Hammett — lead guitar Cliff Burton — bass guitar, backing vocals Lars Ulrich — drums, percussion Flemming Rasmussen — production, engineer Michael Wagener — mix engineer Chart performance Year Chart Position 1986 Billboard29 1986 UK Albums Chart41 2008 Australian ARIA Top 50 Albums Chart33 Certifications Country Certification Sales/shipmentsUnited States (RIAA) 6x Platinum 6,812,000 Canada (CRIA) 5x Platinum CRIA Gold & Platinum certifications for October 2006. Retrieved July 25, 2007. 500,000 Australia (ARIA) Platinum 70,000 Covers A number of bands have covered songs from the album: Several bands, including Mastodon, Machine Head, Funeral for a Friend, and Bullet For My Valentine recorded a tribute album for the twentieth anniversary of the album's release; the project was sponsored by Kerrang! and copies were distributed with the magazine. Trivium has covered the title track both live and in studio. It has appeared on both their Ascendancy Special Edition album and the tribute album for the 20th Anniversary of the album's release. Machine Head released Battery as a bonus track on its special edition version of The Blackening album. Dream Theater has covered the entire album at a live concert, something they have also done for other historically significant progressive or metal albums, including Iron Maiden's The Number of the Beast, Deep Purple's Made in Japan and Pink Floyd's Dark Side of the Moon. Dream Theater also covered "Damage, Inc." live at an 'uncovered' show, with Napalm Death singer Barney Greenway on vocals. Cello metal band Apocalyptica also recorded a cover of many Metallica songs including "Master of Puppets" on their album Plays Metallica by Four Cellos. Shai Hulud has covered the song "Damage, Inc." for the series of 7 inches LPs as a tribute to Metallica called "Crush 'em All". Funk metal trio Primus has covered the title track live and "The Thing That Should Not Be" on their EP Rhinoplasty. The folk metal band Ensiferum covered "Battery" on their single Tale of Revenge and the same cover was later featured on a limited edition of their album Iron. Scott D. Davis recorded a tribute album "Pianotarium" which includes "Master of Puppets", "Welcome Home (Sanitarium)", and songs from other albums composed in solo grand piano. The Mexican duo Rodrigo y Gabriela recorded a cover of the song "Orion" on their self-titled 2006 album, using two acoustic guitars. The Scorched Earth Orchestra recorded a symphonic version of the entire album in 2007. The Sins of Thy Beloved covered the track "The Thing That Should Not Be" on their 2000 album Perpetual Desolation. Limp Bizkit performed a live cover of "Welcome Home (Sanitarium)" for the MTV Icon: Metallica tribute concert. "Master of Puppets," "Welcome Home (Sanitarium)" "Orion" and the intro to "Battery" were performed on harp by the tribute duo Harptallica on their album Harptallica: A Tribute. "Disposable Heroes" was covered by Chimaira on Kerrang! Magazines 2006 Tribute Album "Master of Puppets: Remastered". The second solo of "Master of Puppets" was often performed by Sum 41 at their live performances, including the Metallica MTV Icon show in 2003. Pendulum covered the song as an intro to there track 'Slam' whilst on there 2008 European tour. 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5,665 | Demographics_of_Malaysia | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Malaysia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of Malaysia Indicator Rank Measure Economy GDP (PPP) per capita 56th $13,315 Unemployment rate ↓ 31st 3.10%* CO2 emissions 54th 7.05t† Electricity consumption 32nd 78.72GWh Economic Freedom 68th 2.98 Politics Human Development Index 63rd 0.811 Political freedom Unknown 4 Corruption (A higher score means less (perceived) corruption.) ↓ 43rd 5.1 Press freedom 124th 41.00 Society Literacy Rate 94th 88.7% Number of Internet users 23rd 14,904,000 users E-readiness 34th 6.16± <small>Ease of Doing Business 24th Unknown Health Life Expectancy 66th 74.2 Birth rate 94th 20.6‡ Fertility rate 79th 2.98†† Infant mortality 124th 16.39‡‡ Death rate 181st 4.5‡ HIV/AIDS rate 81st 0.40% Quality-of-life 36th 6.608± Notes <small>* including several non-sovereign entities ↓ indicates rank is in reverse order (e.g. 1st is lowest)† per capita ± score out of 10‡ per 1000 people†† per woman‡‡ per 1000 live births The demographics of Malaysia is represented by the multiple ethnic groups that exist in this country. Malaysia's population, , is estimated to be 27,730,000, which makes it the 43rd most populated country in the world. Of these, 5.44 million Malaysians live in East Malaysia and 21.2 million live in Peninsular Malaysia. "Key data (2006)", Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Malaysian population continues to grow at a rate of 2.4% per annum; about 34% of the population is under the age of 15. Malays and other Bumputera groups make up 65% of the population, Chinese 26%, Indians 8% and other unlisted ethnic groups 1%. Census of Population and Housing Malaysia 2000, Dept of Statistics Malaysia. Population distribution is uneven, with some 20 million residents concentrated in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia, which has an area of 131,598 square kilometers and is slightly smaller than the State of Louisiana in the United States. Ethnicity Malays Malays are an ethnic group of Austronesian peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and parts of Sumatra and Borneo. In Malaysia, they make up about half of the total population. The Malay ethnic group is distinct from the concept of a Malay race, which encompasses a wider group of people, including most of Indonesia and the Philippines. Malays in Malaysia are by definition Muslims, according to the constitution. Other Bumiputeras There are other peoples of Austronesian origins who make up the majority of the population in East Malaysia. Together with the Malays, they are collectively denoted as Bumiputras. Non-Malay bumiputera groups make up more than half of the state of Sarawak's population (of which 30% are Ibans), and close to 60% of Sabah's population (of which 18% are Kadazan-Dusuns, and 17% are Bajaus). They are divided into dozens of ethnic groups, but they share some general patterns of living and culture. The aboriginal people of Peninsular Malaysia are known as Orang Asli, which literally means "original person", is a catch all term for a variety of ancient peoples. They number about 60,000, and were the first inhabitants of the area. The most numerous of the Orang Asli are called Negritos and are related to native Papuans in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, and possibly even to aborigines in Australia. Non-Bumiputeras The second largest ethnic group is Chinese who makes up over a quarter of the population and have historically played an important role in trade and business. Indians made up of largely Tamils, comprise the third largest ethnic group at 8% of the population. There is a small minority crudely grouped and known as the "Others" category which includes Malaysians of, inter alia, European and Middle Eastern descent. There is no general consensus on the ethnic profiling of children of mixed parentage. Some choose to be identified according to paternal ethnicity while others simply think that they fall in the "Others" category. The majority choose to identify as Malay as long as either parent is Malay, mainly due to the legal definition of Bumiputera. Children of Chinese-Indian parentage are known as Chindians. Though this is not an official category in National Census Data, it is an increasing number especially in urban areas. Unlike counterparts in neighbouring Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines, many Malaysia Chinese and Indians, predominantly those in Peninsular Malaysia, do not want to be assimilate or integrate into Bumiputera society. Twenty largest ethnolinguistic groups in Malaysia are as follows Joshua Project database for Malaysia Distribution of the Bumiputera and Chinese population in Malaysia GroupTotal Malay, Peninsular Malay, Peninsular together with Orang Pantai Timur in Joshua Project listing 9,041,091 Han Chinese, Hokkien1,848,211 Tamil1,743,922 Han Chinese, Hakka1,679,027 Han Chinese, Cantonese1,355,541 Banjar Malay1,237,615 Han Chinese, Teochew974,573 Han Chinese, Mandarin958,467 Minangkabau874,536 Indonesian772,558 Iban666,034 Filipino442,933 Han Chinese, Hainanese380,781 Han Chinese, Min Bei373,337 Malay, East Malaysia271,979 Han Chinese, Min Dong249,413 Straits Chinese236,918 Nepalese217,587 Tausug201,797 Dusun, Central191,146 Citizenship Noun: Malaysian(s) Adjective: MalaysianNot to be confused with Malay, which is a reference to ethnicity.Religions Islam is the largest and the official religion, other large religions include Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity. Minority religions practiced here are Sikhism, Daoism, Confucianism, shamanism, and animism. The breakdown of the major religions are follows: "Population And Housing Census 2000 (Press statement)", Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Accessed April 2, 2007. Islam: 60.4% (see also Islam in Malaysia) Buddhism: 19.2% (see also Buddhism in Malaysia) Christianity: 9.1% (see also Christianity in Malaysia) Hindu: 6.3% (see also Hinduism in Malaysia) Confucianism/Taoism/other traditional Chinese religion: 2.6% Others: 2.4% Religion based on within ethnic groups from the official statistics from the Department of Statistics. ReligionCitizensNon-Citizens Bumiputera TotalMalayOther BumiputeraChineseIndianOthers Islam88.7%100.0% *36.3%1.0%3.8%64.9%82.1%Buddhism0.1%NA0.8%75.9%1.2%17.1%3.4%Christianity8.9%NA50.1%9.6%7.7%13.6%10.6%Hinduism> 0.05%NA0.1%0.3%84.5%23%1.8%Confucianism/Taoism> 0.05%NA0.1%10.6%0.1%0.2%0.3%Folk Religions1.2%NA7.0%0.1%0.1%> 0.05%> 0.05%Other Religions0.2%NA1.4%0.2%2.1%0.7%0.3%None Reported0.8%NA4.3%2.3%0.6%1.1%1.5%* Note: To be recognised as a Malay under Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia, a person must be an adherent of Islam. This figure may not reflect the actual numbers if applied to people who self identify as Malays. Languages Malay (Bahasa Melayu) is the official language of the nation. Other languages spoken in the country are Chinese dialects (Mandarin, Cantonese, Hokkien, Hakka, Teochew, Hainan, Foochow), Indian languages (Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Punjabi) ; note - in addition, in East Malaysia several indigenous languages are spoken, the largest of which are Iban and Kadazan. English is also widely spoken by Malaysians and it is also a compulsory subject in primary and secondary education. The English language is sometimes used in official correspondence and examinations is based on British English though there has been much American influence through television. However, English as spoken in Malaysia has been diverging, and is known locally as Manglish. Manglish is very similar to Singlish, the English spoken in Singapore, though the slang terms tend to be different. Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 88.7% male: 92% female: 85.4% (2002) Demographic trends and key rates Demographics of Malaysia, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Population distribution by states and territories State Population Area (km2) Pop. density Urban pop.(%) Bumiputera (%) Chinese (%) Indian (%)Selangor 4,188,876 7960 526 87.6 53.5 30.7 14.6Johor 2,740,625 18987 144 65.2 57.1 35.4 6.9Sabah 2,603,485 73619 35 48.0 80.5 13.2 0.5 Sarawak 2,071,506 124450 17 48.1 72.9 26.7 0.2Perak 2,051,236 21005 98 58.7 54.7 32.0 13.0Kedah 1,649,756 9425 175 39.3 76.6 14.9 7.1FT Kuala Lumpur 1,379,310 243 5676 100.0 43.6 43.5 11.4Penang 1,313,449 1031 1274 80.1 42.5 46.5 10.6Kelantan 1,313,014 15024 87 34.2 95.0 3.8 0.3Pahang 1,288,376 35965 36 42.0 76.8 17.7 5.0Terengganu 898,825 12955 69 48.7 96.8 2.8 0.2Negeri Sembilan 859,924 6644 129 53.4 57.9 25.6 16.0Malacca 635,791 1652 385 67.2 63.8 29.1 6.5Perlis 204,450 795 257 34.3 85.5 10.3 1.3FT Labuan 76,067 92 827 77.7 79.6 15.8 1.3FT Putrajaya 45,000 148 304 100.0 94.8 1.8 2.7 Source: National Census 2000, 6 November 2001 - National Census 2000, Malaysia Department of Statistics Malaysia. Putrajaya data is for 2004. Population age distribution trends for 2002-2006 Year < 15 Years (%) 15 - 64 Years (%) > 64 Years (%) Population (in millions)2002 33.5 62.5 4.1 -2003 33.2 62.7 4.1 -2004 32.9 62.9 4.2 25.582005 32.6 63.1 4.3 26.132006 32.4 63.3 4.3 26.64 Data from January 2007 24 January 2007 - Statistics Department, Malaysia - Population by age group Key demographic rates Population growth rate^: 1.78% (2006 data) Age Structure^: 0-14 years: 32.2% (male 4,118,086/female 3,884,403) 15-64 years: 62.9% (male 7,838,166/female 7,785,833) 65 years and over: 4.8% (male 526,967/female 667,831) (2007 est.) Crude birth rate^ for 2006 is around 18.7 and increase over 2005 (18.3) but well below the rates registered for 2004 (19.1) Crude death rate^ in 2006 stood at 4.5, relatively unchanged since 2004 Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) note: does not reflect net flow of an unknown number of illegal immigrants from other countries in the region Human sex ratio: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2005 est.) Infant mortality rate:^ 6.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 data) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 74.05 years (at 1:1 male-to-female ratio) male: ^ 71.8 years (2006 data) female:'' ^ 76.3 years (2006 data) Total fertility rate: 2.98 children born/woman (2008 est.), 3.01 children born/woman (2007 est.), 3.04 children born/woman (2006 est.), 3.07 children born/woman (2005 est.) In 1987, Malays had a TFR of 4.51, Chinese had TFR of 2.25 and Indians had TFR of 2.77. The corresponding figures in Singapore was 2.16, 1.48 and 1.95. 22 Januari 1990 - National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, United States Data for (^) obtained from Department of Statistics releases. See notes. 9 February 2007 - Statistics Department, Malaysia - Vital statistics 9 February 2007 - Statistics Department, Malaysia - Demographic key rates All key rates sampled per 1000 of population. Major cities Kuala Lumpur is the capital and largest city of Malaysia. Although many executive and judicial branches of the federal government have moved to Putrajaya, Kuala Lumpur is the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia, making it the country's legislative capital. It is also the economic and business centre of the country, and is a primate city. Kuala Lumpur is also rated as a gamma world city, and is the only global city in Malaysia. Subang Jaya and Klang are the second and third largest urban areas in Malaysia. The former is a higher education hub, containing many colleges and universities, and the latter houses Port Klang, the 16th busiest container port and 13th busiest transshipment port in the world. Johor Bahru is the second largest city and fourth largest urban area in the country. It is close to Singapore, and receives more than 60% of the country's annual 16 million foreign tourists. The city is also an important industrial, tourism and commercial hub for southern Malaysia. Other major cities in Malaysia include Ipoh, Kota Kinabalu, Kuching, and George Town. Ancestries Malays Malaysian Malays are mixed people of various ancestries. Many have different ancestries from all over the world. Ancestry Claimed Population Acehnese 20,000 - 1,000,000 Arab 500,000 - 1,000,000 Banjarese 3,000,000 Bugis 1,284,000-7,500,007 Cham 10,000 - 100,000 Chinese 217,100 - 500,000 Indian 200,000 - 1,000,000 Javanese 1,283,946 - 3,000,000 Minangkabau 300,000 - 1,000,000 Turkish 300,000 Vietnamese 200,000 - 1,000,000 Notes External links Department of Statistics, Malaysia | Demographics_of_Malaysia |@lemmatized article:2 demographic:7 feature:1 population:29 malaysia:40 include:6 density:2 ethnicity:4 education:3 level:1 health:2 populace:1 economic:3 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 indicator:1 rank:2 measure:1 economy:1 gdp:1 ppp:1 per:7 caput:2 unemployment:1 rate:18 emission:1 electricity:1 consumption:1 freedom:3 politics:1 human:2 development:1 index:1 political:1 unknown:3 corruption:2 high:2 score:2 mean:2 less:1 perceive:1 press:2 society:2 literacy:2 number:6 internet:1 user:2 e:2 readiness:1 small:4 ease:1 business:3 life:3 expectancy:2 birth:6 fertility:2 infant:2 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5,666 | Battle_of_Pharsalus | The Battle of Pharsalus was a decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War. On August 9, 48 BC, the battle was fought at Pharsalus in central Greece between forces of the Populares faction and forces of the Optimates faction. Both factions fielded armies from the Roman Republic. The Populares were led by Gaius Julius Caesar (Caesar) and the Optimates were led by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey). In addition to Pompey, the Optimates faction included most of the Roman Senate. The victory of Caesar weakened the Senatorial forces and solidified his control over the Republic. Prelude Pompey and the Roman Senate fled Italy for Greece in 49 BC to prepare an army. Caesar, for lack of a fleet, solidified his control over the western Mediterranean — Spain, specifically, before assembling ships to follow Pompey. Caesar thereafter marched overland through southern France, blockading what is now Marseille, and managing to assemble a small fleet. After crushing Pompey's forces in Spain, Caesar focused once again on Pompey and his troops in Greece. Pompey had a large fleet, as well as much support from all Roman provinces and client states east of Italy. Caesar, however, managed to cross the Adriatic in the winter, with Mark Antony following a little later because Caesar lacked sufficient ships. Although Pompey had a larger army, he recognized that Caesar's troops were more experienced, and could prove victorious in a pitched battle. Instead, Pompey waited Caesar's troops out, attempting to starve them by cutting off Caesar's supply lines. Caesar made a near disastrous attack on Pompey's camp at Dyrrhachium and was forced to pull away. Pompey did not immediately follow up on his success. An indecisive winter (49–48 BC) of blockade and siege followed. Pompey eventually pushed Caesar into Thessaly and urged on by his senatorial allies, he confronted Caesar near Pharsalus. Caesar began the battle with a smaller, but veteran, force. Pompey's troops were more numerous, but far less experienced. Moreover, Pompey's senatorial allies disagreed with Pompey over whether to fight at Pharsalus, and pushed Pompey, who wanted to starve Caesar's soldiers, into a quick decision. Caesar had the following legions with him: Legions of veterans from the Gallic Wars – Caesar's favourite legion, X Equestris, and those later known with the names of VIII Augusta, IX Hispana, and XII Fulminata Legions levied for the civil war – legions later known as I Germanica, III Gallica, and IV Macedonica However, all of these legions were 'short', and did not have the requisite numbers of troops. Some only had about a thousand men at the time of Pharsalus, due partly to losses at Dyrrhachium and partly to Caesar's wish to rapidly advance with a picked body as opposed to a ponderous movement with a large army. Battle Battle formations as described by Plutarch in his Life of Caesar c. 44 Deployment Both commanders realized that if one army was able to flank the other, they would probably win. As such, both commanders put a substantial amount of effort into ensuring that the other would be unable to 'sneak around to the back'. The battle was held with the River Enipeus to Caesar's left, ensuring that neither side would be able to move around the other army on Caesar's left. The most important part of the battle was to happen on Caesar's right. Pompey hoped to win by using his superior cavalry to mount a two-front attack on Caesar's forces. As such, he placed the entirety of his cavalry on Caesar's right, with light forces consisting of slingers (funditores) and archers (sagittarii). Caesar placed his cavalry on his right, with an unorthodox fourth battle line (made of cohorts pulled from the main lines) in reserve behind the main infantry body and at an angle to it. Pompey deployed his infantry ten ranks deep, fearing a rout. Conflict When the two generals had finished deploying their troops, the infantry began to close. Pompey ordered his soldiers not to charge (against the standards of the day) having a plan of tiring the enemy out. It is also possible that he withheld the charge because he lacked faith in his army's skill, morale, and discipline. This tactic backfired as Caesar's veteran centurions, foreseeing Pompey's trap, stopped halfway on their charge, and allowed their lines to rest. By the river, the light infantry skirmished, before the heavy infantry closed. Titus Labienus led a cavalry charge, and succeeded in pushing back Caesar's cavalry and light infantry. However, when confronted by Caesar's fourth line of heavy infantry, made from one cohort of the last line of every legion, Labienus' charge was pushed back (Caesar had told his legionaries to thrust their siege spears ( having exchanged the usual Pilum, Pila - plural ) into the enemy cavalrymen's faces instead of throwing them), and the light infantry and cavalry of Pompey's left were pushed into the foothills surrounding the battle. Caesar's fourth battle line wheeled into Pompey's rear at the same moment when Caesar pushed a fresh line of troops into battle. Now facing Caesar's fresh third line at the center of the battle and the attack from behind from Caesar's fourth line, Pompey saw that his defeat was at hand. Pompey fled the battle while his troops were defeated under pressure. Caesar ransacked Pompey's camp, and took control of the remainder of Pompey's army. Aftermath Pompey fled from Pharsalus to Egypt, where he was assassinated on the order of Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII. The Battle of Pharsalus ended the wars of the First Triumvirate. The Roman Civil War, however, was not ended. Pompey's two sons, the most important of whom was Sextus Pompeius, and the Pompeian faction led now by Labienus, survived and fought their cause in the name of Pompey the Great. Caesar spent the next few years 'mopping up' remnants of the senatorial faction. After finally completing this task, he was assassinated in a conspiracy arranged by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Importance Paul K. Davis writes, "Caesar’s victory took him to the pinnacle of power, effectively ending the Republic." Paul K. Davis, 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World’s Major Battles and How They Shaped History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 59. Note The date of the battle is given as 9 August. This is according to the republican calendar. The date according to the Julian calendar, was either 29 June 48 BC (according to Le Verrier's chronological reconstruction) or 7 June 48 BC (according to Drumann/Groebe). Pompey was assassinated on September 3rd. The point is not entirely academic; had the battle taken place in the true month of August, when the harvest was becoming ripe, Pompey's strategy of starving Caesar would have been senseless. Location Controversy long raged among scholars over the location of the battlefield. Although the battle is called after Pharsalos, four ancient writers - the author of the Bellum Alexandrinum (48.1), Frontinus (Strategemata 2.3.22), Eutropius (20), and Orosius (6.15.27) - place it specifically at Palaepharsalos. Until the early 20th century, unsure of the site of Palae-pharsalos, scholars placed the battle south of the Enipeus or close to Pharsalos (today's Farsala). The “north-bank” conjecture of F. L. Lucas (Annual of the British School at Athens, No. XXIV, 1919-21), based on his 1921 solo field-trip to Thessaly, is now, however, broadly accepted by historians. “A visit to the ground has only confirmed me,” Lucas wrote in 1921; “and it was interesting to find that Mr. Apostolides, son of the large local landowner, the hospitality of whose farm at Tekés I enjoyed, was convinced too that the site was by Driskole [now Krini], for the very sound reason that neither the hills nor the river further east suit Caesar’s description.” John D. Morgan in his definitive “Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town” (The American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 87, No. 1, Jan. 1983), arguing for a site closer still to Krini, writes: “My reconstruction is similar to Lucas’s, and in fact I borrow one of his alternatives for the line of the Pompeian retreat. Lucas’s theory has been subjected to many criticisms, but has remained essentially unshaken.” Named after battle The battle gives its name to Pharsalia, a poem by Lucan Pharsalia, New York, U.S. Pharsalia Technologies, Inc. References Further reading William E. Gwatkin, Jr., Some Reflections on the Battle of Pharsalus, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 87. (1956), pp. 109-124. 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5,667 | Jacobitism | Charles Edward Stuart, The Young Pretender, wearing the Scottish blue bonnet and Jacobite White Cockade Jacobitism was (and, to a limited extent, remains) the political movement dedicated to the restoration of the Stuart kings to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The movement took its name from the Latin form Jacobus of the name of King James II and VII. Jacobitism was a response to the deposition of James II and VII in 1688 when he was replaced by his daughter Mary II jointly with her husband and first cousin William of Orange. The Stuarts lived on the European mainland after that, occasionally attempting to regain the throne with the aid of France or Spain. The primary seats of Jacobitism were Ireland and Scotland, particularly the Scottish Highlands. In England, Jacobitism was strongest in the north, and some support also existed in Wales. Many embraced Jacobitism because they believed parliamentary interference with monarchical succession to be illegitimate, and many Catholics hoped the Stuarts would end discriminatory laws. Still other people of various allegiances became involved in the military campaigns for all sorts of motives. In Scotland the Jacobite cause became entangled in the last throes of the warrior Clan system, and became a lasting romantic memory. The emblem of the Jacobites is the White Rose of York; White Rose Day is celebrated on 10 June, the anniversary of the birth of the Old Pretender in 1688. Political background From the second half of the 17th century onwards, a time of political and religious turmoil existed in the kingdoms. The Commonwealth ended with the Restoration of Charles II. During his reign the Church of England was re-established, and episcopal church government was restored in Scotland. The latter move was particularly contentious, causing many, especially in the south-west of Scotland, to abandon the official church, attending illegal field assemblies in preference. The authorities attempted some accommodation with Presbyterian dissidents, introducing official 'Indulgences' in 1669 and 1672, meeting with some limited success. Towards the end of Charles' reign those with more extreme Presbyterian opinions, known as the Covenanters, who favoured rejecting all compromise with the state, began to move away from religious dissent to outright political sedition. This was particularly true of the followers of the Reverend Richard Cameron, soon to be known as the Cameronians. The government increasingly resorted to force in its attempts to stamp out the Cameronians and the other Society Men, in a period subsequently labeled as the Killing Time. Since the late Middle Ages the Kingdoms of England and Scotland had been evolving towards a quasi-oligarchical or collegiate form of government in which the monarch was held to rule with the consensus of the land-owning upper classes. The reigns of the last three Stuart Kings Charles I, Charles II and James II and VII were marked by growing Royal resistance to this developing consensual model of government. In part the Kings were inspired by the development of Royal Absolutism in contemporary Europe (see Louis XIV). In part, however, the apologists of royal authority based their claims on a just assessment of the powers claimed by England and Scotland's medieval monarchs. In 1685 Charles II was succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James II and VII. In addition to sharing his family's absolutist views of government, James tried to introduce religious tolerance of Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters. In Seventeenth century Europe being a religious outsider meant being a political and social outsider as well. James tried to encourage the participation in public life of Roman Catholics, Protestant Dissenters, and Quakers such as William Penn the Younger. Such attempts to broaden his basis of support succeeded in antagonizing members of the Anglican establishment. In Ireland, James's viceroy, Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, was the first Catholic viceroy since the Reformation and acted to reduce Protestant ascendancy and to have strong points in Ireland controlled by garrisons loyal to the views of James. In England and Scotland, James attempted to impose religious toleration, which helped the Catholic minority but alarmed the religious and political establishment. William of Orange, building alliances against France, lobbied the English political élite to have James replaced by William's wife Mary who was James's daughter and next in line to the throne, but they were reluctant to rush a succession expected to happen in due course. Then in 1688 James's second wife had a boy, bringing the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, and the "Immortal Seven" invited William and Mary to depose James. On 4 November 1688 William arrived at Torbay, England and, when he landed the next day, at Brixham, James fled to France: in February 1689 the Glorious Revolution formally changed England's monarch, but many Catholics, Episcopalians and Tory royalists still supported James as the constitutionally legitimate monarch. Scotland was slow to accept William, who summoned a Convention of the Estates which met on 14 March 1689 in Edinburgh and considered a conciliatory letter from William and a haughty one from James. Forces of Cameronians as well as Clan Campbell highlanders led by the Earl of Argyll had come to bolster William's support. On James's side a more modest force of a troop of fifty horsemen gathered by John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee was in town, and he attended the convention at the start but withdrew four days later when support for William became evident. The convention set out its terms and William and Mary were proclaimed at Edinburgh on 11 April 1689, then had their coronation in London in May. Religion, politics and adventurers While Jacobitism was closely linked with Catholicism from the outset, particularly in Ireland, elsewhere in Britain Catholics were a tiny minority by 1689 and the bulk of Jacobite support came from other groups. Catholics formed about 75% of the population of Ireland, but in England only around 1% and in Scotland about 2%. Ireland Irish support for James II was mostly from Catholics, though by taking the French side against the League of Augsburg, James was siding against the Papacy. William was allied to many Catholic states, including the Holy Roman Empire, and his elite force the Dutch Blue Guards had the papal banner with them. The war in Ireland was predominantly a Catholic uprising, and after its defeat in 1691, the Catholics' only military contribution to Jacobite support came from the Irish Brigade of the French army. Jacobitism in Ireland had its roots in Irish support for the Stuart dynasty dating back to the accession of James I to the throne in 1603. Gaelic poets in Ireland lauded James as the first "Irish" king of the Three Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, because of his family's Gaelic ancestry. James and his successors were also viewed as being less hostile to Catholicism than the Tudors. In the Wars of the Three Kingdoms of the 1640s, Irish Catholics organised in Confederate Ireland pledged allegiance to Charles I and Charles II against the English Parliament. As a result, most Catholic landowners had their lands confiscated after Parliament's victory and the Catholic Church suffered harsh repression. James II, the first openly Catholic king of England in over a century, was therefore viewed as a saviour by Irish Catholics. James appointed an Irish Catholic Tyrconnell as Lord Deputy of Ireland, re-admitted Catholics into the army and militia and introduced toleration for the Catholic religion. During the Williamite war in Ireland, he also reluctantly agreed to proclaim the autonomy of the Irish Parliament from the English one and the restitution of lands confiscated from Catholics after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. The demands of religious toleration, legislative autonomy and land ownership were the three key elements of Irish Jacobitism, which remained influential until the mid eighteenth century. England and Scotland In lowland Scotland, the Catholics tended to come from the gentry and formed the most ideologically committed supporters, drawing on almost two centuries of subterfuge as a minority persecuted by the state and rallying enthusiastically to Jacobite armies as well as contributing financial support to the court in exile. Some Scottish Highland clans such as the Clan Macdonald of Clanranald remained Catholic, but they were exceptions. Just as much dedicated support in England came from the Nonjuring Anglicans, which started with Church of England clergy who refused on principle to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary while James still lived, and developed into an Episcopalian schism of the church with small congregations in all the English cities. In many respects, Jacobites perceived themselves as the heirs of the Royalists or Cavaliers of the English Civil War era, who had fought for James II's father Charles I and for the Established Church against the Parliamentarians - who stood for the primacy of Parliament and for religious dissent. Jacobite supporters displayed pictures of both Cavalier and Jacobite heroes in their homes. Scottish Episcopalians provided over half of the Jacobite forces in Britain, and although Dundee's rising in 1689 came mostly from the western Highlands, in later risings Episcopalians came roughly equally from the north-east Scottish Lowlands north of the River Tay and from the Highland clans. They too were described as Nonjurors. As Protestants they could take part in Scottish politics, but were in a minority and were repeatedly discriminated against in legislation favouring the established Church of Scotland. The clergy could even be imprisoned, as occurred in the Stonehaven Tolbooth after three clergymen held services at the chapel at Muchalls Castle. However, many Episcopalians were quiet about any Jacobite sympathies and were able to accommodate themselves to the new regime. About half of the Episcopalians supporting the Jacobite cause came from the Lowlands, but this was obscured in the risings by their tendency to wear Highland dress as a kind of Jacobite uniform. The Scottish Highlands To the Gaelic-speaking Scottish Highland clans, to whom the supporters of Jacobitism were known as Seumasaich, the conflict was more about inter-clan politics than about religion, and a significant factor was resistance to the territorial ambitions of the (Presbyterian) Campbells of Argyll. There was a precedent for post 1689 Jacobitism during the period of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, when clans from the western Highlands had fought for James's father Charles I against the Campbells and the Covenanters. Another factor in Highland Jacobitism was James VII's sympathetic treatment of the Highland clans. Whereas previous monarchs since the late 16th century had been antagonistic to the Gaelic Highland way of life, James had worked sympathetically with the clan chieftains in the Commission for Pacifying the Highlands. Some Highland chieftains therefore viewed Jacobitism as a means of resisting hostile government intrusion into their territories. The significance of their support for the Stuarts was that the Highlands was the only part of Britain which still maintained private armies, in the form of clan levies. During the Jacobite Risings, they provided the bulk of Jacobite manpower. Opportunists and Adventurers Another source of Jacobite support came from those dissatisfied with political developments. Some Whigs, most obviously the Earl of Mar, reacted to political disappointments by joining the Jacobites, but while others were courted from 1692 onwards and indicated support, mostly this was just reinsurance in case the Jacobites came out on top. The Tories were a more likely source of support given their commitment to church and king, but many were reluctant to trust the Church of England to a Catholic king. At times such as 1715–1722 when the Hanoverians appeared to be dismantling Anglican dominance and 1743–1745 when Whig dealings denied the Tories parliamentary victory they would coalesce and turn to the Jacobites, but they were reluctant when it came to serious action. Nevertheless this gave hopes that large numbers of Tories would support a Jacobite rising with a serious prospect of winning, particularly when helped by foreign intervention. The rise and fall of the earlier Tory alliance with the Jacobites forms a major part of the background for Sir Walter Scott's Bride of Lammermoor. Other Jacobite recruits could be described as adventurers — desperate men who saw the cause as a solution to their (usually financial) problems. Although small in number and varying from unemployed weavers looking for excitement to impoverished gentry like William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock who served Charles as a colonel and became a general after the Battle of Falkirk, they contributed significantly to the daring that brought the Jacobites a prospect of success in their campaigns. However, other such mercenaries often became spies and informers. Jacobite community, ideology and policy Further developments are mentioned under "Jacobitism in England" below. From its religious roots, Jacobite ideology was passed on through committed families of the nobility and gentry who would have pictures of the exiled royal family and of Cavalier and Jacobite martyrs, and take part in like minded networks. Even today, some Highland clans and regiments pass their drink over a glass of water during the Loyal Toast — to the King Over the Water. More widely, commoners developed communities in areas where they could fraternise in Jacobite alehouses, inns and taverns, singing seditious songs, collecting for the cause and on occasion being recruited for risings. At government attempts to close such places they simply transferred to another venue. In these neighbourhoods Jacobite wares such as inscribed glassware, brooches with hidden symbols and tartan waistcoats were popular. The criminal activity of smuggling became associated with Jacobitism throughout Britain, partly because of the advantage of dealing through exiled Jacobites in France. Official policy of the court in exile initially reflected the uncompromising intransigence that got James into trouble in the first place. With the powerful support of the French they saw no need to accommodate the concerns of his Protestant subjects, and effectively issued a summons for them to return to their duty. In 1703 Louis pressed James into a more accommodating stance in the hopes of detaching England from the Grand Alliance, essentially promising to maintain the status quo. This policy soon changed, and increasingly Jacobitism ostensibly identified itself with causes of the alienated and dispossessed. Military campaigns and Jacobitism This section focuses on the political context. For military aspects of these campaigns see the Williamite war in Ireland and Jacobite Risings. Jacobite war in Ireland James II and VII had his viceroy Tyrconnell take action to secure Ireland for the Catholic cause, culminating in the Siege of Derry which began on 7 December 1688. By then the deposed James had fled to France, and with support from Louis XIV, who was already at war with William of Orange. James landed in Ireland on 12 March 1689. Having taken Dublin and joined the Siege of Derry, he reluctantly agreed to the demands of a now almost all Catholic Irish Parliament (the Patriot Parliament) for an act declaring that the Parliament of England had no right to pass laws for Ireland, toleration of Catholicism and a reversal of the Cromwellian confiscations. Williamite forces relieved the siege of Derry in August, 1689 and cleared most of Ulster of Jacobites. Skirmishes continued across the country until Winter set hitting the Williamite army particularly hard. In light of the little progress, William decided to take charge in person and arrived at Belfast Lough on 14 June 1690. The following 1 July, William and James met, accompanied by 50,000 of their men, at the Battle of the Boyne. The Jacobite army retreated, incurring little damage under cavalry, but demoralised by defeat. Despite leaving the field relatively unscathed, James fled to France, leaving the Irish to fight on and acquiring the nickname Séamus an chaca (James, the shite) in Irish folk memory. A year later on 12 July 1691, over 7,000 died at the Battle of Aughrim, the bloodiest battle ever on Irish soil. This defeat saw the effective end of the Jacobite cause in Ireland although the city of Limerick held out under siege until October (see the Siege of Limerick) eventually negotiating a treaty. Under the terms, 14,000 Jacobite soldiers chose to continue fighting the Jacobite cause on the Continent, the so-called Flight of the Wild Geese (1,000 more chose to join the Williamite cause and 2,000 more chose to return to their homes). The treaty also contained provision for religious tolerance in Ireland. These latter terms were not upheld and following the conclusion of the war in Ireland a return to the Anglican-dominated parliament saw the provisions of the Patriot Parliament declared null and void, and as a series of Penal Laws subsequently enacted. Jacobitism lingered on for another century in the ideology of nationalist secret societies, but did not play an overt role again in Ireland. Dundee's rising David Morier's depiction of the Battle of Culloden shows the highlanders still wearing the plaids which they normally set aside before battle, where they would fire a volley then run full tilt at the enemy with broadsword and targe in the "Highland charge" wearing only their shirts. On 16 April 1689, almost a month after he left the Convention in Edinburgh and five days after it had proclaimed William and Mary, John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, raised James's standard on the hilltop of Dundee Law with fewer than 50 men in support. At that time he was known as Bluidy Clavers for his part in dealing with Covenanters, but nowadays he is sometimes remembered as Bonnie Dundee from the words of a sentimental popular song written by the Romantic novelist, Walter Scott, in 1830. At first he had difficulty in raising many supporters, but after the Williamite commander had proved ineffective and 200 Irish troops had landed at Kintyre he gained support from Catholic and Episcopalian Highland Clans, though not from the Episcopal Bishops of the Scots nobility. Victory for the Jacobite Highlanders at the Battle of Killiecrankie on 27 July 1689 was marred when Dundee was killed in the fighting. A series of government expeditions to subdue the Highlands eventually led to Jacobite defeat in May 1690 and lingering hopes faded with news of the Battle of the Boyne. A year later the Jacobites were forced to agree to a truce while the Clan chieftains sent requests to the exiled James VII and II for permission to submit to William, and in January 1692 the Jacobite Clans formally surrendered to the government. William's main interest was in the War of the Grand Alliance in the Low Countries against the French and he paid little attention to Scotland, trying to bribe or coerce the clan leaders. His demands that each chief put in writing the submission authorised by James resulted in the Massacre of Glencoe on 13 February 1692. James III's attempted invasion In 1701 James II and VII died. He was succeeded in his claims by his son, James Francis Edward Stuart. He was recognised as King James III of England and King James VIII of Scotland by the courts of France, Spain, and Modena, and by the pope. To his detractors he was eventually to be known as the Old Pretender, while his supporters referred to him as the King Across the Water. After a brief peace, the War of the Spanish Succession renewed French support for the Jacobites and in 1708 James Francis set out with French troops, but the French fleet was chased away by the Royal Navy and retreated round the north of Scotland back to France. Hanoverians In March 1702 William died and the throne passed to Mary's sister Anne, the last of James II and VII's children to sit upon the thrones of England and Scotland. Scotland's economy was faltering and the English parliament used trade sanctions to force the Scottish parliament towards union. One Scottish politician who thrived in these unpopular negotiations was the Earl of Mar who, despite his Episcopalian background, ably supported the Scottish Revolution interest and after being a signatory to the Act of Union of 1707 was rewarded by Queen Anne and rose in the new British parliament to a key role in running Scottish affairs, a position formalised in 1713 when the post of Secretary of State for Scotland was revived for him. In that year he was part of the ministry that negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht which ended hostilities between France and Britain, in a deal unpopular with Hanoverians and Whigs. Widespread discontent gave the Jacobites increasing hopes that James Francis Edward Stuart would gain power when the popular Anne died leaving no immediate successor. However, the Act of Settlement 1701 required the monarch to be Protestant while James Francis was a devout Catholic. The crown therefore passed to Anne's second cousin the Elector of Hanover, great grandson of James I of England and VI of Scotland, who thus became George I. The Whigs acted quickly to bring in the new king, forestalling possible arguments. George I spoke poor English, but was a proven soldier and statesman and extremely popular with his subjects, who constructed their own images of his kingship in the absence of a centrally-driven propaganda campaign of the sort undertaken by Louis XIV of France and the later Stuart kings. George favoured the Whigs, and in the spring of 1715 the Tories lost the General Election to the Whigs, who then impeached Tory leaders for their part in the peace negotiations with France. Tory fears for themselves and for the High Church of England led to conspiracy for armed rebellion, but when the time came their leaders were paralysed with fear and indecision and an alerted government ordered the arrest of the major players. At the day for the rising in the south-west a large number of Tory gentry turned up for "a race meeting" at Bath, but on receiving a letter from their leader (who was in hiding) saying that all was lost, they went home. The 'Fifteen' In Scotland years of famine and hardship provided fertile ground for what is often referred to as the First Jacobite Rising (or Rebellion). Mar had found himself identified with the previous government which thwarted his attempts to continue in office in the incoming Hanoverian government of King George I, and fearing impeachment he turned his loyalty to James, justifying his nickname Bobbin' John. James Francis corresponded with Mar from France, as part of widespread Jacobite plotting, and in the summer of 1715 he called on Mar to raise the Clans without further delay. Mar, realising that the government had found out about his part in the conspiracy, rushed from London to Braemar and summoned clan leaders to "a grand hunting-match" on 27 August 1715 where he announced his change of allegiance. On 6 September he proclaimed James as "their lawful sovereign" and raised the old Scottish standard, whereupon (ominously) the gold ball fell off the top of the flagpole. Mar's proclamation called on men to fight "for the relief of our native country from oppression and a foreign yoke too heavy for us or our posterity to bear". While Mar succeeded in raising an alliance of clans and northern Lowlanders, he turned out to be an indifferent and indecisive general. Planned risings in Wales and Devon were forestalled by government arrests. A rising in the north of England joined forces with a rising in the south of Scotland and with a contingent from Mar marched into England, but did not meet the expected welcome and surrendered after a brief siege at the Battle of Preston (1715). Mar's forces in Scotland were unable to defeat government forces. A ship from France belatedly brought James Francis to Peterhead, but he was too consumed by melancholy and fits of fever to inspire his followers. After briefly setting up court at Scone, Perthshire then retreating to the coast, he withdrew to France with Mar on 4 February 1716, leaving a message advising his Highland followers to shift for themselves. Jacobitism in Britain George remained popular with the majority of his subjects, but over the next five years, and to a reduced extent afterwards, a significant section of the British crowd asserted loyalism in Jacobite forms, including songs, symbolic oak leaves and white roses worn on anniversaries, attacks on Whigs and hanging or burning effigies of George with cuckold's horns. They derided his marital problems and alleged mistresses (who got nicknames like the Goose and the Elephant) with songs (preserved in Jacobite Reliques) like Cam Ye O'er Frae France which includes the words "Saw ye Geordie's grace, riding on a goosie?". Roman Catholic liturgical books were often decorated with Jacobite floral imagery, and the texts had coded Jacobite meanings, one example being the hymn Adeste Fideles (also known as O Come All Ye Faithful), a birth ode to Bonnie Prince Charlie replete with secret references decipherable by the "faithful" - the followers of the Pretender, James Francis Edward Stuart. In the minds of many, the "King over the Water" (whom the Jacobites' opponents called the Old Pretender) became a mythical Arthurian figure, a good king who would one day return and put things right. There was also a developing myth of Jacobite martyrs, praising the brave defiance of Jacobites at the scaffold and treasuring relics in an almost religious way. This inspired their supporters, but for most people these hangings merely showed that the Jacobites were on the losing side. Spanish supported Jacobite invasion The failure of the 15 convinced the Jacobites that to overthrow the Hanoverians they needed the support of a major European power, and in an age when the Habsburg empire was collapsing and armies becoming professionalised this gave a lever to any country in dispute with Britain. With France still at peace, the Jacobites found a new ally in Spain's Minister to the King, Cardinal Giulio Alberoni, but an invasion force which set sail in 1719 failed to reach England and the party of Jacobites and Spanish soldiers which reached Scotland met only lukewarm support and the Spanish soldiers were forced to surrender at the Battle of Glen Shiel. The Atterbury plot Francis Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester and a passionate High Tory, conspired with Mar who had been appointed "Secretary of State" by James Francis in France, for a rising to coincide with the general election in 1722 aiming to exploit public anger over the South Sea Bubble. English Tories out in their constituencies were to summon their kinsmen, friends and tenants to secure their localities and march on London, while volunteers from the Irish Brigade were to land in the south to join them. While the French were sympathetic, an official request for assistance from the Jacobite court in exile meant that they could no longer turn a blind eye so they informed the English ambassador and posted the Irish Brigade out of temptation's way. Mar was bullied into betraying the conspiracy, which collapsed with arrests, denunciations and flights abroad. Aftermath of the 'Fifteen in Scotland In the aftermath of the 'Fifteen, the Disarming Act and the Clan Act made ineffectual attempts to subdue the Scottish Highlands, and efforts at "rooting out of the Irish language" (Gaelic) were renewed. Government garrisons were built or extended and linked to the south by the Wade roads constructed for Major-General George Wade. Jacobitism lingered on amid resentment of economic hardship and the Whig government, and Catholic missionaries increased their influence with some clans, but, generally Jacobitism became more of a secretive game with the glasses of claret being waved over water before the Loyal Toast so that it became a toast to "the King (over the water)". In 1725 Wade raised the independent companies of the Black Watch as a militia to keep peace in the unruly Highlands, but in 1743 they were moved to fight the French in Flanders. The Cornbury plot Robert Walpole's Excise Scheme of 1733 caused a crisis with public disorders, and Lord Cornbury, heir to the Earl of Clarendon, convinced the French ambassador in London and the French Secretary of State in Paris that the Hanoverian regime was crumbling and proposed a French invasion matched with Jacobite risings. The French cabinet considered the scheme then rejected it, their officials were demoted and Cornbury abandoned politics. 1744 French invasion attempt Anglo-French relations gradually worsened and the Jacobites tried proposing further schemes, starting in 1737 with John Gordon of Glenbucket suggesting a Highland rising backed by French invasion and continued with lobbying by Lord Semphill as "official" Jacobite agent at the French court. During 1743 the War of the Austrian Succession drew Britain and France into open, though unofficial, hostilities against each other. Through Semphill, English Jacobites made a formal request to France for armed intervention. The French king's Master of Horse toured southern England meeting Tories and discussing their proposals, and in November 1743 Louis XV of France authorised a large-scale invasion of southern England in February 1744. Charles Edward Stuart (later known as Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender) who was in exile in Rome with his father (James Francis) was invited to accompany the expedition and rushed to France, but a storm destroyed the attempt. The British lodged strong diplomatic objections to the presence of Charles, and France declared war but abandoned ideas of Jacobite risings and gave Charles no more encouragement. The 'Forty-Five' Early in 1744 a small number of Scottish Highland clan chieftains had sent Charles a message that they would rise if he arrived with as few as 3,000 French troops, and even against later cautions from his advisers he was determined not to turn back. He secretively borrowed funds, pawned his mother's jewellery and made preparations with a consortium of privateers. He set out for Scotland on 22 June 1745 with two ships, but the larger ship with 700 volunteers from the Irish Brigade and supplies of armaments was forced back. Charles landed with his seven men of Moidart on the island of Eriskay in the Outer Hebrides on 23 July 1745, and though Scottish clans initially showed little enthusiasm Charles went on to lead the Second Jacobite Rising in his father's name, taking Perth and Edinburgh almost unopposed. The small Hanoverian army in Scotland under Sir John Cope chased round the Highlands, and eventually encountered Charles near Edinburgh where they were routed by a surprise attack at the Battle of Prestonpans, as celebrated in the Jacobite song "Hey, Johnnie Cope, Are Ye Waking Yet?". There was alarm in England, and in London a patriotic song was performed including the defiant verse: Lord grant that Marshal Wade Shall by thy mighty aid Victory bring May he sedition hush, And like a torrent rush Rebellious Scots to crush God save the King. This song was widely adopted and was to become the National Anthem (usually sung without that verse). After Charles held court at Holyrood Palace for five weeks he overcame Lord George Murray's caution by declaring that he had Tory assurances of an English rising and the Jacobite army set for England. Under Murray's command they successfully manoeuvred past government armies to reach Derby on 4 December, only 125 miles (200 km) from a panicking London, with a resentful Charles barely on speaking terms with his general. By then Charles was advised of progress on the French invasion fleet which was then assembling at Dunkirk, but at his Council of War his previous lies about assurances were exposed. They returned to join their growing force in Scotland, with a petulant Charles refusing to take any part in running the campaign until he insisted on fighting an orthodox defensive action at the Battle of Culloden on 16 April 1746 and they were finally defeated. Charles fled to France blaming everything on the treachery of his officers and making a dramatic if humiliating escape disguised as Flora MacDonald's "lady's maid". Cumberland's forces crushed the rebellion and effectively ended Jacobitism as a serious political force in Britain. Decline of Jacobitism Jacobitism entered permanent decline after the "Forty-Five" rebellion. The French made every effort to rescue Jacobite chieftains as well as Charles, and gave him a hero's welcome back to France, but soon tired of his badgering them to provide a renewed assault on the Hanoverians. After French victories knocked the Netherlands out of the war, the British offered reasonable peace terms and made the expulsion of Charles from France a precondition of negotiations. Charles ignored the French court's order to depart, continued to demand military action and support for his extravagant lifestyle and flaunted his presence around Paris as peace negotiations for the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle got under way. After British complaints the French government lost patience with Charles and in December 1748 he was seized on his way to the Opéra and briefly jailed before being expelled. Elibank plot From 1749 to 1751 Charles laid the groundwork for a rising in England including a visit to London in 1750 when he conferred with the Jacobite leaders and considered an assault on the Tower of London as well as converting to Anglicanism. The English were clear that they would not move without foreign assistance, and Charles turned to Frederick II of Prussia. While Frederick was indifferent to the Jacobite cause he made diplomatic use of the opportunity, and appointed the Earl Marischal as his ambassador to Paris, in a position to keep him informed and veto any plans. Andrew Murray of Elibank, the liaison between Charles and the plotters, finally realised there was no hope of foreign assistance and ended the conspiracy, but by then Charles had sent two exiled Scots as agents to prepare the clans. They were betrayed by Aleistair Ruadh MacDonell of Glengarry, a spy in Charles' entourage, and while one was arrested the other barely escaped. Typically Charles responded to the failure by denouncing his comrades, drunkenness and beating his mistress. Finally, in a dispute with Marischal and the English conspirators in 1754 a drunken Charles apparently threatened to publish their names for having "betrayed" him, finally forcing his supporters to abandon the Jacobite cause. Loss of French support In 1759 French naval defeats at Lagos and Quiberon Bay forced them to abandon a planned invasion of Britain, which would have placed Charles on the throne. Many consider this the last realistic chance for the Jacobites. With its passing, Charles collapsed yet further into alcoholism and was soon entirely abandoned by the French government, who saw little further use for him. The English Jacobites stopped sending funds and by 1760 Charles had returned to Catholicism and was relying on the Papacy to support his lifestyle in Rome. In 1766, when Old Pretender James (VIII/III) Edward Stuart died, the Holy See refused to recognise "Bonnie" Prince Charles as the lawful sovereign of Great Britain, thus losing his most powerful support, the French support being long gone. In 1788, the Scottish Catholics swore allegiance to the Hanover Dynasty, and resolved two years later to pray for King George by name. Crushing of the clans In an effort to prevent further trouble in the Scottish Highlands, the government outlawed many cultural practices in order to destroy the warrior clan system. The Act of Proscription incorporating the Disarming Act and the Dress Act required all swords to be surrendered to the government and prohibited wearing of tartans or kilts. The Tenures Abolition Act ended the feudal bond of military service and the Heritable Jurisdictions Act removed the virtually sovereign power the chiefs had over their clan. The extent of enforcement of the prohibitions was variable and sometimes related to a clan's support of the government during the rebellion. Government troops were stationed in the Highlands and built more roads and barracks to better control the region, with a new fortress at Fort George to the east of Inverness which still serves as a base for Highland Regiments of the British Army. Highland clans found a way back to legitimacy by providing regiments to the British Army, many of whom served with distinction in the subsequent Seven Years War. Henry IX When Charles died in 1788 the Stuart claim to the throne passed to his younger brother Henry, who had become a Cardinal, and who now styled himself King Henry IX of England. After falling into financial difficulty during the French Revolution, he was granted a stipend by George III. However, he never actually surrendered his claims to the throne, though all former supporters of Jacobitism had stopped funding. Following the death of Henry in 1807, the Jacobite claims passed to those excluded by the Act of Settlement: initially to the House of Savoy (1807-1840), then to the Modenese branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine (1840-1919), and finally to the House of Bavaria (1919-present). Franz, Duke of Bavaria is the current Jacobite heir. Neither he nor any of his predecessors since 1807 have pursued their claim. Henry, Charles and James are memorialised in the Monument to the Royal Stuarts in the Vatican. Outcome What began with the English parliament asserting a new authority and William looking to expand alliances against France quickly developed into a major distraction, with William being forced to focus attention on Ireland and Scotland, and parliament having to fund the armies needed to overcome the Jacobites. This distraction helped keep Britain from intervening on the continent and contributed to twenty years of peace in Europe, while continuing unrest forced the British state to develop repressive strategies with networks of spies and informers as well as increasing its standing army. While Jacobitism increasingly appealed to the disaffected, it inherently bowed to higher authority and thus reinforced the social order. It left the British state strengthened to deal with the more revolutionary movements that developed later in the 18th century. Romantic revival "Jacobites" by John Pettie: romantic view of Jacobitism Jacobitism became a remnant of hidden relics. It was remembered in folk songs (such as the still famous "Skye Boat Song"), and became the subject of romantic poetry and literature, notably the work of Robert Burns and Walter Scott. Scots such as these hailed from a post-Jacobite era and so could afford to take a more indulgent approach to the rebels' memory than previous generations could, who remembered the fighting. Walter Scott, author of Waverley, a story of the 1745 rebellion, combined romantic Jacobitism with an appreciation of the practical benefits of the Hanoverian government, and in 1822 he arranged a pageantry of reinvented Scottish traditions for the visit of King George IV to Scotland when George IV visited Edinburgh and dressed as a tubby kilted successor to his distant relative the Young Pretender. The tartan pageantry was immensely popular and the kilt became Scotland's National Dress. In the late nineteenth century, there was a brief revival of political Jacobitism,with the creation of a number of Jacobite clubs and societies such as the Order of the White Rose and the Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and Ireland. These came to an end with the first World War and are now represented by the Royal Stuart Society. In popular culture Jacobitism has been a popular subject for speculative and humorous fiction. In the 1920s, D. K. Broster wrote the Jacobite Trilogy of novels featuring the dashing hero Ewen Cameron. Science Fiction writer John Whitbourn facetiously described his 1998 book, "The Royal Changeling" as "The first work of Jacobite propaganda for several centuries". Among the political entities sharing a future human-settled galaxy depicted by A. Bertram Chandler is "The Jacobite Kingdom of Waverly". One of Chandler's stories mentions "the coronation of King James XIV", held with great pomp and broadcast throughout the Galaxy. Joan Aiken's Wolves Chronicles have as background an alternative history of England, in which King James III, a Stuart, is on the throne, and the Hanoverians plot to overthrow him. In an episode of The Avengers TV series, "Esprit de Corps," originally broadcast March 14, 1964 , a Scottish general plots a coup using Cathy Gale as the Stuart heir, whom he wishes to enthrone as Queen Anne II. Garrison Keillor told one of his Lake Wobegon stories, "The Royal Family," about a poor Minnesota family who are persuaded that they are the long-lost Stuart heirs. They dream of returning to Edinburgh and taking their rightful place on the throne of Scotland. A fictional account is given of the Jacobite/Hanoverian conflict in The Long Shadow, The Chevalier and The Maiden, Volumes 6-8 of The Morland Dynasty, a series of historical novels by author Cynthia Harrod-Eagles. Insight is given through the eyes of the Morland family into the religious, political and emotional issues at the heart of the struggle. Jacobite claimants to the thrones of England, Scotland, (France), and Ireland James II and VII (6 February 1685 16 September 1701). James III and VIII (16 September 1701 1 January 1766), James Francis Edward Stuart, also known as the Chevalier de St. George, the King over the Water, or the Old Pretender. Charles III (1 January 1766 31 January 1788), Charles Edward Stuart, also known as Bonnie Prince Charlie, the Young Chevalier, or the Young Pretender. Henry IX and I (31 January 1788 13 July 1807), Henry Benedict Stuart, also known as the Cardinal King. Since Henry's death, none of the Jacobite heirs has made a public claim to the English or Scottish or combined British thrones. The current representative is the senior co-heir-general of King Charles I, Franz, Duke of Bavaria. References Ruvigny & Raineval, Marquis de (Melville Henry Massue) (comp.). The Jacobite Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage & Grants of Honour. Edinburgh: T. C. & E. C. Jack, 1904. The Lion in the North, John Prebble, Penguin Books 1973 Maritime Scotland, Brian Lavery, B T Batsford Ltd., 2001, ISBN 0-7134-8520-5 Scotland, A Concise History, Fitzroy Maclean, Thames and Hudson 1991, ISBN 0-500-27706-0 Bonnie Prince Charlie, Fitzroy Maclean, Canongate Books Ltd. 1989 ISBN 0-86241-568-3 The Jacobites, Britain and Europe 1688 — 1788, Daniel Szechi, Manchester University Press 1994 ISBN 0-7190-3774-3 The Myths of the Jacobite Clans, Murray G. H. Pittock, Edinburgh University Press 1995 ISBN 0-7486-0715-3 Came ye o'er frae France — folk-rock version by Steeleye Span. Georgian Monarchy: Politics and Culture, 1714-60, Hannah Smith, Cambridge University Press 2006 See also Lowland and Highland Clearances James (for the relationship between the names James and Jacob) Jacobite peerage Louisa Maria Teresa Stuart British military history List of movements that dispute the legitimacy of a reigning monarch McGillicuddy Serious Party A Jacobite political party in New Zealand External links The Jacobites The Jacobite Heritage Defenders Of Scotland BBC-Interactive Timeline of British History General History of the Highlands The University of Guelph Library, Archival and Special Collections, has more than 500 Jacobite pamphlets, histories, and literature in its rare books section introduced at http://www.lib.uoguelph.ca/resources/archival_&_special_collections/the_collections/digital_collections/scottish/Jacobite_site_0.htm Ascanius; or, the Young Adventurer | Jacobitism |@lemmatized charles:43 edward:8 stuart:23 young:8 pretender:10 wear:5 scottish:22 blue:2 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5,668 | Atlas_Autocode | Atlas Autocode (AA) was a programming language developed around 1965 at Manchester University for the Atlas Computer. It was developed by Tony Brooker and Derrick Morris as an improvement on the ALGOL programming languages, removing some of Algol's poorer features such as "passing parameters by name" (which with Algol 60 meant not its usual meaning but passing the address of a short subroutine to recalculate the parameter each time it was mentioned). It featured explicitly typed variables, subroutines, and functions. The AA compiler generated range-checking for array accesses, and allowed an array to have dimensions that were determined at run-time (i.e. you could declare an array as integer array Thing (i:j), where i and j were calculated values). Direct machine coding was allowed. Atlas Autocode included a complex data type which would support complex numbers (for example, the square root of -1). A complex number was represented as an expression involving i, which was treated as a fixed complex constant = i. This was partly because of pressure from the electrical engineering department, which used complex numbers much to represent the behavior of alternating current. This 'complex' feature was dropped when Atlas Autocode later morphed into the Edinburgh IMP programming language. (Imp was an extension of AA and was notable for being used to write the EMAS operating system.) Keywords in AA were represented as being underlined. There was a mode "uppercasedelimiters", where all uppercase letters (outside strings) were treated as underlined lowercase. In some versions (but not in the original Atlas version), for the sake of easy typing it was possible to strop keywords by placing a "%" sign in front of them, for example the keyword endofprogramme could be typed as %end %of %programme or %endofprogramme There were no reserved words in the language. In the statement if token=if then result = token, there is both a keyword if and a variable named if. Because of this keyword stropping, it was possible for AA to allow spaces in variable names, such as integer previous value. Spaces were not significant and were removed prior to parsing in a trivial pre-lexing stage called "line reconstruction". What the compiler would see in the above example would be "iftoken=ifthenresult=token". The syntax for expressions let the multiplication operator be omitted, e.g. 3a was treated as 3*a, and a(i+j) was treated as a*(i+j) if a was not an array. In ambiguous usages, the longest possible name was taken, for example ab was not treated as a*b, whether or not a and b had been declared. Atlas Autocode's syntax was influenced by the output device which the author had available, a Friden Flexowriter. Consequently it allowed symbols like "½" for ".5" and the superscript 2 for "to the power of 2". The flexowriter supported overstriking and therefore AA did as well - up to three characters could be overstruck as a single symbol. For example the character set had no "↑" symbol, so exponentiation was an overstrike of "|" and "*". (The underlining of keywords mentioned above could also be done using overstriking.) The language is described in detail in the Atlas Autocode Reference Manual. Other Flexowriter characters that were found a use in Atlas Autocode were: α in floating-point numbers, e.g. 3.56α-7 for modern 3.56e-7 ; β to mean "the second half of an Atlas memory word"; π for the mathematical number. When AA was ported to the English Electric KDF9 computer, the character set was changed to ISO and that compiler has been recovered from an old paper tape by the Edinburgh Computer History Project and is available online, as is a high-quality scan of the original Atlas Autocode manual. Atlas Autocode's second-greatest claim to fame (after being the progenitor of Imp and EMAS) was that it had many of the features of the original "Compiler Compiler". A variant of the AA compiler included run-time support for a top-down recursive descent parser. The style of parser used in the Compiler Compiler was in use continuously at Edinburgh from the 60's until almost the turn of the millennium. Other Autocodes were developed for the Titan (computer) (a prototype Atlas 2) at Cambridge and the Ferranti Mercury. External links Atlas Autocode Reference Manual Programming In Atlas Autocode - Edinburgh University Computer Unit Report #1 (1965). 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5,669 | Demographics_of_Namibia | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Namibia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Namibians are of diverse ethnic origins. The principal groups are the Ovambo, Kavango, Herero/Himba, Damara, mixed race (Coloured and Rehoboth Baster), white (Afrikaner, German, and Portuguese), Nama, Caprivian (Lozi), Bushmen (San), and Tswana. The Coloureds and Basters share similar genealogical origins and cultural attributes (such as home language) but nonetheless maintain distinctly separate communal identities, as do most white Namibians and black Namibians, respectively. The Ovambo make up about half of Namibia's people. The Ovambo, Kavango, and East Caprivian peoples, who occupy the relatively well-watered and wooded northern part of the country, are settled farmers and herders. Historically, they have shown little interest in the central and southern parts of Namibia, where conditions do not suit their traditional way of life. Until the early 1900s, these tribes had little contact with the Nama, Damara, and Herero, who roamed the central part of the country vying for control of sparse pastureland. German colonial rule destroyed the warmaking ability of the tribes but did not erase their identities or traditional organization. People from the more populous north have settled throughout the country in recent decades as a result of urbanization, industrialization, and the demand for labor. The modern mining, farming, and industrial sectors of the economy, controlled by the white minority, have affected traditional African society without transforming it. Urban and migratory workers have adopted Western ways, but in rural areas, traditional society remains intact. Missionary work during the 1800s drew many Namibians to Christianity, especially Lutheranism. While most Namibian Christians are Lutheran, there also are Roman Catholic, Methodist, Anglican, African Methodist Episcopal, and Dutch Reformed Christians represented. Modern education and medical care have been extended in varying degrees to most rural areas in recent years. The literacy rate of Africans is generally low except in sections where missionary and government education efforts have been concentrated, such as Ovamboland. The Africans speak various indigenous languages. The minority white population is primarily of South African, British, and German descent, with a few Portuguese. About 60% of the whites speak Afrikaans (a language derived from 17th century Dutch), 32% speak German, and 7% speak English. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Namibia, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 2,088,669 (July 2008 est.) 1,927,447 (July, 2003 est.) 1,771,327 (July 2002 est.) note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected Age structure 0-14 years: 42.5% (male 414,559; female 404,346) (2003 est.), 43% (male 384,900; female 375,282) (2000 est.) 15-64 years: 54% (male 517,469; female 522,549) (2003 est.), 53% (male 468,942; female 475,504) (2000 est.) 65 years and over: 3.5% (male 30,038; female 38,486) (2003 est.), 4% (male 28,905; female 37,794) (2000 est.) Population growth rate 0.94% (2008 est.) 1.49% (2003 est.) 1.57% (2000 est.) Birth rate 34.1 births/1,000 population (2003 est.), 35.23 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate 19.17 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.), 19.49 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate 0.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.) 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female (2003, 2000 est.) under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female (2003, 2000 est.) 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female (2003, 2000 est.) 65 years and over: 0.78 male(s)/female (2003 est.), 0.76 male(s)/female (2000 est.) total population: 1 male(s)/female (2003 est.), 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 68.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.), 70.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) female: 65.06 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) male: 71.72 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 49.89 years male: 50.39 years female: 49.38 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate 2.81 children born/woman (2008 est.) 4.71 children born/woman (2003 est.) 4.89 children born/woman (2000 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate 22.5% (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS 230,000 (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - deaths 13,000 (2001 est.) Nationality noun: Namibian(s) adjective: Namibian Ethnic groups Black 77,5%, White 16%, Mixed 6.5% note: about 50% of the population belong to the Ovambo tribe and 9% to the Kavangos tribe; other ethnic groups are: Herero 7%, Damara 7%, Nama 5%, Caprivian 4%, Bushmen 3%, Baster 2%, Tswana 0.5% Religions Christian 80% to 90% (Lutheran 50% at least), indigenous beliefs 10% to 20% (see Religion in Namibia) Languages Oshiwambo languages are spoken by 48% of the population, the Khoekhoe language by 11%, Afrikaans by 11%, Kavango languages by 10% and Herero by 10%. English, the official language, is spoken by less than 1% of people as their native language. Among whites, 60% speak Afrikaans, 32% German, 7% English, and 1% Portuguese. Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 84% (2003 est.) 38% (1960 est.) male: 84.4% (2003 est.), 45% (1960 est.) female: 83.7% (2003 est.) 31% (1960 est.) 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5,670 | California | California () is a state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, Arizona to the southeast, and, to the south, the Mexican state of Baja California. California is the most populous U.S. state. Its four largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, and San Francisco. The state is home to eight of the nation's fifty largest cities. It is known for its varied climate and geography as well as its diverse population. The area known as Alta California was colonized by the Spanish Empire beginning in the late 18th century. It and the rest of Mexico became an independent republic in 1821. In 1846, California broke away from Mexico, and, after the Mexican-American War, Mexico ceded California to the United States. It became the 31st state admitted to the United States on September 9, 1850. California is the most populous U.S state, and the third-largest U.S. state by land area after Alaska and Texas. Its geography ranges from the Pacific coast to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the east, to Mojave desert areas in the southeast and the Redwood-Douglas fir forests of the northwest. The center of the state is dominated by the Central Valley, one of the most productive agricultural areas in the world. The California Gold Rush dramatically changed California with a large influx of people and an economic boom that caused San Francisco to grow from a tiny hamlet of tents to a world-renowned boomtown in the 19th century. The early 20th century was marked by the establishment of Los Angeles as the center of the American entertainment industry, in addition to the growth of a large tourism sector in the state as a whole. Along with California's prosperous agricultural industry, other industries include aerospace, petroleum, and computer and information technology. If California were a separate country, it would rank among the ten largest economies in the world, with a GDP similar to that of Italy, and it would be 35th among the most populous countries. Etymology The word California originally referred to the entire region composed of what is today the state of California, plus all or parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and Wyoming, and the Mexican peninsula of Baja California. The name California is most commonly believed to have derived from a fictional paradise peopled by black Amazons and ruled by a Queen Califia. The myth of Califia is recorded in a 1510 work The Exploits of Esplandian, written as a sequel to Amadís de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Califia or Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a remote land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts and rich in gold. Know ye that at the right hand of the Indies there is an island named California, very close to that part of the terrestrial Paradise, which was inhabited by black women, without a single man among them, and that they lived in the manner of Amazons. They were robust of body, with strong and passionate hearts and great virtues. The island itself is one of the wildest in the world on account of the bold and craggy rocks. Their weapons were all made of gold. The island everywhere abounds with gold and precious stones, and upon it no other metal was found. Person-Lynn, 2004. The name California is the fifth-oldest surviving European place-name in the U.S. and was applied to what is now the southern tip of Baja California as the island of California by a Spanish expedition led by Diego de Becerra and Fortun Ximenez, who landed there in 1533 at the behest of Hernando Cortes. Florida, Dry Tortugas, Cape Canaveral, and Appalachian appeared earlier,....From Spanish historian Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas's accounts, published in 1601 -- Geography and environment California adjoins the Pacific Ocean, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, and the Mexican state of Baja California. With an area of , it is the third-largest state in the United States in size, after Alaska and Texas. If it were a country, California would be the 59th-largest in the world in area. Mt. Shasta overlooks the town of the same name. In the middle of the state lies the California Central Valley, bounded by the coastal mountain ranges in the west, the Sierra Nevada to the east, the Cascade Range in the north and the Tehachapi Mountains in the south. The Central Valley is California's agricultural heartland and grows approximately one-third of the nation's food. Divided in two by the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, the northern portion, the Sacramento Valley serves as the watershed of the Sacramento River, while the southern portion, the San Joaquin Valley is the watershed for the San Joaquin River; both areas derive their names from the rivers that transit them. With dredging, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Rivers have remained sufficiently deep that several inland cities are seaports. The Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta serves as a critical water supply hub for the state. Water is routed through an extensive network of canals and pumps out of the delta, that traverse nearly the length of the state, including the Central Valley Project, and the State Water Project. Water from the Delta provides drinking water for nearly 23 million people, almost two-thirds of the state's population, and provides water to farmers on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley. The Channel Islands are located off the southern coast. Bridalveil Fall flows from a U-shaped hanging valley that was created by a tributary glacier. The Sierra Nevada (Spanish for "snowy range") include the highest peak in the contiguous forty-eight states, Mount Whitney, at 14,505 ft (4,421 m). The range embraces Yosemite Valley, famous for its glacially carved domes, and Sequoia National Park, home to the giant sequoia trees, the largest living organisms on Earth, and the deep freshwater lake, Lake Tahoe, the largest lake in the state by volume. To the east of the Sierra Nevada are Owens Valley and Mono Lake, an essential migratory bird habitat. In the western part of the state is Clear Lake, the largest freshwater lake by area entirely in California. Though Lake Tahoe is larger, it is divided by the California/Nevada border. The Sierra Nevada falls to Arctic temperatures in winter and has several dozen small glaciers, including Palisade Glacier, the southernmost glacier in the United States. About 45 percent of the state's total surface area is covered by forests, and California's diversity of pine species is unmatched by any other state. California contains more forestland than any other state except Alaska. Many of the trees in the California White Mountains are the oldest in the world; one Bristlecone pine has an age of 4,700 years. In the south is a large inland salt lake, the Salton Sea. Deserts in California make up about 25 percent of the total surface area. The south-central desert is called the Mojave; to the northeast of the Mojave lies Death Valley, which contains the lowest, hottest point in North America, Badwater Flat. The distance from the lowest point of Death Valley to the peak of Mount Whitney is less than 200 miles (322 km). Indeed, almost all of southeastern California is arid, hot desert, with routine extreme high temperatures during the summer. Along the California coast are several major metropolitan areas, including Greater Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay Area, and San Diego. California is famous for earthquakes due to a number of faults, in particular the San Andreas Fault. It is vulnerable to tsunamis, floods, droughts, Santa Ana winds, wildfires, landslides on steep terrain, and has several volcanoes. Climate Coastline at Big Sur. California climate varies from Mediterranean to subarctic. Much of the state has a Mediterranean climate, with cool, rainy winters and dry summers. The cool California Current offshore often creates summer fog near the coast. Further inland, one encounters colder winters and hotter summers. Northern parts of the state average higher annual rainfall than the south. California's mountain ranges influence the climate as well: some of the rainiest parts of the state are west-facing mountain slopes. Northwestern California has a temperate climate, and the Central Valley has a Mediterranean climate but with greater temperature extremes than the coast. The high mountains, including the Sierra Nevada, have a mountain climate with snow in winter and mild to moderate heat in summer. The east side of California's mountains has a drier rain shadow. The low deserts east of the southern California mountains experience hot summers and nearly frostless mild winters; the higher elevation deserts of eastern California see hot summers and cold winters. In Death Valley, the highest temperature in the Western Hemisphere, , was recorded July 10, 1913. Ecology California is one of the richest and most diverse parts of the world, and includes some of the most endangered ecological communities. California is part of the Nearctic ecozone and spans a number of terrestrial ecoregions. |Calaveras Big Trees State Park. California's large number of endemic species includes relict species, which have died out elsewhere, such as the Catalina Ironwood (Lyonothamnus floribundus). Many other endemics originated through differentiation or adaptive radiation, whereby multiple species develop from a common ancestor to take advantage of diverse ecological conditions such as the California lilac (Ceanothus). Many California endemics have become endangered, as urbanization, logging, overgrazing, and the introduction of exotic species have encroached on their habitat. California boasts several superlatives in its collection of flora: the largest trees, the tallest trees, and the oldest trees. California's native grasses are perennial plants. After European contact, these were generally replaced by invasive species of European annual grasses; and, in modern times, California's hills turn a characteristic golden-brown in summer. Rivers The two most prominent rivers within California are the Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River, which drain the Central Valley and flow to the Pacific Ocean through San Francisco Bay. Two other important rivers are the Klamath River, in the north, and the Colorado River, on the southeast border. History Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America; the area was inhabited by more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans. Large, settled populations lived on the coast and hunted sea mammals, fished for salmon, and gathered shellfish, while groups in the interior hunted terrestrial game and gathered nuts, acorns, and berries. California groups also were diverse in their political organization with bands, tribes, villages, and on the resource-rich coasts, large chiefdoms, such as the Chumash, Pomo and Salinan. Trade, intermarriage, and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups. The first European to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was the Portuguese João Rodrigues Cabrilho, in 1542, sailing for the Spanish Empire. Some 37 years later, the English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila Galleons on their return trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565. Sebastián Vizcaíno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain. Spanish missionaries began setting up twenty-one California Missions along the coast of what became known as Alta California (Upper California), together with small towns and presidios. The first mission in Alta California was established at San Diego in 1769. The first successful mission in Baja California had been established at Loreto, Baja California Sur in 1697. In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence gave Mexico (including California) independence from Spain; for the next twenty-five years, Alta California remained a remote northern province of the nation of Mexico. Cattle ranches, or ranchos, emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. After Mexican independence from Spain, the chain of missions became the property of the Mexican government and were secularized by 1832. The ranchos developed under ownership by Californios (Spanish-speaking Californians) who had received land grants and traded cowhides and tallow with Boston merchants. Beginning in the 1820s, trappers and settlers from the United States and Canada began to arrive in Northern California, harbingers of the great changes that would later sweep the Mexican territory. These new arrivals used the Siskiyou Trail, California Trail, Oregon Trail, and Old Spanish Trail to cross the rugged mountains and harsh deserts surrounding California. In this period, Imperial Russia explored the California coast and established a trading post at Fort Ross. The Bear Flag of the Republic of California. In 1846, settlers rebelled against Mexican rule during the Bear Flag Revolt. Afterwards, rebels raised the Bear Flag (featuring a bear, a star, a red stripe, and the words "California Republic") at Sonoma. The Republic's first and only president was William B. Ide, who played a pivotal role during the Bear Flag Revolt. His term lasted twenty-five days and concluded when California was occupied by U.S. forces during the Mexican-American War. The California Republic was short lived. The same year marked the outbreak of the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). When Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into Monterey Bay and began the military occupation of California by the United States. Northern California capitulated in less than a month to the U.S. forces. After a series of defensive battles in Southern California, including The Siege of Los Angeles, the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, the Battle of San Pasqual, the Battle of Rio San Gabriel, and the Battle of La Mesa, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed by the Californios on January 13, 1847, securing American control in California. Following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the war, the region was divided between Mexico and the United States; the western territory of Alta California, was to become the U.S. state of California, and Arizona, Nevada, Colorado and Utah became U.S. Territories, while the lower region of California, Baja California, remained in the possession of Mexico. In 1848, the non-native population of California has been estimated to be no more than 15,000. But after gold was discovered, the population burgeoned with U.S. citizens, Europeans, and other immigrants during the great California Gold Rush. On September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted to the United States as a free state (one in which slavery was prohibited). The seat of government for California under Mexican rule was located at Monterey from 1777 until 1835, when Mexican authorities abandoned California, leaving their missions and military forts behind. In 1849, the Constitutional Convention was first held there. Among the duties was the task of determining the location for the new State capital. The first legislative sessions were held in San Jose (1850–1851). Subsequent locations included Vallejo (1852–1853), and nearby Benicia (1853–1854), although these locations eventually proved to be inadequate as well. The capital has been located in Sacramento since 1854 with only a short break in 1861 when legislative sessions were held in San Francisco due to flooding in Sacramento. Travel between California and the central and eastern parts of the United States was time-consuming and dangerous. A more direct connection came in 1869 with the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad through Donner Pass in the Sierra Nevada mountains. After this rail link was established, hundreds of thousands of U.S. citizens came west, where new Californians were discovering that land in the state, if irrigated during the dry summer months, was extremely well-suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Vast expanses of wheat and other cereal crops, vegetable crops, cotton, and nut and fruit trees were grown (including oranges in Southern California), and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production in the Central Valley and elsewhere. During the early 20th century, migration to California accelerated with the completion of major transcontinental highways like the Lincoln Highway and Route 66. In the period from 1900 to 1965, the population grew from fewer than one million to become the most populous state in the Union. The state is regarded as a world center of technology and engineering businesses, of the entertainment and music industries, and as the U.S. center of agricultural production. Demographics Population California Population Density Map By 2008, California's population is estimated by the US Census Bureau at 36,756,666, making it the most populous state. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 2,549,081 people (4,498,700 births minus 1,949,619 deaths). Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 1,825,697 people, and migration within the country produced a net decrease of 1,378,706. However, the state of California's own statistics show a figure of 38,292,687 for January 1, 2009. California is the second-most-populous sub-national entity of the Western Hemisphere, exceeded only by São Paulo, Brazil. California's population is greater than that of all but 34 countries of the world. California has eight of the top 50 U.S. cities in terms of population. Los Angeles is the nation's second-largest city with a population of 3,849,378 people, followed by San Diego (8th), San Jose (10th), San Francisco (14th), Fresno (35th), Long Beach (36th), Sacramento (37th) and Oakland (44th). Los Angeles County has held the title of most populous county for decades and is more populous than 42 U.S. states. The center of population of California is at the town of Buttonwillow in Kern County. Racial and ancestral makeup According to the 2005-2007 American Community Survey, California's population is: U.S. Census Bureau, 2005-2007 American Community Survey 60.4% White American including White Hispanic 43.0% are White, non-Hispanic or Latino 35.7% are Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 12.2% Asian American 6.3% Black or African American 3.3% Multiracial American 0.7% American Indian With regard to demographics, California has the largest population of White Americans in the U.S., an estimated 21,810,156 residents. The state has the fifth-largest population of African Americans in the U.S., an estimated 2,260,648 residents. California's Asian population is estimated at 4.5 million, approximately one-third of the nation's 14.9 million Asian Americans. California's Native-American population of 376,093 is the most of any state. According to estimates from 2005, California has the largest minority population in the United States, making up 57 percent of the state population. Non-Hispanic whites decreased from 80 percent of the state's population in 1970 to 43 percent in 2006. While the population of minorities accounts for 100.7 million of 300 million U.S. residents, 21 percent of the national total live in California. Languages As of 2005, 57.59 percent of California residents age five and older spoke English as a first language at home, while 28.21 percent spoke Spanish. In addition to English and Spanish, 2.04 percent spoke Filipino, 1.59 percent spoke Chinese (which included Cantonese [0.63 percent] and Mandarin [0.43 percent]), 1.4 percent spoke Vietnamese, and 1.05 percent spoke Korean as their mother tongue. In total, 42.4 percent of the population spoke languages other than English. Over 200 languages are known to be spoken and read in California. Including indigenous languages, California is viewed as one of the most linguistically diverse areas in the world (the indigenous languages were derived from 64 root languages in 6 language families). Native tribes, groups, language families and dialects of California in 1770 (map after Kroeber)(accessed 2006-12-30); Map of California showing areas of indigenous languages (accessed 2006-12-30) About half of the indigenous languages are no longer spoken, and all of California's living indigenous languages are endangered, although there are some efforts toward language revitalization. The official language of California has been English since the passage of Proposition 63 in 1986. However, many state, city, and local government agencies still continue to print official public documents in numerous languages. Religion The largest Christian denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 10,079,310; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 529,575; and the Southern Baptist Convention with 471,119. Jewish congregations had 994,000 adherents. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/06_2000.asp The state has the most Roman Catholics of any state and a large Protestant population, a large American Jewish community, and an American Muslim population. With a Jewish population estimated at more than 550,000, Los Angeles has the second-largest Jewish community in North America. California also has the largest Muslim community population in the United States, an estimated 3.4 percent of the population , mostly residing in Southern California. According to figures, approximately 100,000 Muslims reside in San Diego. If I Did That Over There, They'd Cut My Hands Off As the twentieth century came to a close, forty percent of all Buddhists in America resided in Southern California. The Los Angeles Metropolitan Area has become unique in the Buddhist world as the only place where representative organizations of every major school of Buddhism can be found in a single urban center. The City of Ten Thousand Buddhas in Northern California and Hsi Lai Temple in Southern California are two of the largest Buddhist temples in the Western Hemisphere. It also has a growing Hindu population. California has more members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Temples than any state except Utah. Latter-day Saints (Mormons) have played important roles in the settlement of California throughout the state's history. For example, a group of a few hundred Mormon converts from the Northeastern United States and Europe arrived at what would become San Francisco in the 1840s aboard the ship Brooklyn, more than doubling the population of the small town. Before being called back to Utah by Brigham Young these settlers helped build up the city of Yerba Buena. A group of Mormons also established the city of San Bernardino in Southern California in 1851. According to the LDS Church 2007 statistics, just over 750,000 Mormons reside in the state of California, attending almost 1400 congregations statewide. However, a Pew Research Center survey revealed that California is somewhat less religious than the rest of the US: 62 percent of Californians say they are "absolutely certain" of the belief in God, while in the nation 71 percent say so. The survey also revealed 48 percent of Californians say religion is "very important," while the figure for the United States is 56 percent. Economy The Hollywood Sign overlooking Los Angeles is a symbol of the motion-picture industry. As of 2007, the gross state product (GSP) is about $1.812 trillion, the largest in the United States. California is responsible for 13 percent of the United States gross domestic product (GDP). As of 2006, California's GDP is larger than all but eight countries in the world (all but eleven countries by Purchasing Power Parity). However, California is facing a $16 billion budget deficit for the 2008-09 budget year. California's budget deficit grows to $16 billion, North County Times While the legislative bodies had appeared to address the problem in 2008 with the three-month delayed passage of a budget they in fact only postponed the deficit to 2009 and due to the late 2008 decline in the economy and the credit crisis the problem became urgent in November 2008. One problem is that a substantial portion of the state income comes from income taxes on a small proportion of wealthy citizens. For example, in 2004, the richest 3% of state taxpayers paid approximately 60% of all state taxes. Google's April surprise for state, San Francisco Chronicle, May 9, 2006 The taxable income of this population is highly dependent upon capital gains, which has been severely impacted by the stock market declines of this period. The governor has proposed a combination of extensive program cuts and tax increases to address this problem, but owing to longstanding problems in the legislature these proposals are likely to be difficult to pass as legislation. By 2008, California had the 6th highest tax burden of any state, when measured as a percentage of GDP. Enough said: Guess how Pennsylvania stacks up against other states on size of local/state tax burden, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, August 17, 2008 State spending increased from $56 billion in 1998 to $131 billion in 2008, and the state was facing a budget deficit of $40 billion in 2008. California's Gold Rush Has Been Reversed, Wall St. Journal, January 10, 2009 California is also the home of several significant economic regions, such as Hollywood (entertainment), Southern California (aerospace), the Central Valley (agriculture), Silicon Valley (computers and high tech), and wine producing regions, such as the Napa Valley, Sonoma Valley and Southern California's Santa Barbara, Temecula Valley and Paso Robles areas. In terms of jobs, the five largest sectors in California are trade, transportation, and utilities; government; professional and business services; education and health services; and leisure and hospitality. In terms of output, the five largest sectors are financial services, followed by trade, transportation, and utilities; education and health services; government; and manufacturing. California currently has the 4th highest unemployment rate in the nation at 9.3% in December 2008, up significantly from 5.9% a year earlier. In California's meltdown, misery has long reach California's economy is very dependent on trade and international related commerce accounts for approximately one-quarter of the state’s economy. In 2007, California exported $134 billion worth of goods, up from $127 billion in 2006 and $117 billion in 2005, surpassing the 2000 peak of $125 billion for two consecutive years. Computers and electronic products are California's top export, accounting for 36 percent of all the state's exports in 2007. California Chamber of Commerce: All About International Trade and Investment Agriculture remains a very important sector in California's economy. Farming-related sales have more than quadrupled over the past three decades, from $7.3 billion in 1974 to nearly $31 billion in 2004. This increase has occurred despite a 15 percent decline in acreage devoted to farming during the period, and water supply suffering from chronic instability. Factors contributing to the growth in sales-per-acre include more intensive use of active farmlands and technological improvements in crop production. Cal Facts 2006: California's Economy and Budget in Perspective Per capita GDP in 2007 was $41,805, ranking 7th in the nation. State Personal Income 2006, Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce. Per capita income varies widely by geographic region and profession. The Central Valley is the most impoverished, with migrant farm workers making less than minimum wage. Recently, the San Joaquin Valley was characterized as one of the most economically depressed regions in the U.S., on par with the region of Appalachia. Report from Central Valley Business Times Many coastal cities include some of the wealthiest per-capita areas in the U.S. The high-technology sectors in Northern California, specifically Silicon Valley, in Santa Clara and San Mateo counties, have emerged from the economic downturn caused by the dot.com bust. In spring 2005, economic growth had resumed in California at 4.3 percent. California levies a 9.3 percent maximum variable rate income tax, with six tax brackets. It collects about $40 billion per year in income taxes. California's combined state, county and local sales tax rate is from 7.25 to 8.75 percent. California City and County Sales and Use Tax Rates - Cities, Counties and Tax Rates - Board of Equalization The rate varies throughout the state at the local level. In all, it collects about $28 billion in sales taxes per year. All real property is taxable annually, the tax based on the property's fair market value at the time of purchase. This tax does not increase based on a rise in real property values (see Proposition 13). California collects $33 billion in property taxes per year. Energy Transportation The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, one of California's most famous landmarks California's vast terrain is connected by an extensive system of freeways, expressways, and highways. California is known for its car culture, giving California's cities a reputation for severe traffic congestion. Construction and maintenance of state roads and statewide transportation planning are primarily the responsibility of the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans). The rapidly growing population of the state is straining all of its transportation networks, and a recurring issue in California politics is whether the state should continue to aggressively expand its freeway network or concentrate on improving mass transit networks in urban areas. One of the state's more visible landmarks, the Golden Gate Bridge was completed in 1937. With its orange paint and panoramic views of the bay, this highway bridge is a popular tourist attraction and also accommodates pedestrians and bicyclists. It is simultaneously designated as U.S. Route 101 which is part of the El Camino Real (Spanish for Royal Road or King's Highway), and State Route 1 which is also known as the Pacific Coast Highway. Another of the seven bridges in the San Francisco Bay Area is the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge, completed in 1936. This bridge transports approximately 280,000 vehicles per day on two-decks, with its two sections meeting at Yerba Buena Island. Los Angeles International Airport and San Francisco International Airport are major hubs for trans-Pacific and transcontinental traffic. There are about a dozen important commercial airports and many more general aviation airports throughout the state. California also has several important seaports. The giant seaport complex formed by the Port of Los Angeles and the Port of Long Beach in Southern California is the largest in the country and responsible for handling about a fourth of all container cargo traffic in the United States. The Port of Oakland, fourth largest in the nation, handles trade from the Pacific Rim and delivers most of the ocean containers passing through Northern California to the entire USA. Caltrans builds tall "stack" interchanges with soaring ramps that offer impressive views Intercity rail travel is provided by Amtrak California, which manages the three busiest intercity rail lines in the US outside the Northeast Corridor. Integrated subway and light rail networks are found in Los Angeles (Metro Rail) and San Francisco (MUNI Metro). Light rail systems are also found in San Jose (VTA), San Diego (San Diego Trolley), Sacramento (RT Light Rail), and Northern San Diego County (Sprinter). Furthermore, commuter rail networks serve the San Francisco Bay Area (ACE, BART, Caltrain), Greater Los Angeles (Metrolink), and San Diego County (Coaster). The California High Speed Rail Authority was created in 1996 by the state to implement an extensive 700 mile (1127 km) rail system. Construction was approved by the voters during the November 2008 general election, a $9.95 billion state bond will go toward its construction. Nearly all counties operate bus lines, and many cities operate their own bus lines as well. Intercity bus travel is provided by Greyhound and Amtrak Thruway Coach. Government and politics State government Capitol Building in Sacramento California is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: the executive branch consisting of the Governor of California and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch consisting of the Assembly and Senate; and the judicial branch consisting of the Supreme Court of California and lower courts. The state also allows direct participation of the electorate by initiative, referendum, recall, and ratification. California follows a closed primary system. The state's capital is Sacramento. The Governor of California and the other state constitutional officers serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once. The California State Legislature consists of a 40-member Senate and 80-member Assembly. Senators serve four-year terms and Assembly members two. Members of the Assembly are subject to term limits of three terms, and members of the Senate are subject to term limits of two terms. In the 2007–2008 session, there were 48 Democrats and 32 Republicans in the Assembly. In the Senate, there are 25 Democrats and 15 Republicans. The governor is Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger. California's judiciary is the largest in the United States (with a total of 1,600 judges, while the federal system has only about 840). It is supervised by the seven Justices of the Supreme Court of California. Justices of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal are appointed by the Governor, but are subject to retention by the electorate every 12 years. Armed forces 1,239,548 active-duty military personnel 58,076 civilian personnel 7,932 Army personnel 96,047 Navy (including Marines) 19,969 Air Force 2,569,340 veterans of US military service Federal politics + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic 2008 37.10% 4,902,278 61.08% 8,063,473 2004 44.36% 5,509,826 54.40% 6,745,485 2000 41.65% 4,567,429 53.45% 5,861,203 1996 38.21% 3,828,380 51.10% 5,119,835 1992 32.61% 3,630,574 46.01% 5,121,325 1988 51.13% 5,054,917 47.56% 4,702,233 1984 57.51% 5,467,009 41.27% 3,922,519 1980 52.69% 4,524,858 35.91% 3,083,661 1976 49.35% 3,882,244 47.57% 3,742,284 1972 55.01% 4,602,096 41.54% 3,475,847 1968 47.82% 3,467,664 44.74% 3,244,318 1964 40.79% 2,879,108 59.11% 4,171,877 1960 50.10% 3,259,722 49.55% 3,224,099 California has an idiosyncratic political culture. It was the second state to legalize abortion and the second state to legalize marriage for gay couples (the latter later eliminated by Proposition 8). Since 1990, California has generally elected Democratic candidates; however, the state has had little hesitance in electing Republican Governors, though many of its Republican Governors, such as Governor Schwarzenegger, tend to be considered "Moderate Republicans" and tend to be more liberal than the party itself. Democratic strength is centered in coastal regions of Los Angeles County and the San Francisco Bay Area. The Democrats also hold a majority in Sacramento. The Republican strength is greatest in the San Joaquin Valley, which includes the growing cities of Stockton, Bakersfield, Fresno, and Modesto. Orange County and San Diego County remain mostly Republican. Overall, the trend in California politics has been towards the Democratic Party and away from the Republican Party. The trend is most obvious in presidential elections. Additionally, the Democrats have easily won every U.S. Senate race since 1992 and have maintained consistent majorities in both houses of the state legislature. In the U.S. House, the Democrats hold a 34-19 edge for the 110th United States Congress. The U.S senators are Dianne Feinstein (D), a native of San Francisco, and Barbara Boxer (D). The districts in California are usually dominated by one or the other party with very few districts that could be considered competitive. Once very conservative having elected Republicans, California is now a reliable Democratic state. According to political analysts, California should soon gain three more seats, for a total of 58 electoral votes - the most electoral votes in the nation. Electoral Trends Warm Sunbelt, Freeze Frostbelt, Crystal Ball, U.Va State law California's legal system is explicitly based on English common law California Civil Code Section 22.2. (as is the case with all other states except Louisiana) but carries a few features from Spanish civil law, such as community property. Capital punishment is a legal form of punishment and the state has the largest "Death Row" population in the country (though Texas is far more active in carrying out executions). California's "Death Row" is in San Quentin State Prison situated north of San Francisco in Marin County. Executions in California are currently on hold indefinitely as human rights issues are addressed. California's Death Penalty on Hold Indefinitely Cities, towns and counties For lists of cities, towns, and counties in California, see List of cities in California (by population), List of cities in California, List of urbanized areas in California (by population), and California locations by per capita income. The state's local government is divided into 58 counties and 480 incorporated cities and towns; of which 458 are cities and 22 are towns. Under California law, the terms "city" and "town" are explicitly interchangeable; the name of an incorporated municipality in the state can either be "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)". California Government Code Sections 34500-34504 Sacramento became California's first incorporated city on February 27, 1850. San Jose, San Diego and Benicia tied for California's second incorporated city, each receiving incorporation on March 27, 1850. Menifee became the state's most recent and 480th incorporated municipality on October 1, 2008. The majority of these cities and towns are within one of five metropolitan areas. Sixty-eight percent of California's population lives in its three largest metropolitan areas, Greater Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay Area and the Riverside-San Bernardino Area, known as the Inland Empire. Although smaller, the other two large population centers are the San Diego and the Sacramento metro areas. California is home to the largest county in the contiguous United States by area, San Bernardino County. The state recognizes two kinds of cities: charter and general law. League of California Cities: Types of (California) Cities General law cities owe their existence to state law and consequentially governed by it; charter cities are governed by their own city charters. Cities incorporated in the 19th century tend to be charter cities. All of the state's ten most populous cities are charter cities. Education Public secondary education consists of high schools that teach elective courses in trades, languages, and liberal arts with tracks for gifted, college-bound and industrial arts students. California's public educational system is supported by a unique constitutional amendment that requires a minimum annual funding level for grades K-14 (kindergarten through community college) which grows with the economy and student enrollment figures. California had over 6.2 million school students in the 2005–06 school year. Funding and staffing levels in California schools lag behind other states. In expenditure per pupil, California ranked 29th of the 51 states (including the District of Columbia) in 2005–06. In teaching staff expenditure per pupil, California ranked 49th of 51. In overall teacher-pupil ratio, California was also 49th, with 21 students per teacher. Only Arizona and Utah were poorer. Ed-Data Website, California California's public postsecondary education offers a unique three tiered system: The preeminent research university system in the state is the University of California (UC) which employs more Nobel Prize laureates than any other institution in the world, and is considered one of the world's finest public university systems. There are ten general UC campuses, and a number of specialized campuses in the UC system. The California State University (CSU) system has almost 450,000 students, making it the largest university system in the United States. It is intended to accept the top one-third (1/3) of high school students. The 23 CSU schools are primarily intended for undergraduate education. The California Community Colleges system provides lower division coursework as well as basic skills and workforce training. It is the largest network of higher education in the US, composed of 110 colleges serving a student population of over 2.6 million. California is also home to such notable private universities such as Stanford University, the University of Southern California (USC), the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), and the Claremont Colleges (including Harvey Mudd College and Pomona College). California has hundreds of other private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions. Sports California hosted the 1960 Winter Olympics at Squaw Valley Ski Resort, the 1932 and 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, as well as the 1994 FIFA World Cup. California has nineteen major professional sports league franchises, far more than any other state. The San Francisco Bay Area has seven major league teams spread in three cities, San Francisco, Oakland and San Jose. While the Greater Los Angeles Area is home to ten major league franchises, it is also the largest metropolitan area not to have a team from the National Football League. San Diego has two major league teams, and Sacramento also has two. Home to some of the most prominent universities in the United States, California has long had many respected collegiate sports programs. In particular, the athletic programs of UC Berkeley, USC, UCLA, Stanford and Fresno State are often nationally ranked in the various collegiate sports. California is also home to the oldest college bowl game, the annual Rose Bowl, and the Holiday Bowl, among others. Below is a list of major sports teams in California: Club Sport League Oakland Raiders American football National Football League San Diego Chargers American football National Football League San Francisco 49ers American football National Football League Los Angeles Dodgers Baseball Major League Baseball Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Baseball Major League Baseball Oakland Athletics Baseball Major League Baseball San Diego Padres Baseball Major League Baseball San Francisco Giants Baseball Major League Baseball Golden State Warriors Basketball National Basketball Association Los Angeles Clippers Basketball National Basketball Association Los Angeles Lakers Basketball National Basketball Association Sacramento Kings Basketball National Basketball Association Modesto Bearcats Basketball American Basketball Association (2000-) Anaheim Ducks Ice hockey National Hockey League Los Angeles Kings Ice hockey National Hockey League San Jose Sharks Ice hockey National Hockey League Chivas USA Soccer Major League Soccer Los Angeles Galaxy Soccer Major League Soccer San Jose Earthquakes Soccer Major League Soccer Los Angeles Avengers American football Arena Football League San Jose SaberCats American football Arena Football League Los Angeles Sparks Basketball Women's National Basketball Association Sacramento Monarchs Basketball Women's National Basketball Association San Jose Stealth Lacrosse National Lacrosse League California Cougars Soccer Professional Arena Soccer League See also Index of California-related articles References Further reading External links U.S. Government Economic Research Service, USDA - California State Energy Data & Statistics for California U.S. Census Bureau USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of California State Government State of California Official Web site California State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by California state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. List of official California State Symbols from the California State Library Energy Hydroelectic - from California's government site Tourism & recreation California's Official Vacation Guide Other California Crime Rates 1960–2006 California Historical Society cultural sites index California Law Enforcement Agency Uniform Crime Reports 1980 to 2005 Counting California Native Tribes, Groups, Language Families and Dialects of California Related information be-x-old:Каліфорнія | California |@lemmatized california:220 state:129 west:5 coast:14 united:24 along:4 pacific:7 ocean:4 border:3 oregon:3 north:9 nevada:12 east:6 arizona:5 southeast:3 south:5 mexican:14 baja:7 populous:9 u:33 four:3 large:41 city:37 los:25 angeles:25 san:64 diego:16 jose:10 francisco:22 home:9 eight:5 nation:10 fifty:1 know:8 varied:1 climate:8 geography:3 well:7 diverse:7 population:38 area:33 alta:5 colonize:1 spanish:14 empire:3 beginning:1 late:2 century:6 rest:2 mexico:7 become:13 independent:1 republic:6 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5,671 | List_of_NATO_reporting_names_for_bomber_aircraft | This is a list of NATO reporting name/ASCC names for bombers, with Soviet designations: Common NameNATO reporting nameDouglas A-20 HavocBoxIlyushin Il-2M3BarkIlyushin Il-4BobIlyushin Il-10BeastIlyushin Il-28BeagleIlyushin Il-40BrawnyIlyushin Il-54BlowlampMyasishchev M-4BisonMyasishchev M-50BounderNorth American B-25 MitchellBankPetlyakov Pe-2BuckTupolev Tu-2BatTupolev Tu-4BullTupolev Tu-14BosunTupolev Tu-16BadgerTupolev Tu-22BlinderTupolev Tu-22MBackfireTupolev Tu-82Butcher Tupolev Tu-85BargeTupolev Tu-91BootTupolev Tu-95Bear A/B/C/DTupolev Tu-98BackfinTupolev Tu-160BlackjackYakovlev Yak-28BrassardYakovlev Yak-28BBrewer See also NATO reporting name | List_of_NATO_reporting_names_for_bomber_aircraft |@lemmatized list:1 nato:2 reporting:2 name:3 ascc:1 bomber:1 soviet:1 designation:1 common:1 namenato:1 namedouglas:1 havocboxilyushin:1 il:6 american:1 b:2 mitchellbankpetlyakov:1 pe:1 tu:12 tupolev:1 c:1 dtupolev:1 yak:2 see:1 also:1 report:1 |@bigram tu_tu:9 tupolev_tu:1 |
5,672 | EasyWriter | EasyWriter is a word processing software released when the IBM PC was announced in 1981. It was written by John Draper's Cap'n Software, which also produced a version of Forth. Draper wrote EasyWriter, the first word processor for the Apple II series, in 1979. According to The Wall Street Journal, he hand-wrote the code while serving nights in the Alameda County Jail, then entered the code later into a computer. However, another account had him writing the code as he served his four-month sentence at the Federal Correctional Institution, Lompoc, California. It seems this version of events was promulgated by the Wall Street Journal. In fact, Draper describes the development of EasyWriter on his own webpage as follows : Draper was in prison, in California, at the time, but under a 'work furlough' program. This meant that whilst he had to spend every night in prison, he spent each day working a regular job, outside prison. This job was at Receiving Studios, a small band practice studio, and whilst there he had access to a computer, where he coded EasyWriter. He did take copies of the code 'home' to prison overnight to work on it. The implication by The Wall Street Journal that he wrote the code in prison, only to enter it into a computer after completion is clearly a misleading exaggeration. Draper later ported EasyWriter to the IBM PC, beating Bill Gates on the bid for the IBM contract. References Byte magazine pp. 62, January 1982. See also List of word processors | EasyWriter |@lemmatized easywriter:5 word:3 processing:1 software:2 release:1 ibm:3 pc:2 announce:1 write:5 john:1 draper:5 cap:1 n:1 also:2 produce:1 version:2 forth:1 first:1 processor:2 apple:1 ii:1 series:1 accord:1 wall:3 street:3 journal:3 hand:1 code:5 serve:2 night:2 alameda:1 county:1 jail:1 enter:2 later:2 computer:3 however:1 another:1 account:1 four:1 month:1 sentence:1 federal:1 correctional:1 institution:1 lompoc:1 california:2 seem:1 event:1 promulgate:1 fact:1 describe:1 development:1 webpage:1 follow:1 prison:5 time:1 work:3 furlough:1 program:1 meant:1 whilst:2 spend:2 every:1 day:1 regular:1 job:2 outside:1 receive:1 studio:2 small:1 band:1 practice:1 access:1 cod:1 take:1 copy:1 home:1 overnight:1 implication:1 completion:1 clearly:1 misleading:1 exaggeration:1 port:1 beat:1 bill:1 gate:1 bid:1 contract:1 reference:1 byte:1 magazine:1 pp:1 january:1 see:1 list:1 |@bigram ibm_pc:2 correctional_institution:1 |
5,673 | Cleveland | Cleveland is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the most populous county in the state. The municipality is located in northeastern Ohio on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately 60 miles (100 km) west of the Pennsylvania border. It was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, and became a manufacturing center owing to its location at the head of numerous canals and railroad lines. With the decline of heavy manufacturing, Cleveland's businesses have diversified into the service economy, including the financial services, insurance, legal, and healthcare sectors, though the city's population has continued to decline. Cleveland is also noted for its association with rock music; the city is home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. As of the 2000 Census, the city proper had a total population of 478,403, and was then the 33rd largest city in the United States, (now estimated as the 40th largest due to declines in population) and the second largest city in Ohio. It is the center of Greater Cleveland, the largest metropolitan area in Ohio, which spans several counties and is defined in several different ways by the Census Bureau. The Cleveland-Elyria-Mentor Metropolitan Statistical Area which in 2000 ranked as the 23rd largest in the United States with 2,250,871 people. Cleveland is also part of the larger Cleveland-Akron-Elyria Combined Statistical Area, which in 2000 had a population of 2,945,831, and ranked as the country's 14th largest. United States and Puerto Rico -- Metropolitan Area GCT-PH1. Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2000, United States Census Bureau, Census 2000. Retrieved on 2007-05-09. In studies conducted by The Economist in 2005, Cleveland and Pittsburgh were ranked as the most livable cities in the United States, and the city was ranked as the best city for business meetings in the continental U.S. Copestake, Jon. "Where business is a pleasure." The Economist. (2005-12-23) The city faces continuing challenges, in particular from concentrated poverty in some neighborhoods and difficulties in the funding and delivery of high-quality public education. Residents of Cleveland are usually referred to as "Clevelanders." Nicknames used for the city include "The Forest City," Of Cleveland, by Cleveland, for Cleveland (and the world), Mountain Xpress. January 24, 2007. Accessed October 11, 2007. "The Cleve," "The Metropolis of the Western Reserve," Cleveland. Architect Magazine. January 1, 2007. Accessed October 11, 2007. "The New American City," "America's North Coast," Roll to a Final Four in Rockin' Cleveland. Wood, Terry. ESPN.com. March 29, 2007. Accessed October 11, 2007. "The Sixth City," Cleveland Court Winner. The New York Times. August 3, 1919. Accessed October 11, 2007 "The Rock 'n' Roll Capital of the World" Rock ’n’ Roll and the Cleveland Connection : Deanna R. Adams and "C-Town." History Cleveland obtained its name on July 22, 1796 when surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company laid out Connecticut's Western Reserve into townships and a capital city they named "Cleaveland" after their leader, General Moses Cleaveland. Cleaveland oversaw the plan for the modern downtown area, centered on the Public Square, before returning home, never again to visit Ohio. The first settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River. The Village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23, 1814. In spite of the nearby swampy lowlands and harsh winters, its waterfront location proved to be an advantage. The area began rapid growth after the 1832 completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal. This key link between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes connected the city to the Atlantic Ocean via the Erie Canal and later via the St. Lawrence Seaway; and the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi River. Growth continued with added railroad links. Cleveland incorporated as a city in 1836. Map of Cleveland in 1904 In 1836, the city, then located only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga River, nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until it was annexed by Cleveland in 1854. The site flourished as a halfway point for iron ore from Minnesota shipped across the Great Lakes and other raw materials (coal) carried by rail from the south. Cleveland emerged as a major American manufacturing center, home to numerous major steel producers, as well as a number of carmakers, including gasoline cars Peerless, People's, Clymer, Floyd. Treasury of Early American Automobiles, 1877–1925 (New York: Bonanza Books, 1950), p.178. Jordan, Winton (first car driven across the U.S.), Clymer, p.156. steam car builders White and Gaeth, and electric car company Baker. By 1920, Standard Oil founder John D. Rockefeller had made his fortune and Cleveland had become the fifth largest city in the country. The city was a center for the national progressive movement, headed locally by Mayor Tom L. Johnson. Many Clevelanders of this era are buried in the historic Lake View Cemetery, along with James A. Garfield, the twentieth U.S. President. Find A Grave: Lake View Cemetery. Findagrave.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-09. The Cuyahoga River winds through the Flats in a December 1937 aerial view of downtown Cleveland. In commemoration of the centennial of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the Great Lakes Exposition debuted in June 1936 along the Lake Erie shore north of downtown. Conceived as a way to energize a city hit hard by the Great Depression, it drew 4 million visitors in its first season, and 7 million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the Great Lakes Science Center, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Burke Lakefront Airport, among others. Immediately after World War II, the city experienced a brief boom. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series and the Browns dominated professional football in the 1950s. Businesses proclaimed that Cleveland was the "best location in the nation". Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. 1997-06-14. Retrieved on 2007-08-02. The city's population reached its peak of 914,808, and in 1949 Cleveland was named an All-America City for the first time. By the 1960s, however, heavy industries began to slump, and residents sought new housing in the suburbs, reflecting the national trends of white flight and urban sprawl. Like other major American cities, Cleveland also began witnessing racial unrest, culminating in the Hough Riots from July 18, 1966 – July 23, 1966 and the Glenville Shootout on July 23, 1968 – July 25, 1968. The city's nadir is often considered to be its default on its loans on December 15, 1978, when under Mayor Dennis Kucinich it became the first major American city to enter default since the Great Depression. National media began referring to Cleveland as "the mistake on the lake" around this time, in reference to the city's financial difficulties, a notorious 1969 fire on the Cuyahoga River (where industrial waste on the river's surface caught on fire), and its struggling professional sports teams. The city has worked to shed this nickname ever since, though in recent times the national media have been much kinder to the city, using it as an exemplar for public-private partnerships, downtown revitalization, and urban renaissance. Walljasper, Jay. "Town Square." Project for Public Spaces. November 2004. Retrieved on 2007-08-01. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on Cleveland's North Coast Harbor. The metropolitan area began recovery thereafter under Mayors George Voinovich and Michael R. White. Redevelopment within the city limits has been strongest in the downtown area near the Gateway complex—consisting of Progressive Field and Quicken Loans Arena, and near North Coast Harbor—including the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Cleveland Browns Stadium, and the Great Lakes Science Center. Although Cleveland was hailed by the media as the "Comeback City," many of the inner-city residential neighborhoods remain troubled, and the public school system continues to experience serious problems. Economic development, retention of young professionals, and capitalizing upon its waterfront are current municipal priorities. Jackson, Frank, State of the City of Cleveland (PDF). City of Cleveland, Ohio. 2007-03-01. Retrieved on 2007-08-01. In 1999, Cleveland was identified as an emerging global city. GaWC Research Bulletin 5, GaWC, Loughborough University, July 28, 1999 Crime Based on the Morgan Quitno Press 2008 national crime rankings, Cleveland ranked as the 7th most dangerous city in the nation among US cities with a population of 100,000 to 500,000 and the 11th most dangerous overall. Violent crime from 2005 to 2006 was mostly unchanged nationwide, but increased more than 10% in Cleveland. The murder rate dropped 30% in Cleveland, but was still far above the national average. Property crime from 2005 to 2006 was virtually unchanged across the country and in Cleveland, with larceny-theft down by 7% but burglaries were up almost 14%. in US 2006.doc Ohio Department of Public Safety: Office of Criminal Justice Services-Crime in the U.S. 2006 History A study in 1971–72 found that although Cleveland's crime rate was significantly lower than other large urban areas, most Cleveland residents feared crime. US Dept of Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, 'Reporting Criminal Victimization in Cleveland (OH), 1971-1972 - A Report', National Institute of Justice In the 1980s, gang activity was on the rise, associated with crack cocaine. A taskforce was formed and was partially successful at reducing gang activity by a combination of removing gang-related graffiti and educating news sources to not name gangs in news reporting. M. L. Walker; L. M. Schmidt; C. Ronald Huff, ed., "Community Response to Gangs", 'Gangs in America', 2nd ed, pp. 263-269, (1996) Distribution The distribution of crime in Cleveland is highly heterogeneous. Relatively few crimes take place in downtown Cleveland's business district, but the perception of crime in the downtown has been pointed to by the Greater Cleveland Growth Association (now the Greater Cleveland Partnership) as damaging to the city's economy. R.J. Zion, "Reducing Crime and Fear of Crime in Downtown Cleveland", Victimology, Vol. 3, No. 3/4, Special Issue pp. 341-344, (1978) Neighborhoods of higher socioeconomic status in Cleveland and its suburbs have lower rates of violent crime than areas of lower status, and even controlling for this factor, areas with higher populations of African Americans have higher violent crime rates. "Racial Differences in Exposure to Crime: The City and Suburbs of Cleveland in 1990", Criminology, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 251-276, (Mar. 2006) A study of the relationship between employment access and crime in Cleveland found a strong inverse relationship, with the highest crime rates in areas of the city that had the lowest access to jobs. Furthermore, this relationship was found to be strongest with respect to economic crimes. Fahui Wang; W. William Minor, "Where the Jobs Are: Employment Access and Crime Patterns in Cleveland", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 92, No. 3, pp. 435-450, (Nov 2004) A study of public housing in Cleveland found that criminals tend to live in areas of higher affluence and move into areas of lower affluence to commit crimes. Tetsuro Motoyama et al., "Spatial and Temporal Aspects of Crime in Cleveland, Ohio and Spatial Dynamics of Crime (A Methodogical Review)", Link Between Crime and the Built Environment, Vol. 2, pp. C159-C175 (1980) Geography Topography Panorama of Public Square in 1912 According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 82.4 square miles (213.5 km²), of which, 77.6 square miles (201.0 km²) is land and 4.8 square miles (12.5 km²) is water. The total area is 5.87% water. The shore of Lake Erie is 569 feet (173 m) above sea level; however, the city lies on a series of irregular bluffs lying roughly parallel to the lake. In Cleveland these bluffs are cut principally by the Cuyahoga River, Big Creek, and Euclid Creek. The land rises quickly from the lakeshore. Public Square, less than a mile (2 km) inland, sits at an elevation of 650 feet (198 m), and Hopkins Airport, only five miles (8 km) inland from the lake, is at an elevation of 791 feet (241 m). Climate Cleveland possesses a humid continental climate (Koppen climate classification Dfa), typical of much of the central United States, with very warm, humid summers and cold, snowy winters. The Lake Erie shoreline is very close to due east-west from the mouth of the Cuyahoga west to Sandusky, but at the mouth of the Cuyahoga it turns sharply northeast. This feature is the principal contributor to the lake effect snow that is typical in Cleveland (especially east side) weather from mid-November until the surface of Lake Erie freezes, usually in late January or early February. The lake effect causes snowfall totals to range greatly across the city: while Hopkins Airport has only reached 100 inches (254 cm) of snowfall in a given season three times since 1968, Cleveland Snowfalle (sic) Statistics. National Weather Service. Retrieved on 2005-10-13. seasonal totals approaching or exceeding are not uncommon in an area known as the "Snow Belt", extending from the east side of Cleveland proper through the eastern suburbs and up the Lake Erie shore as far as Buffalo, New York. Despite its reputation as a cold, snowy place in winter, mild spells often break winter's grip with temperatures sometimes soaring above 70 °F (21 °C). The all-time record high in Cleveland of 104 °F (40 °C) was established on June 25, 1988, and the all-time record low of −20 °F (−29 °C) was set on January 19, 1994. Monthly Averages for Cleveland, OH. The Weather Channel. Retrieved on 2007-07-23. On average, July is the warmest month with a mean temperature of 71.9 °F (22.2 °C), and January, with a mean temperature of 25.7 °F (−3.5 °C), is the coldest. Normal yearly precipitation based on the 30-year average from 1971 to 2000 is 38.7 inches (930 mm). NOWData - NOAA Online Weather Data. National Weather Service. Retrieved on 2006-04-05. Yearly precipitation rates vary considerably in different areas of the Cleveland metropolitan area, with less precipitation on the western side and directly along the lake, and the most occurring in the eastern suburbs. Parts of Geauga county receive over 44 inches of rain annually. "Average Annual Preciptation: Ohio", Map, Published by Oregon State University, Data from 1961-1990. Cityscape <center>Downtown Cleveland's skyline Architecture The Terminal Tower complex, with the Warehouse District, the Cuyahoga River, and Lake Erie in the background Cleveland's downtown architecture is diverse. Many of the city's government and civic buildings, including City Hall, the Cuyahoga County Courthouse, the Cleveland Public Library, and Public Auditorium, are clustered around an open mall and share a common neoclassical architecture. Built in the early 20th century, they are the result of the 1903 Group Plan, and constitute one of the most complete examples of City Beautiful design in the United States. The Terminal Tower, dedicated in 1930, was the tallest building in North America outside New York City until 1967 and the tallest in the city until 1991. It is a prototypical Beaux-Arts skyscraper. The two newer skyscrapers on Public Square, Key Tower (currently the tallest building in Ohio) and the BP Building, combine elements of Art Deco architecture with postmodern designs. Another of Cleveland's architectural treasures is The Arcade (sometimes called the Old Arcade), a five-story arcade built in 1890 and renovated in 2001 as a Hyatt Regency Hotel. Cleveland's landmark ecclesiastical architecture includes the historic Old Stone Church in downtown Cleveland and the onion domed St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral in Tremont. Cleveland Downtown from Voinovich Park Running east from Public Square through University Circle is Euclid Avenue, which was known for its prestige and elegance. In the late 1880s, writer Bayard Taylor described it as "the most beautiful street in the world." Known as "Millionaire's Row", Euclid Avenue was world-renowned as the home of such internationally known names as Rockefeller, Hanna, and Hay. Cleveland is home to four parks in the countywide Cleveland Metroparks system, the "Emerald Necklace" of Olmsted-inspired parks that encircles the region. In the Big Creek valley sits the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, which contains one of the largest collection of primates in North America http://www.clemetzoo.com/tour/area.asp?area_id=5 . The other three parks are Brookside Park and parts of the Rocky River and Washington Reservations. Apart from the Metroparks is Cleveland Lakefront State Park, which provides public access to Lake Erie. Among its six parks are Edgewater Park, located between the Shoreway and Lake Erie just west of downtown, and Euclid Beach Park and Gordon Park on the east side. The City of Cleveland's Rockefeller Park, with its many Cultural Gardens honoring the city's ethnic groups, follows Doan Brook across the city's east side. Neighborhoods Downtown Cleveland is centered around Public Square and includes a wide range of diversified districts. Downtown Cleveland is home to the traditional Financial District and Civic Center, as well as the distinct Theatre District, which houses Playhouse Square Center, and mixed-use neighborhoods such as the Flats and the Warehouse District, which are occupied by industrial and office buildings and also by restaurants and bars. The number of downtown housing units in the form of condominiums, lofts, and apartments has increased over the past ten years. This trend looks to continue with the recent revival of the Flats, the Euclid Corridor Project, and the success of East 4th Street. The west bank of the Flats and the Cuyahoga River in downtown Cleveland Cleveland residents often define themselves in terms of whether they live on the east side or the west side of the Cuyahoga River. The east side comprises the following neighborhoods: Buckeye-Shaker Square, Central, Collinwood, Corlett, Euclid-Green, Fairfax, Forest Hills, Glenville, Payne/Goodrich-Kirtland Park, Hough, Kinsman, Lee Harvard/Seville-Miles, Mount Pleasant, Nottingham, St. Clair-Superior, Union-Miles Park, University Circle, Little Italy, and Woodland Hills. The west side of the city includes the following neighborhoods: Brooklyn Centre, Clark-Fulton, Detroit-Shoreway, Cudell, Edgewater, Ohio City, Old Brooklyn, Stockyards, West Boulevard, and the four neighborhoods colloquially known as West Park: Kamm's Corners, Jefferson, Puritas-Longmead, and Riverside. Three neighborhoods in the Cuyahoga Valley are sometimes referred to as the south side: Industrial Valley/Duck Island, Slavic Village (North and South Broadway), and Tremont. Satellite photograph of Cleveland and its surrounding suburbs Several inner-city neighborhoods have begun to gentrify in recent years. Areas on both the west side (Ohio City, Tremont, Detroit-Shoreway, and Edgewater) and the east side (Collinwood, Hough, Fairfax, and Little Italy) have been successful in attracting increasing numbers of creative class members, which in turn is spurring new residential development. Kennedy, Maureen and Leonard, Paul. Dealing with Neighborhood Change: A Primer on Gentrification and Policy Choices. Brookings Institution (April 2001). Retrieved on 2007-08-01. Furthermore, a live-work zoning overlay for the city's near east side has facilitated the transformation of old industrial buildings into loft spaces for artists. Gill, Michael. "Can the Creative Class Save Cleveland?". Free Times (2003-10-29) Retrieved on 2007-08-01 Suburbs Cleveland's older inner-ring or "first" suburbs include Bedford, Bedford Heights, Brook Park, Brooklyn, Cleveland Heights, Cuyahoga Heights, East Cleveland, Euclid, Fairview Park, Garfield Heights, Lakewood, Maple Heights, Parma, Shaker Heights, South Euclid, University Heights, and Warrensville Heights. All are members of the Northeast Ohio First Suburbs Consortium. Culture Fine arts Cleveland is home to Playhouse Square Center, the second largest performing arts center in the United States behind New York's Lincoln Center. Playhouse Square includes the State, Palace, Allen, Hanna, and Ohio theaters within what is known as the Theater District of Downtown Cleveland. Playhouse Square: The Theater District. Playhouse Square Center. Retrieved on May 14, 2007. Playhouse Square's resident performing arts companies include the Cleveland Opera, the Ohio Ballet, and the Great Lakes Theater Festival. The center also hosts various Broadway musicals, special concerts, speaking engagements, and other events throughout the year. One Playhouse Square, now the headquarters for Cleveland's public broadcasters, was originally used as the broadcast studios of WJW Radio, where disc jockey Alan Freed first popularized the term "rock and roll". Alan Freed. Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Retrieved on 2007-07-03. Located between Playhouse Square and University Circle are the Cleveland Play House and Karamu House, a well-known African American performing and fine arts center, both founded in the 1920s. Mansfield, Herbert. Theater. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. 1998-03-04. Retrieved on 2007-07-03. Cleveland is also home to the Cleveland Orchestra, widely considered one of the finest orchestras in the world, and often referred to as the finest in the United States. Walsh, Michael. "The Finest Orchestra? (Surprise!) Cleveland". Time. (1994-01-10) Retrieved on 2007-08-01. It is one of the "Big Five" major orchestras in the United States. The Orchestra plays in Severance Hall during the winter and at Blossom Music Center during the summer. A Brief History of the Cleveland Orchestra. Cleveland Orchestra. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. The city is also home to the Cleveland Pops Orchestra. There are two main art museums in Cleveland. The Cleveland Museum of Art is a major American art museum, Cleveland Museum of Art. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. 1997-06-14. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. with a collection that includes more than 40,000 works of art ranging over 6,000 years, from ancient masterpieces to contemporary pieces. Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland showcases established and emerging artists, particularly from the Cleveland area, through hosting and producing temporary exhibitions. Who We Are. Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland. Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Film and television Cleveland has served as the setting for several major films, including The Fortune Cookie (1967) with Walter Matthau and Jack Lemmon, Major League (1989), Antwone Fisher (2002) and Welcome To Collinwood (2002). Cleveland is also the setting for the film American Splendor, the lifelong home of writer Harvey Pekar and also the setting for most of his autobiographical comic books, upon which the film was based. The city was also the setting for the popular television sitcom, The Drew Carey Show which starred Cleveland native Drew Carey. Also, many of the external shots for the widely beloved holiday film A Christmas Story (1983), which was set in Cleveland. Because of its architecture, its proximity and its ease of access, locations in Cleveland are often used by filmmakers as a stand-in for other places. For example, a complex battle scene that was set in New York City in Spider-Man 3 was filmed in Cleveland in April 2006. The popular action film Air Force One, with Harrison Ford, William H Macy, Glenn Close, Dean Stockwell and Gary Oldman had its opening shots filmed above and inside Severance Hall on University Circle, home of the Cleveland Orchestra. http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0118571/trivia The Video-Game to Film adaptation of Double Dragon was filmed notably in an abandoned warehouse along Cleveland's Lake Erie shoreline, the Cuyahoga River along the Flats, and Cleveland's Terminal Tower-Tower City Mall. http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0106761/ Literature Cleveland was the home of Joe Shuster and Jerry Siegel, who created the comic book character Superman in 1932. Both attended Glenville High School, and their early collaborations resulted in the creation of "The Man of Steel". Superman. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. 1997-07-22. Retrieved on 2007-07-03. D. A. Levy wrote : "Cleveland: The Rectal Eye Visions)". Popular music Cleveland has also produced a diverse range of popular musical artists, such as: heavy metal bands Chimaira and Mushroomhead alternative rock groups Nine Inch Nails and Filter hip-hop group Bone Thugs-n-Harmony rock band Eric Carmen and The Raspberries R&B groups Dazz Band and The Rude Boys Punk band The Dead Boys protopunk bands Pere Ubu, Rocket From The Tombs and Electric Eels hip-hop artists Kid Cudi and Ray Cash R&B artists Gerald Levert, Bobby Womack and Avant singer/songwriter Tracy Chapman Benjamin Orr, bassist/singer/songwriter for rock band The Cars Hard Rock band James Gang Cuisine Cleveland's many immigrant groups have long played an important role in defining the regional cuisine. Polish and Eastern European foods, such as beer, pierogi, and kielbasa are popular in and around the city, as are foods associated with Cleveland's Irish and Italian immigrants. Residents like Hector Boiardi (Chef Boyardee) and Michael Ruhlman have been noted for their contributions in the culinary world. The West Side Market is home to vendors selling many kinds of ethnic food, as well as fresh produce, and ethnic restaurants can be found in the Little Italy, Slavic Village, and Tremont neighborhoods, among others. Culinary scene Beginning in 2007, Cleveland's culinary scene began to receive international attention. In early 2008, the Chicago Tribune called Cleveland America's "hot new dining city". Cleveland?!? - chicagotribune.com The national food press—Gourmet, Food & Wine, Esquire and Playboy.com—heaped praise on several Cleveland spots this year for best new restaurant, best steakhouse, best farm-to-table programs and great new neighborhood eateries. On November 11, 2007, Cleveland chef Michael Symon helped brighten the spotlight on Cleveland's culinary scene when he was named "The Next Iron Chef" on the Food Network reality TV show by the same name. Anthony Bourdain highlighted the city's food scene on a 2007 episode of his Travel Channel show "Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations". Tourism The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on the shores of Lake Erie Five miles (8 km) east of downtown Cleveland is University Circle, a concentration of cultural, educational, and medical institutions, including the Cleveland Botanical Garden, Case Western Reserve University, University Hospitals, Severance Hall, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, and the Western Reserve Historical Society. Cleveland is also home to the I. M. Pei-designed Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, located on the Lake Erie waterfront at North Coast Harbor downtown. Neighboring attractions include Cleveland Browns Stadium, the Great Lakes Science Center, the Steamship Mather Museum, and the USS Cod, a World War II submarine. Cleveland is home to many festivals throughout the year. Cultural festivals such as the annual Feast of the Assumption in the Little Italy neighborhood, the Hellenic Heritage Festival at the Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church in the Tremont neighborhood, and the Harvest Festival in the Slavic Village neighborhood are popular events. Vendors at the West Side Market in Ohio City offer many different ethnic foods for sale. Cleveland hosts an annual parade on Saint Patrick's Day that brings hundreds of thousands to the streets of downtown. 300|Oldenburg and van Bruggen's Free Stamp, located in Willard Park to the east of City Hall Fashion Week Cleveland, the city's annual fashion event, is one of the few internationally recognized fashion industry happenings in North America. COSMOWORLDS | FASHION WEEKS BY COUNTRY - Directory Fashion Weeks Europe, Russia, North America, Canada, Latin-/South America, Australia, Africa, Asia, Middle East The show is considered by many to be the best in the Midwest—perhaps second only to New York for fashion weeks in the US. In addition to the cultural festivals, Cleveland hosted the CMJ Rock Hall Music Fest, which featured national and local acts, including both established artists and up-and-coming acts, but the festival was discontinued in 2007 due to financial and manpower costs to the Rock Hall. Soeder, John. "CMJ/Rock Hall Music Fest cancelled after two-year run." The Plain Dealer, 2007-04-06. The annual Ingenuity Festival and Notacon conference focus on the combination of art and technology. The Cleveland International Film Festival has been held annually since 1977, and its eleven day run drew a record 52,753 people in 2007. O'Connor, Cliff. "Another record-setting year for Cleveland film fest." The Plain Dealer, 2007-03-26. Cleveland also hosts an annual holiday display lighting and celebration, dubbed Winterfest, which is held downtown at the city's historic hub, Public Square. Sports Quicken Loans Arena Cleveland's professional sports teams include the Cleveland Indians (Major League Baseball), Cleveland Browns (National Football League), Cleveland Cavaliers (National Basketball Association), Cleveland City Stars (United Soccer Leagues), Lake Erie Monsters (American Hockey League), and the Cleveland Gladiators (Arena Football League). The Mid-American Conference (MAC), one of only 11 NCAA Division I athletic conferences, moved its headquarters to Cleveland in 2000. In conjunction with the move, the MAC Men's Basketball Tournament was also moved to Quicken Loans Arena and established itself on the Cleveland sports scene. The MAC Tournament is the biggest college sporting event that the city hosts on an annual basis. The Tournament consistently ranks among the top 10 conference basketball tournaments in average attendance, thanks in large part to the support of more than 300,000 MAC alumni that live in Northeast Ohio. Other sporting events held in Cleveland include the Champ Car Grand Prix of Cleveland, the Cleveland Marathon, and the Ohio Classic college football game. The city hosted the Gravity Games, an extreme sports series, from 2002 to 2004, and the Dew Action Sports Tour Right Guard Open in 2007. Local sporting facilities include Progressive Field, Cleveland Browns Stadium, Quicken Loans Arena, and the Wolstein Center. The Cleveland Browns dominated the NFL from 1950 to 1955. The city's franchise is one of the most storied in football, though it last won an NFL championship in 1964 and has never appeared in the Super Bowl. Progressive Field, home of the Cleveland Indians The Cleveland Indians last reached the World Series in 1997, losing to the Florida Marlins, and have not won the series since 1948. Between 1995 and 2001, Jacobs Field sold out 455 consecutive games and held a Major League Baseball record until it was broken in 2008. The Cleveland Cavaliers are experiencing a renaissance with Cleveland fans due to LeBron James, a native of nearby Akron and the number one overall draft pick of 2003. The Cavaliers won the Eastern Conference in 2007, but were defeated in the NBA Finals by the San Antonio Spurs. The city's recent lack of success in sports has earned it a reputation of being a cursed sports city, which ESPN validated by proclaiming Cleveland as its "most tortured sports city" in 2004. Darcy, Kieran. Mistakes by the Lake. ESPN.com: Page 2. (2004-07-13). Retrieved on 2005-10-11. The tradition of professional hockey in Cleveland started with the original Cleveland Barons in 1937. Cleveland fielded an NHL team, also called the Cleveland Barons, from 1976 to 1978, which was later merged into the Minnesota North Stars (now the Dallas Stars). Cleveland's current hockey team is the minor-league Lake Erie Monsters, which began play in 2007. Malik, George James. "Griffins take down Lake Erie in opener", Grand Rapids Press. 2007-10-07. The city has had other major and minor-league hockey teams in the past including the Cleveland Lumberjacks of the International Hockey League and the Cleveland Crusaders of the WHA. Cleveland was also home to the Cleveland Rockers, one of the original eight teams in the WNBA in 1997. However, in 2003, the team folded after owner Gordon Gund dropped the team from operation. In 2005, Major League Soccer commissioner Don Garber announced that Cleveland was one of several top areas in contention for an expansion team in 2007. Delays in securing a soccer-only stadium have now prevented any such team from beginning play until the 2009 season, but the Cleveland area is still a contender for expansion. The city's current soccer team, the Cleveland City Stars, play in the USL First Division. Cleveland also fielded two indoor soccer teams, the original Cleveland Force of the NPSL . This team folded in 1988. They were replaced by the Cleveland Crunch of the Major Indoor Soccer League (MISL), but the team ceased operations in 2005 after having won three league championships in the 90s. Media Cleveland is served in print by The Plain Dealer, the city's sole remaining daily newspaper. The competing Cleveland Press ceased publication on June 17, 1982, and the Cleveland News ended its run in 1960. Cleveland is also home to Cleveland Scene, an alternative weekly paper, which absorbed its competitor, the Free Times in 2008. Cleveland, combined with nearby Akron and Canton, is ranked for 2008–2009 as the 17th largest television market by Nielsen Media Research. The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including: WKYC-TV (channel 3, NBC), WEWS (channel 5, ABC), WJW-TV (channel 8, Fox), WOIO (channel 19, CBS), WUAB (channel 43, MNTV), and WBNX-TV (channel 55, The CW). Cleveland is also served by WVPX (channel 23, ION), Spanish-language channel WQHS-TV (channel 61, Univision), and WVIZ (channel 25) which is a member of PBS. A national television first was The Morning Exchange on WEWS, which defined the morning show format and served as the inspiration for Good Morning America. Cleveland is also served by 29 AM and FM radio stations directly, and numerous other stations are heard from elsewhere in Northeast Ohio, which serve outlying suburbs and adjoining counties. Cleveland OH, RadioStationWorld. Retrieved on 2007-08-02. Economy Downtown Cleveland as viewed from Edgewater State Park Cleveland's location on the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie has been key to its growth. The Ohio and Erie Canal coupled with rail links helped establish the city as a major American manufacturing center. Steel and many other manufactured goods emerged as its industries. Stapleton, Darwin H. Industry. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. 1997-07-17. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. The city has sought to diversify its economy to become less dependent on its struggling manufacturing sector. Cleveland is the corporate headquarters of many large companies such as Eaton Corporation, National City Corporation, Forest City Enterprises, Sherwin-Williams Company, and KeyCorp. NASA maintains a facility in Cleveland, the Glenn Research Center. Jones Day, one of the largest law firms in the world, traces its origins to Cleveland, and its Cleveland office remains the firm's largest. Cho, Janet H. "A global venue; Cleveland's Jones Day law firm makes motions all over the world, but its culture is rooted in the town where it began", The Plain Dealer. 2006-06-19. However, in recent years, the Cleveland area has lost nearly a dozen corporate headquarters, including TRW, OfficeMax, BP, and Oglebay Norton, mostly through acquisitions or mergers. Sustainability (Draft): Trends, Cleveland Planning Commission. Accessed November 12, 2007. The city is expected to lose the headquarters of longtime institution National City Bank, having recently been acquired by PNC Financial Services, based in Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette PNC acquiring National City kdka.com PNC Financial Services To Buy National City In 2005, Duke Realty Corp., one of the area's largest landlords, announced it was selling all of its property in the Cleveland area because of the stagnation of the market; however, the company continues to maintain a large office building portfolio in the southern suburbs. Stagnant Commercial Market Rocks Cleveland Real Estate, January 12, 2006. Accessed November 9, 2007. The commercial real estate market rebounded in 2007 as office properties were purchased at a record pace. From the beginning of July to the end of September, 2007, there was one residential foreclosure for every fifty-seven homes in the metropolitan area, Ohio is a leader in housing downturn, The Columbus Dispatch. November 14, 2007. Accessed November 14, 2007. and ten percent of the city's homes are now vacant, due in part to the rise in foreclosure filings. Foreclosure Wave Sweeps America, BBC, November 5, 2007. Accessed November 14, 2007. Many of the foreclosed homes are vacant and have been vandalized. "All Boarded Up" article by Alex Kotlowitz in The New York Times Magazine March 4, 2009 Cleveland's largest employer, the Cleveland Clinic, ranks among America's best hospitals as tabulated by U.S. News & World Report. Best Hospitals 2006: Cleveland Clinic. U.S. News & World Report (2006). Retrieved on 2006-09-17. Cleveland's healthcare industry includes University Hospitals of Cleveland, a noted competitor which ranked twenty-fifth in cancer care, Best Hospitals 2006: Cancer. U.S. News & World Report. (2006-07-13) Retrieved on 2007-08-01. and MetroHealth medical center. Cleveland is an emerging area for biotechnology and fuel cell research, led by Case Western Reserve University, the Cleveland Clinic, and University Hospitals of Cleveland. Cleveland is among the top recipients of investment for biotech start-ups and research. Case Western Reserve, the Clinic, and University Hospitals have recently announced plans to build a large biotechnology research center and incubator on the site of the former Mt. Sinai Medical Center, creating a research campus to stimulate biotech startup companies that can be spun off from research conducted in the city. The "tech czar" and other city leaders work at City Hall. City leaders stepped up efforts to cultivate a technology sector in its economy in the early 2000s. Former Mayor Jane L. Campbell appointed a "tech czar" whose job is to actively recruit tech companies to the downtown office market, offering connections to the high-speed fiber networks that run underneath downtown streets in several "high-tech offices" focused on the Euclid Avenue area. Cleveland State University hired a Technology Transfer Officer to work full time on cultivating technology transfers from CSU research to marketable ideas and companies in the Cleveland area, and appointed a Vice President for Economic Development to leverage the university's assets in expanding the city's economy. Case Western Reserve University participates in technology initiatives such as the OneCommunity project, Fiber Optic Network Connecting Cleveland and Northeast Ohio. OneCommunity project. Retrieved on 2007-08-01. a high-speed fiber optic network linking the area's major research centers intended to stimulate growth. OneCommunity's work attracted the attention of Intel and in mid-2005, Cleveland was named an Intel "Worldwide Digital Community" along with Corpus Christi, Texas, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Taipei, Taiwan. This distinction added about $12 million for marketing to expand regional technology partnerships, create a city-wide WiFi network, and develop a tech economy. In addition to this Intel initiative, in January 2006 a New York-based think tank, the Intelligent Community Forum, selected Cleveland as the sole American city among its seven finalists for the "Intelligent Community of the Year" award. The group announced that it nominated the city for its OneCommunity network with potential broadband applications. Gomez, Henry J. "Top U.S. Broadband town: Cleveland". The Plain Dealer. (2006-01-20). The OneCommunity Network is collaborating with Cisco Systems to deploy a cutting-edge wireless network that could provide widespread access to the region. Cisco is testing new technologies in wireless "mesh" networking. OneCommunity and Cisco officially launched the first phase in September 2006, blanketing several square miles of University Circle with wireless connectivity. Additionally, Cisco Systems acquired the former Aironet Wireless Networks, which was based in the Greater Cleveland area, to form its wireless networking product lineup and maintain a facility in the region. Vanac, Mary. "Ohio hot to invest in Wi-Fi technology", The Plain Dealer. 2006-10-05. Demographics At the 2005-2007 American Community Survey Estimates, the city's population was 41.0% White (35.8% non-Hispanic White alone), 54.2% Black or African American, 1.0% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.8% Asian, 0.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 4.3% from some other race and 2.1% from two or more races. 8.3% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. As of the 2000 Census, there were 478,403 people, 190,638 households, and 111,904 families residing in the city. The population density was 6,166.5 people per square mile (2,380.9/km²). There were 215,856 housing units at an average density of 2,782.4 per square mile (1,074.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 50.99% Black or African American, 41.49% White, 1.35% Asian, 0.30% Native American, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 3.59% from other races, and 2.24% from two or more races. 7.26% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. Ethnic groups include Slovenes (10%) , Germans (9.2%), Irish (8.2% ), Poles (4.8%), Italians (4.6%), and English (2.8%). There are also substantial communities of Hungarians, Arabs, Romanians, Czechs, Slovaks, Greeks, Ukrainians, Albanians, Macedonians, Croats, Serbs, Lithuanians, Slovenes, Puerto Ricans, Koreans, and Han Chinese. The presence of Hungarians within Cleveland proper was so great that the city once boasted the highest concentration of Hungarians in the world outside of Budapest. Baranick, Alana. "Cleveland's Hungarian story expands beyond Buckeye Rd. where immigrants paved the way for new arrivals", The Plain Dealer. Retrieved 2007-07-08. Built as the Second Church of Christ, Scientist, this building on Cleveland's East Side now serves a primarily African American congregation. There were 190,638 households out of which 29.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.5% were married couples living together, 24.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.3% were nonfamilies. 35.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.1% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.19. The population was spread out with 28.5% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 19.0% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 90.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $25,928, and the median income for a family was $30,286. Males had a median income of $30,610 versus $24,214 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,291. 26.3% of the population and 22.9% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 37.6% of those under the age of 18 and 16.8% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Cleveland was hit hard in the 1960s and early 1970s by white flight and suburbanization. While the city's total population declined, Cleveland Public Schools' enrollment had increased: 99,686 in 1950, and 134,765 in 1960, and 148,793 in 1963. Cleveland Public Schools financially struggled with a growing student population, and a declining tax base due to regional industrial decline and depopulation of the metropolitan and urban areas in favor of the suburbs. After World War II, middle-class jobs and families migrated to the suburbs leaving behind predominantly low-income student enrollment in the Cleveland Public School system. On December 12, 1973, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People's Cleveland Chapter filed suit, Reed vs. Rhodes, against the Cleveland Board of Education in Cleveland's United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio to racially integrate Cleveland Public Schools, claiming that the public schools were at least partly at fault for Cleveland's housing segregation into ethnic neighborhoods. Between August 31, 1976 and 1984, Chief United States District Judge Frank J. Battisti issued over 4,000 court orders including implementation of forced-busing of Cleveland Public Schools, the case was appealed to the 6th Circuit Court of Appeals, which by 23 Aug. 1979 upheld Battisti's earlier orders, and was later upheld on appeal by the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1970 to 1980, Cleveland experienced a 24% decline in population (from 751 thousand to 574 thousand), which was part of a longer-term on-going trend from 1950 to 2000. Demographia estimates that Cleveland's 1980 population would have been 5% higher (606 thousand) without mandatory busing. Mandatory busing was one of several factors which sped up the migration from out of Cleveland by those who could afford to. The administrative and operational expense of complying with mandatory busing and other federal court orders caused a dramatic increase in overhead expenditures per student, while declining tax revenues resulted in lower expenditures on actually educating public school students. In 1996, Martin Hoke, Cleveland's 10th. District United States House Representative was quoted: "Children are now bused from a predominantly black school on the east side of town to a predominantly black school on the west side of town. More than half a billion dollars has been spent on desegregation activities since 1978-money that could have been used to buy textbooks, upgrade science laboratories or purchase new computers. When kids attend schools miles away from their homes, what working parent is able to attend sporting events, parent-teacher conferences, and home-room parties? Busing has contributed significantly to the decline of our urban centers." The combination of many factors resulted in declining enrollments. Before mandatory busing, in 1976, minority enrollment in Cleveland Public Schools was 58%, by 1994 it was 71%. By 1996, Cleveland Public Schools total enrollment was half of what it was pre-mandatory busing. In 1991, Ohio had a new proficiency test for 9th. grade students which the majority of Cleveland Public Schools students did not pass. By 1994, almost 50% of the system's students were failing to graduate from high school, and many graduates who did not qualify for entry-level jobs, with many employers increasingly requiring secondary or post-secondary degrees due to more information technology-related jobs and other changes in the overall economy. In March 1994, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Cleveland Chapter, Reed vs. Rhodes plaintiff, challenged the fairness of the Ohio 9th. grade proficiency test as an Ohio secondary school graduation requirement for African-American students; the subsequent federal court settlement agreement(s) left the 9th. grade secondary school graduation requirement intact and unchanged in 1994 and subsequently. Prior to mandatory busing, Cleveland Public Schools graduation rate was 75 percent, by 1996 it had dropped to 26.6 percent. Although mandatory busing ended in the 1990s, Cleveland continued to slide into poverty, reaching a nadir in 2004 when it was named the poorest major city in the United States. The Associated Press. "Cleveland rated poorest big city in U.S." September 23, 2004. Retrieved from MSNBC on 2007-08-01. Cleveland was again rated the poorest major city in the U.S. in 2006, with a poverty rate of 32.4%. Diane Suchetka and Barb Galbincea. "Cleveland Rated Poorest City for Second Time". The Plain Dealer. (2006-08-30) Available at The American Policy Roundtable. Retrieved on 2007-08-01. Changing demographics Cleveland DemographicsYearTotalAfricanAmericanPercentCaucasianPercentHispanicorLatinoPercentAsianPercentAmericanIndianorAlaskanNativePercentNativeHawaiianorPacificIslanderPercent2006 Estimate 406,427216,421%155,575%33,038%6,942%1,132%0%2000 Actual 467,702243,939%198,510%34,728%6,444%1,458%178%1990 Actual505,616 235,405 %250,234%23,197%%%% Government and politics Cleveland City Hall Cleveland's position as a center of manufacturing established it as a hotbed of union activity early in its history. This contributed to a political progressivism that has influenced Cleveland politics to the present. While other parts of Ohio, particularly Cincinnati and the southern portion of the state, have historically supported the Republican Party, Cleveland commonly breeds the strongest support in the state for the Democrats; At the local level, elections are nonpartisan. However, Democrats still dominate every level of government. Cleveland is split between two congressional districts. Most of the western part of the city is in the 10th District, represented by Dennis Kucinich. Most of the eastern part of the city, as well as most of downtown, is in the 11th District, represented by Marcia Fudge. Both are Democrats. During the 2004 Presidential election, although George W. Bush carried Ohio, John Kerry carried Cuyahoga County, Leip, David. 2004 Presidential General Election Results. Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved on 2007-05-09. which gave him the strongest support in the state. The city of Cleveland operates on the mayor-council (strong mayor) form of government. Richardson, James F. Politics. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. 1998-05-13. Retrieved on 2007-08-01. The mayor is the chief executive of the city, and the office is held in 2008 by Frank G. Jackson. Previous mayors of Cleveland include progressive Democrat Tom L. Johnson, United States Supreme Court Justice Harold Hitz Burton, Republican Senator George V. Voinovich, two-time Democratic Ohio Governor and Senator Frank J. Lausche, and Carl B. Stokes, the first African American mayor of a major American city. "Carl B. Stokes, 68, first Black Mayor of a major U.S. city, dies - Obituary". Jet, April 22, 1996. Available at findarticles.com.Retrieved on 2007-08-10. Education Public schools The Cleveland Metropolitan School District is the largest K-12 district in the state, with 127 schools and an enrollment of 55,567 students during the 2006–2007 academic year. Master Plan Update 2 (MS Word doc). Cleveland Metropolitan School District Bond Accountability Commission. 2007-05-21. Retrieved on 2007-07-25. It is the only district in Ohio that is under direct control of the mayor, who appoints a school board. Collinwood High School East High School East Technical High School Glenville High School James Ford Rhodes High School John Adams High School Private schools Benedictine High School (all-boys') Cleveland Central Catholic High School Eleanor Gerson School St. Ignatius High School (all-boys') St. Joseph Academy (all-girls') Villa Angela-St. Joseph High School Magnificat High School (Rocky River, Ohio) (all-girls') Colleges and universities Adelbert Hall on the campus of Case Western Reserve University Cleveland is home to a number of colleges and universities. Most prominent among these is Case Western Reserve University, a world-renowned research and teaching institution located in University Circle. A private university with several prominent graduate programs, Case was ranked 38th in the nation in 2007 by U.S. News & World Report. "America's Best Colleges 2007". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. University Circle also contains Cleveland Institute of Art, the Cleveland Institute of Music, and the Ohio College of Podiatric Medicine. Cleveland State University (CSU), based in downtown Cleveland, is the city's public four-year university. In addition to CSU, downtown hosts the metropolitan campus of Cuyahoga Community College, the county's two-year higher education institution, as well as Chancellor University, a private four-year school that focuses on business education. Wertheim, Sally H. Higher Education. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. 1998-05-12. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. Ohio Technical College is based in Cleveland. Ohio Technical College - Automotive Training,Auto Body Training, Motorcycle Training, Diesel Training Transportation A collection of fixed and movable bridges crosses the Cuyahoga River in downtown Cleveland.1992 aerial view of the Cleveland harbor, with the mouth of the Cuyahoga River in the foreground. View is to the east. Airports Cleveland Hopkins International Airport is the city's major airport and an international airport that serves as one of three main hubs for Continental Airlines. It holds the distinction of having the first airport-to-downtown rapid transit connection in North America, established in 1968. In 1930, the airport was the site of the first airfield lighting system and the first air traffic control tower. Originally known as Cleveland Municipal Airport, it was the first municipally owned airport in the country. Cleveland Hopkins is a significant regional air freight hub hosting FedEx Express, UPS Airlines, United States Postal Service, and major commercial freight carriers. In addition to Hopkins, Cleveland is served by Burke Lakefront Airport, on the north shore of downtown between Lake Erie and the Shoreway. Burke is primarily a commuter and business airport. Tinsley, Jesse. "Burke to host air service again; Startup offers no-hassle hop to Detroit, more", The Plain Dealer. 2006-07-18. Port The Port of Cleveland, located at the Cuyahoga River's mouth, is a major bulk freight terminal on Lake Erie receiving much of the raw materials used by the region's manufacturing industries. Railroads Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Cleveland, via the Capitol Limited and Lake Shore Limited routes, which stop at Cleveland Lakefront Station. Cleveland has also been identified as a hub for the proposed Ohio Hub project, which would bring high-speed rail to Ohio. The Ohio Hub. Ohio Rail Development Commission. Retrieved on 2006-11-04. Cleveland hosts several inter-modal freight railroad terminals. Mass transit In 2007, the American Public Transportation Association named Cleveland's mass transit system the best in North America. Cleveland currently has a bus and rail mass transit system operated by the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority (RTA). The rail portion is officially called the RTA Rapid Transit, but is referred to by local residents as The Rapid. It consists of two light rail lines, known as the Green and Blue Lines, and a heavy rail line, the Red Line. In 2008, RTA completed installing a bus rapid transit line, for which naming rights were purchased by the Cleveland Clinic and University Hospitals, called the "Health" or Silver Line, which runs along Euclid Avenue from downtown through University Circle, ending at the Stokes-Windermere Transit Station. Inter-city bus lines National inter-city scheduled bus service is provided at a Greyhound station, located just behind Playhouse Square theater district. Lakefront Trailways provides regional inter-city bus service to popular destinations from their terminal south of Cleveland in Brookpark, Ohio. Akron Metro, Brunswick Transit Alternative, Laketran, Lorain County Transit, and Medina County Transit provide connecting bus service to the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority. Geauga County Transit and Portage Area Regional Transportation Authority (PARTA) also offer connecting bus service in their neighboring areas. Major highways Three two-digit Interstate highways serve Cleveland directly. Interstate 71 begins just southwest of downtown and is the major route from downtown Cleveland to the airport. I-71 runs through the southwestern suburbs and eventually connects Cleveland with Columbus. Interstate 77 begins in downtown Cleveland and runs almost due south through the southern suburbs. I-77 sees the least traffic of the three interstates, although it does connect Cleveland to Akron. Interstate 90 connects the two sides of Cleveland, and is the northern terminus for both I-71 and I-77. Running due east–west through the west side suburbs, I-90 turns northeast at the junction with and I-490, and is known as the Innerbelt through downtown. At the junction with the Shoreway, I-90 makes a 90-degree turn known in the area as Dead Man's Curve, then continues northeast, entering Lake County near the eastern split with Ohio State Route 2. Cleveland is also served by two three-digit interstates, Interstate 480, which enters Cleveland briefly at a few points and Interstate 490, which connects I-77 with the junction of I-90 and I-71 just south of downtown. Interstate 490 Cleveland. Interstate-Guide.com. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. Two other limited-access highways serve Cleveland. The Cleveland Memorial Shoreway carries State Route 2 along its length, and at varying points also carries US 6, US 20 and I-90. The Jennings Freeway (State Route 176) connects I-71 just south of I-90 to I-480 near the suburbs of Parma and Brooklyn Heights. A third highway, the Berea Freeway (State Route 237 in part), connects I-71 to the airport, and forms part of the boundary between Cleveland and Brook Park. Riverside Neighborhood Tour. Neighborhood Link, Cleveland State University. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. Sister cities Cleveland has twenty sister cities: Sister Cities information obtained from Online Directory: Ohio, USA. Sister Cities International, Inc. Retrieved on July 11, 2007. Alexandria (Egypt) Bahir Dar (Ethiopia) Bangalore (India) Braşov (Romania) Bratislava (Slovakia) Cleveland, England (United Kingdom) Conakry (Guinea) Fier (Albania) Gdańsk (Poland) Heidenheim an der Brenz (Germany) Ibadan (Nigeria) Klaipėda (Lithuania) Lima (Peru) Ljubljana (Slovenia) Miskolc (Hungary) Segundo Montes (El Salvador) Rouen (France) Taipei (Taiwan) Volgograd (Russia) West Mayo (Ireland) See also Cleveland East Ohio Gas Explosion Cleveland Torso Murderer (Kingsbury Run murders) Greater Cleveland - The metropolitan area as a whole. References General references The Encyclopedia Of Cleveland History (2002). Case Western Reserve University. Cleveland Cartography Cleveland Memory Project External links City Of Cleveland Home Page Positively Cleveland (Convention and Visitors Bureau of Greater Cleveland) Pictures of Cleveland at UrbanOhio.com Historic Cleveland Maps (1835–1971)] Cleveland Jewish History | Cleveland |@lemmatized cleveland:295 city:127 u:23 state:36 ohio:47 county:13 seat:1 cuyahoga:22 populous:1 municipality:2 locate:9 northeastern:1 southern:4 shore:7 lake:35 erie:21 approximately:1 mile:13 km:4 west:16 pennsylvania:2 border:1 found:2 near:6 mouth:5 river:19 become:4 manufacturing:6 center:28 owe:1 location:5 head:2 numerous:3 canal:4 railroad:4 line:10 decline:10 heavy:4 business:7 diversify:2 service:14 economy:8 include:26 financial:6 insurance:1 legal:1 healthcare:2 sector:3 though:3 population:19 continue:8 also:28 note:2 association:7 rock:19 music:6 home:25 roll:11 hall:18 fame:7 census:6 proper:3 total:9 large:21 united:20 estimate:4 due:9 second:6 great:19 metropolitan:11 area:39 span:1 several:11 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5,674 | Absalon | Statue of Absalon in Copenhagen Bishop Absalon topples the god Svantevit at Arkona in 1169 Absalon (c. 1128 – 21 March 1201) was a Danish archbishop and statesman. He was the son of Asser Rig of Fjenneslev (Zealand), at whose castle he and his brother Esbjørn (Esbern) were brought up along with the young prince Valdemar, afterwards King Valdemar I. Early life After giving Absalon the rudiments of a sound education at home, which included not only book-lore but every manly and martial exercise, his family sent him to the schools of Paris. Absalon first appears in Saxo's Gesta Danorum as a fellow-guest at Roskilde, at the banquet given in 1157 by King Sweyn to his rivals Canute and Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped assassination at the hands of their treacherous host on this occasion, but at length escaped to Jutland, whither Sweyn followed them, but was defeated and slain at the battle of Grathe Heath. Absalon's gravestone in Sorø Abbey church Life as bishop The same year (1158) which saw Valdemar ascend the Danish throne saw Absalon elected bishop of Roskilde. Henceforth Absalon was the chief counsellor of Valdemar, and the promoter of that imperial policy which, for three generations, was to give Denmark the dominion of the Baltic. Briefly stated, it was Absalon's intention to clear the northern sea of the Wendish pirates, who inhabited that portion of the Baltic littoral which was later called Pomerania, and who ravaged the Danish coasts to the point where at the accession of Valdemar one-third of the realm of Denmark lay wasted and depopulated. Military expeditions The first expedition against the Wends, conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1160, but it was not till 1168 that the chief Wendish fortress, at Arkona in Rügen, containing the sanctuary of their god Svantovit, was surrendered, the Wends agreeing to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian religion at the same time. From Arkona Absalon proceeded by sea to Charenza, in the midst of Rügen, the political capital of the Wends and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships. Absalon, with only Sweyn, bishop of Aarhus, and twelve "housecarls" thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding to the temple of the seven-headed god Rugievit, caused the idol to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole population of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations of twelve churches in the isle of Rügen. The destruction of this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon considerably to reduce the Danish fleet. But he continued to keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 1170 destroyed another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dievenow on the isle of Wolin. Absalon's last military exploit was the annihilation, off Strela (Stralsund), at Whitsun 1184, of a Pomeranian fleet that had attacked Denmark's vassal, Jaromir of Rügen. He was now but fifty-seven, but his strenuous life had aged him, and he was content to resign the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, afterwards King Valdemar II, and to confine himself to the administration of the empire which his genius had created. The aim of his policy was to free Denmark from entanglements with the Holy Roman Empire. It was contrary to his advice and warnings that Valdemar I rendered fealty to the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Dole in 1162; and when, on the accession of Canute VI in 1182, an imperial ambassador arrived at Roskilde to receive the homage of the new king, Absalon resolutely withstood him. As the archpastor of Denmark Absalon also rendered his country inestimable services, building churches and monasteries, supporting international religious orders like the Cistercians and Augustinians, founding schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and enlightenment. It was he who held the first Danish Synod at Lund in 1167 and he who supported the writing of Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus. In 1178 he became archbishop of Lund, but very unwillingly, only the threat of excommunication from the holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium. Death and legacy Absalon died in 1201 at the family monastery of Sorø, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed. Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque figures of the Middle Ages, and was equally great as churchman, statesman and warrior. That he enjoyed warfare there can be no doubt; and his splendid physique and early training had well fitted him for martial exercises. He was the best rider in the army and the best swimmer in the fleet. Yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole concession to their sacred calling was to avoid the shedding of blood by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon never neglected his ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were of the nature of crusades. Absalon's name was adopted for a class of Royal Danish Navy vessels, and the lead vessel of the class, in the 2000s. HDMS Absalon (L16) pictured, naval-technology.com and Esbern Snare (L17) were launched and commissioned by Denmark in 2004 and 2005. Absalon Class Combat / Flexible Support Ship, Denmark naval-technology.com . In December, 2008, HDMS Absalon was involved in the rescue of putative Somali pirates 90 miles off Yemen in the Gulf of Aden. The craft from Somalia was reported to hold rocket-propelled grenades and AK-47 assault rifles, and to have been adrift for several days. Also per the report, the Absalon took the sailors and weapons aboard, sunk the craft, and turned the sailors over to the Yemen coast guard. The Absalon, according to The New York Times report, "was deployed in the Gulf of Aden [in] September ['08] as part of an international effort to curb piracy," Danish Navy Rescues Suspected Pirates by Alan Cowell, The New York Times part of Combined Task Force 150. Sources Saxo, Gesta Danorum, ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books xvi. Steenstrup, Danmarks Riges Historie. Oldtiden og den ældre Middelalder, pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). Absalon's Testamentum, in Migne, Patrologia Latina 209,18. References | Absalon |@lemmatized statue:1 absalon:28 copenhagen:2 bishop:5 topple:1 god:3 svantevit:1 arkona:4 c:1 march:1 danish:9 archbishop:2 statesman:2 son:1 asser:1 rig:1 fjenneslev:1 zealand:1 whose:2 castle:1 brother:1 esbjørn:1 esbern:2 bring:1 along:2 young:2 prince:1 valdemar:10 afterwards:2 king:4 early:2 life:3 give:3 rudiment:1 sound:1 education:1 home:1 include:1 book:2 lore:1 every:1 manly:1 martial:2 exercise:2 family:2 send:1 school:2 paris:1 first:4 appear:1 saxo:3 gesta:3 danorum:3 fellow:1 guest:1 roskilde:3 banquet:1 sweyn:3 rival:1 canute:2 narrowly:1 escape:2 assassination:1 hand:1 treacherous:1 host:1 occasion:1 length:1 jutland:1 whither:1 follow:1 defeat:1 slay:1 battle:2 grathe:1 heath:1 gravestone:1 sorø:2 abbey:1 church:3 year:1 saw:2 ascend:1 throne:1 elect:1 henceforth:1 chief:3 counsellor:1 promoter:1 imperial:2 policy:2 three:1 generation:1 denmark:7 dominion:1 baltic:3 briefly:1 state:1 intention:1 clear:1 northern:1 sea:2 wendish:4 pirate:5 inhabit:1 portion:1 littoral:1 later:1 call:2 pomerania:1 ravage:1 coast:2 point:1 accession:2 one:2 third:1 realm:1 lay:2 waste:1 depopulate:1 military:2 expedition:2 wends:3 conduct:1 person:1 set:1 till:1 fortress:2 rügen:4 contain:1 sanctuary:1 svantovit:1 surrender:2 agree:1 accept:2 suzerainty:1 christian:1 religion:1 time:3 proceed:2 charenza:1 midst:1 political:1 capital:1 impregnable:1 stronghold:2 unexpected:1 fall:1 terrify:1 garrison:1 unconditionally:1 appearance:1 ship:2 aarhus:1 twelve:2 housecarls:1 thereupon:1 disembark:1 pass:1 double:1 row:1 warrior:2 strong:1 narrow:1 path:1 winding:1 among:1 morass:1 gate:1 temple:1 seven:2 head:1 rugievit:1 cause:1 idol:1 hew:1 dragged:1 forth:1 burnt:1 whole:1 population:1 garz:1 baptize:1 foundation:1 isle:2 destruction:1 sally:1 port:1 enable:1 considerably:1 reduce:1 fleet:4 continue:1 keep:1 watchful:1 eye:1 destroy:1 another:1 far:1 eastward:1 dievenow:1 wolin:1 last:1 exploit:1 annihilation:1 strela:1 stralsund:1 whitsun:1 pomeranian:1 attack:1 vassal:1 jaromir:1 fifty:1 strenuous:1 age:3 content:1 resign:1 command:1 army:2 men:1 like:3 duke:1 ii:1 confine:1 administration:1 empire:2 genius:1 create:1 aim:1 free:1 entanglement:1 holy:2 roman:1 contrary:1 advice:1 warning:1 render:2 fealty:1 emperor:1 frederick:1 barbarossa:1 dole:1 vi:1 ambassador:1 arrive:1 receive:1 homage:1 new:3 resolutely:1 withstand:1 archpastor:1 also:2 country:1 inestimable:1 service:1 build:1 monastery:2 support:3 international:2 religious:1 order:1 cistercian:1 augustinian:1 found:1 utmost:1 promote:1 civilization:1 enlightenment:1 hold:2 synod:1 lund:2 writing:1 grammaticus:1 become:1 unwillingly:1 threat:1 excommunication:1 see:1 finally:1 induce:1 pallium:1 death:1 legacy:1 die:1 richly:1 embellish:1 endow:1 remain:1 striking:1 picturesque:1 figure:1 middle:2 equally:1 great:1 churchman:1 enjoy:1 warfare:1 doubt:1 splendid:1 physique:1 training:1 well:1 fit:1 best:2 rider:1 swimmer:1 yet:1 ordinary:1 fighting:1 sole:1 concession:1 sacred:1 avoid:1 shedding:1 blood:1 use:1 mace:1 instead:1 sword:1 never:1 neglect:1 ecclesiastical:1 duty:1 even:1 war:1 nature:1 crusade:1 name:1 adopt:1 class:3 royal:1 navy:2 vessel:2 lead:1 hdms:2 picture:1 naval:2 technology:2 com:2 snare:1 launch:1 commission:1 combat:1 flexible:1 december:1 involve:1 rescue:2 putative:1 somali:1 mile:1 yemen:2 gulf:2 aden:2 craft:2 somalia:1 report:3 rocket:1 propel:1 grenade:1 ak:1 assault:1 rifle:1 adrift:1 several:1 day:1 per:1 take:1 sailor:2 weapon:1 aboard:1 sink:1 turn:1 guard:1 accord:1 york:2 deploy:1 september:1 part:2 effort:1 curb:1 piracy:1 suspect:1 alan:1 cowell:1 combined:1 task:1 force:1 source:1 ed:1 holder:1 strassburg:1 xvi:1 steenstrup:1 danmarks:1 riges:1 historie:1 oldtiden:1 og:1 den:1 ældre:1 middelalder:1 pp:1 testamentum:1 migne:1 patrologia:1 latina:1 reference:1 |@bigram king_valdemar:2 gesta_danorum:3 narrowly_escape:1 watchful_eye:1 frederick_barbarossa:1 danorum_saxo:1 saxo_grammaticus:1 shedding_blood:1 gulf_aden:2 rocket_propel:1 propel_grenade:1 ak_assault:1 assault_rifle:1 migne_patrologia:1 patrologia_latina:1 |
5,675 | Mass_transfer | Mass transfer is the transfer of mass from high concentration to low concentration. The phrase is commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve molecular and convective transport of atoms and molecules within physical systems. Mass transfer includes both fluid flow and separation unit operations. Examples Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a pond to the atmosphere; the diffusion of chemical impurities in lakes, rivers, and oceans from natural or artificial point sources; mass transfer is also responsible for the separation of components in an apparatus such as a distillation column. In HVAC examples of a heat and mass exchangers are cooling towers and evaporative coolers where evaporation of water cools that portion which remains as a liquid, as well as cooling and humidifying the air passing through. The driving force for mass transfer is a difference in concentration; the random motion of molecules causes a net transfer of mass from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. The amount of mass transfer can be quantified through the calculation and application of mass transfer coefficients. Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems, where material balance on components is performed. In astronomy, mass transfer is the process by which matter gravitationally bound to a body, usually a star, fills its Roche lobe and becomes gravitationally bound to a second body, usually a compact object (white dwarf, neutron star or black hole), and is eventually accreted onto it. It is a common phenomenon in binary systems, and may play an important role in some types of supernovae, and pulsars. For separation processes, thermodynamics determines the extent of separation, while mass transfer determines the rate at which the separation will occur. Analogies between heat, mass, and momentum transfer It is important to note that in molecular transport, heat, or mass there are many similarities. The molecular diffusion equations of Newton for momentum, Fourier law for heat, and Fick for mass are very similar. Therefore there are many analogies among these three molecular transport processes. A great deal of effort has been devoted in the literature to developing analogies among these three transport processes for turbulent transfer so as to allow prediction of one from any of the others. Reynolds analogy assumes that the turbulent diffusivities are all equal and that the molecular diffusivities of momentum (μ/ρ) and mass (DAB) are negligible compared to the turbulent diffusivities. When liquids are present and/or drag is present the analogy is not valid. Other analogies, such as von Karman's and Prandtl's, usually results in poor relations. The most successful and most widely used analogy is the Chilton and Colburn J-factor analogy. This analogy is based on experimental data for gases and liquids in both the laminar and turbulent regions. Although it is based on experimental data, it can be shown to satisfy the exact solution derived from laminar flow over a flat plate. See also Crystal growth Heat transfer Heat exchangers Fick's law Distillation column McCabe-Thiele method Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Liquid-liquid extraction Separation process | Mass_transfer |@lemmatized mass:17 transfer:15 high:2 concentration:5 low:2 phrase:1 commonly:1 use:2 engineering:2 physical:2 process:7 involve:1 molecular:5 convective:1 transport:4 atom:1 molecule:2 within:1 system:2 include:1 fluid:1 flow:2 separation:6 unit:1 operation:1 examples:1 common:2 example:2 evaporation:2 water:2 pond:1 atmosphere:1 diffusion:2 chemical:2 impurity:1 lake:1 river:1 ocean:1 natural:1 artificial:1 point:1 source:1 also:2 responsible:1 component:2 apparatus:1 distillation:2 column:2 hvac:1 heat:6 exchanger:2 cool:2 tower:1 evaporative:1 cooler:1 portion:1 remain:1 liquid:6 well:1 cooling:1 humidify:1 air:1 pass:1 drive:1 force:1 difference:1 random:1 motion:1 cause:1 net:1 area:2 amount:1 quantify:1 calculation:1 application:2 coefficient:1 find:1 extensive:1 problem:1 material:1 balance:1 perform:1 astronomy:1 matter:1 gravitationally:2 bind:2 body:2 usually:3 star:2 fill:1 roche:1 lobe:1 become:1 second:1 compact:1 object:1 white:1 dwarf:1 neutron:1 black:1 hole:1 eventually:1 accrete:1 onto:1 phenomenon:1 binary:1 may:1 play:1 important:2 role:1 type:1 supernova:1 pulsar:1 thermodynamics:1 determine:2 extent:1 rate:1 occur:1 analogy:9 momentum:3 note:1 many:2 similarity:1 equation:1 newton:1 fourier:1 law:2 fick:2 similar:1 therefore:1 among:2 three:2 great:1 deal:1 effort:1 devote:1 literature:1 develop:1 turbulent:4 allow:1 prediction:1 one:1 others:1 reynolds:1 assumes:1 diffusivities:3 equal:1 μ:1 ρ:1 dab:1 negligible:1 compare:1 present:2 drag:1 valid:1 von:1 karman:1 prandtl:1 result:1 poor:1 relation:1 successful:1 widely:1 chilton:1 colburn:1 j:1 factor:1 base:2 experimental:2 data:2 gas:1 laminar:2 region:1 although:1 show:1 satisfy:1 exact:1 solution:1 derive:1 flat:1 plate:1 see:1 crystal:1 growth:1 mccabe:1 thiele:1 method:1 vapor:1 equilibrium:1 extraction:1 |@bigram gravitationally_bind:2 black_hole:1 von_karman:1 laminar_turbulent:1 laminar_flow:1 heat_exchanger:1 vapor_liquid:1 |
5,676 | Evaporation | Water vapor that has evaporated and disappeared from hot tea condenses into visible droplets. Gaseous water is invisible, but the clouds of water droplets are evidence of evaporation followed by condensation. It is in the water cycle Evaporation is the slow vaporization of a liquid and the reverse of condensation. A type of phase transition, it is the process by which molecules in a liquid state (e.g. water) spontaneously become gaseous (e.g. water vapor). Generally, evaporation can be seen by the gradual disappearance of a liquid from a substance when exposed to a significant volume of gas. Vaporization and evaporation however, are not entirely the same processes. For example, substances like caesium, francium, gallium, bromine, rubidium and mercury may vaporize, but they do not evaporate as such. On average, the molecules in a glass of water do not have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid, or else the liquid would turn into vapor quickly (see boil). When the molecules collide, they transfer energy to each other in varying degrees, based on how they collide. Sometimes the transfer is so one-sided for a molecule near the surface that it ends up with enough energy to escape. Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g. cooking oil at room temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a pattern sufficient to frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor. However, these liquids are evaporating, it's just that the process is much slower and thus significantly less visible. Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. Solar energy drives evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water. In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration (which involves evaporation within plant stomata) are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation is caused when water is exposed to air and the liquid molecules turn into water vapor which rises up and forms clouds. Theory For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the surface, be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces. Only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, so the rate of evaporation is limited. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures. As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid thus decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is why evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed more quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation are heat, humidity and air movement. On a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined. Because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface can be seen. Evaporative equilibrium Vapor pressure of water vs. temperature. 760 Torr = 1 atm. If evaporation takes place in a closed vessel, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density and pressure of the vapor increases. When the process of escape and return reaches an equilibrium, the vapor is said to be "saturated," and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur. For a system consisting of vapor and liquid of a pure substance, this equilibrium state is directly related to the vapor pressure of the substance, as given by the Clausius-Clapeyron relation: where P1, P2 are the vapor pressures at temperatures T1, T2 respectively, ΔHvap is the enthalpy of vaporization, and R is the universal gas constant. The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the ambient pressure the liquid will boil. The ability for a molecule of a liquid to evaporate is largely based on the amount of kinetic energy an individual particle may possess. Even at lower temperatures, individual molecules of a liquid can evaporate if they have more than the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for vaporization. But vaporization is not only the process of a change of state from liquid to gas but it is also a change of state from a solid to gas. This process is also known as sublimation but can also be known as vaporization. Factors influencing the rate of evaporation Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air If the air already has a high concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate more slowly. Concentration of other substances in the air If the air is already saturated with other substances, it can have a lower capacity for the substance evaporating. Concentration of other substances in the liquid (impurities) If the liquid contains other substances, it will have a lower capacity for evaporation. Flow rate of air This is in part related to the concentration points above. If fresh air is moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. This is the result of the boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing with flow velocity, decreasing the diffusion distance in the stagnant layer. Inter-molecular forces The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid state, the more energy one must get to escape. Pressure In an area of less pressure, evaporation happens faster because there is less exertion on the surface keeping the molecules from launching themselves. Surface area A substance which has a larger surface area will evaporate faster as there are more surface molecules which are able to escape. Temperature of the substance If the substance is hotter, then evaporation will be faster. Density The higher the density, the slower a liquid evaporates. In the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized "pan" open water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world. The US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map. Geotechnical, Rock and Water Resources Library - Grow Resource - Evaporation The measurements range from under 30 to over per year. Applications When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even though the ambient temperature is below the boiling point of water, water evaporates. This is accelerated by factors such as low humidity, heat (from the sun), and wind. In a clothes dryer hot air is blown through the clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly. Combustion vaporization Fuel droplets vaporize as they receive heat by mixing with the hot gases in the combustion chamber. Heat (energy) can also be received by radiation from any hot refractory wall of the combustion chamber. Film deposition Thin films may be deposited by evaporating a substance and condensing it onto a substrate. See also Atmometer (evaporimeter) Crystallisation Desalination Distillation Drying Evaporator Evapotranspiration Flash evaporation Heat of vaporization Latent heat Pan evaporation Transpiration References Has an especially detailed discussion of film deposition by evaporation. External links MSN Encarta article on evaporation Evaporation of water | Evaporation |@lemmatized water:19 vapor:17 evaporate:13 disappear:1 hot:4 tea:1 condense:2 visible:2 droplet:3 gaseous:3 invisible:1 cloud:2 evidence:1 evaporation:30 follow:1 condensation:2 cycle:2 slow:3 vaporization:8 liquid:27 reverse:1 type:1 phase:5 transition:2 process:6 molecule:20 state:7 e:3 g:3 spontaneously:1 become:2 generally:1 see:4 gradual:1 disappearance:1 substance:18 expose:2 significant:1 volume:1 gas:6 however:2 entirely:1 example:2 like:1 caesium:1 francium:1 gallium:1 bromine:1 rubidium:1 mercury:1 may:3 vaporize:2 average:2 glass:1 enough:2 heat:9 energy:13 escape:7 else:1 would:1 turn:3 quickly:3 boil:3 collide:2 transfer:3 vary:1 degree:1 base:2 sometimes:1 one:2 side:1 near:2 surface:8 end:1 visibly:1 give:5 temperature:11 cooking:1 oil:1 room:1 tend:2 pattern:1 sufficient:2 frequently:1 necessary:1 much:1 thus:3 significantly:1 less:4 essential:1 part:3 solar:1 drive:1 ocean:1 lake:1 moisture:1 soil:1 source:1 hydrology:1 transpiration:2 involve:1 within:1 plant:1 stoma:1 collectively:1 termed:1 evapotranspiration:2 cause:1 air:10 molecules:1 rise:1 form:1 theory:1 must:2 locate:1 move:2 proper:1 direction:1 kinetic:5 overcome:1 intermolecular:1 force:3 small:1 proportion:1 meet:1 criterion:1 rate:6 limit:1 since:1 proportional:1 proceeds:1 high:5 fast:2 moving:1 remain:1 low:5 decrease:3 phenomenon:1 also:7 call:1 evaporative:2 cooling:1 sweat:1 cool:1 human:1 body:1 proceed:1 flow:3 pressure:11 laundry:2 clothes:4 line:2 dry:2 rapidly:2 windy:1 day:2 still:1 three:1 key:1 humidity:2 movement:1 molecular:2 level:1 strict:1 boundary:2 instead:1 knudsen:1 layer:4 undetermined:1 thick:1 macroscopic:1 scale:1 clear:1 interface:1 equilibrium:3 v:1 torr:1 atm:1 take:1 place:1 closed:2 vessel:1 accumulate:1 many:1 return:3 frequent:1 density:4 increase:1 reach:2 say:1 saturate:2 change:3 either:1 occur:1 system:3 consist:1 pure:1 directly:1 relate:3 clausius:1 clapeyron:1 relation:1 respectively:1 δhvap:1 enthalpy:1 r:1 universal:1 constant:1 open:2 find:1 ambient:2 ability:1 largely:1 amount:2 individual:2 particle:1 possess:1 even:2 minimum:1 require:1 solid:1 know:2 sublimation:1 factor:2 influence:1 concentration:6 evaporating:3 already:2 slowly:1 capacity:2 impurity:1 contain:1 point:2 fresh:1 time:2 likely:1 go:1 encouraging:1 result:1 velocity:1 diffusion:1 distance:1 stagnant:1 inter:1 strong:1 keep:2 together:1 get:1 area:3 happens:1 faster:3 exertion:1 launch:1 large:1 able:1 hotter:1 u:2 national:1 weather:1 service:1 measure:1 actual:1 standardized:1 pan:2 outdoors:1 various:1 location:1 nationwide:1 others:1 likewise:1 around:1 world:1 data:1 collect:1 compile:1 annual:1 map:1 geotechnical:1 rock:1 resource:2 library:1 grow:1 measurement:1 range:1 per:1 year:1 application:1 hang:1 though:1 evaporates:1 accelerate:1 sun:1 wind:1 dryer:1 blow:1 allow:1 combustion:3 fuel:1 receive:2 mix:1 chamber:2 radiation:1 refractory:1 wall:1 film:3 deposition:2 thin:1 deposit:1 onto:1 substrate:1 atmometer:1 evaporimeter:1 crystallisation:1 desalination:1 distillation:1 evaporator:1 flash:1 latent:1 reference:1 especially:1 detailed:1 discussion:1 external:1 link:1 msn:1 encarta:1 article:1 |@bigram caesium_francium:1 kinetic_energy:5 fast_moving:1 evaporative_cooling:1 vapor_pressure:7 vapor_liquid:2 ambient_temperature:1 combustion_chamber:2 heat_vaporization:1 latent_heat:1 external_link:1 msn_encarta:1 |
5,677 | Brown_bear | The Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) is a large bear distributed across much of northern Eurasia and North America. It weighs 100 to 700 kg (220-1,500 pounds) and its larger subspecies such as the Kodiak bear match the Polar bear as the largest extant terrestrial carnivore. (Overview page) While the brown bear's range has shrunk, and it has faced local extinctions, it remains listed as a least concern species, with a total population of approximately 200,000. Its principal range countries are Russia, the United States (especially Alaska), Canada, and Finland where it is the national animal. The species primarily feeds on vegetable matter, including roots, and fungi. Fish are a primary source of meat. It also eats small land mammals and occasionally larger mammals, such as deer. Adult brown bears can match wolf packs and large felines, often driving them off their kills. It is sometimes referred to as the bruin, from Middle English, based on the name of the bear in History of Reynard the Fox, translated by William Caxton, from Middle Dutch bruun or bruyn American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000. . Taxonomy There is little agreement on classification of brown bears. Some systems have proposed as many as 90 sub-species, while recent DNA analysis has identified as few as five clades. DNA analysis recently revealed that the identified subspecies of brown bears, both Eurasian and North American, are genetically quite homogeneous, and that their genetic phylogeography does not correspond to their traditional taxonomy. One subspecies appears to be more closely related to the polar bear than to other brown bears. This species is called "clade I" by Waits, et al., and is part of the subspecies identified as U. a. sitkensis, by Hall and as U. a. dalli by Kurtén. The subspecies have been listed as follows: Ursus arctos arctos – Eurasian Brown Bear Ursus arctos ognevi – East from Kolyma River Ursus arctos beringianus – Kamchatka Brown Bear; Kamchatka Peninsula and Paramushir Island Ursus arctos californicus – California golden bear (extinct) Ursus arctos crowtheri – Atlas Bear (extinct) Ursus arctos gobiensis – Gobi Bear; Mongolia Ursus arctos horribilis – Grizzly Bear; Canada and United States Ursus arctos isabellinus – Himalayan Brown Bear; Nepal, Pakistan and Northern India Ursus arctos formicarius – Carpathian Bear; Polar/Brown Bear Hybrid, Rothschild Museum, Tring Ursus arctos lasiotus – Amur brown bear ( or "Ussuri brown bear", "black grizzly" or "horse bear"), Russia: Southern Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Maritime Territory, and the Ussuri/Amur river region south of the Stanovoy Range. China: Northeastern Heilongjiang. Japan: Hokkaidō Ursus arctos marsicanus – Marsican Brown Bear; Central Italy (critically endangered) Ursus arctos meridionalis – Northern Caucasus Ursus arctos middendorffi – Kodiak Bear; Kodiak, Afognak, Shuyak Islands (Alaska) Ursus arctos nelsoni – Mexican Grizzly Bear; (extinct) Ursus arctos collaris – Siberian Brown Bear; Siberia (except for the habitat of the Kamchatka and Amur brown bears.) Also in northern Mongolia, far northern Xinjiang, and extreme eastern Kazakhstan. Ursus arctos pruinosus – Tibetan Blue Bear; Western China Ursus arctos syriacus – Syrian Brown Bear; Middle East Ursus arctos yesoensis – Hokkaido Brown Bear; Japan Ursus arctos piscator – Bergman's Bear (extinct?) Hybrids A grizzly–polar bear hybrid (known as a Pizzly Bear or Grolar bear) is a rare ursid hybrid resulting from a union of a brown bear and a polar bear. It has occurred both in captivity and in the wild. In 2006, the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA of a strange-looking bear that had been shot in the Canadian arctic; Previously, the hybrid had been produced in zoos and was considered a "cryptid" (a hypothesized animal for which there is no scientific proof of existence in the wild). Description A Eurasian Brown Bear running. Brown bears can be fast runners despite their size, capable of speeds of up to 64 km/h (40 mph) Brown bears have furry coats in shades of blonde, brown, black, or a combination of those colors. The longer outer guard hairs are often tipped with white or silver, giving a "grizzled" appearance. Their tail is 4-5 inches (10-13 cm) long. Like all bears, brown bears are plantigrades and can stand up on their hind legs for extended periods of time. Brown bears have a large hump of muscle over their shoulders which distinguishes them from other species. Learn to Identify Black Bears and Grizzly (Brown) Bears Brown bears are very powerful, and can break the backs and necks of large prey. The forearms end in massive paws with claws up to 15 cm (6 inches) in length which are mainly used for digging. The claws are not retractable, and have relatively blunt points. Their heads are large and round with a concave facial profile, a characteristic used to distinguish them from other bears. Males are 38-50% larger than females. The normal range of physical dimensions for a brown bear is a head-and-body length of 1.7 to 2.8 m (5.6 to 9.2 feet) and a shoulder height of 90 to 150 cm (35 to 60 inches). The smallest subspecies is the Eurasian Brown Bear whose mature females weigh as little as 90 kg (200 lb). Wood, The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Sterling Pub Co Inc (1983), ISBN 978-0851122359 Barely larger, Grizzly Bears from the Yukon region (which are a third smaller than most grizzlies) can weigh as little as 100 kg (220 lb) in the spring The Bear Facts - Types of bears in the Yukon, Yukon Education Student Network and the Syrian Brown Bear, with mature females weighing as little as 150 kg (331 lb). The largest subspecies are the Kodiak bear, Siberian Brown Bear, and the bears from coastal Russia and Alaska. It is not unusual for large male Kodiak Bears to stand over 3 m (10 feet) while on their hind legs, and to weigh up to 680 kg (1,500 lb). The largest wild Kodiak bear on record weighed over 1,100 kilograms (2400 pounds). Bears raised in zoos are often heavier than wild bears because of regular feeding and limited movement. In zoos, bears may weigh up to 900 kilograms (2,000 pounds), one example being "Goliath" from New Jersey's Space Farms Zoo and Museum. Another example is Kodiak brown bear "Barbucha" at the zoo in Duisburg, who weighs 1000 kg (2200 pounds). http://www.daylife.com/photo/03Nngke5xR7Vx Size seems related to food availability, and subspecies distinctions is more related to nutrition than geographical location. Despite their size, some brown bears have been clocked at speeds in excess of 64 km/h (40 mph). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/aug/09/environment.italy Distribution and habitat Brown Bear at Brooks Falls There are about 200,000 brown bears in the world. The largest populations are in Russia, with 120,000, the United States with 32,500, and Canada with 21,750. 95% of the brown bear population in the United States is in Alaska, though in the West they are repopulating slowly but steadily along the Rockies and plains. Although many people hold on to the belief that some brown bears may be present in Mexico and the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, both are almost certainly extinct. The last Mexican brown bear was shot in 1960. In Europe, there are 14,000 brown bears in ten fragmented populations, from Spain in the west, to Russia in the east, and from Scandinavia in the north to Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia (with about 800 - 900 animals) and Greece (with about 200 animals) in the south. They are extinct in the British Isles, extremely threatened in France and Spain, and in trouble over most of Central Europe. The Carpathian brown bear population is the largest in Europe outside Russia, estimated at 4,500 to 5,000 bears. Scandinavia is home to a large bear population, with an estimated 2,500 (range 2,350-2,900) in Sweden, 840 in Finland and 70 in Norway. Another large and relatively stable population of brown bears in Europe, consisting of 2,500-3,000 individuals, is the Dinaric-Pindos (Balkans) population, with contiguous distribution in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Republic of Macedonia, Albania and Greece. Bear Online Information System for Europe Brown bears were once native to Asia, the Atlas Mountains in Africa, Europe and North America, but are now extinct in some areas and their populations have greatly decreased in other areas. They prefer semi-open country, usually in mountainous areas. Brown bears live in Alaska, east through the Yukon and Northwest Territories, south through British Columbia and through the western half of Alberta. Small populations exist in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem of northwest Wyoming (with about 600 animals), the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem of northwest Montana (with about 400-500 animals), the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem of northwest Montana and northeast Idaho (with about 30-40 animals), the Selkirk Ecosystem of northeast Washington and northwest Idaho (with about 40-50 animals), and the North Cascades Ecosystem of north-central Washington (with about 5-10 animals). These five ecosystems combine for a total of roughly 1,200 wild grizzlies still persisting in the contiguous United States. Unfortunately, these populations are isolated from each other, inhibiting any genetic flow to occur between ecosystems. This poses one of the greatest threats to the future survival of the grizzly bear in the contiguous United States. The population of brown bears in the Pyrenees mountain range between France and Spain is so low, estimated at 14 to 18 with a shortage of females, that bears, mostly female, from Slovenia were released in spring 2006 to reduce the imbalance and preserve the species' presence in the area, despite protests from French farmers. In Arctic areas, the potential habitat of the brown bear is increasing. The warming of that region has allowed the species to move farther north into what was once exclusively the domain of the polar bear. In non-Arctic areas, habitat loss is blamed as the leading cause of endangerment, followed by hunting. North American brown bears seem to prefer open landscapes, whereas in Eurasia they inhabit mostly dense forests. It is thought that the Eurasian bears which colonized America were tundra-adapted. This is indicated by brown bears in the Chukotka Peninsula on the Asian side of Bering Strait, which are the only Asian brown bears to live year-round in lowland tundra like their American cousins. Brown Bear Hunting in Russia Behavior The brown bear is primarily nocturnal. In the summer it gains up to 180 kg (400 pounds) of fat, on which it relies to make it through winter, when it becomes very lethargic. Although they are not full hibernators, and can be woken easily, both sexes like to den in a protected spot such as a cave, crevice, or hollow log during the winter months. Brown bear are mostly solitary, although they may gather in large numbers at major food sources and form social hierarchies based on age and size. Animal Diversity Web - Ursus arctos Reproduction Female Cantabrian brown bear and cubs. With permission of Fapas (Conservation NGO - Foundation for the Protection of Wild Animals) The mating season is from late May to early July. Being serially monogamous, brown bears remain with the same mate from several days to a couple of weeks. Females mature sexually between the age of 5 and 7 years, while males usually mate a few years later when they are large and strong enough to successfully compete with other males for mating rights. Through the process of delayed implantation, a female's fertilized egg divides and floats free in the uterus for six months. During winter dormancy, the fetus attaches to the uterine wall. The cubs are born eight weeks later, while the mother sleeps. If the mother does not gain enough weight to survive through the winter, the embryo does not implant and is reabsorbed into the body. The average litter has one to four cubs, usually two. There have been cases of bears with five cubs, though sometimes females adopt strange cubs. Older females tend to give birth to larger litters. The size of a litter also depends on factors such as geographic location and food supply. At birth, the cubs are blind, toothless, hairless and weigh less than 1 pound. They feed on their mother’s milk until spring or even early summer depending on climate conditions. At this time, the cubs weigh 15 to 20 pounds and have developed enough to follow her and begin to forage for solid food. Cubs remain with their mother from two to four years, during which time they learn survival techniques, such as which foods have the highest nutritional values and where to attain them, how to hunt, fish, and defend themselves, and where to den. The cubs learn by following and imitating their mother’s actions during the period they are with her. Brown Bear Reproduction Brown bears practice infanticide. Mating Strategies in Relation to Sexually Selected Infanticide in a Non-Social Carnivore: the Brown Bear An adult male bear may kill the cubs of another bear either to make the female sexually receptive or simply for consumption. Cubs flee up a tree when they see a strange male bear, and the mother defends them even though the male may be twice her size. Dietary habits Brown bear feeding on salmon They are omnivores and feed on a variety of plant products, including berries, roots, and sprouts, fungi as well as meat products such as fish, insects, and small mammals. Despite their reputation, most brown bears are not highly carnivorous as they derive up to 90% of their dietary food energy from vegetable matter. Alaska Office of Economic Development Their jaw structure has evolved to fit their dietary habits. Their diet varies enormously throughout their differing areas based on opportunity. For example, bears in Yellowstone eat an enormous number of moths during the summer, sometimes as many as 40,000 in a day, and may derive up to half of their annual food energy from these insects. Yellowstone Grizzly Bears Eat 40,000 Moths a Day In August In some areas of Russia and Alaska, brown bears feed mostly on spawning salmon, whose nutrition and abundance explains the enormous size of the bears in these areas. Brown bears also occasionally prey on large mammals, such as deer, elk, moose, caribou, and bison. When brown bears attack these animals, they tend to choose the young ones as they are easier to catch. When hunting, the brown bear uses its sharp canine teeth for neck-biting its prey. On rare occasions, bears kill by hitting their prey with their powerful forearms which can break the necks and backs of large prey, such as bison. They also feed on carrion and use their size to intimidate other predators such as wolves, cougars, tigers and black bears from their kills. Interspecific predatory relationships Brown bears often use their large size for intimidation when a kill or a territory is in dispute with a large predator of another species. Sometimes the conflict will escalate to the point of violence, but usually threat displays are sufficient since most animals try to avoid potential bodily harm. However, the massive strength and size of the brown bear will usually result in it winning violent conflicts. In situations where the interspecies conflict turns deadly, brown bears may also eat the competitor despite it not being the primary reason for attack. Brown bears regularly intimidate wolves away from their kills. In Yellowstone National Park, brown bears pirate wolf kills so often that Yellowstone’s Wolf Project Director Doug Smith wrote: "It’s not a matter of if the bears will come calling after a kill, but when." Though conflict over carcasses is common, on rare occasions the two predators tolerate each other on the same kill. Given the opportunity, both species prey on each other's cubs. Adult bears are generally immune from predatory attacks from anything other than another bear. Some bears emerging from hibernation will seek out tigers in order to steal their kills. However, in the Russian Far East brown bears, along with smaller Asiatic black bears constitute 5-8% of the diet of Siberian tigers. In particular, the brown bear's input is estimated to be 1-1.5%. Vratislav Mazak: Der Tiger. Nachdruck der 3. Auflage von 1983. Westarp Wissenschaften Hohenwarsleben, 2004 ISBN 3894327596 Tiger attacks on bears tend to occur when ungulate populations decrease and bear cubs or female bears are typically the prey. However, there are records of bears killing tigers, either in self defense or in disputes over kills. Large male bears and tigers are both the main perpetrator of such fatal attacks and are themselves practically immune. Brown bears usually dominate other bear species in areas where they coexist. Due to their smaller size, American black bears are at a competitive disadvantage over brown bears in open, non-forested areas. Although displacement of black bears by brown bears has been documented, actual interspecific killing of black bears by brown bears has only occasionally been reported. Confrontation is mostly avoided thanks to the black bear's diurnal habit and preference for heavily forested areas, as opposed to the brown bear's largely nocturnal habit and preference for open spaces. Notes There has been a recent increase in interactions between brown bears and polar bears, theorized to be caused by global warming. Brown bears have been seen moving increasingly northward into territories formerly claimed by polar bears. Brown bears tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses adn.com | front : Polar bears, grizzlies increasingly gather on North Slope , and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens. ABC News: Grizzlies Encroaching on Polar Bear Country Giant Panda cubs have also been reportedly eaten by brown bears. Brown bears may also compete with cougars for prey. Brown bears have been reported to kill cougars in the American west. Cougars are better hunters than grizzly bears but weaker fighters and therefor a potential target for a hungry grizzly. Cougars may try to scare bears off by making loud noises and it does work on occasions. Relationship with humans Front paw imprint. Rear paw imprint. Bears become attracted to human-created food sources such as garbage dumps, litter bins, and dumpsters; they venture into human dwellings or barns in search of food as humans encroach into bear habitat. In the U.S., bears sometimes kill and eat farm animals. When bears come to associate human activity with a "food reward", they are likely to continue to become emboldened and the likeliness of human-bear encounters increases, as they may return to the same location despite relocation. The saying, "a fed bear is a dead bear," has come into use to popularize the idea that allowing bears to scavenge human garbage, such as trash cans and campers' backpacks, pet food, or other food sources that draw the bear into contact with humans can result in a bear's death. Relocation of the bear has been used to separate the bear from the human environment, but it does not address the problem bear's newly learned association of humans with food. Nor does it address the environmental situations which created the human habituated bear. "Placing a bear in habitat used by other bears may lead to competition and social conflict, and result in the injury or death of the less dominant bear." Yellowstone National Park, an enormous reserve located in the Western United States, contains prime habitat for the Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos horribilis), and due to the enormous number of visitors, human-bear encounters are common. The scenic beauty of the area has led to an influx of people moving into the area. In addition, because there are so many bear relocations to the same remote areas of Yellowstone, and because male bears tend to dominate the center of the relocation zone, female bears tend to be pushed to the boundaries of the region and beyond. As a result, a large proportion of repeat offenders, bears that are killed for public safety, are females. This creates a further depressive effect on an already endangered species. The grizzly bear is officially described as threatened in the U.S. Though the problem is most significant with regard to grizzlies, these issues affect the other types of brown bear as well. In Europe, part of the problem lies with shepherds; over the past two centuries, many sheep and goat herders have gradually abandoned the more traditional practice of using dogs to guard flocks, which have concurrently grown larger. Typically they allow the herds to graze freely over sizeable tracts of land. As bears reclaim parts of their range, they may eat livestock. In some cases, the shepherds shoot the bear thinking that his livelihood is under threat. Many are now better informed about the ample compensation available and will make a claim when a loss to his livestock due to a bear takes place. Legal status The grizzly bear, sometimes called the silvertip bear, is listed as threatened in the Contiguous United States. It is slowly repopulating in areas where it was previously extirpated, though it is still vulnerable. The California golden bear (Ursus arctos californicus'' ) disappeared from the state of California in 1922 when the last one was shot in Tulare County, but it is still on the state flag of California. The bear is alluded to in the names of the sports teams of the University of California, Berkeley (the California Golden Bears), and of the University of California, Los Angeles (the UCLA Bruins) and in the mascot of University of California, Riverside (Scottie the Bear, dressed in a Highland kilt). The Mexican grizzly bear is listed as an endangered species, but it may be extinct. In Canada, it is listed as vulnerable in Alberta, British Columbia, Northwest Territories, and Yukon Territory. Prairie populations of grizzly bear are listed as extirpated in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. The brown bear is a European Protected Species, given protection throughout the European Union. The brown bear is also the national animal of Finland and Slovenia. The brown bear is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 5 kuna coin, minted since 1993. Bear encounters There are an average of two fatal attacks by bears per year in North America. Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance, Stephen Herrero, revised edition, 2002. In Scandinavia, there are only four known cases since 1902 of bear encounters which have resulted in death. The two most common causes for bear attack are surprise and curiosity. Some types of bears, such as polar bears, are more likely to attack humans when searching for food, while American black bears are much less likely to attack. The Alaska Science Center ranks the following as the most likely reasons for bear attacks: Surprise Curiosity Invaded personal space (this includes a mother bear protecting her young) Predatory Hunting wounded Carcass defense Provoked charge Aggressive behaviour in brown bears is favoured by numerous selection variables. Unlike the smaller black bears, adult brown bears are too large to escape danger by climbing trees, so they respond to danger by standing their ground and warding off their attackers. Increased aggressiveness also assists female brown bears in better ensuring the survival of their young to reproductive age. Why are grizzly bears more aggressive than our black bears? Mothers defending cubs are the most prone to attacking, being responsible for 70% of brown bear-caused human fatalities in North America. How Dangerous are Black Bears History of defense from bears A study by Canadian and US researchers has found pepper spray to be more effective at stopping aggressive bear behavior than guns, working in 92% of studied incidents vs 67% for guns. Carrying pepper spray is highly recommended by many authorities when traveling in bear country, however carrying two means of deterrent, one of which being a large caliber gun, is also advised. Guns remain a viable, last resort option to be used in defense of life from aggressive bears. Too often, people do not carry a proper caliber weapon to neutralize the bear. According to the Alaska Science Center, a 12 gauge shotgun with slugs has been the most effective weapon. There have been fewer injuries as a result of only carrying lethal loads in the shotgun, as opposed to deterrent rounds. State of Alaska Defense of Life or Property (DLP) laws require you to report the kill to authorities, and salvage the hide, skull and claws. If a bear is killed near camp, the bear’s carcass must be adequately disposed of, including entrails and blood if possible. Failure to move the carcass has often resulted in it attracting other bears and further exacerbating a bad situation. See also Cantabrian brown bear Environmental Centre ARCTUROS List of fatal bear attacks in North America by decade Sankebetsu brown bear incident External links Brown Bear profile from National Geographic IFAW Rebuilding the European Brown Bear Population Bear Hunting Altered Genetics More Than Ice Age Isolation Ancient Fossil Offers New Clues To Brown Bears Past References be-x-old:Буры мядзьведзь | Brown_bear |@lemmatized brown:93 bear:224 ursus:23 arctos:24 large:29 distribute:1 across:1 much:2 northern:6 eurasia:2 north:12 america:6 weigh:10 kg:7 pound:7 subspecies:8 kodiak:7 match:2 polar:13 extant:1 terrestrial:1 carnivore:2 overview:1 page:1 range:7 shrink:1 face:1 local:1 extinction:1 remain:4 list:7 least:1 concern:1 specie:12 total:2 population:15 approximately:1 principal:1 country:4 russia:8 united:8 state:11 especially:1 alaska:10 canada:4 finland:3 national:5 animal:16 primarily:2 feed:3 vegetable:2 matter:3 include:4 root:2 fungi:2 fish:3 primary:2 source:4 meat:2 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5,678 | Ajanta_Caves | Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, India are rock-cut cave monuments dating from the second century BCE, containing paintings and sculpture considered to be masterpieces of both "Buddhist religious art" Ajanta Caves, India: Brief Description, UNESCO World Heritage Site. Retrieved 27 October 2006. and "universal pictorial art" Ajanta Caves: Advisory Body Evaluation, UNESCO International Council on Monuments and Sites. 1982. Retrieved 27 October 2006., p.2. . The caves are located just outside the village of in Aurangabad District in the Indian state of Maharashtra (N. lat. 20 deg. 30' by E. long. 75 deg. 40'). Since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A National Geographic January 2008, VOL. 213, #1 edition reads, "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings." Locality Jataka tales from the Ajanta caves Ajanta Caves - view from ticket office Horse shoe shaped Ajanta escarpment, viewed from Caves Viewpoint some 8 km away The caves are in a wooded and rugged horseshoe-shaped ravine about 3½ km from the village of Ajantha. It is situated in the Aurangābād district of Maharashtra State in India (106 kilometers away from the city of Aurangabad). The nearest towns are Jalgaon (60 kilometers away) and Bhusawal (70 kilometers away). Along the bottom of the ravine runs the river Waghur, a mountain stream. There are 29 caves (as officially numbered by the Archaeological Survey of India), excavated in the south side of the precipitous scarp made by the cutting of the ravine. They vary from 35 to in elevation above the bed of the stream. The monastic complex of Ajanta consists of several viharas (monastic halls of residence) and chaitya-grihas (stupa monument halls) cut into the mountain scarp in two phases. The first phase is mistakenly called the Hinayana phase (referring to the Lesser Vehicle tradition of Buddhism, when the Buddha was revered symbolically). Actually, Hinayana – a derogative term for Sthaviravada – does not object to Buddha statues. At Ajanta, cave numbers 9, 10, 12, 13, and 15A (the last one was re-discovered in 1956, and is still not officially numbered) were excavated during this phase. These excavations have enshrined the Buddha in the form of the stupa, or mound. The second phase of excavation at the site began after a lull of over three centuries. This phase is often inappropriately called the Mahayana phase (referring to the Greater Vehicle tradition of Buddhism, which is less strict and encourages direct cow depiction of the Buddha through paintings and carvings). Some prefer to call this phase the Vakataka phase after the ruling dynasty of the house of the Vakatakas of the Vatsagulma branch. The dating of the second phase has been debated among scholars. In recent years a consensus seems to be converging on 5th-century dates for all the Mahayana or Vakataka phase caves. According to Walter M. Spink, a leading Ajantologist, all the Mahayana excavations were carried out from 462 to 480 CE. The caves created during the Mahayana phase are the ones numbered 1-8, 11, and 14-29. Cave 8 was long thought to be a Hinayāna cave, however current research shows that it is in fact a Mahayana cave. There were two chaitya-grihas excavated in the Hinayana phase that are caves 9 and 10. Caves 12, 13, and 15A of this phase are vihāras. There were three chaitya-grihas excavated in the Vakataka or Mahayana phase that are caves 19, 26, and 29. The last cave was abandoned soon after its beginning. The rest of the excavations are viharas: caves 1-3, 5-8, 11, 14-18, 20-25, and 27-28. The viharas are of various sizes the maximum being about . They are often square-shaped. Their excavation exhibits a great variety, some with simple facade, others ornate; some have a porch and others do not. The hall was an essential element of a viharas. In the Vakataka phase, early viharas were not intended to have shrines because they were purely meant to be halls of residence and congregation. Later, shrines were introduced in them in the back walls, which became a norm. The shrines were made to house the central object of reverence that is the image of the Buddha often seated in the dharmachakrapravartana mudra (the gesture of teaching). In the caves with latest features, we find subsidiary shrines added on the side walls, porch or the front-court. The facades of many vihāras are decorated with carvings, and walls and ceilings were often covered with paintings. Changes in Buddhist thought in the 1st century BCE had made it possible for the Buddha to be deified and consequently the image of the Buddha as a focus of worship became popular, marking the arrival of the Mahāyāna (the Greater Vehicle) sect. In the past, scholars divided the caves in three groups, but this is now discredited in light of fresh evidence and research. This theory of dating believed that the oldest group of caves dated from 200 BCE to CE 200, the second group belonged, approximately, to the 6th, and the third group to the 7th century. The expression Cave Temples used by Anglo-Indians for viharas without the shrine is inaccurate. Ajanta was a kind of college monastery. Hsuan Tsang informs us that Dinnaga, the celebrated Buddhist philosopher and controversialist, author of well-known books on logic, resided there. This, however, remains to be corroborated by further evidence. In their prime the vihāras were intended to afford accommodation for several hundreds, teachers and pupils combined. It is tragic that none of the caves in the Vakataka phase were ever fully completed. This was because the ruling Vakataka dynasty suddenly fell out of power leaving the dominion in a likely crisis, which forced all activities to a sudden halt at the time of Ajanta's last years of activities. This idea first pronounced by Walter M. Spink is increasingly gaining acceptance based on the archaeological evidence visible on site. Most of the subjects have been identified by the leading Ajantologist from Germany, Dieter Schlingloff. Cave One Painting from Cave No. 1 Cave 1 It is first approach and has no relation to the chronological sequence of the caves. It is the first cave on the eastern end of the horse-shoe shaped scarp. According to Spink, it is one of the latest caves to have begun on site and brought to near-completion in the Vākāţaka phase. Although there is no epigraphic evidence, it has been proposed that the Vākāţaka king Harisena may have been the benefactor of this better-preserved cave. A dominant reason for this is that Harisena was not involved initially in patronizing Ajanta, but could not have remained aloof for long, as the site was burgeoning with activity under his rule, and the Buddhist laity would have loved to see the Hindu king participating in the pious act of patronage. Besides, most of the themes depicted are royal. This cave has one of the most elaborate carvings on its facade with relief sculptures on entablature and ridges. There are scenes carved from the life of the Buddha as well as a number of decorative motifs. A two pillared portico, visible in the 19th-century photographs, has since perished. The cave has a front-court with cells fronted by pillared vestibules on either side. These have a high plinth level. The cave has a porch with simple cells on both ends. The absence of pillared vestibules on the ends suggest that the porch was not excavated in the latest phase of Ajanta when pillared vestibules had become a necessity and norm. Most areas of the porch were once covered with murals, of which many fragments remain. There are three doorways: a central doorway and two side doorways. Two square windows were carved between the doorways to brighten the interiors. Each wall of the hall inside is nearly long and high. Twelve pillars make a square colonnade inside supporting the ceiling, and creating spacious aisles along the walls. There is a shrine carved on the rear wall to house an impressive seated image of the Buddha, his hands being in the dharmachakrapravartana mudra. There are four cells on each of the left, rear, and the right walls. The walls are covered with paintings in a fair state of preservation. The scenes depicted are mostly didactic, devotional, and ornamental. The themes are from the Jataka stories (the stories of the Buddha's former existences as Boddhisattva), the life of the Gautama Buddha, and those of his veneration. Cave Two Painting, Cave No. 2Painting from the Ajanta cavesAjanta CavesAjanta Caves Cave 2, adjacent to Cave 1, is known for the paintings that have been preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars. It looks pretty much the same as Cave 1 and is in a better state of preservation. The facade Cave 2 has a porch quite different from Cave one. Even the facade carvings seem to be different. The cave is supported by robust pillars, ornamented with designs. The size and ground plan have many things in common with the first cave. The porch The front porch consists of cells supported by pillared vestibules on both ends. The cells on the previously "wasted areas" were needed to meet the greater housing requirements in later years. Porch-end cells became a trend in all later Vakataka excavations. The simple single cells on porch-ends were converted into CPVs or were planned to provide more room, symmetry, and beauty. The paintings on the ceilings and walls of this porch have been widely published. They depict the Jataka tales that are stories of the Buddha's life in former existences as Bodhisattva. The porch's rear wall has a doorway in the center, which allows entrance to the hall. On either side of the door is a square-shaped window to brighten the interior The hall The hall has four colonnades supporting the ceiling and surrounding a square in the center of the hall. Each arm or colonnade of the square is parallel to the respective walls of the hall, making an aisle in between. The colonnades have rock-beams above and below them. The capitals are carved and painted with various decorative themes that include ornamental, human, animal, vegetative, and semi-divine forms. The paintings Paintings are all over the cave except for the floor. At various places the art work has become eroded due to decay and human interference. Therefore, many areas of the painted walls, ceilings, and pillars are fragmentary. The painted narratives of the Jataka tales are depicted only on the walls, which demanded the special attention of the devotee. They are didactic in nature, meant to inform the community about the Buddha's teachings and life through successive births. Their placement on the walls required the devotee to walk through the aisles and 'read' the narratives depicted in various episodes. (Alas, to prevent vandalism, entry into the aisles is restricted by site authorities). The narrative episodes are depicted one after another although not in a linear order. Their identification has been a core area of research since the site's rediscovery in 1819 C.E. Dieter Schlingloff's identifications have updated our knowledge on the subject. For quite some time the art work was erroneously alluded to as "frescoes". We now know that the proper term for this kind of artwork is mural, because the known process and technique of fresco painting isn't found in this kind of artwork. At Ajanta, the technique and process used to produce this kind of artwork is unlike any other artwork found in the art history of other civilizations. These murals have a certain uniqueness about them, even within the history of South Asian art. The process of painting involved several stages. The first step was to chisel the rock surface, to make it rough enough to hold the plaster. The plaster was made of clay, hay, dung and lime. Differences are found in the ingredients and their proportions from cave to cave. While the plaster was still wet, the drawings were done and the colors applied. The wet plaster had the capacity to soak the color so that the color became a part of the surface and would not peel off or decay easily. The colors were referred to as 'earth colors' or 'vegetable colors.' Various kinds of stones, minerals, and plants were used in combinations to prepare different colors. Sculptures were often covered with stucco to give them a fine finish and lustrous polish. The stucco had the ingredients of lime and powdered seashell or conch. The latter afforded exceptional shine and smoothness. In cave upper six, some of it is extant. The smoothness resembles the surface of glass. The paint brushes used to create the artwork were made from animal hair and twigs Rediscovery by Europeans By AD 480 the caves at Ajanta were abandoned. During the next 1300 years the jungle grew back and the caves were hidden, unvisited and undisturbed until the Spring of 1819 when a British officer in the Madras army entered the steep gorge on the trail of a tiger. Somehow, deep within the tangled undergrowth, he came across the almost hidden entrance to one of the caves. Exploring that first cave, long since a home to nothing more than birds and bats and a lair for other, larger, animals, Captain Smith wrote his name in pencil on one of the walls. Still faintly visible, it records his name and the date, April 1819. See also Indian rock-cut architecture List of India cave temples Sigiriya List Of Colossal Sculpture In Situ References Literature Burgess, James and Fergusson J. Cave Temples of India. (London: W.H. Allen & Co., 1880. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd., Delhi, 2005). ISBN 8121502519 Burgess, James, and Indraji, Bhagwanlal. Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India, Archaeological Survey of Western India, Memoirs, 10 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1881). Burgess, James. Buddhist Cave Temples and Their Inscriptions, Archaeological Survey of Western India, 4 (London: Trubner & Co., 1883; Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1964). Burgess, James. “Notes on the Bauddha Rock Temples of Ajanta, Their Paintings and Sculptures,” Archaeological Survey of Western India, 9 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1879). Behl, Benoy K. The Ajanta Caves (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998). Cohen, Richard Scott. Setting the Three Jewels: The Complex Culture of Buddhism at the Ajanta Caves. A Ph.D. dissertation (Asian Languages and Cultures: Buddhist Studies, University of Michigan, 1995). Cowell, E.B. The Jataka, I-VI (Cambridge: Cambridge, 1895; reprint, 1907). Dhavalikar, M.K. Late Hinayana Caves of Western India (Pune: 1984). Griffiths, J. Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta, 2 vols. (London: 1896 - 1897). Kramrisch, Stella. A Survey of Painting in the Deccan (Calcutta and London: The India Society in co-operation with the Dept. of Archaeology, 1937). Reproduced: “Ajanta,” Exploring India’s Sacred Art: Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch, ed. Miller, Barbara Stoler (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 1983), pp. 273–307; reprint (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1994), pp. 273–307. Majumdar, R.C. and A.S. Altekar, eds. The Vakataka-Gupta Age. New History of Indian People Series, VI (Benares: Motilal Banarasidass, 1946; reprint, Delhi: 1960). Mirashi, V.V. “Historical Evidence in Dandin’s Dasakumaracharita,” Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 24 (1945), 20ff. Reproduced: Studies in Indology, 1 (Nagpur: Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal, 1960), pp. 164–77. Mirashi, V.V. Inscription of the Vakatakas. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Series, 5 (Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India, 1963). Mirashi, V.V. The Ghatotkacha Cave Inscriptions with a Note on Ghatotkacha Cave Temples by Srinivasachar, P. (Hyderabad: Archaeological Department, 1952). Mirashi, V.V. Vakataka inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta. Hyderabad Archaeological Series, 14 (Calcutta: Baptist mission Press for the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizam’s Dominions, 1941). Mitra, Debala. Ajanta, 8th ed. (Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1980). Nagaraju, S. Buddhist Architecture of Western India (Delhi: 1981). Parimoo, Ratan; et al. The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, 2 vols (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991). Schligloff, Dieter. Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 1; Narrative Wall Paintings (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999) Schligloff, Dieter. Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations (New Delhi: 1987). Shastri, Ajay Mitra, ed. The Age of the Vakatakas (New Delhi: Harman, 1992). Spink, Walter M. “A Reconstruction of Events related to the development of Vakataka caves,” C.S. Sivaramamurti felicitation volume, ed. M.S. Nagaraja Rao (New Delhi: 1987). Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 1’s Patronage,” Chhavi 2, ed. Krishna, Anand (Benares: Bharat Kala Bhawan, 1981), pp. 144–57. Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 7’s Twice-born Buddha,” Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia, ed. Narain, A.K. (New Delhi: 1985), pp. 103–16. Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Politics and Patronage,” Kaladarsana, ed. Williams, Joanna (New Delhi: 1981), pp. 109–26. Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: The Crucial Cave,” Ars Orientalis, 10 (1975), pp. 143–169. Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: The Problem of Cave 11,” Ars Orientalis, 7 (1968), pp. 155–168. Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Paintings: A Checklist for their Dating,” Dimensions of Indian Art, Pupul Jayakar Felicitation Volume, ed. Chandra, Lokesh; and Jain, Jyotindra (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1987), p. 457. Spink, Walter M. “Notes on Buddha Images,” The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 213–41. Spink, Walter M. “The Achievement of Ajanta,” The Age of the Vakatakas, ed. Shastri, Ajaya Mitra (New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1992), pp. 177–202. Spink, Walter M. “The Vakataka’s Flowering and Fall,” The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 71–99. Spink, Walter M. “The Archaeology of Ajanta,” Ars Orientalis, 21, pp. 67–94. Weiner, Sheila L. Ajanta: It’s Place in Buddhist Art (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977). Yazdani, Gulam. Ajanta: the Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescoes Based on Photography, 4 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1930 [31?], 1955). Yazdani, Gulam. The Early History of the Deccan, Parts 7-9 (Oxford: 1960). Zin, Monika. Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 2; Devotional and Ornamental Paintings (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2003). External links Video of the caves MTDC site Ajanta Caves in UNESCO List "Ajanta", Jacques-Edouard Berger Foundation, World Art Treasures (choose French or English) Frontline Article On Ajanta Paintings Photographs of the Ajanta caves-paintings and sculpture, IndiaMonuments.org Article on Ajanta from the Travel section of the New York Times (November 5, 2006) photos of the Ajanta caves Photographs | Ajanta_Caves |@lemmatized ajanta:47 cave:75 maharashtra:3 india:16 rock:5 cut:3 monument:3 date:5 second:4 century:6 bce:3 contain:1 painting:21 sculpture:6 consider:1 masterpiece:1 buddhist:11 religious:1 art:15 brief:1 description:1 unesco:4 world:3 heritage:2 site:10 retrieve:2 october:2 universal:1 pictorial:1 advisory:1 body:1 evaluation:1 international:1 council:1 p:3 locate:1 outside:1 village:2 aurangabad:2 district:2 indian:5 state:4 n:2 lat:1 deg:2 e:3 long:5 since:4 national:2 geographic:1 january:1 vol:5 edition:1 read:2 flow:1 faith:1 hundred:2 year:5 almost:2 temple:9 include:2 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5,679 | General_election | A general election is an election in which all or most members of a given political body are up for election. The term is usually used to refer to elections held for a nation's primary legislative body, as distinguished from by-elections and local elections. The term originates in the United Kingdom general elections for the House of Commons. In the United States of America General election is also a term used to differentiate from a primary election. In the United States, primary elections serve to narrow down a field of candidates, and general elections actually elect candidates to offices. The general election is usually held on Election Day, Tuesday after the first Monday in November of even-numbered years. It meets the above definition of "general election" because the entire United States House of Representatives is elected on Election Day, though not the entire United States Congress. Before passage of the 17th Amendment, members of the United States Senate were not directly elected by the people but rather by their state's legislatures. Though Senators have been directly elected since then, only one-third of them are available for election on any given General Election Day. The U.S. President is also chosen during a November General Election that follows primaries. In the United Kingdom General elections in Great Britain refer to the election of Members of Parliament (MPs) to the House of Commons; these must be held within 5 years and 1 month of the last one, but are often held before that time as it is up to the parties in government when to call a general election. The current Labour Party government have held general elections every four years since coming to power in May 1997 and thereafter in June 2001 and May 2005. Therefore another election is not legally obliged to occur until June 2010. General elections in Britain traditionally take place on a Thursday; the last general election not on a Thursday was that of 1931. The five year limit on the time of a Parliament can be varied by an Act of Parliament. This was done during both World Wars; the Parliament elected in December 1910 was prolonged to November 1918, and that elected in November 1935 lasted until June 1945. The House of Lords has an absolute veto on any Bill to extend the life of a Parliament. In India General Elections in India is the largest exercise of democracy in the World. In 2004, Indian elections covered an electorate larger than 670 million people—over twice that of the next largest, the European Parliament elections—and declared expenditure has trebled since 1989 to almost $300 million, using more than 1 million electronic voting machines Indian General Election Expenditure, from ECI website accessed 14 May 2006. . The Election Commission of India coordinates the elections, which owing to the huge size of the electorate is conducted in a phased manner. Japan See Elections in Japan Footnotes External links International IDEA's Electoral Processes Program A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825 | General_election |@lemmatized general:15 election:33 member:3 give:2 political:1 body:2 term:3 usually:2 use:3 refer:2 hold:5 nation:2 primary:4 legislative:1 distinguish:1 local:1 originate:1 united:7 kingdom:2 house:4 common:2 state:6 america:1 also:2 differentiate:1 serve:1 narrow:1 field:1 candidate:2 actually:1 elect:6 office:1 day:3 tuesday:1 first:1 monday:1 november:4 even:1 numbered:1 year:4 meet:1 definition:1 entire:2 representative:1 though:2 congress:1 passage:1 amendment:1 senate:1 directly:2 people:2 rather:1 legislature:1 senator:1 since:3 one:2 third:1 available:1 u:1 president:1 choose:1 follow:1 great:1 britain:2 parliament:6 mp:1 must:1 within:1 month:1 last:3 often:1 time:2 party:2 government:2 call:1 current:1 labour:1 every:1 four:1 come:1 power:1 may:3 thereafter:1 june:3 therefore:1 another:1 legally:1 oblige:1 occur:1 traditionally:1 take:1 place:1 thursday:2 five:1 limit:1 vary:1 act:1 world:2 war:1 december:1 prolong:1 lord:1 absolute:1 veto:1 bill:1 extend:1 life:1 india:3 large:3 exercise:1 democracy:1 indian:2 cover:1 electorate:2 million:3 twice:1 next:1 european:1 declared:1 expenditure:2 treble:1 almost:1 electronic:1 voting:1 machine:1 eci:1 website:1 access:1 commission:1 coordinate:1 owe:1 huge:1 size:1 conduct:1 phased:1 manner:1 japan:2 see:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 international:1 idea:1 electoral:1 process:1 program:1 new:1 vote:1 american:1 return:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
5,680 | Cold_fusion | Diagram of an open type calorimeter used at the New Hydrogen Energy Institute in Japan. Cold fusion (sometimes referred to as low energy nuclear reaction (LENR) studies or condensed matter nuclear science , ) refers to a postulated nuclear fusion process of unknown mechanism offered to explain a group of disputed experimental results first reported by electrochemists Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons. Cold fusion, under this definition, was only first announced on March 23, 1989 when Fleischmann and Pons reported producing nuclear fusion in a tabletop experiment involving electrolysis of heavy water on a palladium (Pd) electrode. They reported anomalous heat production ("excess heat") of a magnitude they asserted would defy explanation except in terms of nuclear processes. ("It is inconceivable that this [amount of heat] could be due to anything but nuclear processes.") They further reported measuring small amounts of nuclear reaction byproducts, including neutrons and tritium. ("We realise that the results reported here raise more questions than they provide answers . . .") These reports raised hopes of a cheap and abundant source of energy. Enthusiasm turned to skepticism as replication failures were weighed in view of several theoretical reasons cold fusion should not be possible, the discovery of possible sources of experimental error, and finally the discovery that Fleischmann and Pons had not actually detected nuclear reaction byproducts. ,, , By late 1989, most physicists considered cold fusion claims dead, and cold fusion subsequently gained a reputation as pathological science. However, some researchers continue to investigate cold fusion and publish their findings at conferences, in books, and scientific journals. ,,,,,,,, There have been few mainstream reviews of the field since 1990. In 1989, the majority of a review panel organized by the US Department of Energy (DOE) had found that the evidence for the discovery of a new nuclear process was not persuasive. A second DOE review, convened in 2004 to look at new research, reached conclusions that were similar to those of the 1989 panel. ,, History Early work The ability of palladium to absorb hydrogen was recognized as early as the nineteenth century by Thomas Graham. In the late nineteen-twenties, two Austrian born scientists, Friedrich Paneth and Kurt Peters, originally reported the transformation of hydrogen into helium by spontaneous nuclear catalysis when hydrogen was absorbed by finely divided palladium at room temperature. However, the authors later retracted that report, acknowledging that the helium they measured was due to background from the air. In 1927, Swedish scientist J. Tandberg stated that he had fused hydrogen into helium in an electrolytic cell with palladium electrodes. On the basis of his work, he applied for a Swedish patent for "a method to produce helium and useful reaction energy". After deuterium was discovered in 1932, Tandberg continued his experiments with heavy water. Due to Paneth and Peters' retraction, Tandberg's patent application was eventually denied. The term "cold fusion" was used as early as 1956 in a New York Times article about Luis W. Alvarez' work on muon-catalyzed fusion. E. Paul Palmer of Brigham Young University also used the term "cold fusion" in 1986 in an investigation of "geo-fusion", or the possible existence of fusion in a planetary core. Fleischmann-Pons announcement Electrolysis cell schematicMartin Fleischmann of the University of Southampton and Stanley Pons of the University of Utah hypothesized that the high compression ratio and mobility of deuterium that could be achieved within palladium metal using electrolysis might result in nuclear fusion. To investigate, they conducted electrolysis experiments using a palladium cathode and heavy water within a calorimeter, an insulated vessel designed to measure process heat. Current was applied continuously for many weeks, with the heavy water being renewed at intervals. Some deuterium was thought to be accumulating within the cathode, but most was allowed to bubble out of the cell, joining oxygen produced at the anode. For most of the time, the power input to the cell was equal to the calculated power leaving the cell within measurement accuracy, and the cell temperature was stable at around 30 °C. But then, at some point (and in some of the experiments), the temperature rose suddenly to about 50 °C without changes in the input power. These high temperature phases would last for two days or more and would repeat several times in any given experiment once they had occurred. The calculated power leaving the cell was significantly higher than the input power during these high temperature phases. Eventually the high temperature phases would no longer occur within a particular cell. In 1988, Fleischmann and Pons applied to the United States Department of Energy for funding towards a larger series of experiments. Up to this point they had been funding their experiments using a small device built with $100,000 out-of-pocket. The grant proposal was turned over for peer review, and one of the reviewers was Steven E. Jones of Brigham Young University. Jones had worked for some time on muon-catalyzed fusion, a known method of inducing nuclear fusion without high temperatures, and had written an article on the topic entitled "Cold nuclear fusion" that had been published in Scientific American in July 1987. Fleischmann and Pons and co-workers met with Jones and co-workers on occasion in Utah to share research and techniques. During this time, Fleischmann and Pons described their experiments as generating considerable "excess energy", in the sense that it could not be explained by chemical reactions alone. They felt that such a discovery could bear significant commercial value and would be entitled to patent protection. Jones, however, was measuring neutron flux, which was not of commercial interest. In order to avoid problems in the future, the teams appeared to agree to simultaneously publish their results, although their accounts of their March 6 meeting differ. In mid-March 1989, both research teams were ready to publish their findings, and Fleischmann and Jones had agreed to meet at an airport on March 24 to send their papers to Nature via FedEx. Fleischmann and Pons, however, broke their apparent agreement, submitting their paper to the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry on March 11, and disclosing their work via a press conference on March 23. Jones, upset, faxed in his paper to Nature after the press conference. Reaction to the announcement Fleischmann and Pons' announcement drew wide media attention. For example, in 1989, the Economist editorialized that the cold fusion "affair" was "exactly what science should be about." Michael Brooks, "13 Things That Don't Make Sense" (ISBN 978-1-60751-666-8), p. 67 (New York:Doubleday, 2008), citing J. (Jerrold) K. Footlick, "Truth and Consequences: how colleges and universities meet public crises" (ISBN 9780897749701), p. 51 (Phoenix:Oryx Press, 1997). Scores of laboratories in the United States and abroad attempted to repeat the experiments. A few reported success, many others failure. Even those reporting success had difficulty reproducing Fleischmann and Pons' results. One of the more prominent reports of success came from a group at the Georgia Institute of Technology, which observed neutron production. The Georgia Tech group later retracted their announcement. Another team, headed by Robert Huggins at Stanford University also reported early success, Broad, William J. 19 April 1989. Stanford Reports Success, The New York Times. but this too was refuted. For weeks, competing claims, counterclaims and suggested explanations kept what was referred to as "cold fusion" or "fusion confusion" in the news. In May 1989, the American Physical Society held a session on cold fusion, at which were heard many reports of experiments that failed to produce evidence of cold fusion. At the end of the session, eight of the nine leading speakers stated they considered the initial Fleischmann and Pons claim dead. In April 1989, Fleischmann and Pons published a "preliminary note" in the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. This paper notably showed a gamma peak without its corresponding Compton edge, which indicated they had made a mistake in claiming evidence of fusion byproducts. The preliminary note was followed up a year later with a much longer paper that went into details of calorimetry but did not include any nuclear measurements. In July and November 1989, Nature published papers critical of cold fusion claims. Nevertheless, Fleischmann and Pons and a number of other researchers who found positive results remained convinced of their findings. In August 1989, the state of Utah invested $4.5 million to create the National Cold Fusion Institute. The United States Department of Energy organized a special panel to review cold fusion theory and research. The panel issued its report in November 1989, concluding that results as of that date did not present convincing evidence that useful sources of energy would result from phenomena attributed to cold fusion. The panel noted the inconsistency of reports of excess heat and the greater inconsistency of reports of nuclear reaction byproducts. Nuclear fusion of the type postulated would be inconsistent with current understanding and would require the invention of an entirely new nuclear process. The panel was against special funding for cold fusion research, but supported modest funding of "focused experiments within the general funding system." In the ensuing years, several books came out critical of cold fusion research methods and the conduct of cold fusion researchers. , , , Further developments Cold fusion claims were, and still are, considered extraordinary. In view of the theoretical issues alone, most scientists would require extraordinarily conclusive data to be convinced that cold fusion has been discovered. , - ("Extraordinary claims . . . demand extraordinary proof") After the fiasco following the Pons and Fleischmann announcement, most scientists became dismissive of new experimental claims. ("You mean it's not dead?" – recounting a typical reaction to hearing a cold fusion conference was held recently) Nevertheless, there were positive results that kept some researchers interested and got new researchers involved. - ("Advocates insist that there is just too much evidence of unusual effects in the thousands of experiments since Pons and Fleischmann to be ignored") In September 1990, Fritz Will, Director of the National Cold Fusion Institute, compiled a list of 92 groups of researchers from 10 different countries that had reported excess heat, 3H, 4He, neutrons or other nuclear effects. Fleischmann and Pons relocated their laboratory to France under a grant from the Toyota Motor Corporation. The laboratory, IMRA, was closed in 1998 after spending £12 million on cold fusion work. Between 1992 and 1997, Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry sponsored a "New Hydrogen Energy Program" of US$20 million to research cold fusion. Announcing the end of the program in 1997, Hideo Ikegami stated "We couldn't achieve what was first claimed in terms of cold fusion." He added, "We can't find any reason to propose more money for the coming year or for the future." In 1994, David Goodstein described cold fusion as "a pariah field, cast out by the scientific establishment. Between cold fusion and respectable science there is virtually no communication at all. Cold fusion papers are almost never published in refereed scientific journals, with the result that those works don't receive the normal critical scrutiny that science requires. On the other hand, because the Cold-Fusioners see themselves as a community under siege, there is little internal criticism. Experiments and theories tend to be accepted at face value, for fear of providing even more fuel for external critics, if anyone outside the group was bothering to listen. In these circumstances, crackpots flourish, making matters worse for those who believe that there is serious science going on here." In some cases, cold fusion researchers contend that cold fusion research is being suppressed. They complained there was virtually no possibility of obtaining funding for cold fusion research in the United States, and no possibility of getting published. University researchers were unwilling to investigate cold fusion because they would be ridiculed by their colleagues. (comment attributed to George Miley of the University of Illinois) In a biography by Jagdish Mehra et al. it is mentioned that to the shock of most physicists, the Nobel Laureate Julian Schwinger declared himself a supporter of cold fusion and tried to publish a paper on it in Physical Review Letters; when it was roundly rejected, in a manner that he considered deeply insulting, he resigned from that body in protest. To provide a forum for researchers to share their results, the first International Conference on Cold Fusion was held in 1990. The conference, recently renamed the International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science, is held every 12 to 18 months in various countries around the world. The periodicals Fusion Facts, Cold Fusion Magazine, Infinite Energy Magazine, and New Energy Times were established in the 1990s to cover developments in cold fusion and related new energy sciences. In 2004 The International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (ISCMNS) was formed "To promote the understanding, development and application of Condensed Matter Nuclear Science for the benefit of the public." In the 1990s, India stopped its research in cold fusion due to the lack of consensus among mainstream scientists and the US denunciation of it. It was later resumed in 2008 (see below). In February 2002, the U.S. Navy revealed that its researchers had been quietly studying cold fusion continually since 1989. Researchers at their Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center in San Diego, California released a two-volume report, entitled "Thermal and nuclear aspects of the Pd/D2O system," with a plea for proper funding. In 2004, at the request of cold fusion advocates, the DOE organized a second review of the field. Cold fusion researchers presented a review document stating that the observation of excess heat has been reproduced, that it can be reproduced at will under the proper conditions, and that many of the reasons for failure to reproduce it have been discovered. 18 reviewers in total examined the written and oral testimony given by cold fusion researchers. On the question of excess heat, the reviewers' opinions ranged from "evidence of excess heat is compelling" to "there is no convincing evidence that excess power is produced when integrated over the life of an experiment". The report states the reviewers were split approximately evenly on this topic. On the question of evidence for nuclear fusion, the report states: On the question of further research, the report reads: Thirteen papers were presented at the "Cold Fusion" session of the March 2006 American Physical Society (APS) meeting in Baltimore. , ("Anyone can deliver a paper. We defend the openness of science" - Bob Parks of APS, explaining that hosting the meeting does not show a softening of scepticism) In 2007, the American Chemical Society's (ACS) held an "invited symposium" on cold fusion and low-energy nuclear reactions. Cold fusion reports have been published in Naturwissenschaften, Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, European Physical Journal A, European Physical Journal C, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Journal of Solid State Phenomena, Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, and Journal of Fusion Energy. Cold fusion researchers have described possible cold fusion mechanisms, but they have not received mainstream acceptance. Physics Today said, in 2005, that new reports of excess heat and other cold fusion effects were still no more convincing than 15 years ago. 20 years later, in 2009, cold fusion researchers complain that the flaws in the original announcement still cause the field to be marginalized and to suffer a chronic lack of funding. Frank Close claims that a problem plaguing the original announcement is still happening: results from studies are still not being independently verified, and that inexplicable phenomena encountered in the last twenty years are being labeled as "cold fusion" even if they aren't, in order to attract attention from journalists. A number of researchers keep researching and publishing in the field, working under the name of low-energy nuclear reactions, or LENR, in order to avoid the negative connotations of the "cold fusion" label. Research in India started again in 2008 in several centers like the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre thanks to the pressure of influential Indian scientists; the National Institute of Advanced Studies has also recommended the Indian government to revive this research. "Triple tracks" in a CR-39 plastic radiation detector claimed as evidence for neutron emission from palladium deuteride, suggestive of a deuterium-tritium reaction On 22–25 March 2009, the American Chemical Society held a four-day symposium on "New Energy Technology", in conjunction with the 20th anniversary of the announcement of cold fusion. At the conference, researchers with the U.S. Navy's Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) reported detection of energetic neutrons in a palladium-deuterium co-deposition cell using CR-39, ACS Press Release 'Cold fusion' rebirth? New evidence for existence of controversial energy source a result previously published in Die Naturwissenschaften. Neutrons are indicative of nuclear reactions. Experimental details A cold fusion experiment usually includes: a metal, such as palladium or nickel, in bulk, thin films or powder; deuterium and/or hydrogen, in the form of water, gas or plasma; and an excitation in the form of electricity, magnetism, temperature, pressure, laser beam(s), or of acoustic waves. Electrolysis cells can be either open cell or closed cell. In open cell systems, the electrolyis products, which are gaseous, are allowed to leave the cell. In closed cell experiments, the products are captured, for example by catalytically recombining the products in a separate part of the experimental system. These experiments generally strive for a steady state condition, with the electrolyte being replaced periodically. There are also "heat after death" experiments, where the evolution of heat is monitored after the electric current is turned off. Excess heat observations An excess heat observation is based on an energy balance. Various sources of energy input and output are continuously measured. Under normal condition, the energy input can be matched to the energy output to within experimental error. In experiments such as those run by Fleischmann and Pons, a cell operating steadily at one temperature transitions to operating at a higher temperature with no increase in applied current. In other experiments, however, no excess heat was discovered, and, in fact, even the heat from successful experiments was unreliable and could not be replicated independently. If higher temperatures were real, and not experimental artifact, the energy balance would show an unaccounted term. In the Fleischmann and Pons experiments, the rate of inferred excess heat generation was in the range of 10-20% of total input. The high temperature condition would last for an extended period, making the total excess heat appear to be disproportionate to what might be obtained by ordinary chemical reaction of the material contained within the cell at any one time, though this could not be reliably replicated. Many others have reported similar results. , cited by , cited by e.g. , e.g. , , cited by A 2007 review determined that more than 10 groups world wide reported measurements of excess heat in 1/3 of their experiments using electrolysis of heavy water in open and/or closed electrochemical cells, or deuterium gas loading onto Pd powders under pressure. Most of the research groups reported occasionally seeing 50-200% excess heat for periods lasting hours or days. In 1993, Fleischmann reported "heat-after-death" experiments: he observed the continuing generation of excess heat after the electric current supplied to the electrolytic cell was turned off. Similar observations have been reported by others as well. Reports of nuclear products in association with excess heat Considerable attention has been given to measuring 4He production. In 1999 Schaffer says that the levels detected were very near to background levels, that there is the possibility of contamination by trace amounts of helium which are normally present in the air, and that the lack of detection of Gamma radiation led most of the scientific community to regard the presence of 4He as the result of experimental error. In the report presented to the DOE in 2004, 4He was detected in five out of sixteen cases where electrolytic cells were producing excess heat. The reviewers' opinion was divided on the evidence for 4He; some points cited were that the amounts detected were above background levels but very close to them, that it could be caused by contamination from air, and there were serious concerns about the assumptions made in the theorical framework that tried to account for the lack of gamma rays. In 1999 several heavy elements had been detected by other researchers, specially Tadahiko Mizuno in Japan, although the presence of these elements was so unexpected from the current understanding of these reactions that Schaffer said that it would require extraordinary evidence before the scientific community accepted it. The report presented to the DOE in 2004 indicated that deuterium loaded foils could be used to detect fusion reaction products and, although the reviewers found the evidence presented to them as unconclusive, they indicated that those experiments didn't use state of the art techniques and it was a line of work that could give conclusive results on the matter. . Neutron radiation Fleischmann and Pons reported a neutron flux of 4,000 neutrons per second, as well as tritium, while the classical branching ratio for previously known fusion reactions that produce tritium would predict, with 1 Watt of power, the production of 10^12 neutrons per second, levels that would have been fatal to the researchers. , The Fleischmann and Pons early findings regarding helium were later retracted , and the findings regarding neutron radiation and tritium have been retracted or discredited. However, neutron radiation has been reported in cold fusion experiments at very low levels using different kinds of detectors, but levels were too low, close to background, and found too infrequently to provide useful information about possible nuclear processes. However, energetic neutrons were also reported in 2008 by Mosier-Boss et al, using CR-39 plastic radiation detectors. Evidence for nuclear transmutations There have been reports that small amounts of copper and other metals can appear within Pd electrodes used in cold fusion experiments. Iwamura et al. report transmuting Cs to Pr and Sr to Mo, with the mass number increasing by 8, and the atomic number by 4 in either case. . Cs or Sr was applied to the surface of a Pd complex consisting of a thin Pd layer, alternating CaO and Pd layers, and bulk Pd. Deuterium was diffused through this complex. The surface was analyzed periodically with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and at the end of the experiment with glow discharge mass spectrometry. Production of such heavy nuclei is so unexpected from current understanding of nuclear reactions that extraordinary experimental proof will be needed to convince the scientific community of these results. Non-nuclear explanations for excess heat The calculation of excess heat in electrochemical cells involves certain assumptions. - (Input power is calculated by multiplying current and voltage, and output power is deduced from the measurement of the temperature of the cell and that of the bath") Errors in these assumptions have been offered as non-nuclear explanations for excess heat. One assumption made by Fleishmann and Pons is the efficiency of electrolysis is nearly 100%, meaning they assumed nearly all the electricity applied to the cell resulted in electrolysis of water, with negligible resistive heating and substantially all the electrolysis product leaving the cell unchanged. This assumption gives the amount of energy expended converting liquid D2O into gaseous D2 and O2. The efficiency of electrolysis will be less than one if hydrogen and oxygen recombine to a significant extent within the calorimeter. Several researchers have described potential mechanisms by which this process could occur and thereby account for excess heat in electrolyis experiments. Another assumption is that heat loss from the calorimeter maintains the same relationship with measured temperature as found when calibrating the calorimeter. , This assumption ceases to be accurate if the temperature distribution within the cell becomes significantly altered from the condition under which calibration measurements were made. - ("Almost all the heat is dissipated by radiation and follows the temperature fourth power law. The cell is calibrated . . .") This can happen, for example, if fluid circulation within the cell becomes significantly altered. Recombination of hydrogen and oxygen within the calorimeter would also alter the heat distribution and invalidate the calibration. Discussion Lack of accepted explanation using conventional physics Postulating cold fusion to explain experimental results raises at least three separate theoretical problems. , ("It has been said . . . three 'miracles' are necessary") 1.- The probability of reaction Because nuclei are all positively charged, they strongly repel one another. Normally, in the absence of a catalyst such as a muon, very high kinetic energies are required to overcome this repulsion. Extrapolating from known rates at high energies, the rate for uncatalyzed fusion at room-temperature energy would be 50 orders of magnitude lower than needed to account for the reported excess heat. , , page viii "Enhancing the probability of a nuclear reaction by 50 orders of magnitude (...) via the chemical environment of a metallic lattice, contradicted the very foundation of nuclear science" 2.- The branching ratio Fusion is a two-step process. , , In the case of deuterium fusion, the first step is combination to form a high energy intermediary: D + D → 4He + 24 MeV In high energy experiments, this intermediary has been observed to quickly decay through three pathways: , n + 3He + 3.3 MeV (50%) p + 3H + 4.0 MeV (50%) 4He + γ + 24 MeV (10-6) The first two pathways are equally probable, while the third one happened very slowly when compared with the other two. If one watt of nuclear power were produced, the neutron and tritium production from the first two pathways would be easy to measure. Neutrons and tritium (3H) were not being detected at levels commensurate with claimed heat, while some researchers have detected 4He</ref>; to achieve this result the rates of the first two pathways would have to be at least five orders of magnitude lower than observed in other experiments , , (explaining Pons and Fleischmann would both be dead if they had produced neutrons in proportion to their measurements of excess heat) 3.- Conversion of γ-rays to heat The γ-rays of the 4He pathway are not observed.. It has been proposed that the 24 MeV excess energy is transferred in the form of heat into the host metal lattice prior to the intermediary's decay. , However, the speed of the decay process together with the inter-atomic spacing in a metallic crystal makes such a transfer inexplicable in terms of conventional understandings of momentum and energy transfer. , Proposed explanations Experimental error Many groups trying to replicate Fleischmann and Pons' results found alternative explanations for their original positive results, like problems in the neutron detector in the case of Georgia Tech or bad wiring in the thermometers at Texas A&M. The replication effort in 1989 at Caltech found that an apparent excess heat was caused by failure to stir the electrolyte Lewis, N., et al, Searches for low-temperature nuclear fusion of deuterium in palladium, Nature, 340:525-528, cited in Simon (2002) ; however, Fleischmann later responded that his original experiments had been adequately stirred by the bubbles of evolved deuterium gas, as shown by dye diffusion. Lindley, D., 1989, Cold fusion: still no certainty, Nature 339:84, cited in Simon (2002) Positive cold fusion results, when not retracted, have been widely considered to be explainable by undiscovered experimental error, and in some cases, errors were discovered or reasonably postulated. Among those who continue to believe claims of Cold Fusion are not attributable to error, some possible theoretical interpretations of the experimental results have been proposed. As of 2002, according to Gregory Neil Derry, they were all ad hoc explanations that didn't explain coherently the given result, they were backed by experiments that were of low quality or non reproducible, and more careful experiments to test them had given negative results; these explanations had failed to convince the mainstream scientific community. Since cold fusion is such an extraordinary claim, most scientists would not be convinced unless either high-quality convincing data or a compelling theoretical explanation were to be found. Hydrino (Deuterino) theory Mills (2006) has suggested that electrons can occupy energy levels lower than previously understood, but that under normal conditions, a barrier exists to prevent transitions to such a reduced energy state. Mills postulates that some atoms with an appropriate available energy level can catalyze the transition of electrons to this state. If an electron has reached a sufficiently collapsed state, this electron may then shield two deuterons similarly to muon-catalyzed fusion, allowing the nuclei to approach and fuse, and the electron could then be emitted as a prompt beta particle, thus explaining the lack of gamma radiation and conserving momentum. Alok Jha, Fuel's paradise? Power source that turns physics on its head, Guardian, Nov. 4, 2005, for background William J. Broad, 2 Teams Put New Life in 'Cold' Fusion Theory, New York Times, April 26, 1991, claims "ultradense hydrogen" R.L. Mills and S.P. Kneizys, Excess heat production by the electrolysis of an aqueous potassium carbonate electrolyte and the implications for cold fusion, Fusion Technology, 20, pp. 65-81 (1991). Mills' explanation of Classical Quantum Mechanics and hydrinos has been doubted in the literature and is not accepted by most experts in the field nor by mainstream science, (part of Winners & Losers VI, by Philip E. Ross in the same publication) His critics say that, although he has published theory papers in peer-reviewed journals, he has published only in those dealing with speculative work. They also say that he hasn't addressed several deep flaws in his theory. See also Bubble fusion Biological transmutation List of energy topics New Energy Times, newsletter Infinite Energy, magazine References Bibliography (manuscript) from SMMIB 2005, 14th International Conference on Surface Modification of Materials by Ion Beams - (each author writing separately) - (page numbers refer to a blocked link to an authorized reprint) </ref> External links American Chemical Society, 273rd Annual Meeting, March 23, 2009, Press Conference on "Cold Fusion Rebirth." (video) Session 1, Session 2. The Return of Cold Fusion What If Cold Fusion Is Real? 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5,681 | ISO%2FIEC_8859 | ISO/IEC 8859 is a joint ISO and IEC standard for 8-bit character encodings for use by computers. The standard is divided into numbered, separately published parts, such as ISO/IEC 8859-1, ISO/IEC 8859-2, etc., each of which may be informally referred to as a standard in itself. There are currently 15 parts excluding the abandoned ISO/IEC 8859-12 standard. ISO/IEC 8859 parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 are also Ecma International ECMA-94. Introduction While the bit patterns of the 95 printable ASCII characters are sufficient to exchange information in modern English, most other languages that use the Latin alphabet need additional symbols not covered by ASCII, such as ß (German), ñ (Spanish), å (Swedish and other Nordic languages) and ő (Hungarian). ISO/IEC 8859 sought to remedy this problem by utilizing the eighth bit in an 8-bit byte in order to allow positions for another 128 characters. (This bit was previously used for data transmission protocol information, or was left unused.) However, more characters were needed than could fit in a single 8-bit character encoding, so several mappings were developed, including at least 10 just to cover the Latin script. The ISO/IEC 8859-n encodings only contain printable characters, and were designed to be used in conjunction with control characters mapped to the unassigned bytes. To this end a series of encodings registered with the IANA add the C0 control set (control characters mapped to bytes 0 to 31) from ISO 646 and the C1 control set (control characters mapped to bytes 127 to 159) from ISO 6429, resulting in full 8-bit character maps with most, if not all, bytes assigned. These sets have ISO/IEC-8859-n as their preferred MIME name or, in cases where a preferred MIME name isn't specified, their canonical name. Many people use the terms ISO/IEC 8859-n and ISO/IEC-8859-n interchangeably. ISO/IEC 8859-11 did not get such a charset assigned, presumably because it was almost identical to TIS 620. Characters The ISO/IEC 8859 standard is designed for reliable information exchange, not typography; the standard omits symbols needed for high-quality typography, such as optional ligatures, curly quotation marks, dashes, etc. As a result, high-quality typesetting systems often use proprietary or idiosyncratic extensions on top of the ASCII and ISO/IEC 8859 standards, or use Unicode instead. As a rule of thumb, if a character or symbol was not already part of a widely used data-processing character set and was also not usually provided on typewriter keyboards for a national language, it didn't get in. Hence the directional double quotation marks « and » used for some European languages were included, but not the directional double quotation marks “ and ” used for English and some other languages. French didn't get its œ and Œ ligatures because they could be typed as 'oe'. Ÿ, needed for all-caps text, was left out as well. These characters were, however, included later with ISO/IEC 8859-15, which also introduced the new euro sign character €. Likewise Dutch did not get the 'ij' and 'IJ' letters, because Dutch speakers had gotten used to typing these as two letters instead. Romanian did not initially get its '' and '' (with comma) letters, because these letters were initially unified with 'Ş/ş' and 'Ţ/ţ' (with cedilla) by the Unicode Consortium, considering the shapes with comma beneath to be glyph variants of the shapes with cedilla. However, the letters with explicit comma below were later added to the Unicode standard and are also in ISO/IEC 8859-16. Most of the ISO/IEC 8859 encodings provide diacritic marks required for various European languages using the Latin script. Others provide non-Latin alphabets: Greek, Cyrillic, Hebrew, Arabic and Thai. Most of the encodings contain only spacing characters although the Thai, Hebrew, and Arabic ones do also contain combining characters. However, the standard makes no provision for the scripts of East Asian languages (CJK), as their ideographic writing systems require many thousands of code points. Although it uses Latin based characters, Vietnamese does not fit into 96 positions (without using combining diacritics) either. Each Japanese syllabic alphabet (hiragana or katakana, see Kana) would fit, but like several other alphabets of the world they aren't encoded in the ISO/IEC 8859 system. The Parts of ISO/IEC 8859 ISO/IEC 8859 is divided into the following parts: Part 1Latin-1 Western EuropeanPerhaps the most widely used part of ISO/IEC 8859, covering most Western European languages: Danish, Dutch (partial only the IJ/ij (letter IJ) is missing, which is usually represented as IJ. ), English, Faeroese, Finnish (partial missing characters are in ISO/IEC 8859-15. ), French (partial), German, Icelandic, Irish, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Rhaeto-Romanic, Scottish Gaelic, Spanish, and Swedish. Languages from other parts of the world are also covered, including: Eastern European Albanian, Southeast Asian Indonesian, as well as the African languages Afrikaans and Swahili. The missing euro sign and capital Ÿ are in the revised version ISO/IEC 8859-15. The corresponding IANA character set ISO-8859-1 is the default encoding for legacy HTML documents and for documents transmitted via MIME messages, such as HTTP responses when the document's media type is "text" (as in "text/html").Part 2Latin-2 Central EuropeanSupports those Central and Eastern European languages that use the Latin alphabet, including Bosnian, Polish, Croatian, Czech, Slovak, Slovenian, Serbian, and Hungarian. The missing euro sign can be found in version ISO/IEC 8859-16.Part 3Latin-3 South EuropeanTurkish, Maltese, and Esperanto. Largely superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-9 for Turkish and Unicode for Esperanto.Part 4Latin-4 North EuropeanEstonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Greenlandic, and Sami.Part 5Latin/CyrillicCovers mostly Slavic languages that use a Cyrillic alphabet, including Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, and Ukrainian (partial missing Ґ/ґ characters were reintroduced into Ukrainian in 1991. ).Part 6Latin/ArabicCovers the most common Arabic language characters. Doesn't support other languages using the Arabic script. Needs to be BiDi and cursive joining processed for display.Part 7Latin/GreekCovers the modern Greek language (monotonic orthography). Can also be used for Ancient Greek written without accents or in monotonic orthography, but lacks the diacritics for polytonic orthography. These were introduced with Unicode.Part 8Latin/HebrewCovers the modern Hebrew alphabet as used in Israel. In practice two different encodings exist, logical order (needs to be BiDi processed for display) and visual (left-to-right) order (in effect, after bidi processing and line breaking).Part 9Latin-5 TurkishLargely the same as ISO/IEC 8859-1, replacing the rarely used Icelandic letters with Turkish ones. It is also used for Kurdish.Part 10Latin-6 Nordica rearrangement of Latin-4. Considered more useful for Nordic languages. Baltic languages use Latin-4 more.Part 11Latin/ThaiContains characters needed for the Thai language. Virtually identical to TIS 620.non-existent Part 12Latin/DevanagariThe work in making a part of 8859 for Devanagari was officially abandoned in 1997. ISCII and Unicode/ISO/IEC 10646 cover Devanagari.Part 13Latin-7 Baltic RimAdded some characters for Baltic languages which were missing from Latin-4 and Latin-6.Part 14Latin-8 CelticCovers Celtic languages such as Gaelic and the Breton language.Part 15Latin-9A revision of 8859-1 that removes some little-used symbols, replacing them with the euro sign € and the letters Š, š, Ž, ž, Œ, œ, and Ÿ, which completes the coverage of French, Finnish and Estonian.Part 16Latin-10 South-Eastern EuropeanIntended for Albanian, Croatian, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romanian and Slovenian, but also Finnish, French, German and Irish Gaelic (new orthography). The focus lies more on letters than symbols. The currency sign is replaced with the euro sign. Each part of ISO 8859 is designed to support languages that often borrow from each other, so the characters needed by each language are usually accommodated by a single part. However, there are some characters and language combinations that are not accommodated without transcriptions. Efforts were made to make conversions as smooth as possible. For example, German has all of its seven special characters at the same positions in all Latin variants (1-4, 9-10, 13-16), and in many positions the characters only differ in the diacritics between the sets. In particular, variants 1-4 were designed jointly, and have the property that every encoded character appears either at a given position or not at all. Table +Comparison of the various parts of ISO/IEC 8859BinaryOctDecHex1234567891011131415161010 0000240160A0Non-breaking space (NBSP)1010 0001241161A1¡ĄĦĄЁ ‘ ¡Ąก”Ḃ¡Ą1010 0010242162A2¢˘ĸЂ ’¢¢Ēข¢ḃ¢ą1010 0011243163A3£Ł£ŖЃ £Ģฃ£Ł1010 0100 244164A4¤Є¤€¤Īค¤Ċ€1010 0101245165A5¥Ľ ĨЅ ₯¥Ĩฅ„ċ¥„1010 0110246166A6¦ŚĤĻІ ¦Ķฆ¦ḊŠ1010 0111247167A7§Ї §ง§1010 1000250168A8¨Ј ¨ĻจØẀš1010 1001251169A9©ŠİŠЉ ©Đฉ©1010 1010252170AAªŞĒЊ ͺתŠชŖẂªȘ1010 1011253171AB«ŤĞĢЋ «Ŧซ«ḋ«1010 1100254172AC¬ŹĴŦЌ،¬Žฌ¬Ỳ¬Ź1010 1101255173ADsoft hyphen (SHY)ญSHY1010 1110256174AE®Ž ŽЎ ®Ūฎ®ź1010 1111257175AF¯Ż¯Џ ―¯ŊฏÆŸ¯Ż1011 0000260176B0°А °ฐ°Ḟ°1011 0001261177B1±ąħąБ ±ąฑ±ḟ±1011 0010262178B2²˛²˛В ²ēฒ²Ġ²Č1011 0011263179B3³ł³ŗГ ³ģณ³ġ³ł1011 0100264180B4´Д ΄´īด“ṀŽ1011 0101265181B5µľµĩЕ ΅µĩตµṁµ”1011 0110266182B6¶śĥļЖ Ά¶ķถ¶1011 0111267183B7·ˇ·ˇЗ ·ท·Ṗ·1011 1000270184B8¸И Έ¸ļธøẁž1011 1001271185B9¹šıšЙ Ή¹đน¹ṗ¹č1011 1010272186BAºşēК Ί÷ºšบŗẃºș1011 1011273187BB»ťğģЛ؛»ŧป»Ṡ»1011 1100274188BC¼źĵŧМ Ό¼žผ¼ỳŒ1011 1101275189BD½˝½ŊН ½―ฝ½Ẅœ1011 1110276190BE¾ž žО Ύ¾ūพ¾ẅŸ1011 1111277191BF¿żŋП؟Ώ ¿ŋฟæṡ¿ż1100 0000300192C0ÀŔÀĀР ΐ ÀĀภĄÀ1100 0001301193C1ÁСءΑ ÁมĮÁ1100 0010302194C2ÂТآΒ ÂยĀÂ1100 0011303195C3ÃĂ ÃУأΓ ÃรĆÃĂ1100 0100304196C4ÄФؤΔ ÄฤÄ1100 0101305197C5ÅĹĊÅХإΕ ÅลÅĆ1100 0110306198C6ÆĆĈÆЦئΖ ÆฦĘÆ1100 0111307199C7ÇĮЧاΗ ÇĮวĒÇ1100 1000310200C8ÈČÈČШبΘ ÈČศČÈ1100 1001311201C9ÉЩةΙ ÉษÉ1100 1010312202CAÊĘÊĘЪتΚ ÊĘสŹÊ1100 1011313203CBËЫثΛ ËหĖË1100 1100314204CCÌĚÌĖЬجΜ ÌĖฬĢÌ1100 1101315205CDÍЭحΝ ÍอĶÍ1100 1110316206CEÎЮخΞ ÎฮĪÎ1100 1111317207CFÏĎÏĪЯدΟ ÏฯĻÏ1101 0000320208D0ÐĐ ĐаذΠ ĞÐะŠŴÐ1101 0001321209D1ÑŃÑŅбرΡ ÑŅัŃÑŃ1101 0010322210D2ÒŇÒŌвز ÒŌาŅÒ1101 0011323211D3ÓĶгسΣ ÓำÓ1101 0100324212D4ÔдشΤ ÔิŌÔ1101 0101325213D5ÕŐĠÕеصΥ ÕีŐ1101 0110326214D6ÖжضΦ ÖึÖ1101 0111327215D7×зطΧ ×Ũื×Ṫ׌1101 1000330216D8ØŘĜØиظΨ ØุŲØŰ1101 1001331217D9ÙŮÙŲйعΩ ÙŲูŁÙ1101 1010332218DAÚкغΪ ÚฺŚÚ1101 1011333219DBÛŰÛл Ϋ Û ŪÛ1101 1100334220DCÜм ά Ü Ü1101 1101335221DDÝŬŨн έ İÝ ŻÝĘ1101 1110336222DEÞŢŜŪо ή ŞÞ ŽŶÞȚ1101 1111337223DFßп ί‗ß฿ß1110 0000340224E0àŕàāрـΰאàāเąà1110 0001341225E1áсفαבáแįá1110 0010342226E2âтقβגâโāâ1110 0011343227E3ãă ãуكγדãใćãă1110 0100344228E4äфلδהäไä1110 0101345229E5åĺċåхمεוåๅåć1110 0110346230E6æćĉæцنζזæๆęæ1110 0111347231E7çįчهηחçį็ēç1110 1000350232E8èčèčшوθטèč่čè1110 1001351233E9éщىιיé้é1110 1010352234EAêęêęъيκךêę๊źê1110 1011353235EBëыًλכë๋ėë1110 1100354236ECìěìėьٌμלìė์ģì1110 1101355237EDíэٍνםíํķí1110 1110356238EEîюَξמî๎īî1110 1111357239EFïďïīяُοןï๏ļï1111 0000360240F0ðđ đ№ِπנğð๐šŵðđ1111 0001361241F1ñńñņёّρסñņ๑ńñń1111 0010362242F2òňòōђْςעòō๒ņò1111 0011363243F3óķѓ σףó๓ó1111 0100364244F4ôє τפô๔ōô1111 0101365245F5õőġõѕ υץõ๕ő1111 0110366246F6öі φצö๖ö1111 0111367247F7÷ї χק÷ũ๗÷ṫ÷ś1111 1000370248F8øřĝøј ψרø๘ųøű1111 1001371249F9ùůùųљ ωשùų๙łù1111 1010372250FAúњ ϊתú๚śú1111 1011373251FBûűûћ ϋ û๛ūû1111 1100374252FCüќ ό ü ü1111 1101375253FDýŭũ§ ύLRMıý żýę1111 1110376254FEþţŝūў ώRLMşþ žŷþț1111 1111377255FFÿ˙џ ÿĸ ’ÿ At position 0xA0 there's always the non breaking space and 0xAD is mostly the soft hyphen, which only shows at line breaks. Other empty fields are either unassigned or the system used isn't able to display them. There are new additions as ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003 and ISO/IEC 8859-8:1999 versions. LRM stands for left-to-right mark (U+200E) and RLM stands for right-to-left mark (U+200F). Relationship to Unicode and the UCS Since 1991, the Unicode Consortium has been working with ISO and IEC to develop the Unicode Standard and ISO/IEC 10646: the Universal Character Set (UCS) in tandem. This pair of standards was created to unify the ISO/IEC 8859 character repertoire, among others, by assigning each character, initially, to a 16-bit code value, with some code values left unassigned. Over time, their models adapted to map characters to abstract numeric code points rather than fixed bit-width values, so that more code points and encoding methods could be supported. Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646 currently assign about 100,000 characters to a code space consisting of over a million code points, and they define several standard encodings that are capable of representing every available code point. The standard encodings of Unicode and the UCS use sequences of one to four 8-bit code values (UTF-8), sequences of one or two 16-bit code values (UTF-16), or one 32-bit code value (UTF-32 or UCS-4). There is also an older encoding that uses one 16-bit code value (UCS-2), capable of representing one-seventeenth of the available code points. Of these encoding forms, only UTF-8's byte sequences are in a fixed order; the others are subject to platform-dependent byte ordering issues that may be addressed via special codes or indicated via out-of-band means. Newer editions of ISO/IEC 8859 express characters in terms of their Unicode/UCS names and the U+nnnn notation, effectively causing each part of ISO/IEC 8859 to be a Unicode/UCS character encoding scheme that maps a very small subset of the UCS to single 8-bit bytes. The first 256 characters in Unicode and the UCS are identical to those in ISO/IEC-8859-1. Single-byte character sets including the parts of ISO/IEC 8859 and derivatives of them were favored throughout the 1990s, having the advantages of being well-established and more easily implemented in software: the equation of one byte to one character is simple and adequate for most single-language applications, and there are no combining characters or variant forms. As the relative cost, in computing resources, of using more than one byte per character began to diminish, programming languages and operating systems added native support for Unicode alongside their system of code pages. Windows NT was quite an early adopter of Unicode. However Unicode support in Windows 9x required linking with a special compatibility layer or restricting your design to a very small subset of the Windows API discouraging its use. As Unicode-enabled operating systems became more widespread, ISO/IEC 8859 and other legacy encodings became less popular. While remnants of ISO 8859 and single-byte character models remain entrenched in many operating systems, programming languages, data storage systems, networking applications, display hardware, and end-user application software, most modern computing applications use Unicode internally, and rely on conversion tables to map to and from other encodings, when necessary. Development status The ISO/IEC 8859 standard was maintained by ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 2, Working Group 3 (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3). In June 2004, WG 3 disbanded, and maintenance duties were transferred to SC 2. The standard is not currently being updated, as the Subcommittee's only remaining working group, WG 2, is concentrating on development of ISO/IEC 10646. References Published versions of each part of ISO/IEC 8859 are available, for a fee, from the ISO catalogue site and from the IEC Webstore. PDF versions of the final drafts of some parts of ISO/IEC 8859 as submitted for review & publication by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3 are available at the WG 3 web site: ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 1: Latin alphabet No. 1 (draft dated February 12 1998, published April 15 1998) ISO/IEC 8859-4:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 4: Latin alphabet No. 4 (draft dated February 12 1998, published July 1 1998) ISO/IEC 8859-7:1999 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 7: Latin/Greek alphabet (draft dated June 10 1999; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003, published October 10 2003) ISO/IEC 8859-10:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 10: Latin alphabet No. 6 (draft dated February 12 1998, published July 15 1998) ISO/IEC 8859-11:1999 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 11: Latin/Thai character set (draft dated June 22 1999; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-11:2001, published 15 December 2001) ISO/IEC 8859-13:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 13: Latin alphabet No. 7 (draft dated April 15 1998, published October 15 1998) ISO/IEC 8859-15:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 15: Latin alphabet No. 9 (draft dated August 1 1997; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-15:1999, published March 15 1999) ISO/IEC 8859-16:2000 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 16: Latin alphabet No. 10 (draft dated November 15 1999; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-16:2001, published July 15 2001) ECMA standards, which in intent correspond exactly to the ISO/IEC 8859 character set standards, can be found at: Standard ECMA-94: 8-Bit Single Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabets No. 1 to No. 4 2nd edition (June 1986) Standard ECMA-113: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Cyrillic Alphabet 3rd edition (December 1999) Standard ECMA-114: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Arabic Alphabet 2nd edition (December 2000) Standard ECMA-118: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Greek Alphabet (December 1986) Standard ECMA-121: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Hebrew Alphabet 2nd edition (December 2000) Standard ECMA-128: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No. 5 2nd edition (December 1999) Standard ECMA-144: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No. 6 3rd edition (December 2000) ISO/IEC 8859-1 to Unicode mapping tables as plain text files are at the Unicode FTP site. Informal descriptions and code charts for most ISO/IEC 8859 standards are available in ISO/IEC 8859 Alphabet Soup (Mirror) | ISO%2FIEC_8859 |@lemmatized iso:68 iec:63 joint:2 standard:25 bit:29 character:59 encoding:11 use:27 computer:1 divide:2 numbered:1 separately:1 publish:10 part:40 etc:2 may:2 informally:1 refer:1 currently:3 exclude:1 abandon:2 also:10 ecma:10 international:1 introduction:1 pattern:1 printable:2 ascii:3 sufficient:1 exchange:2 information:3 modern:4 english:3 language:27 latin:26 alphabet:21 need:8 additional:1 symbol:5 cover:5 ß:2 german:4 ñ:1 spanish:2 å:1 swedish:2 nordic:2 ő:1 hungarian:3 seek:1 remedy:1 problem:1 utilize:1 eighth:1 byte:27 order:5 allow:1 position:6 another:1 previously:1 data:3 transmission:1 protocol:1 leave:4 unused:1 however:6 could:3 fit:3 single:21 several:3 mapping:2 develop:2 include:7 least:1 script:4 n:4 encode:7 contain:3 design:5 conjunction:1 control:5 map:7 unassigned:3 end:2 series:1 register:1 iana:2 add:3 set:25 result:2 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5,682 | Character_encoding | A character encoding system consists of a code that pairs a sequence of characters from a given character set (sometimes incorrectly referred to as code page) with something else, such as a sequence of natural numbers, octets or electrical pulses, in order to facilitate the transmission of data (generally numbers and/or text) through telecommunication networks and/or storage of text in computers. Terminology The terms character set and character encoding are often used interchangeably, though usually incorrectly. The term character set refers only to the set (or group) of characters (and sometimes device control codes) used by a particular encoding system, but does not include their numerical assignments nor order therein. The term character encoding includes a character set and how each character is represented within a character encoding system. For historical reasons, MIME and systems based on it use the abbreviation charset to refer to the complete system for encoding a sequence of characters into a sequence of octets. History Common examples of character encoding systems include Morse code, the Baudot code, the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and Unicode. Morse code was introduced in the 1840s and is used to encode each letter of the Latin alphabet and each Arabic numeral as a series of long and short presses of a telegraph key. Representations of characters encoded using Morse code varied in length. The Baudot code was created by Émile Baudot in 1870, patented in 1874, modified by Donald Murray in 1901, and standardized by CCITT as International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) in 1930. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (usually abbreviated ASCII) was introduced in 1963 and is a 7-bit encoding scheme used to encode letters, numerals, symbols, and device control codes as fixed-length codes using integers). IBM's Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (usually abbreviated EBCDIC) is an 8-bit encoding scheme developed in 1963. The limitations of such sets soon became apparent, and a number of ad-hoc methods were developed to extend them. The need to support more writing systems for different languages, including the CJK family of East Asian scripts, required support for a far larger number of characters and demanded a systematic approach to character encoding rather than the previous ad hoc approaches. Early binary repertoires include: I Ching (China 1122 BC - 256 BC) Braille International maritime signal flags Chinese telegraph code (Hans Schjellerup, 1869, modified 1872 and following) Encoding of Chinese characters as 4-digit decimals. Modern encoding model Unicode and its parallel standard, ISO 10646 Universal Character Set, which together constitute the most modern character encoding, broke away from this idea, and instead separated the ideas of what characters are available, their numbering, how those numbers are encoded as a series of "code units" (limited-size numbers), and finally how those units are encoded as a stream of octets (bytes). The idea behind this decomposition is to establish a universal set of characters that can be encoded in a variety of ways Unicode Technical Report N°17 - Character Encoding Model . To correctly describe this model needs more precise terms than "character set" and "character encoding". The terms used in the modern model follow: A character repertoire is the full set of abstract characters that a system supports. The repertoire may be closed, i.e. no additions are allowed without creating a new standard (as is the case with ASCII and most of the ISO-8859 series), or it may be open, allowing additions (as is the case with Unicode and to a limited extent the Windows code pages). The characters in a given repertoire reflect decisions that have been made about how to divide writing systems into linear information units. The basic variants of the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets, can be broken down into letters, digits, punctuation, and a few special characters like the space, which can all be arranged in simple linear sequences that are displayed in the same order they are read. Even with these alphabets however diacritics pose a complication: they can be regarded either as part of a single character containing a letter and diacritic (known in modern terminology as a precomposed character), or as separate characters. The former allows a far simpler text handling system but the latter allows any letter/diacritic combination to be used in text. Other writing systems, such as Arabic and Hebrew, are represented with more complex character repertoires due to the need to accommodate things like bidirectional text and glyphs that are joined together in different ways for different situations. A coded character set specifies how to represent a repertoire of characters using a number of non-negative integer codes called code points. For example, in a given repertoire, a character representing the capital letter "A" in the Latin alphabet might be assigned to the integer 65, the character for "B" to 66, and so on. A complete set of characters and corresponding integers is a coded character set. Multiple coded character sets may share the same repertoire; for example ISO/IEC 8859-1 and IBM code pages 037 and 500 all cover the same repertoire but map them to different codes. In a coded character set, each code point only represents one character. A character encoding form (CEF) specifies the conversion of a coded character set's integer codes into a set of limited-size integer code values that facilitate storage in a system that represents numbers in binary form using a fixed number of bits (i.e. practically any computer system). For example, a system that stores numeric information in 16-bit units would only be able to directly represent integers from 0 to 65,535 in each unit, but larger integers could be represented if more than one 16-bit unit could be used. This is what a CEF accommodates: it defines a way of mapping single code point from a range of, say, 0 to 1.4 million, to a series of one or more code values from a range of, say, 0 to 65,535. The simplest CEF system is simply to choose large enough units that the values from the coded character set can be encoded directly (one code point to one code value). This works well for coded character sets that fit in 8 bits (as most legacy non-CJK encodings do) and reasonably well for coded character sets that fit in 16 bits (such as early versions of Unicode). However, as the size of the coded character set increases (e.g. modern Unicode requires at least 21 bits/character), this becomes less and less efficient, and it is difficult to adapt existing systems to use larger code values. Therefore, most systems working with later versions of Unicode use either UTF-8, which maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of octets, or UTF-16/UCS-2, which maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of 16-bit words. Next, a character encoding scheme (CES) specifies how the fixed-size integer codes should be mapped into an octet sequence suitable for saving on an octet-based file system or transmitting over an octet-based network. With Unicode, a simple character encoding scheme is used in most cases, simply specifying whether the bytes for each integer should be in big-endian or little-endian order (even this isn't needed with UTF-8). However, there are also compound character encoding schemes, which use escape sequences to switch between several simple schemes (such as ISO/IEC 2022), and compressing schemes, which try to minimise the number of bytes used per code unit (such as SCSU, BOCU, and Punycode). Finally, there may be a higher level protocol which supplies additional information that can be used to select the particular variant of a Unicode character, particularly where there are regional variants that have been 'unified' in Unicode as the same character. An example is the XML attribute xml:lang. Popular character encodings ISO 646 ASCII EBCDIC CP930 ISO 8859: ISO 8859-1 Western Europe ISO 8859-2 Western and Central Europe ISO 8859-3 Western Europe and South European ( Turkish, Maltese plus Esperanto ) ISO 8859-4 Western Europe and Baltic countries ( Lithuania, Estonia and Lapp ) ISO 8859-5 Cyrillic alphabet ISO 8859-6 Arabic ISO 8859-7 Greek ISO 8859-8 Hebrew ISO 8859-9 Western Europe with amended Turkish character set ISO 8859-10 Western Europe with rationalised character set for Nordic languages, including complete Icelandic set. ISO 8859-11 Thai ISO 8859-13 Baltic languages plus Polish ISO 8859-14 Celtic languages ( Irish Gaelic, Scottish, Welsh ) ISO 8859-15 Added the Euro sign and other rationalisations to ISO 8859-1 ISO 8859-16 Central European languages ( Polish, Czech, Slovenian, Slovak, Hungarian, Albanian, Romanian, German, Italian ) CP437, CP737, CP850, CP852, CP855, CP857, CP858, CP860, CP861, CP863, CP865, CP866, CP869 MS-Windows character sets: Windows-1250 for Central European languages that use Latin script, (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Slovene, Serbian, Croatian, Romanian and Albanian) Windows-1251 for Cyrillic alphabets Windows-1252 for Western languages Windows-1253 for Greek Windows-1254 for Turkish Windows-1255 for Hebrew Windows-1256 for Arabic Windows-1257 for Baltic languages Windows-1258 for Vietnamese Mac OS Roman KOI8-R, KOI8-U, KOI7 MIK Cork or T1 ISCII TSCII VISCII JIS X 0208 is a widely deployed standard for Japanese character encoding that has several encoding forms. Shift_JIS (Microsoft Code page 932 is a dialect of Shift_JIS) EUC-JP ISO-2022-JP JIS X 0213 is an extended version of JIS X 0208. Shift_JIS-2004 EUC-JIS-2004 ISO-2022-JP-2004 Chinese Guobiao GB 2312 GBK (Microsoft Code page 936) GB 18030 Taiwan Big5 (a more famous variant is Microsoft Code page 950) Hong Kong HKSCS KS X 1001 is a Korean double-byte character encoding standard EUC-KR ISO-2022-KR Unicode (and subsets thereof, such as the 16-bit 'Basic Multilingual Plane'). See UTF-8 ANSEL or ISO/IEC 6937 Non-standard character encoding Character encoding translation As a result of having many character encoding methods in use (and the need for backward compatibility with archived data), many computer programs have been developed to translate data between encoding schemes. Some of these are cited below. Cross-platform: iconv – program and standardized API to convert encodings convert_encoding.py – Python based utility to convert text files between arbitrary encodings and line endings. Homepage of Michael Goerz - convert_encoding.py decodeh.py - algorithm and module to heuristically guess the encoding of a string decodeh - heuristically decode a string or text file Linux: recode – convert file contents from one encoding to another recode - GNU Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF) utrac – convert file contents from one encoding to another. Utrac Homepage cstocs – convert file contents from one encoding to another convmv – convert a filename from one encoding to another. convmv - converts filenames from one encoding to another enca – analyzes encodings for given text files/ Extremely Naive Charset Analyser Windows: cscvt – character set conversion tool Character Set Converter See also :Category:Character encoding — articles related to character encoding in general :Category:Character sets — articles detailing specific character encodings Code page — various character set encodings used by Microsoft Windows code page — various character set encodings used by Microsoft Windows Mojibake — character set mismap. Alt code References External links Character sets registered by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Unicode Technical Report #17: Character Encoding Model | Character_encoding |@lemmatized character:73 encode:36 system:18 consist:1 code:37 pair:1 sequence:9 give:4 set:32 sometimes:2 incorrectly:2 refer:2 page:8 something:1 else:1 natural:1 number:11 octet:7 electrical:1 pulse:1 order:4 facilitate:2 transmission:1 data:3 generally:1 text:8 telecommunication:1 network:2 storage:2 computer:3 terminology:2 term:5 encoding:14 often:1 use:22 interchangeably:1 though:1 usually:3 refers:1 group:1 device:2 control:2 particular:2 include:6 numerical:1 assignment:1 therein:1 represent:8 within:1 historical:1 reason:1 mime:1 base:4 abbreviation:1 charset:2 complete:3 history:1 common:1 example:5 morse:3 baudot:3 american:2 standard:7 information:5 interchange:3 ascii:4 unicode:14 introduce:2 letter:6 latin:4 alphabet:7 arabic:4 numeral:2 series:4 long:1 short:1 press:1 telegraph:3 key:1 representation:1 vary:1 length:4 create:2 émile:1 patent:1 modify:2 donald:1 murray:1 standardize:2 ccitt:1 international:2 abbreviate:2 bit:10 scheme:8 symbol:1 cod:5 fix:1 integer:10 ibm:2 extend:2 binary:3 decimal:2 ebcdic:2 develop:3 limitation:1 soon:1 become:2 apparent:1 ad:2 hoc:2 method:2 need:5 support:3 write:3 different:4 language:8 cjk:2 family:1 east:1 asian:1 script:2 require:2 far:2 large:4 demand:1 systematic:1 approach:2 rather:1 previous:1 early:2 repertoire:9 ching:1 china:1 bc:2 braille:1 maritime:1 signal:1 flag:1 chinese:3 han:1 schjellerup:1 follow:2 digit:2 modern:5 model:5 parallel:1 iso:26 universal:2 together:2 constitute:1 break:2 away:1 idea:3 instead:1 separate:2 available:1 numbering:1 unit:8 limited:3 size:4 finally:2 stream:1 byte:4 behind:1 decomposition:1 establish:1 variety:1 way:3 technical:2 report:2 n:1 correctly:1 describe:1 precise:1 full:1 abstract:1 may:4 close:1 e:3 addition:2 allow:4 without:1 new:1 case:3 open:1 extent:1 window:10 reflect:1 decision:1 make:1 divide:1 linear:2 basic:2 variant:4 greek:3 cyrillic:3 punctuation:1 special:1 like:2 space:1 arrange:1 simple:5 display:1 read:1 even:2 however:3 diacritic:3 pose:1 complication:1 regard:1 either:2 part:1 single:2 contain:1 know:1 precomposed:1 former:1 handle:1 latter:1 combination:1 hebrew:3 complex:1 due:1 accommodate:2 thing:1 bidirectional:1 glyph:1 join:1 situation:1 coded:6 specify:4 non:3 negative:1 call:1 point:6 capital:1 might:1 assign:2 b:1 correspond:1 multiple:1 share:1 iec:3 cover:1 map:5 one:10 form:3 cef:3 conversion:2 value:5 fixed:2 practically:1 store:1 numeric:1 would:1 able:1 directly:2 could:2 define:1 range:2 say:2 million:1 simply:2 choose:1 enough:1 work:2 well:2 fit:2 legacy:1 reasonably:1 version:3 increase:1 g:1 least:1 less:2 efficient:1 difficult:1 adapt:1 exist:1 therefore:1 late:1 utf:4 variable:2 ucs:1 word:1 next:1 ce:1 suitable:1 save:1 file:7 transmitting:1 whether:1 big:1 endian:2 little:1 also:2 compound:1 escape:1 switch:1 several:2 compress:1 try:1 minimise:1 per:1 scsu:1 bocu:1 punycode:1 high:1 level:1 protocol:1 supply:1 additional:1 select:1 particularly:1 regional:1 unify:1 xml:2 attribute:1 lang:1 popular:1 western:7 europe:6 central:3 south:1 european:3 turkish:3 maltese:1 plus:2 esperanto:1 baltic:3 country:1 lithuania:1 estonia:1 lapp:1 amended:1 rationalised:1 nordic:1 icelandic:1 thai:1 polish:3 celtic:1 irish:1 gaelic:1 scottish:1 welsh:1 add:1 euro:1 sign:1 rationalisation:1 czech:2 slovenian:1 slovak:2 hungarian:2 albanian:2 romanian:2 german:1 italian:1 slovene:1 serbian:1 croatian:1 windows:4 vietnamese:1 mac:1 os:1 roman:1 r:1 u:1 mik:1 cork:1 iscii:1 tscii:1 viscii:1 ji:4 x:4 widely:1 deploy:1 japanese:1 microsoft:5 dialect:1 euc:3 jp:3 extended:1 guobiao:1 gb:2 gbk:1 taiwan:1 famous:1 hong:1 kong:1 hkscs:1 k:1 korean:1 double:1 kr:2 subset:1 thereof:1 multilingual:1 plane:1 see:2 ansel:1 translation:1 result:1 many:2 backward:1 compatibility:1 archive:1 program:2 translate:1 cite:1 cross:1 platform:1 iconv:1 api:1 convert:7 py:3 python:1 utility:1 arbitrary:1 line:1 ending:1 homepage:2 michael:1 goerz:1 decodeh:2 algorithm:1 module:1 heuristically:2 guess:1 string:2 decode:1 linux:1 recode:2 content:3 another:5 gnu:1 project:1 free:1 software:1 foundation:1 fsf:1 utrac:2 cstocs:1 convmv:2 filename:1 filenames:1 enca:1 analyze:1 extremely:1 naive:1 analyser:1 cscvt:1 tool:1 converter:1 category:2 article:2 relate:1 general:1 detail:1 specific:1 various:2 mojibake:1 mismap:1 alt:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 register:1 internet:1 authority:1 |@bigram morse_code:3 baudot_code:2 arabic_numeral:1 cod_decimal:1 ad_hoc:2 cyrillic_alphabet:3 iso_iec:3 big_endian:1 little_endian:1 ascii_ebcdic:1 iso_iso:2 czech_slovak:1 mac_os:1 hong_kong:1 backward_compatibility:1 foundation_fsf:1 microsoft_window:2 external_link:1 |
5,683 | Foreign_relations_of_Madagascar | General Relations From 1975 to 1988 Madagascar's closest relations were with the Soviet Union first and France second. President Ratsiraka's "all points" policy also stressed ties with other socialist or radical regimes, including North Korea, Cuba, Libya, Iran, Pakistan, China, and Romania. With the fall of the Soviet Union and the rise of Madagascar's Third Republic, the country's alignment changed. Ratsiraka's successor, President Zafy Albert, expressed his desire for diplomatic relations with all countries. Early in his tenure, he established formal ties with South Korea and sent emissaries to Morocco. Since his election in 2002, President Ravalomanana has made efforts to broaden international relations by working against corruption and the trafficking of drugs and humans. Regional Relations Madagascar historically has remained outside the mainstream of African affairs, although it is a member of the Indian Ocean Commission, the Organization of African Unity and the Non-Aligned Movement. Madagascar was admitted to the Southern African Development Community in 2004. Other Significant Relations Active diplomatic relationships are maintained with Europe, especially the U.K., France, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, as well as with Russia, Japan, India, Indonesia, Egypt and China. Madagascar also maintains good relations with the United States. Good foreign relations certainly helped Madagascar receive recent aid packages. International Aid The World Bank had a $600 million commitment to Madagascar through 21 active International Development Association projects. On June 23, 2000 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved a $41 million disbursement of its new three year $141 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility. This money is intended to secure Malagasy credit, and to cover additional financing gaps caused by recent natural disasters. In 2003, the World Bank released more than $100 million dollars in poverty reduction aid in response to Madagascar's efforts to stop corruption. Then, in October 2004, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank said they would write off $2 billon in debt -- almost half Madagascar's total debt. In March 2005, Madagascar was the first beneficiary of development aid offered by the United States in a plan aimed at rewarding countries determined by Washington to be putting forth market reforms and advocating democracy. Further debt relief constituted another infusion of favorable developments for Madagascar when on June 11, 2005, at a pre-G8 summit meeting in London, world leaders agreed to write off $40 billion in debt owed by the world's poorest countries. Under the plan, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the African Development Fund would write off 100 percent of the money owed to them by 18 countries Madagascar and International Aid for the Environment Since the mid-1980s, the donor community, led by the World Bank and the USAID, has recognized that Madagascar is one of the world's most unusual natural wonders. As such, it has committed a tremendous investment into Malagasy conservation efforts. At $18 million per annum the environment program of USAID/Madagascar is the second largest American program in Madagascar, and one of the largest programs of its kind in the world. The World Bank further supported this environmental effort with an additional $180 million. Other bilateral donors including France, Germany and others have funded specific project initiatives in coordination with the World Bank and the USAID. Eighty percent of the flora and fauna are endemic. The problem recognized by the international community is that this unique and valuable land has proven fragile. The bulk of the rainforests have already been destroyed causing significant erosion and a threat to water sources in arid areas. The international community has recognized this environmental catastrophe in progress and has responded in force by supporting and guiding the Malagasy government in its conservation program. Research has demonstrated that tavy, a form of slash and burns agriculture, has been the largest contributor to environmental degradation in Madagascar. As a result, the 1990s have seen both a prohibition on tavy in many places and an acceleration in the creation of national parks and protected areas that are off limits to agriculture. The goal has been to establish more than 50 such parks and protected areas in a 15-year period. Even while Madagascar's conservation crisis remains high, its economic crisis remains still higher. With a population that is more than 80 percent agrarian, limiting resource through the creation of parks and farming restrictions is economically devastating to a significant percentage of the rural population. The need for economic development is thus exacerbated by the rapid growth of environmental policies and institutions. The USAID and the World Bank worked together with the Malagasy government in the late 1980s to try to find a way to reconcile these two difficult and seemingly mutually-exacerbating problems. The result of these discussions was the creation of the Malagasy Office of the Environment and the signing of a National Environmental Action Plan. The National Environmental Action Plan is intended to be implemented in three phases. The first phase of Madagascar's Environment Plan (EP1, 1990-1996) was marked by the creation of Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDP). These ICDPs were intended to offer farmers economic alternatives ecologically unsound environmental practices. This phase also focused on establishing an institutional environment. The USAID funded the creation of the ANGAP (National Association for the Management of Protected Areas - the national park service), employing consultants to model an institutional structure based upon a modified version of the South African and American national parks and protected areas systems. The second phase (1997-2002) focuses on the implementation of a larger "landscape approach" to conservation and development, and the transference of conservation and development project ownership from international non-government organizations to the Malagasy national parks association (ANGAP). The focus of the third phase (2003-2008) is not yet clarified, but will require the completion of the indigenization process and the withdrawal of foreign economic support. Early evaluations of the donor programs have criticized the integrated conservation and development approach for paying no more than lip service to development. Biological conservation has been prioritized at the cost of local livelihoods. Further, the development initiatives that have been implemented are not well integrated. Most local recipients of development aid do not connect the aid to the agricultural and land restrictions. Local animosity towards these programs is thus commonly high. 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5,684 | Female | The hand mirror and comb of the Roman goddess Venus is often used to represent the female sex. Female (♀) is the sex of an organism, or a part of an organism, which produces mobile ova (egg cells). The ova are defined as the larger gametes in a heterogamous reproduction system, while the smaller, usually motile gamete, the spermatozoon, is produced by the male. A female individual cannot reproduce sexually without access to the gametes of a male (an exception is parthenogenesis). Some organisms can reproduce both sexually and asexually. There is no single genetic mechanism behind sex differences in different species and the existence of two sexes seems to have evolved multiple times independently in different evolutionary lineages. Other than the defining difference in the type of gamete produced, differences between males and females in one lineage cannot always be predicted by differences in another. The concept is not limited to animals; egg cells are produced by chytrids, diatoms, water moulds and land plants, among others. In land plants, female and male designate not only the egg- and sperm-producing organisms and structures, but also the structures of the sporophytes that give rise to male and female plants. Etymology and usage The word female comes from the Latin femella, the diminutive form of femina, meaning "woman," which is not actually related to the word "male." In the late 14th century, the English spelling was altered so that the word paralleled the spelling of "male." Mammalian female The distinguishing characteristic of the class Mammalia is the presence of mammary glands. The mammary glands are modified sweat glands that produce milk, which is used to feed the young during the period of time shortly after birth. Only mammals have the capacity to produce milk. The presence of mammary glands is most obvious on humans, due to the tendency of the female human body to store large amounts of fatty tissue near the nipples, resulting in prominent breasts, although today some human females also surgically augment their breast size. However, mammary glands are present in all mammals, although they are vestigial in the male of the species. The mammalian female is characterized by having two copies of the X chromosome as opposed to the male which carries only one X and one smaller Y chromosome. To compensate for the difference in size, one of the female's X chromosomes is randomly inactivated in each cell. In birds, by contrast, it is the female who is heterozygous and carries a Z and a W chromosome whilst the male carries two Z chromosomes. Mammalian females are characterized in that they all bear live young (with the rare exception of monotremes, which lay eggs). This is not totally unique, as some animals, such as guppies have analogous reproductive structures. In addition, some other non-mammalian animals, such as sharks, whose eggs hatch inside their bodies also have the appearance of bearing live young. Symbol A common symbol used to represent the female sex is ♀ (Unicode: U+2640 Alt codes: Alt+12), a circle with a small cross underneath. According to Schott Schott GD. Sex, drugs, and rock and roll: Sex symbols ancient and modern: their origins and iconography on the pedigree.BMJ 2005;331:1509-1510 (24 December), doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1509 , "The most established view is that the male and female symbols "are derived from contractions in Greek script of the Greek names of these planets, namely Thouros (Mars) and Phosphoros (Venus). These derivations have been traced by Renkama Renkema HW. Oorspong, beteekenis en toepassing van de in de botanie gebuikelijke teekens ter aanduiding van het geslacht en den levensduur. In: Jeswiet J, ed. Gedendenkboek J Valckenier Suringar. Wageningen: Nederlandsche Dendrologische Vereeniging, 1942: 96-108. who illustrated how Greek letters can be transformed into the graphic male and female symbols still recognised today." Thouros was abbreviated by θρ, and Phosphoros by Φκ, which were contracted into the modern symbols. Sex determination The sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may naturally change during the course of an organism's life. Although most species with male and female sexes have individuals that are either male or female, hermaphroditic animals have both male and female reproductive organs. Genetic determination Most mammals, including humans, are genetically determined as such by the XY sex-determination system where males have an XY (as opposed to XX) sex chromosome. During reproduction, a male can give either an X sperm or a Y sperm, while a female can only give an X egg. A Y sperm and an X egg produce a boy, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a girl. The ZW sex-determination system, where males have a ZZ (as opposed to ZW) sex chromosome may be found in birds and some insects and other organisms. Members of Hymenoptera, such as ants and bees, are determined by haplodiploidy, where most males are haploid and females and some sterile males are diploid. Environmental determination Some species develop into one sex or the other depending on local environmental conditions, e.g. many crocodilians' sex is influenced by the temperature of their eggs. Other species (such as the goby) are capable of transforming, as adults, from one sex to the other in response to local reproductive conditions (such as a shortage of males). In humans and most mammals, sex is determined chromosomally -- a Y sperm will produce a male offspring and an X sperm a female. Sources Ayers, Donald M. English Words from Latin and Greek Elements. Second Edition. 1986. University of Arizona Press. United States. References See also Woman Girl Feminine side Feminism Gestation Lactation Transwoman Transman Womyn Male be-x-old:Саміца | Female |@lemmatized hand:1 mirror:1 comb:1 roman:1 goddess:1 venus:2 often:1 use:3 represent:2 female:23 sex:18 organism:7 part:1 produce:10 mobile:1 ovum:2 egg:9 cell:3 define:2 large:2 gamete:4 heterogamous:1 reproduction:2 system:3 small:3 usually:1 motile:1 spermatozoon:1 male:23 individual:2 cannot:2 reproduce:2 sexually:2 without:1 access:1 exception:2 parthenogenesis:1 asexually:1 single:1 genetic:3 mechanism:1 behind:1 difference:5 different:2 specie:5 existence:1 two:3 seem:1 evolve:1 multiple:1 time:2 independently:1 evolutionary:1 lineage:2 type:1 one:6 always:1 predict:1 another:1 concept:1 limit:1 animal:4 chytrids:1 diatom:1 water:1 mould:1 land:2 plant:3 among:1 others:1 designate:1 sperm:7 structure:3 also:4 sporophyte:1 give:3 rise:1 etymology:1 usage:1 word:4 come:1 latin:2 femella:1 diminutive:1 form:1 femina:1 mean:1 woman:2 actually:1 relate:1 late:1 century:1 english:2 spelling:2 alter:1 parallel:1 mammalian:4 distinguish:1 characteristic:1 class:1 mammalia:1 presence:2 mammary:4 gland:5 modify:1 sweat:1 milk:2 fee:1 young:3 period:1 shortly:1 birth:1 mammal:4 capacity:1 obvious:1 human:5 due:1 tendency:1 body:2 store:1 amount:1 fatty:1 tissue:1 near:1 nipple:1 result:1 prominent:1 breast:2 although:3 today:2 surgically:1 augment:1 size:2 however:1 present:1 vestigial:1 characterize:2 copy:1 x:10 chromosome:7 oppose:3 carry:3 compensate:1 randomly:1 inactivate:1 bird:2 contrast:1 heterozygous:1 z:2 w:1 whilst:1 bear:2 live:2 rare:1 monotreme:1 lay:1 totally:1 unique:1 guppy:1 analogous:1 reproductive:3 addition:1 non:1 shark:1 whose:1 hatch:1 inside:1 appearance:1 symbol:6 common:1 unicode:1 u:1 alt:2 code:1 circle:1 cross:1 underneath:1 accord:1 schott:2 gd:1 drug:1 rock:1 roll:1 ancient:1 modern:2 origin:1 iconography:1 pedigree:1 bmj:2 december:1 doi:1 established:1 view:1 derive:1 contraction:1 greek:4 script:1 name:1 planet:1 namely:1 thouros:2 mar:1 phosphoros:2 derivation:1 trace:1 renkama:1 renkema:1 hw:1 oorspong:1 beteekenis:1 en:2 toepassing:1 van:2 de:2 botanie:1 gebuikelijke:1 teekens:1 ter:1 aanduiding:1 het:1 geslacht:1 den:1 levensduur:1 jeswiet:1 j:2 ed:1 gedendenkboek:1 valckenier:1 suringar:1 wageningen:1 nederlandsche:1 dendrologische:1 vereeniging:1 illustrate:1 letter:1 transform:2 graphic:1 still:1 recognise:1 abbreviate:1 θρ:1 φκ:1 contract:1 determination:5 particular:1 may:4 determine:4 number:1 factor:1 environmental:3 naturally:1 change:1 course:1 life:1 either:2 hermaphroditic:1 organ:1 include:1 genetically:1 xy:2 xx:1 boy:1 girl:2 zw:2 zz:1 find:1 insect:1 member:1 hymenoptera:1 ant:1 bee:1 haplodiploidy:1 haploid:1 sterile:1 diploid:1 develop:1 depend:1 local:2 condition:2 e:1 g:1 many:1 crocodilian:1 influence:1 temperature:1 goby:1 capable:1 adult:1 response:1 shortage:1 chromosomally:1 offspring:1 source:1 ayers:1 donald:1 element:1 second:1 edition:1 university:1 arizona:1 press:1 united:1 state:1 reference:1 see:1 feminine:1 side:1 feminism:1 gestation:1 lactation:1 transwoman:1 transman:1 womyn:1 old:1 саміца:1 |@bigram male_female:8 reproduce_sexually:2 egg_sperm:2 class_mammalia:1 mammary_gland:4 sweat_gland:1 egg_hatch:1 van_het:1 reproductive_organ:1 |
5,685 | A._E._van_Vogt | Alfred Elton van Vogt (April 26, 1912January 26, 2000) was a Canadian-born science fiction author regarded by some as one of the most popular and complex writers of the mid-twentieth century "Golden Age" of the genre. Science Fiction's Golden Age Born on a farm in Edenburg, a Russian Mennonite community east of Gretna, Manitoba, Canada, van Vogt is one of the most popular and highly esteemed writers of the Golden Age of Science Fiction. After starting his writing career by writing for 'true confession' style pulp magazines like True Story, van Vogt decided to switch to writing something he enjoyed, science fiction. Van Vogt's first published SF story, "Black Destroyer" (Astounding Science Fiction, July 1939), was inspired by On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin. The story depicted a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration spaceship. It was the cover story of this issue of Astounding, the issue often described as having ushered in the Golden Age of science fiction For example, Peter Nicholls () says "The beginning of Campbell's particular Golden Age of SF can be pinpointed as the summer of 1939," and goes on to begin the discussion with the July 1939 issue. Lester del Rey () comments that "July was the turning point". . The story became an instant classic and eventually served as the inspiration for a number of science fiction movies. In 1950 it was combined with "War of Nerves" (1950), "Discord in Scarlet" (1939) and "M33 in Andromeda" (1943) to form the novel The Voyage of the Space Beagle (1950). In 1941 van Vogt decided to become a full time writer, quitting his job at the Canadian Department of National Defence. Extremely prolific for a few years, van Vogt wrote a large number of short stories. In the 1950s, many of them were retrospectively patched together into novels, or "fixups" as he called them, a term which entered the vocabulary of science fiction criticism. Sometimes this was successful (The War against the Rull) while other times the disparate stories thrown together made for a less coherent plot (Quest for the Future). One of van Vogt's best-known novels of this period is Slan, which was originally serialised in Astounding Science Fiction (September - December 1940). Using what became one of van Vogt's recurring themes, it told the story of a 9-year-old superman living in a world in which his kind are slain by Homo sapiens. A sequel, Slan Hunter, was prepared by his widow, Lydia van Vogt, and Kevin J. Anderson, starting from an incomplete draft and outline left by the late van Vogt. It was published in July 2007 (ISBN 978-0765316752). Lydia van Vogt had already given permission to publish her introduction online. Post-war philosophy In 1944, van Vogt moved to Hollywood, California, where his writing took on new dimensions after World War II. Van Vogt was always interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge (akin to modern meta-systems) -- the characters in his very first story used a system called 'Nexialism' to analyze the alien's behaviour, and he became interested in the General Semantics of Alfred Korzybski. He subsequently wrote three novels merging these overarching themes, The World of Null-A and The Pawns of Null-A in the late 1940s, and Null-A Three in the early 1980s. Null-A, or non-Aristotelian logic, refers to the capacity for, and practice of, using intuitive, inductive reasoning (compare fuzzy logic), rather than reflexive, or conditioned, deductive logic. Van Vogt was also profoundly affected by revelations of totalitarian police states that emerged after World War II. He wrote a mainstream novel that was set in Communist China, The Violent Man (1962); he said that to research this book he had read 100 books about China. Into this book he incorporated his view of "the violent male type", which he described as a "man who had to be right", a man who "instantly attracts women" and who he said were the men who "run the world". Van Vogt systematized his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. Several of his stories hinge upon temporal conundra, a favorite theme. He stated that he acquired many of his writing techniques from three books, "Narrative Technique" by Thomas Uzzell, and "The Only Two Ways to Write a Story" plus "Twenty Problems of the Short-Story Writer", both by John Gallishaw. Alexei Panshin, The Abyss of Wonder, Man Beyond Man, The Early Stories of A. E. van Vogt. He said many of his ideas came from dreams, and indeed his stories at times had the incoherence of dreams, but at their best, as in the science fantasy novel The Book of Ptath, his works had all the vision and power a dream can impart. Throughout his writing life he arranged to be awakened every 90 minutes during his sleep period so he could write down his dreams. Charles Platt, Who Writes SF? Savoy Books, 1980. In the 1950s, van Vogt briefly became involved in L. Ron Hubbard's projects. Van Vogt operated a storefront for Dianetics, the secular precursor to Hubbard's Church of Scientology, in the Los Angeles area for a time, before winding up at odds with Hubbard and his methods. His writing more or less stopped for some years, a period in which he bitterly claimed to have been harassed and intimidated by Hubbard's followers. In this period he was limited to collecting old short stories to form notable fixups like: The Mixed Men (1952), The War Against the Rull (1959), The Beast (1963) and the two novels of the "Linn" cyle, which were inspired (like Asimov's Foundation series) by the fall of the Roman Empire. He resumed writing again in the 1960s, mainly at Frederik Pohl's invitation, while remaining in Hollywood with his second wife, Lydia Bereginsky, who cared for him through his declining years. In this later period, his novels were conceived and written as unitary works. On 26 January 2000, van Vogt died in Los Angeles, USA from Alzheimer's disease. Recognition In 1946, van Vogt and his first wife, Edna Mayne Hull, were co-Guests of Honor at the fourth World Science Fiction Convention. In 1980, van Vogt received a "Casper Award" (precursor to the Canadian Aurora Awards) for Lifetime Achievement. In 1995 he was awarded the Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award by the Science Fiction Writers of America. In 1996, van Vogt was recognized on two occasions: the World Science Fiction Convention presented him with a Special Award for six decades of golden age science fiction, and the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame included him among its initial four inductees. Critical praise Fellow science fiction author Philip K. Dick has said that van Vogt's stories spurred his interest in science fiction with their strange sense of the unexplained, that something more was going on than the protagonists realized. In a review of Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt, science fiction writer Paul Di Filippo said: In The John W. Campbell Letters, Campbell says: Harlan Ellison (who began reading van Vogt as a teenager) wrote: Criticism Writer and critic Damon Knight wrote in 1945 that: Most science fiction authors do not strive to be absolutely flawless scientifically, preferring storytelling over accuracy. Despite this, van Vogt has been singled out by some critics for it. Examples: In Cosmic Encounter, one result of the crash of an alien spaceship is the generation of a temperature of minus 50,000 degrees, well below absolute zero. (See Negative temperature.) The title of his story collection M33 in Andromeda is incorrect: M33 is in constellation Triangulum; M31, the Andromeda Galaxy, is in Andromeda. Notable quotes Concerning Theodore Sturgeon's death, van Vogt commented: Bibliography Novels (dates given are for the first publication in book form) Slan (1946) The Weapon Makers (1947) The Book of Ptath (1947) The World of Null-A (1948) The House That Stood Still (1950) The Voyage of the Space Beagle (1950) The Weapon Shops of Isher (1951) The Universe Maker (1953) Planets for Sale (1954), with Edna Mayne Hull The Players of Null-A (1956), also published as The Pawns of Null-A The Mind Cage (1957) Empire of the Atom (1957) Siege of the Unseen (1959) The War against the Rull (1959) Earth's Last Fortress (1960), first stand-alone publication, previously titled Recruiting Station or Masters of Time The Wizard of Linn (1962) The Violent Man (1962), political thriller set in China The Beast (1963), also published as Moonbeast The Twisted Men (1964) Rogue Ship (1965) The Winged Man (1966) The Silkie (1969) Children of Tomorrow (1970) Quest for the Future (1970) The Battle of Forever (1971) More Than Superhuman (1971) The Darkness on Diamondia (1972) Future Glitter (1973), also published as Tyranopolis The Man with a Thousand Names (1974) The Secret Galactics (1974), also published as Earth Factor X Supermind (1974) The Anarchistic Colossus (1977) The Enchanted Village (1979), chapbook Renaissance ( 1979) Cosmic Encounter (1979) Computerworld (1983), also published as Computer Eye Null-A Three (1984) To Conquer Kiber (1985) Collections Out of the Unknown (1948), with Edna Mayne Hull Masters of Time (1950) Away and Beyond (1952) The Mixed Men (1952), also published as Mission to the Stars Destination: Universe! (1952) The Far-Out Worlds of A. E. van Vogt (1956) Monsters (1965) The Van Vogt Omnibus (1967), omnibus The Sea Thing and Other Stories (1970) M33 in Andromeda (1971) The Proxy Intelligence and Other Mind Benders (1971), revised as The Gryb (1976), with Edna Mayne Hull The Van Vogt Omnibus 2 (1971), omnibus The Book of Van Vogt (1972), also published as Lost: Fifty Suns (1979) Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt (1973) The Three Eyes of Evil Including Earth's Last Fortress (1973) The Best of A. E. van Vogt (1974) The Worlds of A. E. van Vogt (1974) Pendulum (1978) Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A.E. Van Vogt (1999) Essential A.E. van Vogt (2002) Transgalactic (2006) Non-fiction The Hypnotism Handbook (1956, Griffin Publishing Company, with Charles Edward Cooke) The Money Personality (1972, Parker Publishing Company Inc, West Nyack, NY, ISBN 0-13-600676-0) Reflections of A. E. Van Vogt: The Autobiography of a Science Fiction Giant (1979, Fictioneer Books Ltd, Lakemont, GA) A Report on the Violent Male (1992, Paupers' Press, UK, ISBN 0-946650-40-3) References External links Earthlink.net - 'Icshi: the A.E. van Vogt information site' van Vogt's Obituary at LocusOnline MMedia.is - 'Weird Worlds of A. E. van Vogt: 1912-2000' SciFan.com - 'Writers: A. E. van Vogt (1912 - 2000, Canada)' (bibliography) Man Beyond Man: The Early Stories of A.E. van Vogt by noted SF author and critic Alexei Panshin A. E. van Vogt's fiction available at Free Speculative Fiction Online'' | A._E._van_Vogt |@lemmatized alfred:2 elton:1 van:43 vogt:43 april:1 canadian:3 bear:2 science:20 fiction:23 author:4 regard:1 one:5 popular:2 complex:1 writer:8 mid:1 twentieth:1 century:1 golden:6 age:6 genre:1 farm:1 edenburg:1 russian:1 mennonite:1 community:1 east:1 gretna:1 manitoba:1 canada:2 highly:1 esteemed:1 start:2 write:17 career:1 true:2 confession:1 style:1 pulp:1 magazine:1 like:3 story:19 decide:2 switch:1 something:3 enjoy:1 first:5 publish:11 sf:4 black:1 destroyer:1 astound:3 july:4 inspire:2 origin:1 specie:1 charles:3 darwin:1 depict:1 fierce:1 carnivorous:1 alien:3 stalk:1 crew:1 exploration:1 spaceship:2 cover:1 issue:3 often:1 describe:2 usher:1 example:2 peter:1 nicholls:1 say:7 beginning:1 campbell:3 particular:1 pinpoint:1 summer:1 go:2 begin:2 discussion:1 l:2 del:1 rey:1 comment:2 turn:1 point:1 become:5 instant:1 classic:1 eventually:1 serve:1 inspiration:1 number:2 movie:1 combine:1 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5,686 | Foreign_relations_of_Eritrea | Eritrea is a member in good standing of the African Union (AU), the successor of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and is an observing member of the Arab League. But it has withdrawn its representative to the AU in protest of the AU's lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia. Eritrea's relationship with the United States is complicated. Although the two nations have a close working relationship regarding the on-going war on terror, there has been a growing tension in other areas. Eritrea's relationship with Italy and the EU has become equally strained in many areas in the last three years. Eritrea also has very tense relations with all of its neighbors: Sudan, Ethiopia, Yemen, and Djibouti. In 2007 Ethiopia expelled seven Norwegian diplomats the reason being "The soldiers in Eritrea are financed in full by Norway. By supporting those who destroy peace processes in our neighbouring countries, Norway undermines the Ethiopian government’s peace work," The Foreign minister of Ethiopia claimed. Eritrea broke diplomatic relations with the Sudan in December 1994. This action was taken after a long period of increasing tension between the two countries due to a series of cross-border incidents involving the Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ). Although the attacks did not pose a threat to the stability of the Government of Eritrea (the infiltrators have generally been killed or captured by government forces), the Eritreans believe the National Islamic Front (NIF) in Khartoum supported, trained, and armed the insurgents. After many months of negotiations with the Sudanese to try to end the incursions, the Government of Eritrea concluded that the NIF did not intend to change its policy and broke relations. Subsequently, the Government of Eritrea hosted a conference of Sudanese opposition leaders in June 1995 in an effort to help the opposition unite and to provide a credible alternative to the present government in Khartoum. Eritrea resumed diplomatic relations with Sudan on December 10, 2005. Since then, Sudan has accused Eritrea, along with Chad, of supporting rebels. Eritrea, Chad accused of aiding Sudan rebels, afrol News, September 7. Retrieved 2009-03-15 The undemarcated border with Sudan poses a problem for Eritrean external relations. After a high-level delegation to the Sudan from the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign Affairs ties are being normalized. While normalization of ties continues, Eritrea has been recognized as a broker for peace between the separate factions of the Sudanese civil war. "It is known that Eritrea played a role in bringing about the peace agreement [between the Southern Sudanese and Government]," while the Sudanese Government and Eastern Front rebels have requested Eritrea to mediate peace talks. A dispute with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996 resulted in a brief war. As part of an agreement to cease hostilities the two nations agreed to refer the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the the Hague. At the conclusion of the proceedings, both nations acquiesced to the decision. Since 1996 both governments have remained wary of one another but relations are relatively normal. The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue facing Eritrea. This led to a long and bloody border war between 1998 and 2000. As a result, the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) is occupying a 25 km by 900 km area on the border to help stabilize the region. Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war. In April 2002 Ethiopia and Eritrea agreed on a common border, drawn up by an independent commission in The Hague under the auspices of the United Nations. Central to the continuation of the stalemate is Ethiopia's failure to abide by the border delimitation ruling and reneging on its commitment to demarcation. The stalemate has led the President of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia. This request is outlined in the Eleven Letters penned by the President to the United Nations Security Council. The situation is further escalated by the continued effort of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting each other's opposition. See also Eritrean diplomatic missions Eritrea-United States relations References | Foreign_relations_of_Eritrea |@lemmatized eritrea:21 member:2 good:1 standing:1 african:2 union:1 au:3 successor:1 organization:1 unity:1 oau:1 observing:1 arab:1 league:1 withdraw:1 representative:1 protest:1 lack:1 leadership:1 facilitate:1 implementation:1 binding:1 border:9 decision:2 demarcate:1 ethiopia:9 relationship:3 united:5 state:2 complicate:1 although:2 two:3 nation:6 close:1 working:1 regard:1 go:1 war:6 terror:1 grow:1 tension:3 area:3 italy:1 eu:1 become:1 equally:1 strained:1 many:2 last:1 three:1 year:1 also:2 tense:1 relation:7 neighbor:1 sudan:7 yemen:2 djibouti:1 expel:1 seven:1 norwegian:1 diplomats:1 reason:1 soldier:1 finance:1 full:1 norway:2 support:4 destroy:1 peace:5 process:1 neighbouring:1 country:2 undermine:1 ethiopian:2 government:9 work:1 foreign:2 minister:1 claim:1 break:2 diplomatic:3 december:2 action:2 take:2 long:2 period:2 increase:1 due:1 series:1 cross:1 incident:1 involve:1 eritrean:6 islamic:2 jihad:1 eij:1 attack:1 pose:2 threat:2 stability:1 infiltrator:1 generally:1 kill:1 capture:1 force:1 believe:1 national:1 front:2 nif:2 khartoum:2 train:1 arm:1 insurgent:1 month:1 negotiation:1 sudanese:5 try:1 end:1 incursion:1 conclude:1 intend:1 change:1 policy:1 subsequently:1 host:1 conference:1 opposition:3 leader:2 june:1 effort:2 help:2 unite:1 provide:1 credible:1 alternative:1 present:1 resume:1 since:2 accuse:2 along:1 chad:2 rebel:3 aid:1 afrol:1 news:1 september:1 retrieve:1 undemarcated:2 problem:1 external:2 high:1 level:1 delegation:1 ministry:1 affair:1 tie:2 normalize:1 normalization:1 continue:1 recognize:1 broker:1 separate:1 faction:1 civil:1 know:1 play:1 role:1 bring:1 agreement:2 southern:1 eastern:1 request:2 mediate:1 talk:1 dispute:1 hanish:1 island:1 result:3 brief:1 part:1 cease:1 hostility:1 agree:2 refer:1 issue:2 permanent:1 court:1 arbitration:1 hague:2 conclusion:1 proceeding:1 acquiesce:1 remain:1 wary:1 one:1 another:1 relatively:1 normal:1 primary:1 face:1 lead:2 bloody:1 mission:2 unmee:1 occupy:1 km:2 stabilize:1 region:1 disagreement:1 follow:1 stalemate:3 punctuate:1 elevated:1 renew:1 april:1 common:1 draw:1 independent:1 commission:1 auspex:1 central:1 continuation:1 failure:1 abide:1 delimitation:1 ruling:1 renege:1 commitment:1 demarcation:1 president:2 urge:1 un:1 outline:1 eleven:1 letter:1 pen:1 security:1 council:1 situation:1 far:1 escalate:1 continued:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram unity_oau:1 eritrea_ethiopia:1 ethiopia_eritrea:3 diplomatic_relation:2 afrol_news:1 undemarcated_border:2 foreign_affair:1 hanish_island:1 eritrea_unmee:1 eritrean_ethiopian:1 diplomatic_mission:1 |
5,687 | Lincos_(artificial_language) | Lincos (an abbreviation of the Latin phrase lingua cosmica) is an artificial language first described in 1960 by Dr. Hans Freudenthal in his book Lincos: Design of a Language for Cosmic Intercourse, Part 1. It is a language designed to be understandable by any possible intelligent extraterrestrial life form, for use in interstellar radio transmissions. Freudenthal considered that such a language should be easily understood by beings not acquainted with any Earthling syntax or language. Lincos was designed to be capable of encapsulating "the whole bulk of our knowledge." Concepts and range The Lincos "dictionary", intended to be transmitted first before any additional messages, begins with a simple pattern of pulses intended to establish the terminology for natural numbers and basic arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) in base two. The concepts of equality, comparison, variables and constants are also illustrated by a series of examples, and then finally propositional logic, set theory and first-order logic. The next section of the Lincos dictionary establishes vocabulary for describing time, introducing means for measuring durations, referring to moments in time, and talking about past and future events. The third section is perhaps the most complex, and attempts to convey the concepts and language necessary to describe behavior and conversation between individuals. It uses examples to introduce actors speaking to each other, asking questions, disapproving, quoting other people, knowing and wanting things, promising, and playing. Finally, the fourth section describes the concepts and language relating to mass, space, and motion. This last section goes so far as to describe physical features of human beings and of the Solar system. A second book was planned but never written that would have added four more sections to the dictionary: "Matter", "Earth", "Life" and "Behavior 2". Other researchers have since extended the language somewhat on their own (see, for example, CosmicOS). No actual transmissions have been made using Lincos; it remains largely a theoretical exercise in Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence. Examples An example of Lincos from section 3 of Freudenthal's book, showing one individual asking another individual questions: Lincos text Meaning Ha Inq Hb ?x 2x=5 Ha says to Hb: What is the x such that 2x=5? Hb Inq Ha 5/2 Hb says to Ha: 5/2. Ha Inq Hb Ben Ha says to Hb: Good. Ha Inq Hb ?x 4x=10 Ha says to Hb: What is the x such that 4x=10? Hb Inq Ha 10/4 Hb says to Ha: 10/4. Ha Inq Hb Mal Ha says to Hb: Bad. Hb Inq Ha 1/4 Hb says to Ha: 1/4. Ha Inq Hb Mal Ha says to Hb: Bad. Hb Inq Ha 5/2 Hb says to Ha: 5/2. Ha Inq Hb Ben Ha says to Hb: Good. Note the difference between "good" and "bad" as compared to "true" and "false"; 10/4 is a true answer to the question, so Ver ("true") would be a valid response, but since it wasn't reduced to lowest terms, it wasn't what Hb wanted and so he responded Mal ("bad") instead. Another example, showing meta-conversation: Lincos text Meaning Ha Inq Hb ?x 4x=10 Ha says to Hb: What is the x such that 4x=10? Hb Inq Hc ?y y Inq Hb ?x 4x=10 Hb says to Hc: Who asked me for the x such that 4x=10? Hc Inq Hb Ha Hc says to Hb: Ha. Popular culture In the motion picture Contact, SETI astronomers receive a radio transmission from space that has a Lincos-like dictionary embedded in the message. See also Portal:Constructed languages Alien language SETI References External links http://www.brunobassi.it/scritti/lincos.html | Lincos_(artificial_language) |@lemmatized lincos:11 abbreviation:1 latin:1 phrase:1 lingua:1 cosmica:1 artificial:1 language:10 first:3 describe:5 dr:1 han:1 freudenthal:3 book:3 design:3 cosmic:1 intercourse:1 part:1 understandable:1 possible:1 intelligent:1 extraterrestrial:2 life:2 form:1 use:3 interstellar:1 radio:2 transmission:3 consider:1 easily:1 understand:1 acquaint:1 earthling:1 syntax:1 capable:1 encapsulate:1 whole:1 bulk:1 knowledge:1 concept:4 range:1 dictionary:4 intend:2 transmit:1 additional:1 message:2 begin:1 simple:1 pattern:1 pulse:1 establish:1 terminology:1 natural:1 number:1 basic:1 arithmetic:1 addition:1 subtraction:1 multiplication:1 division:1 base:1 two:1 equality:1 comparison:1 variable:1 constant:1 also:2 illustrate:1 series:1 example:4 finally:2 propositional:1 logic:2 set:1 theory:1 order:1 next:1 section:6 establishes:1 vocabulary:1 time:2 introduce:2 mean:1 measure:1 duration:1 refer:1 moment:1 talk:1 past:1 future:1 event:1 third:1 perhaps:1 complex:1 attempt:1 convey:1 necessary:1 behavior:2 conversation:2 individual:3 examples:2 actor:1 speak:1 ask:3 question:3 disapprove:1 quote:1 people:1 know:1 want:2 thing:1 promising:1 play:1 fourth:1 relating:1 mass:1 space:2 motion:2 last:1 go:1 far:1 physical:1 feature:1 human:1 solar:1 system:1 second:1 plan:1 never:1 write:1 would:2 add:1 four:1 matter:1 earth:1 researcher:1 since:2 extend:1 somewhat:1 see:2 cosmicos:1 actual:1 make:1 remain:1 largely:1 theoretical:1 exercise:1 communication:1 intelligence:1 show:2 one:1 another:2 text:2 meaning:2 ha:24 inq:14 hb:28 x:8 say:13 ben:2 good:3 mal:3 bad:4 note:1 difference:1 compare:1 true:3 false:1 answer:1 v:1 valid:1 response:1 reduce:1 low:1 term:1 respond:1 instead:1 meta:1 hc:4 popular:1 culture:1 picture:1 contact:1 seti:2 astronomer:1 receive:1 like:1 embed:1 portal:1 construct:1 alien:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 www:1 brunobassi:1 scritti:1 html:1 |@bigram intelligent_extraterrestrial:1 addition_subtraction:1 subtraction_multiplication:1 propositional_logic:1 ha_inq:7 inq_hb:9 hb_inq:5 ha_ha:4 motion_picture:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
5,688 | Gestation | Gestation is the carrying of an embryo or fetus inside a female viviparous animal. Mammals during pregnancy can have one or more gestations at the same time (multiple gestations). The time interval of a gestation plus 2 weeks is called gestation period, and the length of time plus 2 weeks that the offspring have spent developing in the uterus is called gestational age. (The extra 2 weeks is because gestational age is counted starting from the last menstrual period (LMP), rather than actual conception. However this extra 2 weeks is not always added when talking about animals.) Humans Human pregnancy can be divided into three trimesters, each three months long. The first trimester is from the last period to the 13th week, the second trimester is from the 14th to 27th week, and the third trimester is from the 28th week through the 40th week. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists - How Your Baby Grows During Pregnancy In humans, birth normally occurs at a gestational age of about 40 weeks, though a normal range is from 37 to 42 weeks. Childbirth occurring before 37 weeks of gestation is considered preterm, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists - Preterm Labor whereas childbirth after 42 weeks is considered postterm. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists - Labor Induction Preterm and low birth weight babies make up the second leading cause of infant death at about 17%. Preterm births solely consist of 12% of infant deaths with an 84% majority within the 32-36 week period. March of Dimes - Preterm Birth It is estimated that two million babies worldwide die annually within 24 hours of birth. Mammals In mammals, pregnancy begins when a fertilized zygote implants in the female's uterus and ends once it leaves the uterus. Below are average and approximate values ordered by gestation period (note for humans gestational age is counted from the LMP, for other animals the counting method varies, so these figures could be 14 days off): Animal Average gestation period (days) Rabbits 33 Cats 62 Dogs 65 Lions 108 Pigs 115 Sheep 150 Humans 259-294 Cattle 283 Horses 336 Rhinos 487 Elephants 600-660 Non-mammals A viviparous animal is an animal employing vivipary: the embryo develops inside the body of the mother, as opposed to outside in an egg (ovipary). The mother then gives live birth. The less developed form of vivipary is called ovoviviparity, which, for instance, occurs in most vipers. The more developed form of vivipary is called placental viviparity; mammals are the best example, but it has also evolved independently in other animals, such as in scorpions, some sharks, and in velvet worms. Viviparous offspring live independently and require an external food supply from birth. Certain lizards also employ this method such as the genera Tiliqua and Corucia. The placenta is attached directly to the mother in these lizards which is called viviparous matrotrophy. Ovoviviparous animals develop within eggs that remain within the mother's body up until they hatch or are about to hatch. This strategy of birth is known as ovoviviparity. It is similar to vivipary in that the embryo develops within the mother's body. Unlike the embryos of viviparous species, ovoviviparous embryos are nourished by the egg yolk rather than by the mother's body. However, the mother's body does provide gas exchange. Ovoviviparity is employed by many aquatic life forms such as fish and some sharks, reptiles, and invertebrates. The young of ovoviviparous amphibians are sometimes born as larvae, and undergo metamorphosis outside the body of the mother. The Syngnathidae family of fish has the unique characteristic where females lay their eggs in a brood pouch on the male's chest, and the male incubates the eggs. Fertilization may take place in the pouch or before implantation in the water. Included in Syngnathidae are seahorses, the pipefish, and the weedy and leafy sea dragons. Syngnathidae is the only family in the animal kingdom to which the term "male pregnancy" has been applied. References See also Pregnancy (humans) Pregnancy (mammals) Nesting instinct Prenatal development Further reading Support Forum for Labour Table listing average animal gestation periods Pregnancy Due Date | Gestation |@lemmatized gestation:9 carrying:1 embryo:5 fetus:1 inside:2 female:3 viviparous:5 animal:10 mammal:6 pregnancy:8 one:1 time:3 multiple:1 interval:1 plus:2 week:13 call:5 period:7 length:1 offspring:2 spend:1 develop:4 uterus:3 gestational:4 age:4 extra:2 count:2 start:1 last:2 menstrual:1 lmp:2 rather:2 actual:1 conception:1 however:2 always:1 add:1 talk:1 human:6 divide:1 three:2 trimester:4 month:1 long:1 first:1 second:2 third:1 american:3 college:3 obstetrician:3 gynecologist:3 baby:3 grows:1 birth:8 normally:1 occur:3 though:1 normal:1 range:1 childbirth:2 consider:2 preterm:5 labor:2 whereas:1 postterm:1 induction:1 low:1 weight:1 make:1 leading:1 cause:1 infant:2 death:2 solely:1 consist:1 majority:1 within:5 march:1 dime:1 estimate:1 two:1 million:1 worldwide:1 die:1 annually:1 hour:1 begin:1 fertilized:1 zygote:1 implant:1 end:1 leave:1 average:3 approximate:1 value:1 order:1 note:1 counting:1 method:2 varies:1 figure:1 could:1 day:2 rabbit:1 cat:1 dog:1 lion:1 pig:1 sheep:1 cattle:1 horse:1 rhino:1 elephant:1 non:1 employing:1 vivipary:4 body:6 mother:8 oppose:1 outside:2 egg:5 ovipary:1 give:1 live:2 less:1 developed:2 form:3 ovoviviparity:3 instance:1 viper:1 placental:1 viviparity:1 best:1 example:1 also:3 evolve:1 independently:2 scorpion:1 shark:2 velvet:1 worm:1 require:1 external:1 food:1 supply:1 certain:1 lizard:2 employ:2 genus:1 tiliqua:1 corucia:1 placenta:1 attach:1 directly:1 matrotrophy:1 ovoviviparous:3 remain:1 hatch:2 strategy:1 know:1 similar:1 unlike:1 specie:1 nourish:1 yolk:1 provide:1 gas:1 exchange:1 many:1 aquatic:1 life:1 fish:2 reptile:1 invertebrate:1 young:1 amphibian:1 sometimes:1 bear:1 larva:1 undergo:1 metamorphosis:1 syngnathidae:3 family:2 unique:1 characteristic:1 lay:1 brood:1 pouch:2 male:3 chest:1 incubate:1 fertilization:1 may:1 take:1 place:1 implantation:1 water:1 include:1 seahorse:1 pipefish:1 weedy:1 leafy:1 sea:1 dragon:1 kingdom:1 term:1 apply:1 reference:1 see:1 nest:1 instinct:1 prenatal:1 development:1 far:1 read:1 support:1 forum:1 labour:1 table:1 listing:1 due:1 date:1 |@bigram embryo_fetus:1 gestational_age:4 week_gestation:1 preterm_birth:2 egg_yolk:1 incubate_egg:1 |
5,689 | Virus_hoax | A computer virus hoax is a message warning the recipient of a non-existant computer virus threat. The message is usually a chain e-mail that tells the recipient to forward it to everyone they know. Identification Most hoaxes are sensational in nature and easily identified by the fact that they indicate that the virus will do nearly impossible things, like blow up the recipient's computer and set it on fire. They often include announcements claimed to be from reputable organizations such as Microsoft, IBM, or news sources such as CNN and include emotive language and encouragement to forward the message. These sources are quoted in order to add credibility to the hoax. Virus hoaxes are usually harmless and accomplish nothing more than annoying people who identify it as a hoax and waste the time of people who forward the message. However, a number of hoaxes have warned users that vital system files are viruses and encourage the user to delete the file, possibly damaging the system. Examples of this type include the jdbgmgr.exe virus hoax and the SULFNBK.EXE hoax. Some consider virus hoaxes and other chain e-mails to be a computer worm in and of themselves. They replicate by exploiting users' ignorance or emotional responses. Hoaxes are not to be confused with computer pranks. Computer pranks are programs that perform unwanted and annoying actions on a computer, such as randomly moving the mouse. Action Anti-virus specialists agree that recipients should delete virus hoaxes when they receive them, instead of forwarding them. McAfee says: F-Secure recommends: List of computer virus hoaxes NameAlias(es)Origin Author DescriptionAIDS(none)UnknownUnknownNot to be confused with AIDS (computer virus) or AIDS (trojan horse), this hoax is about a non-existent virus that is purportedly distributed via electronic mail messages that have "OPEN: VERY COOL! :)" as their subjects.Antichrist(none)Monmouth(uk)Dylan NicholasThis is a hoax that warned about a supposed virus discovered by Microsoft and McAfee named "Antichrist", telling the user that it is installed via an e-mail with the subject line: "SURPRISE?!!!!!!!!!!" after which it destroys the zeroth sector of the hard disk, rendering it unusable. Budweiser FrogsBUDSAVER.EXEUnknownUnknownSupposedly would erase the user's hard drive and steal the user's screen name and password. Goodtimes virus(none)UnknownUnknown Warnings about a computer virus named "Good Times" began being passed around among Internet users in 1994. The Goodtimes virus was supposedly transmitted via an email bearing the subject header "Good Times" or "Goodtimes," hence the virus's name, and the warning recommended deleting any such email unread. The virus described in the warnings did not exist, but the warnings themselves, were, in effect, virus-like. Jdbgmgr.exe(bear.aUnknownUnknownThe jdbgmgr.exe virus hoax involved an e-mail spam in 2002 that advised computer users to delete a file named jdbgmgr.exe because it was a computer virus. jdbgmgr.exe, which had a little teddy bear-like icon (The Microsoft Bear), was actually a valid Microsoft Windows file, the Debugger Registrar for Java (also known as Java Debug Manager, hence jdbgmgr).Invitation attachment (computer virus hoax)(Allright now/I'm just sayin)Michiana Shores, Long Beach, Jamestown Manor, Michigan City (IN), Schaumburg (IL)Jim FlanaganThe invitation virus hoax involved an e-mail spam in 2006 that advised computer users to delete an email, with any type of attachment that stated "invitation" because it was a computer virus. This is also known as the Olympic Torch virus hoax (see below). Life is beautifulLife is wonderfulUnknownSupposedly, a hacker with the alias "Life owner" or "Dono da vida"The hoax was spread through the Internet around January 2001 in Brazil. It told of a virus attached to an e-mail, which was spread around the Internet. The attached file was supposedly called "Life is beautiful.pps" or "La vita è bella.pps". NVISION DESIGN, INC. games ("Frogapult," "Elfbowl")Sometimes included their other game "Y2KGame"UnknownUnknownPrograms were actual, legitimate computer games; author claimed that they were viruses which would "wipe out" the user's hard drive on Christmas Day. Olympic TorchPostcardUnknownUnknownOlympic Torch is a computer virus hoax sent out by e-mail. The hoax e-mails first appeared in February 2006. The "virus" referred to by the e-mail does not actually exist. The hoax e-mail warns recipients of a recent outbreak of "Olympic Torch" viruses, contained in e-mails titled "Invitation", which erase the hard disk of the user's computer when opened. The hoax email further purports the virus to be acknowledged by such reputable sources as CNN, McAfee and Microsoft as one of the most dangerous viruses yet reported. Of course this email, which was started in February 2006, is safe to delete when you want.SULFNBK.EXE Warningnone UnknownUnknownSULFNBK.EXE (short for Setup Utility for Long File Name Backup) is an internal component of the Microsoft Windows operating system (in Windows 98 and Windows Me) for restoring long file names. The component became famous in the early 2000s as the subject of an e-mail hoax. The hoax claimed that SULFNBK.EXE was a virus, and contained instructions to locate and delete the file. While the instructions worked, they were needless and (in some rare cases, for example, when the long file names are damaged and need to be restored) can cause disruptions, as SULFNBK.EXE is not a virus, but instead an operating system component. Parodies The virus hoax has become part of the culture of the twenty-first century and the gullibility of novice computer users convinced to delete files on the basis of hoaxes has been parodied in several popular jokes and songs. One such parody is "Weird Al" Yankovic's song "Virus Alert" from the album Straight Outta Lynwood. The song makes fun of the exaggerated claims that are made in virus hoaxes. Another parody of virus hoaxes is the honor system virus which has been cirulated under the name Amish Computer Virus, manual virus, the Blond Computer Virus, the Irish Computer Virus, the Syrian Computer Virus, the Norwegian Computer Virus, Newfie Virus and the Unix Computer Virus, Mac OS 9 virus, Discount virus and many others. This joke email claims to be authored by the Amish or other similar low-technology population who have no computers, programming skills or electricity to create viruses and thus ask you to delete your own hard drive contents manually after forwarding the message to your friends. The Tuxissa virus is another parody of the virus hoax, based on the concept of the Melissa virus, but with its aim of installing Linux on the victim's computer without the owner's permission. The story says that it was spread via e-mail, contained in a message titled "Important Message About Windows Security". It was supposed to first spread the virus to other computers, then download a stripped-down version of Slackware and uncompress it onto the hard disk. The Windows Registry is finally deleted and the boot options changed. Then the virus removes itself when it reboots the computer at the end, with the user facing the Linux login prompt and all his Windows security problems solved for him. References See also Malware List of computer viruses List of trojan horses Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms External links Hoaxkill website dedicated to hoax busting McAfee virus hoaxes Symantec Threat Explorer Trend Micro Virus Encyclopedia Sector Zero/Virtual Card for You Email | Virus_hoax |@lemmatized computer:31 virus:59 hoax:32 message:8 warn:4 recipient:5 non:2 existant:1 threat:2 usually:2 chain:2 e:14 mail:14 tell:3 forward:5 everyone:1 know:3 identification:1 sensational:1 nature:1 easily:1 identify:2 fact:1 indicate:1 nearly:1 impossible:1 thing:1 like:3 blow:1 set:1 fire:1 often:1 include:4 announcement:1 claim:5 reputable:2 organization:1 microsoft:6 ibm:1 news:1 source:3 cnn:2 emotive:1 language:1 encouragement:1 quote:1 order:1 add:1 credibility:1 harmless:1 accomplish:1 nothing:1 annoy:1 people:2 waste:1 time:3 however:1 number:1 user:13 vital:1 system:5 file:10 encourage:1 delete:10 possibly:1 damage:2 example:2 type:2 jdbgmgr:6 exe:10 sulfnbk:4 consider:1 worm:2 replicate:1 exploit:1 ignorance:1 emotional:1 response:1 confuse:2 prank:2 program:2 perform:1 unwanted:1 annoying:1 action:2 randomly:1 move:1 mouse:1 anti:1 specialist:1 agree:1 receive:1 instead:2 mcafee:4 say:2 f:1 secure:1 recommend:2 list:3 namealias:1 origin:1 author:3 descriptionaids:1 none:3 unknownunknownnot:1 aid:2 trojan:2 horse:2 existent:1 purportedly:1 distributed:1 via:4 electronic:1 open:2 cool:1 subject:4 antichrist:2 monmouth:1 uk:1 dylan:1 nicholasthis:1 supposed:1 discover:1 name:9 instal:2 line:1 surprise:1 destroy:1 zeroth:1 sector:2 hard:6 disk:3 render:1 unusable:1 budweiser:1 frogsbudsaver:1 exeunknownunknownsupposedly:1 would:2 erase:2 drive:3 steal:1 screen:1 password:1 goodtimes:3 unknownunknown:1 warning:4 good:2 begin:1 pass:1 around:3 among:1 internet:3 supposedly:2 transmit:1 email:7 bear:4 header:1 hence:2 unread:1 describe:1 exist:2 effect:1 aunknownunknownthe:1 involve:2 spam:2 advise:2 little:1 teddy:1 icon:1 actually:2 valid:1 window:7 debugger:1 registrar:1 java:2 also:3 debug:1 manager:1 invitation:4 attachment:2 allright:1 sayin:1 michiana:1 shore:1 long:4 beach:1 jamestown:1 manor:1 michigan:1 city:1 schaumburg:1 il:1 jim:1 flanaganthe:1 state:1 olympic:3 torch:3 see:2 life:3 beautifullife:1 wonderfulunknownsupposedly:1 hacker:1 alias:1 owner:2 dono:1 da:1 vida:1 spread:4 january:1 brazil:1 attach:1 attached:1 call:1 beautiful:1 pps:2 la:1 vita:1 è:1 bella:1 nvision:1 design:1 inc:1 game:3 frogapult:1 elfbowl:1 sometimes:1 unknownunknownprograms:1 actual:1 legitimate:1 wipe:1 christmas:1 day:1 torchpostcardunknownunknownolympic:1 send:1 first:3 appear:1 february:2 refer:1 recent:1 outbreak:1 contain:3 title:2 far:1 purport:1 acknowledge:1 one:2 dangerous:1 yet:1 report:1 course:1 start:1 safe:1 want:1 warningnone:1 unknownunknownsulfnbk:1 short:1 setup:1 utility:1 backup:1 internal:1 component:3 operate:1 restore:2 become:2 famous:1 early:1 instruction:2 locate:1 work:1 needless:1 rare:1 case:1 need:1 cause:1 disruption:1 operating:1 parody:5 part:1 culture:1 twenty:1 century:1 gullibility:1 novice:1 convince:1 basis:1 several:1 popular:1 joke:2 song:3 weird:1 al:1 yankovic:1 alert:1 album:1 straight:1 outta:1 lynwood:1 make:2 fun:1 exaggerated:1 another:2 honor:1 cirulated:1 amish:2 manual:1 blond:1 irish:1 syrian:1 norwegian:1 newfie:1 unix:1 mac:1 os:1 discount:1 many:1 others:1 similar:1 low:1 technology:1 population:1 skill:1 electricity:1 create:1 thus:1 ask:1 content:1 manually:1 friend:1 tuxissa:1 base:1 concept:1 melissa:1 aim:1 linux:2 victim:1 without:1 permission:1 story:1 important:1 security:2 suppose:1 download:1 stripped:1 version:1 slackware:1 uncompress:1 onto:1 registry:1 finally:1 boot:1 option:1 change:1 remove:1 reboot:1 end:1 face:1 login:1 prompt:1 problem:1 solve:1 reference:1 malware:1 timeline:1 notable:1 external:1 link:1 hoaxkill:1 website:1 dedicate:1 bust:1 symantec:1 explorer:1 trend:1 micro:1 encyclopedia:1 zero:1 virtual:1 card:1 |@bigram virus_hoax:16 jdbgmgr_exe:5 trojan_horse:2 non_existent:1 mail_spam:2 teddy_bear:1 microsoft_window:2 olympic_torch:2 da_vida:1 al_yankovic:1 straight_outta:1 mac_os:1 virus_worm:1 external_link:1 |
5,690 | Gladiator | Part of the Zliten mosaic from Libya (Leptis Magna), circa 80-100 CE. It shows (left to right) a thraex fighting a murmillo, a hoplomachus standing with another murmillo (who is signaling his defeat to the referee), and one of a matched pair. A gladiator (, "swordsman", from , "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their legal and social standing and their lives by appearing in the arena. Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death. Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered audiences an example of Rome's martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout the Roman world. The origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate (see next section). There is evidence of it in funeral rites during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BCE, and thereafter it rapidly became an essential feature of politics and social life in the Roman world. Its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly spectacles or "gladiatorial games". The games reached their peak between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE, and they persisted not only throughout the social and economic crises of the declining Roman state but even after Christianity became the official religion in the 4th century CE. Christian emperors continued to sponsor such entertainments until at least the late 5th century CE, when the last known gladiator games took place. Gladiatorial games Origins A 5th century CE mosaic in the Great Palace of Constantinople depicts two venatores fighting a tiger. Early literary sources seldom agree on the origins of gladiators and the gladiator games. Katherine E. Welch, The Roman Ampitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2007) 17. Donald G. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (London: Routledge, 1998), 82. Surviving sources for early Roman history are attempts to reconstruct the past. In the late 1st century BCE Nicolaus of Damascus believed they were Etruscan. Welch, 16-17: Nicolaus cites Posidonius's support for a Celtic origin and Hermippus' for a Mantinean (therefore Greek) origin. A generation later, Livy wrote that they were first held in 310 BCE by the Campanians in celebration of their victory over the Samnites. Alison Futrell, A Sourcebook on the Roman Games (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 4-7: citing Livy, 9.40.17. Long after the games had ceased, the 7th century CE writer Isidore of Seville derived Latin lanista (manager of gladiators) from the Etruscan for executioner, and the title of Charon (an official who accompanied the dead from the Roman gladiatorial arena) from Charun, psychopomp of the Etruscan underworld. Futrell, 14, 15. Roman historians emphasised the gladiator games as a foreign import, most likely Etruscan. This preference informed most standard histories of the Roman games in the early modern era. Welch, 11. Reappraisal of the evidence supports a Campanian origin – or at least a borrowing – for the games and gladiators. Welch, 18. Futrell, 3-5. The earliest known Roman gladiator schools (ludi) were in Campania. Futrell, 4. David Stone Potter and D.J. Mattingly, eds., Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 226. Tomb frescoes from Paestum (4th century BCE) show paired fighters, with helmets, spears and shields, in a propitiary funeral blood-rite that anticipates early Roman gladiator games. Potter and Mattingly, 226; Paestum was colonized by Rome in 273 BCE. Compared to these images, supporting evidence from Etruscan tomb-paintings is tentative and late. The Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BCE. Welch 15, 18. Livy dates the earliest Roman gladiator games to 264 BCE, in the early stages of Rome's First Punic War against Carthage. Decimus Iunius Brutus Scaeva had three gladiator pairs fight to the death in Rome's 'cattle market' Forum (Forum Boarium) to honour his dead father, Brutus Pera. This is described as munus (plural munera): a commemorative duty owed the manes of a dead ancestor by his descendants. See munus entry at wiktionary. Welch, 18-19; Livy's account (summary 16) places beast-hunts and gladiatorial munera within this single munus. The gladiator type used (according to a single, later source), was Thracian. Welch, 19: citing Ausanius: Seneca simply says they were "war captives". but the development of the munus and its gladiator types was most strongly influenced by Samnium's support for Hannibal and subsequent punitive expeditions by Rome and her Campanian allies; the earliest and most frequently mentioned type was the Samnite. Thomas Wiedemann, Emperors and Gladiators (London: Routledge, 1992), 33. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 2. Donald G. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007) 273; Evidence of "Samnite" as an insult in earlier writings fades as Samnium is absorbed into the Republic. The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger and an equally glorious conclusion. The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms. There were two corps: the shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver... The Romans had already heard of these splendid accoutrements, but their generals had taught them that a soldier should be rough to look on, not adorned with gold and silver but putting his trust in iron and in courage... The Dictator, as decreed by the senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armour. So the Romans made use of the splendid armour of their enemies to do honour to their gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name Samnites. (Livy 9.40) Quoted in Futrell, 4-5. Livy's account underlines the later theatrical ethos of the gladiator show: splendidly, exotically armed and armoured barbarians, treacherous and degenerate, are dominated by Roman iron and native courage. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 67 84n; Livy's published works are often embellished with illustrative rhetorical detail. His plain Romans virtuously dedicate the magnificent spoils of war to the Gods. Their Campanian allies stage a dinner entertainment using gladiators who may not be Samnites, but play the Samnite role. Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded. Most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome. The velutes and later, the provocatores were exceptions, but as "historicised" rather than contemporary Roman types. See Gladiator types. The munera were a form of historic enactment in which the only honourable option for the gladiator was to fight well, or else die well. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 80-81. Development In 216 BCE Marcus Ameilius Lepidus, late consul and augur, was honoured by his sons with three days of gladiatora munera in the Forum Romanum. This featured twenty-two pairs of gladiators. Welch, 21: citing Livy, 23.30.15. The Aemilii Lepidii were one of the most important families in Rome at the time, and probably owned a gladiator school (ludus). Ten years later, Scipio Africanus gave a commemorative munus in Iberia for his father and uncle, casualties in the Punic Wars. High status non-Romans – and possibly Romans too – volunteered as his gladiators. Futrell, 8-9. The context of the Punic Wars and Rome's near-disastrous defeat at Cannae (216 BCE) link these early games to munificence, the celebration of military victory and the religious expiation of military disaster; these munera appear to serve a morale-raising agenda in an era of military threat and expansion. Futrell, 30. The next recorded munus was more extravagant. In 183 BCE, there were 3 days of funeral games, with 120 gladiators and public distribution of meat (visceratio data), at the funeral of Publius Licinius Livy 39.46.2 – a practice that reflected the gladiatorial fights at Campanian banquets described by Livy and later deplored by Silius Italicus. Silius Italicus quoted in Futrell, 4-5. The enthusiastic adoption of gladiatoria munera by Rome's Iberian allies shows how easily, and how early, the culture of the gladiator munus permeated places far from Rome itself. By 174 BCE 'small' Roman munera (private or public), provided by an editor of relatively low importance, may have been so commonplace and unremarkable they were not considered worth recording: Welch, 21. Many gladiatorial games were given in that year, some unimportant, one noteworthy beyond the rest - that of Titus Flaminius which he gave to commemorate the death of his father, which lasted four days, and was accompanied by a public distribution of meats, a banquet, and scenic performances. The climax of the show which was big for the time was that in three days seventy four gladiators fought. Livy, Annal for the Year 174 BC, as cited in Welch, 21. Gladiators became big business for trainers and owners, for politicians on the make and those who had reached the top. In 105 BCE, the ruling consuls offered Rome its first taste of state-sponsored "barbarian combat" demonstrated by gladiators from Capua, as part of a training program for the military. It proved immensely popular. Weidemann,6-7: citing Valerius Maximus 2.3.2. The ludi (state games), sponsored by the ruling elite and dedicated to the numen of a deity such as Jupiter, a divine or heroic ancestor (and later, during the Imperium, the emperor), Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999), 183. could now compete with privately funded munera for popular support. The "games" and "schools" were both ludi (s.ludus). Peak By the closing years of the politically and socially unstable Late Republic, gladiator games provided their sponsors with extravagantly expensive but effective opportunities for self-promotion while offering cheap, exciting entertainment to their clients. Henrik Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 97. K.M. Coleman, "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments," The Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), 50. Those in power and those seeking it needed the support of the plebians and their tribunes, whose votes might be won with an exceptionally spectacular show (or sometimes even the mere promise of one). Mouritsen, 109-111, 32: approximately 12% of Rome's adult male population could actually vote. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 287. Sulla, during his term as praetor, showed his usual acumen in breaking his own sumptuary laws to give the most lavish munus yet seen in Rome, on occasion of his wife's funeral. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 285. Recreation of a combat between a thraex and murmillo in the Carnuntum Roman ruins. A contemporary inscription credits Carnuntum with having the fourth largest amphitheatre in the Roman Empire. With exceptions, a gladiator fought in two to five bouts a year, with each lasting around 15 minutes Ownership of gladiators or a gladiator school gave muscle and flair to Roman politics. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 287; Caesar brought his Capua-based gladiators to Rome. Futrell, 24; Gladiator gangs were used by Caesar and others to overawe and "persuade". Mouritsen, 61; Gladiators could be enrolled into noble households; some household slaves may have been raised and trained for this. In 65 BCE, newly elected curule aedile Julius Caesar topped Sulla's display with games he justified as munus to his father, who had died twenty years before. Despite an enormous personal debt, he used three hundred and twenty gladiator pairs in silvered armour. Mouritsen, 97; for more detail see Plutarch's Julius Caesar 5.4. He had wanted more but the nervous Senate, mindful of the recent Spartacus revolt, fearful of Caesar's burgeoning private armies and even more fearful of his overwhelming popularity, imposed a limit of 320 pairs as the maximum number of gladiators a citizen could keep in Rome. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 285-287; see also Pliny's Historia Naturalis 33.16.53. Caesar's showmanship was unprecedented not only in scale and expense but in putting aside a Republican tradition of munera as funeral offerings. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 280, 287. The practical differences between ludi and munera were beginning to blur. Wiedemann, 8-10. Gladiatorial games, usually linked with beast shows, spread throughout the Republic and beyond. Welch, 21: Antiochus IV Epiphanes of Greece was keen to upstage his Roman allies, but to save costs, all his gladiators were local volunteers. Anti-corruption laws of 65 and 63 BCE attempted but signally failed to curb their political usefulness to sponsors. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 280: citing Cicero, Lex Tullia Ambitu. Following Caesar's assassination and the civil war, Augustus assumed Imperial authority over the ludi and formalised their provision as a civic and religious duty. Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics," Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome, Amy Richlin, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 184. His revision of sumptuary law claimed to save the Roman elite from the bankruptcies they would otherwise suffer. Munera were restricted to the ludi of Saturnalia and Quinquatria. Wiedemann, 45: citing Cassius Dio 54.2.3-4). The ceiling cost for a praetor's "economical" but official munus of a maximum 120 gladiators was to be 25,000 denarii ($500,000). A "generous" Imperial ludus might cost no less than 180,000 denarii ($3.6 million). Prices in denarii cited in "Venationes," Encyclopaedia Romana US $ equivalents are very approximate, linked to US$ value in 2000CE. Roman prices of wheat, wine and meat imply the as (211 BCE-301 CE) and nummus (301 CE - 475 CE) as equivalent to the US dollar in purchasing power, and by conversion, the denarius at around $10 in 200 BCE, $20 at the height of the munera, and $25 in 300 CE. Throughout the Empire, the greatest and most celebrated games would now be identified with the state-sponsored Imperial cult, which furthered public recognition, respect and approval for the Emperor, his law, and his agents. Roland Auguet, Cruelty and civilization: the Roman games, 1994, 30: Augustus' games each involved an average 625 gladiator pairs. Between 108 and 109 CE, Trajan celebrated his Dacian victories using a reported 10,000 gladiators (and 11,000 animals) over 123 days. Brown, "Death as Decoration," 181: citing Dio Cassius 68.15. The cost of gladiators and munera continued to spiral out of control. Legislation of 177 CE by Marcus Aurelius, which did little to stop it, was completely ignored by his son, Commodus. Futrell,48. The gladiators The trade in gladiators was Empire-wide, and subjected to strict official control. Rome's military success produced an influx of soldier-prisoners who were redistributed for use in State mines or amphitheatres and for sale on the open market. For example, in the aftermath of the Jewish Revolt, the gladiator schools received an influx of Jews – those rejected for training would have been sent straight to the arenas as noxii. Josephus: The Jewish War, 6.418, 7.37-40. Kyle, Spectacles of death in Ancient Rome, 93: noxii were the most obnoxious of criminal categories in Roman law. See "legal and social status" in this article. The best – the most robust – were sent to Rome. The granting of slave status to soldiers who had surrendered or allowed their own capture was regarded as an unmerited gift of life and gladiator training was an opportunity for them to regain their honour in the munus. Futrell, 120-125. Pollice Verso ("With a Turned Thumb"), an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, is a well known historical painter's researched conception of a gladiatorial combat. Two other sources of gladiators, found increasingly during the Principate and the Pax Romana, were slaves condemned to the arena, to gladiator schools or games (ad ludum gladiatorium) Ludus meant both a game and a school. as punishment for crimes, and paid volunteers (auctoratii) who by the late Republic may have comprised approximately half – and possibly the most capable half – of all gladiators. Futrell, 124: see also Cassius Dio's accusation of entrapment by informers to provide "arena slaves" under Claudius. 103: "the best gladiators", citing Petronius, Satyricon, 45. The use of volunteers had a precedent in the Iberian munus of Scipio Africanus; but none of those had been paid. Futrell, 8-9. For Romans, "gladiator" would have meant a schooled fighter, sworn and contracted to a master. For those who were poor or non-citizens, the gladiator schools offered a trade, regular food, housing of sorts and a fighting chance of fame and fortune. Gladiators customarily kept their prize money and any gifts they received. Tiberius offered some retired gladiators 100,000 sesterces for a return to the arena. Suetonius, Lives, Tiberius, 7: Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham. Nero gave the gladiator Spiculus property and residence "equal to those of men who had celebrated triumphs". Suetonius, Lives, Nero, 30: given as an example of Nero's profligacy. Ancient History Sourcebook, Fordham. Marcus Antonius promoted gladiators to his personal guard. Futrell, 129: citing Dio. Female gladiators were also used. Legal and social status Only slaves found guilty of specific offences could be sentenced to the arena. Citizens were legally exempt from this sentence but could be stripped of citizenship and formally declared slaves. Freedmen or freedwomen could be legally reverted to slavery. Brown, 185; offences included arson and theft but above all, treason, such as rebellion, census evasion to avoid paying taxes, and refusal to swear lawful oaths. Andrew Borkowski and Paul du Plessis, Textbook on Roman Law (Oxford: Blackstone Press, 1998), Preface, 81. Offences against the state merited the most humiliating punishments. Coleman, 46. By the 1st century BCE, offenders judged to be noxii – obnoxious to the state – were being condemned to the beasts (damnati ad bestias) in the arena, with almost no chance of survival, or were made to kill each other. Weidemann, 40-6. From the early Imperial era, some were forced to participate in humiliating and novel forms of mythological or historical enactment, culminating in their execution. Coleman, 71. Brown, 185; Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 4.13. Offenders judged less harshly might be condemned ad ludum venatorium or ad gladiatorium – combat with animals or gladiators, in which they were armed as thought appropriate. These damnati at least might put on a good show and retrieve some respect. They might even – and occasionally did – survive to fight another day. Some may even have become "proper" gladiators. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 94: survival and "promotion" would have been extremely rare for damnatii – and unheard of for noxii – notwithstanding Aulus Gellius' tale of Androcles. Modern customs and institutions offer few useful parallels to the legal and social context which defined the gladiatoria munera Borkowski and Plessis, 80. Under law, anyone condemned to the arena or the gladiator schools (ad ludem) was a servus poenae under sentence of death unless manumitted. Borkowski and Plessis; manumission was seldom absolute. Terms of release were negotiated between master and slave; Digests 28.3.6.5-6 & 48.19.8.11-12. A rescript of Hadrian reminded magistrates that "those sentenced to the sword" should be despatched immediately "or at least within the year". Those sentenced to the ludi should not be discharged before five years or three years if awarded manumission. Futrell, 123: citing Ulpian, 8th book of Proconsular Functions, CMRL 11.7. The phenomenon of the "volunteer" gladiator is more problematic. All contracted volunteers, including those of equestrian and senatorial class, were legally enslaved by their auctoratio because it involved their potentially lethal submission to a master. Futrell, 157. Nor does the citizen or free volunteer's "professional" status translate into modern terms. All arenario (those who appeared in the arena) were "infames by reputation", a form of social dishonour which excluded them from most of the advantages and rights of citizenship. Payment for such appearances compounded their infamia. Bill Thayer, Trans. Smith: Roman Law – Infamia." The legal and social status of even the most popular auctoritatii was thus marginal at best. They could not vote, plead in court nor leave a will; unless they were manumitted, their lives and property belonged to their masters. Futrell, 131: citing Tertullian, De Speculates, 22 Nevertheless there is evidence of informal if not entirely lawful practices to the contrary. Some "unfree" gladiators bequeathed money and personal property to wives and children, possibly via a sympathetic owner or familia; some had slaves and gave them their freedom. Futrell, 86-7: citing Plutarch, Moral Essays, 1099B. One gladiator was even granted "citizenship" to several Greek cities of the Eastern Roman world. Carter, 52-6. The most admired auctoratii – those who had re-enlisted following manumission Brown, 186. – may have had little practical choice. Under Roman law, a former gladiator could not "offer such services [as those of a gladiator] after manumission, because they cannot be performed without endangering [his] life." D.38.1.38 pr in Borkowski and Plessis, 95. Caesar's munus of 46 BCE included at least one equestrian, son of a Praetor, and possibly two senatorial volunteers. Barton, 25: citing Dio, 43.23.4-5. Suetonius, Caesar, 39.1 adds the two Senators. Under Augustus, senators and equestrians and their descendants were formally excluded from the infamia of association with the arena and its personnel (arenario). However some magistrates – and some later Emperors – tacitly or openly condoned such transgressions and some volunteers were prepared to embrace the resulting loss of status. Some did so for payment, some for military glory and – in one recorded case – for personal honour. Futrell, 153, 156. Under Caligula, participation by men and women of senatorial rank may have been encouraged, and sometimes enforced; Cassius Dio, 59.10, 13-14 & Tacitus Caligula, 15.32. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 115-6 (note 102) In 11 CE Augustus, who enjoyed the games, bent his own rules and allowed equestrians to volunteer because "the prohibition was no use". Barton, 25: citing Dio, 56.25.7. Under Tiberius, the Larinum decree David Potter, trans., "The Senatus Consultum from Larinium." (19 CE) reiterated the laws which Augustus himself had waived. Thereafter Caligula flouted them and Claudius strengthened them. Nero and Commodus ignored them. Valentinian II, some hundreds of years later, protested against the same infractions and repeated similar laws. Futrell, 153: citing Cassius Dio, 62.17.3. For Caligula's extraordinary behaviour as editor, see Cassius Dio, 59.10, 13-14 & Tacitus Caligula, 15.32. Valentinian/Theodosius 15.9.1: Symacchus, Relatio, 8.3. One very notable, social renegade was an aristocratic descendant of the Gracchi, infamous for his marriage (as a bride) to a male horn player. He voluntarily and "shamelessly" fought not only as a lowly retiarius tunicatus but in woman's attire and a conical hat adorned with gold ribbon. In Juvenal's account, he seems to have relished the scandalous self-display and applause. Barton, 26: citing Juvenal 8.199ff. Emperors as "gladiators" Caligula, Titus, Hadrian, Lucius Verus, Caracalla, Geta and Didius Julianus were all said to have performed in the arena (either in public or private) but risks to themselves were minimal. Barton, 66. Claudius – characterised by his historians as morbidly cruel and boorish – fought a whale trapped in the harbor in front of a group of spectators. Robin Fox, The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian (New York: Basic Books, 2006), 576: citing Pliny. Commentators invariably disapproved of such performances. Futrell, 158. Commodus was a fanatical participant at the ludi. He fought as a secutor, styling himself "Hercules Reborn". As a bestiarius he was said to have killed 100 lions in one day. On another occasion, he decapitated a running ostrich with a specially designed dart, carried the bloodied head and his sword over to the Senatorial seats and gesticulated as though they were next. Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume I (New York: Penguin, 1995), 118. He was said to have restyled Nero's colossal statue in his own image as "Hercules Reborn" and re-dedicated it to himself as "Champion of secutores; only left-handed fighter to conquer twelve times one thousand men." For this, he drew a gigantic stipend from the public purse. Cassius Dio, Commodus, 73 (epitome) at Thayer: . He was posthumously declared a public enemy but later deified. Perhaps to explain both his obsession and administrative incompetence, gossips suggested that his mother, Faustina the Younger, had conceived him with a gladiator. Futrell, 147: citing Historia Augusta, Marcus Antoninus, in which Faustina's sexual preference for "rough types" is described as "reasonably well known". Schools and training Model of Rome's Great Gladiatorial Training School (Ludus Magnus). The earliest named gladiator school (s. ludus; pl. ludi) is that of Aurelius Scaurus, the lanista at Capua, in Campania. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the ancient world, 238; circa 105 BCE. Lanistae were head of their familia gladiatoria, with legal power over life and death of every family member, including servii poenae, auctoratii and ancillaries. They were infames, on a social footing with pimps and butchers and despised as price gougers. Futrell, 85, 149. Auget, 31. No such stigma attached to a gladiator owner (munerarius or editor) of good family, high status and independent means. Futrell, 137-8: citing Digest 3.1.1.6: Ulpian, Edict, Book 6. Cicero congratulated his friend Atticus on buying a splendid troop: if he rented them out, he might recover their entire cost after two performances. Cicero, Letters, 10. Following the Spartacus Revolt and the political exploitation of munera, legislation progressively restricted the ownership, siting and organisation of the schools. By Domitian's time, many had been more or less absorbed by the State, including those at Pergamum, Alexandria, Praeneste and Capua. Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the ancient world, 285-7, 312: this had probably began under Augustus. The city of Rome itself had four; the Ludus Magnus (the largest and most important, housing up to about 2,000 gladiators), Ludus Dacicus, Ludus Gallicus, and the Ludus Matutinus, which trained bestiarii. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 1998, 80. Volunteers required a magistrate's permission to join a school as auctoritatii. Futrell, 103: citing Petronius Satyricon, 45. 133. If this was granted, the school's physician assessed their suitability. Their contract (auctoramentum) stipulated how often they were to perform, their fighting style and earnings. A condemned bankrupt or debtor accepted as novicius could negotiate for partial or complete debt payment by his lanista or editor. Faced with runaway re-enlistment fees for skilled auctoratii, Marcus Aurelius set their upper limit at 12,000 sesterces. Futrell, 133. See also Tiberius' inducement to re-enlist. Those condemned ad ludus were probably branded or marked with tattoos (stigma) on the face, legs and/or hands. Their stigma may have been text – habitually fugitive slaves were marked thus on the forehead until Constantine banned facial stigma in 325 CE. Soldiers were marked on the hand. Jones, C.P. "Stigma": tattooing and branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity, Journal of Roman Studies, 1987, 77, 139-55: facial stigma represented extreme social degredation. All prospective gladiators swore the same oath (sacramentum). Petronius, Satyricon, 117: "He vows to endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword." Novices (novicii) trained under teachers of particular fighting styles, probably retired gladiators. Futrell, 138. They could ascend through a hierarchy of grades (s. palus) in which primus palus was the highest. palus: named after the training poles, 6 Roman feet high, erected in the training arena. Lethal weapons were prohibited in the schools – weighted, blunt wooden versions were probably used. Fighting styles were probably learned through constant rehearsal as choreographed "numbers". An elegant, economical style was preferred. Training included preparation for a stoical, unflinching death. Successful training required intense commitment. Futrell, 137, citing Quintilian, Oratorical Institute, 5.13.54: 140, citing Cicero, Tuscullan Disputations 2.17: 139, citing Epictetus, Discourse 3.15. Gladiators were accommodated in cells typically arranged in barrack formation around a central practice arena. Juvenal describes the segregation of gladiators according to type and status, suggestive of rigid hierarchies within the schools: "even the lowest scum of the arena observe this rule; even in prison they're separate". Retiarii were kept away from damnatii, and "fag targeteers" from "armoured heavies". As most ordinarii at games were from the same school, this kept potential opponents separate and safe from each other until the lawful munus. Futrell, 142: citing Juvenal, Satire 6 [Oxford Fragment 7.13]. Discipline could be extreme, even lethal Welch, 17: the burning alive of a soldier who refused to become an auctoratus at a Spanish school in 43BCE is exceptional only because he was a citizen, technically exempt from such compulsion and penalty. . Of the two schools identified at Pompeii (one built on the remains of the other), the first could cater for 15–20 gladiators. Its replacement could have housed about 100 and included a very small cell, probably for lesser punishments and so low that standing was impossible. Futrell, 148-9. Despite the harsh discipline, gladiators represented a substantial investment for their lanista and were otherwise well cared for. Their high-energy, vegetarian diet combined barley, boiled beans, oatmeal, ash (believed to help fortify the body) and dried fruit. Compared to modern athletes, they were probably overweight, but this may have "protected their vital organs from the cutting blows of their opponents". The same research suggests they may have fought barefoot. Andrew Curry, Archaeology (abstract),6, 6, Nov-Dec 2008, (accessed 21 March 2009) Gladiators were sometimes called hordearii ("eaters of barley)". Romans considered barley inferior to wheat - a punishment for legionaries replaced their wheat ration with it - but it was thought to strengthen the body and lay on subcutaneous fat. John Follain, Times Online, 15th Dec 2002, (accessed 24 March 2009).The dying game: How did the gladiators really live? Regular massage and high quality medical care helped mitigate an otherwise very severe training regime. Part of Galen's medical training was at a gladiator school in Pergamum where he saw (and would later criticise) the training, diet, and long term health prospects of the gladiators. Futrell, 141-2. Michael Carter, "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective," Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 42, (2004). Combat In early munera, death was considered the proper outcome of combat. Later, known gladiators often fought in matches advertised sine missione (without release [from the sentence of death]), which suggests that missione had become common by that time. The contract between editor and lanista could include compensation for unexpected deaths. Futrell, 141. Later, as the demand for gladiators began to exceed supply, there was an official Augustan ban on matches sine missione, a pragmatic decision that also happened to reflect popular demands for "natural justice". Refusals by Caligula and Claudius to spare popular but defeated fighters did nothing to boost their own popularity. In most circumstances, a popular gladiator who fought well was likely to be spared. Futrell, 144-5: citing Suetonius, Lives; Augustus 45, Caligula, 30, Claudius, 34. Spectators expected a legitimate and definite conclusion to the munus. By common custom, it was left to the spectators to decide whether or not a losing gladiator should be spared and they also decided the winner in a "standing tie", though the latter was rare. Futrell, 101. Even more rarely – perhaps uniquely – a stalemate ended in the killing of one gladiator by the editor himself. Futrell, 102: based on stylised mosaic evidence from Symmachius: this editor is praised by spectators for "doing the right thing". Most matches employed a senior referee (summa rudis) and an assistant, shown in mosaics with long staffs (rudes) to caution or separate opponents at some crucial point in the match. A gladiator's self-acknowledged defeat – signaled by a raised finger (ad digitum) – told the referee to stop the combat and refer to the editor, whose decision would usually rest on the crowd's mood. During the match, referees exercised judgement and discretion; they could pause bouts to allow combatants rest, refreshment and a "rub-down". Futrell, 101: based on mosaics and a Pompeian tomb relief. Mosaic at the National Archaeological Museum in Madrid showing a retiarius named Kalendio (shown surrendering in the upper section) fighting a secutor named Astyanax. The Ø sign by Kalendio's name implies he was killed after surrendering. The number of combats fought by gladiators was extremely variable. Most fought at two or three munera annually but an unknown number died in their first match. Up to 150 combats are recorded for a very few individuals. Futrell, 145. A single bout probably lasted between 10–15 minutes, or 20 at most. Potter and Matingly, 313: a lightly armed and armoured fighter would tire less rapidly than their heavily armed opponent. Spectators preferred well matched ordinarii with complementary fighting styles but other combinations are found, such as several gladiators fighting together or the serial replacement of a match loser by a new gladiator, who would fight the winner. Kyle, Sport and spectacle in the Ancient World, 313-4. Victors received the palm branch and an award from the editor. An outstanding fighter might receive a laurel crown and money from an appreciative crowd but for anyone originally condemned ad ludi the greatest reward was manumission, symbolised by the gift of a wooden training sword or staff (rudis) from the editor. Martial describes a match between Priscus and Verus, who fought so evenly and bravely for so long that when both acknowledged defeat at the same instant, Titus awarded victory and a rudis to each. Martial, Liber de Spectaculis, 29 Flamma was awarded the rudis four times, but chose to remain a gladiator. His gravestone in Sicily includes his record: "Flamma, secutor, lived 30 years, fought 34 times, won 21 times, fought to a draw 9 times, defeated 4 times, a Syrian by nationality. Delicatus made this for his deserving comrade-in-arms." Kyle, Sport and spectacle in the Ancient World, 112: citing Robert. Outline of the games Surviving contemporary accounts of games and matches were written by members of Rome's elite to illustrate a point or to celebrate the exceptional. Susan Mattern, Rome and the Enemy: imperial strategy in the Principate, 1999, 2. They provide very little substance for accurate reconstruction or generalisation but an outline of games can be conjectured, using written histories, contemporary accounts, statuary, ephemera, memorabilia and stylised pictographic evidence. Almost all comes from the late republic and Empire, much of it from Pompeii. Brown, 181. Futrell, 43. The earliest munera took place at or near the tomb of the deceased and these were organised by their munerator (who made the offering). Later games were held by an editor, either identical with the munerator or an official employed by him. As time passed these titles and meanings may have merged. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 1998 80 From the Principate onwards, private citizens could personally fund gladiatorial munera with Imperial permission and the assistance of a lanista but an editor increasingly tended to be a state official. For small-town games, from Claudius onwards, quaestors, the lowest rank of Roman magistrate, were obliged to fund two thirds of the costs from personal sources. In effect, a part-purchase of office. Bigger games were put on by senior magistrates who could better afford them but the largest and most lavish were paid for by the emperor himself. Weidemann, 440-6. Futrell, 43. Augustan legislation – or custom – standardised the munus as a munus legitimum. This combined venationes (animal fights or animal hunts) in the morning: the brief Ludi meridiani at midday and gladiatores in the afternoon. Welch, 23. Futrell, 84. Games were advertised beforehand on conspicuously displayed billboards, giving the reason for the game, its editor, venue, date and the number of paired gladiators (ordinarii) to be used. Highlighted features were included, such as venationes, executions, music and any luxuries to be provided for the spectators; these might include a decorated awning against the sun, and water sprinklers. Food, drink, sweets and occasionally "door prizes" could be offered. A more detailed program (libellus) was prepared for the day of the munus to show the names, types and match records of gladiator pairs (of interest to gamblers) and their order of appearance. Copies of the libellus were distributed among the crowd on the day of the match. Futrell, 85, 101, 110: based on fragmentary Pompeian remains and citing Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 19.23-25. Left-handed gladiators were advertised as an interesting rarity on libelli; they were trained to fight right-handers, which gave them advantage over most opponents and produced an interestingly unorthodox combination. Gladiators: Heroes of the Roman Amphitheatre (fighting styles) BBC The night before the munus, those listed to fight were given a banquet, which was also an opportunity to order their personal and private affairs; Futrell notes its similarity to a ritualistic "last meal". “Even among the gladiators, I see those who… find greater pleasure in freeing their slaves, and commending their wives to their friends, than in satisfying their appetites.” Plutarch, Moral Essays 1099B: fully cited in Futrell, 86-7: . These were probably both family and public events which included even the noxii and damnatii and they may have been used to drum up more publicity for the coming match. Potter and Mattingly, 313. Futrell, 86: gladiatorial banquet on mosaic, El Djem. The day of the munus began with venationes (beast hunts) and bestiari (beast fighting) gladiators. Sometimes beasts were unharmed and simply exhibited. Futrell, 88. The content of ludi meridiani was variable, but usually involved executions of noxii (sometimes as "mythological" re-enactments) or others condemned (damnatii) to the arena. Futrell, 91. Gladiators may have been involved in these though the crowd – and the gladiators themselves – preferred the "dignity" of an even contest. Futrell, 94-5, citing Seneca: On Providence, 3.4. There were also comedy fights. A crude Pompeian graffito suggests a burlesque of musicians, dressed as animals named Ursus tibicen (flute-playing bear) and Pullus cornicen (horn-blowing chicken), perhaps as accompaniment to clowning by paegniarii during a mock contest of the ludi meridiani. Stephen Wisdom and Angus McBride, Gladiators: 100 BC-AD 200, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2001. 18: author's drawing). Pompeian tomb evidence shows the munus as a civic and religious rite sponsored by a magistrate as editor. A procession (pompa) entered the arena led by the editors lictors bearing fasces to signify his power over life and death. They were followed by a small band of tubicines playing a fanfare. Images of the gods were carried in to sanctify the pompa, followed by a scribe (to record the outcome) and a man carrying the palm branch used to honour victors. The editor entered among a retinue who carried the arms and armour to be used; more musicians followed then horses. The gladiators presumably came in last. Futrell, 85. "Warm-up" matches were probably fought before the main events, using blunted weapons – some munera may have used blunted weapons throughout. Carter, 43, 46-9. In the Eastern provinces of the later Imperium, the state archiereis combined the roles of editor, Imperial cult priest and lanista, giving gladiatoria munera in which the use of sharp weapons seems an exceptional honour. The editor (or his honoured representative) would check the weapons (probatio armorum) for the "real" matches. Marcus Aurelius encouraged the use of blunted weapons: in Cassius Dio, Roman History, Bill Thayer, (Loeb), 71.29.4. These were the highlight of the day - as inventive, varied and novel as the editor could afford. Armatures could be very costly – some were flamboyantly decorated with exotic feathers, jewels and precious metals. Increasingly the munus was the editor'''s gift to spectators who had come to expect the best as their due. Futrell, 99-100. Weidemann, 14. In late Republican munera, between 10 and 13 pairs could have fought on one day; this assumes one match at a time in the course of an afternoon. Potter and Mattingly, 313. The Zilten mosaic in Libya (ca 80–100 CE) shows musicians in context of a provincial ludus (gladiators, bestiari, or venatores and prisoners attacked by beasts). Their instruments are a long straight trumpet (tubicen), a large curved horn (Cornu) and a water organ (hydraulis). Wiedemann, 15-16. Similar representations (musicians, gladiators and bestiari) are found on a tomb relief in Pompeii. Wiedemann, 15; citing Kraus and von Matt, Pompei and Herculaneum, New York, 1975, Fig. 53. Factions and rivals The Amphitheatre at Pompeii, depicting the riot between the Nucerians and the Pompeians. Popular factions of the munera (and ludi) are described throughout the Imperial era. Examples include Martial, Epigrams 14, 213; Suetonius, Caligula. Under Augustan legislation, the Samnite type was renamed secutor (equipped with an oblong or "large" shield), whose supporters were secutarii. Also scutarii or secutoriani. . As the games evolved, any lightly armed, defensive fighter could be included in this group. The heavily armoured and armed Thracian types (Thraex) and Murmillo, who fought with smaller shields, were parmularii (small shield), as were their supporters. Trajan preferred the parmularii and Domitian the secutarii; Marcus Aurelius took neither side. Nero seems to have enjoyed the brawls between rowdy, enthusiastic and sometimes violent factions, but called in the troops if they went too far. Futrell, 105. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 111. Once a band of five retiarii in tunics, matched against the same number of secutores, yielded without a struggle; but when their death was ordered, one of them caught up his trident and slew all the victors. Caligula bewailed this in a public proclamation as a most cruel murder. Suetonius, Lives, Caligula, 30.3. There were also local rivalries. At a Pompeian ludus, trading of insults between Pompeians and Nucerians led to stone throwing and riot. Many were killed or wounded. Nero banned gladiator munerae (though not the games) at Pompeii for ten years as punishment. The story is told in graffiti and high quality wall painting, with much boasting of Pompeii's "victory" over Nuceria. Futrell, 107-8: see also Tacitus, Annals, 14.17 Amphitheatres Most spectators would have witnessed gladiator fights in the arenas or amphitheatres built throughout the Republic and later, the Empire. The English arena derives from Latin harena (sand, sand-strewn place of combat). The Colosseum in Rome, Italy. A photograph of the best known Roman era amphitheatre taken in the early evening. Gladiatorial combats were the main event and usually held around this time of day.Early munera were probably private affairs, and offered limited visibility for non-privileged spectators. As these events became larger, open spaces such as the Forum Romanum were adapted (as the Forum Boarium had been) as venues in Rome and elsewhere, with temporary, elevated seating for the patron and high status spectators. These were not truly public events: A show of gladiators was to be exhibited before the people in the market-place, and most of the magistrates erected scaffolds round about, with an intention of letting them for advantage. Caius commanded them to take down their scaffolds, that the poor people might see the sport without paying anything. But nobody obeying these orders of his, he gathered together a body of labourers, who worked for him, and overthrew all the scaffolds the very night before the contest was to take place. So that by the next morning the market-place was cleared, and the common people had an opportunity of seeing the pastime. In this, the populace thought he had acted the part of a man; but he much disobliged the tribunes his colleagues, who regarded it as a piece of violent and presumptuous interference. Plutarch, Caius Gracchus, 12.3-4 (Translation from The Internet Classics Archive). Towards the end of the Republic, Cicero (Murena 72–3) still describes these shows as ticketed - their usefulness was served by inviting the rural tribunes of the plebs, not the people of Rome en masse - but in Imperial times, poor citizens in receipt of the corn dole were allocated free seating, possibly by lottery. Mouritsen, Henrik. Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic. (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001) 82 Others had to pay. Ticket scalpers (Locarii) sometimes sold or let out seats at inflated prices. Martial wrote that "Hermes [a gladiator who always drew the crowds] means riches for the ticket scalpers". Futrell, 136: citing Martial, Epigrams, 5.24) The amphitheatre was the one place in which the execution of justice was uniquely visible to all classes, and in which all classes were mutually visible. Its layout separated and distanced them from the "pollution" of the arena. It was also one of the few places in which crowd and editor could assess each others character and temperament, and freely express their mutual pleasure or displeasure – for most spectators, a unique opportunity (theatralis licentia). Petitions could be submitted to the editor (as magistrate) in full view. Factiones and claques could vent their spleen on each other, and occasionally on Emperors. A measure of Titus' enormous popularity was the dignified yet confident ease in his management of an amphitheatre crowd and its factions. The amphitheatre munus thus served the Roman community as a court in miniature. Brown, 184-185: Emperors who disliked munera were thus obliged to attend them. Futrell, 37-42, 105. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 3. Yet permanent amphitheatres appeared long after the munera had become an established part of Roman life. The blocking of earlier provision for permanent venues reflected genuine unease, not simply at political graft but at the erosion of public morals that must arise from frequent and excessively "luxurious" munera Appian, BC 128: Livy Per. 48. Pompeii's first amphitheatre was built by Sullan colonists around 70 BCE. Welch, 197: citing CIL X.852. The first in the city of Rome was the extraordinary wooden Amphitheatre of Gaius Scribonius Curio (built 53 BCE). (Potter and Mattingly, 226; citing Pliny the Elder 36.117. The first part-stone amphitheatre in Rome was inaugurated in 29–30 BCE, in time for the triple triumph of Octavian (later Augustus). Potter and Mattingly, 226; see also Pliny, Natural History, 36. 113-5. It was commissioned by T. Statilius Taurus. According to Pliny, its three storeys were marble-clad, housed 3,000 bronze statues and seated 80,000 spectators. It was probably wooden-framed in part. Shortly after it burned down in 64 CE, Vespasian began its replacement, later known as the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum), which seated 50,000 spectators and would remain the largest in the Empire. It was inaugurated by Titus in 80 CE, the personal gift of the Emperor to the people of Rome, paid for by the Imperial share of booty after the Jewish Revolt. Mattern, 151-2. Roman arena at Arles, inside view. Amphitheatres also provided a potential model for social control. Seating was "disorderly and indiscriminate" until Augustus prescribed its arrangement in his Social Reforms. To persuade the Senate, he expressed his distress on behalf of a Senator who could not find seating at a crowded games in Puteoli: In consequence of this the senate decreed that, whenever any public show was given anywhere, the first row of seats should be reserved for senators; and at Rome he would not allow the envoys of the free and allied nations to sit in the orchestra, since he was informed that even freedmen were sometimes appointed. He separated the soldiery from the people. He assigned special seats to the married men of the commons, to boys under age their own section and the adjoining one to their preceptors; and he decreed that no one wearing a dark cloak should sit in the middle of the house. He would not allow women to view even the gladiators except from the upper seats, though it had been the custom for men and women to sit together at such shows. Only the Vestal virgins were assigned a place to themselves, opposite the praetor's tribunal. Suetonius, Lives, Augustus 44) These arrangements do not seem to have been strongly enforced. Futrell, 105. Death, disposal, and remembrance The proximity of death defined the munus for all concerned. To die well, a gladiator should never ask for mercy, nor cry out. Futrell, 140: citing Cicero, Tuscullan Disputations, 2.17. A "good death" redeemed a defeated gladiator from the dishonourable weakness and passivity of defeat, and provided a noble example to those who watched: Weidemann, 38-9. For death, when it stands near us, gives even to inexperienced men the courage not to seek to avoid the inevitable. So the gladiator, no matter how faint-hearted he has been throughout the fight,offers his throat to his opponent and directs the wavering blade to the vital spot. (Seneca, Epistles, 30.8) Some Mosaics show defeated gladiators kneeling in preparation for the moment of death. Seneca's "vital spot" seems to have meant the neck. Edwards, 66-7. Gladiator remains from Ephesus confirm this. Archaeology (abstract): Andrew Curry. (accessed 21 March 2009): marks on the bones of several suggest a sword thrust into the base of the throat and down towards the heart: : After the death of a gladiator in combat, an attendant dressed as Charon – or as Dis Pater – struck the head with a mallet. Another dressed as Mercury tested for life-signs with a heated "wand". Kyle describes two forms of removal from the arena. The body might be honourably carried on a "couch of Libitina" through the Libitinarian Gate, or dishonourably dragged through it with hooks, as a polluted object, by "Mercury". Tertullian also has a priest offer the fallen gladiator's blood to Jupiter Latiaris. Attendants strewed fresh sand, or simply raked it, at the spot where the gladiator had died. The gladiator's armour was stripped and the body removed to the amphitheatre morgue where the throat was cut, probably to prove he was truly dead. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 155-168: Dis Pater and Jupiter Latiaris rituals in Tertullian, Ad Nationes, 1.10.47. Few gladiators survived more than 10 matches or lived past the age of 30. One (Felix) is known to have lived to 45 and one retired gladiator lived on to 90. George Ville calculated an average age at death at 27 for gladiators (based on headstone evidence), with mortality "among all who entered the arena" around the 1st century CE at 19/100. A rise in the risk of death for losers, from 1/5 to 1/4 between the early and later Imperial periods, seems to suggest missio was granted less often. Futrell, 144: citing Ville Marcus Junkelmann disputes Ville's calculation for average age at death; the majority would have received no headstone, and would have died early in their careers, at 18–25 years of age. Death and disposal perpetuated the divisions and judgements of society. In the pre-Christian era, the highest status funerals involved expensive, prolonged cremation ceremonies, sometimes complete with a munus offering. At the opposite extreme, the noxii (and possibly other damnatii) could be thrown into rivers or dumped unburied. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 14, and note 74 contextualises Juvenal's panem et circenses – bread and "circuses" as a sop to the politically apathetic plebs (Satires, 4.10) – within an account of the death and damnatio of Sejanus, whose body was torn to pieces by the crowd and left unburied. This extended their damnatio beyond death into perpetual oblivion and their shade (manes) to restless wandering upon the earth. Suetonius has the populace wish Tiberius' body to be thrown in the Tiber, or left unburied, or "dragged with the hook", as a form of posthumous damnatio. Suetonius, Lives, Tiberius, 75. All others – citizens, slaves or free – were usually buried beyond the town or city limits to avoid the ritual and physical pollution of their community. Gladiators were segregated in separate cemeteries. Even for those whose death had been honourable, the taint of infamia was perpetual. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 128-159. Memorials were a major expense, and testify only to those who prospered. Gladiators could subscribe to a union (collegia) which ensured proper burial, with compensation for wives and children. The gladiator's familia or one of its members (including lanistae, comrades, wives and children) sometimes paid. Futrell, 149-53, 133: The single name form on a gladiator memorial probably indicates a slave, two a freedman or discharged auctoratus and the very rare "tria nomina" a freedman or a full Roman citizen. See also vroma.org Tomb inscriptions from the Eastern Empire include these brief examples: <blockquote> "The familia set this up in memory of Saturnilos." "For Nikepharos, son of Synetos, Lakedaimonian, and for Narcissus the secutor. Titus Flavius Satyrus set up this monument in his memory from his own money." "For Hermes. Paitraeites with his cell-mates set this up in memory". Futrell, 149: citing Robert, #'s 24, 12, & 109. </blockquote> The hand of Nemesis absolved a gladiator from the ignominy of defeat, and his memorial maintained his virtus in perpetuity as a skilled fighter, worth avenging: "I, Victor, left-handed, lie here, but my homeland was in Thessalonica. Doom killed me, not the liar Pinnas. No longer let him boast. I had a fellow gladiator, Polyneikes, who killed Pinnas and avenged me. Claudius Thallus set up this memorial from what I left behind as a legacy." Futrell, 149: citing Robert #34. Gladiators in Roman life Gladiators and the military A man who knows how to conquer in war is a man who knows how to arrange a banquet and put on a show. Livy, 45, 32-3 Rome was essentially a landowning military aristocracy. From the early days of the Republic, ten years of military service were a citizen's duty and a prerequisite for election to public office. Devotio (willingness to sacrifice one’s life to the greater good) was central to the Roman military ideal, and was the core of the Roman military oath. As a soldier swore to give his life (voluntarily, at least in theory) for Rome's victory, he was not expected to survive defeat. Catherine Edwards, Death in Ancient Rome (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007), 19-45 Livy, 22.51.5-8, has wounded Romans at Cannae stretch out their necks for the death blow by comrades: cf Cicero's death in Seneca, Suasoriae, 6.17. The Punic wars of the late 3rd century BCE – in particular the near-catastrophic defeat of Roman arms at Cannae – had long lasting effects on the Republic, its citizen armies, and the development of the gladiatorial munera. In the aftermath of Cannae, Scipio Africanus crucified Roman deserters; non-Roman deserters were thrown to the beasts. Welch, 17. The Senate refused to ransom Hannibal's Roman captives: instead, they made drastic preparations: In obedience to the Books of Destiny, some strange and unusual sacrifices were made, human sacrifices amongst them. A Gaulish man and a Gaulish woman and a Greek man and a Greek woman were buried alive under the Forum Boarium... They were lowered into a stone vault, which had on a previous occasion also been polluted by human victims, a practice most repulsive to Roman feelings. When the gods were believed to be duly propitiated... Armour, weapons, and other things of the kind were ordered to be in readiness, and the ancient spoils gathered from the enemy were taken down from the temples and colonnades. The dearth of freemen necessitated a new kind of enlistment; 8,000 sturdy youths from amongst the slaves were armed at the public cost, after they had each been asked whether they were willing to serve or no. These soldiers were preferred, as there would be an opportunity of ransoming them when taken prisoners at a lower price. Livy 22.55-57. By the devotio of a voluntary oath, a slave might achieve the quality of a Roman (Romanitas), become the embodiment of true virtus (manliness, or manly virtue), and paradoxically, be granted missio while remaining a slave. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 3. The account notes – uncomfortably – the proximity of recent human sacrifice. While the Senate mustered their willing slaves, Hannibal offered his dishonoured Roman captives a chance for honourable death, in what Livy describes as something very like the Roman munus. The munus was thus an essentially military, self-sacrificial ideal, taken to extreme fulfillment in the gladiator's oath. Petronius, Satyricon, 117: "He vows to endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword." The gladiator as a specialist fighter, and the ethos and organization of the gladiator schools, would inform the development of the Roman military as the most effective force of its time. Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), 15 Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the ancient world, 274. In 107 BCE the Marian Reform established the Roman army as a professional body. Two years later, following its defeat at Arausio: ...weapons training was given to soldiers by P. Rutilius, consul with C. Mallis. For he, following the example of no previous general, with teachers summoned from the gladiatorial training school of C. Aurelus Scaurus, implanted in the legions a more sophisticated method of avoiding and dealing a blow and mixed bravery with skill and skill back again with virtue so that skill became stronger by bravery's passion and passion became more wary with the knowledge of this art. Weidemann,6-7: citing Valerius Maximus 2.3.2. The military were great aficionados of the games, and supervised the schools. Many schools and amphitheatres were sited at or near military barracks, and some provincial army units owned gladiator troupes. Weidemann, 45. As the Republic wore on, the term of military service increased from ten to the sixteen years formalised by Augustus in the Principate. It would rise to twenty, and later, to twenty five years. Roman military discipline was ferocious; severe enough to provoke mutiny, despite the consequences. A career as a volunteer gladiator may have seemed an attractive option for some. Mattern, 126-8: citing Tacitus, Annals 1.17. In the Year of the Four Emperors, Otho's troops at Bedriacum included 2000 gladiators. Opposite him on the field, Vitellius's army was swollen by levies of slaves, plebs and gladiators. Mattern, 87: citing Cassius Dio, 72, 73.2.3. In 167 CE, troop depletions by plague and desertion may have prompted Marcus Aurelius to draft gladiators at his own expense. Gladiators do not seem to have made good field soldiers – their enrollment should be seen as an act of desperation. Mattern, 87. During the Civil Wars that led to the Principate, Octavian (later Augustus) acquired the personal gladiator troop of his erstwhile opponent, Marcus Antonius. They had served their late master with exemplary loyalty but were quietly disposed of. They were, after all, infames. Futrell, 129: citing Dio. Ethics, morals, and sentiment Roman writing as a whole demonstrates a deep ambivalence towards the gladiatoria munera. For Silius Italicus, the Campanians had set the very worst of precedents, which threatened the moral fabric of Rome: "It was their custom to enliven their banquets with bloodshed and to combine with their feasting the horrid sight of armed men fighting; often the combatants fell dead above the very cups of the revelers, and the tables were stained with streams of blood. Thus demoralised was Capua." Silius Italicus, 11.51: cited in Welch, 3. Death inflicted without moral purpose was ignoble, and might pollute and demean those who witnessed it. Brown, 185: Tacitus, Annals, 15.44 describes the adverse public reactions to Nero's punishment of Christians through personal cruelty, rather than for the public good. The increasing luxuria of munera corroded Roman virtue by encouraging un-Roman profligacy. Futrell, 4: Roman commentators associated munera with Capua's proverbial luxury and excess. Caesar's 46 BCE ludi were hardly justifed as munus after a 20 year interval since his father's death, in which case they were mere entertainment for political gain. Dio claimed to represent the voices of the Roman street; Caesar's munus was a waste of lives – and all that money would be better spent on handouts to needy army veterans. Cassius Dio, 43.24. Yet for Seneca, and for Marcus Aurelius – both professed Stoics – the degradation of gladiators in the munus highlighted their Stoic virtues – their unconditional obedience to their master and to fate, and equanimity in the face of death. They had "neither hope nor illusions". Barton, 16. Seneca had a lower opinion of the mob's un-Stoical appetite for ludi meridiani: "Man [is]... now slaughtered for jest and sport; and those whom it used to be unholy to train for the purpose of inflicting and enduring wounds are thrust forth exposed and defenceless." Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 3. The co-option of munera by the state was seen as inevitable. Cicero protested that "everyone" was fed up with them, but acknowledged their sponsorship as a political imperative. Futrell, 16: citing Cicero, Letters to friends: 2.3. Despite his contempt for the mob, he shared their admiration for the gladiators: "Even when they have been felled, let alone when they are standing and fighting, they never disgrace themselves. And suppose a gladiator has been brought to the ground, when do you ever see one twist his neck away after he has been ordered to extend it for the death blow?" His own death would later emulate this example. Cicero's admiration: Tusculan Disputations, 2.41. Barton, 39: citing Seneca, Suasoriae, 6.17. for Cicero's death. Courage, dignity, altruism and loyalty were redemptive. In this spirit, Lucian tells the story of Sisinnes, who volunteered to fight as a gladiator to earn the 10,000 drachmas needed to buy freedom for his friend, Toxaris. Futrell, 154: citing Lucian, Toxaris: 58-59. These accounts seek a higher moral meaning from the munus, but Ovid's very detailed (though satirical) instructions for seduction in the amphitheatre suggest that the spectacles could generate a potent and dangerously sexual atmosphere. Futrell, 105. Augustan seating prescriptions placed women – excepting the Vestals, who were legally inviolate – as far as possible from the action of the arena floor; or tried to. There remained the thrilling possibility of clandestine sexual transgression by high-caste spectators and their arenario heroes. Such assignations were a source for gossip and satire: Kyle, Spectacles of death in Ancient Rome, 85: this should be considered scandalous and noteworthy, rather than common. What was the youthful charm that so fired Eppia? What hooked her? What did she see in him to make her put up with being called "the gladiator's moll"? Her poppet, her Sergius, was no chicken, with a dud arm that prompted hope of early retirement. Besides his face looked a proper mess, helmet-scarred, a great wart on his nose, an unpleasant discharge always trickling from one eye. But he was a gladiator. That word makes the whole breed seem handsome, and made her prefer him to her children and country, her sister, her husband. Steel is what they fall in love with. Juvenal, Satires, P. Green, trans., 6.102 ff. Eppia – a senator's wife – and her Sergius eloped to Egypt. Most gladiators would have aimed lower. Two wall graffiti in Pompeii describe Celadus the Thraex as "the sigh of the girls" and "the glory of the girls" – which may or may not have been Celadus' own wishful thinking. Futrell, 146: citing Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.4.4342.& CIL.4.4345. Despite popular adulation, "gladiator" could be (and was) used as an insult throughout the Roman period, Kyle, Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 273: see also Cicero's unflattering references to Marcus Antonius as a gladiator in his 2nd Phillipic. Late in the Imperial era, Tertullian expressed the paradox of the arenario from a Christian viewpoint: On the one and the same account they glorify them and they degrade and diminish them; yes, further, they openly condemn them to disgrace and civil degradation; they keep them religiously excluded from council chamber, rostrum, senate, knighthood, and every other kind of office and a good many distinctions. The perversity of it! They love whom they lower; they despise whom they approve; the art they glorify, the artist they disgrace. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 80: citing Tertullian, De Spectaculis 22. Gladiators in Roman art and culture In this new Play, I attempted to follow the old custom of mine, of making a fresh trial; I brought it on again. In the first Act I pleased; when in the mean time a rumor spread that gladiators were about to be exhibited; the populace flock together, make a tumult, clamor aloud, and fight for their places: meantime, I was unable to maintain my place. Terence, Hecyra, Prologue II. Part of the Gladiator Mosaic, displayed at the Galleria Borghese. It dates from approximately 320 CE. The Ø symbol (possibly Greek theta, for thanatos) marks a gladiator killed in combat. Images of gladiators could be found throughout the Republic and Empire, among all classes. Walls in the 2nd century BCE "Italian Agora" at Delos were decorated with paintings of gladiators. Mosaics dating from the 2nd through 4th centuries CE have been invaluable in the reconstruction of combat and its rules, gladiator types and the development of the munus. Throughout the Roman world, ceramics, lamps, gems and jewellery, mosaics, reliefs, wall paintings and statuary offer evidence – sometimes the best evidence – of the clothing, props, equipment, names, events, prevalence and rules of gladiatorial combat. Earlier periods provide only occasional, perhaps exceptional examples. Brown, 181. Welch, 2. The Gladiator Mosaic in the Galleria Borghese displays several gladiator types, and the Bignor Roman Villa mosaic from Provincial Britain shows Cupids as gladiators. Souvenir ceramics were produced depicting named gladiators in combat; similar images of higher quality, were available on more expensive articles in high quality ceramic, glass or silver. Pliny the Elder gives vivid examples of the popularity of gladiator portraiture in Antium and an artistic treat laid on by an adoptive aristocrat for the solidly plebian citizens of the Roman Aventine: When a freedman of Nero was giving a gladiatorial show at Antium, the public porticoes were covered with paintings, so we are told, containing life-like portraits of all the gladiators and assistants. This portraiture of gladiators has been the highest interest in art for many centuries now, but it was Gaius Terentius who began the practise of having pictures made of gladiatorial shows and exhibited in public; in honour of his grandfather who had adopted him he provided thirty pairs of Gladiators in the Forum for three consecutive days, and exhibited a picture of the matches in the Grove of Diana. Pliny, Natural History, 30.32; as cited in Welch, 21 Decline A flask depicting the final phase of the fight between a murmillo (winning) and a thraex. Rampant inflation, border incursions and manpower shortages during the third century CE led to increasing military demands on the Imperial purse, from which the Empire never quite recovered. For lesser magistrates, the obligatory munera became an increasingly unrewarding tax on the doubtful privileges of office but the decline of the munus was not a straightforward process. Mattern, 130-1. Emperors continued to subsidize their performance as a matter of undiminished public interest. Auget, 30, 32. Tertullian acknowledged their power over the Christian flock, and was compelled to be blunt: the combats were murder, their witnessing spiritually and morally harmful and the gladiator an instrument of pagan human sacrifice. Tertullian, de Spectaculis, 22. For similar acknowledgment by a Christian author, see St Augustine, Confessions, 6.8. In 315 CE Constantine I condemned child-snatchers ad bestias in the arena. Ten years later, he banned the gladiator munera: In times in which peace and peace relating to domestic affairs prevail bloody demonstrations displease us. Therefore, we order that there may be no more gladiator combats. Those who were condemned to become gladiators for their crimes are to work from now on in the mines. Thus they pay for their crimes without having to pour their blood. Edwards, 215: see also Constantine, 9.18.1 & 15.12.1. An Imperially sanctioned munus at some time in the 330s CE suggests that yet again, Imperial legislation was ineffective, not least when Constantine defied his own law. Carter, 43. In 365 CE Valentinian I threatened to fine a judge who sentenced Christians to the arena and in 384, attempted to limit the expenses of munera. See Tertullian, Apologetics, 49.4, for Tertullian's condemnation of officials who sought their own "glory" by sponsoring the martyrdom of Christians. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, 78; Compared to pagan noxii, Christian deaths in the arena would have been few. Codex Theodosianus 9.40.8 & 15.9.1: Symacchus, Relatio, 8.3: Latin text at ancientrome.ru: . In 393 CE Theodosius adopted Christianity as the Roman state religion and banned pagan festivals. C.Th. 2.8.19.& 2.8.22. The ludi continued, very gradually shorn of their stubbornly pagan munera. Honorius legally ended munera in 399 CE, and again in 404 CE, at least in the Western half of the Empire – according to Theodoret because of the martyrdom of Saint Telemachus by spectators at a munus. Theoderet, Hist. Eccles. 5.26. Valentinian III repeated the ban in 438CE, perhaps effectively, though venationes continued beyond 536 CE. Codex Justinianus, 3.12.9. It is not known how many gladiatoria munera were given throughout the Roman period. Many – if not most – involved venationes, and in the later Empire some may have been only that. One primary source, the Calendar of Furius Dionysius Philocalus for 354 CE, survives to suggest how the gladiator featured among a multitude of festivals in the Late Empire period. In that year, 176 days were reserved for spectacles of various kinds. Of these, 102 days were for theatrical shows, 64 for chariot races and just 10 in December for gladiator games and venationes. Wiedemann, 11-12 Thomas Wiedemann interprets this in the much earlier context of the Historia Augusta, in which Alexander Severus (reigned 222–235 CE) intended to spread munera throughout the year, and break with a tradition that placed the major gladiator games at the year's end. Wiedemann also points out that December was the month for Saturnalia, the festival in which the lowest became the highest, and in which death was linked to renewal. Notes References Auguet, Roland. Cruelty and civilization: the Roman games. Paris, 1970. English reprint, Routledge, 1994. ISBN 0415104521. Barton, Carlin A. The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 069105696x Borkowski, Andrew and Paul du Plessis. Textbook on Roman Law. Oxford: Blackstone Press, 1994. ISBN 1854313134 Brown, Shelby. "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics." Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome, 180-211. Amy Richlin, ed. New York: Oxford University Press. 1992. Carter, Michael. "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective." Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 44 (2004), 41-68. (PDF) Coleman, K.M. "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments." The Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), 44-73. Edwards, Catherine. Death in Ancient Rome. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007. ISBN 0300112084 Everitt, Anthony. Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician. New York: Random House, 2001. ISBN 0375507469 Fox, Robin. The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. New York: Basic Books, 2006. Futrell, Alison. A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006. ISBN 1405115688 Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Volume I. New York: Penguin, 1995. Grossschmidt, K. and F. Kanz. "Head Injuries of Roman Gladiators." Forensic Science International 160.2–3, 207–216. Jones, C.P. "Stigma": tattooing and branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity, Journal of Roman Studies, 77 (1987) 139-55. Kyle, Donald G. Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0415096782 Kyle, Donald G. Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell, 2007. ISBN 0631229701 Lintott, Andrew. The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999 (reprinted 2004). ISBN 0199261083. Mattern, Susan P. Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. Berkeley, Ca.: University of California Press, 2002. ISBN 0520236831 Mouritsen, Henrik. Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0521791006 Potter, David Stone and D.J. Mattingly, eds. Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1999. Hardcover. ISBN 0472109243 Welch, Katherine E. The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN 0521809444 Wiedemann, Thomas. Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge, 1992. ISBN 0415121647. Wisdom, Stephen and Angus McBride. Gladiators: 100 BC-AD 200 Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1841762997 Further reading Michael Grant: Gladiators, Penguin Books, London 1967, reprinted 2000, ISBN 0-14-029934-3 Fik Meijer: The Gladiators: History's Most Deadly Sport, Thomas Dunne Books 2003; reprinted by St. Martin's Griffin 2007. ISBN 978-0-312-36402-1. Eckart Köhne and Cornelia Ewigleben (editors); Gladiators and Caesars; British Museum Press, London, 2000; ISBN 0-5202279-80 Fergus Millar: The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic''. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1998. ISBN 0472108921 External links Gladiators, part of the Encyclopædia Romana A brief summary by James Grout. Gladiators Archaeological Institute of America Index of articles related to Gladiators. 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5,691 | Idiot | Idiot is a word derived from the Greek , idiōtēs ("person lacking professional skill," "a private citizen," "individual"), from , idios ("private," "one's own"). Liddell-Scott-Jones A Greek-English Lexicon, entries for and . In Latin the word idiota ("ordinary person, layman") preceded the Late Latin meaning "uneducated or ignorant person." Words, entry idiota. Its modern meaning and form dates back to Middle English around the year 1300, from the Old French idiote ("uneducated or ignorant person"). The related word idiocy dates to 1487 and may have been analogously modeled on the words prophet Etymonline.com, entry prophet and prophecy. Etymonline.com, entry prophecy Etymonline.com, entry idiot The word has cognates in many other languages. History "Idiot" was originally created to refer to "layman, person lacking professional skill", "person so mentally deficient as to be incapable of ordinary reasoning". Declining to take part in public life, such as democratic government of the polis (city state), such as the Athenian democracy, was considered dishonorable. "Idiots" were seen as having bad judgment in public and political matters. Over time, the term "idiot" shifted away from its original connotation of selfishness and came to refer to individuals with overall bad judgment–individuals who are "stupid". In modern English usage, the terms "idiot" and "idiocy" describe an extreme folly or stupidity, and its symptoms (foolish or stupid utterance or deed). In psychology, it is a historical term for the state or condition now called profound mental retardation. Disability In 19th and early 20th century medicine and psychology, an "idiot" was a person with a very severe mental retardation. In the early 1900s, Dr. Henry H. Goddard proposed a classification system for mental retardation based on the Binet-Simon concept of mental age. Individuals with the lowest mental age level (less than three years) were identified as idiots; imbiciles had a mental age of three to 7 years., and morons had a mental age of seven to ten years. . IQ, or intelligence quotient, is determined by dividing a person's mental age, as determined by standardized tests, by chronological age. The term "idiot" is sometimes used to refer to people having an IQ below 30. . . In current medical classification, these people are now said to have profound mental retardation, and the word "idiot" is no longer used as a scientific term. United States law Until 2007, the California Penal Code Section 26 stated that "Idiots" were one of six types of people who are not capable of committing crimes. In 2007 the code was amended to read "persons who are mentally incapacitated." In 2008, Iowa voters passed a measure replacing "idiot, or insane person" in the State's constitution with "person adjudged mentally incompetent." In several states, "idiots" do not have the right to vote: Arkansas Article III, Section 5 Arkansas Article III, Section 5 Kentucky Section 145 Kentucky Section 145 Mississippi Article 12, Section 241 Mississippi Constitution of the State of Mississippi See Article 12, Section 241 New Mexico Article VII, section 1 New Mexico Constitution, Article VII, section 1 Ohio (Article V, Section 6) Ohio Constitution, Article V, Section 6 In literature A few authors have used "idiot" characters in novels, plays and poetry. Often these characters are used to highlight or indicate something else (allegory). Examples of such usage are William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury and William Wordsworth's The Idiot Boy. Idiot characters in literature are often confused with or subsumed within mad or lunatic characters. The most common imbrication between these two categories of mental impairment occurs in the polemic surrounding Edmund from William Shakespeare's King Lear. In Fyodor Dostoevsky's novel The Idiot, the idiocy of the main character, Prince Lev Nikolaievich Myshkin, is attributed more to his honesty, trustfulness, kindness, and humility, than to a lack of intellectual ability. Nietzsche claimed, in his The Antichrist, that Jesus was an idiot. This resulted from his description of Jesus as having an aversion toward the material world. {§ 29, partially quoted here, contains three words that were suppressed by Nietzsche's sister when she published The Antichrist in 1895. The words are: "das Wort Idiot", translated here as "the word idiot". They were not made public until 1931, by Josef Hofmiller. H.L. Mencken's 1920 translation does not contain these words.) See also Archaic terms for mental retardation Ignorance Notes Sources on cretinism External links Dictionary.Reference.Com "Middle English, ignorant person, from Old French idiote (modern French idiot), from Latin idiota, from Greek idiotès, private person, layman, from idios, own, private." Etymonline "c.1300, "person so mentally deficient as to be incapable of ordinary reasoning," from Old French idiote "uneducated or ignorant person," from Latin idiota "ordinary person, layman," in Late Latin "uneducated or ignorant person," from Greek idiotes "layman, person lacking professional skill," literally "private person," used patronizingly for "ignorant person," from idios "one's own". | Idiot |@lemmatized idiot:21 word:11 derive:1 greek:4 idiōtēs:1 person:20 lack:4 professional:3 skill:3 private:5 citizen:1 individual:4 idios:3 one:3 liddell:1 scott:1 jones:1 english:4 lexicon:1 entry:5 latin:5 idiota:4 ordinary:4 layman:5 precede:1 late:2 meaning:2 uneducated:4 ignorant:6 modern:3 form:1 date:2 back:1 middle:2 around:1 year:4 old:3 french:4 idiote:3 related:1 idiocy:3 may:1 analogously:1 model:1 prophet:2 etymonline:4 com:4 prophecy:2 cognate:1 many:1 language:1 history:1 originally:1 create:1 refer:3 mentally:4 deficient:2 incapable:2 reason:2 decline:1 take:1 part:1 public:3 life:1 democratic:1 government:1 polis:1 city:1 state:7 athenian:1 democracy:1 consider:1 dishonorable:1 see:3 bad:2 judgment:2 political:1 matter:1 time:1 term:6 shift:1 away:1 original:1 connotation:1 selfishness:1 come:1 overall:1 stupid:2 usage:2 describe:1 extreme:1 folly:1 stupidity:1 symptom:1 foolish:1 utterance:1 deed:1 psychology:2 historical:1 condition:1 call:1 profound:2 mental:11 retardation:5 disability:1 early:2 century:1 medicine:1 severe:1 dr:1 henry:1 h:2 goddard:1 propose:1 classification:2 system:1 base:1 binet:1 simon:1 concept:1 age:6 low:1 level:1 less:1 three:3 identify:1 imbiciles:1 moron:1 seven:1 ten:1 iq:2 intelligence:1 quotient:1 determine:2 divide:1 standardized:1 test:1 chronological:1 sometimes:1 use:5 people:3 current:1 medical:1 say:1 longer:1 scientific:1 united:1 law:1 california:1 penal:1 code:2 section:11 six:1 type:1 capable:1 commit:1 crime:1 amend:1 read:1 incapacitated:1 iowa:1 voter:1 pass:1 measure:1 replace:1 insane:1 constitution:4 adjudge:1 incompetent:1 several:1 right:1 vote:1 arkansas:2 article:8 iii:2 kentucky:2 mississippi:3 new:2 mexico:2 vii:2 ohio:2 v:2 literature:2 author:1 character:5 novel:2 play:1 poetry:1 often:2 highlight:1 indicate:1 something:1 else:1 allegory:1 example:1 william:3 faulkner:1 sound:1 fury:1 wordsworth:1 boy:1 confuse:1 subsume:1 within:1 mad:1 lunatic:1 common:1 imbrication:1 two:1 category:1 impairment:1 occur:1 polemic:1 surround:1 edmund:1 shakespeare:1 king:1 lear:1 fyodor:1 dostoevsky:1 main:1 prince:1 lev:1 nikolaievich:1 myshkin:1 attribute:1 honesty:1 trustfulness:1 kindness:1 humility:1 intellectual:1 ability:1 nietzsche:2 claim:1 antichrist:2 jesus:2 result:1 description:1 aversion:1 toward:1 material:1 world:1 partially:1 quote:1 contains:1 suppress:1 sister:1 publish:1 da:1 wort:1 translate:1 make:1 josef:1 hofmiller:1 l:1 mencken:1 translation:1 contain:1 also:1 archaic:1 ignorance:1 note:1 source:1 cretinism:1 external:1 link:1 dictionary:1 reference:1 idiotès:1 c:1 idiotes:1 literally:1 patronizingly:1 |@bigram liddell_scott:1 etymonline_com:3 athenian_democracy:1 mental_retardation:5 penal_code:1 mentally_incompetent:1 william_faulkner:1 william_wordsworth:1 mental_impairment:1 fyodor_dostoevsky:1 l_mencken:1 external_link:1 |
5,692 | Leonids | The great Leonid shower storm of 1733|The most famous depiction of the 1833 meteor storm actually produced in 1889 for the Adventist book Bible Readings for the Home Circle based on a first-person account of the 1833 storm by a minister, Joseph Harvey Waggoner on his way from Florida to New Orleans. For a list of famous people named Leonid, please see Leonid (a disambiguation page). The Leonids ([ˈli.əˌnɪdz] lee-uh-nids) are a prolific meteor shower associated with the comet Tempel-Tuttle. The Leonids get their name from the location of their radiant in the constellation Leo: the meteors appear to stream from that point in the sky. Meteor shower The meteor shower is visible every year around November 17, plus or minus a week, when the Earth moves through the meteoroid stream of particles left from the passages of the comet. The stream comprises solid particles, known as meteoroids, ejected by the comet as its frozen gases evaporate under the heat of the Sun which begins to warm the comet as it comes within the orbit of Jupiter. A typical particle is no bigger than fine dust. The main source of light of a meteor is caused by the air molecules ramming the meteoroid, which fragments and atomizes the dust , and the resulting spray of microscopic debris collides with individual atoms of the atmosphere which then cool by glowing (not by friction as commonly thought). Larger particles leave a stream of smaller particles and form a bolide or fireball, which can leave a glowing trail in the atmosphere. Leonids in particular are well known for having such bright meteors. The meteoroids left by the comet are organized in trails in orbits similar though different from that of the comet. They are differentially disturbed by the planets, in particular Jupiter (see also a full explanation by McNaught & Asher (1999)). The ensemble of the trails compose the meteoroid stream. Old trails are spatially not dense and compose the meteor shower background (a few meteors per minute), happening around November 17, but changing every year you may check every year at the IMO website . Conversely, young trails are spatially very dense and the cause of meteor storms when the Earth enters one of these structures. Usual counts during a storm exceed 1000 meteors per hour after correction, see: the IMO pages , to be compared to the annual background (1 to 2 meteors per hour) and the shower background (a few per hour). History Woodcut print depicts the shower as seen at Niagara Falls, New York. Mechanics' Magazine said this illustration was made by an editor named Pickering "who witnessed the scene." The Leonids are famous because their meteor showers, or storms, can be, and have been in a few cases, among the most spectacular. Because of the superlative storm of 1833 and the recent developments in scientific thought the Leonids have had a major effect on the development of the scientific study of meteors which had previously been thought to be atmospheric phenomena. The meteor storm of 1833 was of truly superlative strength. One estimate is over one hundred thousand meteors an hour, but another, done as the storm abated, estimated in excess of two hundred thousand meteors an hour over the entire region of North America east of the Rocky Mountains. It was marked by the Native Americans, slaves and owners, and many others. That same 1833 shower, near Independence, Missouri, was taken as a sign to push the growing Mormon community out of the area. McCullough, David, Truman, 1992, p. 22 Other great Leonid storms were seen in 1866 and 1867. When the storms failed to return in 1899, it was generally thought that the dust had moved on and storms were a thing of the past. Then, in 1966 a spectacular storm was seen over the Americas. Leading up to the 1998 return, an airborne observing campaign was organized to mobilize modern observing techniques by Peter Jenniskens at NASA Ames Research Center. This resulted in spectacular footage from the 1999, 2001 and 2002 storms. Initially, the exact location of the dust was unknown. A graph published in Sky and Telescope adapted from Comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle and the Leonid Meteors(1996, see p.6) shows relative positions of the Earth and Comet and marks where Earth encountered dense dust. This showed that the particles are behind and outside the path of the comet, but paths resulting in powerful storms were very near paths of nearly no activity. The work of David Asher, Armagh Observatory and Robert H. McNaught, Siding Spring Observatory, and independently that by Esko Lyytinen of Finland, following on from research by Kondrat'eva, Reznikov and colleagues at Kazan, is generally considered the breakthrough in modern analysis of meteor storms. Whereas previously it was hazardous to guess if there would be a storm or little activity, the predictions of Asher and McNaught timed bursts in activity down to five minutes. However, the relative brightness of the meteors is still not understood. The double spikes in Leonid activity in 2001 and in 2002 were due to the passage of the comet's dust ejected in 1767 and 1866. The 1833 storm was not due to the recent passage of the comet, but from a direct hit with the 1800 dust and the 1966 storm was from the 1899 passage of the comet. Examples of other streams accounting for spikes in activity include the 2004 June Bootids. Peter Jenniskens has published predictions for the next 50 years. Jenniskens P., Meteor Showers and their Parent Comets. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 790 pp. However, a close encounter with Jupiter is expected to perturb the comet's path, and many streams, making storms of historic magnitude unlikely for many decades. a list of predictions can be found here and here See also Meteor showers List of meteor showers Stars Fell on Alabama, based on the 1833 Leonid shower References External links Leonid History by Gary W. Kronk Leonid dust trails by David Asher The Great Leonid Meteor Storm of 1833. A first-hand account by Elder Samuel Rogers The Discovery of the Perseid Meteors (after the Leonids and) Prior to 1837, nobody realized the Perseids were an annual event, by Mark Littmann The Night the Stars Fell My Search for Amanda Young a slave narrative. Winter Counts The Native Voice By Lise Balk King Lunar Leonids: Encounters of the Moon with Leonid dust trails by Robert H. McNaught Brilliant Leonid storm likely fodder for later Lincoln speech by Jim Vertuno NASA: Background facts on meteors and meteor showers NASA: Estimate the best viewing times for your part of the world Science@NASA: Leonids 2006 How to hear the Leonid Meteor Shower Observatorio ARVAL - The Leonid Meteors | Leonids |@lemmatized great:3 leonid:14 shower:15 storm:22 famous:3 depiction:1 meteor:29 actually:1 produce:1 adventist:1 book:1 bible:1 reading:1 home:1 circle:1 base:2 first:2 person:1 account:3 minister:1 joseph:1 harvey:1 waggoner:1 way:1 florida:1 new:2 orleans:1 list:3 people:1 name:3 please:1 see:8 disambiguation:1 page:2 leonids:8 ˈli:1 əˌnɪdz:1 lee:1 uh:1 nids:1 prolific:1 associate:1 comet:14 tempel:2 tuttle:2 get:1 location:2 radiant:1 constellation:1 leo:1 appear:1 stream:7 point:1 sky:2 visible:1 every:3 year:4 around:2 november:2 plus:1 minus:1 week:1 earth:4 move:2 meteoroid:5 particle:6 leave:4 passage:4 comprise:1 solid:1 know:2 eject:2 frozen:1 gas:1 evaporate:1 heat:1 sun:1 begin:1 warm:1 come:1 within:1 orbit:2 jupiter:3 typical:1 big:1 fine:1 dust:9 main:1 source:1 light:1 cause:2 air:1 molecules:1 ram:1 fragment:1 atomize:1 result:3 spray:1 microscopic:1 debris:1 collides:1 individual:1 atom:1 atmosphere:2 cool:1 glow:1 friction:1 commonly:1 think:4 large:1 small:1 form:1 bolide:1 fireball:1 glowing:1 trail:7 particular:2 well:1 bright:1 organize:2 similar:1 though:1 different:1 differentially:1 disturb:1 planet:1 also:2 full:1 explanation:1 mcnaught:4 asher:4 ensemble:1 compose:2 old:1 spatially:2 dense:3 background:4 per:4 minute:2 happen:1 change:1 may:1 check:1 imo:2 website:1 conversely:1 young:2 enter:1 one:3 structure:1 usual:1 count:2 exceed:1 hour:5 correction:1 compare:1 annual:2 history:2 woodcut:1 print:1 depict:1 niagara:1 fall:1 york:1 mechanic:1 magazine:1 say:1 illustration:1 make:2 editor:1 pickering:1 witness:1 scene:1 case:1 among:1 spectacular:3 superlative:2 recent:2 development:2 scientific:2 major:1 effect:1 study:1 previously:2 atmospheric:1 phenomenon:1 truly:1 strength:1 estimate:3 hundred:2 thousand:2 another:1 abate:1 excess:1 two:1 entire:1 region:1 north:1 america:2 east:1 rocky:1 mountain:1 mark:3 native:2 american:1 slave:2 owner:1 many:3 others:1 near:2 independence:1 missouri:1 take:1 sign:1 push:1 grow:1 mormon:1 community:1 area:1 mccullough:1 david:3 truman:1 p:3 fail:1 return:2 generally:2 thing:1 past:1 lead:1 airborne:1 observing:1 campaign:1 mobilize:1 modern:2 observe:1 technique:1 peter:2 jenniskens:3 nasa:4 ames:1 research:2 center:1 footage:1 initially:1 exact:1 unknown:1 graph:1 publish:2 telescope:1 adapt:1 show:2 relative:2 position:1 encounter:3 behind:1 outside:1 path:4 powerful:1 nearly:1 activity:5 work:1 armagh:1 observatory:2 robert:2 h:2 side:1 spring:1 independently:1 esko:1 lyytinen:1 finland:1 follow:1 kondrat:1 eva:1 reznikov:1 colleague:1 kazan:1 consider:1 breakthrough:1 analysis:1 whereas:1 hazardous:1 guess:1 would:1 little:1 prediction:3 time:2 burst:1 five:1 however:2 brightness:1 still:1 understood:1 double:1 spike:2 due:2 direct:1 hit:1 example:1 include:1 june:1 bootids:1 next:1 parent:1 cambridge:2 university:1 press:1 uk:1 pp:1 close:1 expect:1 perturb:1 historic:1 magnitude:1 unlikely:1 decade:1 find:1 star:2 fell:2 alabama:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 gary:1 w:1 kronk:1 hand:1 elder:1 samuel:1 rogers:1 discovery:1 perseid:1 prior:1 nobody:1 realize:1 perseids:1 event:1 littmann:1 night:1 search:1 amanda:1 narrative:1 winter:1 voice:1 lise:1 balk:1 king:1 lunar:1 moon:1 brilliant:1 likely:1 fodder:1 later:1 lincoln:1 speech:1 jim:1 vertuno:1 fact:1 best:1 viewing:1 part:1 world:1 science:1 hear:1 observatorio:1 arval:1 |@bigram meteor_shower:10 comet_tempel:2 plus_minus:1 niagara_fall:1 hundred_thousand:2 rocky_mountain:1 nasa_ames:1 dust_storm:1 external_link:1 perseid_meteor:1 |
5,693 | Economy_of_Croatia | Economy of CroatiaCurrencyKuna (HK)Fiscal yearCalendar yearTrade Organisations WTOStatisticsGDP Ranking (2008)78th GDP (2008)EUR48.502$69.332 current$82.272 PPP billion GDP growth rate (2008)8.7% nominal7.2% per capita nominal4.5% real3.7% per capita realGDP per Capita (2008)EUR10,890$15,628 current$18,545 PPP GDP by sector (2007)primary (3.1%)industry (22.5%)construction (11.2)services (63.2%)GDP structure (2007)Private consumption (52.3%)Public consumption (18.7%)Investments (32.8%) Export (50.4%) Import (54.2%)Inflation rate2008 4.5%, 4/2009 1.1% Pop below poverty line (2007)11 % Pop below Gini coefficient (2007)21.4 %Employed Population(2008)1.781mio Employed Population by occupation Q4 2008)primary (4.3%)secondary (25.1%)tertiary (70.6%) Unemployment rate2008 9.2%, 3/2008 Main Industriesferrous metallurgy and aluminum products, shipbuilding; electronics (including military electronics), electric power equipment, pharmaceuticals, wood products, textiles, chemicals, machine tools Total exports2008 $14.45 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.) Main Partners (2007 est)Germany 18.7%%, Italy 12.5%, Slovenia 8.2%, Austria 8.0%, France 5.5%, Total imports2008 $26.2 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)Main Partners (2007 est)Germany 18.5%%, Italy 21.1%, Austria 12.3%, Slovenia 6.6%, France 5.0%,Current account balance 2008$-4.7 billion (-6.7% of GDP)Public FinancesTotal Public Debt (2008)90.5% of GDP Revenues (2008)41.5% of GDP Expenses (2008)42.6% of GDPBudget Balance (2008)-0.27% of GDP Economic Aid (ODA) (2007)EUR179.5 million (0.12% of GNI) The Economy of Croatia is a service-based economy, with the service sector accounting for 67% of the total GDP. The preliminary GDP data for 2008 put Croatian GDP at 370.5 billion Croatian Kuna, or just over USD 15,700 per capita Per capita GDP , putting Croatia ahead of the EU member states Bulgaria, Romania, Latvia, Hungary, Lithuania and Poland. The estimated Gross Domestic Product per capita in purchasing power parity in 2008 was around USD 18,740 or 62.5% of the EU average for the same year Croatian economy . Shipbuilding dominates the industrial sector; with exports of over €1 billion annually, shipbuilding accounts for over 10% of exported goods. Food processing and chemical industry take significant portions of industrial output and are responsible for significant portion of exported goods. Industrial Sector represents 27% of Croatia’s total economic output, and agriculture represents 6%. Croatian agricultural sector subsists from exports of blue water fish, which in recent years experienced a tremendous surge in demand, mainly from Japan and South Korea. Croatia is a notable producer of organic foods and much of it is exported to the EU. Croatian wines, olive oils and lavender are in particularly high demand. Tourism is a notable source of income, particularly during the summer months but also more recently from winter months, due to an increase in popularity of snow sports such as skiing. With over 10 million foreign tourists annually, tourism generates revenue in excess of €7 billion. Croatia is ranked amongst the top 20 most popular tourist destinations in the world, and was voted the world's top tourism destination of 2005 by Lonely Planet. Top Destinations for 2005 Trade has finally begun to play major role in Croatian economic output. In 2007 Croatia exported goods in value of USD 12.84 billion (24.7 billion including service exports). Croatia has stable functioning market economy with the strong and stable currency, the Kuna. Croatia and Slovenia, the two westernmost republics in what was formerly known as Yugoslavia, alone accounted for nearly half of the total Yugoslavian GDP, and this reflected in overall living standard which in Croatia's case was over 50% above the Yugoslav average, and close to 90% in Slovenia. Nevertheless, starting in the late 1980s, at the beginning of the process of economic transition, Croatian economy suffered as result of de-industrialization, war destruction as well as losing the markets of Yugoslavia and the SEV. GDP per Region: (source IMF/World Bank - 1990) RepublicEconomyRepublic Number of citizens GDP/Million of USD GDP/USD per capita1 Slovenia1,982,000 13,7406 9402 Croatia4,784,00025,6405 3503 Serbia9,534,00027,9302,930- Vojvodina1,996,0007,6603,380- Central Serbia5,582,00016,9103,030- Kosovo1,956,0003,3601,7704 Bosnia and Herzegovina4,364 00010,8702 4905 Montenegro652,0001,5202 3306Macedonia2,021,0004,4202 180Total Yugoslavia23 451 00084,1203 587 Persistent economic problems still remain: a rather elevated unemployment of 9.6% in 2007 Ekonomski Indikatori , as well as slow progress of economic reforms. Of particular concern is the heavily backlogged judiciary system, combined with inefficient public administration, especially regarding issues of land ownership and corruption in public sector and political sectors. Unemployment is regionally uneven: it is very high in eastern (Slavonia and parts of Dalmatia), nearing 20% in some areas, while relatively low in the northwest and larger cities, mainly Istria, Kvarner, and the Zagreb area, being between 3 and 7%. Unemployment has been constantly declining by 5% over the last 7 years. stat inf 78 do 117.cdr The country has since experienced faster economic growth and has been preparing for membership in the European Union, its most important trading partner. In February 2005, the Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU officially came into force, and Croatia is advancing towards full EU membership. The country expects serious positive economic impulses and high growth rates in the coming years, as currently, Croatia is stagnated by an elevated export deficit and high but manageable debt. Croatia is expecting a major boom in investments, especially greenfield investments. Gross Domestic Product Fiscal year: calendar year GDP per county: (source Croatian statistical institute for year 2005) Rank County Number of citizens GDP (millions of euros) GDP/euros per capita1 Zagreb779,145 10,07012,9082 Istria county205,8251,8849,1263 Primorje-Gorski Kotar county306,1592,5478,3374 Lika-Senj county53,0063787,1365 Varazdin county185,7561,2616,7876 Koprivnica-Krizevci county125,3528456,7447 Dubrovnik-Neretva county123,0477856,3828Zadar county160,5069455,8879Medjimurje county120,7906845,662 10Sisak-Moslavina county182,6151,0015,47811Karlovac county142,3137775,46012Split-Dalmatia county459,8182,4725,37413Zagreb county309,3691,6405,29414Bjelovar-Bilogora county133,1987045,28515Osijek-Baranja county329,4651,7365,26016Krapina-Zagorje county143,4657325,101 17Pozega-Slavonia county 84,8974114,835 18Virovitica-Podravina county 93,9524514,803 19Sibenik-Knin county114,3444984,368 20Vukovar-Srijem county195,7717884,02821Brod-Posavina county177,5586543,785Total Croatia4,442,00031,2637,038 GDP per county: (source Croatian statistical institute for year 2006) Rank County Number of citizens GDP (millions of euros) GDP/euros per capita1 Zagreb779,145 10,92414,0052 Istria county205,8252,07010,0483 Primorje-Gorski Kotar county306,1592,7879,1074 Lika-Senj county53,0064107,7355 Varazdin county185,7561,4017,5406 Koprivnica-Krizevci county125,3529457,5357 Dubrovnik-Neretva county123,0478807,1548Zadar county160,5061,0526,5549Medjimurje county120,7907586,27510Sisak-Moslavina county182,6151,0845,92711Karlovac county142,3138405,90312Bjelovar-Bilogora county133,1987805,85513Split-Dalmatia county459,8182,6495,75814Zagreb county309,3691,8005,80615Osijek-Baranja county329,4651,9005,75716Krapina-Zagorje county143,4658025,58817Pozega-Slavonia county 84,8974625,43518Virovitica-Podravina county 93,9525065,382 19Sibenik-Knin county114,3445705,000 20Vukovar-Srijem county195,7718724,45521Brod-Posavina county177,5587284,097Total Croatia4,440,00034,2207,707 GDP per county: (GDP for year 2007 - source Croatian National Bank) Rank County Number of citizens GDP (millions of euros) GDP/euros per capita1 Zagreb779,145 11,81215,1402 Istria county205,8252,25410,9423 Primorje-Gorski Kotar county306,1593,12410,2104 Lika-Senj county53,0064668,7905 Varazdin county185,7561,5778,4806 Koprivnica-Krizevci county125,3521,0458,3107 Dubrovnik-Neretva county123,0479747,9208Zadar county160,5061,1847,3759Medjimurje county120,7908487,02010Zagreb county309,3692,0186,52011Karlovac county142,3139156,44712Sisak-Moslavina county182,6151,1706,39713Bjelovar-Bilogora county133,1988436,33814Split-Dalmatia county459,8182,9156,33615Osijek-Baranja county329,4652,0666,27516Krapina-Zagorje county143,4658846,15517Virovitica-Podravina county93,9525625,978 18Pozega-Slavonia county84,8975025,90619Sibenik-Knin county114,3446425,600 20Vukovar-Srijem county195,7719244,72021Brod-Posavina county177,5587724,340Total Croatia4 440 00037,4978,450 GDP per county: (Preliminary GDP Data for year 2008 - source Croatian National Bank ) Rank County Number of citizens GDP (millions of euros) GDP/euros per capita1 Zagreb779,145 15,03519,2702 Istria county205,8252,88214,0503 Primorje-Gorski Kotar county306,1593,97012,9754 Lika-Senj county53,00664412,1455 Varazdin county185,7562,05211,0956 Koprivnica-Krizevci county125,3521,36510,9157 Dubrovnik-Neretva county123,0471,28710,4758Zadar county160,5061,5529,7009Medjimurje county120,7901,1189,31510Karlovac county142,3131,2018,46511Sisak-Moslavina county182,6151,5358,43512Bjelovar-Bilogora county133,1981,1218,43013Krapina-Zagorje county143,4651,1948,35514Zagreb county309,3692,5458,23015Split-Dalmatia county459,8183,7458,14516Osijek-Baranja county329,4652,6708,11017Virovitica-Podravina county93,9527578,06018Pozega-Slavonia county84,8976838,04019Sibenik-Knin county114,3448677,60520Brod-Posavina county177,5581,1076,25021Vukovar-Srijem county195,7711,1726,010Total Croatia4,440,00048,50210,890 __FORCETOC__ History In an economy traditionally based on agriculture and livestock, peasants comprised more than half of the Croatian population until after World War II. Pre-1945 industrialization was slow and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brick yards, and food-processing plants. One of the fertile agricultural regions, near the Neretva river Rapid industrialization and diversification occurred after World War II. Decentralization came in 1965, allowing growth of certain sectors, like the aforementioned prosperous tourist industry. Profits from Croatian industry were used to develop poorer regions in the former Yugoslavia, leading to Croatia contributing much more to the Yugoslavian economy than it ever got back. This, coupled with austerity programs and hyperinflation in the 1980s, led to discontent in both Croatia and Slovenia that fueled the independence movement. Foreign remittances contributed $2 billion annually to the economy by 1990. Europa Publications Limited. Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States 1999: 1999. Routledge, 1999. (pg. 279) Before the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the Republic of Croatia, after Slovenia, was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output more than one-third above the Yugoslav average. Privatization under the new Croatian Government had barely begun when war broke out. As a result of the Croatian War of Independence, the economic infrastructure sustained massive damage during the period, particularly in 1991 and 1992. By the end of the 1990s, Croatia faced considerable economic problems stemming from: damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses; the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian the disruption of economic ties; and mishandled privatization The Republic of Croatia, along with the remainder of the former Yugoslavia, experienced a serious depression. President Franjo Tuđman initiated the process of privatization and de-nationalization in Croatia; however, this was far from transparent and fully legal. The fact that the new government's legal system was inefficient and slow, as well as the wider context of the Yugoslav wars, causedumerous incidents known collectively in Croatia as the "Privatization robbery" Croatian: "privatizacijska pljačka"). Nepotism was endemic and during this period many influential individuals with the backing of the authorities acquired state-owned property and companies at extremely low prices, afterwards selling them off piecemeal to the highest bidder for much larger sums. This proved very lucrative for the new owners, but in the vast majority of cases, this, along with the separation from the previously secured Yugoslav markets, also caused the bankruptcy of the (previously successful) firm, causing the unemployment of thousands of citizens, a problem Croatia still struggles with to this day. This was all helped, not just by the [allegedly purposeful] inadequacy of legal restrictions, but also by the apparently active support of the new Croatia's authorities , ultimately controlled by Tuđman from his strong presidential position. In the end this shed an increasingly negative light, and cast a shadow on his notable successes as a strategist and wartime statesman. Excluding the mostly rural rebel-occupied areas (the so-called Republic of Serbian Krajina), in the last two years of Tuđman's first tenure the detrimental effects of "wild" and unrestricted capitalism had become strikingly visible, with more than 400,000 unemployed citizens, and a significant drop in the GDP per capita, problems Croatia struggles with to this day. Inflation and unemployment rose and the kuna fell, prompting the national bank to tighten fiscal policy. A new banking law passed in December 1998 gave the central bank more control over Croatia's 53 remaining commercial banks. Croatia is dependent on international debt to finance the deficit. A recently issued euro-denominated bond was well received, selling $300 million, which helped offset economic losses from the Kosovo crisis. Despite the successful value-added tax program, planned privatization of state controlled businesses, and a revised budget with a 7% across that board cut in spending, the government still projected a $200 million deficit for 1999. Western aid and investment, especially in the tourist and oil industries, is doing its part to help further develop the economy. The government has been successful in some reform efforts — partially macroeconomic stabilization policies — and it has normalized relations with its creditors. The recession that began at the end of 1998 continued through most of 1999, and GDP in 1999 was flat. Inflation remained in check and the kuna was stable. However, consumer demand was weak and industrial production decreased. Structural reform lagged and problems of payment arrears and a lack of banking supervision continued. Due to the upcoming elections, the HDZ government promised two salary increases to public-sector employees before the end of the year which increased the fiscal deficit. The death of President Tuđman in December 1999, and the defeat of his ruling Croatian Democratic Union or HDZ party in parliamentary and presidential elections in January 2000 ushered in a new government committed to economic reform and halting the economic decline. The Račan government carried out a large number of structural reforms and with tourism as the main factor, the country emerged from recession in 2000. Due to overall increase in stability, the economic rating of the country improved and interest rates dropped. As a result of coalition politics and resistance from the unions and the public, many reforms are still overdue, especially in the legal system. Unemployment reached a peak of around 22% in late 2002 due to many overdue bankruptcies. It has since been steadily considerably, powered by growing industrial production and rising GDP rather than only seasonal changes (tourism). The GDP rose to the level it had in 1990 only in 2003. Most economic indicators remained positive in this period, except for the external debt. The Croatian National Bank had to take steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks (commonly the same foreign banks that own the local ones). The dollar debt figure is quite adversely affected by the EUR/USD ratio — over a third of the increase in debt since 2002 is due to currency value changes. Tourism is a notable source of income during the summer. With over 10 million foreign tourists a year (as of 2006), Croatia is ranked as the 18th major tourist destination in the world. untitled The Croatian economy is heavily interdependent on other principle economies of Europe, and any negative trends in these larger EU economies, for example those of Germany or Italy also have a negative impact on Croatia as they are its biggest trade partners. The country is a candidate for membership in the European Union. During the accession, it is expected that agricultural policy will be the biggest stumbling block, as with other recent applicant countries. By early 2005, the foreign debt of the Government declined in growth, and was surpassed in size by the foreign debt of the banking sector, prompting further interventions by the national bank. As of late 2007, the unemployment rate is 9.6%. Within the last few years, Croatia has witnessed a major increase in construction throughout the country.Everything from highway construction to renovating its cities and towns. The capital city of Zagreb has seen a major construction boom in recent years. There are many multi-million euro investments, currently being realized in Zagreb. The city of Zagreb is getting it's very own downtown financial district, complete with many skyscrapers. Some of them are being designed by world renown architects. Zagreb will also soon have it's very own ultra modern arena, complete with a 4th generation shopping mall. The city of Zagreb, has also experienced many new housing and commercial developments throughout the city. By 2011, Zagreb will celebrate the opening of a new airport,which was designed by Ted Nasmith, well known illustrator of J.R. Tolkien's works (of Lord of the Rings fame). The republic of Croatia, is currently a country full of tarps and cranes. The country is also experiencing and increased level of foreign investments, especially from Austria. Today,Croatia is firmly on the path of European integration and prosperity. (Can this be confirmed, this look like paid advertisement by the ruling party HDZ, please moderate this last chapter) (being in the last two mandates and still actually in the charge of Zagreb's Mayor Milan Bandić member of social democratic party Stock exchanges Zagreb Stock Exchange Banking Croatian National Bank Building in Zagreb List of banks in Croatia Central bank: Croatian National Bank Major commercial banks: Zagrebačka banka (owned by UniCredito from Italy) Privredna banka Zagreb (owned by Banca Intesa from Italy) Hrvatska Poštanska Banka Hypo-Alpe-Adria Bank (owned by Hypo-Alpe-Adria Bank from Austria) Raiffeisen Bank Austria (owned by Raiffeisen from Austria) Erste & Steiermärkische Bank (former Riječka banka, owned by Erste Bank from Austria) Central Budget Overall Budget: Ministarstvo financija Republike Hrvatske - Državni proračun revenues: $21.75 billion (114.2 billion Kuna)2007 (official figure) projected for 2008 - 124.2 billion Kuna (24.85 billion USD) expenditures: $22.8 billion, (119.2 billion Kuna) 2007(official figure) projected for 2008 - 128.7 billion Kuna (25.74 billion USD) Expenditure for 2007: Education - 10.5 billion Kuna Health Care - 21.4 billion Kuna Welfare & labour - 38.4 billion Kuna Interior and Justice - 6.6 billion Kuna Defense - 4.7 billion Kuna Finance - 11.1 billion Kuna Agriculture - 3.3 billion Kuna Culture and Sport - 1.2 billion Kuna Other - 17.0 billion kuna Expenditure for 2008 = projected: Education - 12.4 billion Kuna Health Care - 22.4 billion Kuna Welfare and labour - 41.3 billion Kuna Interior and Justice - 6.6 billion Kuna Defense - 5.45 billion Kuna Finance - 12.0 billion Kuna Agriculture - 3.6 billion Kuna Culture and Sport - 1.2 billion Kuna Other - 23.8 billion Kuna Economic indicators From the CIA World Factbook 2007. GDP: purchasing power parity - $68.98 billion (2007 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 5.8% (2007 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $15,500 (2007 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 7.2% industry: 31.6% services: 61.2% (2007 est.) Labor force: 1.749 million (2007 est.) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 2.7%, industry 32.8%, services 64.5% (2004) Unemployment rate: 9.6% (2005 est.) Population below poverty line: national absolute: 11% (2003) internationally comparable: 4.8% (2003 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.4% highest 10%: 24.5% (2003 est.) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 29 (2001) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.9% (2007) Investment (gross fixed): 30.9% of GDP (2007 est.) Budget: revenues: $19.2 billion (104.5 billion Kuna)2007 (official figure) projected for 2008 - 115.2 billion Kuna (21.95 billion USD) expenditures: $19.75 billion, (108.6 billion Kuna) 2007(official figure) projected 3doe 2008 - 120.5 billion Kuna (22.9 billion USD) Public debt: 47.3% of GDP (2007 est.) Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, sugar beets, sunflower seed, barley, alfalfa, clover, olives, citrus, grapes, soybeans, potatoes; livestock, dairy products Industries: chemicals and plastics, machine tools, fabricated metal, electronics, pig iron and rolled steel products, aluminium, paper, wood products, construction materials, textiles, shipbuilding, petroleum and petroleum refining, food and beverages; tourism Industrial production growth rate: 5.2% (2007 est.) Electricity - production: 11.99 billion kWh (2005) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 33.6% hydro: 66% nuclear: 0% other: 0.4% (2001) Electricity - consumption: 14.97 billion kWh (2005) Electricity - exports: 3.634 billion kWh (2005) Electricity - imports: 8.746 billion kWh (2005) Oil - production: 27,190 bbl/day (2005 est.) Oil - consumption: 99,000 bbl/day (2004 est.) Oil - proved reserves: 69.14 million barrel (1 January 2006) Natural gas - production: 1.477 billion cu m (2005 est.) Natural gas - consumption: 2.58 billion cu m (2005 est.) Natural gas - exports: 0 cu m (2005 est.) Natural gas - imports: 1.103 billion cu m (2005 est.) Natural gas - proved reserves: 27.16 billion cu m (1 January 2006) Current account balance: -$4.385 billion (2007 est.) Exports: $12.02 billion f.o.b. (2007 est.) Exports - commodities: transport equipment, textiles, chemicals, foodstuffs, fuels Exports - partners: Italy 23.1%, Bosnia and Herzegovina 12.7%, Germany 10.4%, Slovenia 8.3%, Austria 6.1%, (2006) Imports: $26.54 billion f.o.b. (2007 est.) Imports - commodities: machinery, transport and electrical equipment, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, foodstuffs Imports - partners: Italy 16.7%, Germany 14.5%, Russia 9.7%, Slovenia 6.8%, Austria 5.4%, China 5.3%, (2006) Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: $13.67 billion (31 December 2007 est.) Debt - external: $45.29 billion (30 June 2007 est.) Economic aid - recipient: ODA $125.4 million (2005) Currency: kuna (HRK) Exchange rates: kuna per US$1 - 5.3735 (2007), 5.8625 (2006), 5.9473 (2005), 6.0358 (2004), 6.7035 (2003), 7.8687 (2002), 8.34 (2001), 8.2766 (2000), 7.112 (1999), 6.362 (1998), 6.157 (1997), 5.434 (1996), 5.230 (1995) See also Economy of Europe Croatia Croatian brands References External links Croatian National Bank Croatia Business Report Croatian Chamber of Economy Product-Of-Croatia | Economy_of_Croatia |@lemmatized economy:15 croatiacurrencykuna:1 hk:1 fiscal:4 yearcalendar:1 yeartrade:1 organisation:1 wtostatisticsgdp:1 rank:7 gdp:40 current:4 ppp:2 billion:58 growth:8 rate:9 per:20 caput:9 realgdp:1 sector:11 primary:2 industry:8 construction:5 service:6 structure:1 private:1 consumption:6 public:8 investment:7 export:13 import:6 inflation:4 pop:2 poverty:2 line:3 gini:2 coefficient:1 employ:1 population:5 employed:1 occupation:2 secondary:1 tertiary:1 unemployment:9 main:4 industriesferrous:1 metallurgy:1 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5,694 | Jim_Jarmusch | James R. Jarmusch, known as Jim Jarmusch, (; born January 22, 1953) is an American independent filmmaker. Jarmusch is a major exponent of independent cinema, particularly in the 1980s and 1990s. Early life Jarmusch was born to a European American family of middle-class surburbanites in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio in 1953. His mother was a reviewer of film and theatre for the Akron Beacon Journal before marrying his father, a businessman who worked for the B.F. Goodrich Company. The middle of three children, Jarmusch was an avid reader in his youth, with an interest in literature encouraged by his grandmother. He was introduced to the world of cinema by his mother, who would leave him at a local theater to watch matinee double features such as Attack of the Crab Monsters and Creature From the Black Lagoon while she ran errands. Another B-movie influence from his childhood was "Ghoulardi", an eccentric Cleveland television show which featured horror films. From his peers he developed a taste for counterculture: he and his friends would steal the records and books of their older siblings – Burroughs, Kerouac, Mothers of Invention. They made fake identity documents which allowed them to visit bars at the weekend but also the local art house cinema – which though it typically showed pornographic films would on occasion feature underground films such as Robert Downey, Sr.'s Putney Swope and Andy Warhol's Chelsea Girls. At one point, he took an apprenticeship with a commercial photographer. "Growing up in Ohio", he would later remark, "was just planning to get out". Escape to New York In 1972, after finishing high school, Jarmusch moved to Chicago and enrolled in the School of Journalism at Northwestern University. The following year, he transferred to Columbia University, where he studied English and American literature under professors including New York School avant garde poets Kenneth Koch and David Shapiro. At Columbia he began to write short "semi-narrative abstract pieces", and edited the undergraduate literary journal The Columbia Review. During his final year at Columbia, Jarmusch went to Paris, for what was initially a semester but turned into ten months. He worked as a delivery driver for an art gallery and spent most of his time at the Cinémathèque Française. After returning from Paris in 1976, he applied to the prestigious Graduate Film School of New York University's Tisch School of the Arts (then under the direction of Hollywood director László Benedek), Despite his complete lack of experience in filmmaking, his submission of a collection of still photographs and an essay about film secured his acceptance into the program. He studied there for four years, meeting fellow students and future collaborators Sara Driver, Tom DiCillo and Spike Lee in the process. During the late 1970s in New York City, Jarmusch and his contemporaries were part of an alternative culture scene centered on the CBGB music club. In his final year at New York University, Jarmusch worked as an assistant to the renowned film noir director Nicholas Ray, who was at that time teaching in the department. Jarmusch was the only person Ray brought to work – as his personal assistant – on Lightning Over Water , a documentary about his dying years on which he was collaborating with Wim Wenders. Ray died in the summer of 1979 after a fight with cancer. A few days afterwards, having been encouraged by Ray and New York underground filmmaker Amos Poe and using scholarship funds given by the Louis B. Mayer Foundation to pay for his school tuition, Jarmusch started work on his first feature film, Permanent Vacation (1980). Films 1980s Jarmusch's first major film, Stranger Than Paradise, was produced on a budget of approximately $125,000 and released in 1984 to much critical acclaim. Recounting a strange journey of three disillusioned youths from New York to Cleveland to Florida, the film broke many conventions of traditional Hollywood filmmaking, and to this day is still considered a landmark work in modern independent film. In 1986, Jarmusch wrote and directed Down by Law, a film about three convicts in a New Orleans jailhouse. As a result of his early work, Jarmusch became an influential representative of the trend of the American road movie. His next two films each experimented with parallel narratives: Mystery Train told three stories, one after the other, set on the same night in and around a small Memphis hotel, and Night on Earth involved five cab drivers and their passengers on rides in five different world cities, beginning at sundown in Los Angeles and ending at sunrise in Helsinki. 1990s In 1995, Jarmusch released Dead Man, a film set in the American West in the 19th century starring Johnny Depp and Gary Farmer that has been called a Western movie, an "acid western", an "anti-Western", and a "post-Western" by various critics. The film has been hailed as one of the few films made by a Caucasian that presents an authentic Native American culture and character, and Jarmusch stands by it as such; however, critics have both praised and decried the film for its portrayal of the American West, violence, and especially Native Americans. The film was shot in black and white by Robby Müller, and features a score composed and performed by Neil Young. Following artistic success and critical acclaim in the American independent film community, he achieved mainstream renown with his far-East philosophical crime film Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai, shot in Jersey City and starring Forest Whitaker as a young inner-city man who has found purpose for his life by unyieldingly conforming it to the Hagakure, an 18th-century philosophy text and training manual for samurai, becoming, as directed, a terrifyingly deadly hit-man for a local mob boss to whom he may owe a debt, and who then betrays him. The soundtrack was supplied by the Wu-Tang Clan's RZA. The film was unique among other things for the number of books important to and discussed by its characters, most of them listed bibliographically as part of the end credits. 2000s In 2004 he released what is possibly the final version of Coffee and Cigarettes, a collection of short film vignettes the first of which, "Strange to Meet You", had been shot for and aired on Saturday Night Live in 1986, and featured actor-filmmaker Roberto Benigni and comedian Steven Wright. This had been followed three years later by a "Twins", a segment with actors Steve Buscemi and Joie and Cinqué Lee, and then in 1993 with the Short Film Palme d'Or-winning "Somewhere in California", starring musicians Tom Waits and Iggy Pop. Coffee and Cigarettes was eventually released to selected theaters as a collection of eleven installments. Jarmusch' latest film, The Limits of Control, opened on May 22, 2009. The film will star Isaach de Bankolé and be set in Spain. As a filmmaker Style and themes Jarmusch's films often eschew traditional narrative structure, lacking clear plot progression and focusing more on mood and character development. Though his films are predominantly set in the United States, Jarmusch has advanced the notion that he looks at America “through a foreigner’s eyes”, with the intention of creating a form of world cinema that synthesises European and Japanese film with that of Hollywood. Many of his films include foreign actors and (at times substantial) non-English dialogue, usually subtitled although intentionally not so in the Cree and Blackfoot exchanges in Dead Man, which were left untranslated for the exclusive understanding of members of those nations. Jarmusch has experimented with a vignette format in three films either released or begun around the early nineties; Mystery Train, Night on Earth, and 2004's Coffee and Cigarettes. In his two later-nineties films, he dwelt on different cultures' views on violence, and on textual appropriations between cultures: a wandering Native American's love of William Blake, a black hit-man's passionate devotion to the Hagakure. The interaction and syntheses between different cultures is a recurring theme in Jarmusch's work. The protagonists of Jarmusch's films are usually lone adventurers, and the males "laconic, withdrawn, sorrowful mumblers" in the words of novelist Paul Auster. Impact and legacy In a 1989 review of his work, Vincent Canby of The New York Times called Jarmusch "the most adventurous and arresting film maker to surface in the American cinema in this decade". In a 2005 profile of the director in the same newspaper, Lynn Hirschberg declared Stranger than Paradise to have "permanently upended the idea of independent film as an intrinsically inaccessible avant-garde form". Personal life Jarmusch rarely discusses his personal life in public. His longtime girlfriend, filmmaker Sara Driver, worked closely with him on his early films, but the stress this put on their relationship caused them to break up and resolve thereafter not to work together. They have lived together for over twenty years, and though Jarmusch has expressed a wish for them to have children, they have none. He divides his time between New York City and the Catskill Mountains of Upstate New York. In the early 1980s, Jarmusch was part of a revolving lineup of musicians in Robin Crutchfield's Dark Day project, and later became the keyboardist and one of two vocalists for The Del-Byzanteens, a No Wave band whose sole LP Lies to Live By was a minor underground hit in the United States and Britain in 1982. Jarmusch is also featured on the album Wu-Tang Meets the Indie Culture (2005) in two interludes described by Sean Fennessy in a Pitchfork review of the album as both "bizarrely pretentious" and "reason alone to give it a listen". Jarmusch and Michel Gondry each contributed a remix to a limited edition release of the track "Blue Orchid" by The White Stripes in 2005. He has written a series of essays on influential bands and has had at least two poems published. Jarmusch is a founding member of The Sons of Lee Marvin, a humorous "semi-secret society" of artists resembling iconic actor Lee Marvin which issues communiqués and meets on occasion for the ostensible purpose of watching Marvin's films. Selected filmography Permanent Vacation (1980) Stranger Than Paradise (1984) Down by Law (1986) Mystery Train (1989) Night on Earth (1991) Dead Man (1995) Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai (1999) Coffee and Cigarettes (2003) Broken Flowers (2005) The Limits of Control (2009) Related topics No Wave Cinema Footnotes References Further reading External links Jim Jarmusch at the Senses of Cinema Great Directors critical database The Jim Jarmusch Resource Page, curated by Jarmusch scholar Ludvig Hertzberg Limited Control, Hertzberg's companion blog It's a sad and beautiful world | Jim_Jarmusch |@lemmatized james:1 r:1 jarmusch:32 know:1 jim:3 bear:2 january:1 american:11 independent:5 filmmaker:5 major:2 exponent:1 cinema:7 particularly:1 early:5 life:4 european:2 family:1 middle:2 class:1 surburbanites:1 cuyahoga:1 fall:1 ohio:2 mother:3 reviewer:1 film:37 theatre:1 akron:1 beacon:1 journal:2 marry:1 father:1 businessman:1 work:11 b:3 f:1 goodrich:1 company:1 three:6 child:2 avid:1 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5,695 | Context-sensitive_grammar | A context-sensitive grammar (CSG) is a formal grammar in which the left-hand sides and right-hand sides of any production rules may be surrounded by a context of terminal and nonterminal symbols. Context-sensitive grammars are more general than context-free grammars but still orderly enough to be parsed by a linear bounded automaton. The concept of context-sensitive grammar was introduced by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s as a way to describe the syntax of natural language where it is indeed often the case that a word may or may not be appropriate in a certain place depending upon the context. A formal language that can be described by a context-sensitive grammar is called a context-sensitive language. Formal definition A formal grammar G = (N, Σ, P, S) is context-sensitive if all rules in P are of the form αAβ → αγβ where A ∈ N (i.e., A is a single nonterminal), α,β ∈ (N U Σ)* (i.e., α and β are strings of nonterminals and terminals) and γ ∈ (N U Σ)+ (i.e., γ is a nonempty string of nonterminals and terminals). Some definitions also add that for any production rule of the form u → v of a context-sensitive grammar, it shall be true that |u|≤|v|. Here |u| and |v| denote the length of the strings respectively. In addition, a rule of the form S → λ provided S does not appear on the right side of any rule where λ represents the empty string is permitted. The addition of the empty string allows the statement that the context sensitive languages are a proper superset of the context free languages, rather than having to make the weaker statement that all context free grammars with no →λ productions are also context sensitive grammars. The name context-sensitive is explained by the α and β that form the context of A and determine whether A can be replaced with γ or not. This is different from a context-free grammar where the context of a nonterminal is not taken into consideration. If the possibility of adding the empty string to a language is added to the strings recognized by the noncontracting grammars (which can never include the empty string) then the languages in these two definitions are identical. Examples This grammar generates the canonical non-context-free language : The generation chain for aaa bbb ccc is: More complicated grammars can be used to parse , and other languages with even more letters: S → abcd S → aXbcd Xb → bX Xc → bYc Yc → cY Yd → Rcdd cR → Rc bR → Rb aR → aaX | aa (This grammar is not in fact context-sensitive, because of the presence of productions such as Xb → bX. However, there does exist a context-sensitive grammar for this language.) The generation chain for aaa bbb ccc ddd is: S aXbcd abXcd abbYcd abbcYd abbcRcdd abbRccdd abRbccdd aRbbccdd aaXbbccdd aabXbccdd aabbXccdd aabbbYccdd aabbbcYcdd aabbbccYdd aabbbccRcddd aabbbcRccddd aabbbRcccddd aabbRbcccddd aabRbbcccddd aaRbbbcccddd aaabbbcccddd Normal forms Every context-sensitive grammar which does not generate the empty string can be transformed into an equivalent one in Kuroda normal form. "Equivalent" here means that the two grammars generate the same language. The normal form will not in general be context-sensitive, but will be a noncontracting grammar. Computational properties and uses The decision problem that asks whether a certain string s belongs to the language of a certain context-sensitive grammar G, is PSPACE-complete. There are even some context-sensitive grammars whose fixed grammar recognition problem is PSPACE-complete. The emptiness problem for context-sensitive grammars (given a context-sensitive grammar G, is ?) is undecidable. It has been shown that nearly all natural languages may in general be characterized by context-sensitive grammars, but the whole class of CSG's seems to be much bigger than natural languages. Worse yet, since the aforementioned decision problem for CSG's is PSPACE-complete, that makes them totally unworkable for practical use, as a polynomial-time algorithm for a PSPACE-complete problem would imply P=NP. Ongoing research on computational linguistics has focused on formulating other classes of languages that are "mildly context-sensitive" whose decision problems are feasible, such as tree-adjoining grammars, combinatory categorial grammars, coupled context-free languages, and linear context-free rewriting systems. The languages generated by these formalisms properly lie between the context-free and context-sensitive languages. See also Chomsky hierarchy References Introduction to Languages and the Theory of Computation by John C. Martin McGraw Hill 1996 (2nd edition) | Context-sensitive_grammar |@lemmatized context:33 sensitive:21 grammar:27 csg:3 formal:4 left:1 hand:2 side:3 right:2 production:4 rule:5 may:4 surround:1 terminal:3 nonterminal:3 symbol:1 general:3 free:8 still:1 orderly:1 enough:1 parse:2 linear:2 bound:1 automaton:1 concept:1 introduce:1 noam:1 chomsky:2 way:1 describe:2 syntax:1 natural:3 language:19 indeed:1 often:1 case:1 word:1 appropriate:1 certain:3 place:1 depend:1 upon:1 call:1 definition:3 g:3 n:4 σ:3 p:3 form:7 αaβ:1 αγβ:1 e:3 single:1 α:3 β:3 u:5 string:10 nonterminals:2 γ:3 nonempty:1 also:3 add:3 v:3 shall:1 true:1 denote:1 length:1 respectively:1 addition:2 λ:3 provide:1 appear:1 represent:1 empty:5 permit:1 allow:1 statement:2 proper:1 superset:1 rather:1 make:2 weak:1 name:1 explain:1 determine:1 whether:2 replace:1 different:1 take:1 consideration:1 possibility:1 recognize:1 noncontracting:2 never:1 include:1 two:2 identical:1 examples:1 generate:4 canonical:1 non:1 generation:2 chain:2 aaa:2 bbb:2 ccc:2 complicated:1 use:3 even:2 letter:1 abcd:1 axbcd:2 xb:2 bx:2 xc:1 byc:1 yc:1 cy:1 yd:1 rcdd:1 cr:1 rc:1 br:1 rb:1 ar:1 aax:1 aa:1 fact:1 presence:1 however:1 exist:1 ddd:1 abxcd:1 abbycd:1 abbcyd:1 abbcrcdd:1 abbrccdd:1 abrbccdd:1 arbbccdd:1 aaxbbccdd:1 aabxbccdd:1 aabbxccdd:1 aabbbyccdd:1 aabbbcycdd:1 aabbbccydd:1 aabbbccrcddd:1 aabbbcrccddd:1 aabbbrcccddd:1 aabbrbcccddd:1 aabrbbcccddd:1 aarbbbcccddd:1 aaabbbcccddd:1 normal:3 every:1 transform:1 equivalent:2 one:1 kuroda:1 mean:1 computational:2 property:1 decision:3 problem:6 ask:1 belongs:1 pspace:4 complete:4 whose:2 fixed:1 recognition:1 emptiness:1 give:1 undecidable:1 show:1 nearly:1 characterize:1 whole:1 class:2 seem:1 much:1 big:1 bad:1 yet:1 since:1 aforementioned:1 totally:1 unworkable:1 practical:1 polynomial:1 time:1 algorithm:1 would:1 imply:1 np:1 ongoing:1 research:1 linguistics:1 focus:1 formulate:1 mildly:1 feasible:1 tree:1 adjoin:1 combinatory:1 categorial:1 couple:1 rewrite:1 system:1 formalism:1 properly:1 lie:1 see:1 hierarchy:1 reference:1 introduction:1 theory:1 computation:1 john:1 c:1 martin:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 edition:1 |@bigram context_sensitive:21 terminal_nonterminal:1 nonterminal_symbol:1 noam_chomsky:1 α_β:3 pspace_complete:4 computational_linguistics:1 chomsky_hierarchy:1 mcgraw_hill:1 |
5,696 | Demographics_of_Mayotte | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Mayotte, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 178,437 (July 2003 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 46.5% (male 41,632; female 41,301) 15-64 years: 51.8% (male 50,373; female 42,118) 65 years and over: 1.7% (male 1,502; female 1,511) (2003 est.) Median age: total: 16.9 years male: 18.1 years female: 15.7 years (2002) Population growth rate: 3.47% (2008 est.) Birth rate: 42.86 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) Death rate: 8.34 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) Net migration rate: 7.94 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.2 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.99 male(s)/female total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2003 est.) Infant mortality rate: total: 65.98 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) female: 59.44 deaths/1,000 live births male: 72.32 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth: total population: 60.6 years male: 58.49 years female: 62.78 years (2003 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: NA% HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: NA HIV/AIDS - deaths: NA Total fertility rate: 6.33 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality: noun: Mahorais (singular and plural) adjective: Mahoran Ethnic groups: NA Religions: Muslim 97%, Christian (mostly Roman Catholic) Languages: Mahorian (a Swahili dialect), French (official language) spoken by 35% of the population Literacy: definition: NA total population: 86% (Encyclopedia Britannica) male: NA% female: NA% See also Mayotte | Demographics_of_Mayotte |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:12 mayotte:2 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:10 age:2 structure:1 year:12 male:12 female:12 median:1 total:6 growth:1 rate:7 birth:7 death:6 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:4 life:1 expectancy:1 hiv:4 aid:4 adult:1 prevalence:1 na:7 people:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 mahorais:1 singular:1 plural:1 adjective:1 mahoran:1 ethnic:1 group:1 religion:1 muslim:1 christian:1 mostly:1 roman:1 catholic:1 languages:1 mahorian:1 swahili:1 dialect:1 french:1 official:1 language:1 speak:1 literacy:1 definition:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:8 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 hiv_aid:4 adult_prevalence:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 singular_plural:1 literacy_definition:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 |
5,697 | Detroit | Detroit () (, see List of U.S. place names of French origin pronounced ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the seat of Wayne County. Detroit is a major port city on the Detroit River, in the Midwest region of the United States. Located north of Windsor, Ontario, Detroit is the only major Of cities over 100,000 in population. A few smaller cities like Niagara Falls, New York also are north of Canada. U.S. city that looks south to Canada. It was founded on July 24, 1701 by the Frenchman Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac. Known as the world's traditional automotive center, Lawrence, Peter (2009).Interview with Michigan's Governor, Corporate Design Foundation. Retrieved on May 1, 2009. "Detroit" is a metonym for the American automobile industry and an important source of popular music legacies celebrated by the city's two familiar nicknames, The Motor City and Motown. Other nicknames emerged in the twentieth century, including Rock City (after the Kiss song "Detroit Rock City"), Arsenal of Democracy (during World War II), The D, D-Town, Hockeytown (a phrase officially owned by the city's NHL club, the Red Wings), and The 3-1-3 (its telephone area code). Commemorated in the 2002 movie 8 Mile. In 2008 Detroit ranked as the United States's eleventh most populous city, with 916,952 residents. At its peak in 1950 the city was the fourth largest in America, but has since seen a major shift in its population to the suburbs. The name Detroit sometimes refers to the Metro Detroit area, a sprawling region with a population of 4,425,110 for the Metropolitan Statistical Area, making it the nation's eleventh-largest, and a population of 5,354,225 for the nine-county Combined Statistical Area as of the 2008 Census Bureau estimates. The Detroit-Windsor area, a critical commercial link straddling the Canada-U.S. border, has a total population of about 5,700,000. World Agglomerations Retrieved on May 5, 2009. History The city name comes from the Detroit River (), meaning the strait of Lake Erie, linking Lake Huron and Lake Erie; in the historical context, the strait included Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River. Traveling up the Detroit River on the ship Le Griffon (owned by La Salle), Father Louis Hennepin noted the north bank of the river as an ideal location for a settlement. There, in 1701, the French officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, along with fifty-one additional French-Canadians, founded a settlement called Fort Ponchartrain du Détroit, naming it after the comte de Pontchartrain, Minister of Marine under Louis XIV. France offered free land to attract families to Detroit, which grew to 800 people in 1765, the largest city between Montreal and New Orleans. French Ontario in the 17th and 18th Centuries - Detroit, http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/ENGLISH/exhibits/franco_ontarian/detroit.htm, Archives of Ontario, July 14, 2008, accessed July 23, 2008 Francois Marie Picoté, sieur de Belestre (Montreal 1719–1793) was the last French military commander at Fort Detroit (1758–1760), surrendering the fort on November 29, 1760 to the British. The region's fur trade was an important economic activity. Detroit's city flag reflects this French heritage. (See Flag of Detroit, Michigan). During the French and Indian War (1760), British troops gained control and shortened the name to Detroit. Several tribes led by Chief Pontiac, an Ottawa leader, launched Pontiac's Rebellion (1763), including a siege of Fort Detroit. Partially in response to this, the British Royal Proclamation of 1763 included restrictions on white settlement in unceded Indian territories. Detroit passed to the United States under the Jay Treaty (1796). In 1805, fire destroyed most of the settlement. A river warehouse and brick chimneys of the wooden homes were the sole structures to survive. Ste. Anne of Detroit St. Anne Church. Retrieved on April 29, 2006. Detroit in the 1880s. From 1805 to 1847, Detroit was the capital of Michigan. As the city expanded, the street layout plan developed by Augustus B. Woodward, Chief Justice of the Michigan Territory was followed. Detroit fell to British troops during the War of 1812 in the Siege of Detroit, was recaptured by the United States in 1813 and incorporated as a city in 1815. Prior to the American Civil War, the city's access to the Canadian border made it a key stop along the underground railroad. Blockson, Charles and Chase, Henry (April 2005). Detroit - Follow the North Star, The Guiding Light of the Underground Railroad. "American Visions." Then a Lieutenant, the future president Ulysses S. Grant was stationed in the city. His dwelling is still at the Michigan State Fairgrounds. Because of this local sentiment, many Detroiters volunteered to fight during the American Civil War, beginning with the Iron Brigade which defended Washington, D.C. early in the Civil War. Abraham Lincoln is quoted as saying Thank God for Michigan! Following the death of President Abraham Lincoln, George Armstrong Custer delivered a eulogy to the thousands gathered near Campus Martius Park. Custer led the Michigan Brigade during the American Civil War and called them the Wolverines. Rosentreter, Roger (July/August 1998). "Come on you Wolverines, Michigan at Gettysburg." Michigan History magazine. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, many of the city's Gilded Age mansions and buildings arose. Detroit was referred to as the Paris of the West for its architecture, and for Washington Boulevard, recently electrified by Thomas Edison. Woodford, Arthur M. (2001). This is Detroit: 1701–2001. Wayne State University Press Strategically located along the Great Lakes waterway, Detroit emerged as a transportation hub. The city had grown steadily from the 1830s with the rise of shipping, shipbuilding, and manufacturing industries. In 1896, a thriving carriage trade prompted Henry Ford to build his first automobile in a rented workshop on Mack Avenue. In 1904 he founded the Ford Motor Company. Ford's manufacturing—and those of automotive pioneers William C. Durant, the Dodge brothers, Packard, and Walter Chrysler—reinforced Detroit's status as the world's automotive capital; it also served to encourage truck manufacturers such as Rapid and Grabowsky. With the introduction of Prohibition, smugglers used the river as a major conduit for Canadian spirits, organized in large part by the notorious Purple Gang. Nolan, Jenny (June 15, 1999).How Prohibition made Detroit a bootlegger's dream town. Michigan History, The Detroit News. Retrieved on November 23, 2007. Strained racial relations were evident in the 1920s trial of Dr. Ossian Sweet, a black Detroit physician acquitted of murder. A man died when shots were fired from Ossian's house into a threatening mob who gathered to try to force him out of a predominantly white neighborhood. Zacharias, Patricia (February 12, 2001). 'I have to die a man or live a coward' -- the saga of Dr. Ossian Sweet. Michigan History, The Detroit News. Retrieved on November 23, 2007. Cadillac Motor Co..(c.1910) Cass Ave. at Amsterdam St. Labor strife climaxed in the 1930s when the United Auto Workers became involved in bitter disputes with Detroit's auto manufacturers. The labor activism of those years brought notoriety to union leaders such as Jimmy Hoffa and Walter Reuther. The 1940s saw the construction of the world's first urban depressed freeway, the Davison Michigan Highways. michiganhighways.org Retrieved on April 30, 2006. and the industrial growth during World War II that led to Detroit's nickname as the Arsenal of Democracy. Nolan, Jenny (January 28, 1997).Willow Run and the Arsenal of Democracy. Michigan History, The Detroit News. Retrieved on November 23, 2007. Industry spurred growth during the first half of the twentieth century as the city drew tens of thousands of new residents, particularly workers from the Southern United States, to become the nation's fourth largest. At the same time, tens of thousands of European immigrants poured into the city. Social tensions rose with the rapid pace of growth. The color blind promotion policies of the auto plants resulted in racial tension that erupted into a full-scale riot in 1943. Baulch, Vivian M. and Patricia Zacharias (February 11, 1999). 1943 Detroit race riots. Michigan History, The Detroit News Retrieved on November 23, 2007. Michigan Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument of the Civil War with the old Detroit City Hall. Consolidation during the 1950s, especially in the automobile sector, increased competition for jobs. An extensive freeway system constructed in the 1950s and 1960s had facilitated commuting. The Twelfth Street riot in 1967, as well as court-ordered busing accelerated white flight from the city. Commensurate with the shift of population and jobs to its suburbs, the city's tax base eroded. In the years following, Detroit's population fell from a peak of roughly 1.8 million in 1950 to about half that number today. The gasoline crises of 1973 and 1979 impacted the U.S. auto industry as small cars from foreign makers made inroads. Heroin and crack cocaine use afflicted the city with the influence of Butch Jones, Maserati Rick, and the Chambers Brothers. Renaissance has been a perennial buzzword among city leaders, reinforced by the construction of the Renaissance Center in the late 1970s. This complex of skyscrapers, designed as a city within a city, slowed but was unable to reverse the trend of businesses leaving Downtown Detroit until the 1990s. In 1980, Detroit hosted the Republican National Convention which nominated Ronald Reagan to a successful bid for President of the United States. By then, nearly three decades of crime, drug addiction, and inadequate policies had caused areas like the Elmhurst block to decay. Government stuggles with vacant buildings.Detroit News, June 20, 2001. During the 1980s, abandoned structures were demolished to reduce havens for drug dealers with sizable tracts of land reverted to a form of urban prairie. Byles, Jeff. "Disappeared Detroit." Lost. January 2006. No. 2. Retrieved on April 11, 2009. In the 1990s, the city began to receive a revival with much of it centered in Downtown Detroit. Comerica Tower at Detroit Center (1993) arose on the city skyline. In the ensuing years, three casinos opened in Detroit: MGM Grand Detroit, MotorCity Casino, and Greektown Casino which debuted as resorts in 2007-08. New downtown stadiums were constructed for the Detroit Tigers and Detroit Lions in 2000 and 2002, respectively; this put the Lions' home stadium in the city proper for the first time since 1974.The city also saw the historic Book Cadillac Hotel hotel and the Fort Shelby Hotel reopen for the first time in over 20 years. The city hosted the 2005 MLB All-Star Game, 2006 Super Bowl XL, 2006 World Series, WrestleMania 23 in 2007 and the NCAA Final Four being hosted in April 2009 all of which prompted many improvements to the downtown area. The city's riverfront is the focus of much development following the example of Windsor, Ontario which began its waterfront parkland conversion in the 1990s; in 2007, the first portions of the Detroit River Walk were laid, including miles of parks and fountains. This new urban development in Detroit is a mainstay in the city's earnest desire to reinvent its economic identity through tourism. Bailey, Ruby L.(August 22, 2007). The D is a draw: Most suburbanites are repeat visitors.Detroit Free Press. New Detroit Free Press-Local 4 poll conducted by Selzer and Co., finds, "nearly two-thirds of residents of suburban Wayne, Oakland, and Macomb counties say they at least occasionally dine, attend cultural events or take in professional games in Detroit." Along the river, upscale million dollar condominiums are going up, such as Watermark Detroit, some of the most expensive the city has ever seen. Some city limit signs, particularly on the Dearborn border say "Welcome to Detroit, The Renaissance City Founded 1701." Geography Topography A simulated-color satellite image of Detroit, with Windsor across the river, taken on NASA's Landsat 7 satellite. Detroit skyline along the Detroit River. A view of the city from Belle Isle Park. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 143.0 square miles (370.2 km²); of this, 138.8 square miles (359.4 km²) is land and 4.2 square miles (10.8 km²) is water. Detroit is the principal city of the Metro Detroit and Southeast Michigan regions. The highest elevation in Detroit is in the University District neighborhood in northwestern Detroit, just west of Palmer Park sitting at a height of 670 feet (204 m). Detroit's lowest elevation is along its riverfront, sitting at a height of 579 feet (176 m). Detroit completely encircles the cities of Hamtramck and Highland Park. On its northeast border are the communities of Grosse Pointe. The Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge is the only international wildlife preserve in North America, uniquely located in the heart of a major metropolitan area. The Refuge includes islands, coastal wetlands, marshes, shoals, and waterfront lands along of the Detroit River and Western Lake Erie shoreline. Three road systems cross the city: the original French template, radial avenues from a Washington, D.C.-inspired system, and true north–south roads from the Northwest Ordinance township system. The city is north of Windsor, Ontario. Detroit is the only major city along the U.S.-Canadian border in which one travels south in order to cross into Canada. Detroit has four border crossings: the Ambassador Bridge and the Detroit-Windsor Tunnel provide motor vehicle thoroughfare; the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel provides railroad access to and from Canada. The fourth border crossing is the Detroit-Windsor Truck Ferry, located near the Windsor Salt Mine and Zug Island. Not far from Zug Island, the southwest part of the city sits atop a salt mine that is below the surface. The Detroit Salt Company mine has over of roads within it. Zacharias, Patricia (January 23, 2000). The ghostly salt city beneath Detroit. Michigan History, The Detroit News. Retrieved on November 23, 2007. Climate Detroit and the rest of southeastern Michigan have a continental climate which is influenced by the Great Lakes. Winters are cold with moderate snowfall Detroit Weather & Climate (2006). Michigan Vacations Retrieved on May 5, 2009. with temperatures at night sometimes dropping below 10 °F (–12 °C), while summers are warm with temperatures sometimes exceeding 90 °F (32 °C). Average monthly precipitation ranges from about two to four inches (50 to 100 mm). Snowfall, which typically occurs from November to early April, ranges from 1 to 10 inches (3 to 25 cm) per month. Monthly Averages for Detroit, MI (2006). Weather.com (accessed April 20, 2006). The highest recorded temperature was 105.0 °F (40.5 °C) on July 24, 1934, while the lowest recorded temperature was –24.0 °F (–31.1 °C) on December 22, 1872. Daily Records - Detroit (2007). National Weather Service Detroit/Pontiac, MI (Retrieved on May 5, 2009). Surrounding municipalities The cities of Hamtramck and Highland Park both lie entirely within the boundaries of the city of Detroit. Cityscape Detroit International Riverfront at night during the week of Super Bowl XL. Architecture Detroit's skyline at Hart Plaza. Penobscot Building (1928) left, with the Dime Building (1912). |St. Joseph Catholic Church (1873) is a notable example of Detroit's fine ecclesial architecture. Wayne County Building (1897) downtown by John and Arthur Scott. Seen in panorama, Detroit's waterfront shows a variety of architectural styles. The post modern neogothic spires of the Comerica Tower at Detroit Center (1993) were designed to blend with the city’s Art Deco skyscrapers. Together with the Renaissance Center, they form a distinctive and recognizable skyline. Examples of the Art Deco style include the Guardian Building and Penobscot Building downtown, as well as the Fisher Building and Cadillac Place in the New Center area near Wayne State University. Among the city's prominent structures are the nation's largest Fox Theatre, the Detroit Opera House, and the Detroit Institute of Arts. While the downtown and New Center areas contain high-rise buildings, the majority of the surrounding city consists of low-rise structures and single-family homes. Outside of the city's core, residential high-rises are found in neighborhoods such as the East Riverfront extending toward Grosse Pointe and the Palmer Park neighborhood just west of Woodward. Neighborhoods constructed prior to World War II feature the architecture of the times with wood frame and brick houses in the working class neighborhoods, larger brick homes in middle class neighborhoods, and ornate mansions in neighborhoods such as Brush Park, Woodbridge, Indian Village, Palmer Woods, Sherwood Forest, and others. The oldest neighborhoods are along the Woodward and Jefferson corridors, while neighborhoods built in the 1950s are found in the far west and closer to 8 Mile Road. Some of the oldest extant neighborhoods include Corktown, a working class, formerly Irish neighborhood, and Brush Park. Both are now seeing multi-million dollar restorations and construction of new homes and condominiums. The world is coming, see the change. City of Detroit Partnership. Retrieved on November 24, 2007. Pfeffer, Jaime (September 12, 2006).Falling for Brush Park.Model D Media. Retrieved on April 21, 2009. Many of the city's architecturally significant buildings are on the National Register of Historic Places and the city has one of the nation's largest surviving collections of late nineteenth and early twentieth century buildings. There are a number of architecturally significant churches, including St. Joseph Catholic Church and Saint Anne de Detroit Catholic Church. There is substantial activity in urban design, historic preservation and architecture. Cityscape Detroit.www.cityscapedetroit.org Retrieved on April 8, 2007. A number of downtown redevelopment projects—of which Campus Martius Park is one of the most notable—have revitalized parts of the city. Grand Circus Park stands near the city's theater district, Ford Field, home of the Detroit Lions, and Comerica Park, home of the Detroit Tigers. The Detroit International Riverfront includes a partially completed three and one-half mile riverfront promenade with a combination of parks, residential buildings, and commercial areas from Hart Plaza to the MacArthur Bridge accessing Belle Isle (the largest island park in a U.S. city). The riverfront includes Tri-Centennial State Park and Harbor, Michigan's first urban state park. The second phase is a two mile (3 km) extension from Hart Plaza to the Ambassador Bridge for a total of five miles (8 km) of parkway from bridge to bridge. Civic planners envision that the riverfront properties condemned under eminent domain, with their pedestrian parks, will spur more residential development. Other major parks include Palmer (north of Highland Park), River Rouge (in the southwest side), and Chene Park (on the east river downtown). Detroit News Editorial (December 13, 2002). At Last, Sensible Dream for Detroit's Riverfront. Detroit News. Neighborhoods Historic homes in the Indian Village neighborhood on the east side. The National Register of Historic Places lists several area neighborhoods and districts such as Lafayette Park, part of the Mies van der Rohe residential district. Lafayette Park is a revitalized neighorhood on the city's east side. Vitullo-Martin, Julio, (December 22, 2007). The Biggest Mies Collection: His Lafayette Park residential development thrives in Detroit.The Wall Street Journal.Retrieved on January 2, 2009. The urban renewal project was originally called the Gratiot Park Development. Planned by Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig Hilberseimer and Alfred Caldwell it includes a landscaped, park with no through traffic, in which these and other low-rise apartment buildings are situated. Eastern Market. On Saturdays, about 45,000 people shop the city's historic Eastern Market. Eastern MarketModel D Media Retrieved on January 2, 2009. The Midtown and the New Center area are centered around Wayne State University and Henry Ford Hospital. Midtown has about 50,000 residents, yet it attracts millions of visitors each year to its museums and cultural centers; Midtown Model D Media Retrieved on January 2, 2009. for example, the Detroit Festival of the Arts in Midtown draws about 350,000 people. The University Commons-Palmer Park district in northwest Detroit is near the University of Detroit Mercy and Marygrove College which anchors historic neighborhoods including Palmer Woods, Sherwood Forest, Green Acres, and the University District. In 2007, Downtown Detroit was named among the best big city neighborhoods in which to retire by CNN Money Magazine editors.<ref> Bigda, Carolyn, Erin Chambers, Lawrence Lanahan, Joe Light, Sarah Max, and Jennifer Merritt.Detroit Best place to retire: Downtown. CNN Money Magazine. Retrieved on January 2, 2009.</ref> Detroit has numerous neighborhoods suffering from urban decay, consisting of vacant properties. Estimates during the recession in 2008 reported around 44,000 vacant houses in the city. The city states it costs about $10,000 to demolish one, where necessary, and it requires many legal steps to do so. In April 2008, the city announced a $300-million stimulus plan to create jobs and revitalize neighborhoods, financed by city bonds and paid for by earmarking about 15% of the wagering tax. Next Detroit. City of Detroit. Retrieved on January 2, 2009. The city's working plans for neighborhood revitalizations include 7-Mile/Livernois, Brightmoor, East English Village, Grand River/Greenfield, North-End, and Osborn. Private organizations have pledged substantial funding to the efforts. Community Development.DEGA. Retrieved on January 2, 2009. Detroit Neighborhood Fund.Community Foundation for Southeast Michigan. Retrieved January, 2 2009. Immigrants have contributed to the city's neighborhood revitalization, especially in southwest Detroit. Rodriguez, Cindy (May 23, 2007).A Detroit success story: Can-do spirit revives southwest neighborhood. Detroit News. teamowners313.wordpress.com. Retrieved on January 2, 2009. Southwest Detroit has experienced a thriving economy in recent years, as evidenced by new housing, increased business openings and the recently opened Mexicantown International Welcome Center. Williams, Corey (February 28, 2008).New Latino Wave Helps Revitalize Detroit. USA Today. Retrieved on January 2, 2009. Culture and contemporary life Renaissance Center with giant decal for the 2005 MLB All-Star Game. Lifestyles for rising professionals in Detroit reflect those of other major cities. Harrison, Sheena (June 25, 2007). DEGA enlists help to spur Detroit retail. Crain's Detroit Business. Retrieved on November 28, 2007. "New downtown residents are largely young professionals according to Social Compact." This dynamic is luring many younger residents to the downtown area. Halaas, Jaime (December 20, 2005).Inside Detroit Lofts. Model D Media. Retrieved on November 28, 2007. Luxury high rises such as the three Riverfront Towers have views of Hart Plaza and Canada. The New Center area contains examples of historic housing redevelopment. The newly re-opened Westin Book-Cadillac Hotel includes a number of luxury condos. The east river development plans include more luxury condominium developments. A desire to be closer to the urban scene has attracted young professionals to take up residence among the mansions of Grosse Pointe just outside the city. Detroit's proximity to Windsor, Ontario, provides for views and nightlife, along with Ontario's minimum drinking age of 19. Entertainment and performing arts Fox Theatre lights up 'Foxtown' in downtown Detroit Live music has been a prominent feature of Detroit's nightlife since the late 1940s, bringing the city recognition under the nickname Motown. The metropolitan area has two nationally prominent live music venues: DTE Energy Music Theatre and The Palace of Auburn Hills. The Detroit Theatre District is the nation's second largest. Firsts and facts Detroit Tourism Economic Development Council. Retrieved on July 24, 2008. Arts & Culture Detroit Economic Growth Corporation. Retrieved on July 24, 2008. "Detroit is home to the second largest theatre district in the United States." Major theaters include the Fox Theatre, Music Hall, the Gem Theatre, Masonic Temple Theatre, the Detroit Opera House, the Fisher Theatre and Orchestra Hall which hosts the renowned Detroit Symphony Orchestra. The Nederlander Organization, the largest controller of Broadway productions in New York City, originated with the purchase of the Detroit Opera House in 1922 by the Nederlander Family and continues to operate to this day. Movie studios are planned for the metro area. Detroit Center Studios will debut at the downtown building which was the start-up casino for MGM Grand to create digital animation and visual effects. Shea, Bill - (2/3/09). $86 million film studio planned for former MGM Grand casino. Crains Detroit Business. Motown Motion Picture Studios with 600,000 square feet will produce movies at the Pontiac Centerpoint Business Campus for a film industry expected to employ over 4,000 people in the metro area. Gallaher, John and Kathleen Gray and Chris Christoff - (2/03/09).Pontiac film studio to bring jobs. Detroit Free Press. Important music events in the city include: the Detroit International Jazz Festival, the Detroit Electronic Music Festival, the Motor City Music Conference (MC2), the Urban Organic Music Conference, the Concert of Colors, and the hip-hop Summer Jamz festival. The city of Detroit has a rich musical heritage and has contributed to a number of different genres over the decades leading into the new millennium. In the 1940s, blues artist John Lee Hooker became a long-term resident in the city's southwest Delray neighborhood. Hooker, among other important blues musicians migrated from his home in Mississippi bringing the Delta Blues to northern cities like Detroit. During the 1950s, the city became a center for jazz, with stars performing in the Black Bottom neighborhood. Boyd, Herb (September 17, 1997). Cookin' in the Motor City. The Metro Times Prominent emerging Jazz musicians of the 1960s included: trumpet player Donald Byrd who attended Cass Tech and performed with Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers early in his career and Saxophonist Pepper Adams who enjoyed a solo career and accompanied Byrd on several albums. The Graystone International Jazz Museum documents jazz in Detroit. Swinging Through Time: The Graystone Museum and the story of Detroit jazz Hilberry Theatre at Wayne State University. Berry Gordy, Jr. founded Motown Records which rose to prominence during the 1960s and early 1970s with acts such as Stevie Wonder, The Temptations, The Four Tops, Smokey Robinson & The Miracles, Diana Ross & The Supremes, the Jackson 5, Martha and the Vandellas and Marvin Gaye. The Motown Sound played an important role in the crossover appeal with popular music, since it was the first record label owned by an African American to primarily feature African-American artists. Gordy moved Motown to Los Angeles in 1972 to pursue film production, but the company has since returned to Detroit. Aretha Franklin is another Detroit R&B star who carried the Motown Sound; however, she did not record with Berry's Motown Label. During the 1960-70s, popular rock bands performed regularly at venues such as the Grande Ballroom and the Eastown Theater. Local bands producing and performing music included artists like: the MC5, The Stooges, Bob Seger, Amboy Dukes featuring Ted Nugent, Mitch Ryder and The Detroit Wheels, Rare Earth, and Alice Cooper. The group Kiss emphasized the city's connection with rock in the song Detroit Rock City and the movie produced in 1999. In the 1980s, Detroit was an important center of the hardcore punk rock underground with many nationally known bands coming out of the city and its suburbs, such as The Necros, The Meatmen, and Negative Approach. In recent times, the city has produced a number of influential artists. Detroit is cited as the birthplace of techno music. Plexifilm - High Tech Soul Prominent Detroit Techno artists include Juan Atkins, Derrick May, and Kevin Saunderson. From the late 1990s into the new millennium, the band Sponge toured and produced music, with artists such as Kid Rock and Uncle Kracker. The city has an active garage rock genre that has generated national attention with acts such as: The White Stripes, The Von Bondies, The Dirtbombs, Electric Six, and The Hard Lessons. Tourism Detroit Institute of Arts Greektown, Detroit Many of the area's prominent museums are located in the historic cultural center neighborhood around Wayne State University. These museums include the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Detroit Historical Museum, Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, the Detroit Science Center, and the main branch of the Detroit Public Library. Other cultural highlights include Motown Historical Museum, Tuskegee Airmen Museum, Fort Wayne, Dossin Great Lakes Museum, the Museum of Contemporary Art Detroit (MOCAD), the Contemporary Art Institute of Detroit (CAID), and the Belle Isle Conservatory. Important history of Detroit and the surrounding area is exhibited at the The Henry Ford, the nation's largest indoor-outdoor museum complex. America's Story, Explore the States: Michigan (2006). Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village Library of Congress Retrieved on April 8, 2007. State of Michigan: MI Kids (2006).Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village Retrieved on April 8, 2007. The Detroit Historical Society provides information about tours of area churches, skyscrapers, and mansions. The Eastern Market farmer's distribution center is the largest open-air flowerbed market in the United States and has more than 150 foods and specialty businesses. History of Eastern Market. Eastern Market Merchant's Association. Retrieved on March 8, 2006. Other sites of interest are the Detroit Zoo and the Anna Scripps Whitcomb Conservatory on Belle Isle. CityFest in the New Center with Cadillac Place in the background. The city's Greektown and casino resorts serve as an entertainment hub. Annual summer events include the Detroit Electronic Music Festival, Detroit International Jazz Festival, and Woodward Dream Cruise. Within downtown, Campus Martius Park hosts large events such as the Motown Winter Blast. As the world's traditional automotive center, the city hosts the North American International Auto Show. Held since 1924, America's Thanksgiving Parade is one of the nation's largest. The Parade Company. Retrieved on October 28, 2007. The Motown Winter Blast and River days, a five-day festival on the International Riverfront, leading up to the Windsor-Detroit International Freedom Festival fireworks can draw super sized-crowds of hundreds of thousands to over three million people. Bailey, Ruby L (August 22, 2007). The D is a draw: Most suburbanites are repeat visitors.Detroit Free Press. New Detroit Free Press-Local 4 poll conducted by Selzer and Co., finds, "nearly two-thirds of residents of suburban Wayne, Oakland, and Macomb counties say they at least occasionally dine, attend cultural events or take in professional games in Detroit." Fifth Third Bank rocks the Winter Blast.Michigan Chronicle. (March 14, 2006). Dotty-Wotty House - a part of the Heidelberg Project. An important civic sculpture in Detroit is Marshall Fredericks' "Spirit of Detroit" at the Coleman Young Municipal Center. The image is often used as a symbol of Detroit and the statue itself is occasionally dressed in sports jerseys to celebrate when a Detroit team is doing well. Baulch, Vivian M. (August 4, 1998). Marshall Fredericks -- the Spirit of Detroit. Michigan History, The Detroit News. Retrieved on November 23, 2007. A memorial to Joe Louis at the intersection of Jefferson and Woodward Avenues was dedicated on October 16, 1986. The sculpture, commissioned by Sports Illustrated and executed by Robert Graham, is a twenty-four foot (7.3 m) long arm with a fisted hand suspended by a pyramidal framework. Sarah Karush, The Associated Press (February 23, 2004). Police arrest two men suspected of vandalizing Joe Louis statue. USA Today. Artist Tyree Guyton created the controversial street art exhibit known as the Heidelberg Project in the mid 1980s, using junk and abandoned cars, clothing, shoes, vacuum cleaners, and other garbage Guyton found in the neighborhood near and on Heidelberg Street on the near East Side of Detroit. Sports Looking towards Ford Field the night of Super Bowl XL. Detroit is one of 13 American metropolitan areas that are home to professional teams representing the four major sports in North America. All these teams but one play within the city of Detroit itself (the NBA's Detroit Pistons and the WNBA's Detroit Shock both play in suburban Auburn Hills at The Palace of Auburn Hills). There are three active major sports venues within the city: Comerica Park (home of the Major League Baseball team Detroit Tigers), Ford Field (home of the NFL's Detroit Lions), and Joe Louis Arena (home of the NHL's Detroit Red Wings). A 1996 marketing campaign promoted the nickname "Hockeytown". In college sports, Detroit's central location within the Mid-American Conference has made it a frequent site for the league's championship events. While the MAC Basketball Tournament moved permanently to Cleveland starting in 2000, the MAC Football Championship Game has been played at Ford Field in Detroit since 2004, and annually attracts 25,000 to 30,000 fans. The University of Detroit Mercy has a NCAA Division I program, and Wayne State University has both NCAA Division I and II programs. The NCAA football Motor City Bowl is held at Ford Field each December. Sailboat racing is a major sport in the Detroit area. Lake St. Clair is home to many yacht clubs which host regattas. Bayview Yacht Club, the Detroit Yacht Club, Crescent Sail Yacht Club, Grosse Pointe Yacht Club, The Windsor Yacht Club, and the Edison Boat Club each participate in and are governed by the Detroit Regional Yacht-Racing Association or DRYA. Detroit is home to many One-Design fleets including, but not limited to, North American 40s, Cal 25s, C&C 35s, Crescent Sailboats, Express 27s, J 120s, J 105, Flying Scots, and many more. The Crescent Sailboat, NA-40, and the L boat were designed and built exclusively in Detroit. Detroit also has a very active and competitive junior sailing program. The junior sailing program at the Grosse Pointe Yacht Club is renowned for producing world class sailors such as Carrie Howe and Jack Wheeler. Comerica Park 2007 Since 1916, the city has been home to an American Boat Racing Association Unlimited hydroplane boat race, held annually (with exceptions) on the Detroit River near Belle Isle. Often, the race is for the ABRA Challenge Cup, more commonly known as the Gold Cup (first awarded in 1904, created by Tiffany) which is the oldest active motorsport trophy in the world. History. The Detroit ABRA Gold Cup Detroit was the former home of a round of the Formula One World Championship, which held the race on the streets of downtown Detroit from 1982 until 1988, after which the sanction moved from Formula One to IndyCars until its final run in 2001. Track History. CART. In 2007, open-wheel racing returned to Belle Isle with both Indy Racing League and American Le Mans Series Racing. Detroit was given the name "City of Champions" in the 1930s for a series of successes both in individual and in team sport. Gar Wood (a native Detroiter) won the Harmsworth Trophy for unlimited powerboat racing on the Detroit River in 1931. In the next year, 1932, Eddie "The Midnight Express" Tolan, a black student from Detroit's Cass Technical High School, won the 100- and 200-meter races and two gold medals at the 1932 Summer Olympics. Joe Louis won the heavyweight championship of the world in 1937. Also, in 1935 the Detroit Lions won the NFL championship. The Detroit Tigers have won ten American League pennants (The most recent being in 2006) and four World Series titles. In 1984, the Detroit Tigers' World Series championship, after which crowds had left three dead and millions of dollars in property damage. The Detroit Red Wings have won 11 Stanley Cups (the most by an American NHL Franchise), http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id=91&category=sports. Detroit News. Retrieved on April 8, 2007. the Detroit Pistons have won three NBA titles, and the Detroit Shock have won three WNBA titles. In 2007, Detroit was given the nickname "Sports City USA" in recognition of its numerous sports teams with good game statistics and the high amount of dedicated sports fans. Sporting News - Your expert source for MLB Baseball, NFL Football, NBA Basketball, NHL Hockey, NCAA Football, NCAA Basketball and Fantasy Sports scores, blogs, and articles Detroit has the distinction of being the city which has made the most bids to host the Summer Olympics without ever being awarded the games: seven unsuccessful bids for the 1944, 1952, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1968 and 1972 games. It came as high as second place in the balloting two times, losing the 1964 games to Tokyo and the 1968 games to Mexico City. Detroit hosts many WWE events such as the 2007 WWE's WrestleMania 23 which attracted 80,103 fans to Ford Field; the event marking the twentieth anniversary of WrestleMania III which drew a reported 93,173 to the Pontiac Silverdome in nearby Pontiac, Michigan in 1987. On May 31 and June 1 of 2008, The Red Bull Air Race took place along the Detroit River. MediaThe Detroit Free Press and The Detroit News are the major daily newspapers, both broadsheet publications published together under a joint operating agreement. Media philanthropy includes the Detroit Free Press high school journalism program and the Old Newsboys' Goodfellow Fund of Detroit. Old Newsboys' Goodfellow Fund of Detroit. Retrieved on April 21, 2009. In December, 2008, the Detroit Media Partnership announced that the two papers would reduce home delivery to three days a week, print reduced newsstand issues of the papers on non-delivery days and focus resources on Internet-based news delivery BOLD TRANSFORMATION OF DETROIT FREE PRESS AND THE DETROIT NEWS LEAD NATION AND INDUSTRY WITH EXPANDED DIGITAL OFFERINGS; LAUNCH OF NEW MAGAZINE; COLORFUL, EASY-TO-USE NEWSSTAND EDITIONS . These changes went into effect in March, 2009. The Detroit television market is the eleventh largest in the United States; Nielsen Media Research Local Universe Estimates (September 24, 2005) The Nielson Company according to estimates that do not include audiences located in large areas of Ontario, Canada (Windsor and its surrounding area on broadcast and cable, as well as several other cable markets in Ontario, such as the city of Ottawa) which receive and watch Detroit television stations. Detroit has the eleventh largest radio market in the United States, Market Ranks and Schedule). Arbitron.com. Retrieved on January 23, 2008. though this ranking does not take into account Canadian audiences. Economy The Renaissance Center is General Motors' world headquarters Detroit and the surrounding region constitute a major manufacturing center, most notably as home to the Big Three automobile companies, General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler. The city is an important center for global trade with large international law firms having their offices in both Detroit and Windsor. About 80,500 people work in downtown Detroit, comprising 21% of the City's employment. Henion, Andy (03-22-2007).City puts transit idea in motion.The Detroit News. Retrieved on May 14, 2007. The Urban Markets Initiative, Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program, The Social Compact Inc., University of Michigan Graduate Real Estate Program, (October 2006).Downtown Detroit in Focus: A Profile of Market Opportunity.Detroit Economic Growth Corporation and Downtown Detroit Partnership. Retrieved on June 14, 2008. There are about four thousand factories in the area. World Book Inc., Volume 5. 2008. The domestic auto industry is primarily headquartered in Metro Detroit. New vehicle production, sales, and jobs related to automobile use account for one of every ten jobs in the United States. Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers (2006). From the 2003 Study "Contributions of the Automotive Industry to the U.S. Economy" University of Michigan and the Center for Automotive ResearchAutoalliance.com. Retrieved on April 12, 2007. The area is also an important source of engineering job opportunities. A 2004 Border Transportation Partnership study showed that 150,000 jobs in the Windsor-Detroit region and $13 billion in annual production depend on the City of Detroit's international border crossing. Detroit Regional Chamber (2006) Detroit/Windsor Border Update: Part I-Detroit River International Crossing Study Retrieved on April 8, 2007. The Detroit area is accustomed to the economic cycles of the auto industry. Flint, Jerry (September 9, 1996). Can Detroit Weather a Downturn?. Forbes, found at faculty.ncwc.edu/denders/eng112/sample_summary.htm A rise in automated manufacturing using robot technology, inexpensive labor in other parts of the world, and increased competition have led to a steady transformation of certain types of manufacturing jobs in the region. Local complications for the city include higher taxes than the nearby suburbs, with many unable to afford the levies on property. Josar, David (May 27, 2005). Neighborhood rebirth stalls: High property taxes burden Detroit homeowners. Detroit News. In February 2009, metropolitan Detroit's unemployment rate was 13.6%. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2/2009). Table 1. Civilian labor force and unemployment by state and metropolitan area . U.S. Department of Labor. In the city, the unemployment rate was 14.2% at the end of 2005. Parts of the city have vacant buildings. Though the city has struggled with finances, it issued bonds in 2008 to provide funding to demolish blighted properties. Comerica Tower in the city's financial district. In spite of foreign competition for market share, Detroit's automakers have continued to gain volume from previous decades with the expansion of the American and global automotive markets. In the late 1990s, Detroit's automakers had gained market share and were enjoying record profits until the recession of 2001 and the subsequent September 11 attacks caused a severe decline in the stock market along with a pension and benefit funds crisis. Although retiree health care costs remain a significant issue, General Motors' investment strategy generated a $17.1 billion surplus in 2007 for its $101 billion U.S pension portfolio, a $35 billion reversal from its $17.8 billion in underfunding. Sloan, Allan (April 10, 2007).GM's High-Performance Pension Machine Washington Post, D02. In 1994, with rising demand for sport-utility vehicles and pickup trucks, the industry fought Clinton administration's efforts to implement an across the board Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) increase. Woellert, Lorraine (March 3, 2001). Why Detroit May Swallow Some Bitter CAFE. Business Week. In 2005, the Bush administration asked Congress for the authority to reform the CAFE standard from a single average to six different size based categories in an effort to resolve the issue. A spike in oil prices during the Late-2000s recession, consumers have chosen to purchase fewer trucks and SUVs. This negatively impacted the profits of Detroit's automakers. As a result, GM and Ford implemented their respective turnaround plans. Concern among analysts over restored profits has fueled economic uncertainty in the metro Detroit area. Ford's Way Forward Business Week Cruise Control Radio Retrieved on April 2, 2007. During the Late-2000s recession, President George W. Bush extended loans from the Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP) funds in order to help the Big three automakers bridge the recession. The President extended the loans to aid the auto industry's restructuring plans which include a goal to convert long term debt into equity and to make costs competitive. Neuman, Scott (December 20, 2008). Bush Sets $17.4 Billion In Loans For Automakers. Retrieved on January 14, 2009. In 2009, the federal government is working closely with GM and Chrysler for restructing or possible Chapter 11 reorganization. Firms in the suburbs pursue emerging technologies including biotechnology, nanotechnology, information technology, cognotechnology, and hydrogen fuel cell development. The city of Detroit has made efforts to lure the region's growth companies downtown with advantages such as a wireless Internet zone, business tax incentives, entertainment, an international riverfront, and residential high rises. Thus far, the city has had some success, most notably the addition of Compuware World Headquarters, OnStar, EDS offices at the Renaissance Center, PricewaterhouseCoopers Plaza offices adjacent to Ford Field, and the 2006 completion of Ernst & Young's offices at One Kennedy Square. However, Comerica Bank decided to move its headquarters from Detroit to Dallas in 2007 while maintaining its substantial presence in the region. On November 12, 2007, Quicken Loans announced its development agreement with the city to move its world headquarters, and 4,000 employees, to downtown Detroit, consolidating its suburban offices, a move considered to be a high importance to city planners to reestablish the historic downtown. Howes, Daniel (November 12, 2007).Quicken moving to downtown Detroit.The Detroit News. Retrieved on November 12, 2007. The construction sites reserved for development by the agreement include the location of the former Statler on Grand Circus Park and the former Hudson's location. Compuware World Headquarters Some Fortune 500 companies headquartered in Detroit include General Motors, auto parts maker American Axle & Manufacturing, and DTE Energy. Fortune). CNNMoney.com. Retrieved on April 8, 2007. Detroit is home to Compuware and the national pizza chain Little Caesars. Downtown Detroit has major offices for Electronic Data Systems, Visteon, Delphi, Ford Motor Company, PricewaterhouseCoopers, Ernst & Young, Deloitte Touche, KPMG, Chrysler, GMAC, and OnStar. Other major industries include advertising, law, finance, chemicals, and computer software. One of the nation's largest law firms, Miller, Canfield, Paddock & Stone P.L.C., has offices in both Windsor and Detroit. Compuware's new headquarters, GM's move to the Renaissance Center, and the State of Michigan's redevelopment of Cadillac Place in the New Center district have provided new synergies for the redevelopment of downtown. MGM Grand Detroit. The S.S. Kresge Company, forerunner of the modern K-mart department store chain, was founded in Detroit in 1899. It later moved to Troy, ultimately leaving the region entirely after a 2005 merger combined Kmart into the Illinois-based Sears Holdings Corporation. Casino gaming plays an important economic role, with Detroit the largest city in the United States to offer casino resorts. Caesars Windsor, Canada's largest, complements the MGM Grand Detroit, MotorCity Casino, and Greektown Casino in Detroit. Though the casinos have brought new tax revenue and jobs to the city, the city still has high unemployment. Gaming revenues have grown steadily, with Detroit ranked as the fifth largest gambling market in the USA for 2007. However, when Casino Windsor is included, Detroit's gambling market ranks third or fourth. In 2006, downtown Detroit reported $1.3 billion in restorations and new developments which increased the number of construction jobs in the city. Medical service providers such as the Detroit Medical Center and Henry Ford Hospital are major employers in the city. Demographics Per Capita Income by location. Dotted line represents city boundary. In 2008, Detroit ranked as the United States' eleventh most populous city, with 916,952 residents. The name Detroit sometimes refers to Metro Detroit, a six-county area with a population of 4,425,110 for the Metropolitan Statistical Area, making it the nation's eleventh-largest, and a population of 5,354,225 for the nine-county Combined Statistical Area as of the 2007 Census Bureau estimates. The Detroit-Windsor area, a critical commercial link straddling the Canada-U.S. border, has a total population of about 5,700,000. Immigration continues to play a role in the region's projected growth. Metro Area Factsheet: Detroit-Ann Arbor-Flint, Michigan CMSA.Federation for Immigration Reform. Retrieved on April 4, 2009. Metro Detroit suburbs are among the more affluent in the U.S. in contrast to lower incomes found within the city limits. A 2007 report shows the city of Detroit's median household income at $34,512, a 12% increase over the Census estimate. Reppert, Joe (October 2007).Detroit Neighborhood Market Drill Down. Social Compact. Retrieved on May 30, 2008. The city's population increased more than sixfold during the first half of the twentieth century, fed largely by an influx of Eastern European, Lebanese and Southern migrants to work in the burgeoning automobile industry. Baulch, Vivian M. (September 4, 1999). Michigan's greatest treasure -- Its people. Michigan History, The Detroit News. Retrieved on October 22, 2007. However, since 1950 the city has seen a major shift in its population to the suburbs. The city population dropped from its peak in 1950 with a population of 1,849,568 to 916,952 in 2007. This is partly attributable to the construction of an extensive freeway system during the 1950s and white flight, while many residents have relocated to the Sun belt. In the 2000s, 70% of the total Black population in Metro Detroit lived in the City of Detroit. Towbridge, Gordon. "Racial divide widest in US." The Detroit News. January 14, 2002. Retrieved on March 30, 2009. As of the 2000 Census, there were 951,270 people, 336,428 households, and 218,341 families residing in the city. The population density was 6,855.1 people per square mile (2,646.7/km²). There were 375,096 housing units at an average density of 2,703.0 units per square mile (1,043.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 81.6% Black, 12.3% White, 1.0% Asian, 0.3% Native American, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 2.5% other races, 2.3% two or more races, and 5.0 percent Hispanic. The city's foreign-born population is at 4.8%. Estimates for the 2007 U.S Census community survey showed little variance. ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates: 2005-2007 There were 336,428 households out of which 33.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 26.7% were married couples living together, 31.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.1% were non-families, 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.2% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.45. There is a wide age distribution in the city, with 31.1% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 89.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males. For the 2000 Census, median household income in the city was $29,526, and the median income for a family was $33,853. Males had a median income of $33,381 versus $26,749 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,717. 26.1% of the population and 21.7% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 34.5% of those under the age of 18 and 18.6% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Law and government Coleman A. Young Municipal Center houses the City of Detroit offices. The historic Guardian Building is Wayne County headquarters. The city government is run by a mayor and nine-member city council and clerk elected on an at-large nonpartisan ballot. Since voters approved the city's charter in 1974, Detroit has had a "strong mayoral" system, with the mayor approving departmental appointments. The council approves budgets but the mayor is not obligated to adhere to any earmarking. City ordinances and substantially large contracts must be approved by the council. The city clerk supervises elections and is formally charged with the maintenance of municipal records. Municipal elections for mayor, city council and city clerk are held at four-year intervals, in the year after presidential elections (so that there are Detroit elections scheduled in 1993, 1997, 2001, 2005, 2009, etc.). Ward, George E. (July 1993). Detroit Charter Revision - A Brief History. Citizens Research Council of Michigan (pdf file). Detroit's courts are state-administered and elections are nonpartisan. The Probate Court for Wayne County is located in the Coleman A. Young Municipal Center in downtown Detroit. The Circuit Court is located across Gratiot Ave. in the Frank Murphy Hall of Justice, in downtown Detroit. The city is home to the Thirty Sixth District Court, as well as the First District of the Michigan Court of Appeals and the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan. Politics Politically, the city consistently supports the Democratic Party in state and national elections (local election are nonpartisan). According to a study released by the Bay Area Center for Voting Research, Detroit is the most liberal large city in America, measuring only the percentage of city residents who voted for the Democratic Party. In 2000, the City requested an investigation by the United States Justice Department into the Detroit Police Department which was concluded in 2003 over allegations regarding its use of force and civil rights violations. Quarterly Status Report to the Independent Federal Monitor. Detroit Police Department Retrieved on April 8, 2007. The city proceeded with a major reorganization of the Detroit Police Department. Lin, Judy and David Joser, (August 30, 2005).Detroit to trim 150 cops, precincts. Detroit News. Retrieved on July 24, 2007. Urban development in Detroit has been an important issue. In 1973, the city elected its first black mayor, Coleman Young. Despite development efforts, his combative style during his five terms in office was not well received by many whites. Detroit's 'great warrior,' Coleman Young, dies (November 29, 1997). CNN.com. Mayor Dennis Archer, a former Michigan Supreme Court Justice, refocused the city's attention on redevelopment with a plan to permit three casinos downtown. "ROLLING THE DICE IN A PLACE ONCE FILLED WITH PRIDE." Chicago Tribune. North Sports Final, C Edition. January 13, 1998. Tempo 1. Retrieved on March 30, 2009. Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick resigned his office effective September 19, 2008, http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080904/UPDATE/809040464 after pleading guilty to two counts of obstruction of justice and no contest to one count of assaulting and obstructing a police officer. "Bill McGraw: Kilpatrick a first for Detroit", Bill McGraw, Detroit Free Press, March 24, 2008 . Kilpatrick was succeeded in office on an interim basis by City Council President Kenneth Cockrel, Jr. until a May, 2009 special election in which businessman and former Detroit Pistons star Dave Bing was elected Mayor for the remaining duration of Kilpatrick's term. Crime Although crime has declined significantly since the 1970s, the city had the sixth highest number of violent crimes among the twenty-five largest cities in 2007. FBI UCR table 6. Retrieved on January 17, 2009. This incidence of crime has brought it notoriety. The city has tried to shake its crime-laden image, pointing to a 2006 study, where crime in downtown Detroit (CBD) is shown to be much lower than national, state and metro averages. Booza, Jason C. (July 26, 2006).Reality v. Perceptions: An Updated Analysis of Crime and Safety in Downtown Detroit. Michigan Metropolitan Information Center, Wayne State University Center for Urban Studies. Retrieved on January 21, 2008. According to a 2007 analysis, Detroit officials note that about 65 to 70 percent of homicides in the city were confined to a narcotics catalyst. Shelton, Steve Malik (January 30, 2008).Top cop urges vigilance against crime. Michigan Chronicle. Retrieved on March 17, 2008. Education Colleges and universities Old Main, a historic building at Wayne State University. Detroit is home to several institutions of higher learning, including Wayne State University, a national research university with medical and law schools in the Midtown area. Other institutions in the city include the University of Detroit Mercy with its schools of Law and Dentistry, the College for Creative Studies, Lewis College of Business, Marygrove College and Wayne County Community College. In June 2009 the Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine will be opening a satellite campus located at the Detroit Medical Center. The Detroit College of Law, now affiliated with Michigan State University, was founded in the city in 1891 and remained there until 1997, when it relocated to East Lansing. The University of Michigan was established in 1817 in Detroit and later moved to Ann Arbor in 1837. In 1959, University of Michigan–Dearborn was established in neighboring Dearborn. Primary and secondary schools Public schools Detroit Public Library. With 94,054 students the Detroit Public Schools (DPS) district is the largest school district in Michigan and consists of 220 schools. The city is also served by various charter schools. In the mid- to late 1990s, the Michigan Legislature removed the locally elected board of education amid allegations of mismanagement and replaced it with a reform board appointed by the mayor and governor. The elected board of education was re-established following a city referendum in 2005. The first election of the new eleven-member board of education occurred on November 8, 2005. LewAllen, Dave (August 3, 2005). Detroiters Vote for New School Board. WXYZ.com. Due to declining enrollment the city planned to close 95 schools, and the state mandated deficit reduction plan calls for the closure of a total of 110 schools. Bukowski, Diane (2006).Where did the first billion go?. The Michigan Citizen. Detroit News Staff (October 30, 2007).Michigan Stung by study's dropout list.Detroit News. Retrieved on October 30, 2007."Michigan education officials vigorously dispute the report." State officials report a 68% graduation rate for Detroit's public schools adjusted for those who change schools. Shultz, Marissa and Greg Wilkerson (June 13, 2007).Graduation rate.Detroit News.Retrieved on March 17, 2009. Mrozowski, Jennifer (June 5, 2008)Detroit graduation rate is the worst.Detroit News. Retrieved on April 10, 2009. Private schools Detroit is served by various private schools, as well as parochial Roman Catholic schools run by the Archdiocese of Detroit. Kozlowski, Kim (February 27, 2005). Catholic schools fight to keep doors open. The Detroit News. Infrastructure Health systems St. John Hospital & Medical Center in Detroit. Within the city of Detroit, there are over a dozen major hospitals which include the Detroit Medical Center (DMC), Henry Ford Health System, St. John Health System, and the John D. Dingell VA Medical Center. The DMC, a regional Level I trauma center, consists of Detroit Receiving Hospital and University Health Center, Children's Hospital of Michigan, Harper University Hospital, Hutzel Women's Hospital, Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan, Sinai-Grace Hospital, and the Karmanos Cancer Institute. US News online directory of hospitals.U.S. News. Retrieved on April 8, 2007. The DMC has more than 2,000 licensed beds and 3,000 affiliated physicians. It is also the biggest non-governmental employer in the City of Detroit. Organization History and Profile Detroit Medical Center Retrieved on April 29, 2006. The center is staffed by physicians from the Wayne State University School of Medicine, the largest single-campus medical school in the United States. Webpage: About the School. Wayne State University School of Medicine. Retrieved on April 20, 2006. The metro area has many other hospitals, among which are William Beaumont Hospital, St. Joseph's, and University of Michigan Medical Center, mostly in suburban counties. Transportation With its proximity to Canada and its facilities, ports, major highways, rail connections and international airports, Detroit is an important transportation hub. The city has three international border crossings, the Ambassador Bridge, Detroit-Windsor Tunnel and Michigan Central Railway Tunnel, linking Detroit to Windsor, Ontario. The Ambassador Bridge is the single busiest border crossing in North America, carrying 27% of the total trade between the U.S. and Canada. Ambassador Bridge Crossing Summary (May 11, 2005). U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved on April 8, 2007. Air Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport (DTW), the area's principal airport, is located in nearby Romulus and is the primary hub for Northwest Airlines and Spirit Airlines. Bishop International Airport (FNT) in Flint, Michigan is the second busiest commercial airport in the region. Coleman A. Young International Airport (DET), previously called Detroit City Airport, is on Detroit's northeast side. Although Southwest Airlines once flew from the airport, the airport now maintains only charter service and general aviation. Sapte, Benjamin (2003). Southwest Airlines: Route Network Development since 1971. Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Retrieved on April 20, 2006. Willow Run Airport, in far-western Wayne County near Ypsilanti, is a general aviation and cargo airport. Mass transit People Mover train comes into the Renaissance Center station Mass transit in the region is provided by bus services. Ridership on the region's mass transit systems increased by 8.4% in 2006. Foran, Janet - MDOT (March 22, 2007).Mass tranit ridership jumps in Southeast Michigan. Metromode. Retrieved on July 31, 2007. The Detroit Department of Transportation (DDOT) provides service to the outer edges of the city. From there, the Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation (SMART) provides service to the suburbs. Cross border service between the downtown areas of Windsor and Detroit is provided by Transit Windsor via the Tunnel Bus. It is also possible for those who cross to Detroit on the tunnel bus to use a Transit Windsor transfer for transfers onto Detroit Smart buses, allowing for travel around Metro Detroit from a single fare. An automated guideway transit system known as the People Mover, completed in 1987, provides daily service around a 2.9 mile (4.6 km) loop downtown. Amtrak provides service to Detroit, operating its service between Chicago and Pontiac. Baggage cannot be checked at this location; however, up to two suitcases in addition to any "personal items" such as briefcases, purses, laptop bags, and infant equipment are allowed on board as carry-ons. The current passenger facility is north of downtown. The J.W. Westcott II, which delivers mail to freighters on the Detroit River, is the world's only floating post office. America's Floating ZIP Code 48222 J.W. Westcott Homepage. Retrieved on April 8, 2007. From 1976 until June 21, 2003, Detroit operated a one mile narrow-gauge trolley along an "L-shaped" route from Grand Circus Park to the Renaissance Center along Washington Boulevard and Jefferson Avenue, with the trams coming from Lisbon, Portugal. The tram was originally just 3/4 miles long, but was extended 1/4 mile to the Renaissance Center in 1980. The tracks were removed in November 2003 following the extensive reconstruction of Washington Boulevard, and the carbarn (building that housed the trolleys) was demolished in 2004. With the advent of the People Mover, trolley ridership had eventually plummeted to less than 3000 per year (from its peak of 75,000 riders per year) before the trolley suspended operations indefinitely. Its trolleys are currently being refurbished in Seattle. http://www.heritagetrolley.org/existDetroit.htm http://www.railwaypreservation.com/vintagetrolley/detroit.htm http://web.presby.edu/~jtbell/transit/Detroit/Trolley/ The Southeast Michigan Council of Governments (SEMCOG) has analyzed the feasibility of a Detroit-Ann Arbor commuter line, Schneider, Keith (August 16, 2006).Rail is right. Metro Times. Retrieved on May 20, 2008. which would provide an added option for daily commuters between the two regional hubs. The proposed system would be funded by a $100 million federal grant that is secured based on the results of the study. In a separate proposal, DDOT is pursuing a plan to bring light rail. In March 2008, it was announced that a line is being planned for Woodward Avenue. It will cost $372 million and is tentatively scheduled to begin operation by 2013. Transportation Riders United, Detroit Transit Options for Growth Study. Retrieved on September 12, 2008 Major highways Metro Detroit has an extensive toll-free expressway system administered by the Michigan Department of Transportation. Four major interstate Interstate Highways surround the city. Detroit is connected via Interstate 75 and Interstate 96 to Kings Highway 401 and to major Southern Ontario cities such as London, Ontario and the Greater Toronto Area. I-75 (The Chrysler and Fisher Freeways) is the region's main north-south route, serving Flint, Pontiac, Troy, and Detroit, before continuing south (as the Detroit-Toledo and Seaway Freeways) to serve many of the communities along the shore of Lake Erie. I-94 (The Edsel Ford Freeway) runs east-west through Detroit and serves Ann Arbor to the west (where it continues to Chicago) and Port Huron to the northeast. The stretch of the current I-94 freeway from Ypsilanti to Detroit was one of America's earlier limited-access highways. Henry Ford built it to link his factories at Willow Run and Dearborn during World War II. A portion was known as the Willow Run Expressway. I-96 runs northwest-southeast through Livingston, Oakland and Wayne Counties and (as the Jeffries Freeway through Wayne County) has its eastern terminus in downtown Detroit. I-275 runs north-south from I-75 in the south to the junction of I-96 and I-696 in the north, providing a bypass through the western suburbs of Detroit. I-375 (The Chrysler Spur) is a short spur route in downtown Detroit, an extension of the Chrysler Freeway. I-696 (The Reuther Freeway) runs east-west from the junction of I-96 and I-275, providing a route through the northern suburbs of Detroit. Taken together, I-275 and I-696 form a semi-circle around Detroit. Michigan State highways designated with the letter M serve to connect major freeways. Sister cities Turin, Italy Dubai, United Arab Emirates Kitwe, Zambia Minsk, Belarus Nassau, Bahamas Toyota, Japan Basra, Iraq Detroit has a long and very close relationship with its nearby Motor City: Windsor, Ontario See also Detroit (song) Detroit in literature History of Detroit Images of Detroit Images of Metro Detroit List of films set in Detroit List of people from Detroit List of songs about Detroit List of tallest buildings in Detroit Northern Cities Shift Saginaw Trail References Further reading Powell, L. P (1901). "Detroit, the Queen City," Historic Towns of the Western States'' (New York). 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5,698 | Flaming_(Internet) | Flaming is a hostile and insulting interaction between Internet users. Flaming usually occurs in the social context of a discussion board, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) or even through e-mail. An Internet user typically generates a flame response to other posts or users posting on a site, and such a response is usually not constructive, does not clarify a discussion, and does not persuade others. Sometimes, flamers attempt to assert their authority, or establish a position of superiority over other users. Other times, a flamer is simply an individual who believes he or she carries the only valid opinion. This leads him or her to personally attack those who disagree. In some cases, flamers wish to upset and offend other members of the forum, in which case they can be called "trolls". Most often however, flames are angry or insulting messages transmitted by people who have strong feelings about a subject. Some equate flaming with simply letting off steam, though the receiving party may be less than pleased. Similarly, a normal, non-flame message may have elements of a flame—it may be hostile, for example—but it is not a flame if its author seriously intends to advance the discussion. The word "flaming" is also sometimes used for long, intensive and heated discussions, even though insults do not occur. Although the trading of insults is as old as human speech, flaming on the Internet, like many other online 'actions,' started in the Usenet hierarchies (although it was known to occur in the WWIVnet and FidoNet computer networks as well). Recently, several online forums have actively encouraged flaming amongst fellow posters. Examples include forums such as TheyBannedMe.com, a site specifically designated for "banned trolls, asshats, flamers and douchebags" and 4chan which encourages anonymous trolling. Causes of flaming There is no general agreement on the causes of flaming, although a recent study has led to somewhat conclusive evidence. Some common hypotheses are: Some forms of flaming can be attributed to deeper social or psychological weaknesses, probably from lack of exposure to a broader spectrum of disciplines that result in self-control issues. It is noted that Internet users are more likely to flame online than insult others in the real world, as the latter can lead to embarrassment and physical altercations, which online "anonymity" can avoid. Those guilty of flaming may justify it as getting even for having had their feelings hurt initially, so they see it as doing justice by inflicting serious emotional distress on another. Some flaming may be done with no stronger motive than to get a reaction from the target of the flame, or for the feeling of power or moral freedom of causing emotional distress to another. See also Eristic Fisking Godwin's Law Questions regarding the spiral of silence on the Internet Smack talk References Further reading External links An Interactional Reconceptualization of "Flaming" and Other Problematic Messages, by Patrick B. O'Sullivan and Andrew J. Flanagin Flamewars.net A social bookmarking site for flamewars Flame Damnation, the censorship free flaming forum Flame Damnation A compilation of several guides to flaming Netizen's Guide to Flame Warriors Original pie fight posting on Daily Kos MediaDailyNews article on the pie fight phenomenon be-x-old:Флэйм | Flaming_(Internet) |@lemmatized flaming:7 hostile:2 insulting:2 interaction:1 internet:6 user:5 flame:17 usually:2 occur:3 social:3 context:1 discussion:4 board:1 relay:1 chat:1 irc:1 even:3 e:1 mail:1 typically:1 generate:1 response:2 post:3 site:3 constructive:1 clarify:1 persuade:1 others:2 sometimes:2 flamers:3 attempt:1 assert:1 authority:1 establish:1 position:1 superiority:1 time:1 flamer:1 simply:2 individual:1 believe:1 carry:1 valid:1 opinion:1 lead:3 personally:1 attack:1 disagree:1 case:2 wish:1 upset:1 offend:1 member:1 forum:4 call:1 troll:3 often:1 however:1 angry:1 message:3 transmit:1 people:1 strong:2 feeling:3 subject:1 equate:1 let:1 steam:1 though:2 receive:1 party:1 may:5 less:1 pleased:1 similarly:1 normal:1 non:1 element:1 example:2 author:1 seriously:1 intend:1 advance:1 word:1 also:2 use:1 long:1 intensive:1 heated:1 insult:3 although:3 trading:1 old:2 human:1 speech:1 like:1 many:1 online:4 action:1 start:1 usenet:1 hierarchy:1 know:1 wwivnet:1 fidonet:1 computer:1 network:1 well:1 recently:1 several:2 actively:1 encourage:2 amongst:1 fellow:1 poster:1 include:1 theybannedme:1 com:1 specifically:1 designate:1 ban:1 asshats:1 douchebags:1 anonymous:1 cause:3 general:1 agreement:1 recent:1 study:1 somewhat:1 conclusive:1 evidence:1 common:1 hypothesis:1 form:1 attribute:1 deeper:1 psychological:1 weakness:1 probably:1 lack:1 exposure:1 broad:1 spectrum:1 discipline:1 result:1 self:1 control:1 issue:1 note:1 likely:1 real:1 world:1 latter:1 embarrassment:1 physical:1 altercation:1 anonymity:1 avoid:1 guilty:1 justify:1 get:2 hurt:1 initially:1 see:2 justice:1 inflict:1 serious:1 emotional:2 distress:2 another:2 motive:1 reaction:1 target:1 power:1 moral:1 freedom:1 eristic:1 fisking:1 godwin:1 law:1 question:1 regard:1 spiral:1 silence:1 smack:1 talk:1 reference:1 far:1 reading:1 external:1 link:1 interactional:1 reconceptualization:1 problematic:1 patrick:1 b:1 sullivan:1 andrew:1 j:1 flanagin:1 flamewars:2 net:1 bookmarking:1 damnation:2 censorship:1 free:1 compilation:1 guide:2 netizen:1 warrior:1 original:1 pie:2 fight:2 daily:1 ko:1 mediadailynews:1 article:1 phenomenon:1 x:1 флэйм:1 |@bigram relay_chat:1 chat_irc:1 conclusive_evidence:1 emotional_distress:2 external_link:1 |
5,699 | Aisha | Aisha bint Abu Bakr (died 678) (Arabic Transliteration: isha, "she who lives", also transcribed as A'ishah, Ayesha, 'A'isha, or 'Aisha, Turkish Ayşe, Ottoman Turkish Âişe etc.) was the third wife of Muhammad. In Islamic writings, she is thus often referred to by the title "Mother of the Believers" (Arabic: أمّ المؤمنين umm-al-mu'minīn), per the description of Muhammad's wives as "Mothers of Believers" in the Qur'an (33.6), and later, as the "Mother of Believers", as in Qutb's Ma'alim fi al-Tariq (pps6). She is quoted as source for many hadith, sacred traditions about Muhammad's life, with Muhammad's personal life being the topic of most narrations. She narrated 2210 hadiths out of which 316 hadiths are mentioned in both Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Early life Aisha was the daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Abu Bakr belonged to the Banu Taym sub-clan of the tribe of Quraysh, the tribe to which Muhammad also belonged. Aisha is said to have followed her father in accepting Islam when she was still young. She also joined him in his migration to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 615 AD; a number of Mecca's Muslims emigrated then, seeking refuge from persecution by the Meccans who still followed their pre-Islamic religions. According to the early Islamic historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Aisha's father tried to spare her the dangers and discomfort of the journey by solemnizing her marriage to her fiance, Jubayr ibn Mut'im, son of Mut‘im ibn ‘Adi. However, Mut’am refused to honor the long-standing betrothal, as he did not wish his family to be connected to the Muslim outcasts. The emigration to Ethiopia proved temporary and Abu Bakr's family returned to Mecca within a few years. Aisha was then betrothed to Muhammad. Marriage to Muhammad See also: Criticism of Muhammad: Aisha Aisha was initially betrothed to Jubayr ibn Mut'im, a Muslim whose father, though pagan, was friendly to the Muslims. When Khawla bint Hakim suggested that Muhammad marry Aisha after the death of Muhammad's first wife (Khadijah bint Khuwaylid), the previous agreement regarding marriage of Aisha with ibn Mut'im was put aside by common consent. Watt, "Aisha", Encyclopedia of Islam Online British historian William Montgomery Watt suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr; the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture. Amira Sonbol, Rise of Islam: 6th to 9th century, Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures According to the traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad. D. A. Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40 Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet, Harper San Francisco, 1992, p. 157. American historian Denise Spellberg states that "these specific references to the bride's age reinforce Aisha's pre-menarcheal status and, implicitly, her virginity." This issue of her virginity was of great importance to early historians who supported the Abbasid Caliphate. These historians regarded considered that as Muhammad's only virgin wife, Aisha was divinely intended for him, and therefore the most credible regarding the debate over the succession to Muhammad. Aisha stayed in her parents' home until the age of nine, when the marriage was consummated. Barlas (2002), p.125-126 , , , , , , , , , Tabari, Volume 9, Page 131; Tabari, Volume 7, Page 7 The marriage was delayed until after the Hijra, or migration to Medina, in 622; Aisha and her older sister Asma bint Abi Bakr only moved to Medina after Muhammad had already migrated there. After this, the wedding was celebrated very simply. The sources do not offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years, but mention that after the wedding, she continued to play with her toys, and that Muhammad entered into the spirit of these games. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, Oxford University Press 1961, page 102. Status as "favorite wife" Most early accounts say that Muhammad and Aisha became sincerely fond of each other. Aisha is usually described as Muhammad's favorite wife, and it was in her company that Muhammad reportedly received the most revelations. Goodwin, Jan. Price of Honour: Muslim Women Lift the Veil of Silence on the Islamic World. UK: Little, Brown Book Group, 1994 Some accounts claim it was the curtain from her tent that Muhammad used as his battle standard. Penzer, Norman Mosley. "The Harem", Chapter XI Accusation of adultery Aisha was traveling with her husband Muhammad and some of his followers. Aisha claimed that she had left camp in the morning to search for her lost necklace, but when she returned, she found that the company had broken camp and left without her. She waited for half a day, until she was rescued by a man named Safwan ibn Al-Muattal and taken to rejoin the caravan. This led to speculation that she had committed adultery with Safwan. Muhammad's adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah defended Aisha's reputation. Shortly after this, Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation from God confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses. Surah These verses also rebuked Aisha's accusers, Surah whom Muhammad ordered to receive forty lashes. Glubb (2002), p. 264f. Story of the honey Ibn Kathir wrote in his biography of Muhammad that Muhammad's wife Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya was given a skin filled with honey, which she shared with her husband. Muhammad's Wives in the Books of al-Sira He was fond of sweets and stayed overlong with Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya; at least in the opinion of Aisha and her co-wife Hafsa bint Umar. Aisha and Hafsa conspired. Each of them was to tell Muhammad that the honey had given him bad breath. When he heard this from two wives, he believed that it was true and swore that he would eat no more of the honey. Soon afterwards, he reported that he had received a revelation, in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God. In the following verses, Muhammad's wives are rebuked for their jealousy: "your hearts are inclined (to oppose him)". Word spread in the small Muslim community that Muhammad's wives were taking advantage of their husband, speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled; they had admitted their wrongdoing, and harmony was restored. Some Muslim commentators on the Qur'an sometimes give this story as the "occasion of revelation" for Sura 66, which opens with the following verses: "Prophet, why do you prohibit that which God has made lawful for you, in seeking to please your wives? God is forgiving and merciful. God has given you absolution from such oaths." translation by N. J. Dawood Death of Muhammad In his Sirah Rasul Allah, Ibn Ishaq states that during Muhammad's last illness, he sought Aisha's apartments and died with his head in her lap. The text highlights Muhammad's fondness for Aisha. Death and Burial Aisha never remarried after Muhammad's death. A passage in the Qur'an forbids any Muslim to marry a widow of Muhammad: After Muhammad Aisha's father becomes the first caliph After Muhammad's death in 632 AD, Aisha's father, Abu Bakr, became the first caliph, or leader of the Muslims. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the Shia. Shia believe that Ali had been chosen to lead by Muhammad; Sunni maintain that the community chose Abu Bakr, and did so in accordance with Muhammad's wishes. Battle of Bassorah Abu Bakr's reign was short, and in 634 AD he was succeeded by Umar, as caliph. Umar reigned for ten years, and was then followed by Uthman Ibn Affan in 644 AD. Both of these men had been among Muhammad's earliest followers, were linked to him by clanship and marriage, and had taken prominent parts in various military campaigns. Aisha, in the meantime, lived in Medina and made several pilgrimages to Mecca. In 656, Aisha took part in provoking the rebellious people to kill Uthman. Al Nahaya, Volume 5 page 80 ; Qamus, page 500 "lughut Nathal" by Firozabadi ; Lisan al Arab, Volume 11 Chapter "Lughuth Nathal" page 670 ; Sharh Nahjul Balagha Ibn al Hadeed Volume 2 page 122 ; Sheikh al-Mudhira, by Mahmoud Abu Raya, p170 (foot note) ; Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa, Volume 1 page 52 ; Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal, by Ibn Al-Ebrei, v1 p55 ; Al-Mahsol, by al-Razi, v4 p343 ; Ansab al-Ashraf, Volume 6 pages 192-193 ; History of Tabari [English translation] Volume 15 pages 289-239. The rebels then asked Ali to be the new caliph. Many reports absolve Ali of complicity in the murder. Ali is reported to have refused the caliphate. He agreed to rule only after his followers persisted. Aisha raised an army which confronted Ali's army outside the city of Basra. Professor Leila Ahmed claims that it was during this engagement that Muslim slaughtered Muslim for the first time. Battle ensued and Aisha's forces were defeated. Aisha was directing her forces from a howdah on the back of a camel; this 656 battle is therefore called the Battle of the Camel. Ali captured Aisha but declined to harm her. He sent her back to Medina under military escort headed by her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, one of Ali's commanders. Her respect as scholar and role model Historians see Aisha as a learned woman, who tirelessly recounted stories from the life of Muhammad and explained Muslim history and traditions. She is considered to be one of the foremost scholars of Islam's early age with some historians accrediting up to one-quarter of the Islamic Sharia (Islamic religious law), based on the collection of hadiths, to have stemmed from her narrations. Aisha became the most prominent of Muhammad’s wives and is revered as a role model by millions of women. Feminist writers such as Haleh Afshar have argued that Aisha provided a role model for women's political participation in Islamic communities, and that women became marginalized in Islamic polity following Aisha's defeat. http://www.democracyseries.org.uk/sites/democracyseries.org.uk/files/HANSARD%20DEM%20ISLAM%20FINAL.pdf Afshar, Haleh Democracy and Islam, Hansard Society, 2006 Death After Khadijah al-Kubra (the Great) and Fatimah az-Zahra (the Resplendent), Aishah as-Siddiqah (the one who affirms the Truth) is regarded as the best woman in Islam by Sunni Muslims. She often regretted her involvement in war but lived long enough to regain position. She died peacefully in the year 678 in the month of Ramadan. As she instructed, was buried in the Jannat al-Baqi in the City of Light, beside other companions of Muhammad. She was 65 years of age when she died. Views Sunnis hold Aisha in high esteem. Many believe that she was Muhammad's favorite wife and the best woman of her time. They consider her (amongst other wives) to be Umm al-Mu'minin and among the members of the Ahl al-Bayt, or Muhammad's family. The Shi'a view of Aisha, on the other hand, is generally a negative one. This is primarily due to what they see as her contempt for the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family) and her attempts to stir up communal strife (fitnah). Her participation in the Battle of the Camel is widely considered her most significant sign of such contempt. They also believe she behaved inappropriately in her role as Muhammad's wife. Age at marriage The issue of Aisha's age at the time she was married to Muhammad has been of interest since the earliest days of Islam. Early Muslims regarded Aisha's youth as demonstrating her virginity and therefore her suitability as a bride of the Prophet. During modern times, however, critics of Islam have taken up the issue, regarding it as reflecting poorly on Muhammad's character. References to Aisha's age by early historians are frequent. According to Spellberg, historians who supported the Abbasid Caliphate against Shi'a claims considered Aisha's youth, and therefore her purity, to be of paramount importance. They thus specifically emphasized it, implying that as Muhammad's only virgin wife, Aisha was divinely intended for him, and therefore the most credible regarding the debate over the succession to Muhammad. Child marriages such as this were not uncommon at the time, and remain common within some modern Muslim communities, such as the Bedouins. C. (Colin) Turner, Islam: The Basics, Routledge Press, p.34-35 In modern times, however, the issue of Muhammad marrying and having sexual relations with a girl so young has been used to criticize him. See, for example: In response some modern Muslim apologists have argued that adding up other dates given in the traditional sources may indicate that Aisha was older. Such a tactic was employed by the Indian Ahmadiyya figure Maulana Muhammad Ali. Maulana Muhammad Ali (1992), Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad, p. 30. See also Persons related to Qur'anic verses Muhammad's marriages Family tree of Aisha Notes References Afshar, Haleh -- Democracy and Islam, Hansard Society, 2006. Barlas, Asma, Believing Women in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an, pp. 125-6, University of Texas Press, 2002, ISBN 0292709048. Guillaume, A. -- The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, 1955 Rodinson, Maxime -- Muhammad, 1980 Random House reprint of English translation Spellberg, D.A. -- Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994 Aisha bint Abi Bakr, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, 2000 Rizvi, Syed Saeed Akhtar. -- The Life of Muhammad The Prophet, Darul Tabligh North America, 1971. Askri,Mortaza--'Role of Ayesha in the History of Islam'(Translation),Ansarian publication,Iran External links Biography of Aisha "Age of Aisha" written by Allama Habib-ur-Rahman Siddiqui Kandhalvi The Marriage of Aisha to Prophet Muhammad and the Allegation against him | Aisha |@lemmatized aisha:54 bint:10 abu:9 bakr:13 die:4 arabic:2 transliteration:1 isha:4 live:4 also:8 transcribe:1 ishah:1 ayesha:2 turkish:2 ayşe:1 ottoman:1 âişe:1 etc:1 third:1 wife:20 muhammad:67 islamic:11 writing:1 thus:2 often:2 refer:1 title:1 mother:3 believer:3 أم:1 المؤمنين:1 umm:4 al:22 mu:2 minīn:1 per:1 description:1 qur:5 later:1 qutb:1 alim:1 fi:1 tariq:1 quote:1 source:4 many:3 hadith:4 sacred:1 tradition:2 life:6 personal:1 topic:1 narration:2 narrate:1 mention:2 sahih:2 bukhari:1 muslim:17 early:9 daughter:2 um:1 ruman:1 mecca:4 belong:2 banu:1 taym:1 sub:1 clan:1 tribe:2 quraysh:1 say:2 follow:4 father:6 accept:1 islam:12 still:2 young:2 join:1 migration:2 abyssinia:1 ethiopia:2 ad:4 number:1 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